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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Aboriginal Remains in Verde Valley, Arizona, by 
+Cosmos Mindeleff
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Aboriginal Remains in Verde Valley, Arizona
+       Thirteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology to the
+       Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, 1891-92,
+       Government Printing Office, Washington, 1896, pages 179-262
+
+Author: Cosmos Mindeleff
+
+Release Date: November 29, 2006 [EBook #19961]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ABORIGINAL REMAINS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Louise Hope, Carlo Traverso, and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
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+http://gallica.bnf.fr)
+
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+
+
+  [Transcriber’s Note:
+
+  This e-text uses a few less common characters:
+    ĭ (i with breve or “short” mark)
+  If these characters do not display properly--in particular, if the
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+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+ABORIGINAL REMAINS
+
+IN
+
+VERDE VALLEY, ARIZONA
+
+BY
+
+COSMOS MINDELEFF
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+                                                        Page
+  Introduction                                           185
+   The region and its literature                         185
+   Physical description of the country                   189
+  Distribution and classification of ruins               192
+  Plans and descriptions                                 195
+   Stone villages                                        195
+   Cavate lodges                                         217
+   Bowlder-marked sites                                  235
+   Irrigating ditches and horticultural works            238
+  Structural characteristics                             248
+   Masonry and other details                             248
+   Door and window openings                              251
+   Chimneys and fireplaces                               256
+  Conclusions                                            257
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS
+                                                        Page
+PLATE X. Map showing distribution of ruins and
+           location of area treated with reference
+           to ancient pueblo region                      185
+     XI. Map showing distribution of ruins in the
+           basin of the Rio Verde                        187
+    XII. Ground plan of ruin near mouth of
+           Limestone creek                               189
+   XIII. Main court, ruin near Limestone creek           191
+    XIV. Ruin at mouth of the East Verde                 193
+     XV. Main court, ruin at mouth of the East Verde     195
+    XVI. Ruin at mouth of Fossil creek                   197
+   XVII. Ground plan of ruins opposite Verde             199
+  XVIII. General view of ruins opposite Verde            201
+    XIX. Southern part of ruins opposite Verde           203
+     XX. General view of ruin on southern side of
+           Clear creek                                   205
+    XXI. Detailed view of ruin on southern side of
+           Clear creek                                   207
+   XXII. General view of ruin 8 miles north of
+           Fossil creek                                  209
+  XXIII. General view of ruins on an eminence
+           14 miles north of Fossil creek                211
+   XXIV. General view of northern end of a group
+           of cavate lodges                              213
+    XXV. Map of group of cavate lodges                   215
+   XXVI. Strata of northern canyon wall                  217
+  XXVII. Ruin on northern point of cavate lodge canyon   219
+ XXVIII. Cavate lodge with walled front                  221
+   XXIX. Open front cavate lodges on the Rio San Juan    223
+    XXX. Walled front cavate lodges on the Rio San Juan  224
+   XXXI. Cavate lodges on the Rio Grande                 225
+  XXXII. Interior view of cavate lodge, group _D_        227
+ XXXIII. Bowlder-marked site                             229
+  XXXIV. Irrigating ditch on the lower Verde             231
+   XXXV. Old irrigating ditch, showing cut through
+           low ridge                                     233
+  XXXVI. Old ditch near Verde, looking westward          235
+ XXXVII. Old ditch near Verde, looking eastward          237
+XXXVIII. Bluff over ancient ditch, showing gravel
+           stratum                                       239
+  XXXIX. Ancient ditch and horticultural works on
+           Clear creek                                   241
+     XL. Ancient ditch around a knoll, Clear creek       243
+    XLI. Ancient work on Clear creek                     245
+   XLII. Gateway to ancient work, Clear creek            247
+  XLIII. Single-room remains on Clear creek              249
+   XLIV. Bowlder foundations near Limestone creek        251
+    XLV. Masonry of ruin near Limestone creek            253
+   XLVI. Masonry of ruin opposite Verde                  255
+  XLVII. Standing walls opposite Verde                   257
+ XLVIII. Masonry of ruin at mouth of the East Verde      259
+   XLIX. Doorway to cavate lodge                         260
+      L. Doorway to cavate lodge                         261
+
+
+Fig. 279. Sketch map, site of small ruin 10 miles
+            north of Fossil creek                        200
+     280. Ground plan of ruin at mouth of the
+            East Verde                                   201
+     281. Ground plan of ruin near the mouth of
+            Fossil creek                                 204
+     282. Sketch map, site of ruin above Fossil creek    205
+     283. Sketch map of ruin 9½ miles above
+            Fossil creek                                 206
+     284. Sketch map showing location of ruins
+            opposite Verde                               207
+     285. Ground plan of ruin on southern side of
+            Clear creek                                  211
+     286. Ground plan of ruin 8 miles north of
+            Fossil creek                                 213
+     287. Sketch map of ruins on pinnacle 7 miles
+            north of Fossil creek                        216
+     288. Remains of small rooms 7 miles north of
+            Fossil creek                                 216
+     289. Diagram showing strata of canyon wall          218
+     290. Walled storage cist                            221
+     291. Plan of cavate lodges, group _D_               226
+     292. Sections of cavate lodges, group _D_           227
+     293. Section of water pocket                        228
+     294. Plan of cavate lodges, group _A_               229
+     295. Sections of cavate lodges, group _A_           230
+     296. Plan of cavate lodges, group _B_               231
+     297. Plan of cavate lodges, group _E_               232
+     298. Plan of cavate lodges, group _C_               233
+     299. Map of an ancient irrigation ditch             239
+     300. Part of old irrigating ditch                   241
+     301. Walled front cavate lodges                     250
+     302. Bowlders in footway, cavate lodges             252
+     303. Framed doorway, cavate lodges                  253
+     304. Notched doorway in Canyon de Chelly            254
+     305. Notched doorway in Tusayan                     255
+
+
+  [Illustration: Plate X.
+  MAP SHOWING DISTRIBUTION OF RUINS AND LOCATION OF AREA TREATED
+  WITH REFERENCE TO ANCIENT PUEBLO REGION.]
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+  ABORIGINAL REMAINS IN VERDE VALLEY, ARIZONA
+
+              By Cosmos Mindeleff
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+
+THE REGION AND ITS LITERATURE.
+
+The region described in the following pages comprises the valley of
+the Rio Verde, in Arizona, from Verde, in eastern central Yavapai
+county, to the confluence with Salt river, in Maricopa county.
+
+The written history of the region treated extends back only a few years.
+Since the aboriginal inhabitants abandoned it, or were driven from it,
+the hostile Apache and Walapai roamed over it without hindrance or
+opposition, and so late as twenty-five years ago, when the modern
+settlement of the region commenced, ordinary pursuits were almost
+impossible. Some of the pioneer settlers are still in possession, and
+are occupying the ground they took up at the time when the rifle was
+more necessary for successful agriculture than the plow.
+
+The first notice of this region is derived from the report of Espejo,
+who visited some “mines” north and east of the present site of Prescott
+early in 1583; in 1598 Farfan and Quesada of Oñate’s expedition visited
+probably the same locality from Tusayan, and in 1604 Oñate crossed the
+country a little way north of the present Prescott, in one of his
+journeys in search of mineral wealth. Nothing seems to have come of
+these expeditions, however, and the remoteness of the region from the
+highways of travel and its rough and forbidding character caused it to
+remain unknown for over two centuries. It was not until the active
+prospecting for gold and silver accompanying the American invasion and
+conquest began that the country again became known. Valuable mines were
+discovered east and south of the site of Prescott, some of them as early
+as 1836; but it was not until after 1860 that any considerable amount of
+work was done, and the mining development of this region, now one of the
+best known in Arizona, may be said to date from about 1865. Camp Verde
+was first established in 1861, at a point on the northern side of Beaver
+creek, but was not regularly occupied until 1866. In 1871 it was removed
+to its present location, about a mile south of the previous site. It was
+abandoned as a military post in 1891, and gradually lost the military
+element of the name.
+
+Concerning the archeologic remains of the Rio Verde valley almost
+nothing is known. In the early history of Arizona the Verde was known as
+Rio San Francisco, and vague rumors of large and important ruins were
+current among trappers and prospectors. The Pacific railway reports,
+published in 1856, mention these ruins on the authority of the guide to
+Lieut. Whipple’s party, Leroux by name. Other notices are found here and
+there in various books of exploration and travel published during the
+next two decades, but no systematic examination of the region was made
+and the accounts are hardly more than a mention. In 1878 Dr. W. J.
+Hoffman, at that time connected with the Hayden Survey, published
+descriptions of the so-called Montezuma well and of a large cliff ruin
+on Beaver creek, the latter accompanied by an illustration.[1] The
+descriptions are slight and do not touch the region herein discussed.
+
+  [Footnote 1: Tenth Ann. Rep. U.S. Geol. Survey for 1876 (Washington,
+  1878), p. 477.]
+
+The first publication of importance to the present inquiry is a short
+paper by Dr. E. A. Mearns, U.S. Army, in the Popular Science Monthly for
+October, 1890. Dr. Mearns was stationed for some years at Camp Verde,
+and improved the opportunity afforded by numerous hunting expeditions
+and tours of duty to acquaint himself with the aboriginal remains of the
+Verde valley. He published a map showing the distribution of remains in
+that region, described several ruins in detail, and illustrated some
+pieces of pottery, etc., found by him. The article is unfortunately very
+short, so short that it is hardly more than an introduction to the wide
+field it covers; it is to be hoped that Dr. Mearns will utilize the
+material he has and publish a more comprehensive report.
+
+The remains in the valley of Rio Verde derive an additional interest
+from their position in the ancient pueblo region. On the one hand they
+are near the southwestern limit of that region, and on the other hand
+they occupy an intermediate position between the ruins of the Gila and
+Salt river valleys and those of the northern districts. The limits of
+the ancient pueblo region have not yet been defined, and the
+accompanying map (plate X) is only preliminary. It illustrates the
+limited extent of our knowledge of the ancient pueblo region as well as
+the distribution of ruins within that region, so far as they are known;
+and the exceptional abundance of ruins noted on certain portions of the
+map means only that those parts are better known than others.
+Notwithstanding its incompleteness, it is the best available and is
+published in the hope that it will serve as a nucleus to which further
+data may be added until a complete map is produced.
+
+  [Illustration: Plate XI.
+  MAP OF THE VALLEY OF THE RIO VERDE.]
+
+The ruins in the Gila valley, including those along Salt river, are less
+known than those farther northward, but we know that there is a marked
+difference between the type exemplified by the well-known Casa Grande,
+near Florence, Arizona, and that of which the best specimens (notably
+the Chaco ruins) are found in the San Juan basin. This difference may be
+due only to a different environment, necessitating a change in material
+employed and consequent on this a change in methods, although it seems
+to the writer that the difference is perhaps too great to be accounted
+for in this way. Be the cause what it may, there is no doubt that there
+is a difference; and it is reasonable to expect that in the regions
+lying between the southern earth-constructed and the northern stone
+structures, intermediate types might be found which would connect them.
+The valley of Rio Verde occupies such an intermediate position
+geographically, but the architectural remains found in it belong to the
+northern type; so we must look elsewhere for connecting links. The most
+important ruin in the lower Verde region occurs near its southern end,
+and more distinctly resembles the northern ruins than the ruins in the
+northern part of that region.
+
+Although the examination of this region failed to connect the northern
+and southern types of house structure, the peculiar conditions here are
+exceptionally valuable to the study of the principles and methods of
+pueblo building. Here remains of large villages with elaborate and
+complex ground plan, indicating a long period of occupancy, are found,
+and within a short distance there are ruins of small villages with very
+simple ground plan, both produced under the same environment; and
+comparative study of the two may indicate some of the principles which
+govern the growth of villages and whose result can be seen in the ground
+plans. Here also there is an exceptional development of cavate lodges,
+and corresponding to this development an almost entire absence of cliff
+dwellings. From the large amount of data here a fairly complete idea of
+this phase of pueblo life may be obtained. This region is not equal to
+the Gila valley in data for the study of horticultural methods practiced
+among the ancient Pueblos, but there is enough to show that the
+inhabitants relied principally and, perhaps, exclusively on horticulture
+for means of subsistence, and that their knowledge of horticultural
+methods was almost, if not quite, equal to that of their southern
+neighbors. The environment here was not nearly so favorable to that
+method of life as farther southward, not even so favorable as in some
+northern districts, and in consequence more primitive appliances and
+ruder methods prevailed. Added to these advantages for study there is
+the further one that nowhere within this region are there any traces of
+other than purely aboriginal work; no adobe walls, no chimneys, no
+constructive expedients other than those which may be reasonably set
+down as aboriginal; and, finally, the region is still so little occupied
+by modern settlers that, with the exception of the vicinity of Verde,
+the remains have been practically undisturbed. A complete picture of
+aboriginal life during the occupancy of the lower Verde valley would be
+a picture of pueblo life pursued in the face of great difficulties, and
+with an environment so unfavorable that had the occupation extended over
+an indefinite period of time it would still have been impossible to
+develop the great structures which resulted from the settlements in
+Chaco canyon.
+
+It is not known what particular branch of the pueblo-building tribes
+formerly made their home in the lower Verde valley, but the character
+of the masonry, the rough methods employed, and the character of the
+remains suggest the Tusayan. It has been already stated that the
+archeologic affinities of this region are northern and do not conform
+to any type now found in the south; and it is known that some of the
+Tusayan gentes--the water people--came from the south. The following
+tradition, which, though not very definite, is of interest in this
+connection, was obtained by the late A. M. Stephen, for many years a
+resident near the Tusayan villages in Arizona, who, aside from his
+competence for that work, had every facility for obtaining data of this
+kind. The tradition was dictated by Anawita, chief of the Pat-ki-nyûmû
+(Water house gentes) and is as follows:
+
+We did not come direct to this region (Tusayan)--we had no fixed
+intention as to where we should go.
+
+  We are the Pat-ki-nyû-mû, and we dwelt in the Pa-lát-kwa-bĭ (Red
+  Land) where the kwá-ni (agave) grows high and plentiful; perhaps it
+  was in the region the Americans call Gila valley, but of that I am
+  not certain. It was far south of here, and a large river flowed
+  past our village, which was large, and the houses were high, and
+  a strange thing happened there.
+
+  Our people were not living peaceably at that time; we were
+  quarreling among ourselves, over huts and other things I have heard,
+  but who can tell what caused their quarrels? There was a famous
+  hunter of our people, and he cut off the tips from the antlers of
+  the deer which he killed and [wore them for a necklace?] he always
+  carried them. He lay down in a hollow in the court of the village,
+  as if he had died, but our people doubted this; they thought he was
+  only shamming death, yet they covered him up with earth. Next day
+  his extended hand protruded, the four fingers erect, and the first
+  day after that one finger disappeared [was doubled up?]; each day a
+  finger disappeared, until on the fourth day his hand was no longer
+  visible.
+
+  The old people thought that he dug down to the under world with the
+  horn tips.
+
+  On the fifth day water spouted up from the hole where his hand had
+  been and it spread over everywhere. On the sixth day Pá-lü-lü-koña
+  (the Serpent deity) protruded from this hole and lifted his head
+  high above the water and looked around in every direction. All of
+  the lower land was covered and many were drowned, but most of our
+  people had fled to some knolls not far from the village and which
+  were not yet submerged.
+
+  When the old men saw Pá-lü-lü-koña they asked him what he wanted,
+  because they knew he had caused this flood; and Pá-lü-lü-koña said,
+  “I want you to give me a youth and a maiden.”
+
+  The elders consulted, and then selected the handsomest youth and
+  fairest maid and arrayed them in their finest apparel, the youth
+  with a white kilt and paroquet plume, and the maid with a fine blue
+  tunic and white mantle. These children wept and besought their
+  parents not to send them to Pá-lü-lü-koña, but an old chief said,
+  “You must go; do not be afraid; I will guide you.” And he led them
+  toward the village court and stood at the edge of the water, but
+  sent the children wading in toward Pá-lü-lü-koña, and when they
+  reached the center of the court where Pá-lü-lü-koña was the deity
+  and the children disappeared. The water then rushed down after them,
+  through a great cavity, and the earth quaked and many houses tumbled
+  down, and from this cavity a great mound of dark rock protruded.
+  This rock mound was glossy and of all colors; it was beautiful, and,
+  as I have been told, it still remains there.
+
+  [Illustration: Plate XII.
+  GROUND PLAN OF RUIN NEAR MOUTH OF LIMESTONE CREEK.
+  RIO VERDE : ARIZONA]
+
+  The White Mountain Apache have told me that they know a place in the
+  south where old houses surround a great rock, and the land in the
+  vicinity is wet and boggy.
+
+  We traveled northward from Palat-kwabi and continued to travel just
+  as long as any strength was left in the people--as long as they had
+  breath. During these journeys we would halt only for one day at a
+  time. Then our chief planted corn in the morning and the
+  pá-to-la-tei (dragon fly) came and hovered over the stalks and by
+  noon the corn was ripe; before sunset it was quite dry and the
+  stalks fell over, and whichever way they pointed in that direction
+  we traveled.
+
+  When anyone became ill, or when children fretted and cried, or the
+  young people became homesick, the Co-i-yal Katcina (a youth and a
+  maiden) came and danced before them; then the sick got well,
+  children laughed, and sad ones became cheerful.
+
+  We would continue to travel until everyone was thoroughly worn out,
+  then we would halt and build houses and plant, remaining perhaps
+  many years.
+
+  One of these places where we lived is not far from San Carlos, in a
+  valley, and another is on a mesa near a spring called Coyote Water
+  by the Apache. * * *
+
+  When we came to the valley of the Little Colorado, south of where
+  Winslow now is, we built houses and lived there; and then we crossed
+  to the northern side of the valley and built houses at Homolobi.
+  This was a good place for a time, but a plague of flies came and bit
+  the suckling children, causing many of them to die, so we left there
+  and traveled to Ci-pa (near Kuma spring).
+
+  Finally we found the Hopi, some going to each of the villages except
+  Awatobi; none went there.
+
+
+PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION OF THE COUNTRY.
+
+The Rio Verde is throughout its length a mountain stream. Rising in the
+mountains and plateaus bounding two great connected valleys northwest of
+Prescott, known as Big Chino valley and Williamson valley, both over
+4,000 feet above the sea, it discharges into Salt river about 10 miles
+south of McDowell and about 25 miles east of Phoenix, at an elevation of
+less than 1,800 feet above the sea. The fall from Verde to McDowell, a
+distance of about 65 miles, is about 1,500 feet The whole course of the
+river is but little over 150 miles. The small streams which form the
+river unite on the eastern side of Big Chino valley and flow thence in a
+southerly and easterly direction until some 12 miles north of Verde the
+waterway approaches the edge of the volcanic formation known on the maps
+as the Colorado plateau, or Black mesa, and locally as “the rim.” Here
+the river is sharply deflected southward, and flows thence in a
+direction almost due south to its mouth. This part of the river is
+hemmed in on both sides by high mountain chains and broken every few
+hundred yards by rapids and “riffles.”
+
+Its rapid fall would make the river valuable for irrigation if there
+were tillable land to irrigate; but on the west the river is hugged
+closely by a mountain chain whose crest, rising over 6,000 feet above
+the sea, is sometimes less than 2 miles from the river, and whose steep
+and rugged sides descend in an almost unbroken slope to the river
+bottom. The eastern side of the river is also closely confined, though
+not so closely as the western, by a chain of mountains known as the
+Mazatzal range. The crest of this chain is generally over 10 miles from
+the river, and the intervening stretch, unlike the other side, which
+comes down to the river in practically a single slope, is broken into
+long promontories and foothills, and sometimes, where the larger
+tributaries come in, into well-defined terraces. Except at its head the
+principal tributaries of the Verde come from the east, those on the
+west, which are almost as numerous, being generally small and
+insignificant.
+
+Most of the modern settlements of the Rio Verde are along the upper
+portion of its course. Prescott is situated on Granite creek, one of the
+sources of the river, and along other tributaries, as far down as the
+southern end of the great valley in whose center Verde is located, there
+are many scattered settlements; but from that point to McDowell there
+are hardly a dozen houses all told. This region is most rugged and
+forbidding. There are no roads and few trails, and the latter are feebly
+marked and little used. The few permanent inhabitants of the region are
+mostly “cow men,” and the settlements, except at one point, are shanties
+known as “cow camps.” There are hundreds of square miles of territory
+here which are never visited by white men, except by “cow-boys” during
+the spring and autumn round-ups.
+
+Scattered at irregular intervals along both sides of the river are many
+benches and terraces of alluvium, varying in width from a few feet to
+several miles, and comprising all the cultivable land in the valley of
+the river. Since the Verde is a mountain stream with a great fall, its
+power of erosion is very great, and its channel changes frequently;
+in some places several times in a single winter season. Benches and
+terraces are often formed or cut away within a few days, and no portion
+of the river banks is free from these changes until continued erosion
+has lowered the bed to such a degree that that portion is beyond the
+reach of high water. When this occurs the bench or terrace, being formed
+of rich alluvium, soon becomes covered with grass, and later with
+mesquite and “cat-claw” bushes, interspersed with such cottonwood trees
+as may have survived the period when the terrace was but little above
+the river level. Cottonwoods, with an occasional willow, form the
+arborescent growth of the valley of the Verde proper, although on some
+of the principal tributaries and at a little distance from the river
+groves of other kinds of trees are found. All these trees, however, are
+confined to the immediate vicinity of the river and those of its
+tributaries which carry water during most of the year; and as the
+mountains which hem in the valley on the east and west are not high
+enough to support great pines such as characterize the plateau country
+on the north and east, the aspect of the country, even a short distance
+away from the river bottom, is arid and forbidding in the extreme.
+
+  [Illustration: Plate XIII.
+  MAIN COURT, RUIN NEAR LIMESTONE CREEK.]
+
+Within the last few years the character of the river and of the country
+adjacent to it has materially changed, and inferences drawn from present
+conditions may be erroneous. This change is the direct result of the
+recent stocking of the country with cattle. More cattle have been
+brought into the country than in its natural state it will support. One
+of the results of this overstocking is a very high death rate among the
+cattle; another and more important result is that the grasses and other
+vegetation have no chance to seed or mature, being cropped off close to
+the ground almost as soon as they appear. As a result of this, many of
+the river terraces and little valleys among the foothills, once
+celebrated for luxuriant grass, are now bare, and would hardly afford
+sustenance to a single cow for a week. In place of strong grasses these
+places are now covered for a few weeks in spring with a growth of a
+plant known as “filaree,” which, owing to the rapid maturing of its
+seeds (in a month or less), seems to be the only plant not completely
+destroyed by the cattle, although the latter are very fond of it and eat
+it freely, both green and when dried on the ground. As a further effect
+of the abundance of cattle and the scarcity of food for them, the young
+willows, which, even so late as ten years ago, formed one of the
+characteristic features of the river and its banks, growing thickly in
+the bed of the stream, and often forming impenetrable jungles on its
+banks, are now rarely seen.
+
+Owing to the character of the country it drains, the Rio Verde always
+must have been subject to freshets and overflows at the time of the
+spring rains, but until quite recently the obstructions to the rapid
+collection of water offered by thickly growing grass and bushes
+prevented destructive floods, except, perhaps, on exceptional occasions.
+Now, however, the flood of each year is more disastrous than that of the
+preceding year, and in the flood of February, 1891, the culminating
+point of intensity and destructiveness was reached. On this occasion the
+water rose in some places over 20 feet, with a corresponding broadening
+in other places, and flowed with such velocity that for several weeks it
+was impossible to cross the river. As a result of these floods, the
+grassy banks that once distinguished the river are now but little more
+than a tradition, while the older terraces, which under normal
+circumstances would now be safe, are being cut away more and more each
+year. In several localities near Verde, where there are cavate lodges,
+located originally with especial reference to an adjacent area of
+tillable land, the terraces have been completely cut away, and the
+cliffs in which the cavate lodges occur are washed by the river during
+high water.
+
+
+
+
+DISTRIBUTION AND CLASSIFICATION OF RUINS.
+
+
+All the modern settlements of the lower portion of the Verde valley are
+located on terraces or benches, and such localities were also regarded
+favorably by the ancient builders, for almost invariably where a modern
+settlement is observed traces of a former one will also be found. The
+former inhabitants of this region were an agricultural people, and their
+villages were always located either on or immediately adjacent to some
+area of tillable soil. This is true even of the cavate lodges, which are
+often supposed to have been located solely with reference to facility of
+defense. Owing to the character of the country, most of the tillable
+land is found on the eastern side of the river, and as a consequence
+most of the remains of the former inhabitants are found there also,
+though they are by no means confined to that side. These remains are
+quite abundant in the vicinity of Verde, and less so between that point
+and the mouth of the river. The causes which have induced American
+settlement in the large area of bottom land about Verde doubtless also
+induced the aboriginal settlement of the same region, although, owing to
+the different systems of agriculture pursued by the two peoples, the
+American settlements are always made on the bottom lands themselves,
+while the aboriginal settlements are almost always located on high
+ground overlooking the bottoms. Perched on the hills overlooking these
+bottoms, and sometimes located on the lower levels, there was once a
+number of large and important villages, while in the regions on the
+south, where the tillable areas are as a rule very much smaller, the
+settlements were, with one exception, small and generally insignificant.
+The region treated in these pages is that portion of the valley of Rio
+Verde comprised between its mouth and Verde, or Beaver creek, on the
+north. It was entered by the writer from the south; it is not proposed,
+however, to follow a strict geographic order of treatment, but, on the
+contrary, so far as practicable, to follow an arrangement by types.
+
+The domiciliary ruins of this region fall easily into three general
+classes, to which may be added a fourth, comprising irrigating ditches
+and works, the first class having two subclasses. They are as follows:
+
+  Stone villages.
+      _a_. Villages on bottom lands.
+      _b_. Villages on defensive sites.
+  Cavate lodges.
+  Bowlder-marked sites.
+  Irrigating ditches and works.
+
+  [Illustration: Plate XIV.
+  RUIN AT MOUTH OF THE EAST VERDE.]
+
+The ruins of the first group, or stone villages located on bottom lands
+without reference to defense, represent in size and in degree of skill
+attained by the builders the highest type in this region, although they
+are not so numerous as those of the other groups. They are of the same
+type as, although sometimes smaller in size than, the great valley
+pueblos of the regions on the north and south, wherein reliance for
+defense was placed in massive and well-planned structures and not on
+natural advantages of location. In the north this class of ruin has been
+shown to be the last stage in along course of evolution, and there is a
+suggestion that it occupies the same relation to the other ruins in the
+Verde region; this question, however, will later be discussed at some
+length. The best example of this type on the lower Verde is a large
+ruin, located in a considerable bottom on the eastern side of the river,
+about a mile above the mouth of Limestone creek. This is said to be the
+largest ruin on the Verde; it is certainly the largest in the region
+here treated, and it should be noted that it marks practically the
+southern limit of the Rio Verde group.
+
+The ruins of the second subclass, or stone villages located on defensive
+sites, are found throughout the whole of this region, although the type
+reaches its best development in the northern portion, in the vicinity of
+Verde. The separation of this type from the preceding one is to a
+certain extent arbitrary, as the location of a ruin is sometimes
+determined solely by convenience, and convenience may dictate the
+selection of a high and defensible site, when the tillable land on which
+the village depends is of small area, or when it is divided into a
+number of small and scattered areas; for it was a principle of the
+ancient village-builders that the parent village should overlook as
+large an extent as possible of the fields cultivated by its inhabitants.
+A good illustration of this type of ruin is found a little way northeast
+of Verde, on the opposite side of the river. Here a cluster of ruins
+ranging from small groups of domiciles to medium-sized villages is found
+located on knobs and hills, high up in the foothills and overlooking
+large areas of the Verde bottom lands. These are illustrated later.
+Another example, also illustrated later, occurs on the eastern side of
+the river about 8 miles north of the mouth of Fossil creek. The village,
+which is very small, occupies the whole summit of a large rock which
+projects into the stream, and which is connected with the mainland by a
+natural causeway or dike. This is one of the best sites for defense seen
+by the writer in an experience of many years.
+
+Cavate lodges are distributed generally over the whole northern portion
+of the region here treated. At many points throughout this region there
+are outcrops of a calcareous sandstone, very soft and strongly laminated
+and therefore easily excavated. This formation often appears in the
+cliffs and small canyons bordering on the streams, and in it are found
+the cavate lodges. The best examples are found some 8 miles south of
+Verde, in a small canyon on the eastern side of the river, and it is
+noteworthy that in this case stone villages occur in conjunction with
+and subordinate to the cavate lodges, while elsewhere within this region
+and in other regions the cavate lodges are found either alone or in
+conjunction with and subordinate to stone villages. To this latter type
+belong a number of cavate lodges on the northern side of Clear creek,
+about 4 miles above its mouth. The cavate lodges of the Verde differ in
+some particulars from those found in other regions; they are not
+excavated in tufa or volcanic ash, nor are the fronts of the chambers
+generally walled up. Front walls are found here, but they are the
+exception and not the rule.
+
+Bowlder-marked sites are scattered over the whole region here treated
+although they are more abundant in the southern part than in the
+northern. They are so abundant that their locations could not be
+indicated on the accompanying map (plate XI). These constitute a
+peculiar type, not found elsewhere in the experience of the writer, and
+present some points of interest. They vary in size from one room to
+considerable settlements, but the average size is two or three rooms.
+They are always located with reference to some area, generally a small
+one, of tillable land which they overlook, and all the data now
+available support the inference that they mark the sites of small
+farming or temporary shelters, occupied only during the farming season
+and abandoned each winter by the inhabitants, who then return to the
+main pueblo--a custom prevalent today among the pueblos. These sites are
+found on the flat bottom lands of the river, on the upper terraces
+overlooking the bottoms, on points of the foothills, in fact everywhere
+where there is an area of tillable land large enough to grow a few hills
+of corn. They often occur in conjunction with irrigating ditches and
+other horticultural works; sometimes they are located on small hillocks
+in the beds of streams, locations which must be covered with water
+during the annual floods; sometimes they are found at the bases of
+promontories bordering on drainage channels and on the banks of arroyas,
+where they might be washed away at any time. In short, these sites seem
+to have been selected without any thought of their permanency.
+
+Irrigating ditches and horticultural works were found in this region,
+but not in great abundance; perhaps a more careful and detailed
+examination would reveal a much larger number than are now known. Fine
+examples of irrigating ditches were found at the extreme northern and
+the extreme southern limits of the region here treated, and there is a
+fair presumption that other examples occur in the intermediate country.
+These works did not reach the magnitude of those found in the Gila and
+Salt river valleys, perhaps partly for the reason that the great fall of
+Verde river and its tributaries renders only short ditches necessary to
+bring the water out over the terraces, and also partly because
+irrigation is not here essential to successful horticulture. In good
+years fair crops can be obtained without irrigation, and today this
+method of farming is pursued to a limited extent.
+
+  [Illustration: Plate XV.
+  MAIN COURT, RUIN AT MOUTH OF THE EAST VERDE.]
+
+
+
+
+PLANS AND DESCRIPTIONS.
+
+
+STONE VILLAGES.
+
+Ruins of villages built of stone, either roughly dressed or merely
+selected, represent the highest degree of art in architecture attained
+by the aborigines of Verde valley, and the best example of this class of
+ruin is found on the eastern side of the river, about a mile above the
+mouth of Limestone creek. The site was selected without reference to
+defense, and is overlooked by the hills which circumscribe a large
+semicircular area of bottom land, on the northern end of which the
+village was located. This is the largest ruin on the Verde; it covers an
+area of about 450 feet square, or over 5 acres, and has some 225 rooms
+on the ground plan. From the amount of debris we may infer that most of
+the rooms were but one story in height; and a reasonable estimate of the
+total number of rooms in the village when it was occupied would make the
+number not greater than 300 rooms. The ratio of rooms to inhabitants in
+the present pueblos would give a population for this village of about
+450 persons. Zuñi, the largest inhabited pueblo, covering an area of
+about 5 acres, has a population of 1,600.
+
+It will thus be seen that, while the area covered by this village was
+quite large, the population was comparatively small; in other words, the
+dense clustering and so-called beehive structure which characterize Zuñi
+and Taos, and are seen to a less extent in Oraibi, and which result from
+long-continued pressure of hostile tribes upon a village occupying a
+site not in itself easily defensible, has not been carried to such an
+extent here as in the examples cited. But it is also apparent that this
+village represents the beginning of the process which in time produces a
+village like Zuñi or Taos.
+
+Plate XII exhibits the ground plan of the village. It will be observed
+that this plan is remarkably similar in general characters to the ground
+plan of Zuñi.[2] A close inspection will reveal the presence of many
+discrepancies in the plan, which suggest that the village received at
+various times additions to its population in considerable numbers, and
+was not the result of the gradual growth of one settlement nor the home
+of a large group coming en masse to this locality. It has been shown[3]
+that in the old provinces of Tusayan and Cibola (Moki and Zuñi) the
+present villages are the result of the aggregation of many related
+gentes and subgentes, who reached their present location at different
+times and from different directions, and this seems to be the almost
+universal rule for the larger pueblos and ruins. It should be noted in
+this connection, however, that, the preceding statements being granted,
+a general plan of this character indicates an essentially modern origin
+or foundation.
+
+  [Footnote 2: Eighth Ann. Rep. Bureau of Ethnology, 1886-’87, Wash.,
+  1891, pl. lxxvi.]
+
+  [Footnote 3: Ibid., pp. 1-228.]
+
+The ground plan shows a number of courts or open spaces, which divided
+the village into four well-defined clusters. The largest court was
+nearly in the center of the village, and within it (as shown, on the
+plan) there are traces of a small single-room structure that may have
+been a kiva of sacred chamber. Attached to this main court and extending
+eastward is another court of considerable size, and connected with this
+second court at its eastern end there is another one almost square in
+plan and of fair size. West of the main court may be seen a small court
+opening into it, and north of this another square space separated from
+the main court by a single stone wall and inclosed on the other three
+sides by rooms. In addition to these there are two completely inclosed
+small courts in the center of the southwestern cluster, and another one
+of moderate size between the southwestern and southern clusters.
+
+The arrangement of these courts is highly suggestive. The central space
+was evidently the main court of the village at the time of its greatest
+development, and it is equally evident that it was inclosed at a later
+period than the small inclosed courts immediately adjacent to it, for
+had the latter not preceded it they would not occupy the positions they
+now do. Plate XIII represents a part of the main court, and beyond the
+débris can be seen a small portion of the bottom upon which the village
+is built. To the left, in the foreground of the illustration, are traces
+of a small detached room, perhaps the main kiva[4] of the village; this
+is also shown on the ground plan, plate XII.
+
+  [Footnote 4: The kiva is the assembly chamber, termed estufa in
+  some of the older writings, particularly those of the early Spanish
+  explorers. A full description of these peculiar structures has
+  already been published in an article on Pueblo architecture; Eighth
+  Ann. Rep. Bureau of Ethnology, 1886-’87, Wash., 1891, pp. 1-228.]
+
+The smaller courts are but little larger than the largest rooms, but it
+will be noticed that while some of the rooms are quite large they are
+always oblong. This requirement was dictated by the length of available
+roofing timbers. The cottonwood groves on the river bank would provide
+timber of fair size but of very poor quality, and, aside from this,
+roofing timbers longer than 15 feet could be obtained only at points
+many miles distant. In either case the hauling of these timbers to the
+site of the village would be a work of great labor and considerable
+difficulty. The width of the rooms was, therefore, limited to about 20
+feet, most of them being under 15 feet; but this limitation did not
+apply to the courts, which, though sometimes surrounded on all sides by
+buildings, were always open to the sky.
+
+  [Illustration: Plate XVI.
+  RUIN AT MOUTH OF FOSSIL CREEK.]
+
+It is probable that the central and northern portion of the southwestern
+cluster comprised the first rooms built in this village. This is the
+portion which commands the best outlook over the bottom, and it is also
+on the highest ground. Following this the southern cluster was probably
+built; afterwards the northern cluster was added, and finally the
+northwestern cluster. Subsequently rooms connecting these clusters and
+the eastern end of the village were built up, and probably last of all
+were added the rooms which occupied what was originally the eastern end
+of the main court. This hypothetic order of building the clusters
+composing the village is supported by the character of the site and the
+peculiarities of the ground plan. Most of the rooms in the northwestern
+cluster and in the eastern part of the village were but one story in
+height, while the crowding in the interior of the village, direct
+evidence of which is seen on the ground plan, could take place only
+after the rooms surrounding that area had been located, and when hostile
+pressure from outside made it undesirable to extend the bounds of the
+village; in other words, at the latest stage in the growth of the
+village.
+
+The arrangement and distribution of the rooms within the clusters
+indicate an occupancy extending over a considerable period of time.
+A reference to the ground plan will show that continuous wall lines are
+the exception, and it is seldom that more than two or three rooms are
+grouped together in regular order. In irregularity of arrangement the
+inhabitants of this village followed a general habit, the result of
+which can be seen today in all the inhabited villages and in most of the
+large pueblo ruins. It indicates a steady growth of the village by the
+addition of rooms, one or two at a time, as they were needed. The
+division into clusters, however, indicates an aggregation of related
+gentes or subgentes banded together for protection. Given these
+conditions, (1) bands of related families living near one another; (2)
+hostile pressure from outside; and (3) a site not in itself easily
+defended, and a ground plan similar to the one under discussion must
+result. Single detached rooms would not be built when the village might
+be attacked at any time, but they might be added during periods of peace
+and, the conditions being favorable, they might form the nuclei of other
+clusters. It is possible that some of the clusters forming this village
+had their origin in this manner, but this question can not be determined
+from the ground plan, as a similar result would be produced by the
+advent of a small band of related families.
+
+Growth in number of rooms does not necessarily indicate growth in
+population, and this qualification must not be lost sight of in the
+discussion of pueblo ground plans. Among the Pueblos of today, descent,
+in real property at least, is in the female line; when a man marries he
+becomes a member of his wife’s family and leaves his own home to live
+with his wife’s people. If the wife’s home is not large enough to
+contain all the members of the household, additional rooms are built
+adjoining and connected with those previously occupied. It may be
+mentioned in this connection that the women build the houses, although
+the men supply the material and do the heavy work. The result of this
+custom may be readily seen: a family in which there are many daughters
+must necessarily increase the space occupied by it, while a family
+consisting of sons, no matter how many they may be, will become extinct,
+so far as regards its home in the village. It is no uncommon thing to
+see in the villages of today several rooms in course of erection while
+there are a dozen or more rooms within a few steps abandoned and going
+to decay. Long occupancy, therefore, produces much the same effect on a
+ground plan of a village as a large population, or a rapidly growing
+one, except that in the former case irregularity in the arrangement of
+rooms will be more pronounced.
+
+It will be noticed that the size of rooms is more varied in the
+southwestern and southern clusters than in the remaining portions of the
+village. In the southwestern cluster rooms measuring 8 feet by 18 or 20
+are not uncommon. These occur principally in the central and
+southwestern part of the cluster, while in the northern and northeastern
+part the rooms are uncommonly large, one of them measuring about 40 feet
+in length by nearly 15 feet in width and presenting a floor area of 600
+square feet. Rooms approaching this size are more common, however, in
+the northern and northwestern clusters. In these latter clusters long
+narrow rooms are the exception and a number of almost square ones are
+seen. The smallest room in the village is in the center of the southern
+cluster, on the highest ground within the area covered by the ruin; it
+measures 6 feet by 10, with a floor area of 60 square feet, as opposed
+to the 600 square feet of the largest room. This small room was probably
+at one time a small open space between two projecting rooms, such as are
+often seen in the inhabited pueblos. Later the room on the south was
+built and the front of the space was walled up in order to make a
+rectangular area, thus forming the small room shown on the ground plan.
+The maximum length of any room is about 40 feet, the maximum width
+attained is about 20 feet, and in a general way it may be stated that
+the average size of the rooms is considerably larger than that of the
+rooms in the northern ruins.
+
+From the regularity in distribution of the debris now on the ground,
+it appears that the rooms of the northwestern and northern clusters,
+including the eastern part of the village, were almost uniformly one
+story in height, and most of the rooms in the other clusters were also
+limited in height to a single story. The only places on the ground plan
+where rooms of two stories might have existed are the northern and
+central parts of the southwestern and southern clusters, and perhaps the
+southern side of the northern cluster; the last, however, being very
+doubtful.
+
+  [Illustration: Plate XVII.
+  GROUND PLAN OF RUINS OPPOSITE VERDE.]
+
+In the scarcity of detached rooms or small clusters the plan of this
+village strongly resembles the ground plan of Zuñi. Only three detached
+rooms are seen in the plan. One of these, situated in the main or
+central court, has already been referred to as probably the remains of a
+kiva or sacred chamber. Another single room occurs outside of the
+village, near its southwestern corner. This was probably a dwelling
+room, for a kiva would hardly be located in this place. The third room
+is found also outside the village and at its southeastern corner. The
+space inclosed within the walls of this room measured about 7 feet by 4
+and the lines of wall are at an acute angle with the wall lines of the
+village. This structure is anomalous, and its purpose is not clear.
+
+The absence of clearly defined traces of passageways to the interior of
+the village is noticeable. This absence can hardly be attributed to the
+advanced state of decay in the ruin, for nearly all the wall lines can
+still be easily traced. At one point only is there a suggestion of an
+open passageway similar to those found in the inhabited pueblos. This
+occurs in the southeastern corner of the ground plan, between the
+southern cluster and the southern part of the northeastern cluster.
+It was about 25 feet long and but 6 feet wide in the clear. There were
+undoubtedly other passageways to the interior courts, but they were
+probably roofed over and perhaps consisted of rooms abandoned for that
+purpose. This, however, is anomalous.
+
+There are several other anomalous features in the ground plan, the
+purposes of which are not clear. Prominent among them is a heavy wall
+extending about halfway across the southern, side of the village and at
+some distance from it. The total length of this wall is 164 feet; it is
+4 feet thick (nearly twice the thickness of the other walls), and is
+pierced near its center by an opening or gateway 4 feet wide. The
+nearest rooms of the village on the north are over 40 feet away. This
+wall is now much broken down, but here and there, as shown on the plan,
+portions of the original wall lines are left. It is probable that its
+original height did not exceed 5 or 6 feet. The purpose of this
+structure is obscure; it could not have been erected for defense, for it
+has no defensive value whatever; it had no connection with the houses of
+the village, for it is too far removed from them. The only possible use
+of this wall that occurs to the writer is that it was a dam or retaining
+wall for a shallow pool of water, fed by the surface drainage of a small
+area on the east and northeast. There is at present a very slight
+depression between the wall and the first houses of the village toward
+the north--about a foot or a foot and a half--but there may have been a
+depression of 2 or 3 feet here at one time and this depression may have
+been subsequently filled up by sediment. This conjecture could be easily
+tested by excavating a trench across the area between the wall and the
+houses, but in the absence of such an excavation the suggestion is a
+mere surmise.
+
+Another anomalous feature is found in the center of the southwestern
+cluster. Here, in two different rooms, are found walls of double the
+usual thickness, occurring, however, on only one or two sides of the
+rooms. These are clearly shown on the ground plan. The westernmost of
+the two rooms which exhibit this feature has walls of normal thickness
+on three of its sides, while the fourth or eastern side consists of two
+walls of normal thickness, built side by side, perhaps the result of
+some domestic quarrel. The eastern room, however, has thick walls on its
+northern and eastern sides, and in this case the walls are built solidly
+at one time, not consisting, as in the previous case, of two walls of
+ordinary thickness built side by side. An inspection of the ground plan
+will show that in both these cases this feature is anomalous and
+probably unimportant.
+
+A ruin of the same general type as that just described, but much smaller
+in size, is found about 6 miles farther northward on the eastern side of
+the river. It is located on the river edge of a large semicircular flat
+or terrace, near its northern end, and is built of flat slabs of
+limestone and river bowlders. It is rectangular in plan and of moderate
+size. On the southern end of the same flat are two single-room rancher’s
+houses and a large corral. The rooms in this ruin are oblong and similar
+in size and arrangement to those just described.
+
+  [Illustration: Figure 279.
+  Sketch map, site of small ruin 10 miles north of Fossil creek.]
+
+About 11 miles above the last-described ruin, or 17 miles above the
+large ruin near Limestone creek, there is another small ruin of the same
+general type as the last, located on a similar site, and in all
+respects, except size, closely similar to it.
+
+About 3 miles below the mouth of the East Verde there is still another
+ruin of similar character, located on the edge of a mesa or bench
+overlooking the river. It is built of bowlders and slabs of rock. Like
+the others this ruin is rectangular in plan and of small size.
+
+About 10 miles north of the mouth of Fossil creek, on the point of a
+bench or terrace on the western side of the river, and perhaps 20 feet
+above it, occurs a small ruin, similar in character to the preceding.
+The river here makes a long turn eastward, then flows south again, and
+in the angle a small bench or terrace is formed. At this point the
+mountains rise abruptly from the river on both sides to a height of over
+a thousand feet. Fig. 279 illustrates the location of this ruin. So far
+as could be distinguished from the hills opposite, the rooms occur in
+two broken lines at right angles to each other.
+
+  [Illustration: Plate XVIII.
+  GENERAL VIEW OF RUINS OPPOSITE VERDE.]
+
+These four small ruins are all closely similar to the large ruin
+described above in all respects except size, and peculiarities of ground
+plan attendant on size. The rooms are always rectangular, generally
+oblong, and arranged without regularity as regards their longer axis.
+Except the one last described, the ruins consist of compact masses of
+rooms, without evidences of interior courts, all of very small size, and
+all located without reference to defense. The last-described ruin
+differs from the others only in the arrangement of rooms. There is
+practically no standing wall remaining in any of them, and even now they
+can be seen for miles from the hills above. When the walls were standing
+they must have been conspicuous landmarks. The masonry of all consists
+of flat bowlders, selected doubtless from the river bed, or perhaps
+sometimes quarried from the terraces, which themselves contain large
+numbers of river bowlders. In general appearance and in plan these ruins
+resemble the ruin next to be described, situated near the mouth of the
+East Verde.
+
+  [Illustration: Figure 280.
+  Ground plan of ruin at mouth of the East Verde.]
+
+On the southern side of the East Verde, half a mile above its mouth, a
+small creek comes in from the south, probably dry throughout most of the
+year; and on a promontory or point of land left by this creek a small
+ruin occurs. It is similar in plan and in character of masonry to those
+just described, and differs from them only in that its site is better
+adapted for defense, being protected on two sides by steep hills or
+cliffs. The ground plan of this ruin is shown in figure 280, and its
+general appearance in plate XIV, which also shows the character of
+masonry. The village overlooked a large area of low bottom land in the
+angle between the Verde and the East Verde, and is itself overlooked by
+the foothills rising behind it to the high mesas forming part of the
+Mazatzal mountains.
+
+The walls of this village were built of flat bowlders and slabs of
+limestone, and there is now practically no standing wall remaining. The
+ground plan shows a number of places where the walls are still visible,
+but they extend only a few inches above the debris. There were about
+forty rooms, and the plan is characterized by irregularities such as
+have already been noticed in other plans. Although the village was of
+considerable size it was built up solidly, and there is no trace of an
+interior court. It will be noticed that the rooms vary much in size, and
+that many of the smaller rooms are one half the size of the larger ones,
+as though the larger rooms had been divided by partitions after they
+were completed. It is probable that rooms extended partly down the slope
+on the west and south of the village toward the little creek before
+mentioned, but if this were the case all evidences have long since been
+obliterated.
+
+On the southern side of the village the ground plan shows a bit of
+curved wall. It is doubtful whether this was an actual wall or merely a
+terrace. If it was a wall it is the only example of curved wall found in
+the region in ruins of this class. Between this wall or terrace and the
+adjoining wall on the north, with which it was connected, the ground is
+now filled in. Whether this filling occurred prior or subsequent to the
+abandonment of the village does not appear. The northeastern corner of
+the ruin is marked by a somewhat similar feature. Here there is a line
+of wall now almost obliterated and but feebly marked by debris, and the
+space between it and the village proper is partly filled in, forming a
+low terrace. Analogous features are found in several other ruins in this
+region, notably in the large ruin near Limestone creek. It should be
+noted in this connection that Mr. E. W. Nelson has found that places
+somewhat similar to these in the ruins about Springerville, New Mexico,
+always well repaid the labor of excavation, and he adopted as a working
+hypothesis the assumption that these were the burial places of the
+village. Whether a similar condition would be found in this region can
+only be determined by careful and systematic excavation.
+
+The village did not occupy the whole of the mesa point on which it is
+located; on the east the ground rises gently to the foothills of the
+Mazatzal range, and on the south and west it slopes sharply down to the
+little creek before mentioned; while on the north there is a terrace or
+flat open space some 60 feet wide and almost parallel with the longer
+axis of the village. This open space and the sharp fall which limits it
+on the north is shown on the ground plan. The general view of the same
+feature (plate XV) also shows the character of the valley of the East
+Verde above the ruin; the stream is here confined within a low walled
+canyon. This open space formed a part of the village and doubtless
+occupied the same relation to it that interior courts do to other
+villages. Its northern or outer edge is a trifle higher than the space
+between it and the village proper and is marked by several large
+bowlders and a small amount of debris. It is possible that at one time
+there was a defensive wall here, although the ground falls so suddenly
+that it is almost impossible to climb up to the edge from below without
+artificial aid. Defensive walls such as this may have been are very rare
+in pueblo architecture, only one instance having been encountered by the
+writer in an experience of many years. The map seems to show more local
+relief to this terrace than the general view indicates, but it should be
+borne in mind that the contour interval is but 2½ feet.
+
+  [Illustration: Plate XIX.
+  SOUTHERN PART OF RUINS OPPOSITE VERDE.]
+
+A comparison of the ground plan of this ruin and those previously
+described, together with that of the ruin near the mouth of Fossil creek
+(plate XVI), which is typical of this group, shows marked irregularity
+in outline and plan. In the character of the debris also this ruin
+differs from the Fossil creek ruin and others located near it. As in the
+latter, bowlders were used in the wall, but unlike the latter rough
+stone predominates. In the character of its masonry this ruin forms an
+intermediate or connecting link between the ruins near Limestone creek
+and opposite Verde and the class of which the ruin near the mouth of
+Fossil creek is typical. In the character of its site it is of the same
+class as the Fossil creek ruin, being intermediate between the valley
+pueblos, such as that near Limestone creek, and pueblos located on
+defensive sites, such as the group opposite Verde. The ground plan
+indicates an occupancy extending over a considerable period of time and
+terminating at or near the close of the period of aboriginal occupancy
+of the valley of Rio Verde.
+
+Another ruin, of a type closely similar, occurs on a bluff near the
+mouth of Fossil creek. The plan of this ruin is shown in figure 281. The
+village is located close to the edge of the bluff, as shown in the plan,
+and has an outlook over a considerable area of bottom land adjoining the
+bluff on the east. It is probable that the cavate lodges whose location
+some 8 or 10 miles above the ruin, on Fossil creek, is shown on the
+general map (plate XI) were appendages of this village.
+
+The wall still standing extends but a few inches above the débris, but
+enough remains to mark the principal wall lines, and these are farther
+emphasized by the lines of débris. The débris here is remarkably clean
+and stands out prominently from the ground surface, instead of being
+merged into it as is usually the case. This is shown in the general view
+of the ruin. There are twenty-five rooms on the ground plan, and there
+is no evidence that any of these attained a greater height than one
+story. The population, therefore, could not have been much, if any, in
+excess of forty, and as the average family of the Pueblos consists of
+five persons, this would make the number of families which found a home
+in this village less than ten. Notwithstanding this small population the
+ground plan of this village shows clearly a somewhat extended period of
+occupancy and a gradual growth in size. The eastern half of the village,
+which is located along the edge of the bluff, probably preceded the
+western in point of time. It will be noticed that while the wall lines
+are seldom continuous for more than three rooms, yet the rooms
+themselves are arranged with a certain degree of regularity, in that the
+longer axes are usually parallel.
+
+  [Illustration: Figure 281.
+  Ground plan of ruin near the month of Fossil creek.]
+
+The masonry of this village is almost entirely of flat bowlders,
+obtained probably from the bed of the creek immediately below. The
+terrace on which the village was built, and in fact all the hills about
+it are composed of gravel and bowlders, but it would be easier to carry
+the bowlders up from the stream bed than to quarry them from the
+hillside, and in the former case there would be a better opportunity for
+selection. Plate XVI shows the character of the rock employed, and
+illustrates the extent to which selection of rock has been carried.
+Although the walls are built entirely of river bowlders the masonry
+presents almost as good a face as some of the ruins previously described
+as built of slabs of limestone, and this is due to careful selection of
+the stone employed.
+
+  [Illustration: Plate XX.
+  GENERAL VIEW OF RUIN ON SOUTHERN SIDE OF CLEAR CREEK.]
+
+About half a mile above the mouth of Fossil creek, and on the eastern
+side of the river, a deep ravine comes in from the north and east, and
+on a low spur near its mouth there is a ruin very similar to the one
+just described. It is also about the same size. The general character of
+the site it occupies is shown in the sketch, figure 282. The masonry is
+of the same general character as that of the ruin near the mouth of
+Fossil creek, and the débris, which stands out sharply from the ground
+surface, is distinguished by the same cleanness.
+
+  [Illustration: Figure 282.
+  Sketch map, site of ruin above Fossil creek.]
+
+About 8½ miles north of Fossil creek, on the eastern side of the Verde,
+occurs a small ruin, somewhat different in the arrangement of rooms from
+those described. Here there is a bench or terrace, some 50 feet above
+the river, cut through near its northern end by a small canyon. The ruin
+is located on the southern side of this terrace, near the mouth of the
+creek, and consists of about ten rooms arranged in +L+ shape. The lines
+are very irregular, and there are seldom more than three rooms
+connected. The débris marking the wall lines is clean, and the lines are
+well defined, although no standing wall remains.
+
+About a mile above the last-described ruin, or 9½ miles north of the
+mouth of Fossil creek, a small group of ruins occurs. The sketch, figure
+283, shows the relation of the parts of this group to one another. The
+small cluster or rooms on the south is very similar in character,
+location, and size to the ruin last described. The northern portion is
+situated on the opposite side of a deep canyon or ravine, on the crown
+of a hill composed of limestone, which outcrops everywhere about it, and
+is considerably higher than the small cluster on the south. The northern
+ruin is of considerable size and very compactly built, the rooms being
+clustered about the summit of the hill. The central room, occupying the
+crown of the hill, is 20 feet higher than the outside rooms. In a saddle
+between the main cluster and a similar hill toward the southeast there
+are a number of other rooms, not marked so prominently by débris as
+those of the main cluster. There is no standing wall remaining, but the
+débris of the main and adjoining clusters indicates that the masonry was
+very rough, the walls being composed of slabs of limestone similar to
+those found in the large ruin near the mouth of Limestone creek, and
+obtained probably not 20 feet away from their present position.
+
+  [Illustration: Figure 283.
+  Sketch map of ruin 9½ miles above Fossil creek.]
+
+The ruin described on page 200 and assigned to the first subclass occurs
+about half a mile north of this limestone hill, on the opposite side of
+the river. This small ruin, like all the smaller ruins described, was
+built of river bowlders, or river bowlders with occasional slabs of
+sandstone or limestone, while the ruin last described consists
+exclusively of limestone slabs. This difference is explained, however,
+by the character of the sites occupied by the several ruins. The
+limestone hill upon which the ruin under discussion is situated is an
+anomalous feature, and its occurrence here undoubtedly determined the
+location of this village. It is difficult otherwise to understand the
+location of this cluster of rooms, for they command no outlook over
+tillable land, although the view up and down the river is extensive.
+This cluster, which is the largest in size for many miles up and down
+the river, may have been the parent pueblo, occupying somewhat the same
+relation to the smaller villages that Zuñi occupies to the summer
+farming settlements of Nutria, Pescado, and Ojo Caliente; and doubtless
+the single-room remains, which occur above and below the cluster on mesa
+benches and near tillable tracts, were connected with it. This ruin is
+an example of the second subclass, or villages located on defensive
+sites, which merges into ruins of the first subclass, or villages on
+bottom lands, through villages like that located at the mouth of the
+East Verde and at the mouth of Fossil creek.
+
+  [Illustration: Plate XXI.
+  DETAILED VIEW OF RUIN ON SOUTHERN SIDE OF CLEAR CREEK.]
+
+On the eastern side of the Verde, just below the mouth of Beaver creek,
+opposite and a little above Verde, occurs one of the best examples to be
+found in this region of a large village located on a defensive site.
+Here there is a group of eight clusters extending half a mile up and
+down the river, and some of the clusters have walls still standing to a
+height of 8 and 10 feet. The relation of these clusters to each other is
+shown in the sketch map, figure 284.
+
+  [Illustration: Figure 284.
+  Sketch map showing location of ruins opposite Verde.]
+
+The principal ruin of the group is situated on the northern side of a
+small valley running eastward from the river up to the foot of a
+prominent mesa, which here bounds the eastern side of the river bottom.
+The valley is perhaps half a mile long and about an eighth of a mile
+wide. The ruin is located on a butte or knoll connected with the hills
+back of it by a low saddle, forming a sort of promontory or tongue of
+land rising from a flat space or bench, the whole some 200 feet above
+the river bottom. One of the clusters of rooms is located in the saddle
+mentioned and is connected with the main ruin. At the foot of the butte
+on the western side there is a similar cluster, not connected, however,
+with the main ruin; and south of the main ruin, on the extreme edge of
+the little mesa or bench, there is another small cluster. The ruin shown
+on the sketch map southwest of the main ruin consists of but two rooms,
+with no wall now standing. All these clusters are shown in their proper
+position on the ground plan, plate XVII. Plate XVIII, which is a general
+view from the east, shows the main ruin on the butte, together with the
+connected cluster east of it in the saddle. The modern settlement seen
+in the middle distance is Verde.
+
+About a quarter of a mile west of the main ruin there is another small
+but well-preserved cluster of rooms. It occupies the narrow ridge of a
+hill some 200 feet above the river. On the west and south, the hill
+descends abruptly to the river; on the southeast and east it slopes
+sharply down to a broad valley on the level of the mesa bench before
+mentioned, but the valley is cut by a narrow and deep canyon marking the
+east side of the hill. This cluster is shown on the ground plan, plate
+XVII, though not in its proper position. Northeast of this cluster and
+perhaps 200 yards distant there are traces of other rooms, but they are
+so faint that no plan can be made out. As shown on the sketch map,
+figure 284, the hill is a long narrow one, and its western side falls
+rapidly to a large triangular area of flat bottom land lying between it
+and Beaver creek, which it overlooks, as well as a large area of the
+valley up the river and all the fine bottom lands north and east of
+Verde and on the northwestern side of Beaver creek. As regards outlook,
+and also as regards security and facility of defense, the site of the
+small cluster is far superior to that of the main cluster of rooms.
+
+About a quarter of a mile south and east of the main ruin, on the
+opposite side of the little valley before mentioned, a mesa bench
+similar to the one last described occurs; and on a point of this,
+extending almost to the river bank, there are traces, now nearly
+obliterated, of a small cluster of rooms. A short distance east of this
+point there is a large rounded knoll, with a peculiar terrace-like bench
+at about half its height. The entire summit of this knoll was occupied
+by rooms, of which the walls are much broken and none remain standing.
+This knoll, with the ruins on its summit, is shown in plate XIX, which
+also gives a general view from the north of the small cluster southeast
+of the main ruin. The character of the valley of the Verde at this point
+is also shown. The sketch map, figure 284, shows the location of these
+ruins in reference to others of the group.
+
+The main cluster, that portion occupying the crown or summit of the
+butte before described, exhibits at the present time some fifty rooms in
+the ground plan, but there were at one time a larger number than this;
+and there is no doubt that rooms extended down the slopes of the hill
+southward and southwestward. The plan of this main cluster is peculiar;
+it differs from all the smaller surrounding clusters. It tells the story
+of a long occupancy by a people who increased largely in numbers, but
+who, owing to their hostile environment, could not increase the space
+occupied by them in proportion to their numbers. It will be noticed that
+while the wall lines are remarkably irregular in arrangement they are
+more often continuous than otherwise, more frequently continuous, in
+fact, than the lines of some of the smaller villages before described.
+The rooms are remarkably small, 10 feet square being a not unusual
+measurement, and built so closely together as to leave no space for
+interior courts. The typical rooms in the ruins of this region are
+oblong, generally about twice as long as broad, measuring approximately
+20 by 10 feet.
+
+  [Illustration: Plate XXII.
+  GENERAL VIEW OF RUIN 8 MILES NORTH OF FOSSIL CREEK.]
+
+In the ruin under discussion it seems that each of these oblong rooms
+was divided by a transverse partition into two smaller rooms, although
+the oblong form is also common. This is noticeable in the southwestern
+corner and on the eastern side of the main cluster, in the southwestern
+corner and on the northern end of the cluster adjoining on the north,
+and in all the smaller clusters. It is probable that the western central
+part of the main cluster was the first portion of the group of
+structures built, and that subsequently as the demand for accommodation
+increased, owing to increase of population, the rooms on the eastern and
+southern sides of the main cluster were added, while the rooms of the
+older portion were divided.
+
+There is no evidence that any portion of this cluster attained a greater
+height than two stories, and only a small number of rooms reached that
+height. The small cluster adjoining on the north, and those on the
+southeast, southwest, and west, were built later and belong to the last
+period of the occupancy of the group. The builders exhibited a decided
+predilection for a flat site, as an examination of the sites of the
+various room clusters in the ground plan (plate XVII) will show, and
+when the sight of the main cluster became so crowded that additional
+rooms could be added only by building them on the sloping hillside,
+recourse was had to other sites. This tendency is also exhibited in the
+cluster adjoining the main cluster on the north, which was probably the
+second in point of age. The northern end of this small group of rooms
+terminates at the foot of the hill which rises northeastward, while a
+series of wall lines extends eastward at an angle with the lines of the
+cluster, but along the curve of the hillside.
+
+The small northern cluster was in all probability inhabited by five or
+six families only, as contrasted with the main cluster, which had
+sixteen or seventeen, while the smaller clusters had each only two or
+three families. The strong presumption of the later building and
+occupancy of the smaller clusters, previously commented on, is supported
+by three other facts of importance, viz, the amount and height of the
+standing wall, the character of the sites occupied, and the
+extraordinary size of the rooms.
+
+Although as a rule external appearance is an unsatisfactory criterion of
+age, still, other things equal, a large amount and good height of
+standing wall may be taken to indicate in a general way a more recent
+period of occupancy than wall lines much obliterated and merged into the
+surrounding ground level. The character of the site occupied is,
+however, a very good criterion of age. It was a rule of the ancient
+pueblo builder, a rule still adhered to with a certain degree of
+persistence, that enlargement of a village for the purpose of obtaining
+more space must be by the addition of rooms to those already built, and
+not by the construction of detached rooms. So well was this rule
+observed that attached rooms were often built on sites not at all
+adapted to them, when much better sites were available but a short
+distance away; and, although detached rooms were built in certain cases,
+there was always a strong reason for such exceptions to the general
+rule. At a late period in the history of the Pueblos this rule was not
+so much adhered to as before, and detached houses were often built at
+such points as the fancy or convenience of the builder might dictate. As
+the traditions are broken down the tendency to depart from the old rule
+becomes more decided, and at the present day several of the older Pueblo
+villages are being gradually abandoned for the more convenient detached
+dwellings, while nearly all of them have suffered more or less from this
+cause.
+
+The tendency to cluster rooms in one large compact group was undoubtedly
+due primarily to hostile pressure from outside, and as this pressure
+decreased the inherent inconveniences of the plan would assert
+themselves and the rule would be less and less closely adhered to. It
+therefore follows that, in the absence of other sufficient cause, the
+presence of detached rooms or small clusters may be taken in a general
+way to indicate a more recent occupancy than a ground plan of a compact,
+closely built village.
+
+The size of rooms is closely connected with the character of the site
+occupied. When, owing to hostile pressure, villages were built on sites
+difficult of access, and when the rooms were crowded together into
+clusters in order to produce an easily defended structure, the rooms
+themselves were necessarily small; but when hostile pressure from
+surrounding or outside tribes became less pronounced, the
+pueblo-builders consulted convenience more, and larger rooms were built.
+This has occurred in many of the pueblos and in the ruins, and in a
+general way a ruin consisting of large rooms is apt to be more modern
+than one consisting of small rooms; and where large and small rooms
+occur together there is a fair presumption that the occupancy of the
+village extended over a period when hostile pressure was pronounced and
+when it became less strong. It has already been shown that, owing to the
+social system of the pueblo-builders, there is almost always growth in a
+village, although the population may remain stationary in numbers or
+even decrease; so that, until a village is abandoned it will follow the
+general rule of development sketched above.
+
+Along the southern side of Clear creek, which discharges into the Rio
+Verde from the east, about 4 miles below Verde, there is a flat terrace
+from 30 to 40 feet above the creek and some 2 or 3 miles in length.
+Scattered over almost the whole of this terrace are remains of houses
+and horticultural works, which will be described later. Near the western
+end of the terrace a low hill with flat top and rounded sides rises, and
+on the top of this occurs the ruin whose ground plan is shown in figure
+285.
+
+  [Illustration: Plate XXIII.
+  GENERAL VIEW OF RUINS ON AN EMINENCE 14 MILES NORTH OF FOSSIL CREEK.]
+
+This ruin commands an outlook over the whole extent of the terrace and
+seems to have been the home pueblo with which were connected the
+numerous single houses whose remains cover the terrace. The ground plan
+is peculiar. The rooms were arranged in four rows, each row consisting
+of a line of single rooms, and the rows were placed approximately at
+right angles to one another, forming the four sides of a hollow square.
+The rooms are generally oblong, of the usual dimensions, and as a rule
+placed with their longer axes in the direction of the row. Several rooms
+occur, however, with their longer axes placed across the row.
+Thirty-eight rooms can still be traced, and there is no likelihood that
+there were ever more than forty, or that any of the rooms attained a
+greater height than one story. The population, therefore, was probably
+never much in excess of fifty persons, or ten to twelve families.
+
+  [Illustration: Figure 285.
+  Ground plan of ruin on southern side of Clear creek.]
+
+It will be noticed that the wall lines are only approximately
+rectangular. The outside dimensions of the village are as follows:
+Northeastern side, 203 feet; southwestern, 207 feet; southeastern, 182
+feet; and northwestern, 194 feet. The northeastern and southwestern
+sides are nearly equal in length, but between the southeastern and the
+northwestern sides there is a difference of 12 feet, and this
+notwithstanding that the room at the western end of the southeastern row
+has been set out 3 feet beyond the wall line of the southwestern side.
+This difference is remarkable if, as the ground plan indicates, the
+village or the greater part of it was laid out and built up at one time,
+and was not the result of slow growth.
+
+As already stated, long occupancy of a village, even without increase of
+population, produces a certain effect on the ground plan. This effect,
+so strongly marked in all the ruins already described, is conspicuous in
+this ruin by its almost entire absence. The ground plan is just such as
+would be produced if a small band of pueblo builders, consisting of ten
+or twelve related families, should migrate en masse to a site like the
+one under discussion and, after occupying that site for a few
+years--less than five--should pass on to some other location. Such
+migration and abandonment of villages were by no means anomalous; on the
+contrary, they constitute one of the most marked and most persistent
+phenomena in the history of the pueblo builders. If the general
+principles, already laid down, affecting the development and growth of
+ground plans of villages are applied to this example, the hypothesis
+suggested above--an incoming of people en masse and a very short
+occupancy--must be accepted, for no other hypothesis will explain the
+regularity of wall lines, the uniformity in size of rooms, and the
+absence of attached rooms which do not follow the general plan of the
+village. The latter is perhaps the most remarkable feature in the ground
+plan of this village. The addition of rooms attached irregularly at
+various points of the main cluster, which is necessarily consequent on
+long occupancy of a site, even without increase of population, was in
+this example just commenced. The result of the same process, continued
+over a long period of time, can be seen in the ground plan of any of the
+inhabited villages of today and in most of the ruins, while a plan like
+that of the ruin under discussion, while not unknown, is rare.
+
+  [Illustration: Plate XXIV.
+  GENERAL VIEW OF NORTHERN END OF A GROUP OF CAVATE LODGES.]
+
+Plate XX, which is a general view of the ruin from the southwest, shows
+the character of the site and the general appearance of the debris,
+while plate XXI illustrates the character of the masonry. It will be
+noticed that the level of the ground inside and outside of the row of
+rooms is essentially the same; in other words, there has been no filling
+in. It will also be noticed that the amount of debris is small, and that
+it consists principally of rounded river bowlders. The masonry was
+peculiar, the walls were comparatively thin, and the lower courses were
+composed of river bowlders, not dressed or otherwise treated, while the
+upper courses, and presumably also the coping stones, were composed of
+slabs of sandstone and of a very friable limestone. The latter has
+disintegrated very much under atmospheric influences. The white areas
+seen in the illustrations are composed of this disintegrated limestone.
+The general appearance of the ruin at the present time must not be
+accepted as its normal condition. It is probable that the débris has
+undergone a process of artificial selection, the flat slabs and most
+available stones for building probably having been removed by
+neighboring settlers and employed in the construction of stone fences,
+which are much used in this region. Even with a fair allowance for such
+removal, however, there is no evidence that the rooms were higher than
+one story. The quantity of potsherds scattered about the ruins is
+noticeably small.
+
+  [Illustration: Figure 286.
+  Ground plan of ruin 8 miles north of Fossil creek.]
+
+About 8 miles north of the mouth of Fossil creek, on the eastern side
+of the Verde, there is a ruin which, though very small, is interesting.
+At this point there is a long narrow mass of rock, the remains of a
+volcanic dike, some 80 or 90 feet long, which at the southern end
+overhangs the stream, while the other end is merged into the ground
+level. At its southern end the rock is some 50 feet above the water, but
+150 feet northward the dike is no longer traceable. A general view of
+this dike is given in plate XXII, while the ground plan, figure 286,
+shows the character of the site. There were rooms on all that portion of
+the dike that stands out prominently from the ground level, and traces
+of other rooms can be seen on the ground level adjoining on the north
+and in the causeway resulting from the breaking down and disintegration
+of the dike. Remains of eight rooms in all can be traced, five of which
+were on the summit of the rock. The wall lines on the summit are still
+quite distinct and in places fragments of the original walls remain, as
+shown on the ground plan. The plan shows typical pueblo rooms of average
+size, and the masonry, though rough, is of the same character as that of
+other ruins in the vicinity.
+
+Facility of defense undoubtedly had something to do with the choice of
+this location, but that it was not the only desideratum consulted is
+evident from the occurrence of a large area of fertile bottom land or
+flat river terrace immediately adjoining the ruin on the east and
+overlooked by it; in fact, the volcanic dike on which the ruin occurs
+occupies the western end of a large semicircular area of tillable land,
+such as already described. Viewed, however, as a village located with
+reference to defense it is the most perfect example--facility of
+obtaining water being considered--in this region. It may be used,
+therefore, to illustrate an important principle governing the location
+of villages of this type.
+
+A study of the ground plan (figure 286) and the general view (plate
+XXII) will readily show that while the site and character of this
+village are admirably adapted for defense, so well adapted, in fact, as
+to suggest that we have here a fortress or purely defensive structure,
+still this adaptation arises solely from the selection of a site fitted
+by nature for the purpose, or, in other words, from an accident of
+environment. There has not been the slightest artificial addition to the
+natural advantages of the site.
+
+The statement may seem broad, but it is none the less true, that, so far
+as our knowledge extends at the present time, fortresses or other purely
+defensive structures form a type which is entirely unknown in the pueblo
+region. The reason is simple; military art, as a distinct art, was
+developed in a stage of culture higher than that attained by the ancient
+pueblo builders. It is true that within the limits of the pueblo region
+structures are found which, from their character and the character of
+their sites, have been loosely described as fortresses, their describers
+losing sight of the fact that the adaptability of these structures to
+defense is the result of nature and not of art. Numerous examples are
+found where the building of a single short wall would double the
+defensive value of a site, but in the experience of the writer the
+ancient builders have seldom made even that slight addition to the
+natural advantages of the site they occupied.
+
+  [Illustration: Plate XXV.
+  MAP OF GROUP OF CAVATE LODGES IN WHITE CANYON,
+  3 MILES BELOW CLEAR CREEK, EAST SIDE RIO VERDE.]
+
+The first desideratum in the minds of the old pueblo builders in
+choosing the location of their habitations was nearness to some area of
+tillable land. This land was generally adjacent to the site of the
+village, and was almost invariably overlooked by it. In fact this
+requirement was considered of far more importance than adaptability to
+defense, for the latter was often sacrificed to the former. A good
+example in which both requirements have been fully met is the ruin under
+discussion. This, however, is the result of an exceptionally favorable
+environment; as a rule the two requirements conflict with each other,
+and it is always the latter requirement--adaptability to defense--which
+suffers. These statements are true even of the so-called fortresses, of
+the cavate lodges, of the cliff ruins, and of many of the large village
+ruins scattered over the southwestern portion of the United States. In
+the case of the large village ruins, however, there is another feature
+of pueblo life which sometimes produces a different result, viz, the use
+of outlying single houses or small clusters separated from the main
+village and used for temporary abode during the farming season only.
+This feature is well developed in some of the modern pueblos,
+particularly in Zuñi and Acoma.
+
+The principle illustrated by this ruin is an important one. Among the
+ancient pueblo builders there was no military art, or rather the
+military art was in its infancy; purely defensive structures, such as
+fortresses, were unknown, and the idea of defense never reached any
+greater development than the selection of an easily defended site for a
+village, and seldom extended to the artificial improvement of the site.
+There is another result of this lack of military knowledge not
+heretofore alluded to, which will be discussed at length on some other
+occasion and can only be mentioned here: this is the aggregation of a
+number of small villages or clusters into the large many-storied pueblo
+building, such as the modern Zuñi or Taos.
+
+About 14 miles north of the mouth of Fossil creek, on the eastern side
+of the river, there is another ruin somewhat resembling the last
+described. A large red rock rises at the intersection of two washes,
+about a mile back from the river, and on a bench near the summit are the
+remains of walls. These are illustrated in plate XXIII. In general
+appearance and in character of site this ruin strongly resembles a type
+found in the San Juan region. There seem to have been only a few rooms
+on the top of the rock, and the prominent wall seen in the illustration
+was probably a retaining or filling wall in a cleft of the rock. Such
+walls are now used among the Pueblos for the sides of trails, etc. It is
+probable that at one time there were a considerable number of rooms on
+the rock; the debris on the ground at the base of the rock on the
+western side, shown in the illustration, is rather scanty; on the
+opposite or eastern side there is more, and it is not improbable there
+were rooms on the ground here. It is likely that access was from this
+side.
+
+It should be noted that this ruin, which is of a type known as
+“fortress” by some writers, is so placed as to command an extensive
+outlook over the large valley below and over the two small valleys
+above, as well as the considerable area of flat or bottom land formed by
+the junction of the small valleys. It is a type of a subordinate
+agricultural settlement, and had the defensive motive been entirely
+absent from the minds of the builders of this village it would
+undoubtedly have been located just where it now is, as this is the best
+site for an agricultural settlement for some distance up and down the
+river.
+
+  [Illustration: Figure 287.
+  Sketch map of ruins on pinnacle 7 miles north of Fossil creek.]
+
+  [Illustration: Figure 288.
+  Remains of small rooms 7 miles north of Fossil creek.]
+
+Remains of walls somewhat similar to these last described occur on a
+butte or pinnacle on the eastern side of the river and about 7 miles
+north of the mouth of Fossil creek. From the south this pinnacle is a
+most conspicuous landmark, rising as it does some 2,500 feet above the
+river within a distance of a quarter of a mile. The upper 50 feet of the
+eminence consists of bare red rock split into sharp points and little
+pinnacles, as shown in figure 287, which represents only the upper
+portion of the butte. The heavy black lines on the sketch map are walls.
+Some of these were doubtless mere retaining walls, but others are still
+standing to a considerable height, and there is yet much débris on the
+slope of the rock forming the eastern side of the butte near its top. It
+is doubtful whether these rooms were ever used for habitations, and more
+probable that they were used as a shrine or for some analogous purpose.
+
+  [Illustration: Plate XXVI.
+  STRATA OF NORTHERN CANYON WALL.]
+
+Perhaps a quarter of a mile northeastward, in the saddle connecting the
+butte with the contiguous hills in that direction, there are remains of
+three small rooms, located east of a low swell or ridge. Figure 288
+shows the general character of the site, which seems to have been a
+favorite type for temporary structures, single-room outlooks, etc. Among
+the fragments of pottery picked up here were pieces of polished red ware
+of the southern type, and part of the bottom of a large pot of so-called
+corrugated ware.
+
+Half a mile northwestward, in a saddle similar to that last described,
+and east of the crown of a hill, are the remains of a single room,
+nearly square and perhaps 10 feet long. These single rooms and small
+cluster remains are unusual in this region, and seem to replace the
+bowlder-marked ruins so common south of the East Verde (to be described
+more fully later). Although the walls of this single-room structure were
+built of river bowlders, they are well marked by débris and are of the
+same type as those in the ruins at the mouths of the East Verde and
+Fossil creek.
+
+
+CAVATE LODGES.
+
+Cavate lodges comprise a type of structures closely related to cliff
+houses and cave dwellings. The term is a comparatively new one, and the
+structures themselves are not widely known. They differ from the cliff
+houses and cave dwellings principally in the fact that the rooms are
+hollowed out of cliffs and hills by human agency, being cut out of soft
+rock, while the former habitations are simple, ordinary structures built
+for various reasons within a cove or on a bench in the cliffs or within
+a cave. The difference is principally if not wholly the result of a
+different physical environment, i.e., cavate lodges and cave dwellings
+are only different phases of the same thing; but for the present at
+least the name will be used and the cavate lodges will be treated as a
+separate class.
+
+There are but three regions in the United States in which cavate lodges
+are known to occur in considerable numbers, viz, on San Juan river, near
+its mouth; on the western side of the Rio Grande near the pueblo of
+Santa Clara; and on the eastern slope of San Francisco mountain, near
+Flagstaff, Arizona. To these may now be added the middle Verde region,
+from the East Verde to a point north of Verde, Arizona.
+
+Within the middle Verde region there are thousands of cavate lodges,
+sometimes in clusters of two or three, oftener in small groups, and
+sometimes in large groups comprising several hundred rooms. One of these
+large groups, located some 8 miles south of Verde on the eastern side of
+the river, has been selected for illustration.
+
+The bottom lands of the Rio Verde in the vicinity of Verde have been
+already described, and the cavate lodges in question occur just below
+the southern end of this large area of tillable land, and some of them
+overlook it. The river at this point flows southward, and extending
+toward the east are two little canyons which meet on its bank. North and
+south of the mouth of the canyons the bank of the river is formed by an
+inaccessible bluff 180 or 200 feet high. These bluffs are washed by the
+Verde during high water, though there is evidence that up to a recent
+time there was a considerable area of bottom land between the river and
+the foot of the bluff. Plate XXIV shows the northern end of the group
+from a low mesa on the opposite side of the river; the eastern bank of
+the river can be seen in the foreground, while the sandy area extending
+to the foot of the bluff is the present high-water channel of the Verde.
+The map (plate XXV) shows the distribution of the cavate lodges
+composing the group, and plate XXVI shows the character of the site. The
+cavate lodges occur on two distinct levels--the first, which comprises
+nearly all the cavate lodges, is at the top of the slopes of talus and
+about 75 feet above the river; the second is set back from 80 to 150
+feet from the first tier horizontally and 30 or 40 feet above it. The
+cavate lodges occur only in the face of the bluff along the river and in
+the lower parts of the two little canyons before mentioned. These
+canyons run back into the mesa seen in the illustration, which in turn
+forms part of the foothills rising into the range of mountains hemming
+in the Rio Verde on the east.
+
+  [Illustration: Figure 289.
+  Diagram showing strata of canyon wall.]
+
+The walls of the canyon in the cavate-lodge area are composed of three
+distinct strata, clearly defined and well marked. The relations of the
+strata, at points on the northern and western sides of the north canyon,
+are shown in figure 289 and plate XXVI. The lowest stratum shown in the
+figure is that in which almost all the cavate lodges occur. It is about
+8 feet thick and composed of a soft, very friable, purple-gray
+sandstone. Above it lies a greenish-white bed a few inches thick,
+followed by a stratum of a pronounced white, about 12 feet thick. This
+heavy stratum is composed of calcareous clay, and the green bed of a
+calcareous clay with a mixture of sand. The white stratum is divided at
+two-thirds its height by a thin belt of greenish-white rock, and above
+it there is another belt of purple-gray sandstone about 12 feet thick.
+The top of this sandstone forms the ground surface south of the point
+shown in the diagram, while on the north and east it forms the floor of
+the upper tier of cavate lodges.
+
+  [Illustration: Plate XXVII.
+  RUIN ON NORTHERN POINT OF CAVATE LODGE CANYON.]
+
+On the southern side of the canyon the lower purple stratum shows three
+distinct substrata; the upper is reddish purple and about 3½ feet thick,
+the middle is purple gray, about 7 feet thick, and apparently softer
+than the upper and lower strata. The lodges occur in the middle purple
+substratum, their floors composed of the upper surface of the lower
+stratum and their roofs of the under surface of the upper stratum. Those
+on the north side are similarly placed, their roofs being about 3 feet
+below the white, except that in several instances the upper part of the
+purple up to the white has fallen, making the cavity larger. This has
+occurred, however, since the abandonment of the caves, and the debris,
+still fresh looking, is in situ.
+
+The formation in which the lodges occur is not of volcanic origin,
+although the beds composing it were perhaps deposited by hot springs
+during the period of great volcanic activity which produced San
+Francisco mountain in central Arizona and the great lava flows south of
+it. In view of the uncertainty on this point and the further fact that
+almost all the cavate lodges heretofore found were excavated in tufa,
+ash, or other soft volcanic deposits, the report of Mr. Joseph S.
+Diller, petrographer of the U.S. Geological Survey, will be of interest.
+It is as follows:
+
+  The coarse-grained specimen is sandstone, that of medium grain is
+  argillaceous sandstone, and the fine-grained one is calcareous clay.
+  The coarse-grained friable sandstone, in which the lodges have been
+  excavated, consists chiefly of subangular and rounded grains of
+  quartz and feldspar with a small proportion of black particles. Many
+  of the latter are magnetite, while the others are hornblende and
+  various ferromagnesian silicates. I did not detect any fragments of
+  volcanic origin.
+
+  The specimen of argillaceous sandstone is made up of thin layers of
+  fine-grained sand of the same sort as the first, alternating with
+  others containing considerable clay. In the clay layers, a trace of
+  carbonate of lime was found here and there, forming a transition of
+  the calcareous clay.
+
+  The calcareous clay when placed in acid effervesces vigorously, but
+  when allowed to stand the effervescence ceases in a few minutes and
+  the insoluble white clay remains.
+
+All the strata composing this formation are very soft; the purple-gray
+material of the middle layer is so soft that its surface can be rubbed
+off with the hand. They are also minutely stratified or laminated, and
+the laminæ are not well cemented together, so that a blow on the roof of
+a cavity with a stone or other implement will bring off slabs varying
+from half an inch to an inch and a half in thickness. These thin strata
+or laminæ are of unequal hardness, weathering in places several inches
+into the face of the rock in thin streaks of a few inches or less. The
+middle purple stratum exhibits this quality somewhat more decidedly than
+the others, and this fact has doubtless determined the selection of this
+stratum for the location of the lodges, as a room can be excavated in it
+more easily than a room of a similar size could be built up with loose
+rock.
+
+The almost absolute dependence of the native builder on nature as he
+found it is well illustrated by these cavate lodges. At a point in the
+northern wall of the northernmost canyon, shown in the diagram (figure
+289) and in plate XXVI, there is a small fault with a throw of about 2½
+feet, and the floors of the lodges west of the fault are just that much
+lower than the floors east of it. Furthermore, where the purple-gray
+stratum in which the lodges occur is covered up by the rising ground
+surface, the cavate lodges abruptly cease. In the northern and southern
+ends of the group the talus encroaches on and partly covers the
+purple-gray stratum, and in these places the talus has been removed from
+the face of the rock to permit the excavation of lodges. In short, the
+occurrence of the cavate lodges in this locality is determined
+absolutely by the occurrence of one particular stratum, and when that
+stratum disappears the lodges disappear. So far as can be ascertained
+without actually excavating a room there is no apparent difference
+between the stratum in which the lodges occur and the other purple
+strata above and below it. That there is some difference is indicated by
+the confinement of the lodges to that particular level, but that the
+difference is very slight is shown by the occurrence in two places of
+lodges just above the principal tier, a kind of second-story lodge, as
+it were. It is such differences in environment as these, however, often
+so slight as to be readily overlooked, which determine some of the
+largest operations carried on by the native builders, even to the
+building of some of the great many-storied pueblos, and, stranger still,
+sometimes leading to their complete abandonment.
+
+In the region under discussion cavate lodges usually occur in connection
+with and subordinate to village ruins, and range in number from two or
+three rooms to clusters of considerable size. Here, however, the cavate
+lodge is the feature which has been most developed, and it is noteworthy
+that the village ruins that occur in connection with them are small and
+unimportant and occupy a subordinate position.
+
+There are remains of two villages connected with the cavate lodges just
+described, perched on the points of the promontories which form the
+mouths of the two canyons before mentioned. The location of these ruins
+is shown in plate XXV. The one on the southern promontory is of greater
+extent than that on the northern point, and both are now much broken
+down, no standing wall remaining. A general view of the ruin on the
+northern promontory is given in plate XXVII, and the same illustration
+shows the remains of the other village on the flat top of the promontory
+in the farther part of the foreground.
+
+  [Illustration: Plate XXVIII.
+  CAVATE LODGE WITH WALLED FRONT.]
+
+The cavate lodges are generally rudely circular in shape, sometimes
+oblong, but never rectangular. The largest are 25 and even 30 feet in
+diameter, and from this size range down to 5 or 6 feet and thence down
+to little cubby-holes or storage cists. Owing to their similarity,
+particularly in point of size, it is difficult to draw a line between
+small rooms and large storage cists, but including the latter there are
+two hundred rooms on the main level, divided into seventy-four distinct
+and separate sets. These sets comprise from one to fourteen rooms each.
+On the upper level there are fifty-six rooms, divided into twenty-four
+sets, making a total of two hundred and fifty-six rooms. As nearly as
+can be determined by the extent of these ruins the population of the
+settlement was probably between one hundred and fifty and two hundred
+persons.
+
+  [Illustration: Figure 290.
+  Walled storage cist.]
+
+There is great variety in the rooms, both in size and arrangement. As a
+rule each set or cluster of rooms consists of a large apartment, entered
+by a narrow passageway from the face of the bluff, and a number of
+smaller rooms connected with it by narrow doorways or short passages and
+having no outlet except through the large apartment. As a rule two or
+more of these smaller back rooms are attached to the main apartment, and
+sometimes the back rooms have still smaller rooms attached to them. In
+several cases there are three rooms in a series or row extending back
+into the rock, and in one instance (at the point marked _E_ on the map,
+plate XXV) there are four such rooms, all of good size.
+
+Attached to the main apartment, and sometimes also to the back rooms,
+there are usually a number of storage cists, differing from the smaller
+rooms of the cluster only in size. These cists or cubby-holes range in
+size from a foot to 5 feet in diameter, and are nearly always on a level
+of the floor, although in some instances they extend below it. Storage
+cists are also sometimes excavated in the exterior walls of the cliffs,
+and occasionally they are partly excavated and partly inclosed by a
+rough, semicircular wall. An example of the latter type is shown in
+figure 290.
+
+As a rule the cavate lodges are set back slightly from the face of the
+bluff and connected with it by a narrow passageway. Another type,
+however, and one not uncommon, has no connecting passageway, but instead
+opens out to the air by a cove or nook in the bluff. This cove was used
+as the main room and the back rooms opened into it in the usual way by
+passageways. A number of lodges of this type can be seen in the eastern
+side of the northern promontory or bluff. Possibly lodges of this type
+were walled in front, although walled fronts are here exceptional, and
+some of them at least have been produced by the falling off of the rock
+above the doorway. The expedient of walling up the front of a shallow
+cavity, commonly practiced in the San Juan region, while comparatively
+rare in this vicinity, was known to the dwellers in these cavate lodges.
+At several points remains of front walls can be seen, and in two
+instances front walls remain in place. The masonry, however, is in all
+cases very rough, of the same type as that shown in plate XXVIII.
+
+In this connection a comparison with the cavate ledges found in other
+regions will be of interest. In 1875 Mr. W. H. Holmes, then connected
+with the Hayden survey, visited a number of cavate lodges on the Rio San
+Juan and some of its tributaries. Several groups are illustrated in his
+report.[5] Two of his illustrations, showing, respectively, the open
+front and walled front lodges, are reproduced in plates XXIX and XXX.
+The open front lodges are thus described:
+
+  I observed, in approaching from above, that a ruined tower stood
+  near the brink of the cliff, at a point where it curves outward
+  toward the river, and in studying it with my glass detected a number
+  of cave-like openings in the cliff face about halfway up. On
+  examination, I found them to have been shaped by the hand of man,
+  but so weathered out and changed by the slow process of atmospheric
+  erosion that the evidences of art were almost obliterated.
+
+  The openings are arched irregularly above, and generally quite
+  shallow, being governed very much in contour and depth by the
+  quality of the rock. The work of excavation has not been an
+  extremely great one, even with the imperfect implements that must
+  have been used, as the shale is for the most part soft and friable.
+
+  A hard stratum served as a floor, and projecting in many places made
+  a narrow platform by which the inhabitants were enabled to pass
+  along from one house to another.
+
+  Small fragments of mortar still adhered to the firmer parts of the
+  walls, from which it is inferred that they were at one time
+  plastered. It is also extremely probable that they were walled up in
+  front and furnished with doors and windows, yet no fragment of wall
+  has been preserved. Indeed, so great has been the erosion that many
+  of the caves have been almost obliterated, and are now not deep
+  enough to give shelter to a bird or bat.
+
+  [Footnote 5: Tenth Ann Rep. U.S. Geol. Survey, 1876, pp. 288-391.]
+
+  [Illustration: Plate XXIX.
+  OPEN FRONT CAVATE LODGES ON THE RIO SAN JUAN.]
+
+Walled fronts, the author states, were observed frequently on the Rio
+Mancos, where there are many well-preserved specimens. He described a
+large group situated on that stream, about 10 miles above its mouth,
+as follows:
+
+  The walls were in many places quite well preserved and new looking,
+  while all about, high and low, were others in all stages of decay.
+  In one place in particular, a picturesque outstanding promontory has
+  been full of dwellings, literally honeycombed by this
+  earth-burrowing race, and as one from below views the ragged,
+  window-pierced crags [see plate XXX] he is unconsciously led to
+  wonder if they are not the ruins of some ancient castle, behind
+  whose moldering walls are hidden the dread secrets of a
+  long-forgotten people; but a nearer approach quickly dispels such
+  fancies, for the windows prove to be only the doorways to shallow
+  and irregular apartments, hardly sufficiently commodious for a race
+  of pigmies. Neither the outer openings nor the apertures that
+  communicate between the caves are large enough to allow a person of
+  large stature to pass, and one is led to suspect that these nests
+  were not the dwellings proper of these people, but occasional
+  resorts for women and children, and that the somewhat extensive
+  ruins in the valley below were their ordinary dwelling places.
+
+It will be noticed that in both these cases there are associated ruins
+on the mesa top above, and in both instances these associated ruins are
+subordinate to the cavate lodges, in this respect resembling the lodges
+on the Verde already described. This condition, however, is not the
+usual one; in the great majority of cases the cavate lodges are
+subordinate to the associated ruins, standing to them in the relation of
+outlying agricultural shelters. Unless this fact is constantly borne in
+mind it is easy to exaggerate the importance of the cavate lodges as
+compared with the village ruins with which they are connected.
+
+The cavate lodges near San Francisco mountain in Arizona were visited in
+1883 by Col. James Stevenson, of the Bureau of Ethnology, and in 1885 by
+Maj. J. W. Powell. Major Powell[6] describes a number of groups in the
+vicinity of Flagstaff. Of one group, situated on a cinder cone about 12
+miles east of San Francisco peak, he says:
+
+  Here the cinders are soft and friable, and the cone is a prettily
+  shaped dome. On the southern slope there are excavations into the
+  indurated and coherent cinder mass, constituting chambers, often 10
+  or 12 feet in diameter and 6 to 10 feet in height. The chambers are
+  of irregular shape, and occasionally a larger central chamber forms
+  a kind of vestibule to several smaller ones gathered about it. The
+  smaller chambers are sometimes at the same altitude as the central
+  or principal one, and sometimes at a lower altitude. About one
+  hundred and fifty of these chambers have been excavated. Most of
+  them are now partly filled by the caving in of the walls and
+  ceilings, but some of them are yet in a good state of preservation.
+  In these chambers, and about them on the summit and sides of the
+  cinder cone, many stone implements were found, especially metates.
+  Some bone implements also were discovered. At the very summit of the
+  little cone there is a plaza, inclosed by a rude wall made of
+  volcanic cinders, the floor of which was carefully leveled. The
+  plaza is about 45 by 75 feet in area. Here the people lived in
+  underground houses--chambers hewn from the friable volcanic cinders.
+  Before them, to the south, west, and north, stretched beautiful
+  valleys, beyond which volcanic cones are seen rising amid pine
+  forests. The people probably cultivated patches of ground in the low
+  valleys.
+
+  About 18 miles still farther to the east of San Francisco mountain,
+  another ruined village was discovered, built about the crater of a
+  volcanic cone. This volcanic peak is of much greater magnitude. The
+  crater opens to the eastward. On the south many stone dwellings have
+  been built of the basaltic and cinder-like rooks. Between the ridge
+  on the south and another on the northwest there is a low saddle in
+  which other buildings have been erected, and in which a great plaza
+  was found, much like the one previously described. But the most
+  interesting part of this village was on the cliff which rose on the
+  northwest side of the crater. In this cliff are many natural caves,
+  and the caves themselves were utilized as dwellings by inclosing
+  them in front with walls made of volcanic rocks and cinders. These
+  cliff dwellings are placed tier above tier, in a very irregular way.
+  In many cases natural caves were thus utilized; in other cases
+  cavate chambers were made; that is, chambers have been excavated in
+  the friable cinders. On the very summit of the ridge stone buildings
+  were erected, so that this village was in part a cliff village,
+  in part cavate, and in part the ordinary stone pueblo. The valley
+  below, especially to the southward, was probably occupied by their
+  gardens. In the chambers among the overhanging cliffs a great many
+  interesting relics were found, of stone, bone, and wood, and many
+  potsherds.
+
+  [Footnote 6: Seventh Ann. Rep. Bur. Eth., 1891, p. xix.]
+
+It will be seen that the first group described bears a remarkably close
+resemblance to the cavate lodges on the Rio Verde. The lodges themselves
+are smaller, but the arrangement of main apartment and attached back
+rooms is quite similar. It will be noticed also that in the second group
+described village ruins are again associated on the summit of the cliff
+or ridge. Major Powell ascertained that these cavate lodges were
+occupied by the Havasupai Indians now living in Cataract canyon, who are
+closely related to the Walapai, and who, it is said, were driven from
+this region by the Spaniards.
+
+The cavate lodges on the Rio Grande, in New Mexico, in the vicinity of
+the modern pueblo of Santa Clara, were also visited in 1885 by Major
+Powell and are thus described by him:[7]
+
+  The cliffs themselves are built of volcanic sands and ashes, and
+  many of the strata are exceedingly light and friable. The specific
+  gravity of some of these rocks is so low that they will float on
+  water. Into the faces of these cliffs, in the friable and easily
+  worked rock, many chambers have been excavated; for mile after mile
+  the cliffs are studded with them, so that altogether there are many
+  thousands. Sometimes a chamber or series of chambers is entered from
+  a terrace, but usually they were excavated many feet above any
+  landing or terrace below, so that they could be reached only by
+  ladders. In other places artificial terraces were built by
+  constructing retaining walls and filling the interior next to the
+  cliffs with loose rock and sand. Very often steps were cut into the
+  face of a cliff and a rude stairway formed by which chambers could
+  be reached. The chambers were very irregularly arranged and very
+  irregular in size and structure. In many cases there is a central
+  chamber, which seems to have been a general living room for the
+  people, back of which two, three, or more chambers somewhat smaller
+  are found. The chambers occupied by one family are sometimes
+  connected with those occupied by another family, so that two or
+  three or four sets of chambers have interior communication. Usually,
+  however, the communication from one system of chambers to another
+  was by the outside. Many of the chambers had evidently been occupied
+  as dwellings. They still contained fireplaces and evidences of fire;
+  there were little caverns or shelves in which various vessels were
+  placed, and many evidences of the handicraft of the people were left
+  in stone, bone, horn, and wood, and in the chambers and about the
+  sides of the cliffs potsherds are abundant. On more careful survey
+  it was found that many chambers had been used as stables for asses,
+  goats, and sheep. Sometimes they had been filled a few inches, or
+  even 2 or 3 feet, with the excrement of these animals. Ears of corn
+  and corncobs were also found in many places. Some of the chambers
+  were evidently constructed to be used as storehouses or caches for
+  grain. Altogether it is very evident that the cliff houses have been
+  used in comparatively modern times; at any rate, since the people
+  owned asses, goats, and sheep. The rock is of such a friable nature
+  that it will not stand atmospheric degradation very long, and there
+  is abundant evidence of this character testifying to the recent
+  occupancy of these cavate dwellings.
+
+  [Illustration: Plate XXX.
+  WALLED FRONT CAVATE LODGES ON THE RIO SAN JUAN.]
+
+  [Illustration: Plate XXXI.
+  CAVATE LODGES ON THE RIO GRANDE.]
+
+  Above the cliffs, on the mesas, which have already been described,
+  evidences of more ancient ruins were found. These were pueblos built
+  of cut stone rudely dressed. Every mesa had at least one ancient
+  pueblo up off it, evidently far more ancient than the cavate
+  dwellings found in the face of the cliffs. It is, then, very plain
+  that the cavate dwellings are not of great age; that they have been
+  occupied since the advent of the white man, and that on the summit
+  of the cliffs there are ruins of more ancient pueblos.
+
+  [Footnote 7: Seventh Ann. Rep. Bur. Eth., op. cit., p. XXII.]
+
+Major Powell obtained a tradition of the Santa Clara Indians, reciting
+three successive periods of occupancy of the cavate lodges by them, the
+last occurring after the Spanish conquest of New Mexico in the
+seventeenth century.
+
+It will be noticed that here again the cavate lodges and village ruins
+are associated, although in this case the village ruins on the mesas
+above are said to be more ancient than the cavate lodges. A general view
+of a small section of cliff containing lodges is given in plate XXXI for
+comparison with those on the Verde. The lodges on the Rio Grande seem to
+have been more elaborate than those on the Verde, perhaps owing to
+longer occupancy; but the same arrangement of a main front room and
+attached back rooms, as in the cavate lodges on the Verde, was found.
+
+As the cavate lodges of the San Francisco mountain region have been
+assigned to the Havasupai Indians of the Yuman stock, and those of the
+Rio Grande to the Santa Clara pueblo Indians of the Tanoan stock, it may
+be of interest to state that there is a vague tradition extant among the
+modern settlers of the Verde region that the cavate lodges of that
+region were occupied within the last three generations. This tradition
+was derived from an old Walapai Indian whose grandfather was alive when
+the cavate lodges were occupied. It was impossible to follow this
+tradition to its source, and it is introduced only as a suggestion.
+Attention is called, however, to the tradition given in the introduction
+to this paper with which it may be connected.
+
+
+  [Illustration: Figure 291.
+  Plan of cavate lodges, group _D_.]
+
+  [Illustration: Plate XXXII.
+  INTERIOR VIEW OF CAVATE LODGE, GROUP D.]
+
+Aside from the actual labor of excavation, there was but little work
+expended on the Verde cavate lodges. The interiors were never plastered,
+so far as the writer could determine. Figure 291 shows the plan of one
+of the principal sets of rooms, which occurs at the point marked _D_ on
+the map, plate XXV; and plate XXXII is an interior view of the principal
+room, drawn from a flashlight photograph. This set of rooms was
+excavated in a point of the cliff and extends completely through it as
+shown on the general plan, plate XXV. The entrance was from the west by
+a short passageway opening into a cove extending back some 10 feet from
+the face of the cliff. The first room entered measures 16 feet in length
+by 10 feet in width. On the floor of this room a structure resembling
+the piki or paper bread oven of the Tusayan Indians, was found
+constructed partly of fragments of old and broken metates. At the
+southern end of the room there is a cubby-hole about a foot in diameter,
+excavated at the floor level. At the eastern end of the room there is a
+passageway about 2½ feet long leading into a smaller roughly circular
+room, measuring 7½ feet in its longest diameter, and this in turn is
+connected with another almost circular room of the same size. The floors
+of all three of these rooms are on the same level, but the roofs of the
+two smaller rooms are a foot lower than that of the entrance room. At
+the northern end of the entrance room there is a passageway 3 feet long
+and 2½ feet wide leading into the principal room of the set. This
+passageway at its southern end has a framed doorway of the type
+illustrated later.
+
+  [Illustration: Figure 292.
+  Sections of cavate lodges, group _D_.]
+
+The main room is roughly circular in form, measuring 16 feet in its
+north and south diameter and 15 feet from east to west. The roof is
+about 7 feet above the floor. Figure 292 shows a section from northwest
+to southwest (_a_, _b_, figure 291) through the small connected room
+adjoining on the south, and also an east arid west section (_c_, _d_,
+figure 291). The floor is plastered with clay wherever it was necessary
+in order to bring it to a level, and the coating is consequently not of
+uniform thickness. It is divided into sections by low ridges of clay as
+shown in the plan and sections; the northern section is a few inches
+higher than the other. Extending through the clay finish of the floor
+and into the rock beneath there are four pits, indicated on the plan by
+round spots. The largest of these, situated opposite the northern door,
+was a fire hole or pit about 18 inches in diameter at the floor level,
+of an inverted conical shape, about 10 inches in depth, and plastered
+inside with clay inlaid with fragments of pottery placed as closely
+together as their shape would permit. The other pits are smaller; one
+located near the southeastern corner of the room is about 6 inches in
+diameter and the same in depth, while the others are mere depressions in
+the floor, in shape like the small paint mortars used by the Pueblos.
+
+  [Illustration: Figure 293.
+  Section of water pocket.]
+
+The room, when opened, contained a deposit of bat dung and sand about
+3 feet thick in the center and averaging about 2 feet thick throughout
+the room. This deposit exhibited a series of well-defined strata,
+varying from three-fourths to an inch and a half thick, caused by the
+respective predominance of dung or sand. No evidence of disturbance of
+these strata was found although careful examination was made. This
+deposit was cleared out and a number of small articles were found, all
+resting, however, directly on the floor. The articles consisted of
+fragments of basketry, bundles of fibers and pieces of fabrics, pieces
+of arrowshafts, fragments of grinding stones, three sandals of woven
+yucca fiber, two of them new and nearly perfect, and a number of pieces
+of cotton cloth, the latter scattered over the room and in several
+instances gummed to the floor. Only a few fragments of pottery were
+found in the main room, but outside in the northern passageway were the
+fragments of two large pieces, one an olla, the other a bowl, both
+buried in 3 or 4 inches of debris under a large slab fallen from the
+roof.
+
+Owing to its situation this room was one of the most desirable in the
+whole group. The prevailing south wind blows through it at all times,
+and this is doubtless the reason that it was so much filled up with
+sand. In the center of the room the roof has fallen at a comparatively
+recent date from an area about 10 by 7 feet, in slabs about an inch
+thick, for the fragments were within 6 inches of the top of the debris.
+The walls are smoke-blackened to a very slight extent compared with the
+large room south of it.
+
+At the northeastern and southwestern corners there are two small
+pockets, opening on the floor level but sunk below it, which seem to
+have been designed to contain water. That in the southwest corner is the
+larger; it is illustrated in the section, figure 293. As shown in the
+section and on the plan (figure 291), a low wall composed of adobe
+mortar and broken rock was built across the opening on the edge of the
+floor, perhaps to increase its capacity. This cavity would hold 15 to 20
+gallons of water, a sufficient amount to supply the needs of an ordinary
+Indian family for three weeks or a mouth. The pocket in the northeastern
+corner of the room is not quite so large as the one described, and its
+front is not walled.
+
+  [Illustration: Plate XXXIII.
+  BOWLDER-MARKED SITE.]
+
+West of the main room there is a storage room, nearly circular in shape,
+with a diameter of about 6 feet and with a floor raised about 2 feet
+above that of the main room. Its roof is but 3 feet above the floor, and
+across its western end is a low bench a couple of inches above the
+floor. In the northeastern corner there is a shallow cove, also raised
+slightly above the main floor and connecting by a narrow opening with
+the outer vestibule-like rooms on the north. These northern rooms of the
+lodge seem to be simply enlargements of the passageway. The northern
+opening is a window rather than a door as it is about 10 feet above the
+ground and therefore could be entered only by a ladder. The opening is
+cut in the back of a cove in the cliff, and is 6 feet from the northern
+end of the main room. At half its length it has been enlarged on both
+sides by the excavation of niches or coves about 4 feet deep but only 2½
+feet high. These coves could be used only for storage on a small scale.
+
+  [Illustration: Figure 294.
+  Plan of cavate lodges, group _A_.]
+
+In the southeastern corner of the main room there is another opening
+leading into a low-roofed storage cist, approximating 4 feet in
+diameter, and this cist was in turn connected with the middle one of the
+three rooms first described. This opening, at the time the room was
+examined, was so carefully sealed and plastered that it was scarcely
+perceptible.
+
+A different arrangement of rooms is shown in plan in figure 294 and in
+section in figure 295. This group occurs at the point marked A on the
+map. The entrance to the main room was through a narrow passage, 3 feet
+long, leading into the chamber from the face of the bluff, which at this
+point is vertical. The main room is oblong, measuring 17 feet one way
+and 10 the other. At the southern end there is a small cist and on the
+western side near the entrance there is another hardly a foot in
+diameter. North of the main room there is a small, roughly circular room
+with a diameter of about 6 feet. It is connected with the main room by a
+passage about 2 feet long. On the floor of the main room there are two
+low ridges of clay, similar to those already described, which divide it
+into three sections of nearly equal size.
+
+  [Illustration: Figure 295.
+  Sections of cavate lodges, group _A_.]
+
+East of the main room there is another of considerable size in the form
+of a bay or cove. It measures 13 feet by 6 feet, and its floor is 20
+inches higher than that of the main room, as shown in the section
+(figure 295). Attached to this bay, at its northern end, is a small cist
+about 3 feet in diameter, and with its floor sunk to the level of the
+floor of the main room. East of the cove there is another cist about 4½
+feet in diameter and with its floor on the level of the cove. Adjoining
+it on the south and leading out from the southeastern corner of the cove
+or bay, there is a long passage leading into an almost circular room
+9 feet in diameter. The back wall of this room is 33 feet from the face
+of the cliff. The passage leading into it is 6 feet long, 2½ feet wide
+at the doorways, bulging slightly in the center, and its floor is on the
+same level as the rooms it connects; its eastern end is defined by a
+ridge of clay about 6 inches high.
+
+  [Illustration: Plate XXXIV.
+  IRRIGATING DITCH ON THE LOWER VERDE.]
+
+In the eastern side of the circular room last described there is a
+storage cist about 3 feet wide and 2 feet deep. No fire-pit was seen in
+this cluster, although if the principal apartment were carefully cleaned
+out it is not improbable that one might be found.
+
+A cluster of rooms somewhat resembling the last described is shown in
+plan in figure 296. This cluster occurs at the point marked _B_ on the
+map. The main room is set back 5½ feet from the face of the bluff, which
+is vertical at this point, and is oblong in shape, measuring 19½ by 11½
+feet. Its roof is 7½ feet above the floor in the center of the room.
+Attached to its southern end by a passage only a foot in length is a
+small room or storage cist about 5 feet in diameter. At its northeastern
+corner there is another room or cist similar in shape, about 7 feet in
+diameter, and reached by a passage 2 feet long. This small room is also
+connected with a long room east of the main apartment by a passage, the
+southern end of which was carefully sealed up and plastered, making a
+kind of niche of the northern end. At the southeastern corner of the
+room there is a small niche about 2 feet in diameter on the level of the
+floor.
+
+  [Illustration: Figure 296.
+  Plan of cavate lodges, group _B_.]
+
+The eastern side of the main room is not closed, but opens directly into
+an oblong chamber of irregular size with the roof nearly 2 feet lower
+and the floor a foot higher than the main room. This step in the floor
+is shown by the line between the rooms on the ground plan. The second
+room is about 6 feet wide and 20 feet long, its southern end rounding
+out slightly so as to form an almost circular chamber. Near the center
+of its eastern side there is a passageway 2½ feet long leading into a
+circular chamber 10½ feet in diameter and with its floor on the same
+level as the room to which it is attached. The back wall of this room is
+35½ feet from the face of the cliff.
+
+
+A group occurring at the point marked _E_ on the map (plate XXV) is
+shown in plan in figure 297. It is located in a projecting corner of the
+bluff and marks the eastern limit of the cavate lodges at this end of
+the canyon. The group consists of five rooms, and has the distinction of
+extending four rooms deep into the rock. The main room is set back about
+13 feet from the face of the bluff, about 7 feet of this distance being
+occupied by a narrow passageway and the remainder by a cove. The depth
+from the face of the bluff to the back of the innermost chamber is 47
+feet. The main room measures 16 feet in length and 11 feet in width, and
+its roof is less than 7 feet high in the center. Near its center and
+opposite the long passageway mentioned there is a fire-pit nearly 3 feet
+in diameter.
+
+  [Illustration: Figure 297.
+  Plan of cavate lodges, group _E_.]
+
+At the northeastern corner of the main room there is a wide opening
+leading into a room measuring 8 by 7 feet, with a floor raised 2 feet
+above that of the principal apartment. The roof of this chamber is but
+4½ feet above the floor. Almost the whole eastern side of this room is
+occupied by a wide opening leading into another room of approximately
+the same size and shape. The roof of this room is only 3 feet 10 inches
+above the floor, and the floor is raised 6 inches above that on the
+west. In the northeastern corner there is a short narrow passageway
+leading into a small circular room, the fourth of the series, having a
+diameter of 4 feet. The roof of this apartment is only 3 feet above the
+floor.
+
+  [Illustration: Plate XXXV.
+  OLD IRRIGATING DITCH, SHOWING CUT THROUGH LOW RIDGE.]
+
+In the southeastern corner of the main room there is a narrow passageway
+leading into a circular chamber about 8 feet in diameter. This chamber
+is connected with the second room of the series described by a
+passageway about 2 feet long, which opens into the southeastern corner
+of that room. This passageway, at its northern end, is 1½ feet below the
+room into which it opens. One of the most noticeable features about this
+group of rooms is the entire absence of the little nooks and pockets in
+the wall which are characteristic of these lodges, and which are very
+numerous in all the principal groups, noticeably in the group next
+described.
+
+  [Illustration: Figure 298.
+  Plan of cavate lodges, group _C_.]
+
+At the point marked _C_ on the map there is an elaborate group of
+chambers, consisting of two groups joined together and comprising
+altogether eight rooms. This is shown in plan in figure 298. The rock
+composing the front of the main room of the southern group has recently
+fallen, making a pile of debris about 4 feet high. The room originally
+measured about 12 by 22 feet. Its eastern side is occupied by a
+passageway leading into an adjoining chamber and by two shallow, roughly
+semicircular coves, apparently the remains of former small rooms. Along
+the northern wall of the room there are two little nooks at the floor
+level, and along the southern wall there are four, one of them (shown on
+the plan) being dug out like a pit. The roof of the room was about
+6 feet above the floor.
+
+The passageway near the eastern side is 4½ feet long, and is 3½ feet
+wide--an unusual width. It opens into a roughly circular room, 8 feet in
+diameter, but with a roof only 3½ feet above the floor. Along the
+northeastern side of this room, there are three small pockets opening on
+the floor level. On the southern side of the room there is a wide
+opening into a small attached room, roughly oblong in shape and
+measuring about 6½ by 4½ feet. Along the southern wall of this little
+room there are two small pockets, and at the southwestern corner the
+rock has been cleared out to form a low cavity in the shape of a half
+dome. In the northwestern corner of the room there is another wide
+passage to a small room attached to the main room. This passage is now
+carefully sealed on its southern side with a slab of stone, plastered
+neatly so as to be hardly perceptible from the southern side. The room
+into which this passage opens on the north is attached to the
+northeastern corner of the main apartment by a narrow passage, 1½ feet
+wide and a foot long. It is roughly circular in shape, about 6 feet in
+diameter, and is the only chamber in the southern group which has no
+pockets or cubby-holes. Of these pockets there are no fewer than twelve
+in the southern group. Near the northern corner of the main room there
+is a doorway leading into a cove, which in turn opens into the main room
+of the northern group.
+
+The main room of the northern group is setback about 9 feet from the
+face of the bluff, but is entered by a passageway about 3 feet long, the
+remainder of the distance consisting of a cove in the cliff. The room is
+22 feet long and 13 feet wide and its roof is 6½ feet above the floor.
+In the southwestern corner there is a small pocket in the wall, and in
+the northwestern corner two others, all on the floor level. In the
+eastern side, however, there is a cubby-hole nearly 2 feet in diameter
+and about 2 feet above the floor. This is a rare feature. The southern
+end of the room opens into a kind of cove, raised 2 feet above the floor
+of the main room, and opening at its southern end into the main room of
+the southern group. In the floor of this cove there is a circular pit
+about 18 inches in diameter (marked in the plan, figure 298). Although
+resembling the fire holes already described, the position of the pit
+under consideration precludes use for that purpose; it was probably
+designed to contain water. At the northeastern corner of the principal
+apartment there is an oblong chamber or storage cist, measuring 6 feet
+by 7 feet.
+
+  [Illustration: Plate XXXVI.
+  OLD DITCH NEAR VERDE, LOOKING WESTWARD.]
+
+Connected with the main room by a passageway 2 feet long cut in its
+eastern wall, there is an almost circular chamber 7 feet in diameter,
+and this in turn connects with another chamber beyond it by a passageway
+2½ feet long and less than 2 feet wide. The roofs of the two chambers
+last mentioned are but 4½ and 4 feet, respectively, above the floor, and
+in none of the rooms of this group, except the main apartment, are
+pockets or niches found. The whole group extends back about 45 feet into
+the bluff.
+
+
+BOWLDER-MARKED SITES.
+
+Within the limits of the region here treated there are many hundreds of
+sites of structures and groups of rooms now marked only by lines of
+water-rounded bowlders. As a rule each site was occupied by only one or
+two rooms, although sometimes the settlement rose to the dignity of a
+village of considerable size. The rooms were nearly always oblong,
+similar in size and ground plan to the rooms composing the village ruins
+already described, but differing in two essential points, viz, character
+of site and character of the masonry. As a rule these remains are found
+on and generally near the edge of a low mesa or hill overlooking some
+area of tillable land, but they are by no means confined to such
+locations, being often found directly on the bottom land, still more
+frequently on the banks of dry washes at the points where they emerge
+from the hills, and sometimes on little islands or raised areas within
+the wash where every spring they must have been threatened with overflow
+or perhaps even overflowed. An examination of many sites leads to the
+conclusion that permanency was not an element of much weight in their
+selection.
+
+Externally these bowlder-marked sites have every appearance of great
+antiquity, but all the evidence obtainable in regard to them indicates
+that they were connected with and inhabited at the same time as the
+other ruins in the region in which they are found. They are so much
+obliterated now, however, that a careful examination fails to determine
+in some cases whether the site in question was or was not occupied by a
+room or group of rooms, and there is a notable dearth of pottery
+fragments such as are so abundant in the ruins already described.
+Excavation in a large ruin of this type, however, conducted by some
+ranchmen living just above Limestone creek, yielded a considerable lot
+of pottery, not differing in kind from the fragments found in stone
+ruins so far as can be judged from description alone.
+
+In the southern part of the region here treated bowlder-marked sites are
+more clearly marked and more easily distinguished than in the northern
+part, partly perhaps because in that section the normal ground surface
+is smoother than in the northern section and affords a greater contrast
+with the site itself. Plate XXXIII shows one of these bowlder-marked
+sites which occurs a little below Limestone creek, on the opposite or
+eastern side of the river. It is typical of many in that district. It
+will be noticed that the bowlders are but slightly sunk into the soil,
+and that the surface of the ground has been so slightly disturbed that
+it is practically level; there is not enough débris on the ground to
+raise the walls 2 feet. The illustration shows, in the middle distance,
+a considerable area of bottom land which the site overlooks. In plan
+this site shows a number of oblong rectangular rooms, the longer axes of
+which are not always parallel, the plan resembling very closely the
+smaller stone village ruins already described. It is probable that the
+lack of parallelism in the longer axes of the rooms is due to the same
+cause as in the village ruins, i.e., to the fact that the site was not
+all built up at one time.
+
+The illustration represents only a part of an extensive series of wall
+remains. The series commences at the northern end of a mesa forming the
+eastern boundary of the Rio Verde and a little below a point opposite
+the mouth of Limestone creek. The ruins occur along the western rim of
+the mesa, overlooking the river and the bottom lands on the other side,
+and are now marked only by bowlders and a slight rise in the ground. But
+few lines of wall are visible, most of the ruins consisting only of a
+few bowlders scattered without system. From the northern end of the
+mesa, where the ruins commence, traces of walls can be seen extending
+due southward and at an angle of about 10° with the mesa edge for a
+distance of one-fourth of a mile. Beyond this, for half a mile or more
+southward, remains of single houses and small clusters occur, and these
+are found in less abundance to the southern edge of the mesa, where the
+ruin illustrated occurs. The settlement extended some distance east of
+the part illustrated, and also southward on the slope of the hill. Two
+well-marked lines of wall occur at the foot of the hill, on the flat
+bottom land, but the slopes of the hill are covered with bowlders and
+show no well-defined lines. Scattered about on the surface of the ground
+are some fragments of metates of coarse black basalt and some potsherds,
+but the latter are not abundant.
+
+The bowlders which now mark these sites were probably obtained in the
+immediate vicinity of the points where they were used. The mesa on which
+the ruin occurs is a river terrace, constructed partly of these
+bowlders; they outcrop occasionally on its surface and show clearly in
+its sloping sides, and the washes that carry off the water falling on
+its surface are full of them.
+
+  [Illustration: Plate XXXVII.
+  OLD DITCH NEAR VERDE, LOOKING EASTWARD.]
+
+In the northern end of the settlement there are faint traces of what may
+have been an irrigating ditch, but the topography is such that water
+could not be brought on top of the mesa from the river itself. At the
+southern end of the settlement, northeast of the point shown in the
+illustration, there are traces of a structure that may have been a
+storage reservoir. The surface of the mesa dips slightly southward, and
+the reservoir-like structure is placed at a point just above the head of
+a large wash, where a considerable part of the water that falls upon the
+surface of the mesa could be caught. It is possible that, commencing at
+the northern end of the settlement, a ditch extended completely through
+it, terminating in the storage reservoir at the southern end, and that
+this ditch was used to collect the surface water and was not connected
+with the river. A method of irrigation similar to this is practiced
+today by some of the Pueblo Indians, notably by the Hopi or Tusayan and
+by the Zuni. In the bottom land immediately south of the mesa, now
+occupied by several American families, there is a fine example of an
+aboriginal ditch, described later.
+
+In the vicinity of the large ruin just above Limestone creek, previously
+described, the bowlder-marked sites are especially abundant. In the
+immediate vicinity of that ruin there are ten or more of them, and they
+are abundant all along the edge of the mesa forming the upper river
+terrace; in fact, they are found in every valley and on every point of
+mesa overlooking a valley containing tillable land.
+
+It is probable that the bowlder-marked ruins are the sites of secondary
+and temporary structures, erected for convenience in working fields near
+to or overlooked by them and distant from the home pueblo. The character
+of the sites occupied by them and the plan of the structures themselves
+supports this hypothesis. That they were connected with the permanent
+stone villages is evident from their comparative abundance about each of
+the larger ones, and that they were constructed in a less substantial
+manner than the home pueblo is shown by the character of the remains.
+
+It seems quite likely that only the lower course or courses of the walls
+of these dwellings were of bowlders, the superstructure being perhaps
+sometimes of earth (not adobe) but more probably often of the type known
+as “jacal”--upright slabs of wood plastered with mud. This method of
+construction was known to the ancient pueblo peoples and is used today
+to a considerable extent by the Mexican population of the southwest and
+to a less extent in some of the pueblos. No traces of this construction
+were found in the bowlder-marked sites, perhaps because no excavation
+was carried on; but it is evident that the rooms were not built of
+stone, and that not more than a small percentage could have been built
+of rammed earth or grout, as the latter, in disintegrating leaves
+well-defined mounds and lines of debris. It is improbable, moreover,
+that the structures were of brush plastered with mud, such as the Navajo
+hogan, as this method of construction is not well adapted to a
+rectangular ground plan, and if persistently applied would soon modify
+such a plan to a round or partially rounded one. Temporary brush
+structures would not require stone foundations, but structures composed
+of upright posts or slabs, filled in with brush and plastered with mud,
+and designed to last more than one farming season, would probably be
+placed on stone foundations, as the soil throughout most of the region
+in which these remains occur is very light, and a wooden structure
+placed directly on it would hardly survive a winter.
+
+In the valley of the Rio Verde the profitable use of adobe at the
+present time is approximately limited northward by the thirty-fourth
+parallel, which crosses the valley a little below the mouth of Limestone
+creek. North of this latitude adobe is used less and less and where used
+requires more and more attention to keep in order, although on the high
+tablelands some distance farther northward it is again a suitable
+construction. South of the thirty-fourth parallel, however, adobe
+construction is well suited to the climate and in the valleys of Salt
+and Gila rivers it is the standard construction. Adobe construction (the
+use of sun-dried molded brick) was unknown to the ancient pueblo
+builders, but its aboriginal counterpart, rammed earth or pisé
+construction, such as that of the well known Casa Grande ruin on Gila
+river, acted in much the same way under climatic influences, and it is
+probable that its lack of suitability precluded its use in the greater
+part of the Verde valley. No walls of the type of those of the Casa
+Grande ruin have been found in the valley of the Verde, although
+abundant in the valleys of the Salt and Gila rivers, but it is possible
+that this method of construction was used in the southern part of the
+Verde region for temporary structures; in the northern part of that
+region its use even for that purpose was not practicable.
+
+In this connection it should be noted that all the ruins herein
+described are of buildings of the northern type of aboriginal pueblo
+architecture and seem to be connected with the north rather than the
+south.
+
+
+  [Illustration: Plate XXXVIII.
+  BLUFF OVER ANCIENT DITCH, SHOWING GRAVEL STRATUM.]
+
+IRRIGATING DITCHES AND HORTICULTURAL WORKS.
+
+One of the finest examples of an aboriginal irrigating ditch that has
+come under the writer’s notice occurs about 2 miles below the mouth of
+Limestone creek, on the opposite or eastern side of the river. At this
+point there is a large area of fertile bottom land, now occupied by some
+half dozen ranches, known locally as the Lower Verde settlement. The
+ditch extends across the northern and western part of this area. Plate
+XXXIV shows a portion of this ditch at a point about one eighth of a
+mile east of the river. Here the ditch is marked by a very shallow
+trough in the grass-covered bottom, bounded on either side by a low
+ridge of earth and pebbles. Plate XXXV shows the same ditch at a point
+about one-eighth of a mile above the last, where it was necessary to cut
+through a low ridge. North of this point the ditch can not be traced,
+but here it is about 40 feet above the river and about 10 feet above a
+modern (American) ditch. It is probable that the water was taken out of
+the river about 2 miles above this place, but the ditch was run on the
+sloping side of the mesa which has been recently washed out. No traces
+of the ditch were found east of the point shown in plate XXXIV, but as
+the modern acequia, which enters the valley nearly 10 feet below the
+ancient one, extends up the valley nearly to its head, there is no
+reason to suppose that the ancient ditch did not irrigate nearly the
+whole area of bottom land. The ancient ditch is well marked by two
+clearly defined lines of pebbles and small bowlders, as shown in the
+illustration. Probably these pebbles entered into its construction, as
+the modern ditch, washed out at its head and abandoned more than a year
+ago, shows no trace, of a similar marking.
+
+  [Illustration: Figure 299.
+  Map of an ancient irrigating ditch.]
+
+A little west and south of the point shown in plate XXXIV the bottom
+land drops off by a low bench of 3 or 4 feet to a lower level or
+terrace, and this edge is marked for a distance of about a quarter of a
+mile by the remains of a stone wall or other analogous structure. This
+is located on the extreme edge of the upper bench and it is marked on
+its higher side by a very small elevation. On the outer or lower side it
+is more clearly visible, as the stones of which the wall was composed
+are scattered over the slope marking the edge of the upper bench. At
+irregular intervals along the wall there are distinct rectangular areas
+about the size of an ordinary pueblo room, i.e., about 8 by 10 and 10 by
+12 feet.
+
+In February, 1891, there was an exceptional flood in Verde river due to
+prolonged hard rain. The river in some places rose nearly 20 feet, and
+at many points washed away its banks and changed the channel. The river
+rose on two occasions; during its first rise it cut away a considerable
+section of the bank near a point known as Spanish wash, about 3½ miles
+below Verde, exposing an ancient ditch. During its second rise it cut
+away still more of the bank and part of the ancient ditch exposed a few
+days before. The river here makes a sharp bend and flows a little north
+of east. The modern American ditch, which supplied all the bottom lands
+of the Verde west of the river, was ruined in this vicinity by the flood
+that uncovered the old ditch. Figure 299 is a map of the ancient ditch
+drawn in the field, with contours a foot apart, and showing also a
+section, on a somewhat larger scale, drawn through the points _A_, _B_
+on the map. Plate XXXVI is a view of the ditch looking westward across
+the point where it has been washed away, and plate XXXVII shows the
+eastern portion, where the ditch disappears under the bluff.
+
+The bank of the river at this point consists of a low sandy beach, from
+10 to 50 feet wide, limited on the south by a vertical bluff 10 to 12
+feet high and composed of sandy alluvial soil. This bluff is the edge of
+the bottom land before referred to, and on top is almost flat and
+covered with a growth of mesquite, some of the trees reaching a diameter
+of more than 3 inches. The American ditch, which is shown on the map,
+runs along the top of the bluff skirting its edge, and is about 14 feet
+above the river at its ordinary stage. The edge of the bluff is shown on
+the map by a heavy black line. It will be observed that the ancient
+ditch occurs on the lower flat, about 3 feet above the river at its
+ordinary stage, and its remains extend over nearly 500 feet. The line,
+however, is not a straight one, but has several decided bends. One of
+these occurs at a point just west of that shown in the section. About 80
+feet east of that point the ditch makes another turn southward, and
+about 40 feet beyond strikes the face of the bluff almost at right
+angles and passes under it.
+
+About 50 feet north of the main ditch, at the point where it passes
+under the bluff, there are the remains of another ditch, as shown on the
+map. This second ditch was about a foot higher than the main structure,
+or about 4 feet above the river; it runs nearly parallel with it for 30
+feet and then passes into the bluff with a slight turn toward the north.
+It is about the same size as the main ditch, but its section is more
+evenly rounded. Figure 300 shows this ditch in section.
+
+  [Illustration: Plate XXXIX.
+  ANCIENT DITCH AND HORTICULTURAL WORKS ON CLEAR CREEK.]
+
+As already stated, the American ditch is about 14 feet above the river,
+while the ancient ditch is less than 4 feet above the water. This
+decided difference in level indicates a marked difference in the
+character of the river. The destruction of the modern ditch by the flood
+of 1891 is not the first mishap of that kind which has befallen the
+settlers. The ditch immediately preceding the current one passed nearly
+over the center of the ancient ditch, then covered by 10 feet or more of
+alluvial soil, and if a ditch were placed today on the level of the
+ancient structure it would certainly be destroyed every spring. The
+water that flowed through the modern ditch was taken from the river at a
+point about 3 miles farther northward, or just below Verde. The water
+for the ancient ditch must have been taken out less than a mile above
+the southern end of the section shown in the map.
+
+  [Illustration: Figure 300.
+  Part of old irrigating ditch.]
+
+At first sight it would appear that the ancient ditch antedated the
+deposit of alluvial soil forming the bottom land at this point, and this
+hypothesis is supported by several facts of importance. It is said that
+ten years ago the bottom land, whose edge now forms the bluff referred
+to, extended some 25 or 30 feet farther out, and that the river then
+flowed in a channel some 200 or 300 feet north of the present one.
+Be this as it may, the bottom land now presents a fairly continuous
+surface, from the banks of the river to the foothills that limit the
+valley on the west and south, and it is certain that this bottom land
+extended over the place occupied by the ancient ditch; nor is it to be
+supposed that the ancient ditches ended abruptly at the point where they
+now enter the bluff. The curves in the line of the ancient ditch might
+indicate that it was constructed along the slope of a hill, or on an
+uneven surface, as a deep excavation in fairly even ground would
+naturally be made in a straight line.
+
+The face of the bluff shows an even deposit of sand, without apparent
+stratification, except here and there a thin layer or facing of mud
+occurs, such as covers the bottom of the ancient ditch and also of the
+modern ditch. Singularly enough, however, over the ancient ditch, about
+5 feet above its bottom, there is a stratum of sand and gravel, and on
+top, within a few inches of the surface of the ground, a thin stratum of
+mud. This mud stratum extends only about 8 feet horizontally and is
+slightly hollowed, with its lowest part over the center of the ditch.
+The gravel stratum also was laid down over the ditch, is tilted slightly
+southward and occurs in two layers, together about a foot thick. It
+first appears a few feet south of the point where the main ditch enters
+the bluff and over the ditch both layers are distinctly marked, as shown
+in plate XXXVIII. Both layers are clearly marked to a distance of 4 feet
+north of the northern side of the main ditch; here the lower layer thins
+out, but the upper layer continues faintly marked almost to the edge of
+the small ditch. At this point the gravel stratum becomes pronounced
+again and continues over the small ditch, almost pure gravel in places,
+with a decided dip westward. At a point just beyond the northern side of
+the small ditch the gravel layer disappears entirely.
+
+The occurrence of this gravel in the way described seems to indicate
+that the ditch was built along the slope of a low hill forming the edge
+of the bottom land at that time, and that subsequently detritus was
+deposited above it and over the adjacent bottom land forming a smooth
+ground surface. Against this hypothesis it must be stated that no
+evidence whatever was found of more than a single deposit of sandy loam,
+although the exposures are good; but perhaps were an examination made by
+a competent geologist some such evidence might be developed.
+
+  [Illustration: Plate XL.
+  ANCIENT DITCH AROUND A KNOLL, CLEAR CREEK.]
+
+There is one fact that should not be lost sight of in the discussion,
+viz, the very low elevation of the ditch above the river. The Verde is,
+as already stated, a typical mountain stream, with an exceptionally high
+declivity, and consequently it is rapidly lowering its bed. If, as
+already conjectured, the water for the ancient ditch was taken from the
+river but a short distance above the point where remains of the ditch
+are now found--and this assumption seems well supported by the character
+of the adjacent topography--the slight elevation of the bed of the ditch
+above the river would indicate that, in the first place, the ditch was
+located, as already suggested, along the slope of a hill, and in the
+second place, that the ditch was built at a period of no great
+antiquity. The occurrence of the high bluff under which the ditch now
+passes does not conflict with this suggestion, for the deposition of the
+material composing it and its erosion into its present form and
+condition may be the result of decades rather than of centuries of work
+by a stream like the Verde, and certainly a hundred, or at most a
+hundred and fifty years would suffice to accomplish it. At the present
+time a few floods deposit an amount of material equal to that under
+discussion, and if subsequently the river changed its channel, as it
+does at a dozen different points every spring, a few decades only would
+be required to cover the surface with grass and bushes, and in short, to
+form a bottom land similar to that now existing over the ancient ditch.
+
+In conclusion it should be noted, in support of the hypothesis that the
+ditch was built before the material composing the bluff was laid down,
+that immediately under the ditch there is a stratum of hard adobe-like
+earth, quite different from the sand above it and from the material of
+which the bluff is composed. This stratum is shown clearly in plate
+XXXVIII.
+
+The hypothesis which accords best with the evidence now in hand is that
+which assumes that the ditch was taken out of the river but a short
+distance above the point illustrated, and that it was built on the slope
+of a low hill, or on a nearly flat undulating bottom land, before the
+material composing the present bottom or river terrace was deposited,
+and that the ditch, while it may be of considerable antiquity, is not
+necessarily more than a hundred or a hundred and fifty years old; in
+other words, we may reach a fairly definite determination of its minimum
+but not of its maximum antiquity.
+
+On the southern side of Clear creek, about a mile above its mouth, there
+are extensive horticultural works covering a large area of the terrace
+or river bench. These have already been alluded to in the description of
+the village ruin overlooking them, but there are several features which
+are worthy a more detailed description. For a distance of 2 miles east
+and west along the creek, and perhaps half a mile north and south, there
+are traces of former works pertaining to horticulture, including
+irrigating ditches, “reservoirs,” farming outlooks, etc.
+
+At the eastern end of these works, about 3 miles above the mouth of
+Clear creek, the main ditch, after running along the slope of the hill
+for some distance, comes out on top of the mesa or terrace nearly
+opposite the Morris place. The water was taken from the creek but a
+short distance above, hardly more than half a mile. West of the point
+where the ditch comes out on the mesa top, all traces of it disappear,
+but they are found again at various points on the terrace. Plate XXXIX
+shows a portion of the terrace below and opposite the rectangular ruin
+previously described. In the distant foreground the light line indicates
+a part of the ancient ditch. Plate XL shows the same ditch at a point
+half a mile below the last, where it rounds a knoll. In the distance is
+the flat-topped hill or mesa on which the rectangular ruin previously
+described is located. About a hundred yards southeast of this point
+further traces of the ditch may be seen, and connected with it at that
+point are a number of rectangular areas, which were cultivated patches
+when the ditch was in use.
+
+The whole surface of the terrace within the limits described is covered
+by small water-worn bowlders scattered so thickly over it that travel is
+seriously impeded. In many parts of it these bowlders are arranged so as
+to inclose small rectangular areas, and these areas are connected with
+the old ditch just described. Plate XXXIX shows something of this
+surface character; and in the right hand portion of it may be seen some
+of the rows of bowlders forming the rectangular areas. The rows which
+occur at right angles to the ditch are much more clearly marked than
+those parallel to it, and the longer axes of the rectangular areas are
+usually also at right angles to the ditch line. On the ground these
+traces of inclosures can hardly be made out, but from an elevated point,
+such as the mesa on which, the rectangular ruin overlooking these works
+is located, they show very clearly and have the appearance of windrows.
+Traces of these horticultural works would be more numerous, and
+doubtless more distinct, were it not that a considerable part of the
+area formerly under cultivation has been picked over by the modern
+settlers in this region, and immense quantities of stone have been
+removed and used in the construction of fences. This has not been done,
+however, in such a manner as to leave the ground entirely bare, yet bare
+areas occur here and there over the surface, where doubtless once
+existed a part of the general scheme of horticultural works.
+
+One such bare area occurs close to the edge of the terrace about a mile
+and a half above the mouth of the creek. In its center is a structure
+called for convenience a reservoir, although it is by no means certain
+that it was used as such. It occurs about 100 yards from the creek,
+opposite the Wingfield place, and consists of a depression surrounded by
+an elevated rim. It is oval, measuring 108 feet north and south and 72
+feet east and west from rim to rim. The crown of the rim is 5 feet 8
+inches above the bottom of the depression and about 3 feet above the
+ground outside. The rim is fairly continuous, except at points on the
+northern and southern sides, where there are slight depressions, and
+these depressions are further marked by extra large bowlders. At its
+lowest points, however, the rim is over 2 feet above the ground, which
+slopes away from it for some distance in every direction. Plate XLI
+shows the eastern side of the depression; the large tree in the middle
+distance is on the bank of Clear creek and below the terrace. Plate XLII
+shows the northern gateway or dip in the rim, looking southward across
+the depression. The large bowlders previously referred to can be clearly
+seen. A depression similar to this occurs on the opposite side of the
+valley, about half a mile from the river. In this case it is not marked
+by bowlders or stones of any description, but is smooth and rounded,
+corresponding to the surface of the ground in its vicinity. In the
+latter as in the former case, the depression occurs on a low knoll or
+swell in the bottom land, and the surface of the ground slopes gently
+away from it for some distance in every direction.
+
+  [Illustration: Plate XLI.
+  ANCIENT WORK ON CLEAR CREEK.]
+
+The purpose of these depressions is not at all clear, and although
+popularly known as reservoirs it is hardly possible that they were used
+as such. The capacity of the Clear creek depression is about 160,000
+gallons, or when two-thirds full, which would be the limit of its
+working capacity, about 100,000 gallons. The minimum rate of evaporation
+in this region in the winter months is over 3 inches per month, rising
+in summer to 10 inches or more, so that in winter the loss of water
+stored in this depression would be about 10,000 gallons a month, while
+in summer it might be as high as 35,000 or even 40,000 gallons a month.
+It follows, therefore, that even if the reservoir were filled to its
+full working capacity in winter and early spring it would be impossible
+to hold the water for more than two months and retain enough at the end
+of that time to make storing worth while. It has been already stated,
+however, that these depressions are situated on slight knolls and that
+the land falls away from them in every direction. As no surface drainage
+could be led into them, and as there is no trace on the ground of a
+raised ditch discharging into them, they must have been filled, if used
+as reservoirs, from the rain which fell within the line that
+circumscribes them. The mean annual rainfall (for over seventeen years)
+at Verde, a few miles farther northward in the same valley, is 11.44
+inches, with a maximum annual fall of 27.27 inches and a minimum of 4.80
+inches. The mean annual fall (for over twenty-one years) at Fort
+McDowell, near the mouth of the Rio Verde, is 10-54 inches, with a
+maximum of 20.0 inches and a minimum of 4.94 inches.[8]
+
+  [Footnote 8: Report on Rainfall (Pacific coast and western states
+  and territories), Signal Office U.S. War Dept., Senate Ex. Doc. 91,
+  50th Cong., 1st Sess., Washington, 1889; pp. 70-73 (Errata, p. 4).]
+
+If these depressions were used as reservoirs it is a fair presumption
+that the bottoms were plastered with clay, so that there would be no
+seepage and the only loss would be by evaporation. Yet this loss, in a
+dry and windy climate such as that of the region here treated, would be
+sufficient to render impracticable a storage reservoir of a cross
+section and a site like the one under discussion. Most of the rainfall
+is in the winter months, from December to March, and it would require a
+fall of over 12 inches during those months to render the reservoir of
+any use in June; it would certainly be of no use in July and August,
+at the time when water is most needed, save in exceptional years with
+rainfall much in excess of the mean.
+
+On the other hand, there is the hypothesis that these depressions
+represent house structures; but if so these structures are anomalous in
+this region. The contour of the ground does not support the idea of a
+cluster of rooms about a central court, nor does the débris bear it out.
+Mr. F. H. Cushing has found depressions in the valleys of Salt and Gila
+rivers somewhat resembling these in form and measurement, and situated
+always on the outskirts of the sites of villages. Excavations were made,
+and as the result of these he came to the conclusion that the
+depressions were the remains of large council chambers, as the floors
+were hard, plastered with mud, and dish-shaped, with a fire-hole in the
+center of each; and no pottery or implements or remains of any kind were
+found except a number of “sitting stones.” Mr. Cushing found traces of
+upright logs which formed the outer wall of the structure; he inferred
+from the absence of drainage channels that the structure was roofed, and
+as the ordinary method of roofing is impracticable on the scale of these
+structures, he supposed that a method similar to that used by the Pima
+Indians in roofing their granaries was employed, the roof being of a
+flattened dome shape and composed of grass or reeds, formed in a
+continuous coil and covered with earth. If the depressions under
+discussion, however, are the remains of structures such as these
+described, they form a curious anomaly in this region, for, as has been
+already stated, the affinities of the remains of this region are with
+the northern architectural types, and not at all with those of the
+southern.
+
+There is a third hypothesis which, though not supported by direct
+evidence, seems plausible. It is that the depression of Clear creek, and
+perhaps also the one on the opposite side of the Verde, were thrashing
+floors. This hypothesis accords well with the situation of these
+depressions upon the tillable bottom lands, and with their relation to
+the other remains in their vicinity; and their depth below the surface
+of the ground would be accounted for, under the assumption here made of
+their use, by the high and almost continuous winds of the summer in this
+region. Perhaps the slight depressions at the northern and southern side
+of the oval were the gateways through which the animals which trampled
+the straw or the men who worked the flails passed in and out. Whether
+used in this way or not, these depressions would be, under the
+assumption that the bottom was plastered with mud, not only practicable,
+but even desirable thrashing floors, as the grain would be subjected
+during thrashing to a partial winnowing. This suggestion would also
+account for the comparatively clean ground surface about the depressions
+and for their location on slightly elevated knolls.
+
+Scattered over the whole area formerly under cultivation along Clear
+creek are the remains of small, single rooms, well marked on the ground,
+but without any standing wall remaining. These remains are scattered
+indiscriminately over the terrace without system or arrangement; they
+are sometimes on the flat, sometimes on slight knolls. They number
+altogether perhaps forty or fifty. Plate XLIII shows an example which
+occurs on a low knoll, shown also in plate XL; it is typical of these
+remains. It will be noticed that the masonry was composed of river
+bowlders not dressed or prepared in any way, and that the débris on the
+ground would raise the walls scarcely to the height of a single low
+story.
+
+  [Illustration: Plate XLII.
+  GATEWAY TO ANCIENT WORK, CLEAR CREEK.]
+
+The location of these remains, their relation to other remains in the
+vicinity, and their character all support the conclusion that they were
+small temporary shelters or farming outlooks, occupied only during the
+season when the fields about them were cultivated and during the
+gathering of the harvest, as is the case with analogous structures used
+in the farming operations among the pueblos of to-day. Their number and
+distribution do not necessarily signify that all the terrace was under
+cultivation at one time, although there is a fair presumption that the
+larger part of it was, and the occurrence of the ditch at both the upper
+and the lower ends of the area strengthens this conclusion.
+
+As it is impossible that an area so large as this should be cultivated
+by the inhabitants of one village, it is probable that a number of
+villages combined in the use of this terrace for their horticultural
+operations; and, reasoning from what we know to have been the case in
+other regions, it is further probable that this combination resulted in
+endless contention, and strife, and perhaps finally to the abandonment
+of these fields if not of this region. The rectangular ruin already
+illustrated is situated on a hill south of the terrace and overlooks it
+from that direction; on the opposite side of Clear creek, on the hill
+bounding the valley on the north, there are the remains of a large stone
+village which commanded an outlook over the terraces in question; and a
+little farther up the creek, on the same side and similarly situated,
+there was another village which also overlooked them. There were
+doubtless other villages and small settlements whose remains are not now
+clearly distinguishable, and it is quite probable that some of the
+inhabitants of the large villages in the vicinity, like those near
+Verde, hardly 3 miles northward, had a few farming houses and some land
+under cultivation on this terrace.
+
+Thus it will be seen that there was no lack of cultivators for all the
+tillable land on the terrace, and there is no reason to suppose that the
+period when the land was under cultivation, and the period when the
+villages overlooking it were occupied, were not identical, and that the
+single-house remains scattered over the terrace were not built and
+occupied at the same period. The relation of the stone villages to the
+area formerly cultivated, the relation of the single-room remains to the
+area immediately about them, the character of the remains, and the known
+methods of horticulture followed by the Pueblo Indians, all support the
+conclusion that these remains were not only contemporaneous but also
+related to one another.
+
+
+
+
+STRUCTURAL CHARACTERISTICS.
+
+
+MASONRY AND OTHER DETAILS.
+
+The masonry of the stone villages throughout all the region here treated
+is of the same type, although there are some variations. It does not
+compare with the fine work found on the San Juan and its tributaries,
+although belonging to that type--the walls being composed of two faces
+with rubble filling, and the interstices of the large stones being
+filled or chinked with spalls. This chinking is more pronounced and
+better done in the northern part of the region than in the south.
+
+The rock employed depended in all cases on the immediate environments of
+the site of the village, the walls being composed in some cases of slabs
+of limestone, in other cases of river bowlders only, and in still others
+of both in combination. The walls of the large ruin near Limestone creek
+were composed of rude slabs of limestone with an intermixture of
+bowlders. The bowlders usually occur only in the lower part of the wall,
+near the ground, and in several cases, where nothing exists of the wall
+above the surface of the ground, the remains consist entirely of
+bowlders. A good example of this peculiarity of construction is shown in
+plate XLIV, and plate XLV shows the character of stone employed and also
+a section of standing wall on the western side of the village. A section
+of standing wall near the center of the ruin is illustrated in plate
+XIII. It will be noticed that some of the walls shown in this
+illustration are chinked, but to a very slight extent. The wall
+represented in plate XLV has slabs of limestone set on edge. This
+feature is found also in other ruins in this region, notably in those
+opposite Verde, though it seems to be more used in the south than in the
+north. An example occurring in the ruin opposite Verde is shown in plate
+XLVI. In this case chinking is more pronounced; the walls are from 2 to
+2½ feet thick, built in the ordinary way with two faces and an interior
+filling, but the stones are large and the filling is almost wholly adobe
+mortar. The two faces are tied together by extra long stones which
+occasionally project into the back of one or the other face.
+
+The western cluster of the ruin last mentioned, shown on the ground plan
+(plate XVII), has almost all its walls still standing, and the masonry,
+while of the same general character as that of the main cluster, is
+better executed. The stones composing the walls are smaller than those
+in the main cluster and more uniform in size, and the interstices are
+carefully chinked. The chinking is distinctive in that spalls were not
+used, but more or less flattened river pebbles. The different color and
+texture of these pebbles make them stand out from the wall distinctly,
+giving quite an ornamental effect.
+
+  [Illustration: Plate XLIII.
+  SINGLE-ROOM REMAINS ON CLEAR CREEK.]
+
+That portion of the standing wall of the ruin opposite Verde, which
+occurs in the saddle northeastward from the main cluster, shown on the
+plan in plate XVII, represents the best masonry found in this region. As
+elsewhere stated, this was probably the last part of the village to be
+built. These walls are shown in plate XLVII. It will be noticed that the
+stones are of very irregular shape, rendering a considerable amount of
+chinking necessary to produce even a fair result, and that the stones
+are exceptionally large. The masonry of this village is characterized by
+the use of stones larger than common, many of them being larger than one
+man can carry and some of them even larger than two men can handle.
+
+All the larger and more important ruins of this region are constructed
+of limestone slabs, sometimes with bowlders. The smaller ruins, on the
+other hand, were built usually of river bowlders, sometimes with an
+intermixture of slabs of limestone and sandstone but with a decided
+preponderance of river bowlders. This would seem to suggest that this
+region was gradually populated, and that the larger structures were the
+last ones built. This suggestion has been already made in the discussion
+of the ground plans, and it is, moreover, in accord with the history of
+the pueblo-builders farther northward, notably that of the Hopi.
+
+Plate XXI illustrates a type of bowlder masonry which occurs on Clear
+creek; plate XLVIII shows the masonry of the ruin at the mouth of the
+East Verde, and plate XVI shows that of a ruin at the month of Fossil
+creek. In all these examples the stone composing the walls was derived
+either from the bed of an adjacent stream or from the ground on which
+they were built, and was used without any preparation whatever; yet in
+the better examples of this type of masonry a fairly good result was
+obtained by a careful selection of the stones. A still ruder type of
+masonry sometimes found in connection with village ruins is shown in
+figure 290. This, however, was used only as in the example illustrated,
+for retaining walls to trails or terraces, or analogous structures.
+
+In a general way it may be stated that the masonry of the village ruins
+of this region is much inferior to that of the San Juan region, and in
+its rough and unfinished surfaces, in the use of an inferior material
+close at hand rather than a better material a short distance away, and
+in the ignorance on the part of the builders of many constructive
+devices and expedients employed in the best examples of pueblo masonry,
+the work of this region may be ranked with that of the Tusayan--in other
+words, at the lower end of the scale.
+
+
+  [Illustration: Figure 301.
+  Walled front cavate lodges.]
+
+There is but little masonry about the cavate lodges, and that is rude in
+character. As elsewhere stated, walled fronts are exceptional in this
+region, and where they occur the work was done very roughly. Figure 301
+shows an example that occurs in the group of cavate lodges already
+described. It will be noticed that little selection has been exercised
+in the stones employed, and that an excess of mortar has been used to
+fill in the large interstices. Figure 290 (p. 221), which shows a
+storage cist attached to the group of cavate lodges, marked _D_ on the
+map (plate XXV), exhibits the same excessive use of adobe or mud
+plastering. At several other points in the area shown on this map there
+are short walls, sometimes inside the lodges, sometimes outside. In all
+cases, however, they are rudely constructed and heavily plastered with
+mud; in short, the masonry of the cavate lodges exhibits an ignorance
+fully equal to that of the stone villages, while the execution is, if
+anything, ruder. It is singular that, notwithstanding the excessive use
+of mud mortar and mud plastering in the few walls that are found there,
+such plastering was almost never used on the walls in the interiors of
+the lodges, perhaps because no finer finish than the rough surface of
+the rock was considered desirable.
+
+  [Illustration: Plate XLIV.
+  BOWLDER FOUNDATIONS NEAR LIMESTONE CREEK.]
+
+The cavate lodges seem to have been excavated without the aid of other
+tools than a rough maul or a piece of stone held in the hand, and such a
+tool is well adapted to the work, since a blow on the surface of the
+rock is sufficient to bring off large slabs. Notwithstanding the rude
+tools and methods, however, some of the work is quite neat, especially
+in the passageways (which are often 3 or 4 feet long and quite narrow)
+and in the smaller chambers. In the excavation of these chambers benches
+were left at convenient places along the wall and niches and cubby-holes
+were cut, so that in the best examples of cavate lodges the occupants,
+it would seem, were more comfortable, so far as regards their
+habitation, than the ordinary Pueblo Indian of today, and better
+supplied with the conveniences of that method of living. It should be
+stated in this connection, however, that although the group of cavate
+lodges gives an example of an extensive work well carried out, the
+successful carrying out of that work does not imply either a large
+population or a high degree of skill; the only thing necessary was time,
+and the amount of time necessary for the work is not nearly so great,
+in proportion to the population housed, as was required for the better
+types of pueblo work in the San Juan country (the village ruins of the
+Chaco canyon for example), and probably no more than would be required
+for the construction of rooms of equal size and of the rather poor grade
+of work found in this region.
+
+Although no examples of interior wall-plastering were found in the group
+of cavate lodges described, such work has been found in neighboring
+lodges; and in this group plastered floors are quite common. The object
+of plastering the floors was to secure a fairly even surface such as the
+soft rock did not provide, and this was secured not by the application
+of layers of clay but by the use of clay here and there wherever needed
+to bring the surface up to a general level, and the whole surface was
+subsequently finished. This final finishing was sometimes omitted, and
+many floors are composed partly of the natural rock and partly of clay,
+the latter frequently in spots and areas of small size.
+
+The floors were often divided into a number of sections by low ridges of
+clay, sometimes 8 inches broad. These ridges are shown on the ground
+plans (figures 294 to 298, and in plate XXV). Their purpose is not
+clear, although it can readily be seen that in such domestic operations
+as sorting grain they would be useful.
+
+
+DOOR AND WINDOW OPENINGS.
+
+The masonry of this region was so roughly and carelessly executed that
+little evidence remains in the stone villages of such details of
+construction as door and window openings. Destruction of the walls seems
+to have commenced at these openings, and while there are numerous
+standing walls, some with a height of over 10 feet, no perfect example
+of a door or window opening was found. It is probable that the methods
+employed were similar or analogous to those used today by the Hopi, and
+that the wooden lintel and stone jamb was the standard type.
+
+  [Illustration: Figure 302.
+  Bowlders in footway, cavate lodges.]
+
+  [Illustration: Plate XLV.
+  MASONRY OF RUIN NEAR LIMESTONE CREEK.]
+
+  [Illustration: Figure 303.
+  Framed doorway, cavate lodges.]
+
+In the cavate lodges window openings are not found; there is but one
+opening, the doorway, and this is of a pronounced and peculiar type. As
+a rule these doorways are wider at the top than at the bottom and there
+are no corners, the opening roughly approximating the shape of a pear
+with the smaller end downward. The upper part of the opening consists
+always of the naked rock, but the lower part is generally framed with
+slabs of sandstone. Plate XLIX shows an example that occurs in the upper
+tier of lodges at its eastern end. The floor of this lodge is about
+2 feet above the bench from which it was entered, and this specimen
+fails to show a feature which is very common in this group--a line of
+water-worn bowlders extending from the exterior to the interior of the
+lodges through the doorway and arranged like stepping stones. This
+feature is shown in figure 302, which represents the doorway of group
+_E_, shown on the general map (plate XXV) and on the detailed plan,
+figure 297. Figure 303 shows a type in which the framing is extended up
+on one side nearly to the top, while on the other side it extends only
+to half the height of the opening, which above the framing is hollowed
+out to increase its width. This example occurs near that shown in plate
+XLIX, and the floor of the chamber is raised about 2 feet above the
+bench from which it is entered. The illustration gives a view from the
+interior, looking out, and the large opening on the right was caused by
+the comparatively recent breaking out of the wall. Figure 303 shows the
+doorway to the group of chambers marked _E_ on the general map, an
+interior view of which is shown in figure 302. In this example the
+obvious object of the framing was to reduce the size of the opening, and
+to accomplish this the slabs were set out 10 or 12 inches from the rock
+forming the sides of the opening, and the intervening space was filled
+in with rubble. Plate XXXII, which shows the interior of the main room
+in group _D_, shows also the large doorway on the north.
+
+  [Illustration: Figure 304.
+  Notched doorway in Canyon de Chelly.]
+
+  [Illustration: Plate XLVI.
+  MASONRY OF RUIN OPPOSITE VERDE.]
+
+It will be noticed that these doorways all conform to one general plan
+and that this plan required an opening considerably larger in its upper
+third than in the lower two-thirds of its height. This requirement seems
+to be the counterpart or analogue of the notched doorway, which is the
+standard type in the cliff ruins of Canyon de Chelly and other regions,
+and still very common in Tusayan (Moki). Figure 304 shows a notched
+doorway in Canyon de Chelly and figure 305 gives an example of the same
+type of opening in Tusayan. The object of this peculiar shape in the
+regions mentioned has been well established,[9] and there is no reason
+to suppose that similar conditions and a similar object would not
+produce a similar result here. This type of opening had its origin in
+the time when the pueblo builders had no means, other than blankets,
+of temporarily closing door openings and when all the supplies of the
+village were brought in on the backs of the inhabitants. In order to
+secure protection against cold and storm the opening was made of the
+smallest possible size consistent with its use, and the upper part of
+the opening was made larger in order to permit the introduction of back
+loads of faggots and other necessaries. This purpose would be almost as
+well served by the openings of the cavate lodges as by the notched
+doorway, and at the same time the smallest possible opening was exposed
+to the weather. The two types of openings seem simply to be two
+different methods of accomplishing the same purpose--one in solid rock,
+the other in masonry. That it was considered desirable to reduce the
+openings as much as possible is evident from the employment of framing
+slabs in the lower portions, reducing the width of that part generally
+to less than a foot, while the upper portions are usually 3 feet and
+more in width, and the absence of framing slabs in the upper part of the
+openings was probably due to their use as suggested; no slabs could be
+attached with sufficient firmness to resist the drag of a back load of
+wood, for example, forced between them. The strict confinement of door
+openings to one type suggests a short, rather than a long, occupancy of
+the site under discussion, a suggestion which is borne out by other
+details; and this unity of design renders it difficult to form a
+conclusion as to the relative age of the two types of openings under
+discussion. So far as the evidence goes, however, it supports the
+conclusion that the doorways of the cavate lodges were derived from a
+type previously developed, and that the idea has been modified and to
+some extent adapted to a different environment; for if the idea had been
+developed in the cavate lodges there would be a much greater number of
+variations than we find in fact. There can be no doubt, however, that
+the cavate lodge doorways represent an earlier type in development,
+if not in time, than the notched doorways of Tusayan.
+
+  [Footnote 9: A Study of Pueblo Architecture, by Victor Mindeleff:
+  8th. Ann. Rep. Bur. Eth. for 1886-1887; Washington, 1891, pp. 1-228.]
+
+    [Transcriber’s Note:
+    This article is available from Project Gutenberg as e-text #19856.]
+
+  [Illustration: Figure 305.
+  Notched doorway in Tusayan.]
+
+
+CHIMNEYS AND FIREPLACES.
+
+Nowhere in the village ruins or in the cavate lodges of the lower Verde
+were any traces of chimneys or other artificial smoke exits found. The
+village ruins are too much broken down to permit definite statement of
+the means employed for smoke exits, but had the inhabitants employed
+such exits as are in use in the pueblos today some evidence of them
+would remain. Probably there was no other exit than the door, and
+perhaps trapdoors or small openings in the roofs, such as were formerly
+employed in the inhabited pueblos, according to their traditions. In the
+cavate lodges no exit other than the door was possible, and many of them
+are found with their walls much blackened by smoke.
+
+The fireplaces or fire holes of the cavate lodges have already been
+alluded to, and one of the best examples found is illustrated in plate
+XXXII, and the location of a number of others is shown on the general
+plan. These fireplaces are located not in the center of the chamber, but
+near the principal doorway, and doubtless the object of this location
+was to facilitate the escape of the smoke. Fire holes were never located
+in interior rooms. The fireplace illustrated in plate XXXII has been
+already described (p. 227); it was excavated in the solid rock of the
+floor and was lined with fragments of pottery laid in mud mortar as
+closely as their shape would permit. A part of this pottery lining can
+be seen in the illustration. When the room was cleared out the fire hole
+was found to be about half full of fine ashes.
+
+  [Illustration: Plate XLVII.
+  STANDING WALLS OPPOSITE VERDE.]
+
+
+
+
+CONCLUSIONS.
+
+
+The ruins of the lower Verde valley represent a comparatively late
+period in the history of the Pueblo tribes. The period of occupancy was
+not a long one and the population was never large, probably not
+exceeding at any time 800 or 1,000 souls, possibly less than 700; nor
+were the dwellings in that region all occupied at the same time.
+
+There is no essential difference, other than those due to immediate
+environment, between the architecture of the lower Verde region and that
+of the more primitive types found in other regions, Tusayan for example.
+The Verde architecture is, however, of a more purely aboriginal type
+than that of any modern pueblo, and the absence of introduced or foreign
+ideas is its chief characteristic. There are no chimneys, no adobe
+walls, no constructive expedients other than aboriginal and rather
+primitive ones. The absence of circular kivas[10] or sacred council
+chambers is noteworthy.
+
+  [Footnote 10: As this term has been already defined, it is here
+  used without further explanation. For a full discussion of these
+  structures, see “A Study of Pueblo Architecture,” by Victor
+  Mindeleff, in 8th. Ann. Rep. Bur. Eth., 1886-87, Washington, 1891.]
+
+The circular kiva is a survival of an ancient type--a survival supported
+by all the power of religious feeling and the conservatism in religious
+matters characteristic of savage and barbarous life; and while most of
+the modern pueblos have at the present time rectangular kivas, such, for
+example, as those at Tusayan, at Zuñi, and at Acoma, there is no doubt
+that the circular form is the more primitive and was formerly used by
+some tribes which now have only the rectangular form. Still the
+abandonment of the circular and the adoption of the rectangular form,
+due to expediency and the breaking down of old traditions, was a very
+gradual process and proceeded at a different rate in different parts of
+the country. At the time of the Spanish conquest the prevailing form in
+the old province of Cibola was rectangular, although the circular kiva
+was not entirely absent; while, on the other hand, in the cliff ruins of
+Canyon de Chelly, whose date is partly subsequent to the sixteenth
+century, the circular kiva is the prevailing, if not the exclusive form.
+But notwithstanding this the Hopi Indians of Tusayan, to whom many of
+the Canyon de Chelly ruins are to be attributed, today have not a single
+circular kiva. The reason for this radical departure from the old type
+is a simple one, and to be found in the single term environment. The
+savage is truly a child of nature and almost completely under its sway.
+A slight difference in the geologic formations of two regions will
+produce a difference in the arts of the inhabitants of those regions,
+provided the occupancy be a long one. In the case of the Tusayan kivas
+the rectangular form was imposed on the builders by the character of the
+sites they occupied. The requirement that the kiva should be under
+ground, or partly under ground, was a more stringent one than that it
+should be circular, and with the rude appliances at their command the
+Tusayan builders could accomplish practically nothing unless they
+utilized natural cracks and fissures in the rocks. Hence the abandonment
+of the circular form and also of the more essential requirement, that
+the kiva should be inclosed within the walls of the village or within a
+court; the Tusayan kivas are located indiscriminately in the courts and
+on the outskirts of the village, wherever a suitable site was found,
+some of them being placed at a considerable distance from the nearest
+house.
+
+It will be seen, therefore, that it is impossible to base any
+chronologic conclusions on the presence or absence of this feature,
+notwithstanding the undoubted priority of the circular form, except in
+so far as these conclusions are limited to some certain region or known
+tribal stock. If it be assumed that the Verde ruins belong to the
+Tusayan, and all the evidence in hand favors that assumption, the
+conclusion follows that they should be assigned to a comparatively late
+period in the history of that tribe.
+
+That the period of occupancy of the lower Verde valley was not a long
+one is proved by the character of the remains and by what we know of the
+history of the pueblo-building tribes. There are no very large areas of
+tillable land on the lower Verde and not a large number of small ones,
+and aside from these areas the country is arid and forbidding in the
+extreme. Such a country would be occupied only as a last resort, or
+temporarily during the course of a migration. The term migration,
+however, must not be taken in the sense in which it has been applied
+to European stocks, a movement of people en masse or in several large
+groups. Migration as used here, and as it generally applies to the
+Pueblo Indians, means a slow gradual movement, generally without any
+definite and ultimate end in view. A small section of a village,
+generally a gens or a subgens, moves away from the parent village,
+perhaps only a few miles. At another time another section moves to
+another site, at still another time another section moves, and so on.
+These movements are not possible where outside hostile pressure is
+strong, and if such pressure is long continued it results in a
+reaggregation of the various scattered settlements into one large
+village. Such in brief is the process which is termed migration, and
+which has covered the southwest with thousands of village ruins. Of
+course larger movements have occurred and whole villages have been
+abandoned in a day, but as a rule the abandonment of villages was a
+gradual process often consuming years.
+
+  [Illustration: Plate XLVIII.
+  MASONRY OF RUIN AT MOUTH OF THE EAST VERDE.]
+
+Before the archeologic investigation of the pueblo region commenced and
+when there was little knowledge extant by which travelers could check
+their conclusions, the immense number of ruins in that region was
+commonly attributed to an immense population, some writers placing the
+number as high as 500,000. Beside this figure the present population,
+about 9,000, is so insignificant that it is hardly surprising that the
+ancient and modern villages were separated and attributed to different
+tribal stocks.
+
+The process briefly sketched above explains the way in which village
+ruins have their origin; a band of 500 village-building Indians might
+leave the ruins of fifty villages in the course of a single century.
+It is very doubtful whether the total number of Pueblo Indians ever
+exceeded 30,000. This is the figure stated by Mr. A. F. Bandelier, whose
+intimate acquaintance with the eastern part of the pueblo region gives
+his opinion great weight. The apparently trifling causes which sometimes
+result in the abandonment of villages have been already alluded to.
+
+The lower Verde forms no exception to the general rule sketched above.
+Scattered along the river, and always located on or immediately adjacent
+to some area of tillable land, are found many small ruins, typical
+examples of which have been described in detail. These form the
+subordinate settlements whose place in the general scheme has been
+indicated. The masonry is generally of river bowlders only, not dressed
+or prepared in any way. The number of these settlements is no greater
+than would be required for one complete cycle or period, although the
+evidence seems to support the hypothesis that the movement commenced in
+the northern part of the region and proceeded southward in two or
+perhaps three separate steps. It is possible, however, that the movement
+was in the other direction. This question can be settled only by a
+thorough examination of the regions to the north and south.
+
+There are two, possibly three, points in the region discussed where a
+stand was made and the various minor settlements were abandoned, the
+inhabitants congregating into larger bands and building a larger village
+for better defense against the common foe. These are located at the
+extreme northern and southern limits of the region treated, opposite
+Verde and near Limestone creek, and possibly also at an intermediate
+point, the limestone ruin above Fossil creek. These more important ruins
+are all built of limestone slabs, and the sites are carefully selected.
+The internal evidence supports the conclusion that the movement was
+southward and that in the large ruin near Limestone creek the
+inhabitants of the lower Verde valley had their last resting place
+before they were absorbed by the population south of them, or were
+driven permanently from this region. The strong resemblance of the
+ground plan of this village to that of Zuñi has been already commented
+on, and it is known that Zuñi was produced in the way stated, by the
+inhabitants of the famous “seven cities of Cibola,” except that in this
+case Zuñi was the second site adopted, the aggregation into one village,
+or more properly a number of villages on one site, having taken place a
+few years before. The fact that Zuñi dates only from the beginning of
+the last century should not be lost sight of in this discussion.
+
+The inhabitants of the Verde valley were an agricultural people, and
+even in the darkest days of their history, when they were compelled to
+abandon the minor settlements, they still relied on horticulture for
+subsistence, and to a certain extent the defense motive was subordinated
+to the requirements of this method of life. There can be no doubt that
+the hostile pressure which produced the larger villages was Indian,
+probably the Apache and Walapai, who were in undisputed possession at
+the time of the American advent, and but little doubt that this pressure
+consisted not of regular invasions and set sieges, but of sudden raids
+and descents upon the fields, resulting in the carrying off of the
+produce and the killing of the producers. Such raids were often made by
+the Navajo on Tusayan, Zuñi, and the eastern pueblos and on the Mexican
+villages along the Rio Grande for some years after the American
+occupation, and are continued even today in a small way on the Tusayan.
+The effect of such raids is cumulative, and it might be several years
+before important action would result on the part of the village Indians
+subjected to them. On the other hand, several long seasons might elapse
+during which comparative immunity would be enjoyed by the village. In
+the lower Verde there is evidence of two such periods, if not more, and
+during that time the small pueblos and settlements previously referred
+to were built. None of these small settlements was occupied, however,
+for more than a few decades, the ground plans of most of them indicating
+an even shorter period.
+
+That cavate lodges and cliff-dwellings are simply varieties of the same
+phase of life, and that life an agricultural one, is a conclusion,
+supported by the remains in the lower Verde valley. The almost entire
+absence of cliff-dwellings and the great abundance of cavate lodges has
+already been commented on, and as the geologic formations are favorable
+to the latter, and unfavorable to the former on the Verde, whereas the
+Canyon de Chelly, where there are hundreds of cliff-dwellings and no
+cavate lodges, the conditions are reversed, this abundance of cavate
+lodges may be set down as due to an accident of environment. The cavate
+lodge of the Rio Verde is a more easily constructed and more convenient
+habitation than the cliff-dwelling of Canyon de Chelly.
+
+  [Illustration: Plate XLIX.
+  DOORWAY TO CAVATE LODGE.]
+
+An examination and survey of the cliff ruins of Canyon de Chelly, made
+some years ago by the writer, revealed the fact that they were always
+located with reference to some area of adjacent tillable land and that
+the defensive motive exercised so small an influence on the selection
+of the site and the character of the buildings that it could be ignored.
+It was found that the cliff-dwellings were merely farming outlooks,
+and that the villages proper were almost always located on the canyon
+bottom. With slight modifications these conclusions may be extended over
+the Verde region and applied to the cavate lodges there. The relation of
+these lodges to the village ruins and the character of the sites
+occupied by them support the conclusion that they were farming outlooks,
+probably occupied only during the farming season, according to the
+methods followed by many of the Pueblos today, and that the defensive
+motive had little or no influence on the selection of the site or the
+character of the structures. The bowlder-marked sites and the small
+single-room remains illustrate other phases of the same horticultural
+methods, methods somewhat resembling the “intensive culture,” of modern
+agriculture, but requiring further a close supervision or watching of
+the crop during the period of ripening. As the area of tillable land in
+the pueblo region, especially in its western part, is limited, these
+requirements have developed a class of temporary structures, occupied
+only during the farming season. In Tusayan, where the most primitive
+architecture of the pueblo type is found, these structures are generally
+of brush; in Canyon de Chelly they are cliff-dwellings; on the Rio Verde
+they are cavate lodges, bowlder-marked sites and single house remains;
+but at Zuñi they have reached their highest development in the three
+summer villages of Ojo Caliente, Nutria, and Pescado.
+
+  [Illustration: Plate L.
+  DOORWAY TO CAVATE LODGE.]
+
+Since the American occupancy of the country and the consequent removal
+of the hostile pressure which has kept the Pueblo tribes in check,
+development has been rapid and now threatens a speedy extinction of
+pueblo life. The old Laguna has been abandoned, Acoma is being
+depopulated, the summer pueblos of Zuñi are now occupied all the year
+round by half a dozen or more families, and even in Tusayan, the most
+conservative of all the pueblo groups, the abandonment of the home
+village and location in more convenient single houses has commenced. It
+is the old process over again, but with the difference that formerly the
+cycle was completed by the reaggregation of the various families, and
+little bands into larger groups under hostile pressure from wilder
+tribes, but now that pressure has been permanently removed, and in a few
+years, or at most in a few generations, the old pueblo life will be
+known only by its records.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+ACOMA, Abandonment of                                    261
+ -- Kivas in                                             257
+ -- Selection of site of                                 215
+ADOBE, Absence of, in Verde ruins                   187, 257
+ -- construction of modern introduction                  238
+ -- Limit to use of                                      238
+AGE of cavate lodges                                     225
+ -- -- Verde ruins                                  209, 257
+AGRICULTURE, Ancient, in Verde valley                    247
+ANAWITA, Tusayan tradition by                            188
+APACHE, Effect of, on pueblo tribes                      260
+ARCHITECTURE of ancient Verde pueblos                    185
+BANDELIER, A. F., on ancient pueblo population           259
+BASKETRY in cavate lodges                                228
+BEAVER CREEK cliff ruin, Description of                  186
+BONE implements in cavate lodges                    223, 224
+BOWLDERS, ancient pueblo walls of         206, 217, 246, 249
+ -- on line of ancient irrigating ditch                  244
+ -- Sites marked by, in Verde valley           194, 235, 261
+BRUSH, Structures of, discussed                          237
+CAMP VERDE established and abandoned                     185
+CANYON DE CHELLY, Cliff dwellings in                     254
+ -- Kivas in                                             257
+CASA GRANDE, Character of structure of                   238
+ -- and San Juan ruins compared                          186
+CAVATE LODGES, Ancient, how excavated                    251
+ -- described and figured                                217
+ -- in Verde valley                                 187, 192
+ -- on Fossil creek                                      203
+ -- Reason for abundance of                              260
+CAVE DWELLINGS in Arizona                                224
+CHACO ruins and Casa Grande compared                     186
+CHIMNEYS, Absence of, in Verde cavate lodges   187, 256, 257
+CHINKING of walls                                        248
+CI-PA, an ancient Hopi stopping place                    189
+CISTS. _See_ Storage cist; Water pocket
+CLIFF DWELLINGS, Absence of, in Verde valley        187, 260
+ -- in Arizona                                           224
+ -- why constructed                                      260
+ -- _See_ Cavate lodge.
+CORN found in cavate lodges                              225
+COURTS in ancient Verde ruins                            196
+ -- _See_ Plaza.
+CUSHING, F. H., on depressed structures in Arizona       245
+DEBRIS, Height of ancient villages judged by        198, 240
+DEFENSIVE motive of cliff dwellings                      260
+ -- sites of ancient Verde villages            193, 206, 208,
+                                               214, 215, 216
+DE FOREST, J. W., on Connecticut indian spades           183
+DILLER, J. S., on formation in which
+    cavate lodges occur                                  219
+DIMENSIONS of ancient pueblos                            211
+DOORWAYS in cavate lodges                           222, 251
+ESPEJO, A. DE, Expedition of, in 1583                    185
+FARFAN, M, Visit of, to Arizona in 1598                  185
+FIBER Bundles of, in cavate lodges                       228
+FIREHOLES in ancient Arizona structures             232, 246
+FIREPLACE in cavate lodges                          224, 256
+FLAGSTAFF, Ariz., Cavate lodges near                217, 223
+FLOORS plastered for leveling                            251
+FRESHET, Effect of, on ancient Verde irrigating ditch    240
+ -- in Rio Verde                                         191
+GARDENS of cavate village                                224
+GENTES, Aggregation, of, in villages                     195
+GRANARIES, Pima, how formed                              246
+GROUND-PLAN, how affected by long occupancy              212
+HAVASUPAI cavate lodges                             224, 225
+HAWIKUH, Mission established at                          229
+HEIGHT of ancient Verde pueblos                          209
+HOFFMAN, W. J., on Beaver creek cliff ruin               186
+ -- on Montezuma well                                    186
+HOLMES, W. H., on San Juan cavate lodges                 222
+HOMOLOBI, an ancient Hopi village                        189
+HOPI, Canyon de Chelly ruins attributed to the           257
+HORN implements in cavate lodges                         224
+HORTICULTURE, Ancient, on Rio Verde            187, 194, 238
+IMPLEMENTS in cavate lodges                         224, 228
+IRRIGATION ditches in Verde valley              194, 237-238
+JACAL structures                                         237
+KIVA architecture, Evolution of                          257
+ -- circular, Absence of, in Verde cavate lodges         257
+ -- in Verde ruins                                       196
+LAGUNA, Abandonment of                                   261
+LEROUX, ----, Ruins in Verde valley mentioned by         186
+MANCOS RIVER, Cavate lodges on                           222
+MARRIAGE custom of the pueblos                           197
+MASONRY of ancient Verde villages              201, 203, 204,
+                                               212, 248, 259
+ -- -- cavate lodges                                     225
+MEARNS, E. A., on Verde ruins                            186
+METATES in cavate lodges                                 223
+MIGRATION, Pueblo, how effected                          258
+ -- tradition of the Hopi                                188
+MILITARY art of ancient pueblos                          215
+MINDELEFF, V., on notched doorways                       254
+ -- on pueblo kivas                                      257
+MONTEZUMA WELL described                                 186
+MORTAR, Excessive use of, in ancient villages            249
+NAVAJO, Effect of, on pueblo tribes                      260
+ -- Hogan construction by the                            237
+NELSON, E. W., on certain ruined pueblo features         202
+NUTRIA, a Zuñi summer village                       206, 261
+OJO CALIENTE, a Zuñi summer village                 206, 261
+OÑATE, JUAN DE, Expeditions of                           185
+ORAIBI, Architectural character of                       195
+OVEN in cavate lodge                                     226
+PALAT-KWABI, a Hopi stopping place                       189
+PÁLÜ-LÜ-KOÑA, the Hopi serpent deity                     188
+PASSAGEWAY in cavate lodge                     222, 225, 227,
+                                               231, 232, 235
+ -- Absence of, in Verde ruins                           199
+PAT-KI-NYÛMÛ, the Hopi water-house phratry               188
+PESCADO, a Zuñi summer village                      206, 261
+PIMA, Granaries of the                                   246
+PISÉ construction in Arizona                             238
+PLASTERING in Verde cavate lodges              222, 225, 251
+PLAZA in cavate village                                  223
+ -- _See_ Court.
+POPULATION of ancient cavate lodges                      251
+ -- -- pueblos                                 203, 211, 259
+POTSHERDS around cavate lodges                           224
+ -- in cavate lodges                                     228
+ -- in Verde ruins                                  213, 217
+ -- on bowlder-marked sites                              235
+ -- Cavate fireplace lined with                          256
+POWELL, J. W. on Arizona cavate lodges                   223
+ -- Santa Clara cavate lodges                            224
+PRESCOTT, Arizona, Mines discovered near                 185
+ -- Visit of Espejo to vicinity of                       185
+QUESADA, A. DE, Visit of, to Arizona                     185
+RAINFALL in Verde valley                                 245
+RESERVOIR, ancient, Traces of                       236, 237
+ --, Depression like, in Verde valley                    245
+ROOF timbers, Source of, in Verde valley                 196
+ROOMS, Arrangement of, in cavate lodges        220, 221, 229
+ -- Detached, in Verde ruins                             198
+ -- Distribution of, in ancient villages            197, 210
+ -- Size of, in ancient villages                    198, 210
+RUINS, Extent of, in the southwest                       259
+ -- of Verde valley                                      185
+SANDAL in cavate lodges                                  228
+SAN FRANCISCO, early name of Rio Verde                   186
+ -- MOUNTAIN, Cavate lodges near               217, 223, 225
+SAN JUAN RIVER, Cavate lodges on                         222
+SANTA CLARA, Cavate lodges near                     217, 224
+ -- Ancient pueblos of                                   225
+SITE of cavate lodges                                    219
+ -- Selection of, of ancient villages                    215
+SITTING STONES in ancient Arizona structures             246
+SPRINGERVILLE, N. Mex., Ruins at                         202
+STEPHEN, A. M., Tusayan tradition obtained by            188
+STEPPING-STONES to cavate lodge                          253
+STEVENSON, JAS., Cavate lodges visited by                223
+STONE implements in cavate lodges                   223, 224
+STORAGE cist described and figured                  221, 250
+ -- room in cavate lodge                            228, 229
+SUMMER village, Ruins of, on Rio Verde                   206
+TAGS, Architectural character of                         195
+ -- Defensive character of                               215
+TEXTILE fabrics in cavate lodges                         228
+THRASHING FLOORS in Verde valley                         246
+TRADITION of Hopi water-people                           188
+TSEGI. _See_ Canyon de Chelly.
+TUSAYAN, Primitive architecture of                       261
+ -- Kivas in                                             257
+ -- Notched doorways in                             254, 255
+ -- Occupancy of Verde valley by the                     188
+ -- Water gentes of the                                  188
+ -- _See_ Hopi.
+VARGAS, DIEGO DE, New Mexico reconquered by              231
+VERDE RIVER, Former name of                              186
+ -- VALLEY, Aboriginal remains in                    185-261
+VILLAGES, Ancient, in Verde valley                       192
+WALAPAI and Havasupai affinity                           224
+ -- Effect of, on pueblo tribes                          260
+ -- tradition of cavate lodges                           225
+WALLS, Ancient pueblo, how built                         248
+ -- Carved, in ancient ruins                             202
+ -- Defensive, in Verde ruins                       202, 203
+ -- Massive, in Verde ruin                               199
+WATER PEOPLE of Tusayan probably from south              188
+ -- pockets in cavate lodge                         228, 235
+ -- storage in ancient Verde pueblo                      199
+WINDOW-OPENINGS of cavate lodges                    222, 251
+WOMEN, House building by                                 197
+WOOD, Implements of, in cavate lodges                    224
+ZUÑI, Adoption of site of                           215, 259
+ -- Defensive character of                               215
+ -- Kivas in                                             257
+ -- Population of                                        195
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Errors and Notes
+
+The article on Pueblo Architecture from the 8th annual report is
+available from Project Gutenberg as e-text #19856.
+
+Limestone creek, Clear creek, Fossil creek etc.
+  _capitalization as in the original_
+The spelling “bowlder” is standard for Bureau of Ethnology articles.
+
+we dwelt in the Pa-lát-kwa-bĭ
+We traveled northward from Palat-kwabi
+  _inconsistent spelling in original_
+somewhat different
+  _text reads “diferent”_
+about ten rooms arranged in +L+ shape
+  _text unchanged_
+the artificial improvement of the site
+  _text reads “artifical”_
+A group occurring at the point marked _E_ on the map
+  _text reads “occuring”_
+plate XLV shows the character of stone employed
+  _text reads “LXV”_
+rude in character. As elsewhere stated
+  _text has comma for period_
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Aboriginal Remains in Verde Valley,
+Arizona, by Cosmos Mindeleff
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ABORIGINAL REMAINS ***
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Aboriginal Remains in Verde Valley, Arizona, by 
+Cosmos Mindeleff
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Aboriginal Remains in Verde Valley, Arizona
+       Thirteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology to the
+       Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, 1891-92,
+       Government Printing Office, Washington, 1896, pages 179-262
+
+Author: Cosmos Mindeleff
+
+Release Date: November 29, 2006 [EBook #19961]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ABORIGINAL REMAINS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Louise Hope, Carlo Traverso, and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images generously made available
+by the Biblioth�que nationale de France (BnF/Gallica) at
+http://gallica.bnf.fr)
+
+
+
+
+
+  [Transcriber's Note:
+
+  The combination
+    [)i]
+  represents i with breve or "short" mark.
+
+  Typographical errors are listed at the end of the file.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+ABORIGINAL REMAINS
+
+IN
+
+VERDE VALLEY, ARIZONA
+
+BY
+
+COSMOS MINDELEFF
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+                                                        Page
+  Introduction                                           185
+   The region and its literature                         185
+   Physical description of the country                   189
+  Distribution and classification of ruins               192
+  Plans and descriptions                                 195
+   Stone villages                                        195
+   Cavate lodges                                         217
+   Bowlder-marked sites                                  235
+   Irrigating ditches and horticultural works            238
+  Structural characteristics                             248
+   Masonry and other details                             248
+   Door and window openings                              251
+   Chimneys and fireplaces                               256
+  Conclusions                                            257
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS
+                                                        Page
+PLATE X. Map showing distribution of ruins and
+           location of area treated with reference
+           to ancient pueblo region                      185
+     XI. Map showing distribution of ruins in the
+           basin of the Rio Verde                        187
+    XII. Ground plan of ruin near mouth of
+           Limestone creek                               189
+   XIII. Main court, ruin near Limestone creek           191
+    XIV. Ruin at mouth of the East Verde                 193
+     XV. Main court, ruin at mouth of the East Verde     195
+    XVI. Ruin at mouth of Fossil creek                   197
+   XVII. Ground plan of ruins opposite Verde             199
+  XVIII. General view of ruins opposite Verde            201
+    XIX. Southern part of ruins opposite Verde           203
+     XX. General view of ruin on southern side of
+           Clear creek                                   205
+    XXI. Detailed view of ruin on southern side of
+           Clear creek                                   207
+   XXII. General view of ruin 8 miles north of
+           Fossil creek                                  209
+  XXIII. General view of ruins on an eminence
+           14 miles north of Fossil creek                211
+   XXIV. General view of northern end of a group
+           of cavate lodges                              213
+    XXV. Map of group of cavate lodges                   215
+   XXVI. Strata of northern canyon wall                  217
+  XXVII. Ruin on northern point of cavate lodge canyon   219
+ XXVIII. Cavate lodge with walled front                  221
+   XXIX. Open front cavate lodges on the Rio San Juan    223
+    XXX. Walled front cavate lodges on the Rio San Juan  224
+   XXXI. Cavate lodges on the Rio Grande                 225
+  XXXII. Interior view of cavate lodge, group _D_        227
+ XXXIII. Bowlder-marked site                             229
+  XXXIV. Irrigating ditch on the lower Verde             231
+   XXXV. Old irrigating ditch, showing cut through
+           low ridge                                     233
+  XXXVI. Old ditch near Verde, looking westward          235
+ XXXVII. Old ditch near Verde, looking eastward          237
+XXXVIII. Bluff over ancient ditch, showing gravel
+           stratum                                       239
+  XXXIX. Ancient ditch and horticultural works on
+           Clear creek                                   241
+     XL. Ancient ditch around a knoll, Clear creek       243
+    XLI. Ancient work on Clear creek                     245
+   XLII. Gateway to ancient work, Clear creek            247
+  XLIII. Single-room remains on Clear creek              249
+   XLIV. Bowlder foundations near Limestone creek        251
+    XLV. Masonry of ruin near Limestone creek            253
+   XLVI. Masonry of ruin opposite Verde                  255
+  XLVII. Standing walls opposite Verde                   257
+ XLVIII. Masonry of ruin at mouth of the East Verde      259
+   XLIX. Doorway to cavate lodge                         260
+      L. Doorway to cavate lodge                         261
+
+
+Fig. 279. Sketch map, site of small ruin 10 miles
+            north of Fossil creek                        200
+     280. Ground plan of ruin at mouth of the
+            East Verde                                   201
+     281. Ground plan of ruin near the mouth of
+            Fossil creek                                 204
+     282. Sketch map, site of ruin above Fossil creek    205
+     283. Sketch map of ruin 9� miles above
+            Fossil creek                                 206
+     284. Sketch map showing location of ruins
+            opposite Verde                               207
+     285. Ground plan of ruin on southern side of
+            Clear creek                                  211
+     286. Ground plan of ruin 8 miles north of
+            Fossil creek                                 213
+     287. Sketch map of ruins on pinnacle 7 miles
+            north of Fossil creek                        216
+     288. Remains of small rooms 7 miles north of
+            Fossil creek                                 216
+     289. Diagram showing strata of canyon wall          218
+     290. Walled storage cist                            221
+     291. Plan of cavate lodges, group _D_               226
+     292. Sections of cavate lodges, group _D_           227
+     293. Section of water pocket                        228
+     294. Plan of cavate lodges, group _A_               229
+     295. Sections of cavate lodges, group _A_           230
+     296. Plan of cavate lodges, group _B_               231
+     297. Plan of cavate lodges, group _E_               232
+     298. Plan of cavate lodges, group _C_               233
+     299. Map of an ancient irrigation ditch             239
+     300. Part of old irrigating ditch                   241
+     301. Walled front cavate lodges                     250
+     302. Bowlders in footway, cavate lodges             252
+     303. Framed doorway, cavate lodges                  253
+     304. Notched doorway in Canyon de Chelly            254
+     305. Notched doorway in Tusayan                     255
+
+
+  [Illustration: Plate X.
+  MAP SHOWING DISTRIBUTION OF RUINS AND LOCATION OF AREA TREATED
+  WITH REFERENCE TO ANCIENT PUEBLO REGION.]
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+  ABORIGINAL REMAINS IN VERDE VALLEY, ARIZONA
+
+              By Cosmos Mindeleff
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+
+THE REGION AND ITS LITERATURE.
+
+The region described in the following pages comprises the valley of
+the Rio Verde, in Arizona, from Verde, in eastern central Yavapai
+county, to the confluence with Salt river, in Maricopa county.
+
+The written history of the region treated extends back only a few years.
+Since the aboriginal inhabitants abandoned it, or were driven from it,
+the hostile Apache and Walapai roamed over it without hindrance or
+opposition, and so late as twenty-five years ago, when the modern
+settlement of the region commenced, ordinary pursuits were almost
+impossible. Some of the pioneer settlers are still in possession, and
+are occupying the ground they took up at the time when the rifle was
+more necessary for successful agriculture than the plow.
+
+The first notice of this region is derived from the report of Espejo,
+who visited some "mines" north and east of the present site of Prescott
+early in 1583; in 1598 Farfan and Quesada of O�ate's expedition visited
+probably the same locality from Tusayan, and in 1604 O�ate crossed the
+country a little way north of the present Prescott, in one of his
+journeys in search of mineral wealth. Nothing seems to have come of
+these expeditions, however, and the remoteness of the region from the
+highways of travel and its rough and forbidding character caused it to
+remain unknown for over two centuries. It was not until the active
+prospecting for gold and silver accompanying the American invasion and
+conquest began that the country again became known. Valuable mines were
+discovered east and south of the site of Prescott, some of them as early
+as 1836; but it was not until after 1860 that any considerable amount of
+work was done, and the mining development of this region, now one of the
+best known in Arizona, may be said to date from about 1865. Camp Verde
+was first established in 1861, at a point on the northern side of Beaver
+creek, but was not regularly occupied until 1866. In 1871 it was removed
+to its present location, about a mile south of the previous site. It was
+abandoned as a military post in 1891, and gradually lost the military
+element of the name.
+
+Concerning the archeologic remains of the Rio Verde valley almost
+nothing is known. In the early history of Arizona the Verde was known as
+Rio San Francisco, and vague rumors of large and important ruins were
+current among trappers and prospectors. The Pacific railway reports,
+published in 1856, mention these ruins on the authority of the guide to
+Lieut. Whipple's party, Leroux by name. Other notices are found here and
+there in various books of exploration and travel published during the
+next two decades, but no systematic examination of the region was made
+and the accounts are hardly more than a mention. In 1878 Dr. W. J.
+Hoffman, at that time connected with the Hayden Survey, published
+descriptions of the so-called Montezuma well and of a large cliff ruin
+on Beaver creek, the latter accompanied by an illustration.[1] The
+descriptions are slight and do not touch the region herein discussed.
+
+  [Footnote 1: Tenth Ann. Rep. U.S. Geol. Survey for 1876 (Washington,
+  1878), p. 477.]
+
+The first publication of importance to the present inquiry is a short
+paper by Dr. E. A. Mearns, U.S. Army, in the Popular Science Monthly for
+October, 1890. Dr. Mearns was stationed for some years at Camp Verde,
+and improved the opportunity afforded by numerous hunting expeditions
+and tours of duty to acquaint himself with the aboriginal remains of the
+Verde valley. He published a map showing the distribution of remains in
+that region, described several ruins in detail, and illustrated some
+pieces of pottery, etc., found by him. The article is unfortunately very
+short, so short that it is hardly more than an introduction to the wide
+field it covers; it is to be hoped that Dr. Mearns will utilize the
+material he has and publish a more comprehensive report.
+
+The remains in the valley of Rio Verde derive an additional interest
+from their position in the ancient pueblo region. On the one hand they
+are near the southwestern limit of that region, and on the other hand
+they occupy an intermediate position between the ruins of the Gila and
+Salt river valleys and those of the northern districts. The limits of
+the ancient pueblo region have not yet been defined, and the
+accompanying map (plate X) is only preliminary. It illustrates the
+limited extent of our knowledge of the ancient pueblo region as well as
+the distribution of ruins within that region, so far as they are known;
+and the exceptional abundance of ruins noted on certain portions of the
+map means only that those parts are better known than others.
+Notwithstanding its incompleteness, it is the best available and is
+published in the hope that it will serve as a nucleus to which further
+data may be added until a complete map is produced.
+
+  [Illustration: Plate XI.
+  MAP OF THE VALLEY OF THE RIO VERDE.]
+
+The ruins in the Gila valley, including those along Salt river, are less
+known than those farther northward, but we know that there is a marked
+difference between the type exemplified by the well-known Casa Grande,
+near Florence, Arizona, and that of which the best specimens (notably
+the Chaco ruins) are found in the San Juan basin. This difference may be
+due only to a different environment, necessitating a change in material
+employed and consequent on this a change in methods, although it seems
+to the writer that the difference is perhaps too great to be accounted
+for in this way. Be the cause what it may, there is no doubt that there
+is a difference; and it is reasonable to expect that in the regions
+lying between the southern earth-constructed and the northern stone
+structures, intermediate types might be found which would connect them.
+The valley of Rio Verde occupies such an intermediate position
+geographically, but the architectural remains found in it belong to the
+northern type; so we must look elsewhere for connecting links. The most
+important ruin in the lower Verde region occurs near its southern end,
+and more distinctly resembles the northern ruins than the ruins in the
+northern part of that region.
+
+Although the examination of this region failed to connect the northern
+and southern types of house structure, the peculiar conditions here are
+exceptionally valuable to the study of the principles and methods of
+pueblo building. Here remains of large villages with elaborate and
+complex ground plan, indicating a long period of occupancy, are found,
+and within a short distance there are ruins of small villages with very
+simple ground plan, both produced under the same environment; and
+comparative study of the two may indicate some of the principles which
+govern the growth of villages and whose result can be seen in the ground
+plans. Here also there is an exceptional development of cavate lodges,
+and corresponding to this development an almost entire absence of cliff
+dwellings. From the large amount of data here a fairly complete idea of
+this phase of pueblo life may be obtained. This region is not equal to
+the Gila valley in data for the study of horticultural methods practiced
+among the ancient Pueblos, but there is enough to show that the
+inhabitants relied principally and, perhaps, exclusively on horticulture
+for means of subsistence, and that their knowledge of horticultural
+methods was almost, if not quite, equal to that of their southern
+neighbors. The environment here was not nearly so favorable to that
+method of life as farther southward, not even so favorable as in some
+northern districts, and in consequence more primitive appliances and
+ruder methods prevailed. Added to these advantages for study there is
+the further one that nowhere within this region are there any traces
+of other than purely aboriginal work; no adobe walls, no chimneys, no
+constructive expedients other than those which may be reasonably set
+down as aboriginal; and, finally, the region is still so little occupied
+by modern settlers that, with the exception of the vicinity of Verde,
+the remains have been practically undisturbed. A complete picture of
+aboriginal life during the occupancy of the lower Verde valley would be
+a picture of pueblo life pursued in the face of great difficulties, and
+with an environment so unfavorable that had the occupation extended over
+an indefinite period of time it would still have been impossible to
+develop the great structures which resulted from the settlements in
+Chaco canyon.
+
+It is not known what particular branch of the pueblo-building tribes
+formerly made their home in the lower Verde valley, but the character
+of the masonry, the rough methods employed, and the character of the
+remains suggest the Tusayan. It has been already stated that the
+archeologic affinities of this region are northern and do not conform
+to any type now found in the south; and it is known that some of the
+Tusayan gentes--the water people--came from the south. The following
+tradition, which, though not very definite, is of interest in this
+connection, was obtained by the late A. M. Stephen, for many years a
+resident near the Tusayan villages in Arizona, who, aside from his
+competence for that work, had every facility for obtaining data of this
+kind. The tradition was dictated by Anawita, chief of the Pat-ki-ny�m�
+(Water house gentes) and is as follows:
+
+We did not come direct to this region (Tusayan)--we had no fixed
+intention as to where we should go.
+
+  We are the Pat-ki-ny�-m�, and we dwelt in the Pa-l�t-kwa-b[(i] (Red
+  Land) where the kw�-ni (agave) grows high and plentiful; perhaps it
+  was in the region the Americans call Gila valley, but of that I am
+  not certain. It was far south of here, and a large river flowed
+  past our village, which was large, and the houses were high, and
+  a strange thing happened there.
+
+  Our people were not living peaceably at that time; we were
+  quarreling among ourselves, over huts and other things I have heard,
+  but who can tell what caused their quarrels? There was a famous
+  hunter of our people, and he cut off the tips from the antlers of
+  the deer which he killed and [wore them for a necklace?] he always
+  carried them. He lay down in a hollow in the court of the village,
+  as if he had died, but our people doubted this; they thought he was
+  only shamming death, yet they covered him up with earth. Next day
+  his extended hand protruded, the four fingers erect, and the first
+  day after that one finger disappeared [was doubled up?]; each day a
+  finger disappeared, until on the fourth day his hand was no longer
+  visible.
+
+  The old people thought that he dug down to the under world with the
+  horn tips.
+
+  On the fifth day water spouted up from the hole where his hand had
+  been and it spread over everywhere. On the sixth day P�-l�-l�-ko�a
+  (the Serpent deity) protruded from this hole and lifted his head
+  high above the water and looked around in every direction. All of
+  the lower land was covered and many were drowned, but most of our
+  people had fled to some knolls not far from the village and which
+  were not yet submerged.
+
+  When the old men saw P�-l�-l�-ko�a they asked him what he wanted,
+  because they knew he had caused this flood; and P�-l�-l�-ko�a said,
+  "I want you to give me a youth and a maiden."
+
+  The elders consulted, and then selected the handsomest youth and
+  fairest maid and arrayed them in their finest apparel, the youth
+  with a white kilt and paroquet plume, and the maid with a fine blue
+  tunic and white mantle. These children wept and besought their
+  parents not to send them to P�-l�-l�-ko�a, but an old chief said,
+  "You must go; do not be afraid; I will guide you." And he led them
+  toward the village court and stood at the edge of the water, but
+  sent the children wading in toward P�-l�-l�-ko�a, and when they
+  reached the center of the court where P�-l�-l�-ko�a was the deity
+  and the children disappeared. The water then rushed down after them,
+  through a great cavity, and the earth quaked and many houses tumbled
+  down, and from this cavity a great mound of dark rock protruded.
+  This rock mound was glossy and of all colors; it was beautiful, and,
+  as I have been told, it still remains there.
+
+  [Illustration: Plate XII.
+  GROUND PLAN OF RUIN NEAR MOUTH OF LIMESTONE CREEK.
+  RIO VERDE : ARIZONA]
+
+  The White Mountain Apache have told me that they know a place in the
+  south where old houses surround a great rock, and the land in the
+  vicinity is wet and boggy.
+
+  We traveled northward from Palat-kwabi and continued to travel just
+  as long as any strength was left in the people--as long as they had
+  breath. During these journeys we would halt only for one day at a
+  time. Then our chief planted corn in the morning and the
+  p�-to-la-tei (dragon fly) came and hovered over the stalks and by
+  noon the corn was ripe; before sunset it was quite dry and the
+  stalks fell over, and whichever way they pointed in that direction
+  we traveled.
+
+  When anyone became ill, or when children fretted and cried, or the
+  young people became homesick, the Co-i-yal Katcina (a youth and a
+  maiden) came and danced before them; then the sick got well,
+  children laughed, and sad ones became cheerful.
+
+  We would continue to travel until everyone was thoroughly worn out,
+  then we would halt and build houses and plant, remaining perhaps
+  many years.
+
+  One of these places where we lived is not far from San Carlos, in a
+  valley, and another is on a mesa near a spring called Coyote Water
+  by the Apache. * * *
+
+  When we came to the valley of the Little Colorado, south of where
+  Winslow now is, we built houses and lived there; and then we crossed
+  to the northern side of the valley and built houses at Homolobi.
+  This was a good place for a time, but a plague of flies came and bit
+  the suckling children, causing many of them to die, so we left there
+  and traveled to Ci-pa (near Kuma spring).
+
+  Finally we found the Hopi, some going to each of the villages except
+  Awatobi; none went there.
+
+
+PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION OF THE COUNTRY.
+
+The Rio Verde is throughout its length a mountain stream. Rising in the
+mountains and plateaus bounding two great connected valleys northwest of
+Prescott, known as Big Chino valley and Williamson valley, both over
+4,000 feet above the sea, it discharges into Salt river about 10 miles
+south of McDowell and about 25 miles east of Phoenix, at an elevation of
+less than 1,800 feet above the sea. The fall from Verde to McDowell, a
+distance of about 65 miles, is about 1,500 feet The whole course of the
+river is but little over 150 miles. The small streams which form the
+river unite on the eastern side of Big Chino valley and flow thence in a
+southerly and easterly direction until some 12 miles north of Verde the
+waterway approaches the edge of the volcanic formation known on the maps
+as the Colorado plateau, or Black mesa, and locally as "the rim." Here
+the river is sharply deflected southward, and flows thence in a
+direction almost due south to its mouth. This part of the river is
+hemmed in on both sides by high mountain chains and broken every few
+hundred yards by rapids and "riffles."
+
+Its rapid fall would make the river valuable for irrigation if there
+were tillable land to irrigate; but on the west the river is hugged
+closely by a mountain chain whose crest, rising over 6,000 feet above
+the sea, is sometimes less than 2 miles from the river, and whose steep
+and rugged sides descend in an almost unbroken slope to the river
+bottom. The eastern side of the river is also closely confined, though
+not so closely as the western, by a chain of mountains known as the
+Mazatzal range. The crest of this chain is generally over 10 miles from
+the river, and the intervening stretch, unlike the other side, which
+comes down to the river in practically a single slope, is broken into
+long promontories and foothills, and sometimes, where the larger
+tributaries come in, into well-defined terraces. Except at its head the
+principal tributaries of the Verde come from the east, those on the
+west, which are almost as numerous, being generally small and
+insignificant.
+
+Most of the modern settlements of the Rio Verde are along the upper
+portion of its course. Prescott is situated on Granite creek, one of the
+sources of the river, and along other tributaries, as far down as the
+southern end of the great valley in whose center Verde is located, there
+are many scattered settlements; but from that point to McDowell there
+are hardly a dozen houses all told. This region is most rugged and
+forbidding. There are no roads and few trails, and the latter are feebly
+marked and little used. The few permanent inhabitants of the region are
+mostly "cow men," and the settlements, except at one point, are shanties
+known as "cow camps." There are hundreds of square miles of territory
+here which are never visited by white men, except by "cow-boys" during
+the spring and autumn round-ups.
+
+Scattered at irregular intervals along both sides of the river are many
+benches and terraces of alluvium, varying in width from a few feet to
+several miles, and comprising all the cultivable land in the valley of
+the river. Since the Verde is a mountain stream with a great fall, its
+power of erosion is very great, and its channel changes frequently;
+in some places several times in a single winter season. Benches and
+terraces are often formed or cut away within a few days, and no portion
+of the river banks is free from these changes until continued erosion
+has lowered the bed to such a degree that that portion is beyond the
+reach of high water. When this occurs the bench or terrace, being formed
+of rich alluvium, soon becomes covered with grass, and later with
+mesquite and "cat-claw" bushes, interspersed with such cottonwood trees
+as may have survived the period when the terrace was but little above
+the river level. Cottonwoods, with an occasional willow, form the
+arborescent growth of the valley of the Verde proper, although on some
+of the principal tributaries and at a little distance from the river
+groves of other kinds of trees are found. All these trees, however, are
+confined to the immediate vicinity of the river and those of its
+tributaries which carry water during most of the year; and as the
+mountains which hem in the valley on the east and west are not high
+enough to support great pines such as characterize the plateau country
+on the north and east, the aspect of the country, even a short distance
+away from the river bottom, is arid and forbidding in the extreme.
+
+  [Illustration: Plate XIII.
+  MAIN COURT, RUIN NEAR LIMESTONE CREEK.]
+
+Within the last few years the character of the river and of the country
+adjacent to it has materially changed, and inferences drawn from present
+conditions may be erroneous. This change is the direct result of the
+recent stocking of the country with cattle. More cattle have been
+brought into the country than in its natural state it will support. One
+of the results of this overstocking is a very high death rate among the
+cattle; another and more important result is that the grasses and other
+vegetation have no chance to seed or mature, being cropped off close to
+the ground almost as soon as they appear. As a result of this, many of
+the river terraces and little valleys among the foothills, once
+celebrated for luxuriant grass, are now bare, and would hardly afford
+sustenance to a single cow for a week. In place of strong grasses these
+places are now covered for a few weeks in spring with a growth of a
+plant known as "filaree," which, owing to the rapid maturing of its
+seeds (in a month or less), seems to be the only plant not completely
+destroyed by the cattle, although the latter are very fond of it and eat
+it freely, both green and when dried on the ground. As a further effect
+of the abundance of cattle and the scarcity of food for them, the young
+willows, which, even so late as ten years ago, formed one of the
+characteristic features of the river and its banks, growing thickly in
+the bed of the stream, and often forming impenetrable jungles on its
+banks, are now rarely seen.
+
+Owing to the character of the country it drains, the Rio Verde always
+must have been subject to freshets and overflows at the time of the
+spring rains, but until quite recently the obstructions to the rapid
+collection of water offered by thickly growing grass and bushes
+prevented destructive floods, except, perhaps, on exceptional occasions.
+Now, however, the flood of each year is more disastrous than that of the
+preceding year, and in the flood of February, 1891, the culminating
+point of intensity and destructiveness was reached. On this occasion the
+water rose in some places over 20 feet, with a corresponding broadening
+in other places, and flowed with such velocity that for several weeks it
+was impossible to cross the river. As a result of these floods, the
+grassy banks that once distinguished the river are now but little more
+than a tradition, while the older terraces, which under normal
+circumstances would now be safe, are being cut away more and more each
+year. In several localities near Verde, where there are cavate lodges,
+located originally with especial reference to an adjacent area of
+tillable land, the terraces have been completely cut away, and the
+cliffs in which the cavate lodges occur are washed by the river during
+high water.
+
+
+
+
+DISTRIBUTION AND CLASSIFICATION OF RUINS.
+
+
+All the modern settlements of the lower portion of the Verde valley are
+located on terraces or benches, and such localities were also regarded
+favorably by the ancient builders, for almost invariably where a modern
+settlement is observed traces of a former one will also be found. The
+former inhabitants of this region were an agricultural people, and their
+villages were always located either on or immediately adjacent to some
+area of tillable soil. This is true even of the cavate lodges, which are
+often supposed to have been located solely with reference to facility of
+defense. Owing to the character of the country, most of the tillable
+land is found on the eastern side of the river, and as a consequence
+most of the remains of the former inhabitants are found there also,
+though they are by no means confined to that side. These remains are
+quite abundant in the vicinity of Verde, and less so between that point
+and the mouth of the river. The causes which have induced American
+settlement in the large area of bottom land about Verde doubtless also
+induced the aboriginal settlement of the same region, although, owing to
+the different systems of agriculture pursued by the two peoples, the
+American settlements are always made on the bottom lands themselves,
+while the aboriginal settlements are almost always located on high
+ground overlooking the bottoms. Perched on the hills overlooking these
+bottoms, and sometimes located on the lower levels, there was once a
+number of large and important villages, while in the regions on the
+south, where the tillable areas are as a rule very much smaller, the
+settlements were, with one exception, small and generally insignificant.
+The region treated in these pages is that portion of the valley of Rio
+Verde comprised between its mouth and Verde, or Beaver creek, on the
+north. It was entered by the writer from the south; it is not proposed,
+however, to follow a strict geographic order of treatment, but, on the
+contrary, so far as practicable, to follow an arrangement by types.
+
+The domiciliary ruins of this region fall easily into three general
+classes, to which may be added a fourth, comprising irrigating ditches
+and works, the first class having two subclasses. They are as follows:
+
+  Stone villages.
+      _a_. Villages on bottom lands.
+      _b_. Villages on defensive sites.
+  Cavate lodges.
+  Bowlder-marked sites.
+  Irrigating ditches and works.
+
+  [Illustration: Plate XIV.
+  RUIN AT MOUTH OF THE EAST VERDE.]
+
+The ruins of the first group, or stone villages located on bottom lands
+without reference to defense, represent in size and in degree of skill
+attained by the builders the highest type in this region, although they
+are not so numerous as those of the other groups. They are of the same
+type as, although sometimes smaller in size than, the great valley
+pueblos of the regions on the north and south, wherein reliance for
+defense was placed in massive and well-planned structures and not on
+natural advantages of location. In the north this class of ruin has been
+shown to be the last stage in along course of evolution, and there is a
+suggestion that it occupies the same relation to the other ruins in the
+Verde region; this question, however, will later be discussed at some
+length. The best example of this type on the lower Verde is a large
+ruin, located in a considerable bottom on the eastern side of the river,
+about a mile above the mouth of Limestone creek. This is said to be the
+largest ruin on the Verde; it is certainly the largest in the region
+here treated, and it should be noted that it marks practically the
+southern limit of the Rio Verde group.
+
+The ruins of the second subclass, or stone villages located on defensive
+sites, are found throughout the whole of this region, although the type
+reaches its best development in the northern portion, in the vicinity of
+Verde. The separation of this type from the preceding one is to a
+certain extent arbitrary, as the location of a ruin is sometimes
+determined solely by convenience, and convenience may dictate the
+selection of a high and defensible site, when the tillable land on which
+the village depends is of small area, or when it is divided into a
+number of small and scattered areas; for it was a principle of the
+ancient village-builders that the parent village should overlook as
+large an extent as possible of the fields cultivated by its inhabitants.
+A good illustration of this type of ruin is found a little way northeast
+of Verde, on the opposite side of the river. Here a cluster of ruins
+ranging from small groups of domiciles to medium-sized villages is found
+located on knobs and hills, high up in the foothills and overlooking
+large areas of the Verde bottom lands. These are illustrated later.
+Another example, also illustrated later, occurs on the eastern side of
+the river about 8 miles north of the mouth of Fossil creek. The village,
+which is very small, occupies the whole summit of a large rock which
+projects into the stream, and which is connected with the mainland by a
+natural causeway or dike. This is one of the best sites for defense seen
+by the writer in an experience of many years.
+
+Cavate lodges are distributed generally over the whole northern portion
+of the region here treated. At many points throughout this region there
+are outcrops of a calcareous sandstone, very soft and strongly laminated
+and therefore easily excavated. This formation often appears in the
+cliffs and small canyons bordering on the streams, and in it are found
+the cavate lodges. The best examples are found some 8 miles south of
+Verde, in a small canyon on the eastern side of the river, and it is
+noteworthy that in this case stone villages occur in conjunction with
+and subordinate to the cavate lodges, while elsewhere within this region
+and in other regions the cavate lodges are found either alone or in
+conjunction with and subordinate to stone villages. To this latter type
+belong a number of cavate lodges on the northern side of Clear creek,
+about 4 miles above its mouth. The cavate lodges of the Verde differ in
+some particulars from those found in other regions; they are not
+excavated in tufa or volcanic ash, nor are the fronts of the chambers
+generally walled up. Front walls are found here, but they are the
+exception and not the rule.
+
+Bowlder-marked sites are scattered over the whole region here treated
+although they are more abundant in the southern part than in the
+northern. They are so abundant that their locations could not be
+indicated on the accompanying map (plate XI). These constitute a
+peculiar type, not found elsewhere in the experience of the writer, and
+present some points of interest. They vary in size from one room to
+considerable settlements, but the average size is two or three rooms.
+They are always located with reference to some area, generally a small
+one, of tillable land which they overlook, and all the data now
+available support the inference that they mark the sites of small
+farming or temporary shelters, occupied only during the farming season
+and abandoned each winter by the inhabitants, who then return to the
+main pueblo--a custom prevalent today among the pueblos. These sites are
+found on the flat bottom lands of the river, on the upper terraces
+overlooking the bottoms, on points of the foothills, in fact everywhere
+where there is an area of tillable land large enough to grow a few hills
+of corn. They often occur in conjunction with irrigating ditches and
+other horticultural works; sometimes they are located on small hillocks
+in the beds of streams, locations which must be covered with water
+during the annual floods; sometimes they are found at the bases of
+promontories bordering on drainage channels and on the banks of arroyas,
+where they might be washed away at any time. In short, these sites seem
+to have been selected without any thought of their permanency.
+
+Irrigating ditches and horticultural works were found in this region,
+but not in great abundance; perhaps a more careful and detailed
+examination would reveal a much larger number than are now known. Fine
+examples of irrigating ditches were found at the extreme northern and
+the extreme southern limits of the region here treated, and there is a
+fair presumption that other examples occur in the intermediate country.
+These works did not reach the magnitude of those found in the Gila and
+Salt river valleys, perhaps partly for the reason that the great fall of
+Verde river and its tributaries renders only short ditches necessary to
+bring the water out over the terraces, and also partly because
+irrigation is not here essential to successful horticulture. In good
+years fair crops can be obtained without irrigation, and today this
+method of farming is pursued to a limited extent.
+
+  [Illustration: Plate XV.
+  MAIN COURT, RUIN AT MOUTH OF THE EAST VERDE.]
+
+
+
+
+PLANS AND DESCRIPTIONS.
+
+
+STONE VILLAGES.
+
+Ruins of villages built of stone, either roughly dressed or merely
+selected, represent the highest degree of art in architecture attained
+by the aborigines of Verde valley, and the best example of this class of
+ruin is found on the eastern side of the river, about a mile above the
+mouth of Limestone creek. The site was selected without reference to
+defense, and is overlooked by the hills which circumscribe a large
+semicircular area of bottom land, on the northern end of which the
+village was located. This is the largest ruin on the Verde; it covers an
+area of about 450 feet square, or over 5 acres, and has some 225 rooms
+on the ground plan. From the amount of debris we may infer that most of
+the rooms were but one story in height; and a reasonable estimate of the
+total number of rooms in the village when it was occupied would make the
+number not greater than 300 rooms. The ratio of rooms to inhabitants in
+the present pueblos would give a population for this village of about
+450 persons. Zu�i, the largest inhabited pueblo, covering an area of
+about 5 acres, has a population of 1,600.
+
+It will thus be seen that, while the area covered by this village was
+quite large, the population was comparatively small; in other words, the
+dense clustering and so-called beehive structure which characterize Zu�i
+and Taos, and are seen to a less extent in Oraibi, and which result from
+long-continued pressure of hostile tribes upon a village occupying a
+site not in itself easily defensible, has not been carried to such an
+extent here as in the examples cited. But it is also apparent that this
+village represents the beginning of the process which in time produces a
+village like Zu�i or Taos.
+
+Plate XII exhibits the ground plan of the village. It will be observed
+that this plan is remarkably similar in general characters to the ground
+plan of Zu�i.[2] A close inspection will reveal the presence of many
+discrepancies in the plan, which suggest that the village received at
+various times additions to its population in considerable numbers, and
+was not the result of the gradual growth of one settlement nor the home
+of a large group coming en masse to this locality. It has been shown[3]
+that in the old provinces of Tusayan and Cibola (Moki and Zu�i) the
+present villages are the result of the aggregation of many related
+gentes and subgentes, who reached their present location at different
+times and from different directions, and this seems to be the almost
+universal rule for the larger pueblos and ruins. It should be noted in
+this connection, however, that, the preceding statements being granted,
+a general plan of this character indicates an essentially modern origin
+or foundation.
+
+  [Footnote 2: Eighth Ann. Rep. Bureau of Ethnology, 1886-'87, Wash.,
+  1891, pl. lxxvi.]
+
+  [Footnote 3: Ibid., pp. 1-228.]
+
+The ground plan shows a number of courts or open spaces, which divided
+the village into four well-defined clusters. The largest court was
+nearly in the center of the village, and within it (as shown, on the
+plan) there are traces of a small single-room structure that may have
+been a kiva of sacred chamber. Attached to this main court and extending
+eastward is another court of considerable size, and connected with this
+second court at its eastern end there is another one almost square in
+plan and of fair size. West of the main court may be seen a small court
+opening into it, and north of this another square space separated from
+the main court by a single stone wall and inclosed on the other three
+sides by rooms. In addition to these there are two completely inclosed
+small courts in the center of the southwestern cluster, and another one
+of moderate size between the southwestern and southern clusters.
+
+The arrangement of these courts is highly suggestive. The central space
+was evidently the main court of the village at the time of its greatest
+development, and it is equally evident that it was inclosed at a later
+period than the small inclosed courts immediately adjacent to it, for
+had the latter not preceded it they would not occupy the positions they
+now do. Plate XIII represents a part of the main court, and beyond the
+d�bris can be seen a small portion of the bottom upon which the village
+is built. To the left, in the foreground of the illustration, are traces
+of a small detached room, perhaps the main kiva[4] of the village; this
+is also shown on the ground plan, plate XII.
+
+  [Footnote 4: The kiva is the assembly chamber, termed estufa in
+  some of the older writings, particularly those of the early Spanish
+  explorers. A full description of these peculiar structures has
+  already been published in an article on Pueblo architecture; Eighth
+  Ann. Rep. Bureau of Ethnology, 1886-'87, Wash., 1891, pp. 1-228.]
+
+The smaller courts are but little larger than the largest rooms, but it
+will be noticed that while some of the rooms are quite large they are
+always oblong. This requirement was dictated by the length of available
+roofing timbers. The cottonwood groves on the river bank would provide
+timber of fair size but of very poor quality, and, aside from this,
+roofing timbers longer than 15 feet could be obtained only at points
+many miles distant. In either case the hauling of these timbers to the
+site of the village would be a work of great labor and considerable
+difficulty. The width of the rooms was, therefore, limited to about 20
+feet, most of them being under 15 feet; but this limitation did not
+apply to the courts, which, though sometimes surrounded on all sides by
+buildings, were always open to the sky.
+
+  [Illustration: Plate XVI.
+  RUIN AT MOUTH OF FOSSIL CREEK.]
+
+It is probable that the central and northern portion of the southwestern
+cluster comprised the first rooms built in this village. This is the
+portion which commands the best outlook over the bottom, and it is also
+on the highest ground. Following this the southern cluster was probably
+built; afterwards the northern cluster was added, and finally the
+northwestern cluster. Subsequently rooms connecting these clusters and
+the eastern end of the village were built up, and probably last of all
+were added the rooms which occupied what was originally the eastern end
+of the main court. This hypothetic order of building the clusters
+composing the village is supported by the character of the site and the
+peculiarities of the ground plan. Most of the rooms in the northwestern
+cluster and in the eastern part of the village were but one story in
+height, while the crowding in the interior of the village, direct
+evidence of which is seen on the ground plan, could take place only
+after the rooms surrounding that area had been located, and when hostile
+pressure from outside made it undesirable to extend the bounds of the
+village; in other words, at the latest stage in the growth of the
+village.
+
+The arrangement and distribution of the rooms within the clusters
+indicate an occupancy extending over a considerable period of time. A
+reference to the ground plan will show that continuous wall lines are
+the exception, and it is seldom that more than two or three rooms are
+grouped together in regular order. In irregularity of arrangement the
+inhabitants of this village followed a general habit, the result of
+which can be seen today in all the inhabited villages and in most of the
+large pueblo ruins. It indicates a steady growth of the village by the
+addition of rooms, one or two at a time, as they were needed. The
+division into clusters, however, indicates an aggregation of related
+gentes or subgentes banded together for protection. Given these
+conditions, (1) bands of related families living near one another; (2)
+hostile pressure from outside; and (3) a site not in itself easily
+defended, and a ground plan similar to the one under discussion must
+result. Single detached rooms would not be built when the village might
+be attacked at any time, but they might be added during periods of peace
+and, the conditions being favorable, they might form the nuclei of other
+clusters. It is possible that some of the clusters forming this village
+had their origin in this manner, but this question can not be determined
+from the ground plan, as a similar result would be produced by the
+advent of a small band of related families.
+
+Growth in number of rooms does not necessarily indicate growth in
+population, and this qualification must not be lost sight of in the
+discussion of pueblo ground plans. Among the Pueblos of today, descent,
+in real property at least, is in the female line; when a man marries he
+becomes a member of his wife's family and leaves his own home to live
+with his wife's people. If the wife's home is not large enough to
+contain all the members of the household, additional rooms are built
+adjoining and connected with those previously occupied. It may be
+mentioned in this connection that the women build the houses, although
+the men supply the material and do the heavy work. The result of this
+custom may be readily seen: a family in which there are many daughters
+must necessarily increase the space occupied by it, while a family
+consisting of sons, no matter how many they may be, will become extinct,
+so far as regards its home in the village. It is no uncommon thing to
+see in the villages of today several rooms in course of erection while
+there are a dozen or more rooms within a few steps abandoned and going
+to decay. Long occupancy, therefore, produces much the same effect on a
+ground plan of a village as a large population, or a rapidly growing
+one, except that in the former case irregularity in the arrangement of
+rooms will be more pronounced.
+
+It will be noticed that the size of rooms is more varied in the
+southwestern and southern clusters than in the remaining portions of the
+village. In the southwestern cluster rooms measuring 8 feet by 18 or 20
+are not uncommon. These occur principally in the central and
+southwestern part of the cluster, while in the northern and northeastern
+part the rooms are uncommonly large, one of them measuring about 40 feet
+in length by nearly 15 feet in width and presenting a floor area of 600
+square feet. Rooms approaching this size are more common, however, in
+the northern and northwestern clusters. In these latter clusters long
+narrow rooms are the exception and a number of almost square ones are
+seen. The smallest room in the village is in the center of the southern
+cluster, on the highest ground within the area covered by the ruin; it
+measures 6 feet by 10, with a floor area of 60 square feet, as opposed
+to the 600 square feet of the largest room. This small room was probably
+at one time a small open space between two projecting rooms, such as are
+often seen in the inhabited pueblos. Later the room on the south was
+built and the front of the space was walled up in order to make a
+rectangular area, thus forming the small room shown on the ground plan.
+The maximum length of any room is about 40 feet, the maximum width
+attained is about 20 feet, and in a general way it may be stated that
+the average size of the rooms is considerably larger than that of the
+rooms in the northern ruins.
+
+From the regularity in distribution of the debris now on the ground,
+it appears that the rooms of the northwestern and northern clusters,
+including the eastern part of the village, were almost uniformly one
+story in height, and most of the rooms in the other clusters were also
+limited in height to a single story. The only places on the ground plan
+where rooms of two stories might have existed are the northern and
+central parts of the southwestern and southern clusters, and perhaps the
+southern side of the northern cluster; the last, however, being very
+doubtful.
+
+  [Illustration: Plate XVII.
+  GROUND PLAN OF RUINS OPPOSITE VERDE.]
+
+In the scarcity of detached rooms or small clusters the plan of this
+village strongly resembles the ground plan of Zu�i. Only three detached
+rooms are seen in the plan. One of these, situated in the main or
+central court, has already been referred to as probably the remains of a
+kiva or sacred chamber. Another single room occurs outside of the
+village, near its southwestern corner. This was probably a dwelling
+room, for a kiva would hardly be located in this place. The third room
+is found also outside the village and at its southeastern corner. The
+space inclosed within the walls of this room measured about 7 feet by 4
+and the lines of wall are at an acute angle with the wall lines of the
+village. This structure is anomalous, and its purpose is not clear.
+
+The absence of clearly defined traces of passageways to the interior of
+the village is noticeable. This absence can hardly be attributed to the
+advanced state of decay in the ruin, for nearly all the wall lines can
+still be easily traced. At one point only is there a suggestion of an
+open passageway similar to those found in the inhabited pueblos. This
+occurs in the southeastern corner of the ground plan, between the
+southern cluster and the southern part of the northeastern cluster.
+It was about 25 feet long and but 6 feet wide in the clear. There were
+undoubtedly other passageways to the interior courts, but they were
+probably roofed over and perhaps consisted of rooms abandoned for that
+purpose. This, however, is anomalous.
+
+There are several other anomalous features in the ground plan, the
+purposes of which are not clear. Prominent among them is a heavy wall
+extending about halfway across the southern, side of the village and at
+some distance from it. The total length of this wall is 164 feet; it is
+4 feet thick (nearly twice the thickness of the other walls), and is
+pierced near its center by an opening or gateway 4 feet wide. The
+nearest rooms of the village on the north are over 40 feet away. This
+wall is now much broken down, but here and there, as shown on the plan,
+portions of the original wall lines are left. It is probable that its
+original height did not exceed 5 or 6 feet. The purpose of this
+structure is obscure; it could not have been erected for defense, for it
+has no defensive value whatever; it had no connection with the houses of
+the village, for it is too far removed from them. The only possible use
+of this wall that occurs to the writer is that it was a dam or retaining
+wall for a shallow pool of water, fed by the surface drainage of a small
+area on the east and northeast. There is at present a very slight
+depression between the wall and the first houses of the village toward
+the north--about a foot or a foot and a half--but there may have been a
+depression of 2 or 3 feet here at one time and this depression may have
+been subsequently filled up by sediment. This conjecture could be easily
+tested by excavating a trench across the area between the wall and the
+houses, but in the absence of such an excavation the suggestion is a
+mere surmise.
+
+Another anomalous feature is found in the center of the southwestern
+cluster. Here, in two different rooms, are found walls of double the
+usual thickness, occurring, however, on only one or two sides of the
+rooms. These are clearly shown on the ground plan. The westernmost of
+the two rooms which exhibit this feature has walls of normal thickness
+on three of its sides, while the fourth or eastern side consists of two
+walls of normal thickness, built side by side, perhaps the result of
+some domestic quarrel. The eastern room, however, has thick walls on its
+northern and eastern sides, and in this case the walls are built solidly
+at one time, not consisting, as in the previous case, of two walls of
+ordinary thickness built side by side. An inspection of the ground plan
+will show that in both these cases this feature is anomalous and
+probably unimportant.
+
+A ruin of the same general type as that just described, but much smaller
+in size, is found about 6 miles farther northward on the eastern side of
+the river. It is located on the river edge of a large semicircular flat
+or terrace, near its northern end, and is built of flat slabs of
+limestone and river bowlders. It is rectangular in plan and of moderate
+size. On the southern end of the same flat are two single-room rancher's
+houses and a large corral. The rooms in this ruin are oblong and similar
+in size and arrangement to those just described.
+
+  [Illustration: Figure 279.
+  Sketch map, site of small ruin 10 miles north of Fossil creek.]
+
+About 11 miles above the last-described ruin, or 17 miles above the
+large ruin near Limestone creek, there is another small ruin of the same
+general type as the last, located on a similar site, and in all
+respects, except size, closely similar to it.
+
+About 3 miles below the mouth of the East Verde there is still another
+ruin of similar character, located on the edge of a mesa or bench
+overlooking the river. It is built of bowlders and slabs of rock. Like
+the others this ruin is rectangular in plan and of small size.
+
+About 10 miles north of the mouth of Fossil creek, on the point of a
+bench or terrace on the western side of the river, and perhaps 20 feet
+above it, occurs a small ruin, similar in character to the preceding.
+The river here makes a long turn eastward, then flows south again, and
+in the angle a small bench or terrace is formed. At this point the
+mountains rise abruptly from the river on both sides to a height of over
+a thousand feet. Fig. 279 illustrates the location of this ruin. So far
+as could be distinguished from the hills opposite, the rooms occur in
+two broken lines at right angles to each other.
+
+  [Illustration: Plate XVIII.
+  GENERAL VIEW OF RUINS OPPOSITE VERDE.]
+
+These four small ruins are all closely similar to the large ruin
+described above in all respects except size, and peculiarities of ground
+plan attendant on size. The rooms are always rectangular, generally
+oblong, and arranged without regularity as regards their longer axis.
+Except the one last described, the ruins consist of compact masses of
+rooms, without evidences of interior courts, all of very small size, and
+all located without reference to defense. The last-described ruin
+differs from the others only in the arrangement of rooms. There is
+practically no standing wall remaining in any of them, and even now they
+can be seen for miles from the hills above. When the walls were standing
+they must have been conspicuous landmarks. The masonry of all consists
+of flat bowlders, selected doubtless from the river bed, or perhaps
+sometimes quarried from the terraces, which themselves contain large
+numbers of river bowlders. In general appearance and in plan these ruins
+resemble the ruin next to be described, situated near the mouth of the
+East Verde.
+
+  [Illustration: Figure 280.
+  Ground plan of ruin at mouth of the East Verde.]
+
+On the southern side of the East Verde, half a mile above its mouth, a
+small creek comes in from the south, probably dry throughout most of the
+year; and on a promontory or point of land left by this creek a small
+ruin occurs. It is similar in plan and in character of masonry to those
+just described, and differs from them only in that its site is better
+adapted for defense, being protected on two sides by steep hills or
+cliffs. The ground plan of this ruin is shown in figure 280, and its
+general appearance in plate XIV, which also shows the character of
+masonry. The village overlooked a large area of low bottom land in the
+angle between the Verde and the East Verde, and is itself overlooked by
+the foothills rising behind it to the high mesas forming part of the
+Mazatzal mountains.
+
+The walls of this village were built of flat bowlders and slabs of
+limestone, and there is now practically no standing wall remaining. The
+ground plan shows a number of places where the walls are still visible,
+but they extend only a few inches above the debris. There were about
+forty rooms, and the plan is characterized by irregularities such as
+have already been noticed in other plans. Although the village was of
+considerable size it was built up solidly, and there is no trace of an
+interior court. It will be noticed that the rooms vary much in size, and
+that many of the smaller rooms are one half the size of the larger ones,
+as though the larger rooms had been divided by partitions after they
+were completed. It is probable that rooms extended partly down the slope
+on the west and south of the village toward the little creek before
+mentioned, but if this were the case all evidences have long since been
+obliterated.
+
+On the southern side of the village the ground plan shows a bit of
+curved wall. It is doubtful whether this was an actual wall or merely a
+terrace. If it was a wall it is the only example of curved wall found in
+the region in ruins of this class. Between this wall or terrace and the
+adjoining wall on the north, with which it was connected, the ground is
+now filled in. Whether this filling occurred prior or subsequent to the
+abandonment of the village does not appear. The northeastern corner of
+the ruin is marked by a somewhat similar feature. Here there is a line
+of wall now almost obliterated and but feebly marked by debris, and the
+space between it and the village proper is partly filled in, forming a
+low terrace. Analogous features are found in several other ruins in this
+region, notably in the large ruin near Limestone creek. It should be
+noted in this connection that Mr. E. W. Nelson has found that places
+somewhat similar to these in the ruins about Springerville, New Mexico,
+always well repaid the labor of excavation, and he adopted as a working
+hypothesis the assumption that these were the burial places of the
+village. Whether a similar condition would be found in this region can
+only be determined by careful and systematic excavation.
+
+The village did not occupy the whole of the mesa point on which it is
+located; on the east the ground rises gently to the foothills of the
+Mazatzal range, and on the south and west it slopes sharply down to the
+little creek before mentioned; while on the north there is a terrace or
+flat open space some 60 feet wide and almost parallel with the longer
+axis of the village. This open space and the sharp fall which limits it
+on the north is shown on the ground plan. The general view of the same
+feature (plate XV) also shows the character of the valley of the East
+Verde above the ruin; the stream is here confined within a low walled
+canyon. This open space formed a part of the village and doubtless
+occupied the same relation to it that interior courts do to other
+villages. Its northern or outer edge is a trifle higher than the space
+between it and the village proper and is marked by several large
+bowlders and a small amount of debris. It is possible that at one time
+there was a defensive wall here, although the ground falls so suddenly
+that it is almost impossible to climb up to the edge from below without
+artificial aid. Defensive walls such as this may have been are very rare
+in pueblo architecture, only one instance having been encountered by the
+writer in an experience of many years. The map seems to show more local
+relief to this terrace than the general view indicates, but it should be
+borne in mind that the contour interval is but 2� feet.
+
+  [Illustration: Plate XIX.
+  SOUTHERN PART OF RUINS OPPOSITE VERDE.]
+
+A comparison of the ground plan of this ruin and those previously
+described, together with that of the ruin near the mouth of Fossil creek
+(plate XVI), which is typical of this group, shows marked irregularity
+in outline and plan. In the character of the debris also this ruin
+differs from the Fossil creek ruin and others located near it. As in the
+latter, bowlders were used in the wall, but unlike the latter rough
+stone predominates. In the character of its masonry this ruin forms an
+intermediate or connecting link between the ruins near Limestone creek
+and opposite Verde and the class of which the ruin near the mouth of
+Fossil creek is typical. In the character of its site it is of the same
+class as the Fossil creek ruin, being intermediate between the valley
+pueblos, such as that near Limestone creek, and pueblos located on
+defensive sites, such as the group opposite Verde. The ground plan
+indicates an occupancy extending over a considerable period of time and
+terminating at or near the close of the period of aboriginal occupancy
+of the valley of Rio Verde.
+
+Another ruin, of a type closely similar, occurs on a bluff near the
+mouth of Fossil creek. The plan of this ruin is shown in figure 281. The
+village is located close to the edge of the bluff, as shown in the plan,
+and has an outlook over a considerable area of bottom land adjoining the
+bluff on the east. It is probable that the cavate lodges whose location
+some 8 or 10 miles above the ruin, on Fossil creek, is shown on the
+general map (plate XI) were appendages of this village.
+
+The wall still standing extends but a few inches above the d�bris, but
+enough remains to mark the principal wall lines, and these are farther
+emphasized by the lines of d�bris. The d�bris here is remarkably clean
+and stands out prominently from the ground surface, instead of being
+merged into it as is usually the case. This is shown in the general view
+of the ruin. There are twenty-five rooms on the ground plan, and there
+is no evidence that any of these attained a greater height than one
+story. The population, therefore, could not have been much, if any, in
+excess of forty, and as the average family of the Pueblos consists of
+five persons, this would make the number of families which found a home
+in this village less than ten. Notwithstanding this small population the
+ground plan of this village shows clearly a somewhat extended period of
+occupancy and a gradual growth in size. The eastern half of the village,
+which is located along the edge of the bluff, probably preceded the
+western in point of time. It will be noticed that while the wall lines
+are seldom continuous for more than three rooms, yet the rooms
+themselves are arranged with a certain degree of regularity, in that the
+longer axes are usually parallel.
+
+  [Illustration: Figure 281.
+  Ground plan of ruin near the month of Fossil creek.]
+
+The masonry of this village is almost entirely of flat bowlders,
+obtained probably from the bed of the creek immediately below. The
+terrace on which the village was built, and in fact all the hills about
+it are composed of gravel and bowlders, but it would be easier to carry
+the bowlders up from the stream bed than to quarry them from the
+hillside, and in the former case there would be a better opportunity for
+selection. Plate XVI shows the character of the rock employed, and
+illustrates the extent to which selection of rock has been carried.
+Although the walls are built entirely of river bowlders the masonry
+presents almost as good a face as some of the ruins previously described
+as built of slabs of limestone, and this is due to careful selection of
+the stone employed.
+
+  [Illustration: Plate XX.
+  GENERAL VIEW OF RUIN ON SOUTHERN SIDE OF CLEAR CREEK.]
+
+About half a mile above the mouth of Fossil creek, and on the eastern
+side of the river, a deep ravine comes in from the north and east, and
+on a low spur near its mouth there is a ruin very similar to the one
+just described. It is also about the same size. The general character of
+the site it occupies is shown in the sketch, figure 282. The masonry is
+of the same general character as that of the ruin near the mouth of
+Fossil creek, and the d�bris, which stands out sharply from the ground
+surface, is distinguished by the same cleanness.
+
+  [Illustration: Figure 282.
+  Sketch map, site of ruin above Fossil creek.]
+
+About 8� miles north of Fossil creek, on the eastern side of the Verde,
+occurs a small ruin, somewhat different in the arrangement of rooms from
+those described. Here there is a bench or terrace, some 50 feet above
+the river, cut through near its northern end by a small canyon. The ruin
+is located on the southern side of this terrace, near the mouth of the
+creek, and consists of about ten rooms arranged in +L+ shape. The lines
+are very irregular, and there are seldom more than three rooms
+connected. The d�bris marking the wall lines is clean, and the lines are
+well defined, although no standing wall remains.
+
+About a mile above the last-described ruin, or 9� miles north of the
+mouth of Fossil creek, a small group of ruins occurs. The sketch, figure
+283, shows the relation of the parts of this group to one another. The
+small cluster or rooms on the south is very similar in character,
+location, and size to the ruin last described. The northern portion is
+situated on the opposite side of a deep canyon or ravine, on the crown
+of a hill composed of limestone, which outcrops everywhere about it, and
+is considerably higher than the small cluster on the south. The northern
+ruin is of considerable size and very compactly built, the rooms being
+clustered about the summit of the hill. The central room, occupying the
+crown of the hill, is 20 feet higher than the outside rooms. In a saddle
+between the main cluster and a similar hill toward the southeast there
+are a number of other rooms, not marked so prominently by d�bris as
+those of the main cluster. There is no standing wall remaining, but the
+d�bris of the main and adjoining clusters indicates that the masonry was
+very rough, the walls being composed of slabs of limestone similar to
+those found in the large ruin near the mouth of Limestone creek, and
+obtained probably not 20 feet away from their present position.
+
+  [Illustration: Figure 283.
+  Sketch map of ruin 9� miles above Fossil creek.]
+
+The ruin described on page 200 and assigned to the first subclass occurs
+about half a mile north of this limestone hill, on the opposite side of
+the river. This small ruin, like all the smaller ruins described, was
+built of river bowlders, or river bowlders with occasional slabs of
+sandstone or limestone, while the ruin last described consists
+exclusively of limestone slabs. This difference is explained, however,
+by the character of the sites occupied by the several ruins. The
+limestone hill upon which the ruin under discussion is situated is an
+anomalous feature, and its occurrence here undoubtedly determined the
+location of this village. It is difficult otherwise to understand the
+location of this cluster of rooms, for they command no outlook over
+tillable land, although the view up and down the river is extensive.
+This cluster, which is the largest in size for many miles up and down
+the river, may have been the parent pueblo, occupying somewhat the same
+relation to the smaller villages that Zu�i occupies to the summer
+farming settlements of Nutria, Pescado, and Ojo Caliente; and doubtless
+the single-room remains, which occur above and below the cluster on mesa
+benches and near tillable tracts, were connected with it. This ruin is
+an example of the second subclass, or villages located on defensive
+sites, which merges into ruins of the first subclass, or villages on
+bottom lands, through villages like that located at the mouth of the
+East Verde and at the mouth of Fossil creek.
+
+  [Illustration: Plate XXI.
+  DETAILED VIEW OF RUIN ON SOUTHERN SIDE OF CLEAR CREEK.]
+
+On the eastern side of the Verde, just below the mouth of Beaver creek,
+opposite and a little above Verde, occurs one of the best examples to be
+found in this region of a large village located on a defensive site.
+Here there is a group of eight clusters extending half a mile up and
+down the river, and some of the clusters have walls still standing to a
+height of 8 and 10 feet. The relation of these clusters to each other is
+shown in the sketch map, figure 284.
+
+  [Illustration: Figure 284.
+  Sketch map showing location of ruins opposite Verde.]
+
+The principal ruin of the group is situated on the northern side of a
+small valley running eastward from the river up to the foot of a
+prominent mesa, which here bounds the eastern side of the river bottom.
+The valley is perhaps half a mile long and about an eighth of a mile
+wide. The ruin is located on a butte or knoll connected with the hills
+back of it by a low saddle, forming a sort of promontory or tongue of
+land rising from a flat space or bench, the whole some 200 feet above
+the river bottom. One of the clusters of rooms is located in the saddle
+mentioned and is connected with the main ruin. At the foot of the butte
+on the western side there is a similar cluster, not connected, however,
+with the main ruin; and south of the main ruin, on the extreme edge of
+the little mesa or bench, there is another small cluster. The ruin shown
+on the sketch map southwest of the main ruin consists of but two rooms,
+with no wall now standing. All these clusters are shown in their proper
+position on the ground plan, plate XVII. Plate XVIII, which is a general
+view from the east, shows the main ruin on the butte, together with the
+connected cluster east of it in the saddle. The modern settlement seen
+in the middle distance is Verde.
+
+About a quarter of a mile west of the main ruin there is another small
+but well-preserved cluster of rooms. It occupies the narrow ridge of a
+hill some 200 feet above the river. On the west and south, the hill
+descends abruptly to the river; on the southeast and east it slopes
+sharply down to a broad valley on the level of the mesa bench before
+mentioned, but the valley is cut by a narrow and deep canyon marking the
+east side of the hill. This cluster is shown on the ground plan, plate
+XVII, though not in its proper position. Northeast of this cluster and
+perhaps 200 yards distant there are traces of other rooms, but they are
+so faint that no plan can be made out. As shown on the sketch map,
+figure 284, the hill is a long narrow one, and its western side falls
+rapidly to a large triangular area of flat bottom land lying between it
+and Beaver creek, which it overlooks, as well as a large area of the
+valley up the river and all the fine bottom lands north and east of
+Verde and on the northwestern side of Beaver creek. As regards outlook,
+and also as regards security and facility of defense, the site of the
+small cluster is far superior to that of the main cluster of rooms.
+
+About a quarter of a mile south and east of the main ruin, on the
+opposite side of the little valley before mentioned, a mesa bench
+similar to the one last described occurs; and on a point of this,
+extending almost to the river bank, there are traces, now nearly
+obliterated, of a small cluster of rooms. A short distance east of this
+point there is a large rounded knoll, with a peculiar terrace-like bench
+at about half its height. The entire summit of this knoll was occupied
+by rooms, of which the walls are much broken and none remain standing.
+This knoll, with the ruins on its summit, is shown in plate XIX, which
+also gives a general view from the north of the small cluster southeast
+of the main ruin. The character of the valley of the Verde at this point
+is also shown. The sketch map, figure 284, shows the location of these
+ruins in reference to others of the group.
+
+The main cluster, that portion occupying the crown or summit of the
+butte before described, exhibits at the present time some fifty rooms in
+the ground plan, but there were at one time a larger number than this;
+and there is no doubt that rooms extended down the slopes of the hill
+southward and southwestward. The plan of this main cluster is peculiar;
+it differs from all the smaller surrounding clusters. It tells the story
+of a long occupancy by a people who increased largely in numbers, but
+who, owing to their hostile environment, could not increase the space
+occupied by them in proportion to their numbers. It will be noticed that
+while the wall lines are remarkably irregular in arrangement they are
+more often continuous than otherwise, more frequently continuous, in
+fact, than the lines of some of the smaller villages before described.
+The rooms are remarkably small, 10 feet square being a not unusual
+measurement, and built so closely together as to leave no space for
+interior courts. The typical rooms in the ruins of this region are
+oblong, generally about twice as long as broad, measuring approximately
+20 by 10 feet.
+
+  [Illustration: Plate XXII.
+  GENERAL VIEW OF RUIN 8 MILES NORTH OF FOSSIL CREEK.]
+
+In the ruin under discussion it seems that each of these oblong rooms
+was divided by a transverse partition into two smaller rooms, although
+the oblong form is also common. This is noticeable in the southwestern
+corner and on the eastern side of the main cluster, in the southwestern
+corner and on the northern end of the cluster adjoining on the north,
+and in all the smaller clusters. It is probable that the western central
+part of the main cluster was the first portion of the group of
+structures built, and that subsequently as the demand for accommodation
+increased, owing to increase of population, the rooms on the eastern and
+southern sides of the main cluster were added, while the rooms of the
+older portion were divided.
+
+There is no evidence that any portion of this cluster attained a greater
+height than two stories, and only a small number of rooms reached that
+height. The small cluster adjoining on the north, and those on the
+southeast, southwest, and west, were built later and belong to the last
+period of the occupancy of the group. The builders exhibited a decided
+predilection for a flat site, as an examination of the sites of the
+various room clusters in the ground plan (plate XVII) will show, and
+when the sight of the main cluster became so crowded that additional
+rooms could be added only by building them on the sloping hillside,
+recourse was had to other sites. This tendency is also exhibited in the
+cluster adjoining the main cluster on the north, which was probably the
+second in point of age. The northern end of this small group of rooms
+terminates at the foot of the hill which rises northeastward, while a
+series of wall lines extends eastward at an angle with the lines of the
+cluster, but along the curve of the hillside.
+
+The small northern cluster was in all probability inhabited by five or
+six families only, as contrasted with the main cluster, which had
+sixteen or seventeen, while the smaller clusters had each only two or
+three families. The strong presumption of the later building and
+occupancy of the smaller clusters, previously commented on, is supported
+by three other facts of importance, viz, the amount and height of the
+standing wall, the character of the sites occupied, and the
+extraordinary size of the rooms.
+
+Although as a rule external appearance is an unsatisfactory criterion of
+age, still, other things equal, a large amount and good height of
+standing wall may be taken to indicate in a general way a more recent
+period of occupancy than wall lines much obliterated and merged into the
+surrounding ground level. The character of the site occupied is,
+however, a very good criterion of age. It was a rule of the ancient
+pueblo builder, a rule still adhered to with a certain degree of
+persistence, that enlargement of a village for the purpose of obtaining
+more space must be by the addition of rooms to those already built, and
+not by the construction of detached rooms. So well was this rule
+observed that attached rooms were often built on sites not at all
+adapted to them, when much better sites were available but a short
+distance away; and, although detached rooms were built in certain cases,
+there was always a strong reason for such exceptions to the general
+rule. At a late period in the history of the Pueblos this rule was not
+so much adhered to as before, and detached houses were often built at
+such points as the fancy or convenience of the builder might dictate. As
+the traditions are broken down the tendency to depart from the old rule
+becomes more decided, and at the present day several of the older Pueblo
+villages are being gradually abandoned for the more convenient detached
+dwellings, while nearly all of them have suffered more or less from this
+cause.
+
+The tendency to cluster rooms in one large compact group was undoubtedly
+due primarily to hostile pressure from outside, and as this pressure
+decreased the inherent inconveniences of the plan would assert
+themselves and the rule would be less and less closely adhered to. It
+therefore follows that, in the absence of other sufficient cause, the
+presence of detached rooms or small clusters may be taken in a general
+way to indicate a more recent occupancy than a ground plan of a compact,
+closely built village.
+
+The size of rooms is closely connected with the character of the site
+occupied. When, owing to hostile pressure, villages were built on sites
+difficult of access, and when the rooms were crowded together into
+clusters in order to produce an easily defended structure, the rooms
+themselves were necessarily small; but when hostile pressure from
+surrounding or outside tribes became less pronounced, the
+pueblo-builders consulted convenience more, and larger rooms were built.
+This has occurred in many of the pueblos and in the ruins, and in a
+general way a ruin consisting of large rooms is apt to be more modern
+than one consisting of small rooms; and where large and small rooms
+occur together there is a fair presumption that the occupancy of the
+village extended over a period when hostile pressure was pronounced and
+when it became less strong. It has already been shown that, owing to the
+social system of the pueblo-builders, there is almost always growth in a
+village, although the population may remain stationary in numbers or
+even decrease; so that, until a village is abandoned it will follow the
+general rule of development sketched above.
+
+Along the southern side of Clear creek, which discharges into the Rio
+Verde from the east, about 4 miles below Verde, there is a flat terrace
+from 30 to 40 feet above the creek and some 2 or 3 miles in length.
+Scattered over almost the whole of this terrace are remains of houses
+and horticultural works, which will be described later. Near the western
+end of the terrace a low hill with flat top and rounded sides rises, and
+on the top of this occurs the ruin whose ground plan is shown in figure
+285.
+
+  [Illustration: Plate XXIII.
+  GENERAL VIEW OF RUINS ON AN EMINENCE 14 MILES NORTH OF FOSSIL CREEK.]
+
+This ruin commands an outlook over the whole extent of the terrace and
+seems to have been the home pueblo with which were connected the
+numerous single houses whose remains cover the terrace. The ground plan
+is peculiar. The rooms were arranged in four rows, each row consisting
+of a line of single rooms, and the rows were placed approximately at
+right angles to one another, forming the four sides of a hollow square.
+The rooms are generally oblong, of the usual dimensions, and as a rule
+placed with their longer axes in the direction of the row. Several rooms
+occur, however, with their longer axes placed across the row.
+Thirty-eight rooms can still be traced, and there is no likelihood that
+there were ever more than forty, or that any of the rooms attained a
+greater height than one story. The population, therefore, was probably
+never much in excess of fifty persons, or ten to twelve families.
+
+  [Illustration: Figure 285.
+  Ground plan of ruin on southern side of Clear creek.]
+
+It will be noticed that the wall lines are only approximately
+rectangular. The outside dimensions of the village are as follows:
+Northeastern side, 203 feet; southwestern, 207 feet; southeastern, 182
+feet; and northwestern, 194 feet. The northeastern and southwestern
+sides are nearly equal in length, but between the southeastern and the
+northwestern sides there is a difference of 12 feet, and this
+notwithstanding that the room at the western end of the southeastern row
+has been set out 3 feet beyond the wall line of the southwestern side.
+This difference is remarkable if, as the ground plan indicates, the
+village or the greater part of it was laid out and built up at one time,
+and was not the result of slow growth.
+
+As already stated, long occupancy of a village, even without increase of
+population, produces a certain effect on the ground plan. This effect,
+so strongly marked in all the ruins already described, is conspicuous in
+this ruin by its almost entire absence. The ground plan is just such as
+would be produced if a small band of pueblo builders, consisting of ten
+or twelve related families, should migrate en masse to a site like the
+one under discussion and, after occupying that site for a few
+years--less than five--should pass on to some other location. Such
+migration and abandonment of villages were by no means anomalous; on the
+contrary, they constitute one of the most marked and most persistent
+phenomena in the history of the pueblo builders. If the general
+principles, already laid down, affecting the development and growth of
+ground plans of villages are applied to this example, the hypothesis
+suggested above--an incoming of people en masse and a very short
+occupancy--must be accepted, for no other hypothesis will explain the
+regularity of wall lines, the uniformity in size of rooms, and the
+absence of attached rooms which do not follow the general plan of the
+village. The latter is perhaps the most remarkable feature in the ground
+plan of this village. The addition of rooms attached irregularly at
+various points of the main cluster, which is necessarily consequent on
+long occupancy of a site, even without increase of population, was in
+this example just commenced. The result of the same process, continued
+over a long period of time, can be seen in the ground plan of any of the
+inhabited villages of today and in most of the ruins, while a plan like
+that of the ruin under discussion, while not unknown, is rare.
+
+  [Illustration: Plate XXIV.
+  GENERAL VIEW OF NORTHERN END OF A GROUP OF CAVATE LODGES.]
+
+Plate XX, which is a general view of the ruin from the southwest, shows
+the character of the site and the general appearance of the debris,
+while plate XXI illustrates the character of the masonry. It will be
+noticed that the level of the ground inside and outside of the row of
+rooms is essentially the same; in other words, there has been no filling
+in. It will also be noticed that the amount of debris is small, and that
+it consists principally of rounded river bowlders. The masonry was
+peculiar, the walls were comparatively thin, and the lower courses were
+composed of river bowlders, not dressed or otherwise treated, while the
+upper courses, and presumably also the coping stones, were composed of
+slabs of sandstone and of a very friable limestone. The latter has
+disintegrated very much under atmospheric influences. The white areas
+seen in the illustrations are composed of this disintegrated limestone.
+The general appearance of the ruin at the present time must not be
+accepted as its normal condition. It is probable that the d�bris has
+undergone a process of artificial selection, the flat slabs and most
+available stones for building probably having been removed by
+neighboring settlers and employed in the construction of stone fences,
+which are much used in this region. Even with a fair allowance for such
+removal, however, there is no evidence that the rooms were higher than
+one story. The quantity of potsherds scattered about the ruins is
+noticeably small.
+
+  [Illustration: Figure 286.
+  Ground plan of ruin 8 miles north of Fossil creek.]
+
+About 8 miles north of the mouth of Fossil creek, on the eastern side
+of the Verde, there is a ruin which, though very small, is interesting.
+At this point there is a long narrow mass of rock, the remains of a
+volcanic dike, some 80 or 90 feet long, which at the southern end
+overhangs the stream, while the other end is merged into the ground
+level. At its southern end the rock is some 50 feet above the water, but
+150 feet northward the dike is no longer traceable. A general view of
+this dike is given in plate XXII, while the ground plan, figure 286,
+shows the character of the site. There were rooms on all that portion of
+the dike that stands out prominently from the ground level, and traces
+of other rooms can be seen on the ground level adjoining on the north
+and in the causeway resulting from the breaking down and disintegration
+of the dike. Remains of eight rooms in all can be traced, five of which
+were on the summit of the rock. The wall lines on the summit are still
+quite distinct and in places fragments of the original walls remain, as
+shown on the ground plan. The plan shows typical pueblo rooms of average
+size, and the masonry, though rough, is of the same character as that of
+other ruins in the vicinity.
+
+Facility of defense undoubtedly had something to do with the choice of
+this location, but that it was not the only desideratum consulted is
+evident from the occurrence of a large area of fertile bottom land or
+flat river terrace immediately adjoining the ruin on the east and
+overlooked by it; in fact, the volcanic dike on which the ruin occurs
+occupies the western end of a large semicircular area of tillable land,
+such as already described. Viewed, however, as a village located with
+reference to defense it is the most perfect example--facility of
+obtaining water being considered--in this region. It may be used,
+therefore, to illustrate an important principle governing the location
+of villages of this type.
+
+A study of the ground plan (figure 286) and the general view (plate
+XXII) will readily show that while the site and character of this
+village are admirably adapted for defense, so well adapted, in fact, as
+to suggest that we have here a fortress or purely defensive structure,
+still this adaptation arises solely from the selection of a site fitted
+by nature for the purpose, or, in other words, from an accident of
+environment. There has not been the slightest artificial addition to the
+natural advantages of the site.
+
+The statement may seem broad, but it is none the less true, that, so far
+as our knowledge extends at the present time, fortresses or other purely
+defensive structures form a type which is entirely unknown in the pueblo
+region. The reason is simple; military art, as a distinct art, was
+developed in a stage of culture higher than that attained by the ancient
+pueblo builders. It is true that within the limits of the pueblo region
+structures are found which, from their character and the character of
+their sites, have been loosely described as fortresses, their describers
+losing sight of the fact that the adaptability of these structures to
+defense is the result of nature and not of art. Numerous examples are
+found where the building of a single short wall would double the
+defensive value of a site, but in the experience of the writer the
+ancient builders have seldom made even that slight addition to the
+natural advantages of the site they occupied.
+
+  [Illustration: Plate XXV.
+  MAP OF GROUP OF CAVATE LODGES IN WHITE CANYON,
+  3 MILES BELOW CLEAR CREEK, EAST SIDE RIO VERDE.]
+
+The first desideratum in the minds of the old pueblo builders in
+choosing the location of their habitations was nearness to some area of
+tillable land. This land was generally adjacent to the site of the
+village, and was almost invariably overlooked by it. In fact this
+requirement was considered of far more importance than adaptability to
+defense, for the latter was often sacrificed to the former. A good
+example in which both requirements have been fully met is the ruin under
+discussion. This, however, is the result of an exceptionally favorable
+environment; as a rule the two requirements conflict with each other,
+and it is always the latter requirement--adaptability to defense--which
+suffers. These statements are true even of the so-called fortresses, of
+the cavate lodges, of the cliff ruins, and of many of the large village
+ruins scattered over the southwestern portion of the United States. In
+the case of the large village ruins, however, there is another feature
+of pueblo life which sometimes produces a different result, viz, the use
+of outlying single houses or small clusters separated from the main
+village and used for temporary abode during the farming season only.
+This feature is well developed in some of the modern pueblos,
+particularly in Zu�i and Acoma.
+
+The principle illustrated by this ruin is an important one. Among the
+ancient pueblo builders there was no military art, or rather the
+military art was in its infancy; purely defensive structures, such as
+fortresses, were unknown, and the idea of defense never reached any
+greater development than the selection of an easily defended site for a
+village, and seldom extended to the artificial improvement of the site.
+There is another result of this lack of military knowledge not
+heretofore alluded to, which will be discussed at length on some other
+occasion and can only be mentioned here: this is the aggregation of a
+number of small villages or clusters into the large many-storied pueblo
+building, such as the modern Zu�i or Taos.
+
+About 14 miles north of the mouth of Fossil creek, on the eastern side
+of the river, there is another ruin somewhat resembling the last
+described. A large red rock rises at the intersection of two washes,
+about a mile back from the river, and on a bench near the summit are the
+remains of walls. These are illustrated in plate XXIII. In general
+appearance and in character of site this ruin strongly resembles a type
+found in the San Juan region. There seem to have been only a few rooms
+on the top of the rock, and the prominent wall seen in the illustration
+was probably a retaining or filling wall in a cleft of the rock. Such
+walls are now used among the Pueblos for the sides of trails, etc. It is
+probable that at one time there were a considerable number of rooms on
+the rock; the debris on the ground at the base of the rock on the
+western side, shown in the illustration, is rather scanty; on the
+opposite or eastern side there is more, and it is not improbable there
+were rooms on the ground here. It is likely that access was from this
+side.
+
+It should be noted that this ruin, which is of a type known as
+"fortress" by some writers, is so placed as to command an extensive
+outlook over the large valley below and over the two small valleys
+above, as well as the considerable area of flat or bottom land formed by
+the junction of the small valleys. It is a type of a subordinate
+agricultural settlement, and had the defensive motive been entirely
+absent from the minds of the builders of this village it would
+undoubtedly have been located just where it now is, as this is the best
+site for an agricultural settlement for some distance up and down the
+river.
+
+  [Illustration: Figure 287.
+  Sketch map of ruins on pinnacle 7 miles north of Fossil creek.]
+
+  [Illustration: Figure 288.
+  Remains of small rooms 7 miles north of Fossil creek.]
+
+Remains of walls somewhat similar to these last described occur on a
+butte or pinnacle on the eastern side of the river and about 7 miles
+north of the mouth of Fossil creek. From the south this pinnacle is a
+most conspicuous landmark, rising as it does some 2,500 feet above the
+river within a distance of a quarter of a mile. The upper 50 feet of the
+eminence consists of bare red rock split into sharp points and little
+pinnacles, as shown in figure 287, which represents only the upper
+portion of the butte. The heavy black lines on the sketch map are walls.
+Some of these were doubtless mere retaining walls, but others are still
+standing to a considerable height, and there is yet much d�bris on the
+slope of the rock forming the eastern side of the butte near its top. It
+is doubtful whether these rooms were ever used for habitations, and more
+probable that they were used as a shrine or for some analogous purpose.
+
+  [Illustration: Plate XXVI.
+  STRATA OF NORTHERN CANYON WALL.]
+
+Perhaps a quarter of a mile northeastward, in the saddle connecting the
+butte with the contiguous hills in that direction, there are remains of
+three small rooms, located east of a low swell or ridge. Figure 288
+shows the general character of the site, which seems to have been a
+favorite type for temporary structures, single-room outlooks, etc. Among
+the fragments of pottery picked up here were pieces of polished red ware
+of the southern type, and part of the bottom of a large pot of so-called
+corrugated ware.
+
+Half a mile northwestward, in a saddle similar to that last described,
+and east of the crown of a hill, are the remains of a single room,
+nearly square and perhaps 10 feet long. These single rooms and small
+cluster remains are unusual in this region, and seem to replace the
+bowlder-marked ruins so common south of the East Verde (to be described
+more fully later). Although the walls of this single-room structure were
+built of river bowlders, they are well marked by d�bris and are of the
+same type as those in the ruins at the mouths of the East Verde and
+Fossil creek.
+
+
+CAVATE LODGES.
+
+Cavate lodges comprise a type of structures closely related to cliff
+houses and cave dwellings. The term is a comparatively new one, and the
+structures themselves are not widely known. They differ from the cliff
+houses and cave dwellings principally in the fact that the rooms are
+hollowed out of cliffs and hills by human agency, being cut out of soft
+rock, while the former habitations are simple, ordinary structures built
+for various reasons within a cove or on a bench in the cliffs or within
+a cave. The difference is principally if not wholly the result of a
+different physical environment, i.e., cavate lodges and cave dwellings
+are only different phases of the same thing; but for the present at
+least the name will be used and the cavate lodges will be treated as a
+separate class.
+
+There are but three regions in the United States in which cavate lodges
+are known to occur in considerable numbers, viz, on San Juan river, near
+its mouth; on the western side of the Rio Grande near the pueblo of
+Santa Clara; and on the eastern slope of San Francisco mountain, near
+Flagstaff, Arizona. To these may now be added the middle Verde region,
+from the East Verde to a point north of Verde, Arizona.
+
+Within the middle Verde region there are thousands of cavate lodges,
+sometimes in clusters of two or three, oftener in small groups, and
+sometimes in large groups comprising several hundred rooms. One of these
+large groups, located some 8 miles south of Verde on the eastern side of
+the river, has been selected for illustration.
+
+The bottom lands of the Rio Verde in the vicinity of Verde have been
+already described, and the cavate lodges in question occur just below
+the southern end of this large area of tillable land, and some of them
+overlook it. The river at this point flows southward, and extending
+toward the east are two little canyons which meet on its bank. North and
+south of the mouth of the canyons the bank of the river is formed by an
+inaccessible bluff 180 or 200 feet high. These bluffs are washed by the
+Verde during high water, though there is evidence that up to a recent
+time there was a considerable area of bottom land between the river and
+the foot of the bluff. Plate XXIV shows the northern end of the group
+from a low mesa on the opposite side of the river; the eastern bank of
+the river can be seen in the foreground, while the sandy area extending
+to the foot of the bluff is the present high-water channel of the Verde.
+The map (plate XXV) shows the distribution of the cavate lodges
+composing the group, and plate XXVI shows the character of the site. The
+cavate lodges occur on two distinct levels--the first, which comprises
+nearly all the cavate lodges, is at the top of the slopes of talus and
+about 75 feet above the river; the second is set back from 80 to 150
+feet from the first tier horizontally and 30 or 40 feet above it. The
+cavate lodges occur only in the face of the bluff along the river and in
+the lower parts of the two little canyons before mentioned. These
+canyons run back into the mesa seen in the illustration, which in turn
+forms part of the foothills rising into the range of mountains hemming
+in the Rio Verde on the east.
+
+  [Illustration: Figure 289.
+  Diagram showing strata of canyon wall.]
+
+The walls of the canyon in the cavate-lodge area are composed of three
+distinct strata, clearly defined and well marked. The relations of the
+strata, at points on the northern and western sides of the north canyon,
+are shown in figure 289 and plate XXVI. The lowest stratum shown in the
+figure is that in which almost all the cavate lodges occur. It is about
+8 feet thick and composed of a soft, very friable, purple-gray
+sandstone. Above it lies a greenish-white bed a few inches thick,
+followed by a stratum of a pronounced white, about 12 feet thick. This
+heavy stratum is composed of calcareous clay, and the green bed of a
+calcareous clay with a mixture of sand. The white stratum is divided at
+two-thirds its height by a thin belt of greenish-white rock, and above
+it there is another belt of purple-gray sandstone about 12 feet thick.
+The top of this sandstone forms the ground surface south of the point
+shown in the diagram, while on the north and east it forms the floor of
+the upper tier of cavate lodges.
+
+  [Illustration: Plate XXVII.
+  RUIN ON NORTHERN POINT OF CAVATE LODGE CANYON.]
+
+On the southern side of the canyon the lower purple stratum shows three
+distinct substrata; the upper is reddish purple and about 3� feet thick,
+the middle is purple gray, about 7 feet thick, and apparently softer
+than the upper and lower strata. The lodges occur in the middle purple
+substratum, their floors composed of the upper surface of the lower
+stratum and their roofs of the under surface of the upper stratum. Those
+on the north side are similarly placed, their roofs being about 3 feet
+below the white, except that in several instances the upper part of the
+purple up to the white has fallen, making the cavity larger. This has
+occurred, however, since the abandonment of the caves, and the debris,
+still fresh looking, is in situ.
+
+The formation in which the lodges occur is not of volcanic origin,
+although the beds composing it were perhaps deposited by hot springs
+during the period of great volcanic activity which produced San
+Francisco mountain in central Arizona and the great lava flows south of
+it. In view of the uncertainty on this point and the further fact that
+almost all the cavate lodges heretofore found were excavated in tufa,
+ash, or other soft volcanic deposits, the report of Mr. Joseph S.
+Diller, petrographer of the U.S. Geological Survey, will be of interest.
+It is as follows:
+
+  The coarse-grained specimen is sandstone, that of medium grain is
+  argillaceous sandstone, and the fine-grained one is calcareous clay.
+  The coarse-grained friable sandstone, in which the lodges have been
+  excavated, consists chiefly of subangular and rounded grains of
+  quartz and feldspar with a small proportion of black particles. Many
+  of the latter are magnetite, while the others are hornblende and
+  various ferromagnesian silicates. I did not detect any fragments of
+  volcanic origin.
+
+  The specimen of argillaceous sandstone is made up of thin layers of
+  fine-grained sand of the same sort as the first, alternating with
+  others containing considerable clay. In the clay layers, a trace of
+  carbonate of lime was found here and there, forming a transition of
+  the calcareous clay.
+
+  The calcareous clay when placed in acid effervesces vigorously, but
+  when allowed to stand the effervescence ceases in a few minutes and
+  the insoluble white clay remains.
+
+All the strata composing this formation are very soft; the purple-gray
+material of the middle layer is so soft that its surface can be rubbed
+off with the hand. They are also minutely stratified or laminated, and
+the lamin� are not well cemented together, so that a blow on the roof of
+a cavity with a stone or other implement will bring off slabs varying
+from half an inch to an inch and a half in thickness. These thin strata
+or lamin� are of unequal hardness, weathering in places several inches
+into the face of the rock in thin streaks of a few inches or less. The
+middle purple stratum exhibits this quality somewhat more decidedly than
+the others, and this fact has doubtless determined the selection of this
+stratum for the location of the lodges, as a room can be excavated in it
+more easily than a room of a similar size could be built up with loose
+rock.
+
+The almost absolute dependence of the native builder on nature as he
+found it is well illustrated by these cavate lodges. At a point in the
+northern wall of the northernmost canyon, shown in the diagram (figure
+289) and in plate XXVI, there is a small fault with a throw of about 2�
+feet, and the floors of the lodges west of the fault are just that much
+lower than the floors east of it. Furthermore, where the purple-gray
+stratum in which the lodges occur is covered up by the rising ground
+surface, the cavate lodges abruptly cease. In the northern and southern
+ends of the group the talus encroaches on and partly covers the
+purple-gray stratum, and in these places the talus has been removed from
+the face of the rock to permit the excavation of lodges. In short, the
+occurrence of the cavate lodges in this locality is determined
+absolutely by the occurrence of one particular stratum, and when that
+stratum disappears the lodges disappear. So far as can be ascertained
+without actually excavating a room there is no apparent difference
+between the stratum in which the lodges occur and the other purple
+strata above and below it. That there is some difference is indicated by
+the confinement of the lodges to that particular level, but that the
+difference is very slight is shown by the occurrence in two places of
+lodges just above the principal tier, a kind of second-story lodge, as
+it were. It is such differences in environment as these, however, often
+so slight as to be readily overlooked, which determine some of the
+largest operations carried on by the native builders, even to the
+building of some of the great many-storied pueblos, and, stranger still,
+sometimes leading to their complete abandonment.
+
+In the region under discussion cavate lodges usually occur in connection
+with and subordinate to village ruins, and range in number from two or
+three rooms to clusters of considerable size. Here, however, the cavate
+lodge is the feature which has been most developed, and it is noteworthy
+that the village ruins that occur in connection with them are small and
+unimportant and occupy a subordinate position.
+
+There are remains of two villages connected with the cavate lodges just
+described, perched on the points of the promontories which form the
+mouths of the two canyons before mentioned. The location of these ruins
+is shown in plate XXV. The one on the southern promontory is of greater
+extent than that on the northern point, and both are now much broken
+down, no standing wall remaining. A general view of the ruin on the
+northern promontory is given in plate XXVII, and the same illustration
+shows the remains of the other village on the flat top of the promontory
+in the farther part of the foreground.
+
+  [Illustration: Plate XXVIII.
+  CAVATE LODGE WITH WALLED FRONT.]
+
+The cavate lodges are generally rudely circular in shape, sometimes
+oblong, but never rectangular. The largest are 25 and even 30 feet in
+diameter, and from this size range down to 5 or 6 feet and thence down
+to little cubby-holes or storage cists. Owing to their similarity,
+particularly in point of size, it is difficult to draw a line between
+small rooms and large storage cists, but including the latter there are
+two hundred rooms on the main level, divided into seventy-four distinct
+and separate sets. These sets comprise from one to fourteen rooms each.
+On the upper level there are fifty-six rooms, divided into twenty-four
+sets, making a total of two hundred and fifty-six rooms. As nearly as
+can be determined by the extent of these ruins the population of the
+settlement was probably between one hundred and fifty and two hundred
+persons.
+
+  [Illustration: Figure 290.
+  Walled storage cist.]
+
+There is great variety in the rooms, both in size and arrangement. As a
+rule each set or cluster of rooms consists of a large apartment, entered
+by a narrow passageway from the face of the bluff, and a number of
+smaller rooms connected with it by narrow doorways or short passages and
+having no outlet except through the large apartment. As a rule two or
+more of these smaller back rooms are attached to the main apartment, and
+sometimes the back rooms have still smaller rooms attached to them. In
+several cases there are three rooms in a series or row extending back
+into the rock, and in one instance (at the point marked _E_ on the map,
+plate XXV) there are four such rooms, all of good size.
+
+Attached to the main apartment, and sometimes also to the back rooms,
+there are usually a number of storage cists, differing from the smaller
+rooms of the cluster only in size. These cists or cubby-holes range in
+size from a foot to 5 feet in diameter, and are nearly always on a level
+of the floor, although in some instances they extend below it. Storage
+cists are also sometimes excavated in the exterior walls of the cliffs,
+and occasionally they are partly excavated and partly inclosed by a
+rough, semicircular wall. An example of the latter type is shown in
+figure 290.
+
+As a rule the cavate lodges are set back slightly from the face of the
+bluff and connected with it by a narrow passageway. Another type,
+however, and one not uncommon, has no connecting passageway, but instead
+opens out to the air by a cove or nook in the bluff. This cove was used
+as the main room and the back rooms opened into it in the usual way by
+passageways. A number of lodges of this type can be seen in the eastern
+side of the northern promontory or bluff. Possibly lodges of this type
+were walled in front, although walled fronts are here exceptional, and
+some of them at least have been produced by the falling off of the rock
+above the doorway. The expedient of walling up the front of a shallow
+cavity, commonly practiced in the San Juan region, while comparatively
+rare in this vicinity, was known to the dwellers in these cavate lodges.
+At several points remains of front walls can be seen, and in two
+instances front walls remain in place. The masonry, however, is in all
+cases very rough, of the same type as that shown in plate XXVIII.
+
+In this connection a comparison with the cavate ledges found in other
+regions will be of interest. In 1875 Mr. W. H. Holmes, then connected
+with the Hayden survey, visited a number of cavate lodges on the Rio San
+Juan and some of its tributaries. Several groups are illustrated in his
+report.[5] Two of his illustrations, showing, respectively, the open
+front and walled front lodges, are reproduced in plates XXIX and XXX.
+The open front lodges are thus described:
+
+  I observed, in approaching from above, that a ruined tower stood
+  near the brink of the cliff, at a point where it curves outward
+  toward the river, and in studying it with my glass detected a number
+  of cave-like openings in the cliff face about halfway up. On
+  examination, I found them to have been shaped by the hand of man,
+  but so weathered out and changed by the slow process of atmospheric
+  erosion that the evidences of art were almost obliterated.
+
+  The openings are arched irregularly above, and generally quite
+  shallow, being governed very much in contour and depth by the
+  quality of the rock. The work of excavation has not been an
+  extremely great one, even with the imperfect implements that must
+  have been used, as the shale is for the most part soft and friable.
+
+  A hard stratum served as a floor, and projecting in many places made
+  a narrow platform by which the inhabitants were enabled to pass
+  along from one house to another.
+
+  Small fragments of mortar still adhered to the firmer parts of the
+  walls, from which it is inferred that they were at one time
+  plastered. It is also extremely probable that they were walled up in
+  front and furnished with doors and windows, yet no fragment of wall
+  has been preserved. Indeed, so great has been the erosion that many
+  of the caves have been almost obliterated, and are now not deep
+  enough to give shelter to a bird or bat.
+
+  [Footnote 5: Tenth Ann Rep. U.S. Geol. Survey, 1876, pp. 288-391.]
+
+  [Illustration: Plate XXIX.
+  OPEN FRONT CAVATE LODGES ON THE RIO SAN JUAN.]
+
+Walled fronts, the author states, were observed frequently on the Rio
+Mancos, where there are many well-preserved specimens. He described a
+large group situated on that stream, about 10 miles above its mouth,
+as follows:
+
+  The walls were in many places quite well preserved and new looking,
+  while all about, high and low, were others in all stages of decay.
+  In one place in particular, a picturesque outstanding promontory has
+  been full of dwellings, literally honeycombed by this
+  earth-burrowing race, and as one from below views the ragged,
+  window-pierced crags [see plate XXX] he is unconsciously led to
+  wonder if they are not the ruins of some ancient castle, behind
+  whose moldering walls are hidden the dread secrets of a
+  long-forgotten people; but a nearer approach quickly dispels such
+  fancies, for the windows prove to be only the doorways to shallow
+  and irregular apartments, hardly sufficiently commodious for a race
+  of pigmies. Neither the outer openings nor the apertures that
+  communicate between the caves are large enough to allow a person of
+  large stature to pass, and one is led to suspect that these nests
+  were not the dwellings proper of these people, but occasional
+  resorts for women and children, and that the somewhat extensive
+  ruins in the valley below were their ordinary dwelling places.
+
+It will be noticed that in both these cases there are associated ruins
+on the mesa top above, and in both instances these associated ruins are
+subordinate to the cavate lodges, in this respect resembling the lodges
+on the Verde already described. This condition, however, is not the
+usual one; in the great majority of cases the cavate lodges are
+subordinate to the associated ruins, standing to them in the relation of
+outlying agricultural shelters. Unless this fact is constantly borne in
+mind it is easy to exaggerate the importance of the cavate lodges as
+compared with the village ruins with which they are connected.
+
+The cavate lodges near San Francisco mountain in Arizona were visited in
+1883 by Col. James Stevenson, of the Bureau of Ethnology, and in 1885 by
+Maj. J. W. Powell. Major Powell[6] describes a number of groups in the
+vicinity of Flagstaff. Of one group, situated on a cinder cone about 12
+miles east of San Francisco peak, he says:
+
+  Here the cinders are soft and friable, and the cone is a prettily
+  shaped dome. On the southern slope there are excavations into the
+  indurated and coherent cinder mass, constituting chambers, often 10
+  or 12 feet in diameter and 6 to 10 feet in height. The chambers are
+  of irregular shape, and occasionally a larger central chamber forms
+  a kind of vestibule to several smaller ones gathered about it. The
+  smaller chambers are sometimes at the same altitude as the central
+  or principal one, and sometimes at a lower altitude. About one
+  hundred and fifty of these chambers have been excavated. Most of
+  them are now partly filled by the caving in of the walls and
+  ceilings, but some of them are yet in a good state of preservation.
+  In these chambers, and about them on the summit and sides of the
+  cinder cone, many stone implements were found, especially metates.
+  Some bone implements also were discovered. At the very summit of the
+  little cone there is a plaza, inclosed by a rude wall made of
+  volcanic cinders, the floor of which was carefully leveled. The
+  plaza is about 45 by 75 feet in area. Here the people lived in
+  underground houses--chambers hewn from the friable volcanic cinders.
+  Before them, to the south, west, and north, stretched beautiful
+  valleys, beyond which volcanic cones are seen rising amid pine
+  forests. The people probably cultivated patches of ground in the low
+  valleys.
+
+  About 18 miles still farther to the east of San Francisco mountain,
+  another ruined village was discovered, built about the crater of a
+  volcanic cone. This volcanic peak is of much greater magnitude. The
+  crater opens to the eastward. On the south many stone dwellings have
+  been built of the basaltic and cinder-like rooks. Between the ridge
+  on the south and another on the northwest there is a low saddle in
+  which other buildings have been erected, and in which a great plaza
+  was found, much like the one previously described. But the most
+  interesting part of this village was on the cliff which rose on the
+  northwest side of the crater. In this cliff are many natural caves,
+  and the caves themselves were utilized as dwellings by inclosing
+  them in front with walls made of volcanic rocks and cinders. These
+  cliff dwellings are placed tier above tier, in a very irregular way.
+  In many cases natural caves were thus utilized; in other cases
+  cavate chambers were made; that is, chambers have been excavated in
+  the friable cinders. On the very summit of the ridge stone buildings
+  were erected, so that this village was in part a cliff village,
+  in part cavate, and in part the ordinary stone pueblo. The valley
+  below, especially to the southward, was probably occupied by their
+  gardens. In the chambers among the overhanging cliffs a great many
+  interesting relics were found, of stone, bone, and wood, and many
+  potsherds.
+
+  [Footnote 6: Seventh Ann. Rep. Bur. Eth., 1891, p. xix.]
+
+It will be seen that the first group described bears a remarkably close
+resemblance to the cavate lodges on the Rio Verde. The lodges themselves
+are smaller, but the arrangement of main apartment and attached back
+rooms is quite similar. It will be noticed also that in the second group
+described village ruins are again associated on the summit of the cliff
+or ridge. Major Powell ascertained that these cavate lodges were
+occupied by the Havasupai Indians now living in Cataract canyon, who are
+closely related to the Walapai, and who, it is said, were driven from
+this region by the Spaniards.
+
+The cavate lodges on the Rio Grande, in New Mexico, in the vicinity of
+the modern pueblo of Santa Clara, were also visited in 1885 by Major
+Powell and are thus described by him:[7]
+
+  The cliffs themselves are built of volcanic sands and ashes, and
+  many of the strata are exceedingly light and friable. The specific
+  gravity of some of these rocks is so low that they will float on
+  water. Into the faces of these cliffs, in the friable and easily
+  worked rock, many chambers have been excavated; for mile after mile
+  the cliffs are studded with them, so that altogether there are many
+  thousands. Sometimes a chamber or series of chambers is entered from
+  a terrace, but usually they were excavated many feet above any
+  landing or terrace below, so that they could be reached only by
+  ladders. In other places artificial terraces were built by
+  constructing retaining walls and filling the interior next to the
+  cliffs with loose rock and sand. Very often steps were cut into the
+  face of a cliff and a rude stairway formed by which chambers could
+  be reached. The chambers were very irregularly arranged and very
+  irregular in size and structure. In many cases there is a central
+  chamber, which seems to have been a general living room for the
+  people, back of which two, three, or more chambers somewhat smaller
+  are found. The chambers occupied by one family are sometimes
+  connected with those occupied by another family, so that two or
+  three or four sets of chambers have interior communication. Usually,
+  however, the communication from one system of chambers to another
+  was by the outside. Many of the chambers had evidently been occupied
+  as dwellings. They still contained fireplaces and evidences of fire;
+  there were little caverns or shelves in which various vessels were
+  placed, and many evidences of the handicraft of the people were left
+  in stone, bone, horn, and wood, and in the chambers and about the
+  sides of the cliffs potsherds are abundant. On more careful survey
+  it was found that many chambers had been used as stables for asses,
+  goats, and sheep. Sometimes they had been filled a few inches, or
+  even 2 or 3 feet, with the excrement of these animals. Ears of corn
+  and corncobs were also found in many places. Some of the chambers
+  were evidently constructed to be used as storehouses or caches for
+  grain. Altogether it is very evident that the cliff houses have been
+  used in comparatively modern times; at any rate, since the people
+  owned asses, goats, and sheep. The rock is of such a friable nature
+  that it will not stand atmospheric degradation very long, and there
+  is abundant evidence of this character testifying to the recent
+  occupancy of these cavate dwellings.
+
+  [Illustration: Plate XXX.
+  WALLED FRONT CAVATE LODGES ON THE RIO SAN JUAN.]
+
+  [Illustration: Plate XXXI.
+  CAVATE LODGES ON THE RIO GRANDE.]
+
+  Above the cliffs, on the mesas, which have already been described,
+  evidences of more ancient ruins were found. These were pueblos built
+  of cut stone rudely dressed. Every mesa had at least one ancient
+  pueblo up off it, evidently far more ancient than the cavate
+  dwellings found in the face of the cliffs. It is, then, very plain
+  that the cavate dwellings are not of great age; that they have been
+  occupied since the advent of the white man, and that on the summit
+  of the cliffs there are ruins of more ancient pueblos.
+
+  [Footnote 7: Seventh Ann. Rep. Bur. Eth., op. cit., p. XXII.]
+
+Major Powell obtained a tradition of the Santa Clara Indians, reciting
+three successive periods of occupancy of the cavate lodges by them, the
+last occurring after the Spanish conquest of New Mexico in the
+seventeenth century.
+
+It will be noticed that here again the cavate lodges and village ruins
+are associated, although in this case the village ruins on the mesas
+above are said to be more ancient than the cavate lodges. A general view
+of a small section of cliff containing lodges is given in plate XXXI for
+comparison with those on the Verde. The lodges on the Rio Grande seem to
+have been more elaborate than those on the Verde, perhaps owing to
+longer occupancy; but the same arrangement of a main front room and
+attached back rooms, as in the cavate lodges on the Verde, was found.
+
+As the cavate lodges of the San Francisco mountain region have been
+assigned to the Havasupai Indians of the Yuman stock, and those of the
+Rio Grande to the Santa Clara pueblo Indians of the Tanoan stock, it may
+be of interest to state that there is a vague tradition extant among the
+modern settlers of the Verde region that the cavate lodges of that
+region were occupied within the last three generations. This tradition
+was derived from an old Walapai Indian whose grandfather was alive when
+the cavate lodges were occupied. It was impossible to follow this
+tradition to its source, and it is introduced only as a suggestion.
+Attention is called, however, to the tradition given in the introduction
+to this paper with which it may be connected.
+
+
+  [Illustration: Figure 291.
+  Plan of cavate lodges, group _D_.]
+
+  [Illustration: Plate XXXII.
+  INTERIOR VIEW OF CAVATE LODGE, GROUP D.]
+
+Aside from the actual labor of excavation, there was but little work
+expended on the Verde cavate lodges. The interiors were never plastered,
+so far as the writer could determine. Figure 291 shows the plan of one
+of the principal sets of rooms, which occurs at the point marked _D_ on
+the map, plate XXV; and plate XXXII is an interior view of the principal
+room, drawn from a flashlight photograph. This set of rooms was
+excavated in a point of the cliff and extends completely through it as
+shown on the general plan, plate XXV. The entrance was from the west by
+a short passageway opening into a cove extending back some 10 feet from
+the face of the cliff. The first room entered measures 16 feet in length
+by 10 feet in width. On the floor of this room a structure resembling
+the piki or paper bread oven of the Tusayan Indians, was found
+constructed partly of fragments of old and broken metates. At the
+southern end of the room there is a cubby-hole about a foot in diameter,
+excavated at the floor level. At the eastern end of the room there is a
+passageway about 2� feet long leading into a smaller roughly circular
+room, measuring 7� feet in its longest diameter, and this in turn is
+connected with another almost circular room of the same size. The floors
+of all three of these rooms are on the same level, but the roofs of the
+two smaller rooms are a foot lower than that of the entrance room. At
+the northern end of the entrance room there is a passageway 3 feet long
+and 2� feet wide leading into the principal room of the set. This
+passageway at its southern end has a framed doorway of the type
+illustrated later.
+
+  [Illustration: Figure 292.
+  Sections of cavate lodges, group _D_.]
+
+The main room is roughly circular in form, measuring 16 feet in its
+north and south diameter and 15 feet from east to west. The roof is
+about 7 feet above the floor. Figure 292 shows a section from northwest
+to southwest (_a_, _b_, figure 291) through the small connected room
+adjoining on the south, and also an east arid west section (_c_, _d_,
+figure 291). The floor is plastered with clay wherever it was necessary
+in order to bring it to a level, and the coating is consequently not of
+uniform thickness. It is divided into sections by low ridges of clay as
+shown in the plan and sections; the northern section is a few inches
+higher than the other. Extending through the clay finish of the floor
+and into the rock beneath there are four pits, indicated on the plan by
+round spots. The largest of these, situated opposite the northern door,
+was a fire hole or pit about 18 inches in diameter at the floor level,
+of an inverted conical shape, about 10 inches in depth, and plastered
+inside with clay inlaid with fragments of pottery placed as closely
+together as their shape would permit. The other pits are smaller; one
+located near the southeastern corner of the room is about 6 inches in
+diameter and the same in depth, while the others are mere depressions in
+the floor, in shape like the small paint mortars used by the Pueblos.
+
+  [Illustration: Figure 293.
+  Section of water pocket.]
+
+The room, when opened, contained a deposit of bat dung and sand about
+3 feet thick in the center and averaging about 2 feet thick throughout
+the room. This deposit exhibited a series of well-defined strata,
+varying from three-fourths to an inch and a half thick, caused by the
+respective predominance of dung or sand. No evidence of disturbance of
+these strata was found although careful examination was made. This
+deposit was cleared out and a number of small articles were found, all
+resting, however, directly on the floor. The articles consisted of
+fragments of basketry, bundles of fibers and pieces of fabrics, pieces
+of arrowshafts, fragments of grinding stones, three sandals of woven
+yucca fiber, two of them new and nearly perfect, and a number of pieces
+of cotton cloth, the latter scattered over the room and in several
+instances gummed to the floor. Only a few fragments of pottery were
+found in the main room, but outside in the northern passageway were the
+fragments of two large pieces, one an olla, the other a bowl, both
+buried in 3 or 4 inches of debris under a large slab fallen from the
+roof.
+
+Owing to its situation this room was one of the most desirable in the
+whole group. The prevailing south wind blows through it at all times,
+and this is doubtless the reason that it was so much filled up with
+sand. In the center of the room the roof has fallen at a comparatively
+recent date from an area about 10 by 7 feet, in slabs about an inch
+thick, for the fragments were within 6 inches of the top of the debris.
+The walls are smoke-blackened to a very slight extent compared with the
+large room south of it.
+
+At the northeastern and southwestern corners there are two small
+pockets, opening on the floor level but sunk below it, which seem to
+have been designed to contain water. That in the southwest corner is the
+larger; it is illustrated in the section, figure 293. As shown in the
+section and on the plan (figure 291), a low wall composed of adobe
+mortar and broken rock was built across the opening on the edge of the
+floor, perhaps to increase its capacity. This cavity would hold 15 to 20
+gallons of water, a sufficient amount to supply the needs of an ordinary
+Indian family for three weeks or a mouth. The pocket in the northeastern
+corner of the room is not quite so large as the one described, and its
+front is not walled.
+
+  [Illustration: Plate XXXIII.
+  BOWLDER-MARKED SITE.]
+
+West of the main room there is a storage room, nearly circular in shape,
+with a diameter of about 6 feet and with a floor raised about 2 feet
+above that of the main room. Its roof is but 3 feet above the floor, and
+across its western end is a low bench a couple of inches above the
+floor. In the northeastern corner there is a shallow cove, also raised
+slightly above the main floor and connecting by a narrow opening with
+the outer vestibule-like rooms on the north. These northern rooms of the
+lodge seem to be simply enlargements of the passageway. The northern
+opening is a window rather than a door as it is about 10 feet above the
+ground and therefore could be entered only by a ladder. The opening is
+cut in the back of a cove in the cliff, and is 6 feet from the northern
+end of the main room. At half its length it has been enlarged on both
+sides by the excavation of niches or coves about 4 feet deep but only 2�
+feet high. These coves could be used only for storage on a small scale.
+
+  [Illustration: Figure 294.
+  Plan of cavate lodges, group _A_.]
+
+In the southeastern corner of the main room there is another opening
+leading into a low-roofed storage cist, approximating 4 feet in
+diameter, and this cist was in turn connected with the middle one of the
+three rooms first described. This opening, at the time the room was
+examined, was so carefully sealed and plastered that it was scarcely
+perceptible.
+
+A different arrangement of rooms is shown in plan in figure 294 and in
+section in figure 295. This group occurs at the point marked A on the
+map. The entrance to the main room was through a narrow passage, 3 feet
+long, leading into the chamber from the face of the bluff, which at this
+point is vertical. The main room is oblong, measuring 17 feet one way
+and 10 the other. At the southern end there is a small cist and on the
+western side near the entrance there is another hardly a foot in
+diameter. North of the main room there is a small, roughly circular room
+with a diameter of about 6 feet. It is connected with the main room by a
+passage about 2 feet long. On the floor of the main room there are two
+low ridges of clay, similar to those already described, which divide it
+into three sections of nearly equal size.
+
+  [Illustration: Figure 295.
+  Sections of cavate lodges, group _A_.]
+
+East of the main room there is another of considerable size in the form
+of a bay or cove. It measures 13 feet by 6 feet, and its floor is 20
+inches higher than that of the main room, as shown in the section
+(figure 295). Attached to this bay, at its northern end, is a small cist
+about 3 feet in diameter, and with its floor sunk to the level of the
+floor of the main room. East of the cove there is another cist about 4�
+feet in diameter and with its floor on the level of the cove. Adjoining
+it on the south and leading out from the southeastern corner of the cove
+or bay, there is a long passage leading into an almost circular room
+9 feet in diameter. The back wall of this room is 33 feet from the face
+of the cliff. The passage leading into it is 6 feet long, 2� feet wide
+at the doorways, bulging slightly in the center, and its floor is on the
+same level as the rooms it connects; its eastern end is defined by a
+ridge of clay about 6 inches high.
+
+  [Illustration: Plate XXXIV.
+  IRRIGATING DITCH ON THE LOWER VERDE.]
+
+In the eastern side of the circular room last described there is a
+storage cist about 3 feet wide and 2 feet deep. No fire-pit was seen in
+this cluster, although if the principal apartment were carefully cleaned
+out it is not improbable that one might be found.
+
+A cluster of rooms somewhat resembling the last described is shown in
+plan in figure 296. This cluster occurs at the point marked _B_ on the
+map. The main room is set back 5� feet from the face of the bluff, which
+is vertical at this point, and is oblong in shape, measuring 19� by 11�
+feet. Its roof is 7� feet above the floor in the center of the room.
+Attached to its southern end by a passage only a foot in length is a
+small room or storage cist about 5 feet in diameter. At its northeastern
+corner there is another room or cist similar in shape, about 7 feet in
+diameter, and reached by a passage 2 feet long. This small room is also
+connected with a long room east of the main apartment by a passage, the
+southern end of which was carefully sealed up and plastered, making a
+kind of niche of the northern end. At the southeastern corner of the
+room there is a small niche about 2 feet in diameter on the level of the
+floor.
+
+  [Illustration: Figure 296.
+  Plan of cavate lodges, group _B_.]
+
+The eastern side of the main room is not closed, but opens directly into
+an oblong chamber of irregular size with the roof nearly 2 feet lower
+and the floor a foot higher than the main room. This step in the floor
+is shown by the line between the rooms on the ground plan. The second
+room is about 6 feet wide and 20 feet long, its southern end rounding
+out slightly so as to form an almost circular chamber. Near the center
+of its eastern side there is a passageway 2� feet long leading into a
+circular chamber 10� feet in diameter and with its floor on the same
+level as the room to which it is attached. The back wall of this room is
+35� feet from the face of the cliff.
+
+
+A group occurring at the point marked _E_ on the map (plate XXV) is
+shown in plan in figure 297. It is located in a projecting corner of the
+bluff and marks the eastern limit of the cavate lodges at this end of
+the canyon. The group consists of five rooms, and has the distinction of
+extending four rooms deep into the rock. The main room is set back about
+13 feet from the face of the bluff, about 7 feet of this distance being
+occupied by a narrow passageway and the remainder by a cove. The depth
+from the face of the bluff to the back of the innermost chamber is 47
+feet. The main room measures 16 feet in length and 11 feet in width, and
+its roof is less than 7 feet high in the center. Near its center and
+opposite the long passageway mentioned there is a fire-pit nearly 3 feet
+in diameter.
+
+  [Illustration: Figure 297.
+  Plan of cavate lodges, group _E_.]
+
+At the northeastern corner of the main room there is a wide opening
+leading into a room measuring 8 by 7 feet, with a floor raised 2 feet
+above that of the principal apartment. The roof of this chamber is but
+4� feet above the floor. Almost the whole eastern side of this room is
+occupied by a wide opening leading into another room of approximately
+the same size and shape. The roof of this room is only 3 feet 10 inches
+above the floor, and the floor is raised 6 inches above that on the
+west. In the northeastern corner there is a short narrow passageway
+leading into a small circular room, the fourth of the series, having a
+diameter of 4 feet. The roof of this apartment is only 3 feet above the
+floor.
+
+  [Illustration: Plate XXXV.
+  OLD IRRIGATING DITCH, SHOWING CUT THROUGH LOW RIDGE.]
+
+In the southeastern corner of the main room there is a narrow passageway
+leading into a circular chamber about 8 feet in diameter. This chamber
+is connected with the second room of the series described by a
+passageway about 2 feet long, which opens into the southeastern corner
+of that room. This passageway, at its northern end, is 1� feet below the
+room into which it opens. One of the most noticeable features about this
+group of rooms is the entire absence of the little nooks and pockets in
+the wall which are characteristic of these lodges, and which are very
+numerous in all the principal groups, noticeably in the group next
+described.
+
+  [Illustration: Figure 298.
+  Plan of cavate lodges, group _C_.]
+
+At the point marked _C_ on the map there is an elaborate group of
+chambers, consisting of two groups joined together and comprising
+altogether eight rooms. This is shown in plan in figure 298. The rock
+composing the front of the main room of the southern group has recently
+fallen, making a pile of debris about 4 feet high. The room originally
+measured about 12 by 22 feet. Its eastern side is occupied by a
+passageway leading into an adjoining chamber and by two shallow, roughly
+semicircular coves, apparently the remains of former small rooms. Along
+the northern wall of the room there are two little nooks at the floor
+level, and along the southern wall there are four, one of them (shown on
+the plan) being dug out like a pit. The roof of the room was about
+6 feet above the floor.
+
+The passageway near the eastern side is 4� feet long, and is 3� feet
+wide--an unusual width. It opens into a roughly circular room, 8 feet in
+diameter, but with a roof only 3� feet above the floor. Along the
+northeastern side of this room, there are three small pockets opening on
+the floor level. On the southern side of the room there is a wide
+opening into a small attached room, roughly oblong in shape and
+measuring about 6� by 4� feet. Along the southern wall of this little
+room there are two small pockets, and at the southwestern corner the
+rock has been cleared out to form a low cavity in the shape of a half
+dome. In the northwestern corner of the room there is another wide
+passage to a small room attached to the main room. This passage is now
+carefully sealed on its southern side with a slab of stone, plastered
+neatly so as to be hardly perceptible from the southern side. The room
+into which this passage opens on the north is attached to the
+northeastern corner of the main apartment by a narrow passage, 1� feet
+wide and a foot long. It is roughly circular in shape, about 6 feet in
+diameter, and is the only chamber in the southern group which has no
+pockets or cubby-holes. Of these pockets there are no fewer than twelve
+in the southern group. Near the northern corner of the main room there
+is a doorway leading into a cove, which in turn opens into the main room
+of the northern group.
+
+The main room of the northern group is setback about 9 feet from the
+face of the bluff, but is entered by a passageway about 3 feet long, the
+remainder of the distance consisting of a cove in the cliff. The room is
+22 feet long and 13 feet wide and its roof is 6� feet above the floor.
+In the southwestern corner there is a small pocket in the wall, and in
+the northwestern corner two others, all on the floor level. In the
+eastern side, however, there is a cubby-hole nearly 2 feet in diameter
+and about 2 feet above the floor. This is a rare feature. The southern
+end of the room opens into a kind of cove, raised 2 feet above the floor
+of the main room, and opening at its southern end into the main room of
+the southern group. In the floor of this cove there is a circular pit
+about 18 inches in diameter (marked in the plan, figure 298). Although
+resembling the fire holes already described, the position of the pit
+under consideration precludes use for that purpose; it was probably
+designed to contain water. At the northeastern corner of the principal
+apartment there is an oblong chamber or storage cist, measuring 6 feet
+by 7 feet.
+
+  [Illustration: Plate XXXVI.
+  OLD DITCH NEAR VERDE, LOOKING WESTWARD.]
+
+Connected with the main room by a passageway 2 feet long cut in its
+eastern wall, there is an almost circular chamber 7 feet in diameter,
+and this in turn connects with another chamber beyond it by a passageway
+2� feet long and less than 2 feet wide. The roofs of the two chambers
+last mentioned are but 4� and 4 feet, respectively, above the floor, and
+in none of the rooms of this group, except the main apartment, are
+pockets or niches found. The whole group extends back about 45 feet into
+the bluff.
+
+
+BOWLDER-MARKED SITES.
+
+Within the limits of the region here treated there are many hundreds of
+sites of structures and groups of rooms now marked only by lines of
+water-rounded bowlders. As a rule each site was occupied by only one or
+two rooms, although sometimes the settlement rose to the dignity of a
+village of considerable size. The rooms were nearly always oblong,
+similar in size and ground plan to the rooms composing the village ruins
+already described, but differing in two essential points, viz, character
+of site and character of the masonry. As a rule these remains are found
+on and generally near the edge of a low mesa or hill overlooking some
+area of tillable land, but they are by no means confined to such
+locations, being often found directly on the bottom land, still more
+frequently on the banks of dry washes at the points where they emerge
+from the hills, and sometimes on little islands or raised areas within
+the wash where every spring they must have been threatened with overflow
+or perhaps even overflowed. An examination of many sites leads to the
+conclusion that permanency was not an element of much weight in their
+selection.
+
+Externally these bowlder-marked sites have every appearance of great
+antiquity, but all the evidence obtainable in regard to them indicates
+that they were connected with and inhabited at the same time as the
+other ruins in the region in which they are found. They are so much
+obliterated now, however, that a careful examination fails to determine
+in some cases whether the site in question was or was not occupied by a
+room or group of rooms, and there is a notable dearth of pottery
+fragments such as are so abundant in the ruins already described.
+Excavation in a large ruin of this type, however, conducted by some
+ranchmen living just above Limestone creek, yielded a considerable lot
+of pottery, not differing in kind from the fragments found in stone
+ruins so far as can be judged from description alone.
+
+In the southern part of the region here treated bowlder-marked sites are
+more clearly marked and more easily distinguished than in the northern
+part, partly perhaps because in that section the normal ground surface
+is smoother than in the northern section and affords a greater contrast
+with the site itself. Plate XXXIII shows one of these bowlder-marked
+sites which occurs a little below Limestone creek, on the opposite or
+eastern side of the river. It is typical of many in that district. It
+will be noticed that the bowlders are but slightly sunk into the soil,
+and that the surface of the ground has been so slightly disturbed that
+it is practically level; there is not enough d�bris on the ground to
+raise the walls 2 feet. The illustration shows, in the middle distance,
+a considerable area of bottom land which the site overlooks. In plan
+this site shows a number of oblong rectangular rooms, the longer axes of
+which are not always parallel, the plan resembling very closely the
+smaller stone village ruins already described. It is probable that the
+lack of parallelism in the longer axes of the rooms is due to the same
+cause as in the village ruins, i.e., to the fact that the site was not
+all built up at one time.
+
+The illustration represents only a part of an extensive series of wall
+remains. The series commences at the northern end of a mesa forming the
+eastern boundary of the Rio Verde and a little below a point opposite
+the mouth of Limestone creek. The ruins occur along the western rim of
+the mesa, overlooking the river and the bottom lands on the other side,
+and are now marked only by bowlders and a slight rise in the ground. But
+few lines of wall are visible, most of the ruins consisting only of a
+few bowlders scattered without system. From the northern end of the
+mesa, where the ruins commence, traces of walls can be seen extending
+due southward and at an angle of about 10� with the mesa edge for a
+distance of one-fourth of a mile. Beyond this, for half a mile or more
+southward, remains of single houses and small clusters occur, and these
+are found in less abundance to the southern edge of the mesa, where the
+ruin illustrated occurs. The settlement extended some distance east of
+the part illustrated, and also southward on the slope of the hill. Two
+well-marked lines of wall occur at the foot of the hill, on the flat
+bottom land, but the slopes of the hill are covered with bowlders and
+show no well-defined lines. Scattered about on the surface of the ground
+are some fragments of metates of coarse black basalt and some potsherds,
+but the latter are not abundant.
+
+The bowlders which now mark these sites were probably obtained in the
+immediate vicinity of the points where they were used. The mesa on which
+the ruin occurs is a river terrace, constructed partly of these
+bowlders; they outcrop occasionally on its surface and show clearly in
+its sloping sides, and the washes that carry off the water falling on
+its surface are full of them.
+
+  [Illustration: Plate XXXVII.
+  OLD DITCH NEAR VERDE, LOOKING EASTWARD.]
+
+In the northern end of the settlement there are faint traces of what may
+have been an irrigating ditch, but the topography is such that water
+could not be brought on top of the mesa from the river itself. At the
+southern end of the settlement, northeast of the point shown in the
+illustration, there are traces of a structure that may have been a
+storage reservoir. The surface of the mesa dips slightly southward, and
+the reservoir-like structure is placed at a point just above the head of
+a large wash, where a considerable part of the water that falls upon the
+surface of the mesa could be caught. It is possible that, commencing at
+the northern end of the settlement, a ditch extended completely through
+it, terminating in the storage reservoir at the southern end, and that
+this ditch was used to collect the surface water and was not connected
+with the river. A method of irrigation similar to this is practiced
+today by some of the Pueblo Indians, notably by the Hopi or Tusayan and
+by the Zuni. In the bottom land immediately south of the mesa, now
+occupied by several American families, there is a fine example of an
+aboriginal ditch, described later.
+
+In the vicinity of the large ruin just above Limestone creek, previously
+described, the bowlder-marked sites are especially abundant. In the
+immediate vicinity of that ruin there are ten or more of them, and they
+are abundant all along the edge of the mesa forming the upper river
+terrace; in fact, they are found in every valley and on every point of
+mesa overlooking a valley containing tillable land.
+
+It is probable that the bowlder-marked ruins are the sites of secondary
+and temporary structures, erected for convenience in working fields near
+to or overlooked by them and distant from the home pueblo. The character
+of the sites occupied by them and the plan of the structures themselves
+supports this hypothesis. That they were connected with the permanent
+stone villages is evident from their comparative abundance about each of
+the larger ones, and that they were constructed in a less substantial
+manner than the home pueblo is shown by the character of the remains.
+
+It seems quite likely that only the lower course or courses of the walls
+of these dwellings were of bowlders, the superstructure being perhaps
+sometimes of earth (not adobe) but more probably often of the type known
+as "jacal"--upright slabs of wood plastered with mud. This method of
+construction was known to the ancient pueblo peoples and is used today
+to a considerable extent by the Mexican population of the southwest and
+to a less extent in some of the pueblos. No traces of this construction
+were found in the bowlder-marked sites, perhaps because no excavation
+was carried on; but it is evident that the rooms were not built of
+stone, and that not more than a small percentage could have been built
+of rammed earth or grout, as the latter, in disintegrating leaves
+well-defined mounds and lines of debris. It is improbable, moreover,
+that the structures were of brush plastered with mud, such as the Navajo
+hogan, as this method of construction is not well adapted to a
+rectangular ground plan, and if persistently applied would soon modify
+such a plan to a round or partially rounded one. Temporary brush
+structures would not require stone foundations, but structures composed
+of upright posts or slabs, filled in with brush and plastered with mud,
+and designed to last more than one farming season, would probably be
+placed on stone foundations, as the soil throughout most of the region
+in which these remains occur is very light, and a wooden structure
+placed directly on it would hardly survive a winter.
+
+In the valley of the Rio Verde the profitable use of adobe at the
+present time is approximately limited northward by the thirty-fourth
+parallel, which crosses the valley a little below the mouth of Limestone
+creek. North of this latitude adobe is used less and less and where used
+requires more and more attention to keep in order, although on the high
+tablelands some distance farther northward it is again a suitable
+construction. South of the thirty-fourth parallel, however, adobe
+construction is well suited to the climate and in the valleys of Salt
+and Gila rivers it is the standard construction. Adobe construction (the
+use of sun-dried molded brick) was unknown to the ancient pueblo
+builders, but its aboriginal counterpart, rammed earth or pis�
+construction, such as that of the well known Casa Grande ruin on Gila
+river, acted in much the same way under climatic influences, and it is
+probable that its lack of suitability precluded its use in the greater
+part of the Verde valley. No walls of the type of those of the Casa
+Grande ruin have been found in the valley of the Verde, although
+abundant in the valleys of the Salt and Gila rivers, but it is possible
+that this method of construction was used in the southern part of the
+Verde region for temporary structures; in the northern part of that
+region its use even for that purpose was not practicable.
+
+In this connection it should be noted that all the ruins herein
+described are of buildings of the northern type of aboriginal pueblo
+architecture and seem to be connected with the north rather than the
+south.
+
+
+  [Illustration: Plate XXXVIII.
+  BLUFF OVER ANCIENT DITCH, SHOWING GRAVEL STRATUM.]
+
+IRRIGATING DITCHES AND HORTICULTURAL WORKS.
+
+One of the finest examples of an aboriginal irrigating ditch that has
+come under the writer's notice occurs about 2 miles below the mouth of
+Limestone creek, on the opposite or eastern side of the river. At this
+point there is a large area of fertile bottom land, now occupied by some
+half dozen ranches, known locally as the Lower Verde settlement. The
+ditch extends across the northern and western part of this area. Plate
+XXXIV shows a portion of this ditch at a point about one eighth of a
+mile east of the river. Here the ditch is marked by a very shallow
+trough in the grass-covered bottom, bounded on either side by a low
+ridge of earth and pebbles. Plate XXXV shows the same ditch at a point
+about one-eighth of a mile above the last, where it was necessary to cut
+through a low ridge. North of this point the ditch can not be traced,
+but here it is about 40 feet above the river and about 10 feet above a
+modern (American) ditch. It is probable that the water was taken out of
+the river about 2 miles above this place, but the ditch was run on the
+sloping side of the mesa which has been recently washed out. No traces
+of the ditch were found east of the point shown in plate XXXIV, but as
+the modern acequia, which enters the valley nearly 10 feet below the
+ancient one, extends up the valley nearly to its head, there is no
+reason to suppose that the ancient ditch did not irrigate nearly the
+whole area of bottom land. The ancient ditch is well marked by two
+clearly defined lines of pebbles and small bowlders, as shown in the
+illustration. Probably these pebbles entered into its construction, as
+the modern ditch, washed out at its head and abandoned more than a year
+ago, shows no trace, of a similar marking.
+
+  [Illustration: Figure 299.
+  Map of an ancient irrigating ditch.]
+
+A little west and south of the point shown in plate XXXIV the bottom
+land drops off by a low bench of 3 or 4 feet to a lower level or
+terrace, and this edge is marked for a distance of about a quarter of a
+mile by the remains of a stone wall or other analogous structure. This
+is located on the extreme edge of the upper bench and it is marked on
+its higher side by a very small elevation. On the outer or lower side it
+is more clearly visible, as the stones of which the wall was composed
+are scattered over the slope marking the edge of the upper bench. At
+irregular intervals along the wall there are distinct rectangular areas
+about the size of an ordinary pueblo room, i.e., about 8 by 10 and 10 by
+12 feet.
+
+In February, 1891, there was an exceptional flood in Verde river due to
+prolonged hard rain. The river in some places rose nearly 20 feet, and
+at many points washed away its banks and changed the channel. The river
+rose on two occasions; during its first rise it cut away a considerable
+section of the bank near a point known as Spanish wash, about 3� miles
+below Verde, exposing an ancient ditch. During its second rise it cut
+away still more of the bank and part of the ancient ditch exposed a few
+days before. The river here makes a sharp bend and flows a little north
+of east. The modern American ditch, which supplied all the bottom lands
+of the Verde west of the river, was ruined in this vicinity by the flood
+that uncovered the old ditch. Figure 299 is a map of the ancient ditch
+drawn in the field, with contours a foot apart, and showing also a
+section, on a somewhat larger scale, drawn through the points _A_, _B_
+on the map. Plate XXXVI is a view of the ditch looking westward across
+the point where it has been washed away, and plate XXXVII shows the
+eastern portion, where the ditch disappears under the bluff.
+
+The bank of the river at this point consists of a low sandy beach, from
+10 to 50 feet wide, limited on the south by a vertical bluff 10 to 12
+feet high and composed of sandy alluvial soil. This bluff is the edge of
+the bottom land before referred to, and on top is almost flat and
+covered with a growth of mesquite, some of the trees reaching a diameter
+of more than 3 inches. The American ditch, which is shown on the map,
+runs along the top of the bluff skirting its edge, and is about 14 feet
+above the river at its ordinary stage. The edge of the bluff is shown on
+the map by a heavy black line. It will be observed that the ancient
+ditch occurs on the lower flat, about 3 feet above the river at its
+ordinary stage, and its remains extend over nearly 500 feet. The line,
+however, is not a straight one, but has several decided bends. One of
+these occurs at a point just west of that shown in the section. About 80
+feet east of that point the ditch makes another turn southward, and
+about 40 feet beyond strikes the face of the bluff almost at right
+angles and passes under it.
+
+About 50 feet north of the main ditch, at the point where it passes
+under the bluff, there are the remains of another ditch, as shown on the
+map. This second ditch was about a foot higher than the main structure,
+or about 4 feet above the river; it runs nearly parallel with it for 30
+feet and then passes into the bluff with a slight turn toward the north.
+It is about the same size as the main ditch, but its section is more
+evenly rounded. Figure 300 shows this ditch in section.
+
+  [Illustration: Plate XXXIX.
+  ANCIENT DITCH AND HORTICULTURAL WORKS ON CLEAR CREEK.]
+
+As already stated, the American ditch is about 14 feet above the river,
+while the ancient ditch is less than 4 feet above the water. This
+decided difference in level indicates a marked difference in the
+character of the river. The destruction of the modern ditch by the flood
+of 1891 is not the first mishap of that kind which has befallen the
+settlers. The ditch immediately preceding the current one passed nearly
+over the center of the ancient ditch, then covered by 10 feet or more of
+alluvial soil, and if a ditch were placed today on the level of the
+ancient structure it would certainly be destroyed every spring. The
+water that flowed through the modern ditch was taken from the river at a
+point about 3 miles farther northward, or just below Verde. The water
+for the ancient ditch must have been taken out less than a mile above
+the southern end of the section shown in the map.
+
+  [Illustration: Figure 300.
+  Part of old irrigating ditch.]
+
+At first sight it would appear that the ancient ditch antedated the
+deposit of alluvial soil forming the bottom land at this point, and this
+hypothesis is supported by several facts of importance. It is said that
+ten years ago the bottom land, whose edge now forms the bluff referred
+to, extended some 25 or 30 feet farther out, and that the river then
+flowed in a channel some 200 or 300 feet north of the present one.
+Be this as it may, the bottom land now presents a fairly continuous
+surface, from the banks of the river to the foothills that limit the
+valley on the west and south, and it is certain that this bottom land
+extended over the place occupied by the ancient ditch; nor is it to be
+supposed that the ancient ditches ended abruptly at the point where they
+now enter the bluff. The curves in the line of the ancient ditch might
+indicate that it was constructed along the slope of a hill, or on an
+uneven surface, as a deep excavation in fairly even ground would
+naturally be made in a straight line.
+
+The face of the bluff shows an even deposit of sand, without apparent
+stratification, except here and there a thin layer or facing of mud
+occurs, such as covers the bottom of the ancient ditch and also of the
+modern ditch. Singularly enough, however, over the ancient ditch, about
+5 feet above its bottom, there is a stratum of sand and gravel, and on
+top, within a few inches of the surface of the ground, a thin stratum of
+mud. This mud stratum extends only about 8 feet horizontally and is
+slightly hollowed, with its lowest part over the center of the ditch.
+The gravel stratum also was laid down over the ditch, is tilted slightly
+southward and occurs in two layers, together about a foot thick. It
+first appears a few feet south of the point where the main ditch enters
+the bluff and over the ditch both layers are distinctly marked, as shown
+in plate XXXVIII. Both layers are clearly marked to a distance of 4 feet
+north of the northern side of the main ditch; here the lower layer thins
+out, but the upper layer continues faintly marked almost to the edge of
+the small ditch. At this point the gravel stratum becomes pronounced
+again and continues over the small ditch, almost pure gravel in places,
+with a decided dip westward. At a point just beyond the northern side of
+the small ditch the gravel layer disappears entirely.
+
+The occurrence of this gravel in the way described seems to indicate
+that the ditch was built along the slope of a low hill forming the edge
+of the bottom land at that time, and that subsequently detritus was
+deposited above it and over the adjacent bottom land forming a smooth
+ground surface. Against this hypothesis it must be stated that no
+evidence whatever was found of more than a single deposit of sandy loam,
+although the exposures are good; but perhaps were an examination made by
+a competent geologist some such evidence might be developed.
+
+  [Illustration: Plate XL.
+  ANCIENT DITCH AROUND A KNOLL, CLEAR CREEK.]
+
+There is one fact that should not be lost sight of in the discussion,
+viz, the very low elevation of the ditch above the river. The Verde is,
+as already stated, a typical mountain stream, with an exceptionally high
+declivity, and consequently it is rapidly lowering its bed. If, as
+already conjectured, the water for the ancient ditch was taken from the
+river but a short distance above the point where remains of the ditch
+are now found--and this assumption seems well supported by the character
+of the adjacent topography--the slight elevation of the bed of the ditch
+above the river would indicate that, in the first place, the ditch was
+located, as already suggested, along the slope of a hill, and in the
+second place, that the ditch was built at a period of no great
+antiquity. The occurrence of the high bluff under which the ditch now
+passes does not conflict with this suggestion, for the deposition of the
+material composing it and its erosion into its present form and
+condition may be the result of decades rather than of centuries of work
+by a stream like the Verde, and certainly a hundred, or at most a
+hundred and fifty years would suffice to accomplish it. At the present
+time a few floods deposit an amount of material equal to that under
+discussion, and if subsequently the river changed its channel, as it
+does at a dozen different points every spring, a few decades only would
+be required to cover the surface with grass and bushes, and in short, to
+form a bottom land similar to that now existing over the ancient ditch.
+
+In conclusion it should be noted, in support of the hypothesis that the
+ditch was built before the material composing the bluff was laid down,
+that immediately under the ditch there is a stratum of hard adobe-like
+earth, quite different from the sand above it and from the material of
+which the bluff is composed. This stratum is shown clearly in plate
+XXXVIII.
+
+The hypothesis which accords best with the evidence now in hand is that
+which assumes that the ditch was taken out of the river but a short
+distance above the point illustrated, and that it was built on the slope
+of a low hill, or on a nearly flat undulating bottom land, before the
+material composing the present bottom or river terrace was deposited,
+and that the ditch, while it may be of considerable antiquity, is not
+necessarily more than a hundred or a hundred and fifty years old; in
+other words, we may reach a fairly definite determination of its minimum
+but not of its maximum antiquity.
+
+On the southern side of Clear creek, about a mile above its mouth, there
+are extensive horticultural works covering a large area of the terrace
+or river bench. These have already been alluded to in the description of
+the village ruin overlooking them, but there are several features which
+are worthy a more detailed description. For a distance of 2 miles east
+and west along the creek, and perhaps half a mile north and south, there
+are traces of former works pertaining to horticulture, including
+irrigating ditches, "reservoirs," farming outlooks, etc.
+
+At the eastern end of these works, about 3 miles above the mouth of
+Clear creek, the main ditch, after running along the slope of the hill
+for some distance, comes out on top of the mesa or terrace nearly
+opposite the Morris place. The water was taken from the creek but a
+short distance above, hardly more than half a mile. West of the point
+where the ditch comes out on the mesa top, all traces of it disappear,
+but they are found again at various points on the terrace. Plate XXXIX
+shows a portion of the terrace below and opposite the rectangular ruin
+previously described. In the distant foreground the light line indicates
+a part of the ancient ditch. Plate XL shows the same ditch at a point
+half a mile below the last, where it rounds a knoll. In the distance is
+the flat-topped hill or mesa on which the rectangular ruin previously
+described is located. About a hundred yards southeast of this point
+further traces of the ditch may be seen, and connected with it at that
+point are a number of rectangular areas, which were cultivated patches
+when the ditch was in use.
+
+The whole surface of the terrace within the limits described is covered
+by small water-worn bowlders scattered so thickly over it that travel is
+seriously impeded. In many parts of it these bowlders are arranged so as
+to inclose small rectangular areas, and these areas are connected with
+the old ditch just described. Plate XXXIX shows something of this
+surface character; and in the right hand portion of it may be seen some
+of the rows of bowlders forming the rectangular areas. The rows which
+occur at right angles to the ditch are much more clearly marked than
+those parallel to it, and the longer axes of the rectangular areas are
+usually also at right angles to the ditch line. On the ground these
+traces of inclosures can hardly be made out, but from an elevated point,
+such as the mesa on which, the rectangular ruin overlooking these works
+is located, they show very clearly and have the appearance of windrows.
+Traces of these horticultural works would be more numerous, and
+doubtless more distinct, were it not that a considerable part of the
+area formerly under cultivation has been picked over by the modern
+settlers in this region, and immense quantities of stone have been
+removed and used in the construction of fences. This has not been done,
+however, in such a manner as to leave the ground entirely bare, yet bare
+areas occur here and there over the surface, where doubtless once
+existed a part of the general scheme of horticultural works.
+
+One such bare area occurs close to the edge of the terrace about a mile
+and a half above the mouth of the creek. In its center is a structure
+called for convenience a reservoir, although it is by no means certain
+that it was used as such. It occurs about 100 yards from the creek,
+opposite the Wingfield place, and consists of a depression surrounded by
+an elevated rim. It is oval, measuring 108 feet north and south and 72
+feet east and west from rim to rim. The crown of the rim is 5 feet 8
+inches above the bottom of the depression and about 3 feet above the
+ground outside. The rim is fairly continuous, except at points on the
+northern and southern sides, where there are slight depressions, and
+these depressions are further marked by extra large bowlders. At its
+lowest points, however, the rim is over 2 feet above the ground, which
+slopes away from it for some distance in every direction. Plate XLI
+shows the eastern side of the depression; the large tree in the middle
+distance is on the bank of Clear creek and below the terrace. Plate XLII
+shows the northern gateway or dip in the rim, looking southward across
+the depression. The large bowlders previously referred to can be clearly
+seen. A depression similar to this occurs on the opposite side of the
+valley, about half a mile from the river. In this case it is not marked
+by bowlders or stones of any description, but is smooth and rounded,
+corresponding to the surface of the ground in its vicinity. In the
+latter as in the former case, the depression occurs on a low knoll or
+swell in the bottom land, and the surface of the ground slopes gently
+away from it for some distance in every direction.
+
+  [Illustration: Plate XLI.
+  ANCIENT WORK ON CLEAR CREEK.]
+
+The purpose of these depressions is not at all clear, and although
+popularly known as reservoirs it is hardly possible that they were used
+as such. The capacity of the Clear creek depression is about 160,000
+gallons, or when two-thirds full, which would be the limit of its
+working capacity, about 100,000 gallons. The minimum rate of evaporation
+in this region in the winter months is over 3 inches per month, rising
+in summer to 10 inches or more, so that in winter the loss of water
+stored in this depression would be about 10,000 gallons a month, while
+in summer it might be as high as 35,000 or even 40,000 gallons a month.
+It follows, therefore, that even if the reservoir were filled to its
+full working capacity in winter and early spring it would be impossible
+to hold the water for more than two months and retain enough at the end
+of that time to make storing worth while. It has been already stated,
+however, that these depressions are situated on slight knolls and that
+the land falls away from them in every direction. As no surface drainage
+could be led into them, and as there is no trace on the ground of a
+raised ditch discharging into them, they must have been filled, if used
+as reservoirs, from the rain which fell within the line that
+circumscribes them. The mean annual rainfall (for over seventeen years)
+at Verde, a few miles farther northward in the same valley, is 11.44
+inches, with a maximum annual fall of 27.27 inches and a minimum of 4.80
+inches. The mean annual fall (for over twenty-one years) at Fort
+McDowell, near the mouth of the Rio Verde, is 10-54 inches, with a
+maximum of 20.0 inches and a minimum of 4.94 inches.[8]
+
+  [Footnote 8: Report on Rainfall (Pacific coast and western states
+  and territories), Signal Office U.S. War Dept., Senate Ex. Doc. 91,
+  50th Cong., 1st Sess., Washington, 1889; pp. 70-73 (Errata, p. 4).]
+
+If these depressions were used as reservoirs it is a fair presumption
+that the bottoms were plastered with clay, so that there would be no
+seepage and the only loss would be by evaporation. Yet this loss, in a
+dry and windy climate such as that of the region here treated, would be
+sufficient to render impracticable a storage reservoir of a cross
+section and a site like the one under discussion. Most of the rainfall
+is in the winter months, from December to March, and it would require a
+fall of over 12 inches during those months to render the reservoir of
+any use in June; it would certainly be of no use in July and August,
+at the time when water is most needed, save in exceptional years with
+rainfall much in excess of the mean.
+
+On the other hand, there is the hypothesis that these depressions
+represent house structures; but if so these structures are anomalous in
+this region. The contour of the ground does not support the idea of a
+cluster of rooms about a central court, nor does the d�bris bear it out.
+Mr. F. H. Cushing has found depressions in the valleys of Salt and Gila
+rivers somewhat resembling these in form and measurement, and situated
+always on the outskirts of the sites of villages. Excavations were made,
+and as the result of these he came to the conclusion that the
+depressions were the remains of large council chambers, as the floors
+were hard, plastered with mud, and dish-shaped, with a fire-hole in the
+center of each; and no pottery or implements or remains of any kind were
+found except a number of "sitting stones." Mr. Cushing found traces of
+upright logs which formed the outer wall of the structure; he inferred
+from the absence of drainage channels that the structure was roofed, and
+as the ordinary method of roofing is impracticable on the scale of these
+structures, he supposed that a method similar to that used by the Pima
+Indians in roofing their granaries was employed, the roof being of a
+flattened dome shape and composed of grass or reeds, formed in a
+continuous coil and covered with earth. If the depressions under
+discussion, however, are the remains of structures such as these
+described, they form a curious anomaly in this region, for, as has been
+already stated, the affinities of the remains of this region are with
+the northern architectural types, and not at all with those of the
+southern.
+
+There is a third hypothesis which, though not supported by direct
+evidence, seems plausible. It is that the depression of Clear creek, and
+perhaps also the one on the opposite side of the Verde, were thrashing
+floors. This hypothesis accords well with the situation of these
+depressions upon the tillable bottom lands, and with their relation to
+the other remains in their vicinity; and their depth below the surface
+of the ground would be accounted for, under the assumption here made of
+their use, by the high and almost continuous winds of the summer in this
+region. Perhaps the slight depressions at the northern and southern side
+of the oval were the gateways through which the animals which trampled
+the straw or the men who worked the flails passed in and out. Whether
+used in this way or not, these depressions would be, under the
+assumption that the bottom was plastered with mud, not only practicable,
+but even desirable thrashing floors, as the grain would be subjected
+during thrashing to a partial winnowing. This suggestion would also
+account for the comparatively clean ground surface about the depressions
+and for their location on slightly elevated knolls.
+
+Scattered over the whole area formerly under cultivation along Clear
+creek are the remains of small, single rooms, well marked on the ground,
+but without any standing wall remaining. These remains are scattered
+indiscriminately over the terrace without system or arrangement; they
+are sometimes on the flat, sometimes on slight knolls. They number
+altogether perhaps forty or fifty. Plate XLIII shows an example which
+occurs on a low knoll, shown also in plate XL; it is typical of these
+remains. It will be noticed that the masonry was composed of river
+bowlders not dressed or prepared in any way, and that the d�bris on the
+ground would raise the walls scarcely to the height of a single low
+story.
+
+  [Illustration: Plate XLII.
+  GATEWAY TO ANCIENT WORK, CLEAR CREEK.]
+
+The location of these remains, their relation to other remains in the
+vicinity, and their character all support the conclusion that they were
+small temporary shelters or farming outlooks, occupied only during the
+season when the fields about them were cultivated and during the
+gathering of the harvest, as is the case with analogous structures used
+in the farming operations among the pueblos of to-day. Their number and
+distribution do not necessarily signify that all the terrace was under
+cultivation at one time, although there is a fair presumption that the
+larger part of it was, and the occurrence of the ditch at both the upper
+and the lower ends of the area strengthens this conclusion.
+
+As it is impossible that an area so large as this should be cultivated
+by the inhabitants of one village, it is probable that a number of
+villages combined in the use of this terrace for their horticultural
+operations; and, reasoning from what we know to have been the case in
+other regions, it is further probable that this combination resulted in
+endless contention, and strife, and perhaps finally to the abandonment
+of these fields if not of this region. The rectangular ruin already
+illustrated is situated on a hill south of the terrace and overlooks it
+from that direction; on the opposite side of Clear creek, on the hill
+bounding the valley on the north, there are the remains of a large stone
+village which commanded an outlook over the terraces in question; and a
+little farther up the creek, on the same side and similarly situated,
+there was another village which also overlooked them. There were
+doubtless other villages and small settlements whose remains are not now
+clearly distinguishable, and it is quite probable that some of the
+inhabitants of the large villages in the vicinity, like those near
+Verde, hardly 3 miles northward, had a few farming houses and some land
+under cultivation on this terrace.
+
+Thus it will be seen that there was no lack of cultivators for all the
+tillable land on the terrace, and there is no reason to suppose that the
+period when the land was under cultivation, and the period when the
+villages overlooking it were occupied, were not identical, and that the
+single-house remains scattered over the terrace were not built and
+occupied at the same period. The relation of the stone villages to the
+area formerly cultivated, the relation of the single-room remains to the
+area immediately about them, the character of the remains, and the known
+methods of horticulture followed by the Pueblo Indians, all support the
+conclusion that these remains were not only contemporaneous but also
+related to one another.
+
+
+
+
+STRUCTURAL CHARACTERISTICS.
+
+
+MASONRY AND OTHER DETAILS.
+
+The masonry of the stone villages throughout all the region here treated
+is of the same type, although there are some variations. It does not
+compare with the fine work found on the San Juan and its tributaries,
+although belonging to that type--the walls being composed of two faces
+with rubble filling, and the interstices of the large stones being
+filled or chinked with spalls. This chinking is more pronounced and
+better done in the northern part of the region than in the south.
+
+The rock employed depended in all cases on the immediate environments of
+the site of the village, the walls being composed in some cases of slabs
+of limestone, in other cases of river bowlders only, and in still others
+of both in combination. The walls of the large ruin near Limestone creek
+were composed of rude slabs of limestone with an intermixture of
+bowlders. The bowlders usually occur only in the lower part of the wall,
+near the ground, and in several cases, where nothing exists of the wall
+above the surface of the ground, the remains consist entirely of
+bowlders. A good example of this peculiarity of construction is shown in
+plate XLIV, and plate XLV shows the character of stone employed and also
+a section of standing wall on the western side of the village. A section
+of standing wall near the center of the ruin is illustrated in plate
+XIII. It will be noticed that some of the walls shown in this
+illustration are chinked, but to a very slight extent. The wall
+represented in plate XLV has slabs of limestone set on edge. This
+feature is found also in other ruins in this region, notably in those
+opposite Verde, though it seems to be more used in the south than in the
+north. An example occurring in the ruin opposite Verde is shown in plate
+XLVI. In this case chinking is more pronounced; the walls are from 2 to
+2� feet thick, built in the ordinary way with two faces and an interior
+filling, but the stones are large and the filling is almost wholly adobe
+mortar. The two faces are tied together by extra long stones which
+occasionally project into the back of one or the other face.
+
+The western cluster of the ruin last mentioned, shown on the ground plan
+(plate XVII), has almost all its walls still standing, and the masonry,
+while of the same general character as that of the main cluster, is
+better executed. The stones composing the walls are smaller than those
+in the main cluster and more uniform in size, and the interstices are
+carefully chinked. The chinking is distinctive in that spalls were not
+used, but more or less flattened river pebbles. The different color and
+texture of these pebbles make them stand out from the wall distinctly,
+giving quite an ornamental effect.
+
+  [Illustration: Plate XLIII.
+  SINGLE-ROOM REMAINS ON CLEAR CREEK.]
+
+That portion of the standing wall of the ruin opposite Verde, which
+occurs in the saddle northeastward from the main cluster, shown on the
+plan in plate XVII, represents the best masonry found in this region. As
+elsewhere stated, this was probably the last part of the village to be
+built. These walls are shown in plate XLVII. It will be noticed that the
+stones are of very irregular shape, rendering a considerable amount of
+chinking necessary to produce even a fair result, and that the stones
+are exceptionally large. The masonry of this village is characterized by
+the use of stones larger than common, many of them being larger than one
+man can carry and some of them even larger than two men can handle.
+
+All the larger and more important ruins of this region are constructed
+of limestone slabs, sometimes with bowlders. The smaller ruins, on the
+other hand, were built usually of river bowlders, sometimes with an
+intermixture of slabs of limestone and sandstone but with a decided
+preponderance of river bowlders. This would seem to suggest that this
+region was gradually populated, and that the larger structures were the
+last ones built. This suggestion has been already made in the discussion
+of the ground plans, and it is, moreover, in accord with the history of
+the pueblo-builders farther northward, notably that of the Hopi.
+
+Plate XXI illustrates a type of bowlder masonry which occurs on Clear
+creek; plate XLVIII shows the masonry of the ruin at the mouth of the
+East Verde, and plate XVI shows that of a ruin at the month of Fossil
+creek. In all these examples the stone composing the walls was derived
+either from the bed of an adjacent stream or from the ground on which
+they were built, and was used without any preparation whatever; yet in
+the better examples of this type of masonry a fairly good result was
+obtained by a careful selection of the stones. A still ruder type of
+masonry sometimes found in connection with village ruins is shown in
+figure 290. This, however, was used only as in the example illustrated,
+for retaining walls to trails or terraces, or analogous structures.
+
+In a general way it may be stated that the masonry of the village ruins
+of this region is much inferior to that of the San Juan region, and in
+its rough and unfinished surfaces, in the use of an inferior material
+close at hand rather than a better material a short distance away, and
+in the ignorance on the part of the builders of many constructive
+devices and expedients employed in the best examples of pueblo masonry,
+the work of this region may be ranked with that of the Tusayan--in other
+words, at the lower end of the scale.
+
+
+  [Illustration: Figure 301.
+  Walled front cavate lodges.]
+
+There is but little masonry about the cavate lodges, and that is rude in
+character. As elsewhere stated, walled fronts are exceptional in this
+region, and where they occur the work was done very roughly. Figure 301
+shows an example that occurs in the group of cavate lodges already
+described. It will be noticed that little selection has been exercised
+in the stones employed, and that an excess of mortar has been used to
+fill in the large interstices. Figure 290 (p. 221), which shows a
+storage cist attached to the group of cavate lodges, marked _D_ on the
+map (plate XXV), exhibits the same excessive use of adobe or mud
+plastering. At several other points in the area shown on this map there
+are short walls, sometimes inside the lodges, sometimes outside. In all
+cases, however, they are rudely constructed and heavily plastered with
+mud; in short, the masonry of the cavate lodges exhibits an ignorance
+fully equal to that of the stone villages, while the execution is, if
+anything, ruder. It is singular that, notwithstanding the excessive use
+of mud mortar and mud plastering in the few walls that are found there,
+such plastering was almost never used on the walls in the interiors of
+the lodges, perhaps because no finer finish than the rough surface of
+the rock was considered desirable.
+
+  [Illustration: Plate XLIV.
+  BOWLDER FOUNDATIONS NEAR LIMESTONE CREEK.]
+
+The cavate lodges seem to have been excavated without the aid of other
+tools than a rough maul or a piece of stone held in the hand, and such a
+tool is well adapted to the work, since a blow on the surface of the
+rock is sufficient to bring off large slabs. Notwithstanding the rude
+tools and methods, however, some of the work is quite neat, especially
+in the passageways (which are often 3 or 4 feet long and quite narrow)
+and in the smaller chambers. In the excavation of these chambers benches
+were left at convenient places along the wall and niches and cubby-holes
+were cut, so that in the best examples of cavate lodges the occupants,
+it would seem, were more comfortable, so far as regards their
+habitation, than the ordinary Pueblo Indian of today, and better
+supplied with the conveniences of that method of living. It should be
+stated in this connection, however, that although the group of cavate
+lodges gives an example of an extensive work well carried out, the
+successful carrying out of that work does not imply either a large
+population or a high degree of skill; the only thing necessary was time,
+and the amount of time necessary for the work is not nearly so great,
+in proportion to the population housed, as was required for the better
+types of pueblo work in the San Juan country (the village ruins of the
+Chaco canyon for example), and probably no more than would be required
+for the construction of rooms of equal size and of the rather poor grade
+of work found in this region.
+
+Although no examples of interior wall-plastering were found in the group
+of cavate lodges described, such work has been found in neighboring
+lodges; and in this group plastered floors are quite common. The object
+of plastering the floors was to secure a fairly even surface such as the
+soft rock did not provide, and this was secured not by the application
+of layers of clay but by the use of clay here and there wherever needed
+to bring the surface up to a general level, and the whole surface was
+subsequently finished. This final finishing was sometimes omitted, and
+many floors are composed partly of the natural rock and partly of clay,
+the latter frequently in spots and areas of small size.
+
+The floors were often divided into a number of sections by low ridges of
+clay, sometimes 8 inches broad. These ridges are shown on the ground
+plans (figures 294 to 298, and in plate XXV). Their purpose is not
+clear, although it can readily be seen that in such domestic operations
+as sorting grain they would be useful.
+
+
+DOOR AND WINDOW OPENINGS.
+
+The masonry of this region was so roughly and carelessly executed that
+little evidence remains in the stone villages of such details of
+construction as door and window openings. Destruction of the walls seems
+to have commenced at these openings, and while there are numerous
+standing walls, some with a height of over 10 feet, no perfect example
+of a door or window opening was found. It is probable that the methods
+employed were similar or analogous to those used today by the Hopi, and
+that the wooden lintel and stone jamb was the standard type.
+
+  [Illustration: Figure 302.
+  Bowlders in footway, cavate lodges.]
+
+  [Illustration: Plate XLV.
+  MASONRY OF RUIN NEAR LIMESTONE CREEK.]
+
+  [Illustration: Figure 303.
+  Framed doorway, cavate lodges.]
+
+In the cavate lodges window openings are not found; there is but one
+opening, the doorway, and this is of a pronounced and peculiar type. As
+a rule these doorways are wider at the top than at the bottom and there
+are no corners, the opening roughly approximating the shape of a pear
+with the smaller end downward. The upper part of the opening consists
+always of the naked rock, but the lower part is generally framed with
+slabs of sandstone. Plate XLIX shows an example that occurs in the upper
+tier of lodges at its eastern end. The floor of this lodge is about
+2 feet above the bench from which it was entered, and this specimen
+fails to show a feature which is very common in this group--a line of
+water-worn bowlders extending from the exterior to the interior of the
+lodges through the doorway and arranged like stepping stones. This
+feature is shown in figure 302, which represents the doorway of group
+_E_, shown on the general map (plate XXV) and on the detailed plan,
+figure 297. Figure 303 shows a type in which the framing is extended up
+on one side nearly to the top, while on the other side it extends only
+to half the height of the opening, which above the framing is hollowed
+out to increase its width. This example occurs near that shown in plate
+XLIX, and the floor of the chamber is raised about 2 feet above the
+bench from which it is entered. The illustration gives a view from the
+interior, looking out, and the large opening on the right was caused by
+the comparatively recent breaking out of the wall. Figure 303 shows the
+doorway to the group of chambers marked _E_ on the general map, an
+interior view of which is shown in figure 302. In this example the
+obvious object of the framing was to reduce the size of the opening, and
+to accomplish this the slabs were set out 10 or 12 inches from the rock
+forming the sides of the opening, and the intervening space was filled
+in with rubble. Plate XXXII, which shows the interior of the main room
+in group _D_, shows also the large doorway on the north.
+
+  [Illustration: Figure 304.
+  Notched doorway in Canyon de Chelly.]
+
+  [Illustration: Plate XLVI.
+  MASONRY OF RUIN OPPOSITE VERDE.]
+
+It will be noticed that these doorways all conform to one general plan
+and that this plan required an opening considerably larger in its upper
+third than in the lower two-thirds of its height. This requirement seems
+to be the counterpart or analogue of the notched doorway, which is the
+standard type in the cliff ruins of Canyon de Chelly and other regions,
+and still very common in Tusayan (Moki). Figure 304 shows a notched
+doorway in Canyon de Chelly and figure 305 gives an example of the same
+type of opening in Tusayan. The object of this peculiar shape in the
+regions mentioned has been well established,[9] and there is no reason
+to suppose that similar conditions and a similar object would not
+produce a similar result here. This type of opening had its origin in
+the time when the pueblo builders had no means, other than blankets,
+of temporarily closing door openings and when all the supplies of the
+village were brought in on the backs of the inhabitants. In order to
+secure protection against cold and storm the opening was made of the
+smallest possible size consistent with its use, and the upper part of
+the opening was made larger in order to permit the introduction of back
+loads of faggots and other necessaries. This purpose would be almost as
+well served by the openings of the cavate lodges as by the notched
+doorway, and at the same time the smallest possible opening was exposed
+to the weather. The two types of openings seem simply to be two
+different methods of accomplishing the same purpose--one in solid rock,
+the other in masonry. That it was considered desirable to reduce the
+openings as much as possible is evident from the employment of framing
+slabs in the lower portions, reducing the width of that part generally
+to less than a foot, while the upper portions are usually 3 feet and
+more in width, and the absence of framing slabs in the upper part of the
+openings was probably due to their use as suggested; no slabs could be
+attached with sufficient firmness to resist the drag of a back load of
+wood, for example, forced between them. The strict confinement of door
+openings to one type suggests a short, rather than a long, occupancy of
+the site under discussion, a suggestion which is borne out by other
+details; and this unity of design renders it difficult to form a
+conclusion as to the relative age of the two types of openings under
+discussion. So far as the evidence goes, however, it supports the
+conclusion that the doorways of the cavate lodges were derived from a
+type previously developed, and that the idea has been modified and to
+some extent adapted to a different environment; for if the idea had been
+developed in the cavate lodges there would be a much greater number of
+variations than we find in fact. There can be no doubt, however, that
+the cavate lodge doorways represent an earlier type in development,
+if not in time, than the notched doorways of Tusayan.
+
+  [Footnote 9: A Study of Pueblo Architecture, by Victor Mindeleff:
+  8th. Ann. Rep. Bur. Eth. for 1886-1887; Washington, 1891, pp. 1-228.]
+
+    [Transcriber's Note:
+    This article is available from Project Gutenberg as e-text #19856.]
+
+  [Illustration: Figure 305.
+  Notched doorway in Tusayan.]
+
+
+CHIMNEYS AND FIREPLACES.
+
+Nowhere in the village ruins or in the cavate lodges of the lower Verde
+were any traces of chimneys or other artificial smoke exits found. The
+village ruins are too much broken down to permit definite statement of
+the means employed for smoke exits, but had the inhabitants employed
+such exits as are in use in the pueblos today some evidence of them
+would remain. Probably there was no other exit than the door, and
+perhaps trapdoors or small openings in the roofs, such as were formerly
+employed in the inhabited pueblos, according to their traditions. In the
+cavate lodges no exit other than the door was possible, and many of them
+are found with their walls much blackened by smoke.
+
+The fireplaces or fire holes of the cavate lodges have already been
+alluded to, and one of the best examples found is illustrated in plate
+XXXII, and the location of a number of others is shown on the general
+plan. These fireplaces are located not in the center of the chamber, but
+near the principal doorway, and doubtless the object of this location
+was to facilitate the escape of the smoke. Fire holes were never located
+in interior rooms. The fireplace illustrated in plate XXXII has been
+already described (p. 227); it was excavated in the solid rock of the
+floor and was lined with fragments of pottery laid in mud mortar as
+closely as their shape would permit. A part of this pottery lining can
+be seen in the illustration. When the room was cleared out the fire hole
+was found to be about half full of fine ashes.
+
+  [Illustration: Plate XLVII.
+  STANDING WALLS OPPOSITE VERDE.]
+
+
+
+
+CONCLUSIONS.
+
+
+The ruins of the lower Verde valley represent a comparatively late
+period in the history of the Pueblo tribes. The period of occupancy was
+not a long one and the population was never large, probably not
+exceeding at any time 800 or 1,000 souls, possibly less than 700; nor
+were the dwellings in that region all occupied at the same time.
+
+There is no essential difference, other than those due to immediate
+environment, between the architecture of the lower Verde region and that
+of the more primitive types found in other regions, Tusayan for example.
+The Verde architecture is, however, of a more purely aboriginal type
+than that of any modern pueblo, and the absence of introduced or foreign
+ideas is its chief characteristic. There are no chimneys, no adobe
+walls, no constructive expedients other than aboriginal and rather
+primitive ones. The absence of circular kivas[10] or sacred council
+chambers is noteworthy.
+
+  [Footnote 10: As this term has been already defined, it is here
+  used without further explanation. For a full discussion of these
+  structures, see "A Study of Pueblo Architecture," by Victor
+  Mindeleff, in 8th. Ann. Rep. Bur. Eth., 1886-87, Washington, 1891.]
+
+The circular kiva is a survival of an ancient type--a survival supported
+by all the power of religious feeling and the conservatism in religious
+matters characteristic of savage and barbarous life; and while most of
+the modern pueblos have at the present time rectangular kivas, such, for
+example, as those at Tusayan, at Zu�i, and at Acoma, there is no doubt
+that the circular form is the more primitive and was formerly used by
+some tribes which now have only the rectangular form. Still the
+abandonment of the circular and the adoption of the rectangular form,
+due to expediency and the breaking down of old traditions, was a very
+gradual process and proceeded at a different rate in different parts of
+the country. At the time of the Spanish conquest the prevailing form in
+the old province of Cibola was rectangular, although the circular kiva
+was not entirely absent; while, on the other hand, in the cliff ruins of
+Canyon de Chelly, whose date is partly subsequent to the sixteenth
+century, the circular kiva is the prevailing, if not the exclusive form.
+But notwithstanding this the Hopi Indians of Tusayan, to whom many of
+the Canyon de Chelly ruins are to be attributed, today have not a single
+circular kiva. The reason for this radical departure from the old type
+is a simple one, and to be found in the single term environment. The
+savage is truly a child of nature and almost completely under its sway.
+A slight difference in the geologic formations of two regions will
+produce a difference in the arts of the inhabitants of those regions,
+provided the occupancy be a long one. In the case of the Tusayan kivas
+the rectangular form was imposed on the builders by the character of the
+sites they occupied. The requirement that the kiva should be under
+ground, or partly under ground, was a more stringent one than that it
+should be circular, and with the rude appliances at their command the
+Tusayan builders could accomplish practically nothing unless they
+utilized natural cracks and fissures in the rocks. Hence the abandonment
+of the circular form and also of the more essential requirement, that
+the kiva should be inclosed within the walls of the village or within a
+court; the Tusayan kivas are located indiscriminately in the courts and
+on the outskirts of the village, wherever a suitable site was found,
+some of them being placed at a considerable distance from the nearest
+house.
+
+It will be seen, therefore, that it is impossible to base any
+chronologic conclusions on the presence or absence of this feature,
+notwithstanding the undoubted priority of the circular form, except in
+so far as these conclusions are limited to some certain region or known
+tribal stock. If it be assumed that the Verde ruins belong to the
+Tusayan, and all the evidence in hand favors that assumption, the
+conclusion follows that they should be assigned to a comparatively late
+period in the history of that tribe.
+
+That the period of occupancy of the lower Verde valley was not a long
+one is proved by the character of the remains and by what we know of the
+history of the pueblo-building tribes. There are no very large areas of
+tillable land on the lower Verde and not a large number of small ones,
+and aside from these areas the country is arid and forbidding in the
+extreme. Such a country would be occupied only as a last resort,
+or temporarily during the course of a migration. The term migration,
+however, must not be taken in the sense in which it has been applied
+to European stocks, a movement of people en masse or in several large
+groups. Migration as used here, and as it generally applies to the
+Pueblo Indians, means a slow gradual movement, generally without any
+definite and ultimate end in view. A small section of a village,
+generally a gens or a subgens, moves away from the parent village,
+perhaps only a few miles. At another time another section moves to
+another site, at still another time another section moves, and so on.
+These movements are not possible where outside hostile pressure is
+strong, and if such pressure is long continued it results in a
+reaggregation of the various scattered settlements into one large
+village. Such in brief is the process which is termed migration, and
+which has covered the southwest with thousands of village ruins. Of
+course larger movements have occurred and whole villages have been
+abandoned in a day, but as a rule the abandonment of villages was a
+gradual process often consuming years.
+
+  [Illustration: Plate XLVIII.
+  MASONRY OF RUIN AT MOUTH OF THE EAST VERDE.]
+
+Before the archeologic investigation of the pueblo region commenced and
+when there was little knowledge extant by which travelers could check
+their conclusions, the immense number of ruins in that region was
+commonly attributed to an immense population, some writers placing the
+number as high as 500,000. Beside this figure the present population,
+about 9,000, is so insignificant that it is hardly surprising that the
+ancient and modern villages were separated and attributed to different
+tribal stocks.
+
+The process briefly sketched above explains the way in which village
+ruins have their origin; a band of 500 village-building Indians might
+leave the ruins of fifty villages in the course of a single century.
+It is very doubtful whether the total number of Pueblo Indians ever
+exceeded 30,000. This is the figure stated by Mr. A. F. Bandelier, whose
+intimate acquaintance with the eastern part of the pueblo region gives
+his opinion great weight. The apparently trifling causes which sometimes
+result in the abandonment of villages have been already alluded to.
+
+The lower Verde forms no exception to the general rule sketched above.
+Scattered along the river, and always located on or immediately adjacent
+to some area of tillable land, are found many small ruins, typical
+examples of which have been described in detail. These form the
+subordinate settlements whose place in the general scheme has been
+indicated. The masonry is generally of river bowlders only, not dressed
+or prepared in any way. The number of these settlements is no greater
+than would be required for one complete cycle or period, although the
+evidence seems to support the hypothesis that the movement commenced in
+the northern part of the region and proceeded southward in two or
+perhaps three separate steps. It is possible, however, that the movement
+was in the other direction. This question can be settled only by a
+thorough examination of the regions to the north and south.
+
+There are two, possibly three, points in the region discussed where a
+stand was made and the various minor settlements were abandoned, the
+inhabitants congregating into larger bands and building a larger village
+for better defense against the common foe. These are located at the
+extreme northern and southern limits of the region treated, opposite
+Verde and near Limestone creek, and possibly also at an intermediate
+point, the limestone ruin above Fossil creek. These more important ruins
+are all built of limestone slabs, and the sites are carefully selected.
+The internal evidence supports the conclusion that the movement was
+southward and that in the large ruin near Limestone creek the
+inhabitants of the lower Verde valley had their last resting place
+before they were absorbed by the population south of them, or were
+driven permanently from this region. The strong resemblance of the
+ground plan of this village to that of Zu�i has been already commented
+on, and it is known that Zu�i was produced in the way stated, by the
+inhabitants of the famous "seven cities of Cibola," except that in this
+case Zu�i was the second site adopted, the aggregation into one village,
+or more properly a number of villages on one site, having taken place a
+few years before. The fact that Zu�i dates only from the beginning of
+the last century should not be lost sight of in this discussion.
+
+The inhabitants of the Verde valley were an agricultural people, and
+even in the darkest days of their history, when they were compelled to
+abandon the minor settlements, they still relied on horticulture for
+subsistence, and to a certain extent the defense motive was subordinated
+to the requirements of this method of life. There can be no doubt that
+the hostile pressure which produced the larger villages was Indian,
+probably the Apache and Walapai, who were in undisputed possession at
+the time of the American advent, and but little doubt that this pressure
+consisted not of regular invasions and set sieges, but of sudden raids
+and descents upon the fields, resulting in the carrying off of the
+produce and the killing of the producers. Such raids were often made by
+the Navajo on Tusayan, Zu�i, and the eastern pueblos and on the Mexican
+villages along the Rio Grande for some years after the American
+occupation, and are continued even today in a small way on the Tusayan.
+The effect of such raids is cumulative, and it might be several years
+before important action would result on the part of the village Indians
+subjected to them. On the other hand, several long seasons might elapse
+during which comparative immunity would be enjoyed by the village. In
+the lower Verde there is evidence of two such periods, if not more, and
+during that time the small pueblos and settlements previously referred
+to were built. None of these small settlements was occupied, however,
+for more than a few decades, the ground plans of most of them indicating
+an even shorter period.
+
+That cavate lodges and cliff-dwellings are simply varieties of the same
+phase of life, and that life an agricultural one, is a conclusion,
+supported by the remains in the lower Verde valley. The almost entire
+absence of cliff-dwellings and the great abundance of cavate lodges has
+already been commented on, and as the geologic formations are favorable
+to the latter, and unfavorable to the former on the Verde, whereas the
+Canyon de Chelly, where there are hundreds of cliff-dwellings and no
+cavate lodges, the conditions are reversed, this abundance of cavate
+lodges may be set down as due to an accident of environment. The cavate
+lodge of the Rio Verde is a more easily constructed and more convenient
+habitation than the cliff-dwelling of Canyon de Chelly.
+
+  [Illustration: Plate XLIX.
+  DOORWAY TO CAVATE LODGE.]
+
+An examination and survey of the cliff ruins of Canyon de Chelly, made
+some years ago by the writer, revealed the fact that they were always
+located with reference to some area of adjacent tillable land and that
+the defensive motive exercised so small an influence on the selection
+of the site and the character of the buildings that it could be ignored.
+It was found that the cliff-dwellings were merely farming outlooks,
+and that the villages proper were almost always located on the canyon
+bottom. With slight modifications these conclusions may be extended over
+the Verde region and applied to the cavate lodges there. The relation of
+these lodges to the village ruins and the character of the sites
+occupied by them support the conclusion that they were farming outlooks,
+probably occupied only during the farming season, according to the
+methods followed by many of the Pueblos today, and that the defensive
+motive had little or no influence on the selection of the site or the
+character of the structures. The bowlder-marked sites and the small
+single-room remains illustrate other phases of the same horticultural
+methods, methods somewhat resembling the "intensive culture," of modern
+agriculture, but requiring further a close supervision or watching of
+the crop during the period of ripening. As the area of tillable land in
+the pueblo region, especially in its western part, is limited, these
+requirements have developed a class of temporary structures, occupied
+only during the farming season. In Tusayan, where the most primitive
+architecture of the pueblo type is found, these structures are generally
+of brush; in Canyon de Chelly they are cliff-dwellings; on the Rio Verde
+they are cavate lodges, bowlder-marked sites and single house remains;
+but at Zu�i they have reached their highest development in the three
+summer villages of Ojo Caliente, Nutria, and Pescado.
+
+  [Illustration: Plate L.
+  DOORWAY TO CAVATE LODGE.]
+
+Since the American occupancy of the country and the consequent removal
+of the hostile pressure which has kept the Pueblo tribes in check,
+development has been rapid and now threatens a speedy extinction of
+pueblo life. The old Laguna has been abandoned, Acoma is being
+depopulated, the summer pueblos of Zu�i are now occupied all the year
+round by half a dozen or more families, and even in Tusayan, the most
+conservative of all the pueblo groups, the abandonment of the home
+village and location in more convenient single houses has commenced. It
+is the old process over again, but with the difference that formerly the
+cycle was completed by the reaggregation of the various families, and
+little bands into larger groups under hostile pressure from wilder
+tribes, but now that pressure has been permanently removed, and in a few
+years, or at most in a few generations, the old pueblo life will be
+known only by its records.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+ACOMA, Abandonment of                                    261
+ -- Kivas in                                             257
+ -- Selection of site of                                 215
+ADOBE, Absence of, in Verde ruins                   187, 257
+ -- construction of modern introduction                  238
+ -- Limit to use of                                      238
+AGE of cavate lodges                                     225
+ -- -- Verde ruins                                  209, 257
+AGRICULTURE, Ancient, in Verde valley                    247
+ANAWITA, Tusayan tradition by                            188
+APACHE, Effect of, on pueblo tribes                      260
+ARCHITECTURE of ancient Verde pueblos                    185
+BANDELIER, A. F., on ancient pueblo population           259
+BASKETRY in cavate lodges                                228
+BEAVER CREEK cliff ruin, Description of                  186
+BONE implements in cavate lodges                    223, 224
+BOWLDERS, ancient pueblo walls of         206, 217, 246, 249
+ -- on line of ancient irrigating ditch                  244
+ -- Sites marked by, in Verde valley           194, 235, 261
+BRUSH, Structures of, discussed                          237
+CAMP VERDE established and abandoned                     185
+CANYON DE CHELLY, Cliff dwellings in                     254
+ -- Kivas in                                             257
+CASA GRANDE, Character of structure of                   238
+ -- and San Juan ruins compared                          186
+CAVATE LODGES, Ancient, how excavated                    251
+ -- described and figured                                217
+ -- in Verde valley                                 187, 192
+ -- on Fossil creek                                      203
+ -- Reason for abundance of                              260
+CAVE DWELLINGS in Arizona                                224
+CHACO ruins and Casa Grande compared                     186
+CHIMNEYS, Absence of, in Verde cavate lodges   187, 256, 257
+CHINKING of walls                                        248
+CI-PA, an ancient Hopi stopping place                    189
+CISTS. _See_ Storage cist; Water pocket
+CLIFF DWELLINGS, Absence of, in Verde valley        187, 260
+ -- in Arizona                                           224
+ -- why constructed                                      260
+ -- _See_ Cavate lodge.
+CORN found in cavate lodges                              225
+COURTS in ancient Verde ruins                            196
+ -- _See_ Plaza.
+CUSHING, F. H., on depressed structures in Arizona       245
+DEBRIS, Height of ancient villages judged by        198, 240
+DEFENSIVE motive of cliff dwellings                      260
+ -- sites of ancient Verde villages            193, 206, 208,
+                                               214, 215, 216
+DE FOREST, J. W., on Connecticut indian spades           183
+DILLER, J. S., on formation in which
+    cavate lodges occur                                  219
+DIMENSIONS of ancient pueblos                            211
+DOORWAYS in cavate lodges                           222, 251
+ESPEJO, A. DE, Expedition of, in 1583                    185
+FARFAN, M, Visit of, to Arizona in 1598                  185
+FIBER Bundles of, in cavate lodges                       228
+FIREHOLES in ancient Arizona structures             232, 246
+FIREPLACE in cavate lodges                          224, 256
+FLAGSTAFF, Ariz., Cavate lodges near                217, 223
+FLOORS plastered for leveling                            251
+FRESHET, Effect of, on ancient Verde irrigating ditch    240
+ -- in Rio Verde                                         191
+GARDENS of cavate village                                224
+GENTES, Aggregation, of, in villages                     195
+GRANARIES, Pima, how formed                              246
+GROUND-PLAN, how affected by long occupancy              212
+HAVASUPAI cavate lodges                             224, 225
+HAWIKUH, Mission established at                          229
+HEIGHT of ancient Verde pueblos                          209
+HOFFMAN, W. J., on Beaver creek cliff ruin               186
+ -- on Montezuma well                                    186
+HOLMES, W. H., on San Juan cavate lodges                 222
+HOMOLOBI, an ancient Hopi village                        189
+HOPI, Canyon de Chelly ruins attributed to the           257
+HORN implements in cavate lodges                         224
+HORTICULTURE, Ancient, on Rio Verde            187, 194, 238
+IMPLEMENTS in cavate lodges                         224, 228
+IRRIGATION ditches in Verde valley              194, 237-238
+JACAL structures                                         237
+KIVA architecture, Evolution of                          257
+ -- circular, Absence of, in Verde cavate lodges         257
+ -- in Verde ruins                                       196
+LAGUNA, Abandonment of                                   261
+LEROUX, ----, Ruins in Verde valley mentioned by         186
+MANCOS RIVER, Cavate lodges on                           222
+MARRIAGE custom of the pueblos                           197
+MASONRY of ancient Verde villages              201, 203, 204,
+                                               212, 248, 259
+ -- -- cavate lodges                                     225
+MEARNS, E. A., on Verde ruins                            186
+METATES in cavate lodges                                 223
+MIGRATION, Pueblo, how effected                          258
+ -- tradition of the Hopi                                188
+MILITARY art of ancient pueblos                          215
+MINDELEFF, V., on notched doorways                       254
+ -- on pueblo kivas                                      257
+MONTEZUMA WELL described                                 186
+MORTAR, Excessive use of, in ancient villages            249
+NAVAJO, Effect of, on pueblo tribes                      260
+ -- Hogan construction by the                            237
+NELSON, E. W., on certain ruined pueblo features         202
+NUTRIA, a Zu�i summer village                       206, 261
+OJO CALIENTE, a Zu�i summer village                 206, 261
+O�ATE, JUAN DE, Expeditions of                           185
+ORAIBI, Architectural character of                       195
+OVEN in cavate lodge                                     226
+PALAT-KWABI, a Hopi stopping place                       189
+P�L�-L�-KO�A, the Hopi serpent deity                     188
+PASSAGEWAY in cavate lodge                     222, 225, 227,
+                                               231, 232, 235
+ -- Absence of, in Verde ruins                           199
+PAT-KI-NY�M�, the Hopi water-house phratry               188
+PESCADO, a Zu�i summer village                      206, 261
+PIMA, Granaries of the                                   246
+PIS� construction in Arizona                             238
+PLASTERING in Verde cavate lodges              222, 225, 251
+PLAZA in cavate village                                  223
+ -- _See_ Court.
+POPULATION of ancient cavate lodges                      251
+ -- -- pueblos                                 203, 211, 259
+POTSHERDS around cavate lodges                           224
+ -- in cavate lodges                                     228
+ -- in Verde ruins                                  213, 217
+ -- on bowlder-marked sites                              235
+ -- Cavate fireplace lined with                          256
+POWELL, J. W. on Arizona cavate lodges                   223
+ -- Santa Clara cavate lodges                            224
+PRESCOTT, Arizona, Mines discovered near                 185
+ -- Visit of Espejo to vicinity of                       185
+QUESADA, A. DE, Visit of, to Arizona                     185
+RAINFALL in Verde valley                                 245
+RESERVOIR, ancient, Traces of                       236, 237
+ --, Depression like, in Verde valley                    245
+ROOF timbers, Source of, in Verde valley                 196
+ROOMS, Arrangement of, in cavate lodges        220, 221, 229
+ -- Detached, in Verde ruins                             198
+ -- Distribution of, in ancient villages            197, 210
+ -- Size of, in ancient villages                    198, 210
+RUINS, Extent of, in the southwest                       259
+ -- of Verde valley                                      185
+SANDAL in cavate lodges                                  228
+SAN FRANCISCO, early name of Rio Verde                   186
+ -- MOUNTAIN, Cavate lodges near               217, 223, 225
+SAN JUAN RIVER, Cavate lodges on                         222
+SANTA CLARA, Cavate lodges near                     217, 224
+ -- Ancient pueblos of                                   225
+SITE of cavate lodges                                    219
+ -- Selection of, of ancient villages                    215
+SITTING STONES in ancient Arizona structures             246
+SPRINGERVILLE, N. Mex., Ruins at                         202
+STEPHEN, A. M., Tusayan tradition obtained by            188
+STEPPING-STONES to cavate lodge                          253
+STEVENSON, JAS., Cavate lodges visited by                223
+STONE implements in cavate lodges                   223, 224
+STORAGE cist described and figured                  221, 250
+ -- room in cavate lodge                            228, 229
+SUMMER village, Ruins of, on Rio Verde                   206
+TAGS, Architectural character of                         195
+ -- Defensive character of                               215
+TEXTILE fabrics in cavate lodges                         228
+THRASHING FLOORS in Verde valley                         246
+TRADITION of Hopi water-people                           188
+TSEGI. _See_ Canyon de Chelly.
+TUSAYAN, Primitive architecture of                       261
+ -- Kivas in                                             257
+ -- Notched doorways in                             254, 255
+ -- Occupancy of Verde valley by the                     188
+ -- Water gentes of the                                  188
+ -- _See_ Hopi.
+VARGAS, DIEGO DE, New Mexico reconquered by              231
+VERDE RIVER, Former name of                              186
+ -- VALLEY, Aboriginal remains in                    185-261
+VILLAGES, Ancient, in Verde valley                       192
+WALAPAI and Havasupai affinity                           224
+ -- Effect of, on pueblo tribes                          260
+ -- tradition of cavate lodges                           225
+WALLS, Ancient pueblo, how built                         248
+ -- Carved, in ancient ruins                             202
+ -- Defensive, in Verde ruins                       202, 203
+ -- Massive, in Verde ruin                               199
+WATER PEOPLE of Tusayan probably from south              188
+ -- pockets in cavate lodge                         228, 235
+ -- storage in ancient Verde pueblo                      199
+WINDOW-OPENINGS of cavate lodges                    222, 251
+WOMEN, House building by                                 197
+WOOD, Implements of, in cavate lodges                    224
+ZU�I, Adoption of site of                           215, 259
+ -- Defensive character of                               215
+ -- Kivas in                                             257
+ -- Population of                                        195
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Errors and Notes
+
+The article on Pueblo Architecture from the 8th annual report is
+available from Project Gutenberg as e-text #19856.
+
+Limestone creek, Clear creek, Fossil creek etc.
+  _capitalization as in the original_
+The spelling "bowlder" is standard for Bureau of Ethnology articles.
+
+we dwelt in the Pa-l�t-kwa-b[(i]
+We traveled northward from Palat-kwabi
+  _inconsistent spelling in original_
+somewhat different
+  _text reads "diferent"_
+about ten rooms arranged in +L+ shape
+  _text unchanged_
+the artificial improvement of the site
+  _text reads "artifical"_
+A group occurring at the point marked _E_ on the map
+  _text reads "occuring"_
+plate XLV shows the character of stone employed
+  _text reads "LXV"_
+rude in character. As elsewhere stated
+  _text has comma for period_
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Aboriginal Remains in Verde Valley,
+Arizona, by Cosmos Mindeleff
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ABORIGINAL REMAINS ***
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@@ -0,0 +1,6770 @@
+
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+<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN">
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+<title>Aboriginal Remains in Verde Valley</title>
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+
+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Aboriginal Remains in Verde Valley, Arizona, by 
+Cosmos Mindeleff
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Aboriginal Remains in Verde Valley, Arizona
+       Thirteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology to the
+              Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, 1891-92,
+              Government Printing Office, Washington, 1896, pages 179-262
+
+Author: Cosmos Mindeleff
+
+Release Date: November 29, 2006 [EBook #19961]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ABORIGINAL REMAINS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Louise Hope, Carlo Traverso, and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images generously made available
+by the Bibliothèque nationale de France (BnF/Gallica) at
+http://gallica.bnf.fr)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+
+<div class = "mynote">
+<p>This e-text uses a few less common characters:</p>
+<p class = "inset1">
+ĭ (i with breve or “short” mark)</p>
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+
+<p>A few typographical errors have been corrected. They have been
+marked in the text with <ins class = "correction" title =
+"like this">mouse-hover popups</ins>. The spelling “bowlder” is
+standard for Bureau of Ethnology articles. The capitalization of names
+such as “Limestone creek,” “Clear creek,” “Fossil creek” is as in the
+original.</p>
+</div>
+
+<span class = "pagenum">179</span>
+<a name = "page179" id = "page179"> </a>
+<!--png 260-->
+
+<hr>
+
+<h3>ABORIGINAL REMAINS</h3>
+
+<h6>IN</h6>
+
+<h4 class = "extended">VERDE VALLEY, ARIZONA</h4>
+
+<h6>BY</h6>
+
+<h5 class = "extended">COSMOS MINDELEFF</h5>
+
+<hr>
+
+
+<a name = "page180" id = "page180"> </a>
+<!--png 260-->
+
+<span class = "pagenum">181</span>
+<a name = "page181" id = "page181"> </a>
+<!--png 261-->
+
+<h4 class = "chapter">CONTENTS</h4>
+
+<table class = "toc" summary = "table of contents">
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class = "number">Page</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><a href = "#intro">Introduction</a></td>
+<td class = "number">185</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "inset"><a href = "#intro_region">
+The region and its literature</a></td>
+<td class = "number">185</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "inset"><a href = "#intro_country">
+Physical description of the country</a></td>
+<td class = "number">189</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><a href = "#class">Distribution and classification of ruins</a></td>
+<td class = "number">192</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><a href = "#desc">Plans and descriptions</a></td>
+<td class = "number">195</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "inset"><a href = "#desc_villages">
+Stone villages</a></td>
+<td class = "number">195</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "inset"><a href = "#desc_lodges">
+Cavate lodges</a></td>
+<td class = "number">217</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "inset"><a href = "#desc_bowlder">
+Bowlder-marked sites</a></td>
+<td class = "number">235</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "inset"><a href = "#desc_ditches">
+Irrigating ditches and horticultural works</a></td>
+<td class = "number">238</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><a href = "#struc">Structural characteristics</a></td>
+<td class = "number">248</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "inset"><a href = "#struc_masonry">
+Masonry and other details</a></td>
+<td class = "number">248</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "inset"><a href = "#struc_openings">
+Door and window openings</a></td>
+<td class = "number">251</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "inset"><a href = "#struc_chimneys">
+Chimneys and fireplaces</a></td>
+<td class = "number">256</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><a href = "#concl">Conclusions</a></td>
+<td class = "number">257</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "sans"><a href = "#index">Index</a></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+
+<a name = "page182" id = "page182"> </a>
+<!--png 262-->
+<span class = "pagenum">183</span>
+<a name = "page183" id = "page183"> </a>
+<!--png 263-->
+<h4 class = "section">ILLUSTRATIONS</h4>
+
+<div class = "mynote">
+
+<p>Illustrations have been placed as close as practicable to their
+discussion in the text. Page numbers refer to their original location
+in the printed book. Some Figures were previously used in the article
+on pueblo architecture cited in the Footnotes.</p>
+
+<p><a href = "#thematic">Thematic list</a> of illustrations (added by
+transcriber).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<table class = "toc" summary = "list of plates">
+<tr>
+<td></td><td></td>
+<td class = "number">Page</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#plateX">
+Plate&nbsp;X.</a></td>
+<td><p>
+Map showing distribution of ruins and location of area treated with
+reference to ancient pueblo region
+</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page185">185</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#plateXI">XI.</a></td>
+<td><p>
+Map showing distribution of ruins in the basin of the Rio Verde
+</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page187">187</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#plateXII">XII.</a></td>
+<td><p>
+Ground plan of ruin near mouth of Limestone creek
+</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page189">189</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#plateXIII">XIII.</a></td>
+<td><p>
+Main court, ruin near Limestone creek
+</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page191">191</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#plateXIV">XIV.</a></td>
+<td><p>
+Ruin at mouth of the East Verde
+</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page193">193</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#plateXV">XV.</a></td>
+<td><p>
+Main court, ruin at mouth of the East Verde
+</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page195">195</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#plateXVI">XVI.</a></td>
+<td><p>
+Ruin at mouth of Fossil creek
+</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page197">197</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#plateXVII">XVII.</a></td>
+<td><p>
+Ground plan of ruins opposite Verde
+</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page199">199</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#plateXVIII">XVIII.</a></td>
+<td><p>
+General view of ruins opposite Verde
+</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page201">201</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#plateXIX">XIX.</a></td>
+<td><p>
+Southern part of ruins opposite Verde
+</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page203">203</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#plateXX">XX.</a></td>
+<td><p>
+General view of ruin on southern side of Clear creek
+</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page205">205</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#plateXXI">XXI.</a></td>
+<td><p>
+Detailed view of ruin on southern side of Clear creek
+</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page207">207</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#plateXXII">XXII.</a></td>
+<td><p>
+General view of ruin 8 miles north of Fossil creek
+</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page209">209</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#plateXXIII">XXIII.</a></td>
+<td><p>
+General view of ruins on an eminence 14 miles north of Fossil creek
+</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page211">211</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#plateXXIV">XXIV.</a></td>
+<td><p>
+General view of northern end of a group of cavate lodges
+</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page213">213</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#plateXXV">XXV.</a></td>
+<td><p>
+Map of group of cavate lodges
+</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page215">215</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#plateXXVI">XXVI.</a></td>
+<td><p>
+Strata of northern canyon wall
+</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page217">217</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#plateXXVII">XXVII.</a></td>
+<td><p>
+Ruin on northern point of cavate lodge canyon
+</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page219">219</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#plateXXVIII">XXVIII.</a></td>
+<td><p>
+Cavate lodge with walled front
+</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page221">221</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#plateXXIX">XXIX.</a></td>
+<td><p>
+Open front cavate lodges on the Rio San Juan
+</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page223">223</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#plateXXX">XXX.</a></td>
+<td><p>
+Walled front cavate lodges on the Rio San Juan
+</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page224">224</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#plateXXXI">XXXI.</a></td>
+<td><p>
+Cavate lodges on the Rio Grande
+</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page225">225</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#plateXXXII">XXXII.</a></td>
+<td><p>
+Interior view of cavate lodge, group <i>D</i>
+</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page227">227</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#plateXXXIII">XXXIII.</a></td>
+<td><p>
+Bowlder-marked site
+</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page229">229</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#plateXXXIV">XXXIV.</a></td>
+<td><p>
+Irrigating ditch on the lower Verde
+</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page231">231</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#plateXXXV">XXXV.</a></td>
+<td><p>
+Old irrigating ditch, showing cut through low ridge
+</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page233">233</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#plateXXXVI">XXXVI.</a></td>
+<td><p>
+Old ditch near Verde, looking westward
+</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page235">235</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#plateXXXVII">XXXVII.</a></td>
+<td><p>
+Old ditch near Verde, looking eastward
+</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page237">237</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#plateXXXVIII">XXXVIII.</a></td>
+<td><p>
+Bluff over ancient ditch, showing gravel stratum
+</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page239">239</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#plateXXXIX">XXXIX.</a></td>
+<td><p>
+Ancient ditch and horticultural works on Clear creek
+</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page241">241</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#plateXL">XL.</a></td>
+<td><p>
+Ancient ditch around a knoll, Clear creek
+</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page243">243</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#plateXLI">XLI.</a></td>
+<td><p>
+Ancient work on Clear creek
+</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page245">245</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#plateXLII">XLII.</a></td>
+<td><p>
+Gateway to ancient work, Clear creek
+</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page247">247</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#plateXLIII">XLIII.</a></td>
+<td><p>
+Single-room remains on Clear creek
+</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page249">249</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#plateXLIV">XLIV.</a></td>
+<td><p>
+Bowlder foundations near Limestone creek
+</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page251">251</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#plateXLV">XLV.</a></td>
+<td><p>
+Masonry of ruin near Limestone creek
+</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page253">253</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#plateXLVI">XLVI.</a></td>
+<td><p>
+Masonry of ruin opposite Verde
+</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page255">255</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#plateXLVII">XLVII.</a></td>
+<td><p>
+Standing walls opposite Verde
+</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page257">257</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#plateXLVIII">XLVIII.</a></td>
+<td><p>
+Masonry of ruin at mouth of the East Verde
+</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page259">259</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#plateXLIX">XLIX.</a></td>
+<td><p>
+Doorway to cavate lodge
+</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page260">260</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#plateL">L.</a></td>
+<td><p>
+Doorway to cavate lodge
+</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page261">261</a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>
+<span class = "pagenum">184</span>
+<a name = "page184" id = "page184"> </a>
+<!--png 264-->
+</p>
+
+<table class = "toc" summary = "list of figures">
+<tr>
+<td class = "item">
+<a href = "#fig279">Fig.&nbsp;279.</a></td>
+<td><p>
+Sketch map, site of small ruin 10 miles north of Fossil creek
+</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page200">200</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig280">280.</a></td>
+<td><p>
+Ground plan of ruin at mouth of the East Verde
+</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page201">201</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig281">281.</a></td>
+<td><p>
+Ground plan of ruin near the mouth of Fossil creek
+</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page204">204</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig282">282.</a></td>
+<td><p>
+Sketch map, site of ruin above Fossil creek
+</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page205">205</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig283">283.</a></td>
+<td><p>
+Sketch map of ruin 9½ miles above Fossil creek
+</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page206">206</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig284">284.</a></td>
+<td><p>
+Sketch map showing location of ruins opposite Verde
+</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page207">207</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig285">285.</a></td>
+<td><p>
+Ground plan of ruin on southern side of Clear creek
+</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page211">211</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig286">286.</a></td>
+<td><p>
+Ground plan of ruin 8 miles north of Fossil creek
+</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page213">213</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig287">287.</a></td>
+<td><p>
+Sketch map of ruins on pinnacle 7 miles north of Fossil creek
+</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page216">216</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig288">288.</a></td>
+<td><p>
+Remains of small rooms 7 miles north of Fossil creek
+</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page216">216</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig289">289.</a></td>
+<td><p>
+Diagram showing strata of canyon wall
+</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page218">218</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig290">290.</a></td>
+<td><p>
+Walled storage cist
+</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page221">221</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig291">291.</a></td>
+<td><p>
+Plan of cavate lodges, group <i>D</i>
+</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page226">226</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig292">292.</a></td>
+<td><p>
+Sections of cavate lodges, group <i>D</i>
+</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page227">227</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig293">293.</a></td>
+<td><p>
+Section of water pocket
+</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page228">228</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig294">294.</a></td>
+<td><p>
+Plan of cavate lodges, group <i>A</i>
+</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page229">229</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig295">295.</a></td>
+<td><p>
+Sections of cavate lodges, group <i>A</i>
+</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page230">230</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig296">296.</a></td>
+<td><p>
+Plan of cavate lodges, group <i>B</i>
+</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page231">231</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig297">297.</a></td>
+<td><p>
+Plan of cavate lodges, group <i>E</i>
+</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page232">232</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig298">298.</a></td>
+<td><p>
+Plan of cavate lodges, group <i>C</i>
+</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page233">233</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig299">299.</a></td>
+<td><p>
+Map of an ancient irrigation ditch
+</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page239">239</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig300">300.</a></td>
+<td><p>
+Part of old irrigating ditch
+</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page241">241</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig301">301.</a></td>
+<td><p>
+Walled front cavate lodges
+</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page250">250</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig302">302.</a></td>
+<td><p>
+Bowlders in footway, cavate lodges
+</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page252">252</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig303">303.</a></td>
+<td><p>
+Framed doorway, cavate lodges
+</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page253">253</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig304">304.</a></td>
+<td><p>
+Notched doorway in Canyon de Chelly
+</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page254">254</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig305">305.</a></td>
+<td><p>
+Notched doorway in Tusayan
+</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page255">255</a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<table class = "thematic" summary = "thematic list of illustrations">
+<tr>
+<td align = "center" colspan = "2">
+<b><a name = "thematic" id = "thematic">
+Illustrations grouped by type</a> (list added by transcriber)</b><br>
+<i>The distinction between a “site plan” and a “building plan” is not
+clear-cut; the illustration captions are inconsistent.</i></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class = "heading" colspan = "2">Site plans</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#plateXXV">
+Plate&nbsp;XXV.</a></td>
+<td><p>
+Map of group of cavate lodges
+</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item">
+<a href = "#fig279">Fig.&nbsp;279.</a></td>
+<td><p>
+Sketch map, site of small ruin 10 miles north of Fossil creek
+</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig282">282.</a></td>
+<td><p>
+Sketch map, site of ruin above Fossil creek
+</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig283">283.</a></td>
+<td><p>
+Sketch map of ruin 9½ miles above Fossil creek
+</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig284">284.</a></td>
+<td><p>
+Sketch map showing location of ruins opposite Verde
+</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig287">287.</a></td>
+<td><p>
+Sketch map of ruins on pinnacle 7 miles north of Fossil creek
+</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig288">288.</a></td>
+<td><p>
+Remains of small rooms 7 miles north of Fossil creek
+</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig299">299.</a></td>
+<td><p>
+Map of an ancient irrigation ditch
+</p></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class = "heading" colspan = "2">Building plans</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#plateXII">
+Plate&nbsp;XII.</a></td>
+<td><p>
+Ground plan of ruin near mouth of Limestone creek
+</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#plateXVII">XVII.</a></td>
+<td><p>
+Ground plan of ruins opposite Verde
+</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig280">Fig. 280.</a></td>
+<td><p>
+Ground plan of ruin at mouth of the East Verde
+</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig281">281.</a></td>
+<td><p>
+Ground plan of ruin near the mouth of Fossil creek
+</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig285">285.</a></td>
+<td><p>
+Ground plan of ruin on southern side of Clear creek
+</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig286">286.</a></td>
+<td><p>
+Ground plan of ruin 8 miles north of Fossil creek
+</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig291">291.</a></td>
+<td><p>
+Plan of cavate lodges, group <i>D</i>
+</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig294">294.</a></td>
+<td><p>
+Plan of cavate lodges, group <i>A</i>
+</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig296">296.</a></td>
+<td><p>
+Plan of cavate lodges, group <i>B</i>
+</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig297">297.</a></td>
+<td><p>
+Plan of cavate lodges, group <i>E</i>
+</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig298">298.</a></td>
+<td><p>
+Plan of cavate lodges, group <i>C</i>
+</p></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class = "heading" colspan = "2">Sections</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig292">Fig. 292.</a></td>
+<td><p>
+Sections of cavate lodges, group <i>D</i>
+</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig293">293.</a></td>
+<td><p>
+Section of water pocket
+</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig295">295.</a></td>
+<td><p>
+Sections of cavate lodges, group <i>A</i>
+</p></td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+
+<!--png 265-->
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "plateX" id = "plateX" href = "images/plate10.png">
+<img src = "images/plate10thumb.png" width = "423" height = "558"
+alt = "map of pueblo region"
+title = "Map Showing Distribution of Ruins"></a>
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption table">
+Plate X. Map Showing Distribution of Ruins<br>
+and Location of Area Treated<br>
+with Reference to Ancient Pueblo Region.<br>
+<span class = "blowup"><a href = "images/plate10.png">
+larger view</a> (705 × 973 pix)<br>
+<a href = "images/plate10.png">high-resolution version</a>
+for printing(300dpi, 2818 × 3888 pix)</span></p>
+
+<hr class = "mid">
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum">185</span>
+<a name = "page185" id = "page185"> </a>
+<!--png 266-->
+
+<h3>ABORIGINAL REMAINS IN VERDE VALLEY, ARIZONA</h3>
+
+<hr class = "tiny">
+
+<h5 class = "smallcaps">By Cosmos Mindeleff</h5>
+
+<hr class = "tiny">
+
+<h4><a name = "intro" id = "intro">
+INTRODUCTION.</a></h4>
+
+<h5 class = "section"><a name = "intro_region" id = "intro_region">
+THE REGION AND ITS LITERATURE.</a></h5>
+
+<p>The region described in the following pages comprises the valley of
+the Rio Verde, in Arizona, from Verde, in eastern central Yavapai
+county, to the confluence with Salt river, in Maricopa county.</p>
+
+<p>The written history of the region treated extends back only a few
+years. Since the aboriginal inhabitants abandoned it, or were driven
+from it, the hostile Apache and Walapai roamed over it without hindrance
+or opposition, and so late as twenty-five years ago, when the modern
+settlement of the region commenced, ordinary pursuits were almost
+impossible. Some of the pioneer settlers are still in possession, and
+are occupying the ground they took up at the time when the rifle was
+more necessary for successful agriculture than the plow.</p>
+
+<p>The first notice of this region is derived from the report of Espejo,
+who visited some “mines” north and east of the present site of Prescott
+early in 1583; in 1598 Farfan and Quesada of Oñate’s expedition visited
+probably the same locality from Tusayan, and in 1604 Oñate crossed the
+country a little way north of the present Prescott, in one of his
+journeys in search of mineral wealth. Nothing seems to have come of
+these expeditions, however, and the remoteness of the region from the
+highways of travel and its rough and forbidding character caused it to
+remain unknown for over two centuries. It was not until the active
+prospecting for gold and silver accompanying the American invasion and
+conquest began that the country again became known. Valuable mines were
+discovered east and south of the site of Prescott, some of them as early
+as 1836; but it was not until after 1860 that any considerable amount of
+work was done, and the mining development of this region, now one of the
+best known in Arizona, may be said to date from about 1865. Camp Verde
+was first established in 1861, at a point on the northern side of Beaver
+creek, but was not regularly occupied until 1866. In 1871 it was removed
+to its present location, about a mile south of the previous site. It was
+abandoned as a military post in 1891, and gradually lost the military
+element of the name.</p>
+
+<p><span class = "pagenum">186</span>
+<a name = "page186" id = "page186"> </a>
+<!--png 267-->
+Concerning the archeologic remains of the Rio Verde valley almost
+nothing is known. In the early history of Arizona the Verde was known as
+Rio San Francisco, and vague rumors of large and important ruins were
+current among trappers and prospectors. The Pacific railway reports,
+published in 1856, mention these ruins on the authority of the guide to
+Lieut. Whipple’s party, Leroux by name. Other notices are found here and
+there in various books of exploration and travel published during the
+next two decades, but no systematic examination of the region was made
+and the accounts are hardly more than a mention. In 1878 Dr. W. J.
+Hoffman, at that time connected with the Hayden Survey, published
+descriptions of the so-called Montezuma well and of a large cliff ruin
+on Beaver creek, the latter accompanied by an illustration.<a class =
+"tag" name = "tag1" id = "tag1" href = "#note1">1</a> The descriptions
+are slight and do not touch the region herein discussed.</p>
+
+<p>The first publication of importance to the present inquiry is a short
+paper by Dr. E. A. Mearns, U.S. Army, in the Popular Science Monthly for
+October, 1890. Dr. Mearns was stationed for some years at Camp Verde,
+and improved the opportunity afforded by numerous hunting expeditions
+and tours of duty to acquaint himself with the aboriginal remains of the
+Verde valley. He published a map showing the distribution of remains in
+that region, described several ruins in detail, and illustrated some
+pieces of pottery, etc., found by him. The article is unfortunately very
+short, so short that it is hardly more than an introduction to the wide
+field it covers; it is to be hoped that Dr. Mearns will utilize the
+material he has and publish a more comprehensive report.</p>
+
+<p>The remains in the valley of Rio Verde derive an additional interest
+from their position in the ancient pueblo region. On the one hand they
+are near the southwestern limit of that region, and on the other hand
+they occupy an intermediate position between the ruins of the Gila and
+Salt river valleys and those of the northern districts. The limits of
+the ancient pueblo region have not yet been defined, and the
+accompanying map (plate <span class = "smallroman">X</span>) is only
+preliminary. It illustrates the limited extent of our knowledge of the
+ancient pueblo region as well as the distribution of ruins within that
+region, so far as they are known; and the exceptional abundance of ruins
+noted on certain portions of the map means only that those parts are
+better known than others. Notwithstanding its incompleteness, it is the
+best available and is published in the hope that it will serve as a
+nucleus to which further data may be added until a complete map is
+produced.</p>
+
+<p>The ruins in the Gila valley, including those along Salt river, are
+less known than those farther northward, but we know that there is a
+marked difference between the type exemplified by the well-known Casa
+Grande, near Florence, Arizona, and that of which the best specimens
+(notably the Chaco ruins) are found in the San Juan basin. This
+<span class = "pagenum">187</span>
+<a name = "page187" id = "page187"> </a>
+<!--png 269-->
+difference may be due only to a different environment, necessitating a
+change in material employed and consequent on this a change in methods,
+although it seems to the writer that the difference is perhaps too great
+to be accounted for in this way. Be the cause what it may, there is no
+doubt that there is a difference; and it is reasonable to expect that in
+the regions lying between the southern earth-constructed and the
+northern stone structures, intermediate types might be found which would
+connect them. The valley of Rio Verde occupies such an intermediate
+position geographically, but the architectural remains found in it
+belong to the northern type; so we must look elsewhere for connecting
+links. The most important ruin in the lower Verde region occurs near its
+southern end, and more distinctly resembles the northern ruins than the
+ruins in the northern part of that region.</p>
+
+<p>Although the examination of this region failed to connect the
+northern and southern types of house structure, the peculiar conditions
+here are exceptionally valuable to the study of the principles and
+methods of pueblo building. Here remains of large villages with
+elaborate and complex ground plan, indicating a long period of
+occupancy, are found, and within a short distance there are ruins of
+small villages with very simple ground plan, both produced under the
+same environment; and comparative study of the two may indicate some of
+the principles which govern the growth of villages and whose result can
+be seen in the ground plans. Here also there is an exceptional
+development of cavate lodges, and corresponding to this development an
+almost entire absence of cliff dwellings. From the large amount of data
+here a fairly complete idea of this phase of pueblo life may be
+obtained. This region is not equal to the Gila valley in data for the
+study of horticultural methods practiced among the ancient Pueblos, but
+there is enough to show that the inhabitants relied principally and,
+perhaps, exclusively on horticulture for means of subsistence, and that
+their knowledge of horticultural methods was almost, if not quite, equal
+to that of their southern neighbors. The environment here was not nearly
+so favorable to that method of life as farther southward, not even so
+favorable as in some northern districts, and in consequence more
+primitive appliances and ruder methods prevailed. Added to these
+advantages for study there is the further one that nowhere within this
+region are there any traces of other than purely aboriginal work; no
+adobe walls, no chimneys, no constructive expedients other than those
+which may be reasonably set down as aboriginal; and, finally, the region
+is still so little occupied by modern settlers that, with the exception
+of the vicinity of Verde, the remains have been practically undisturbed.
+A&nbsp;complete picture of aboriginal life during the occupancy of the
+lower Verde valley would be a picture of pueblo life pursued in the face
+of great difficulties, and with an environment so unfavorable that had
+the occupation extended over an indefinite period of time it would still
+have been impossible to develop the great structures which resulted from
+the settlements in Chaco canyon.</p>
+
+<p><span class = "pagenum">188</span>
+<a name = "page188" id = "page188"> </a>
+<!--png 270-->
+It is not known what particular branch of the pueblo-building tribes
+formerly made their home in the lower Verde valley, but the character of
+the masonry, the rough methods employed, and the character of the
+remains suggest the Tusayan. It has been already stated that the
+archeologic affinities of this region are northern and do not conform to
+any type now found in the south; and it is known that some of the
+Tusayan gentes&mdash;the water people&mdash;came from the south. The
+following tradition, which, though not very definite, is of interest in
+this connection, was obtained by the late A.&nbsp;M. Stephen, for many
+years a resident near the Tusayan villages in Arizona, who, aside from
+his competence for that work, had every facility for obtaining data of
+this kind. The tradition was dictated by Anawita, chief of the
+Pat-ki-nyûmû (Water house gentes) and is as follows:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+We did not come direct to this region (Tusayan)&mdash;we had no fixed
+intention as to where we should go.
+</blockquote>
+
+<blockquote>
+We are the Pat-ki-nyû-mû, and we dwelt in the <ins class = "correction"
+title = "inconsistent spelling in original">Pa-lát-kwa-bĭ</ins> (Red
+Land) where the kwá-ni (agave) grows high and plentiful; perhaps it was
+in the region the Americans call Gila valley, but of that I am not
+certain. It was far south of here, and a large river flowed past our
+village, which was large, and the houses were high, and a strange thing
+happened there.
+</blockquote>
+
+<blockquote>
+Our people were not living peaceably at that time; we were quarreling
+among ourselves, over huts and other things I have heard, but who can
+tell what caused their quarrels? There was a famous hunter of our
+people, and he cut off the tips from the antlers of the deer which he
+killed and [wore them for a necklace?] he always carried them. He lay
+down in a hollow in the court of the village, as if he had died, but our
+people doubted this; they thought he was only shamming death, yet they
+covered him up with earth. Next day his extended hand protruded, the
+four fingers erect, and the first day after that one finger disappeared
+[was doubled up?]; each day a finger disappeared, until on the fourth
+day his hand was no longer visible.
+</blockquote>
+
+<blockquote>
+The old people thought that he dug down to the under world with the horn
+tips.
+</blockquote>
+
+<blockquote>
+On the fifth day water spouted up from the hole where his hand had been
+and it spread over everywhere. On the sixth day Pá-lü-lü-koña (the
+Serpent deity) protruded from this hole and lifted his head high above
+the water and looked around in every direction. All of the lower land
+was covered and many were drowned, but most of our people had fled to
+some knolls not far from the village and which were not yet submerged.
+</blockquote>
+
+<blockquote>
+When the old men saw Pá-lü-lü-koña they asked him what he wanted,
+because they knew he had caused this flood; and Pá-lü-lü-koña said,
+“I&nbsp;want you to give me a youth and a maiden.”
+</blockquote>
+
+<blockquote>
+The elders consulted, and then selected the handsomest youth and fairest
+maid and arrayed them in their finest apparel, the youth with a white
+kilt and paroquet plume, and the maid with a fine blue tunic and white
+mantle. These children wept and besought their parents not to send them
+to Pá-lü-lü-koña, but an old chief said, “You must go; do not be afraid;
+I&nbsp;will guide you.” And he led them toward the village court and
+stood at the edge of the water, but sent the children wading in toward
+Pá-lü-lü-koña, and when they reached the center of the court where
+Pá-lü-lü-koña was the deity and the children disappeared. The water then
+rushed down after them, through a great cavity, and the earth quaked and
+many houses tumbled down, and from this cavity a great mound of dark
+rock protruded. This rock mound was glossy and of all colors; it was
+beautiful, and, as I have been told, it still remains there.
+</blockquote>
+
+<span class = "pagenum">189</span>
+<a name = "page189" id = "page189"> </a>
+<!--png 272-->
+<blockquote>
+The White Mountain Apache have told me that they know a place in the
+south where old houses surround a great rock, and the land in the
+vicinity is wet and boggy.
+</blockquote>
+
+<blockquote>
+We traveled northward from <ins class = "correction" title =
+"inconsistent spelling in original">Palat-kwabi</ins> and continued to
+travel just as long as any strength was left in the people&mdash;as long
+as they had breath. During these journeys we would halt only for one day
+at a time. Then our chief planted corn in the morning and the
+pá-to-la-tei (dragon fly) came and hovered over the stalks and by noon
+the corn was ripe; before sunset it was quite dry and the stalks fell
+over, and whichever way they pointed in that direction we traveled.
+</blockquote>
+
+<blockquote>
+When anyone became ill, or when children fretted and cried, or the young
+people became homesick, the Co-i-yal Katcina (a&nbsp;youth and a maiden)
+came and danced before them; then the sick got well, children laughed,
+and sad ones became cheerful.
+</blockquote>
+
+<blockquote>
+We would continue to travel until everyone was thoroughly worn out, then
+we would halt and build houses and plant, remaining perhaps many years.
+</blockquote>
+
+<blockquote>
+One of these places where we lived is not far from San Carlos, in a
+valley, and another is on a mesa near a spring called Coyote Water by
+the Apache.<span class = "asterisks">&nbsp;***</span>
+</blockquote>
+
+<blockquote>
+When we came to the valley of the Little Colorado, south of where
+Winslow now is, we built houses and lived there; and then we crossed to
+the northern side of the valley and built houses at Homolobi. This was a
+good place for a time, but a plague of flies came and bit the suckling
+children, causing many of them to die, so we left there and traveled to
+Ci-pa (near Kuma spring).
+</blockquote>
+
+<blockquote>
+Finally we found the Hopi, some going to each of the villages except
+Awatobi; none went there.
+</blockquote>
+
+
+
+<h5 class = "section"><a name = "intro_country" id = "intro_country">
+PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION OF THE COUNTRY.</a></h5>
+
+<p>The Rio Verde is throughout its length a mountain stream. Rising in
+the mountains and plateaus bounding two great connected valleys
+northwest of Prescott, known as Big Chino valley and Williamson valley,
+both over 4,000 feet above the sea, it discharges into Salt river about
+10 miles south of McDowell and about 25 miles east of Phoenix, at an
+elevation of less than 1,800 feet above the sea. The fall from Verde to
+McDowell, a&nbsp;distance of about 65 miles, is about 1,500 feet The
+whole course of the river is but little over 150 miles. The small
+streams which form the river unite on the eastern side of Big Chino
+valley and flow thence in a southerly and easterly direction until some
+12 miles north of Verde the waterway approaches the edge of the volcanic
+formation known on the maps as the Colorado plateau, or Black mesa, and
+locally as “the rim.” Here the river is sharply deflected southward, and
+flows thence in a direction almost due south to its mouth. This part of
+the river is hemmed in on both sides by high mountain chains and broken
+every few hundred yards by rapids and “riffles.”</p>
+
+<p>Its rapid fall would make the river valuable for irrigation if there
+were tillable land to irrigate; but on the west the river is hugged
+closely by a mountain chain whose crest, rising over 6,000 feet above
+the sea, is sometimes less than 2&nbsp;miles from the river, and whose
+steep and rugged sides descend in an almost unbroken slope to the river
+bottom. The eastern side of the river is also closely confined, though
+<span class = "pagenum">190</span>
+<a name = "page190" id = "page190"> </a>
+<!--png 273-->
+not so closely as the western, by a chain of mountains known as the
+Mazatzal range. The crest of this chain is generally over 10 miles from
+the river, and the intervening stretch, unlike the other side, which
+comes down to the river in practically a single slope, is broken into
+long promontories and foothills, and sometimes, where the larger
+tributaries come in, into well-defined terraces. Except at its head the
+principal tributaries of the Verde come from the east, those on the
+west, which are almost as numerous, being generally small and
+insignificant.</p>
+
+<p>Most of the modern settlements of the Rio Verde are along the upper
+portion of its course. Prescott is situated on Granite creek, one of the
+sources of the river, and along other tributaries, as far down as the
+southern end of the great valley in whose center Verde is located, there
+are many scattered settlements; but from that point to McDowell there
+are hardly a dozen houses all told. This region is most rugged and
+forbidding. There are no roads and few trails, and the latter are feebly
+marked and little used. The few permanent inhabitants of the region are
+mostly “cow men,” and the settlements, except at one point, are shanties
+known as “cow camps.” There are hundreds of square miles of territory
+here which are never visited by white men, except by “cow-boys” during
+the spring and autumn round-ups.</p>
+
+<p>Scattered at irregular intervals along both sides of the river are
+many benches and terraces of alluvium, varying in width from a few feet
+to several miles, and comprising all the cultivable land in the valley
+of the river. Since the Verde is a mountain stream with a great fall,
+its power of erosion is very great, and its channel changes frequently;
+in some places several times in a single winter season. Benches and
+terraces are often formed or cut away within a few days, and no portion
+of the river banks is free from these changes until continued erosion
+has lowered the bed to such a degree that that portion is beyond the
+reach of high water. When this occurs the bench or terrace, being formed
+of rich alluvium, soon becomes covered with grass, and later with
+mesquite and “cat-claw” bushes, interspersed with such cottonwood trees
+as may have survived the period when the terrace was but little above
+the river level. Cottonwoods, with an occasional willow, form the
+arborescent growth of the valley of the Verde proper, although on some
+of the principal tributaries and at a little distance from the river
+groves of other kinds of trees are found. All these trees, however, are
+confined to the immediate vicinity of the river and those of its
+tributaries which carry water during most of the year; and as the
+mountains which hem in the valley on the east and west are not high
+enough to support great pines such as characterize the plateau country
+on the north and east, the aspect of the country, even a short distance
+away from the river bottom, is arid and forbidding in the extreme.</p>
+
+<p>Within the last few years the character of the river and of the
+country adjacent to it has materially changed, and inferences drawn from
+<span class = "pagenum">191</span>
+<a name = "page191" id = "page191"> </a>
+<!--png 276-->
+present conditions may be erroneous. This change is the direct result of
+the recent stocking of the country with cattle. More cattle have been
+brought into the country than in its natural state it will support. One
+of the results of this overstocking is a very high death rate among the
+cattle; another and more important result is that the grasses and other
+vegetation have no chance to seed or mature, being cropped off close to
+the ground almost as soon as they appear. As a result of this, many of
+the river terraces and little valleys among the foothills, once
+celebrated for luxuriant grass, are now bare, and would hardly afford
+sustenance to a single cow for a week. In place of strong grasses these
+places are now covered for a few weeks in spring with a growth of a
+plant known as “filaree,” which, owing to the rapid maturing of its
+seeds (in&nbsp;a month or less), seems to be the only plant not
+completely destroyed by the cattle, although the latter are very fond of
+it and eat it freely, both green and when dried on the ground. As a
+further effect of the abundance of cattle and the scarcity of food for
+them, the young willows, which, even so late as ten years ago, formed
+one of the characteristic features of the river and its banks, growing
+thickly in the bed of the stream, and often forming impenetrable jungles
+on its banks, are now rarely seen.</p>
+
+<p>Owing to the character of the country it drains, the Rio Verde always
+must have been subject to freshets and overflows at the time of the
+spring rains, but until quite recently the obstructions to the rapid
+collection of water offered by thickly growing grass and bushes
+prevented destructive floods, except, perhaps, on exceptional occasions.
+Now, however, the flood of each year is more disastrous than that of the
+preceding year, and in the flood of February, 1891, the culminating
+point of intensity and destructiveness was reached. On this occasion the
+water rose in some places over 20 feet, with a corresponding broadening
+in other places, and flowed with such velocity that for several weeks it
+was impossible to cross the river. As a result of these floods, the
+grassy banks that once distinguished the river are now but little more
+than a tradition, while the older terraces, which under normal
+circumstances would now be safe, are being cut away more and more each
+year. In several localities near Verde, where there are cavate lodges,
+located originally with especial reference to an adjacent area of
+tillable land, the terraces have been completely cut away, and the
+cliffs in which the cavate lodges occur are washed by the river during
+high water.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<span class = "pagenum">192</span>
+<a name = "page192" id = "page192"> </a>
+<!--png 277-->
+
+<h4 class = "chapter"><a name = "class" id = "class">
+DISTRIBUTION AND CLASSIFICATION OF RUINS.</a></h4>
+
+<p>All the modern settlements of the lower portion of the Verde valley
+are located on terraces or benches, and such localities were also
+regarded favorably by the ancient builders, for almost invariably where
+a modern settlement is observed traces of a former one will also be
+found. The former inhabitants of this region were an agricultural
+people, and their villages were always located either on or immediately
+adjacent to some area of tillable soil. This is true even of the cavate
+lodges, which are often supposed to have been located solely with
+reference to facility of defense. Owing to the character of the country,
+most of the tillable land is found on the eastern side of the river, and
+as a consequence most of the remains of the former inhabitants are found
+there also, though they are by no means confined to that side. These
+remains are quite abundant in the vicinity of Verde, and less so between
+that point and the mouth of the river. The causes which have induced
+American settlement in the large area of bottom land about Verde
+doubtless also induced the aboriginal settlement of the same region,
+although, owing to the different systems of agriculture pursued by the
+two peoples, the American settlements are always made on the bottom
+lands themselves, while the aboriginal settlements are almost always
+located on high ground overlooking the bottoms. Perched on the hills
+overlooking these bottoms, and sometimes located on the lower levels,
+there was once a number of large and important villages, while in the
+regions on the south, where the tillable areas are as a rule very much
+smaller, the settlements were, with one exception, small and generally
+insignificant. The region treated in these pages is that portion of the
+valley of Rio Verde comprised between its mouth and Verde, or Beaver
+creek, on the north. It was entered by the writer from the south; it is
+not proposed, however, to follow a strict geographic order of treatment,
+but, on the contrary, so far as practicable, to follow an arrangement by
+types.</p>
+
+<p>The domiciliary ruins of this region fall easily into three general
+classes, to which may be added a fourth, comprising irrigating ditches
+and works, the first class having two subclasses. They are as
+follows:</p>
+
+<p class = "inset1">
+Stone villages.</p>
+<p class = "inset2">
+<i>a</i>. Villages on bottom lands.</p>
+<p class = "inset2">
+<i>b</i>. Villages on defensive sites.</p>
+<p class = "inset1">
+Cavate lodges.</p>
+<p class = "inset1">
+Bowlder-marked sites.</p>
+<p class = "inset1">
+Irrigating ditches and works.</p>
+
+<p><span class = "pagenum">193</span>
+<a name = "page193" id = "page193"> </a>
+<!--png 280-->
+The ruins of the first group, or stone villages located on bottom lands
+without reference to defense, represent in size and in degree of skill
+attained by the builders the highest type in this region, although they
+are not so numerous as those of the other groups. They are of the same
+type as, although sometimes smaller in size than, the great valley
+pueblos of the regions on the north and south, wherein reliance for
+defense was placed in massive and well-planned structures and not on
+natural advantages of location. In the north this class of ruin has been
+shown to be the last stage in along course of evolution, and there is a
+suggestion that it occupies the same relation to the other ruins in the
+Verde region; this question, however, will later be discussed at some
+length. The best example of this type on the lower Verde is a large
+ruin, located in a considerable bottom on the eastern side of the river,
+about a mile above the mouth of Limestone creek. This is said to be the
+largest ruin on the Verde; it is certainly the largest in the region
+here treated, and it should be noted that it marks practically the
+southern limit of the Rio Verde group.</p>
+
+<p>The ruins of the second subclass, or stone villages located on
+defensive sites, are found throughout the whole of this region, although
+the type reaches its best development in the northern portion, in the
+vicinity of Verde. The separation of this type from the preceding one is
+to a certain extent arbitrary, as the location of a ruin is sometimes
+determined solely by convenience, and convenience may dictate the
+selection of a high and defensible site, when the tillable land on which
+the village depends is of small area, or when it is divided into a
+number of small and scattered areas; for it was a principle of the
+ancient village-builders that the parent village should overlook as
+large an extent as possible of the fields cultivated by its inhabitants.
+A&nbsp;good illustration of this type of ruin is found a little way
+northeast of Verde, on the opposite side of the river. Here a cluster of
+ruins ranging from small groups of domiciles to medium-sized villages is
+found located on knobs and hills, high up in the foothills and
+overlooking large areas of the Verde bottom lands. These are illustrated
+later. Another example, also illustrated later, occurs on the eastern
+side of the river about 8&nbsp;miles north of the mouth of Fossil creek.
+The village, which is very small, occupies the whole summit of a large
+rock which projects into the stream, and which is connected with the
+mainland by a natural causeway or dike. This is one of the best sites
+for defense seen by the writer in an experience of many years.</p>
+
+<p>Cavate lodges are distributed generally over the whole northern
+portion of the region here treated. At many points throughout this
+region there are outcrops of a calcareous sandstone, very soft and
+strongly laminated and therefore easily excavated. This formation often
+appears in the cliffs and small canyons bordering on the streams, and in
+it are found the cavate lodges. The best examples are found some
+8&nbsp;miles south of Verde, in a small canyon on the eastern side of
+the river, and it
+<span class = "pagenum">194</span>
+<a name = "page194" id = "page194"> </a>
+<!--png 281-->
+is noteworthy that in this case stone villages occur in conjunction with
+and subordinate to the cavate lodges, while elsewhere within this region
+and in other regions the cavate lodges are found either alone or in
+conjunction with and subordinate to stone villages. To this latter type
+belong a number of cavate lodges on the northern side of Clear creek,
+about 4&nbsp;miles above its mouth. The cavate lodges of the Verde
+differ in some particulars from those found in other regions; they are
+not excavated in tufa or volcanic ash, nor are the fronts of the
+chambers generally walled up. Front walls are found here, but they are
+the exception and not the rule.</p>
+
+<!--png 268-->
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "plateXI" id = "plateXI" href = "images/plate11.png">
+<img src = "images/plate11thumb.png" width = "364" height = "236"
+alt = "map of Rio Verde valley"
+title = "Map of the Valley of the Rio Verde"></a>
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption table">
+Plate XI. Map of the Valley of the Rio Verde.<br>
+<span class = "blowup"><a href = "images/plate11.png">
+larger view</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Bowlder-marked sites are scattered over the whole region here treated
+although they are more abundant in the southern part than in the
+northern. They are so abundant that their locations could not be
+indicated on the accompanying map (plate <span class =
+"smallroman">XI</span>). These constitute a peculiar type, not found
+elsewhere in the experience of the writer, and present some points of
+interest. They vary in size from one room to considerable settlements,
+but the average size is two or three rooms. They are always located with
+reference to some area, generally a small one, of tillable land which
+they overlook, and all the data now available support the inference that
+they mark the sites of small farming or temporary shelters, occupied
+only during the farming season and abandoned each winter by the
+inhabitants, who then return to the main pueblo&mdash;a custom prevalent
+today among the pueblos. These sites are found on the flat bottom lands
+of the river, on the upper terraces overlooking the bottoms, on points
+of the foothills, in fact everywhere where there is an area of tillable
+land large enough to grow a few hills of corn. They often occur in
+conjunction with irrigating ditches and other horticultural works;
+sometimes they are located on small hillocks in the beds of streams,
+locations which must be covered with water during the annual floods;
+sometimes they are found at the bases of promontories bordering on
+drainage channels and on the banks of arroyas, where they might be
+washed away at any time. In short, these sites seem to have been
+selected without any thought of their permanency.</p>
+
+<p>Irrigating ditches and horticultural works were found in this region,
+but not in great abundance; perhaps a more careful and detailed
+examination would reveal a much larger number than are now known. Fine
+examples of irrigating ditches were found at the extreme northern and
+the extreme southern limits of the region here treated, and there is a
+fair presumption that other examples occur in the intermediate country.
+These works did not reach the magnitude of those found in the Gila and
+Salt river valleys, perhaps partly for the reason that the great fall of
+Verde river and its tributaries renders only short ditches necessary to
+bring the water out over the terraces, and also partly because
+irrigation is not here essential to successful horticulture. In good
+years fair crops can be obtained without irrigation, and today this
+method of farming is pursued to a limited extent.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<span class = "pagenum">195</span>
+<a name = "page195" id = "page195"> </a>
+<!--png 284-->
+
+<h4 class = "chapter"><a name = "desc" id = "desc">
+PLANS AND DESCRIPTIONS.</a></h4>
+
+<h5 class = "section"><a name = "desc_villages" id = "desc_villages">
+STONE VILLAGES.</a></h5>
+
+<p>Ruins of villages built of stone, either roughly dressed or merely
+selected, represent the highest degree of art in architecture attained
+by the aborigines of Verde valley, and the best example of this class of
+ruin is found on the eastern side of the river, about a mile above the
+mouth of Limestone creek. The site was selected without reference to
+defense, and is overlooked by the hills which circumscribe a large
+semicircular area of bottom land, on the northern end of which the
+village was located. This is the largest ruin on the Verde; it covers an
+area of about 450 feet square, or over 5&nbsp;acres, and has some 225
+rooms on the ground plan. From the amount of debris we may infer that
+most of the rooms were but one story in height; and a reasonable
+estimate of the total number of rooms in the village when it was
+occupied would make the number not greater than 300 rooms. The ratio of
+rooms to inhabitants in the present pueblos would give a population for
+this village of about 450 persons. Zuñi, the largest inhabited pueblo,
+covering an area of about 5&nbsp;acres, has a population of 1,600.</p>
+
+<p>It will thus be seen that, while the area covered by this village was
+quite large, the population was comparatively small; in other words, the
+dense clustering and so-called beehive structure which characterize Zuñi
+and Taos, and are seen to a less extent in Oraibi, and which result from
+long-continued pressure of hostile tribes upon a village occupying a
+site not in itself easily defensible, has not been carried to such an
+extent here as in the examples cited. But it is also apparent that this
+village represents the beginning of the process which in time produces a
+village like Zuñi or Taos.</p>
+
+<!--png 271-->
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "plateXII" id = "plateXII" href = "images/plate12.png">
+<img src = "images/plate12thumb.png" width = "352" height = "268"
+alt = "ground plan of ruin" title = "ground plan of ruin"></a>
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption table">
+Plate XII. Ground Plan of Ruin<br>
+Near Mouth of Limestone Creek<br>
+Rio Verde, Arizona<br>
+<span class = "blowup"><a href = "images/plate12.png">
+larger view</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Plate <span class = "smallroman">XII</span> exhibits the ground plan
+of the village. It will be observed that this plan is remarkably similar
+in general characters to the ground plan of Zuñi.<a class = "tag" name =
+"tag2" id = "tag2" href = "#note2">2</a> A close inspection will reveal
+the presence of many discrepancies in the plan, which suggest that the
+village received at various times additions to its population in
+considerable numbers, and was not the result of the gradual growth of
+one settlement nor the home of a large group coming en masse to this
+locality. It has been shown<a class = "tag" name = "tag3" id = "tag3"
+href = "#note3">3</a> that in the old provinces of Tusayan and Cibola
+(Moki and Zuñi) the present villages are the result of the aggregation
+of many related gentes and subgentes, who reached their present location
+at different times and from different directions, and this seems to be
+the
+<span class = "pagenum">196</span>
+<a name = "page196" id = "page196"> </a>
+<!--png 285-->
+almost universal rule for the larger pueblos and ruins. It should be
+noted in this connection, however, that, the preceding statements being
+granted, a&nbsp;general plan of this character indicates an essentially
+modern origin or foundation.</p>
+
+<p>The ground plan shows a number of courts or open spaces, which
+divided the village into four well-defined clusters. The largest court
+was nearly in the center of the village, and within it (as&nbsp;shown,
+on the plan) there are traces of a small single-room structure that may
+have been a kiva of sacred chamber. Attached to this main court and
+extending eastward is another court of considerable size, and connected
+with this second court at its eastern end there is another one almost
+square in plan and of fair size. West of the main court may be seen a
+small court opening into it, and north of this another square space
+separated from the main court by a single stone wall and inclosed on the
+other three sides by rooms. In addition to these there are two
+completely inclosed small courts in the center of the southwestern
+cluster, and another one of moderate size between the southwestern and
+southern clusters.</p>
+
+<!--png 274-->
+<!--png 275-->
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "plateXIII" id = "plateXIII"> </a>
+<img src = "images/plate13.png" width = "415" height = "297"
+alt = "main court of ruin" title = "main court of ruin">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption table">
+Plate XIII. Main Court, Ruin Near Limestone Creek.</p>
+
+<p>The arrangement of these courts is highly suggestive. The central
+space was evidently the main court of the village at the time of its
+greatest development, and it is equally evident that it was inclosed at
+a later period than the small inclosed courts immediately adjacent to
+it, for had the latter not preceded it they would not occupy the
+positions they now do. Plate <span class = "smallroman">XIII</span>
+represents a part of the main court, and beyond the débris can be seen a
+small portion of the bottom upon which the village is built. To the
+left, in the foreground of the illustration, are traces of a small
+detached room, perhaps the main kiva<a class = "tag" name = "tag4" id =
+"tag4" href = "#note4">4</a> of the village; this is also shown on the
+ground plan, <a href = "#plateXI">plate <span class =
+"smallroman">XII</span></a>.</p>
+
+<p>The smaller courts are but little larger than the largest rooms, but
+it will be noticed that while some of the rooms are quite large they are
+always oblong. This requirement was dictated by the length of available
+roofing timbers. The cottonwood groves on the river bank would provide
+timber of fair size but of very poor quality, and, aside from this,
+roofing timbers longer than 15 feet could be obtained only at points
+many miles distant. In either case the hauling of these timbers to the
+site of the village would be a work of great labor and considerable
+difficulty. The width of the rooms was, therefore, limited to about 20
+feet, most of them being under 15 feet; but this limitation did not
+apply to the courts, which, though sometimes surrounded on all sides by
+buildings, were always open to the sky.</p>
+
+<p>It is probable that the central and northern portion of the
+southwestern cluster comprised the first rooms built in this village.
+This is the portion which commands the best outlook over the bottom, and
+it is
+<span class = "pagenum">197</span>
+<a name = "page197" id = "page197"> </a>
+<!--png 288-->
+also on the highest ground. Following this the southern cluster was
+probably built; afterwards the northern cluster was added, and finally
+the northwestern cluster. Subsequently rooms connecting these clusters
+and the eastern end of the village were built up, and probably last of
+all were added the rooms which occupied what was originally the eastern
+end of the main court. This hypothetic order of building the clusters
+composing the village is supported by the character of the site and the
+peculiarities of the ground plan. Most of the rooms in the northwestern
+cluster and in the eastern part of the village were but one story in
+height, while the crowding in the interior of the village, direct
+evidence of which is seen on the ground plan, could take place only
+after the rooms surrounding that area had been located, and when hostile
+pressure from outside made it undesirable to extend the bounds of the
+village; in other words, at the latest stage in the growth of the
+village.</p>
+
+<p>The arrangement and distribution of the rooms within the clusters
+indicate an occupancy extending over a considerable period of time.
+A&nbsp;reference to the ground plan will show that continuous wall lines
+are the exception, and it is seldom that more than two or three rooms
+are grouped together in regular order. In irregularity of arrangement
+the inhabitants of this village followed a general habit, the result of
+which can be seen today in all the inhabited villages and in most of the
+large pueblo ruins. It indicates a steady growth of the village by the
+addition of rooms, one or two at a time, as they were needed. The
+division into clusters, however, indicates an aggregation of related
+gentes or subgentes banded together for protection. Given these
+conditions, (1) bands of related families living near one another; (2)
+hostile pressure from outside; and (3) a site not in itself easily
+defended, and a ground plan similar to the one under discussion must
+result. Single detached rooms would not be built when the village might
+be attacked at any time, but they might be added during periods of peace
+and, the conditions being favorable, they might form the nuclei of other
+clusters. It is possible that some of the clusters forming this village
+had their origin in this manner, but this question can not be determined
+from the ground plan, as a similar result would be produced by the
+advent of a small band of related families.</p>
+
+<p>Growth in number of rooms does not necessarily indicate growth in
+population, and this qualification must not be lost sight of in the
+discussion of pueblo ground plans. Among the Pueblos of today, descent,
+in real property at least, is in the female line; when a man marries he
+becomes a member of his wife’s family and leaves his own home to live
+with his wife’s people. If the wife’s home is not large enough to
+contain all the members of the household, additional rooms are built
+adjoining and connected with those previously occupied. It may be
+mentioned in this connection that the women build the houses, although
+the men supply the material and do the heavy work. The result of this
+custom may be readily seen: a family in which there are many daughters
+must
+<span class = "pagenum">198</span>
+<a name = "page198" id = "page198"> </a>
+<!--png 289-->
+necessarily increase the space occupied by it, while a family consisting
+of sons, no matter how many they may be, will become extinct, so far as
+regards its home in the village. It is no uncommon thing to see in the
+villages of today several rooms in course of erection while there are a
+dozen or more rooms within a few steps abandoned and going to decay.
+Long occupancy, therefore, produces much the same effect on a ground
+plan of a village as a large population, or a rapidly growing one,
+except that in the former case irregularity in the arrangement of rooms
+will be more pronounced.</p>
+
+<p>It will be noticed that the size of rooms is more varied in the
+southwestern and southern clusters than in the remaining portions of the
+village. In the southwestern cluster rooms measuring 8&nbsp;feet by 18
+or 20 are not uncommon. These occur principally in the central and
+southwestern part of the cluster, while in the northern and northeastern
+part the rooms are uncommonly large, one of them measuring about 40 feet
+in length by nearly 15 feet in width and presenting a floor area of 600
+square feet. Rooms approaching this size are more common, however, in
+the northern and northwestern clusters. In these latter clusters long
+narrow rooms are the exception and a number of almost square ones are
+seen. The smallest room in the village is in the center of the southern
+cluster, on the highest ground within the area covered by the ruin; it
+measures 6&nbsp;feet by 10, with a floor area of 60 square feet, as
+opposed to the 600 square feet of the largest room. This small room was
+probably at one time a small open space between two projecting rooms,
+such as are often seen in the inhabited pueblos. Later the room on the
+south was built and the front of the space was walled up in order to
+make a rectangular area, thus forming the small room shown on the ground
+plan. The maximum length of any room is about 40 feet, the maximum width
+attained is about 20 feet, and in a general way it may be stated that
+the average size of the rooms is considerably larger than that of the
+rooms in the northern ruins.</p>
+
+<p>From the regularity in distribution of the debris now on the ground,
+it appears that the rooms of the northwestern and northern clusters,
+including the eastern part of the village, were almost uniformly one
+story in height, and most of the rooms in the other clusters were also
+limited in height to a single story. The only places on the ground plan
+where rooms of two stories might have existed are the northern and
+central parts of the southwestern and southern clusters, and perhaps the
+southern side of the northern cluster; the last, however, being very
+doubtful.</p>
+
+<p>In the scarcity of detached rooms or small clusters the plan of this
+village strongly resembles the ground plan of Zuñi. Only three detached
+rooms are seen in the plan. One of these, situated in the main or
+central court, has already been referred to as probably the remains of a
+kiva or sacred chamber. Another single room occurs outside of the
+village, near its southwestern corner. This was probably a dwelling
+room, for a kiva would hardly be located in this place.
+<span class = "pagenum">199</span>
+<a name = "page199" id = "page199"> </a>
+<!--png 291-->
+The third room is found also outside the village and at its southeastern
+corner. The space inclosed within the walls of this room measured about
+7&nbsp;feet by&nbsp;4 and the lines of wall are at an acute angle with
+the wall lines of the village. This structure is anomalous, and its
+purpose is not clear.</p>
+
+<p>The absence of clearly defined traces of passageways to the interior
+of the village is noticeable. This absence can hardly be attributed to
+the advanced state of decay in the ruin, for nearly all the wall lines
+can still be easily traced. At one point only is there a suggestion of
+an open passageway similar to those found in the inhabited pueblos. This
+occurs in the southeastern corner of the ground plan, between the
+southern cluster and the southern part of the northeastern cluster. It
+was about 25 feet long and but 6&nbsp;feet wide in the clear. There were
+undoubtedly other passageways to the interior courts, but they were
+probably roofed over and perhaps consisted of rooms abandoned for that
+purpose. This, however, is anomalous.</p>
+
+<p>There are several other anomalous features in the ground plan, the
+purposes of which are not clear. Prominent among them is a heavy wall
+extending about halfway across the southern, side of the village and at
+some distance from it. The total length of this wall is 164 feet; it is
+4&nbsp;feet thick (nearly twice the thickness of the other walls), and
+is pierced near its center by an opening or gateway 4&nbsp;feet wide.
+The nearest rooms of the village on the north are over 40 feet away.
+This wall is now much broken down, but here and there, as shown on the
+plan, portions of the original wall lines are left. It is probable that
+its original height did not exceed 5&nbsp;or 6 feet. The purpose of this
+structure is obscure; it could not have been erected for defense, for it
+has no defensive value whatever; it had no connection with the houses of
+the village, for it is too far removed from them. The only possible use
+of this wall that occurs to the writer is that it was a dam or retaining
+wall for a shallow pool of water, fed by the surface drainage of a small
+area on the east and northeast. There is at present a very slight
+depression between the wall and the first houses of the village toward
+the north&mdash;about a foot or a foot and a half&mdash;but there may
+have been a depression of 2&nbsp;or 3 feet here at one time and this
+depression may have been subsequently filled up by sediment. This
+conjecture could be easily tested by excavating a trench across the area
+between the wall and the houses, but in the absence of such an
+excavation the suggestion is a mere surmise.</p>
+
+<p>Another anomalous feature is found in the center of the southwestern
+cluster. Here, in two different rooms, are found walls of double the
+usual thickness, occurring, however, on only one or two sides of the
+rooms. These are clearly shown on the ground plan. The westernmost of
+the two rooms which exhibit this feature has walls of normal thickness
+on three of its sides, while the fourth or eastern side consists of two
+walls of normal thickness, built side by side, perhaps the result of
+some domestic quarrel. The eastern room, however, has thick walls
+<span class = "pagenum">200</span>
+<a name = "page200" id = "page200"> </a>
+<!--png 292-->
+on its northern and eastern sides, and in this case the walls are built
+solidly at one time, not consisting, as in the previous case, of two
+walls of ordinary thickness built side by side. An inspection of the
+ground plan will show that in both these cases this feature is anomalous
+and probably unimportant.</p>
+
+<p>A ruin of the same general type as that just described, but much
+smaller in size, is found about 6&nbsp;miles farther northward on the
+eastern side of the river. It is located on the river edge of a large
+semicircular flat or terrace, near its northern end, and is built of
+flat slabs of limestone and river bowlders. It is rectangular in plan
+and of moderate size. On the southern end of the same flat are two
+single-room rancher’s houses and a large corral. The rooms in this ruin
+are oblong and similar in size and arrangement to those just
+described.</p>
+
+<p>About 11 miles above the last-described ruin, or 17 miles above the
+large ruin near Limestone creek, there is another small ruin of the same
+general type as the last, located on a similar site, and in all
+respects, except size, closely similar to&nbsp;it.</p>
+
+<p>About 3 miles below the mouth of the East Verde there is still
+another ruin of similar character, located on the edge of a mesa or
+bench overlooking the river. It is built of bowlders and slabs of rock.
+Like the others this ruin is rectangular in plan and of small size.</p>
+
+<table class = "figfloat" summary = "illustration">
+<tr>
+<td class = "picture">
+<a name = "fig279" id = "fig279"> </a>
+<img src = "images/fig279.png"
+width = "142" height = "269"
+alt = "site map" title = "site map">
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "caption figure">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 279.</span>&mdash;Sketch map,<br>
+site of small ruin 10 miles<br>
+north of Fossil creek.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>About 10 miles north of the mouth of Fossil creek, on the point of a
+bench or terrace on the western side of the river, and perhaps 20 feet
+above it, occurs a small ruin, similar in character to the preceding.
+The river here makes a long turn eastward, then flows south again, and
+in the angle a small bench or terrace is formed. At this point the
+mountains rise abruptly from the river on both sides to a height of over
+a thousand feet. Fig. 279 illustrates the location of this ruin. So far
+as could be distinguished from the hills opposite, the rooms occur in
+two broken lines at right angles to each other.</p>
+
+<p>These four small ruins are all closely similar to the large ruin
+described above in all respects except size, and peculiarities of ground
+plan attendant on size. The rooms are always rectangular, generally
+oblong, and arranged without regularity as regards their longer axis.
+Except the one last described, the ruins consist of compact masses of
+rooms, without evidences of interior courts, all of very small size, and
+all located without reference to defense. The last-described ruin
+differs from the others only in the arrangement of rooms. There is
+practically no standing wall remaining in any of them, and even now they
+can be seen for miles from the hills above. When the walls were
+<span class = "pagenum">201</span>
+<a name = "page201" id = "page201"> </a>
+<!--png 295-->
+standing they must have been conspicuous landmarks. The masonry of all
+consists of flat bowlders, selected doubtless from the river bed, or
+perhaps sometimes quarried from the terraces, which themselves contain
+large numbers of river bowlders. In general appearance and in plan these
+ruins resemble the ruin next to be described, situated near the mouth of
+the East Verde.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig280" id = "fig280"> </a>
+<img src = "images/fig280.png" width = "440" height = "394"
+alt = "ground plan of ruin" title = "ground plan of ruin">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption figure">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 280.</span>&mdash;Ground plan of ruin at
+mouth of the East Verde.</p>
+
+<p>On the southern side of the East Verde, half a mile above its mouth,
+a&nbsp;small creek comes in from the south, probably dry throughout most
+of the year; and on a promontory or point of land left by this creek a
+small ruin occurs. It is similar in plan and in character of masonry to
+those just described, and differs from them only in that its site is
+better adapted for defense, being protected on two sides by steep hills
+or cliffs. The ground plan of this ruin is shown in figure 280, and its
+general appearance in plate <span class = "smallroman">XIV</span>, which
+also shows the character of masonry. The village overlooked a large area
+of low bottom land in the angle between the Verde and the East Verde,
+and is itself overlooked by the foothills rising behind it to the high
+mesas forming part of the Mazatzal mountains.</p>
+
+<!--png 278-->
+<!--png 279-->
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "plateXIV" id = "plateXIV"> </a>
+<img src = "images/plate14.png" width = "434" height = "296"
+alt = "ruin" title = "ruin">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption table">
+Plate XIV. Ruin at Mouth of the East Verde.</p>
+
+<p>The walls of this village were built of flat bowlders and slabs of
+limestone, and there is now practically no standing wall remaining. The
+<span class = "pagenum">202</span>
+<a name = "page202" id = "page202"> </a>
+<!--png 296-->
+ground plan shows a number of places where the walls are still visible,
+but they extend only a few inches above the debris. There were about
+forty rooms, and the plan is characterized by irregularities such as
+have already been noticed in other plans. Although the village was of
+considerable size it was built up solidly, and there is no trace of an
+interior court. It will be noticed that the rooms vary much in size, and
+that many of the smaller rooms are one half the size of the larger ones,
+as though the larger rooms had been divided by partitions after they
+were completed. It is probable that rooms extended partly down the slope
+on the west and south of the village toward the little creek before
+mentioned, but if this were the case all evidences have long since been
+obliterated.</p>
+
+<p>On the southern side of the village the ground plan shows a bit of
+curved wall. It is doubtful whether this was an actual wall or merely a
+terrace. If it was a wall it is the only example of curved wall found in
+the region in ruins of this class. Between this wall or terrace and the
+adjoining wall on the north, with which it was connected, the ground is
+now filled in. Whether this filling occurred prior or subsequent to the
+abandonment of the village does not appear. The northeastern corner of
+the ruin is marked by a somewhat similar feature. Here there is a line
+of wall now almost obliterated and but feebly marked by debris, and the
+space between it and the village proper is partly filled in, forming a
+low terrace. Analogous features are found in several other ruins in this
+region, notably in the large ruin near Limestone creek. It should be
+noted in this connection that Mr. E.&nbsp;W. Nelson has found that
+places somewhat similar to these in the ruins about Springerville, New
+Mexico, always well repaid the labor of excavation, and he adopted as a
+working hypothesis the assumption that these were the burial places of
+the village. Whether a similar condition would be found in this region
+can only be determined by careful and systematic excavation.</p>
+
+<!--png 282-->
+<!--png 283-->
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "plateXV" id = "plateXV"> </a>
+<img src = "images/plate15.png" width = "477" height = "310"
+alt = "main court of ruin" title = "main court of ruin">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption table">
+Plate XV. Main Court, Ruin at Mouth of the East Verde.</p>
+
+<p>The village did not occupy the whole of the mesa point on which it is
+located; on the east the ground rises gently to the foothills of the
+Mazatzal range, and on the south and west it slopes sharply down to the
+little creek before mentioned; while on the north there is a terrace or
+flat open space some 60 feet wide and almost parallel with the longer
+axis of the village. This open space and the sharp fall which limits it
+on the north is shown on the ground plan. The general view of the same
+feature (plate <span class = "smallroman">XV</span>) also shows the
+character of the valley of the East Verde above the ruin; the stream is
+here confined within a low walled canyon. This open space formed a part
+of the village and doubtless occupied the same relation to it that
+interior courts do to other villages. Its northern or outer edge is a
+trifle higher than the space between it and the village proper and is
+marked by several large bowlders and a small amount of debris. It is
+possible that at one time there was a defensive wall here, although the
+ground falls so suddenly that it is almost impossible to climb up to the
+edge from below without artificial
+<span class = "pagenum">203</span>
+<a name = "page203" id = "page203"> </a>
+<!--png 299-->
+aid. Defensive walls such as this may have been are very rare in pueblo
+architecture, only one instance having been encountered by the writer in
+an experience of many years. The map seems to show more local relief to
+this terrace than the general view indicates, but it should be borne in
+mind that the contour interval is but 2½ feet.</p>
+
+<!--png 286-->
+<!--png 287-->
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "plateXVI" id = "plateXVI"> </a>
+<img src = "images/plate16.png" width = "399" height = "298"
+alt = "ruin" title = "ruin">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption table">
+Plate XVI. Ruin at Mouth of Fossil Creek.</p>
+
+<p>A comparison of the ground plan of this ruin and those previously
+described, together with that of the ruin near the mouth of Fossil creek
+(plate <span class = "smallroman">XVI</span>), which is typical of this
+group, shows marked irregularity in outline and plan. In the character
+of the debris also this ruin differs from the Fossil creek ruin and
+others located near it. As in the latter, bowlders were used in the
+wall, but unlike the latter rough stone predominates. In the character
+of its masonry this ruin forms an intermediate or connecting link
+between the ruins near Limestone creek and opposite Verde and the class
+of which the ruin near the mouth of Fossil creek is typical. In the
+character of its site it is of the same class as the Fossil creek ruin,
+being intermediate between the valley pueblos, such as that near
+Limestone creek, and pueblos located on defensive sites, such as the
+group opposite Verde. The ground plan indicates an occupancy extending
+over a considerable period of time and terminating at or near the close
+of the period of aboriginal occupancy of the valley of Rio Verde.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig281" id = "fig281"> </a>
+<img src = "images/fig281.png" width = "437" height = "482"
+alt = "ground plan of ruin" title = "ground plan of ruin">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption figure">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 281.</span>&mdash;Ground plan of ruin
+near the month of Fossil creek.</p>
+
+<p>Another ruin, of a type closely similar, occurs on a bluff near the
+mouth of Fossil creek. The plan of this ruin is shown in figure 281. The
+village is located close to the edge of the bluff, as shown in the plan,
+and has an outlook over a considerable area of bottom land adjoining the
+bluff on the east. It is probable that the cavate lodges whose location
+some 8&nbsp;or 10 miles above the ruin, on Fossil creek, is shown on the
+general map (<a href = "#plateXI">plate <span class =
+"smallroman">XI</span></a>) were appendages of this village.</p>
+
+<p>The wall still standing extends but a few inches above the débris,
+but enough remains to mark the principal wall lines, and these are
+farther emphasized by the lines of débris. The débris here is remarkably
+clean and stands out prominently from the ground surface, instead of
+being merged into it as is usually the case. This is shown in the
+general view of the ruin. There are twenty-five rooms on the ground
+plan, and there is no evidence that any of these attained a greater
+height than one story. The population, therefore, could not have been
+much, if any, in excess of forty, and as the average family of the
+Pueblos consists of five persons, this would make the number of families
+which found a home in this village less than ten. Notwithstanding this
+small population the ground plan of this village shows clearly a
+somewhat extended period of occupancy and a gradual growth in size. The
+eastern half of the village, which is located along the edge of the
+bluff, probably preceded the western in point of time. It will be
+noticed that while the wall lines are seldom continuous for more than
+three rooms, yet the rooms themselves are arranged with a certain degree
+of regularity, in that the longer axes are usually parallel.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum">204</span>
+<a name = "page204" id = "page204"> </a>
+<!--png 300-->
+
+<p>The masonry of this village is almost entirely of flat bowlders,
+obtained probably from the bed of the creek immediately below. The
+terrace on which the village was built, and in fact all the hills about
+it are composed of gravel and bowlders, but it would be easier to carry
+the bowlders up from the stream bed than to quarry them from the
+hillside, and in the former case there would be a better opportunity for
+selection. <a href = "#plateXVI">Plate <span class =
+"smallroman">XVI</span></a> shows the character of the rock employed,
+and illustrates the extent to which selection of rock has been carried.
+Although the walls are built entirely of river bowlders the masonry
+presents almost as good a face as some of the ruins previously described
+as built of slabs of limestone, and this is due to careful selection of
+the stone employed.</p>
+
+<table class = "figfloat" summary = "illustration">
+<tr>
+<td class = "picture">
+<a name = "fig282" id = "fig282"> </a>
+<img src = "images/fig282.png" width = "204" height = "380"
+alt = "site map" title = "site map">
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "caption figure">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 282.</span>&mdash;Sketch map,<br>
+site of ruin above Fossil creek.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>About half a mile above the mouth of Fossil creek, and on the eastern
+side of the river, a&nbsp;deep ravine comes in from the north and east,
+<span class = "pagenum">205</span>
+<a name = "page205" id = "page205"> </a>
+<!--png 303-->
+and on a low spur near its mouth there is a ruin very similar to the one
+just described. It is also about the same size. The general character of
+the site it occupies is shown in the sketch, figure 282. The masonry is
+of the same general character as that of the ruin near the mouth of
+Fossil creek, and the débris, which stands out sharply from the ground
+surface, is distinguished by the same cleanness.</p>
+
+<p>About 8½ miles north of Fossil creek, on the eastern side of the
+Verde, occurs a small ruin, somewhat <ins class = "correction" title =
+"text reads ‘diferent’">different</ins> in the arrangement of rooms from
+those described. Here there is a bench or terrace, some 50 feet above
+the river, cut through near its northern end by a small canyon. The ruin
+is located on the southern side of this terrace, near the mouth of the
+creek, and consists of about ten rooms arranged <ins class =
+"correction" title = "text unchanged">in <b>L</b> shape</ins>. The lines
+are very irregular, and there are seldom more than three rooms
+connected. The débris marking the wall lines is clean, and the lines are
+well defined, although no standing wall remains.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum">206</span>
+<a name = "page206" id = "page206"> </a>
+<!--png 304-->
+
+<table class = "figfloat" summary = "illustration">
+<tr>
+<td class = "picture">
+<a name = "fig283" id = "fig283"> </a>
+<img src = "images/fig283.png" width = "206" height = "393"
+alt = "site map" title = "site map">
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "caption figure">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 283.</span>&mdash;Sketch map of ruin<br>
+9½ miles above Fossil creek.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>About a mile above the last-described ruin, or 9½ miles north of the
+mouth of Fossil creek, a&nbsp;small group of ruins occurs. The sketch,
+figure 283, shows the relation of the parts of this group to one
+another. The small cluster or rooms on the south is very similar in
+character, location, and size to the ruin last described. The northern
+portion is situated on the opposite side of a deep canyon or ravine, on
+the crown of a hill composed of limestone, which outcrops everywhere
+about it, and is considerably higher than the small cluster on the
+south. The northern ruin is of considerable size and very compactly
+built, the rooms being clustered about the summit of the hill. The
+central room, occupying the crown of the hill, is 20 feet higher than
+the outside rooms. In a saddle between the main cluster and a similar
+hill toward the southeast there are a number of other rooms, not marked
+so prominently by débris as those of the main cluster. There is no
+standing wall remaining, but the débris of the main and adjoining
+clusters indicates that the masonry was very rough, the walls being
+composed of slabs of limestone similar to those found in the large ruin
+near the mouth of Limestone creek, and obtained probably not 20 feet
+away from their present position.</p>
+
+<p>The ruin described on page 200 and assigned to the first subclass
+occurs about half a mile north of this limestone hill, on the opposite
+side of the river. This small ruin, like all the smaller ruins
+described, was built of river bowlders, or river bowlders with
+occasional slabs of sandstone or limestone, while the ruin last
+described consists exclusively of limestone slabs. This difference is
+explained, however, by the character of the sites occupied by the
+several ruins. The limestone hill upon which the ruin under discussion
+is situated is an anomalous feature, and its occurrence here undoubtedly
+determined the location of this village. It is difficult otherwise to
+understand the location of this cluster of rooms, for they command no
+outlook over tillable land, although the view up and down the river is
+extensive. This cluster, which is the largest in size for many miles up
+and down the river, may have been the parent pueblo, occupying somewhat
+the same relation to the smaller villages that Zuñi occupies to the
+summer farming settlements of Nutria, Pescado, and Ojo Caliente; and
+doubtless the single-room remains, which occur above and below the
+cluster on mesa benches and near tillable tracts, were connected with
+it. This ruin is an example of the second subclass, or villages located
+on defensive sites, which merges into ruins of the first subclass, or
+villages on bottom lands, through villages like that located at the
+mouth of the East Verde and at the mouth of Fossil creek.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig284" id = "fig284"> </a>
+<img src = "images/fig284.png" width = "437" height = "333"
+alt = "site map" title = "site map">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption figure">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 284.</span>&mdash;Sketch map showing
+location of ruins opposite Verde.</p>
+
+<p>On the eastern side of the Verde, just below the mouth of Beaver
+creek, opposite and a little above Verde, occurs one of the best
+examples to be found in this region of a large village located on a
+defensive
+<span class = "pagenum">207</span>
+<a name = "page207" id = "page207"> </a>
+<!--png 307-->
+site. Here there is a group of eight clusters extending half a mile up
+and down the river, and some of the clusters have walls still standing
+to a height of 8&nbsp;and 10 feet. The relation of these clusters to
+each other is shown in the sketch map, figure 284.</p>
+
+<!--png 290-->
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "plateXVII" id = "plateXVII" href = "images/plate17.png">
+<img src = "images/plate17thumb.png" width = "360" height = "194"
+alt = "ground plan of ruins" title = "ground plan of ruins"></a>
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption table">
+Plate XVII. Ground Plan of Ruins Opposite Verde.<br>
+<span class = "blowup"><a href = "images/plate17.png">
+larger view</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The principal ruin of the group is situated on the northern side of a
+small valley running eastward from the river up to the foot of a
+prominent mesa, which here bounds the eastern side of the river bottom.
+The valley is perhaps half a mile long and about an eighth of a mile
+wide. The ruin is located on a butte or knoll connected with the hills
+back of it by a low saddle, forming a sort of promontory or tongue of
+land rising from a flat space or bench, the whole some 200 feet above
+the river bottom. One of the clusters of rooms is located in the saddle
+mentioned and is connected with the main ruin. At the foot of the butte
+on the western side there is a similar cluster, not connected, however,
+with the main ruin; and south of the main ruin, on the extreme edge of
+the little mesa or bench, there is another small cluster. The ruin shown
+on the sketch map southwest of the main ruin consists of but two rooms,
+with no wall now standing. All these clusters are shown in their proper
+position on the ground plan, plate <span class =
+"smallroman">XVII</span>. Plate <span class = "smallroman">XVIII</span>,
+which is a general view from the east, shows the main ruin on the butte,
+together with the connected cluster east of it in the saddle. The modern
+settlement seen in the middle distance is Verde.</p>
+
+<!--png 293-->
+<!--png 294-->
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "plateXVIII" id = "plateXVIII"> </a>
+<img src = "images/plate18.png" width = "483" height = "326"
+alt = "view of ruins" title = "view of ruins">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption table">
+Plate XVIII. General View of Ruins Opposite Verde.</p>
+
+<p>About a quarter of a mile west of the main ruin there is another
+small but well-preserved cluster of rooms. It occupies the narrow
+<span class = "pagenum">208</span>
+<a name = "page208" id = "page208"> </a>
+<!--png 308-->
+ridge of a hill some 200 feet above the river. On the west and south,
+the hill descends abruptly to the river; on the southeast and east it
+slopes sharply down to a broad valley on the level of the mesa bench
+before mentioned, but the valley is cut by a narrow and deep canyon
+marking the east side of the hill. This cluster is shown on the ground
+plan, plate <span class = "smallroman">XVII</span>, though not in its
+proper position. Northeast of this cluster and perhaps 200 yards distant
+there are traces of other rooms, but they are so faint that no plan can
+be made out. As shown on the sketch map, <a href = "#fig284">figure
+284</a>, the hill is a long narrow one, and its western side falls
+rapidly to a large triangular area of flat bottom land lying between it
+and Beaver creek, which it overlooks, as well as a large area of the
+valley up the river and all the fine bottom lands north and east of
+Verde and on the northwestern side of Beaver creek. As regards outlook,
+and also as regards security and facility of defense, the site of the
+small cluster is far superior to that of the main cluster of rooms.</p>
+
+<!--png 297-->
+<!--png 298-->
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "plateXIX" id = "plateXIX"> </a>
+<img src = "images/plate19.png" width = "416" height = "285"
+alt = "ruins" title = "ruins">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption table">
+Plate XIX. Southern Part of Ruins Opposite Verde.</p>
+
+<p>About a quarter of a mile south and east of the main ruin, on the
+opposite side of the little valley before mentioned, a&nbsp;mesa bench
+similar to the one last described occurs; and on a point of this,
+extending almost to the river bank, there are traces, now nearly
+obliterated, of a small cluster of rooms. A&nbsp;short distance east of
+this point there is a large rounded knoll, with a peculiar terrace-like
+bench at about half its height. The entire summit of this knoll was
+occupied by rooms, of which the walls are much broken and none remain
+standing. This knoll, with the ruins on its summit, is shown in plate
+<span class = "smallroman">XIX</span>, which also gives a general view
+from the north of the small cluster southeast of the main ruin. The
+character of the valley of the Verde at this point is also shown. The
+sketch map, <a href = "#fig284">figure 284</a>, shows the location of
+these ruins in reference to others of the group.</p>
+
+<p>The main cluster, that portion occupying the crown or summit of the
+butte before described, exhibits at the present time some fifty rooms in
+the ground plan, but there were at one time a larger number than this;
+and there is no doubt that rooms extended down the slopes of the hill
+southward and southwestward. The plan of this main cluster is peculiar;
+it differs from all the smaller surrounding clusters. It tells the story
+of a long occupancy by a people who increased largely in numbers, but
+who, owing to their hostile environment, could not increase the space
+occupied by them in proportion to their numbers. It will be noticed that
+while the wall lines are remarkably irregular in arrangement they are
+more often continuous than otherwise, more frequently continuous, in
+fact, than the lines of some of the smaller villages before described.
+The rooms are remarkably small, 10 feet square being a not unusual
+measurement, and built so closely together as to leave no space for
+interior courts. The typical rooms in the ruins of this region are
+oblong, generally about twice as long as broad, measuring approximately
+20 by 10 feet.</p>
+
+<p><span class = "pagenum">209</span>
+<a name = "page209" id = "page209"> </a>
+<!--png 311-->
+In the ruin under discussion it seems that each of these oblong rooms
+was divided by a transverse partition into two smaller rooms, although
+the oblong form is also common. This is noticeable in the southwestern
+corner and on the eastern side of the main cluster, in the southwestern
+corner and on the northern end of the cluster adjoining on the north,
+and in all the smaller clusters. It is probable that the western central
+part of the main cluster was the first portion of the group of
+structures built, and that subsequently as the demand for accommodation
+increased, owing to increase of population, the rooms on the eastern and
+southern sides of the main cluster were added, while the rooms of the
+older portion were divided.</p>
+
+<p>There is no evidence that any portion of this cluster attained a
+greater height than two stories, and only a small number of rooms
+reached that height. The small cluster adjoining on the north, and those
+on the southeast, southwest, and west, were built later and belong to
+the last period of the occupancy of the group. The builders exhibited a
+decided predilection for a flat site, as an examination of the sites of
+the various room clusters in the ground plan (<a href =
+"#plateXVII">plate <span class = "smallroman">XVII</span></a>) will
+show, and when the sight of the main cluster became so crowded that
+additional rooms could be added only by building them on the sloping
+hillside, recourse was had to other sites. This tendency is also
+exhibited in the cluster adjoining the main cluster on the north, which
+was probably the second in point of age. The northern end of this small
+group of rooms terminates at the foot of the hill which rises
+northeastward, while a series of wall lines extends eastward at an angle
+with the lines of the cluster, but along the curve of the hillside.</p>
+
+<p>The small northern cluster was in all probability inhabited by five
+or six families only, as contrasted with the main cluster, which had
+sixteen or seventeen, while the smaller clusters had each only two or
+three families. The strong presumption of the later building and
+occupancy of the smaller clusters, previously commented on, is supported
+by three other facts of importance, viz, the amount and height of the
+standing wall, the character of the sites occupied, and the
+extraordinary size of the rooms.</p>
+
+<p>Although as a rule external appearance is an unsatisfactory criterion
+of age, still, other things equal, a&nbsp;large amount and good height
+of standing wall may be taken to indicate in a general way a more recent
+period of occupancy than wall lines much obliterated and merged into the
+surrounding ground level. The character of the site occupied is,
+however, a&nbsp;very good criterion of age. It was a rule of the ancient
+pueblo builder, a&nbsp;rule still adhered to with a certain degree of
+persistence, that enlargement of a village for the purpose of obtaining
+more space must be by the addition of rooms to those already built, and
+not by the construction of detached rooms. So well was this rule
+observed that attached rooms were often built on sites not at all
+adapted to them, when much better sites were available but a short
+<span class = "pagenum">210</span>
+<a name = "page210" id = "page210"> </a>
+<!--png 312-->
+distance away; and, although detached rooms were built in certain cases,
+there was always a strong reason for such exceptions to the general
+rule. At a late period in the history of the Pueblos this rule was not
+so much adhered to as before, and detached houses were often built at
+such points as the fancy or convenience of the builder might dictate. As
+the traditions are broken down the tendency to depart from the old rule
+becomes more decided, and at the present day several of the older Pueblo
+villages are being gradually abandoned for the more convenient detached
+dwellings, while nearly all of them have suffered more or less from this
+cause.</p>
+
+<p>The tendency to cluster rooms in one large compact group was
+undoubtedly due primarily to hostile pressure from outside, and as this
+pressure decreased the inherent inconveniences of the plan would assert
+themselves and the rule would be less and less closely adhered to. It
+therefore follows that, in the absence of other sufficient cause, the
+presence of detached rooms or small clusters may be taken in a general
+way to indicate a more recent occupancy than a ground plan of a compact,
+closely built village.</p>
+
+<p>The size of rooms is closely connected with the character of the site
+occupied. When, owing to hostile pressure, villages were built on sites
+difficult of access, and when the rooms were crowded together into
+clusters in order to produce an easily defended structure, the rooms
+themselves were necessarily small; but when hostile pressure from
+surrounding or outside tribes became less pronounced, the
+pueblo-builders consulted convenience more, and larger rooms were built.
+This has occurred in many of the pueblos and in the ruins, and in a
+general way a ruin consisting of large rooms is apt to be more modern
+than one consisting of small rooms; and where large and small rooms
+occur together there is a fair presumption that the occupancy of the
+village extended over a period when hostile pressure was pronounced and
+when it became less strong. It has already been shown that, owing to the
+social system of the pueblo-builders, there is almost always growth in a
+village, although the population may remain stationary in numbers or
+even decrease; so that, until a village is abandoned it will follow the
+general rule of development sketched above.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig285" id = "fig285"> </a>
+<img src = "images/fig285.png" width = "435" height = "494"
+alt = "ground plan of ruin" title = "ground plan of ruin">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption figure">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 285.</span>&mdash;Ground plan of ruin on
+southern side of Clear creek.</p>
+
+<p>Along the southern side of Clear creek, which discharges into the Rio
+Verde from the east, about 4&nbsp;miles below Verde, there is a flat
+terrace from 30 to 40 feet above the creek and some 2&nbsp;or 3 miles in
+length. Scattered over almost the whole of this terrace are remains of
+houses and horticultural works, which will be described later. Near the
+western end of the terrace a low hill with flat top and rounded sides
+rises, and on the top of this occurs the ruin whose ground plan is shown
+in figure 285.</p>
+
+<p>This ruin commands an outlook over the whole extent of the terrace
+and seems to have been the home pueblo with which were connected the
+numerous single houses whose remains cover the terrace. The
+<span class = "pagenum">211</span>
+<a name = "page211" id = "page211"> </a>
+<!--png 315-->
+ground plan is peculiar. The rooms were arranged in four rows, each row
+consisting of a line of single rooms, and the rows were placed
+approximately at right angles to one another, forming the four sides of
+a hollow square. The rooms are generally oblong, of the usual
+dimensions, and as a rule placed with their longer axes in the direction
+of the row. Several rooms occur, however, with their longer axes placed
+across the row. Thirty-eight rooms can still be traced, and there is no
+likelihood that there were ever more than forty, or that any of the
+rooms attained a greater height than one story. The population,
+therefore, was probably never much in excess of fifty persons, or ten to
+twelve families.</p>
+
+<p>It will be noticed that the wall lines are only approximately
+rectangular. The outside dimensions of the village are as follows:
+Northeastern side, 203 feet; southwestern, 207 feet; southeastern, 182
+feet;
+<span class = "pagenum">212</span>
+<a name = "page212" id = "page212"> </a>
+<!--png 316-->
+and northwestern, 194 feet. The northeastern and southwestern sides are
+nearly equal in length, but between the southeastern and the
+northwestern sides there is a difference of 12 feet, and this
+notwithstanding that the room at the western end of the southeastern row
+has been set out 3&nbsp;feet beyond the wall line of the southwestern
+side. This difference is remarkable if, as the ground plan indicates,
+the village or the greater part of it was laid out and built up at one
+time, and was not the result of slow growth.</p>
+
+<p>As already stated, long occupancy of a village, even without increase
+of population, produces a certain effect on the ground plan. This
+effect, so strongly marked in all the ruins already described, is
+conspicuous in this ruin by its almost entire absence. The ground plan
+is just such as would be produced if a small band of pueblo builders,
+consisting of ten or twelve related families, should migrate en masse to
+a site like the one under discussion and, after occupying that site for
+a few years&mdash;less than five&mdash;should pass on to some other
+location. Such migration and abandonment of villages were by no means
+anomalous; on the contrary, they constitute one of the most marked and
+most persistent phenomena in the history of the pueblo builders. If the
+general principles, already laid down, affecting the development and
+growth of ground plans of villages are applied to this example, the
+hypothesis suggested above&mdash;an incoming of people en masse and a
+very short occupancy&mdash;must be accepted, for no other hypothesis
+will explain the regularity of wall lines, the uniformity in size of
+rooms, and the absence of attached rooms which do not follow the general
+plan of the village. The latter is perhaps the most remarkable feature
+in the ground plan of this village. The addition of rooms attached
+irregularly at various points of the main cluster, which is necessarily
+consequent on long occupancy of a site, even without increase of
+population, was in this example just commenced. The result of the same
+process, continued over a long period of time, can be seen in the ground
+plan of any of the inhabited villages of today and in most of the ruins,
+while a plan like that of the ruin under discussion, while not unknown,
+is rare.</p>
+
+<!--png 301-->
+<!--png 302-->
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "plateXX" id = "plateXX" href = "images/plate20.png">
+<img src = "images/plate20thumb.png" width = "405" height = "155"
+alt = "view of ruin" title = "view of ruin"></a>
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption table">
+Plate XX. General View of Ruin on Southern Side of Clear Creek.<br>
+<span class = "blowup"><a href = "images/plate20.png">
+larger view</a></span></p>
+
+<!--png 305-->
+<!--png 306-->
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "plateXXI" id = "plateXXI"> </a>
+<img src = "images/plate21.png" width = "479" height = "312"
+alt = "detailed view" title = "detailed view">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption table">
+Plate XXI. Detailed View of Ruin on Southern Side of Clear Creek.</p>
+
+<p>Plate <span class = "smallroman">XX</span>, which is a general view
+of the ruin from the southwest, shows the character of the site and the
+general appearance of the debris, while plate <span class =
+"smallroman">XXI</span> illustrates the character of the masonry. It
+will be noticed that the level of the ground inside and outside of the
+row of rooms is essentially the same; in other words, there has been no
+filling in. It will also be noticed that the amount of debris is small,
+and that it consists principally of rounded river bowlders. The masonry
+was peculiar, the walls were comparatively thin, and the lower courses
+were composed of river bowlders, not dressed or otherwise treated, while
+the upper courses, and presumably also the coping stones, were composed
+of slabs of sandstone and of a very friable limestone. The latter has
+disintegrated very much under atmospheric influences. The white
+<span class = "pagenum">213</span>
+<a name = "page213" id = "page213"> </a>
+<!--png 319-->
+areas seen in the illustrations are composed of this disintegrated
+limestone. The general appearance of the ruin at the present time must
+not be accepted as its normal condition. It is probable that the débris
+has undergone a process of artificial selection, the flat slabs and most
+available stones for building probably having been removed by
+neighboring settlers and employed in the construction of stone fences,
+which are much used in this region. Even with a fair allowance for such
+removal, however, there is no evidence that the rooms were higher than
+one story. The quantity of potsherds scattered about the ruins is
+noticeably small.</p>
+
+<!--png 309-->
+<!--png 310-->
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "plateXXII" id = "plateXXII"> </a>
+<img src = "images/plate22.png" width = "478" height = "288"
+alt = "view of ruin" title = "view of ruin">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption table">
+Plate XXII. General View of Ruin 8 Miles North of Fossil Creek.</p>
+
+<table class = "figfloat" summary = "illustration">
+<tr>
+<td class = "picture">
+<a name = "fig286" id = "fig286"> </a>
+<img src = "images/fig286.png" width = "285" height = "494"
+alt = "ground plan of ruin" title = "ground plan of ruin">
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "caption figure">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 286.</span>&mdash;Ground plan of ruin<br>
+8 miles north of Fossil creek.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>About 8 miles north of the mouth of Fossil creek, on the eastern side
+of the Verde, there is a ruin which, though very small, is interesting.
+At this point there is a long narrow mass of rock, the remains
+<span class = "pagenum">214</span>
+<a name = "page214" id = "page214"> </a>
+<!--png 320-->
+of a volcanic dike, some 80 or 90 feet long, which at the southern end
+overhangs the stream, while the other end is merged into the ground
+level. At its southern end the rock is some 50 feet above the water, but
+150 feet northward the dike is no longer traceable. A&nbsp;general view
+of this dike is given in plate <span class = "smallroman">XXII</span>,
+while the ground plan, figure 286, shows the character of the site.
+There were rooms on all that portion of the dike that stands out
+prominently from the ground level, and traces of other rooms can be seen
+on the ground level adjoining on the north and in the causeway resulting
+from the breaking down and disintegration of the dike. Remains of eight
+rooms in all can be traced, five of which were on the summit of the
+rock. The wall lines on the summit are still quite distinct and in
+places fragments of the original walls remain, as shown on the ground
+plan. The plan shows typical pueblo rooms of average size, and the
+masonry, though rough, is of the same character as that of other ruins
+in the vicinity.</p>
+
+<p>Facility of defense undoubtedly had something to do with the choice
+of this location, but that it was not the only desideratum consulted is
+evident from the occurrence of a large area of fertile bottom land or
+flat river terrace immediately adjoining the ruin on the east and
+overlooked by it; in fact, the volcanic dike on which the ruin occurs
+occupies the western end of a large semicircular area of tillable land,
+such as already described. Viewed, however, as a village located with
+reference to defense it is the most perfect example&mdash;facility of
+obtaining water being considered&mdash;in this region. It may be used,
+therefore, to illustrate an important principle governing the location
+of villages of this type.</p>
+
+<p>A study of the ground plan (<a href = "#fig286">figure 286</a>) and
+the general view (<a href = "#plateXXII">plate <span class =
+"smallroman">XXII</span></a>) will readily show that while the site and
+character of this village are admirably adapted for defense, so well
+adapted, in fact, as to suggest that we have here a fortress or purely
+defensive structure, still this adaptation arises solely from the
+selection of a site fitted by nature for the purpose, or, in other
+words, from an accident of environment. There has not been the slightest
+artificial addition to the natural advantages of the site.</p>
+
+<p>The statement may seem broad, but it is none the less true, that, so
+far as our knowledge extends at the present time, fortresses or other
+purely defensive structures form a type which is entirely unknown in the
+pueblo region. The reason is simple; military art, as a distinct art,
+was developed in a stage of culture higher than that attained by the
+ancient pueblo builders. It is true that within the limits of the pueblo
+region structures are found which, from their character and the
+character of their sites, have been loosely described as fortresses,
+their describers losing sight of the fact that the adaptability of these
+structures to defense is the result of nature and not of art. Numerous
+examples are found where the building of a single short wall would
+double the defensive value of a site, but in the experience of the
+writer the
+<span class = "pagenum">215</span>
+<a name = "page215" id = "page215"> </a>
+<!--png 322-->
+ancient builders have seldom made even that slight addition to the
+natural advantages of the site they occupied.</p>
+
+<p>The first desideratum in the minds of the old pueblo builders in
+choosing the location of their habitations was nearness to some area of
+tillable land. This land was generally adjacent to the site of the
+village, and was almost invariably overlooked by it. In fact this
+requirement was considered of far more importance than adaptability to
+defense, for the latter was often sacrificed to the former. A&nbsp;good
+example in which both requirements have been fully met is the ruin under
+discussion. This, however, is the result of an exceptionally favorable
+environment; as a rule the two requirements conflict with each other,
+and it is always the latter requirement&mdash;adaptability to
+defense&mdash;which suffers. These statements are true even of the
+so-called fortresses, of the cavate lodges, of the cliff ruins, and of
+many of the large village ruins scattered over the southwestern portion
+of the United States. In the case of the large village ruins, however,
+there is another feature of pueblo life which sometimes produces a
+different result, viz, the use of outlying single houses or small
+clusters separated from the main village and used for temporary abode
+during the farming season only. This feature is well developed in some
+of the modern pueblos, particularly in Zuñi and Acoma.</p>
+
+<p>The principle illustrated by this ruin is an important one. Among the
+ancient pueblo builders there was no military art, or rather the
+military art was in its infancy; purely defensive structures, such as
+fortresses, were unknown, and the idea of defense never reached any
+greater development than the selection of an easily defended site for a
+village, and seldom extended to the <ins class = "correction" title =
+"text reads ‘artifical’">artificial</ins> improvement of the site. There
+is another result of this lack of military knowledge not heretofore
+alluded to, which will be discussed at length on some other occasion and
+can only be mentioned here: this is the aggregation of a number of small
+villages or clusters into the large many-storied pueblo building, such
+as the modern Zuñi or Taos.</p>
+
+<!--png 313-->
+<!--png 314-->
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "plateXXIII" id = "plateXXIII"> </a>
+<img src = "images/plate23.png" width = "414" height = "328"
+alt = "view of ruins" title = "view of ruins">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption table">
+Plate XXIII. General View of Ruins on an Eminence 14 Miles North of
+Fossil Creek.</p>
+
+<p>About 14 miles north of the mouth of Fossil creek, on the eastern
+side of the river, there is another ruin somewhat resembling the last
+described. A&nbsp;large red rock rises at the intersection of two
+washes, about a mile back from the river, and on a bench near the summit
+are the remains of walls. These are illustrated in plate <span class =
+"smallroman">XXIII</span>. In general appearance and in character of
+site this ruin strongly resembles a type found in the San Juan region.
+There seem to have been only a few rooms on the top of the rock, and the
+prominent wall seen in the illustration was probably a retaining or
+filling wall in a cleft of the rock. Such walls are now used among the
+Pueblos for the sides of trails, etc. It is probable that at one time
+there were a considerable number of rooms on the rock; the debris on the
+ground at the base of the rock on the western side, shown in the
+illustration, is rather scanty; on the opposite or eastern side there is
+more, and it is not improbable there
+<span class = "pagenum">216</span>
+<a name = "page216" id = "page216"> </a>
+<!--png 323-->
+were rooms on the ground here. It is likely that access was from this
+side.</p>
+
+<p>It should be noted that this ruin, which is of a type known as
+“fortress” by some writers, is so placed as to command an extensive
+outlook over the large valley below and over the two small valleys
+above, as well as the considerable area of flat or bottom land formed by
+the junction of the small valleys. It is a type of a subordinate
+agricultural settlement, and had the defensive motive been entirely
+absent from the minds of the builders of this village it would
+undoubtedly have been located just where it now is, as this is the best
+site for an agricultural settlement for some distance up and down the
+river.</p>
+
+<table class = "figfloat" summary = "illustration">
+<tr>
+<td class = "picture">
+<a name = "fig287" id = "fig287"> </a>
+<img src = "images/fig287.png" width = "98" height = "247"
+alt = "site map" title = "site map">
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "caption figure">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 287.</span>&mdash;Sketch map<br>
+of ruins on pinnacle<br>
+7 miles north<br>
+of Fossil creek.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Remains of walls somewhat similar to these last described occur on a
+butte or pinnacle on the eastern side of the river and about
+7&nbsp;miles north of the mouth of Fossil creek. From the south this
+pinnacle is a most conspicuous landmark, rising as it does some 2,500
+feet above the river within a distance of a quarter of a mile. The upper
+50 feet of the eminence consists of bare red rock split into sharp
+points and little pinnacles, as shown in figure 287, which represents
+only the upper portion of the butte. The heavy black lines on the sketch
+map are walls. Some of these were doubtless mere retaining walls, but
+others are still standing to a considerable height, and there is yet
+much débris on the slope of the rock forming the eastern side of the
+butte near its top. It is doubtful whether these rooms were ever used
+for habitations, and more probable that they were used as a shrine or
+for some analogous purpose.</p>
+
+<table class = "figfloat" summary = "illustration">
+<tr>
+<td class = "picture">
+<a name = "fig288" id = "fig288"> </a>
+<img src = "images/fig288.png" width = "266" height = "243"
+alt = "small rooms" title = "small rooms">
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "caption figure">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 288.</span>&mdash;Remains of small
+rooms<br>
+7 miles north of Fossil creek.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Perhaps a quarter of a mile northeastward, in the saddle connecting
+the butte with the contiguous hills in that direction, there are remains
+of three small rooms, located east of a low swell or ridge. Figure 288
+<span class = "pagenum">217</span>
+<a name = "page217" id = "page217"> </a>
+<!--png 326-->
+shows the general character of the site, which seems to have been a
+favorite type for temporary structures, single-room outlooks, etc. Among
+the fragments of pottery picked up here were pieces of polished red ware
+of the southern type, and part of the bottom of a large pot of so-called
+corrugated ware.</p>
+
+<p>Half a mile northwestward, in a saddle similar to that last
+described, and east of the crown of a hill, are the remains of a single
+room, nearly square and perhaps 10 feet long. These single rooms and
+small cluster remains are unusual in this region, and seem to replace
+the bowlder-marked ruins so common south of the East Verde (to&nbsp;be
+described more fully later). Although the walls of this single-room
+structure were built of river bowlders, they are well marked by débris
+and are of the same type as those in the ruins at the mouths of the East
+Verde and Fossil creek.</p>
+
+
+<h5 class = "section"><a name = "desc_lodges" id = "desc_lodges">
+CAVATE LODGES.</a></h5>
+
+<p>Cavate lodges comprise a type of structures closely related to cliff
+houses and cave dwellings. The term is a comparatively new one, and the
+structures themselves are not widely known. They differ from the cliff
+houses and cave dwellings principally in the fact that the rooms are
+hollowed out of cliffs and hills by human agency, being cut out of soft
+rock, while the former habitations are simple, ordinary structures built
+for various reasons within a cove or on a bench in the cliffs or within
+a cave. The difference is principally if not wholly the result of a
+different physical environment, i.e., cavate lodges and cave dwellings
+are only different phases of the same thing; but for the present at
+least the name will be used and the cavate lodges will be treated as a
+separate class.</p>
+
+<p>There are but three regions in the United States in which cavate
+lodges are known to occur in considerable numbers, viz, on San Juan
+river, near its mouth; on the western side of the Rio Grande near the
+pueblo of Santa Clara; and on the eastern slope of San Francisco
+mountain, near Flagstaff, Arizona. To these may now be added the middle
+Verde region, from the East Verde to a point north of Verde,
+Arizona.</p>
+
+<p>Within the middle Verde region there are thousands of cavate lodges,
+sometimes in clusters of two or three, oftener in small groups, and
+sometimes in large groups comprising several hundred rooms. One of these
+large groups, located some 8&nbsp;miles south of Verde on the eastern
+side of the river, has been selected for illustration.</p>
+
+<!--png 317-->
+<!--png 318-->
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "plateXXIV" id = "plateXXIV"> </a>
+<img src = "images/plate24.png" width = "438" height = "306"
+alt = "view of cavate lodges" title = "view of cavate lodges">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption table">
+Plate XXIV. General View of Northern End of a Group of Cavate
+Lodges.</p>
+
+<!--png 321-->
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "plateXXV" id = "plateXXV" href = "images/plate25.png">
+<img src = "images/plate25thumb.png" width = "409" height = "271"
+alt = "site map" title = "site map"></a>
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption table">
+Plate XXV. Map of Group of Cavate Lodges in White Canyon,<br>
+3 Miles Below Clear Creek, East Side Rio Verde.<br>
+<span class = "blowup"><a href = "images/plate25.png">
+larger view</a> (red letters added by transcriber)</span></p>
+
+<p>The bottom lands of the Rio Verde in the vicinity of Verde have been
+already described, and the cavate lodges in question occur just below
+the southern end of this large area of tillable land, and some of them
+overlook it. The river at this point flows southward, and extending
+toward the east are two little canyons which meet on its bank. North and
+south of the mouth of the canyons the bank of the
+<span class = "pagenum">218</span>
+<a name = "page218" id = "page218"> </a>
+<!--png 327-->
+river is formed by an inaccessible bluff 180 or 200 feet high. These
+bluffs are washed by the Verde during high water, though there is
+evidence that up to a recent time there was a considerable area of
+bottom land between the river and the foot of the bluff. Plate <span
+class = "smallroman">XXIV</span> shows the northern end of the group
+from a low mesa on the opposite side of the river; the eastern bank of
+the river can be seen in the foreground, while the sandy area extending
+to the foot of the bluff is the present high-water channel of the Verde.
+The map (plate <span class = "smallroman">XXV</span>) shows the
+distribution of the cavate lodges composing the group, and plate <span
+class = "smallroman">XXVI</span> shows the character of the site. The
+cavate lodges occur on two distinct levels&mdash;the first, which
+comprises nearly all the cavate lodges, is at the top of the slopes of
+talus and about 75 feet above the river; the second is set back from 80
+to 150 feet from the first tier horizontally and 30 or 40 feet above it.
+The cavate lodges occur only in the face of the bluff along the river
+and in the lower parts of the two little canyons before mentioned. These
+canyons run back into the mesa seen in the illustration, which in turn
+forms part of the foothills rising into the range of mountains hemming
+in the Rio Verde on the east.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig289" id = "fig289"> </a>
+<img src = "images/fig289.png" width = "377" height = "248"
+alt = "strata of canyon wall" title = "strata of canyon wall">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption figure">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 289.</span>&mdash;Diagram showing strata
+of canyon wall.</p>
+
+<p>The walls of the canyon in the cavate-lodge area are composed of
+three distinct strata, clearly defined and well marked. The relations of
+the strata, at points on the northern and western sides of the north
+canyon, are shown in figure 289 and plate <span class =
+"smallroman">XXVI</span>. The lowest stratum shown in the figure is that
+in which almost all the cavate lodges occur. It is about 8&nbsp;feet
+thick and composed of a soft, very friable, purple-gray sandstone. Above
+it lies a greenish-white bed a few inches thick, followed by a stratum
+of a pronounced white, about 12 feet thick. This heavy stratum is
+composed of calcareous clay, and the green bed of a calcareous clay with
+a mixture of sand. The white stratum is divided at two-thirds its height
+by a thin belt of greenish-white rock, and above
+<span class = "pagenum">219</span>
+<a name = "page219" id = "page219"> </a>
+<!--png 330-->
+it there is another belt of purple-gray sandstone about 12 feet thick.
+The top of this sandstone forms the ground surface south of the point
+shown in the diagram, while on the north and east it forms the floor of
+the upper tier of cavate lodges.</p>
+
+<!--png 324-->
+<!--png 325-->
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "plateXXVI" id = "plateXXVI"> </a>
+<img src = "images/plate26.png" width = "446" height = "330"
+alt = "canyon wall" title = "canyon wall">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption table">
+Plate XXVI. Strata of Northern Canyon Wall.</p>
+
+<p>On the southern side of the canyon the lower purple stratum shows
+three distinct substrata; the upper is reddish purple and about 3½ feet
+thick, the middle is purple gray, about 7&nbsp;feet thick, and
+apparently softer than the upper and lower strata. The lodges occur in
+the middle purple substratum, their floors composed of the upper surface
+of the lower stratum and their roofs of the under surface of the upper
+stratum. Those on the north side are similarly placed, their roofs being
+about 3&nbsp;feet below the white, except that in several instances the
+upper part of the purple up to the white has fallen, making the cavity
+larger. This has occurred, however, since the abandonment of the caves,
+and the debris, still fresh looking, is in situ.</p>
+
+<p>The formation in which the lodges occur is not of volcanic origin,
+although the beds composing it were perhaps deposited by hot springs
+during the period of great volcanic activity which produced San
+Francisco mountain in central Arizona and the great lava flows south of
+it. In view of the uncertainty on this point and the further fact that
+almost all the cavate lodges heretofore found were excavated in tufa,
+ash, or other soft volcanic deposits, the report of Mr. Joseph S.
+Diller, petrographer of the U.S. Geological Survey, will be of interest.
+It is as follows:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+The coarse-grained specimen is sandstone, that of medium grain is
+argillaceous sandstone, and the fine-grained one is calcareous clay. The
+coarse-grained friable sandstone, in which the lodges have been
+excavated, consists chiefly of subangular and rounded grains of quartz
+and feldspar with a small proportion of black particles. Many of the
+latter are magnetite, while the others are hornblende and various
+ferromagnesian silicates. I&nbsp;did not detect any fragments of
+volcanic origin.
+</blockquote>
+
+<blockquote>
+The specimen of argillaceous sandstone is made up of thin layers of
+fine-grained sand of the same sort as the first, alternating with others
+containing considerable clay. In the clay layers, a&nbsp;trace of
+carbonate of lime was found here and there, forming a transition of the
+calcareous clay.
+</blockquote>
+
+<blockquote>
+The calcareous clay when placed in acid effervesces vigorously, but when
+allowed to stand the effervescence ceases in a few minutes and the
+insoluble white clay remains.
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>All the strata composing this formation are very soft; the
+purple-gray material of the middle layer is so soft that its surface can
+be rubbed off with the hand. They are also minutely stratified or
+laminated, and the laminæ are not well cemented together, so that a blow
+on the roof of a cavity with a stone or other implement will bring off
+slabs varying from half an inch to an inch and a half in thickness.
+These thin strata or laminæ are of unequal hardness, weathering in
+places several inches into the face of the rock in thin streaks of a few
+inches or less. The middle purple stratum exhibits this quality somewhat
+more decidedly than the others, and this fact has doubtless determined
+the selection of this stratum for the location of the lodges,
+<span class = "pagenum">220</span>
+<a name = "page220" id = "page220"> </a>
+<!--png 331-->
+as a room can be excavated in it more easily than a room of a similar
+size could be built up with loose rock.</p>
+
+<p>The almost absolute dependence of the native builder on nature as he
+found it is well illustrated by these cavate lodges. At a point in the
+northern wall of the northernmost canyon, shown in the diagram (<a href
+= "#fig289">figure 289</a>) and in <a href = "#plateXXVI">plate <span
+class = "smallroman">XXVI</span></a>, there is a small fault with a
+throw of about 2½ feet, and the floors of the lodges west of the fault
+are just that much lower than the floors east of it. Furthermore, where
+the purple-gray stratum in which the lodges occur is covered up by the
+rising ground surface, the cavate lodges abruptly cease. In the northern
+and southern ends of the group the talus encroaches on and partly covers
+the purple-gray stratum, and in these places the talus has been removed
+from the face of the rock to permit the excavation of lodges. In short,
+the occurrence of the cavate lodges in this locality is determined
+absolutely by the occurrence of one particular stratum, and when that
+stratum disappears the lodges disappear. So far as can be ascertained
+without actually excavating a room there is no apparent difference
+between the stratum in which the lodges occur and the other purple
+strata above and below it. That there is some difference is indicated by
+the confinement of the lodges to that particular level, but that the
+difference is very slight is shown by the occurrence in two places of
+lodges just above the principal tier, a&nbsp;kind of second-story lodge,
+as it were. It is such differences in environment as these, however,
+often so slight as to be readily overlooked, which determine some of the
+largest operations carried on by the native builders, even to the
+building of some of the great many-storied pueblos, and, stranger still,
+sometimes leading to their complete abandonment.</p>
+
+<p>In the region under discussion cavate lodges usually occur in
+connection with and subordinate to village ruins, and range in number
+from two or three rooms to clusters of considerable size. Here, however,
+the cavate lodge is the feature which has been most developed, and it is
+noteworthy that the village ruins that occur in connection with them are
+small and unimportant and occupy a subordinate position.</p>
+
+<!--png 328-->
+<!--png 329-->
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "plateXXVII" id = "plateXXVII"> </a>
+<img src = "images/plate27.png" width = "438" height = "328"
+alt = "ruin" title = "ruin">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption table">
+Plate XXVII. Ruin on Northern Point of Cavate Lodge Canyon.</p>
+
+<p>There are remains of two villages connected with the cavate lodges
+just described, perched on the points of the promontories which form the
+mouths of the two canyons before mentioned. The location of these ruins
+is shown in <a href = "#plateXXV">plate <span class =
+"smallroman">XXV</span></a>. The one on the southern promontory is of
+greater extent than that on the northern point, and both are now much
+broken down, no standing wall remaining. A&nbsp;general view of the ruin
+on the northern promontory is given in plate <span class =
+"smallroman">XXVII</span>, and the same illustration shows the remains
+of the other village on the flat top of the promontory in the farther
+part of the foreground.</p>
+
+<p>The cavate lodges are generally rudely circular in shape, sometimes
+oblong, but never rectangular. The largest are 25 and even 30 feet in
+diameter, and from this size range down to 5&nbsp;or 6 feet and thence
+down to little cubby-holes or storage cists. Owing to their similarity,
+<span class = "pagenum">221</span>
+<a name = "page221" id = "page221"> </a>
+<!--png 334-->
+particularly in point of size, it is difficult to draw a line between
+small rooms and large storage cists, but including the latter there are
+two hundred rooms on the main level, divided into seventy-four distinct
+and separate sets. These sets comprise from one to fourteen rooms each.
+On the upper level there are fifty-six rooms, divided into twenty-four
+sets, making a total of two hundred and fifty-six rooms. As nearly as
+can be determined by the extent of these ruins the population of the
+settlement was probably between one hundred and fifty and two hundred
+persons.</p>
+
+<p>There is great variety in the rooms, both in size and arrangement. As
+a rule each set or cluster of rooms consists of a large apartment,
+entered by a narrow passageway from the face of the bluff, and a number
+of smaller rooms connected with it by narrow doorways or short passages
+and having no outlet except through the large apartment. As a rule two
+or more of these smaller back rooms are attached to the main apartment,
+and sometimes the back rooms have still smaller rooms attached to them.
+In several cases there are three rooms in a series or row extending back
+into the rock, and in one instance (at&nbsp;the point marked <i>E</i> on
+the map, <a href = "#plateXXV">plate <span class =
+"smallroman">XXV</span></a>) there are four such rooms, all of good
+size.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig290" id = "fig290"> </a>
+<img src = "images/fig290.png" width = "440" height = "312"
+alt = "storage cist" title = "storage cist">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption figure">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 290.</span>&mdash;Walled storage
+cist.</p>
+
+<p>Attached to the main apartment, and sometimes also to the back rooms,
+there are usually a number of storage cists, differing from the smaller
+rooms of the cluster only in size. These cists or cubby-holes range in
+size from a foot to 5&nbsp;feet in diameter, and are nearly always on a
+level of the floor, although in some instances they extend below it.
+<span class = "pagenum">222</span>
+<a name = "page222" id = "page222"> </a>
+<!--png 335-->
+Storage cists are also sometimes excavated in the exterior walls of the
+cliffs, and occasionally they are partly excavated and partly inclosed
+by a rough, semicircular wall. An example of the latter type is shown in
+figure 290.</p>
+
+<!--png 332-->
+<!--png 333-->
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "plateXXVIII" id = "plateXXVIII"> </a>
+<img src = "images/plate28.png" width = "424" height = "316"
+alt = "cavate lodge" title = "cavate lodge">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption table">
+Plate XXVIII. Cavate Lodge with Walled Front.</p>
+
+<p>As a rule the cavate lodges are set back slightly from the face of
+the bluff and connected with it by a narrow passageway. Another type,
+however, and one not uncommon, has no connecting passageway, but instead
+opens out to the air by a cove or nook in the bluff. This cove was used
+as the main room and the back rooms opened into it in the usual way by
+passageways. A&nbsp;number of lodges of this type can be seen in the
+eastern side of the northern promontory or bluff. Possibly lodges of
+this type were walled in front, although walled fronts are here
+exceptional, and some of them at least have been produced by the falling
+off of the rock above the doorway. The expedient of walling up the front
+of a shallow cavity, commonly practiced in the San Juan region, while
+comparatively rare in this vicinity, was known to the dwellers in these
+cavate lodges. At several points remains of front walls can be seen, and
+in two instances front walls remain in place. The masonry, however, is
+in all cases very rough, of the same type as that shown in plate <span
+class = "smallroman">XXVIII</span>.</p>
+
+<!--png 336-->
+<!--png 337-->
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "plateXXIX" id = "plateXXIX" href = "images/plate29.png">
+<img src = "images/plate29thumb.png" width = "436" height = "267"
+alt = "cavate lodges" title = "cavate lodges"></a>
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption table">
+Plate XXIX. Open Front Cavate Lodges on the Rio San Juan.<br>
+<span class = "blowup"><a href = "images/plate29.png">
+larger view</a></span></p>
+
+<!--png 340-->
+<!--png 341-->
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "plateXXX" id = "plateXXX"> </a>
+<img src = "images/plate30.png" width = "376" height = "466"
+alt = "cavate lodges" title = "cavate lodges">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption table">
+Plate XXX. Walled Front Cavate Lodges on the Rio San Juan.</p>
+
+<p>In this connection a comparison with the cavate ledges found in other
+regions will be of interest. In 1875 Mr. W.&nbsp;H. Holmes, then
+connected with the Hayden survey, visited a number of cavate lodges on
+the Rio San Juan and some of its tributaries. Several groups are
+illustrated in his report.<a class = "tag" name = "tag5" id = "tag5"
+href = "#note5">5</a> Two of his illustrations, showing, respectively,
+the open front and walled front lodges, are reproduced in plates <span
+class = "smallroman">XXIX</span> and <span class =
+"smallroman">XXX</span>. The open front lodges are thus described:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+I observed, in approaching from above, that a ruined tower stood near
+the brink of the cliff, at a point where it curves outward toward the
+river, and in studying it with my glass detected a number of cave-like
+openings in the cliff face about halfway up. On examination,
+I&nbsp;found them to have been shaped by the hand of man, but so
+weathered out and changed by the slow process of atmospheric erosion
+that the evidences of art were almost obliterated.
+</blockquote>
+
+<blockquote>
+The openings are arched irregularly above, and generally quite shallow,
+being governed very much in contour and depth by the quality of the
+rock. The work of excavation has not been an extremely great one, even
+with the imperfect implements that must have been used, as the shale is
+for the most part soft and friable.
+</blockquote>
+
+<blockquote>
+A hard stratum served as a floor, and projecting in many places made a
+narrow platform by which the inhabitants were enabled to pass along from
+one house to another.
+</blockquote>
+
+<blockquote>
+Small fragments of mortar still adhered to the firmer parts of the
+walls, from which it is inferred that they were at one time plastered.
+It is also extremely probable that they were walled up in front and
+furnished with doors and windows, yet no fragment of wall has been
+preserved. Indeed, so great has been the erosion that many of the caves
+have been almost obliterated, and are now not deep enough to give
+shelter to a bird or bat.
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>Walled fronts, the author states, were observed frequently on the Rio
+Mancos, where there are many well-preserved specimens. He
+<span class = "pagenum">223</span>
+<a name = "page223" id = "page223"> </a>
+<!--png 338-->
+described a large group situated on that stream, about 10 miles above
+its mouth, as follows:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+The walls were in many places quite well preserved and new looking,
+while all about, high and low, were others in all stages of decay. In
+one place in particular, a&nbsp;picturesque outstanding promontory has
+been full of dwellings, literally honeycombed by this earth-burrowing
+race, and as one from below views the ragged, window-pierced crags [see
+<a href = "#plateXXX">plate <span class = "smallroman">XXX</span></a>]
+he is unconsciously led to wonder if they are not the ruins of some
+ancient castle, behind whose moldering walls are hidden the dread
+secrets of a long-forgotten people; but a nearer approach quickly
+dispels such fancies, for the windows prove to be only the doorways to
+shallow and irregular apartments, hardly sufficiently commodious for a
+race of pigmies. Neither the outer openings nor the apertures that
+communicate between the caves are large enough to allow a person of
+large stature to pass, and one is led to suspect that these nests were
+not the dwellings proper of these people, but occasional resorts for
+women and children, and that the somewhat extensive ruins in the valley
+below were their ordinary dwelling places.
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>It will be noticed that in both these cases there are associated
+ruins on the mesa top above, and in both instances these associated
+ruins are subordinate to the cavate lodges, in this respect resembling
+the lodges on the Verde already described. This condition, however, is
+not the usual one; in the great majority of cases the cavate lodges are
+subordinate to the associated ruins, standing to them in the relation of
+outlying agricultural shelters. Unless this fact is constantly borne in
+mind it is easy to exaggerate the importance of the cavate lodges as
+compared with the village ruins with which they are connected.</p>
+
+<p>The cavate lodges near San Francisco mountain in Arizona were visited
+in 1883 by Col. James Stevenson, of the Bureau of Ethnology, and in 1885
+by Maj. J.&nbsp;W. Powell. Major Powell<a class = "tag" name = "tag6" id
+= "tag6" href = "#note6">6</a> describes a number of groups in the
+vicinity of Flagstaff. Of one group, situated on a cinder cone about 12
+miles east of San Francisco peak, he says:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+Here the cinders are soft and friable, and the cone is a prettily shaped
+dome. On the southern slope there are excavations into the indurated and
+coherent cinder mass, constituting chambers, often 10 or 12 feet in
+diameter and 6&nbsp;to 10 feet in height. The chambers are of irregular
+shape, and occasionally a larger central chamber forms a kind of
+vestibule to several smaller ones gathered about it. The smaller
+chambers are sometimes at the same altitude as the central or principal
+one, and sometimes at a lower altitude. About one hundred and fifty of
+these chambers have been excavated. Most of them are now partly filled
+by the caving in of the walls and ceilings, but some of them are yet in
+a good state of preservation. In these chambers, and about them on the
+summit and sides of the cinder cone, many stone implements were found,
+especially metates. Some bone implements also were discovered. At the
+very summit of the little cone there is a plaza, inclosed by a rude wall
+made of volcanic cinders, the floor of which was carefully leveled. The
+plaza is about 45 by 75 feet in area. Here the people lived in
+underground houses&mdash;chambers hewn from the friable volcanic
+cinders. Before them, to the south, west, and north, stretched beautiful
+valleys, beyond which volcanic cones are seen rising amid pine forests.
+The people probably cultivated patches of ground in the low valleys.
+</blockquote>
+
+<blockquote>
+About 18 miles still farther to the east of San Francisco mountain,
+another ruined village was discovered, built about the crater of a
+volcanic cone. This volcanic peak is of much greater magnitude. The
+crater opens to the eastward. On the
+<span class = "pagenum">224</span>
+<a name = "page224" id = "page224"> </a>
+<!--png 339-->
+south many stone dwellings have been built of the basaltic and
+cinder-like rooks. Between the ridge on the south and another on the
+northwest there is a low saddle in which other buildings have been
+erected, and in which a great plaza was found, much like the one
+previously described. But the most interesting part of this village was
+on the cliff which rose on the northwest side of the crater. In this
+cliff are many natural caves, and the caves themselves were utilized as
+dwellings by inclosing them in front with walls made of volcanic rocks
+and cinders. These cliff dwellings are placed tier above tier, in a very
+irregular way. In many cases natural caves were thus utilized; in other
+cases cavate chambers were made; that is, chambers have been excavated
+in the friable cinders. On the very summit of the ridge stone buildings
+were erected, so that this village was in part a cliff village, in part
+cavate, and in part the ordinary stone pueblo. The valley below,
+especially to the southward, was probably occupied by their gardens. In
+the chambers among the overhanging cliffs a great many interesting
+relics were found, of stone, bone, and wood, and many potsherds.
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>It will be seen that the first group described bears a remarkably
+close resemblance to the cavate lodges on the Rio Verde. The lodges
+themselves are smaller, but the arrangement of main apartment and
+attached back rooms is quite similar. It will be noticed also that in
+the second group described village ruins are again associated on the
+summit of the cliff or ridge. Major Powell ascertained that these cavate
+lodges were occupied by the Havasupai Indians now living in Cataract
+canyon, who are closely related to the Walapai, and who, it is said,
+were driven from this region by the Spaniards.</p>
+
+<p>The cavate lodges on the Rio Grande, in New Mexico, in the vicinity
+of the modern pueblo of Santa Clara, were also visited in 1885 by Major
+Powell and are thus described by him:<a class = "tag" name = "tag7" id =
+"tag7" href = "#note7">7</a></p>
+
+<blockquote>
+The cliffs themselves are built of volcanic sands and ashes, and many of
+the strata are exceedingly light and friable. The specific gravity of
+some of these rocks is so low that they will float on water. Into the
+faces of these cliffs, in the friable and easily worked rock, many
+chambers have been excavated; for mile after mile the cliffs are studded
+with them, so that altogether there are many thousands. Sometimes a
+chamber or series of chambers is entered from a terrace, but usually
+they were excavated many feet above any landing or terrace below, so
+that they could be reached only by ladders. In other places artificial
+terraces were built by constructing retaining walls and filling the
+interior next to the cliffs with loose rock and sand. Very often steps
+were cut into the face of a cliff and a rude stairway formed by which
+chambers could be reached. The chambers were very irregularly arranged
+and very irregular in size and structure. In many cases there is a
+central chamber, which seems to have been a general living room for the
+people, back of which two, three, or more chambers somewhat smaller are
+found. The chambers occupied by one family are sometimes connected with
+those occupied by another family, so that two or three or four sets of
+chambers have interior communication. Usually, however, the
+communication from one system of chambers to another was by the outside.
+Many of the chambers had evidently been occupied as dwellings. They
+still contained fireplaces and evidences of fire; there were little
+caverns or shelves in which various vessels were placed, and many
+evidences of the handicraft of the people were left in stone, bone,
+horn, and wood, and in the chambers and about the sides of the cliffs
+potsherds are abundant. On more careful survey it was found that many
+chambers had been used as stables for asses, goats, and sheep. Sometimes
+they had been filled a few inches, or even 2&nbsp;or 3 feet, with the
+excrement
+<span class = "pagenum">225</span>
+<a name = "page225" id = "page225"> </a>
+<!--png 344-->
+of these animals. Ears of corn and corncobs were also found in many
+places. Some of the chambers were evidently constructed to be used as
+storehouses or caches for grain. Altogether it is very evident that the
+cliff houses have been used in comparatively modern times; at any rate,
+since the people owned asses, goats, and sheep. The rock is of such a
+friable nature that it will not stand atmospheric degradation very long,
+and there is abundant evidence of this character testifying to the
+recent occupancy of these cavate dwellings.</blockquote>
+
+<blockquote>
+Above the cliffs, on the mesas, which have already been described,
+evidences of more ancient ruins were found. These were pueblos built of
+cut stone rudely dressed. Every mesa had at least one ancient pueblo up
+off it, evidently far more ancient than the cavate dwellings found in
+the face of the cliffs. It is, then, very plain that the cavate
+dwellings are not of great age; that they have been occupied since the
+advent of the white man, and that on the summit of the cliffs there are
+ruins of more ancient pueblos.
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>Major Powell obtained a tradition of the Santa Clara Indians,
+reciting three successive periods of occupancy of the cavate lodges by
+them, the last occurring after the Spanish conquest of New Mexico in the
+seventeenth century.</p>
+
+<!--png 342-->
+<!--png 343-->
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "plateXXXI" id = "plateXXXI"> </a>
+<img src = "images/plate31.png" width = "417" height = "332"
+alt = "cavate lodges" title = "cavate lodges">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption table">
+Plate XXXI. Cavate Lodges on the Rio Grande.</p>
+
+<p>It will be noticed that here again the cavate lodges and village
+ruins are associated, although in this case the village ruins on the
+mesas above are said to be more ancient than the cavate lodges.
+A&nbsp;general view of a small section of cliff containing lodges is
+given in plate <span class = "smallroman">XXXI</span> for comparison
+with those on the Verde. The lodges on the Rio Grande seem to have been
+more elaborate than those on the Verde, perhaps owing to longer
+occupancy; but the same arrangement of a main front room and attached
+back rooms, as in the cavate lodges on the Verde, was found.</p>
+
+<p>As the cavate lodges of the San Francisco mountain region have been
+assigned to the Havasupai Indians of the Yuman stock, and those of the
+Rio Grande to the Santa Clara pueblo Indians of the Tanoan stock, it may
+be of interest to state that there is a vague tradition extant among the
+modern settlers of the Verde region that the cavate lodges of that
+region were occupied within the last three generations. This tradition
+was derived from an old Walapai Indian whose grandfather was alive when
+the cavate lodges were occupied. It was impossible to follow this
+tradition to its source, and it is introduced only as a suggestion.
+Attention is called, however, to the tradition given in the introduction
+to this paper with which it may be connected.</p>
+
+<br>
+
+<!--png 346-->
+<!--png 347-->
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "plateXXXII" id = "plateXXXII"> </a>
+<img src = "images/plate32.png" width = "415" height = "329"
+alt = "interior of cavate lodge" title = "interior of cavate lodge">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption table">
+Plate XXXII. Interior View of Cavate Lodge, Group D.</p>
+
+<table class = "figfloat" summary = "illustration">
+<tr>
+<td class = "picture">
+<a name = "fig291" id = "fig291" href = "images/fig291.png">
+<img src = "images/fig291thumb.png" width = "235" height = "365"
+alt = "cavate lodges" title = "cavate lodges"></a>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "caption figure">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 291.</span>&mdash;Plan of<br>
+cavate lodges, group <i>D</i>.<br>
+<span class = "blowup"><a href = "images/fig291.png">
+larger view</a></span></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Aside from the actual labor of excavation, there was but little work
+expended on the Verde cavate lodges. The interiors were never plastered,
+so far as the writer could determine. Figure 291 shows the plan of one
+of the principal sets of rooms, which occurs at the point marked
+<i>D</i> on the map, <a href = "#plateXXV">plate <span class =
+"smallroman">XXV</span></a>; and plate <span class =
+"smallroman">XXXII</span> is an interior view of the principal room,
+drawn from a flashlight photograph. This set of rooms was excavated in a
+point of the cliff and extends completely through it as shown on the
+general plan, <a href = "#plateXXV">plate <span class =
+"smallroman">XXV</span></a>. The entrance was from the west by a short
+passageway opening into a cove extending back some
+<span class = "pagenum">226</span>
+<a name = "page226" id = "page226"> </a>
+<!--png 345-->
+10 feet from the face of the cliff. The first room entered measures 16
+feet in length by 10 feet in width. On the floor of this room a
+structure resembling the piki or paper bread oven of the Tusayan
+Indians, was found constructed partly of fragments of old and broken
+metates. At the southern end of the room there is a cubby-hole about a
+foot in diameter, excavated at the floor level. At the eastern end of
+the room there is a passageway about 2½ feet long leading into a smaller
+roughly circular room, measuring 7½ feet in its longest diameter, and
+this in
+<span class = "pagenum">227</span>
+<a name = "page227" id = "page227"> </a>
+<!--png 348-->
+turn is connected with another almost circular room of the same size.
+The floors of all three of these rooms are on the same level, but the
+roofs of the two smaller rooms are a foot lower than that of the
+entrance room. At the northern end of the entrance room there is a
+passageway 3&nbsp;feet long and 2½ feet wide leading into the principal
+room of the set. This passageway at its southern end has a framed
+doorway of the type illustrated later.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig292" id = "fig292"> </a>
+<img src = "images/fig292.png" width = "438" height = "338"
+alt = "sections of cavate lodges" title = "sections of cavate lodges">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption figure">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 292.</span>&mdash;Sections of cavate
+lodges, group <i>D</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The main room is roughly circular in form, measuring 16 feet in its
+north and south diameter and 15 feet from east to west. The roof is
+about 7&nbsp;feet above the floor. Figure 292 shows a section from
+northwest to southwest (<i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, <a href = "#fig291">figure
+291</a>) through the small connected room adjoining on the south, and
+also an east arid west section (<i>c</i>, <i>d</i>, <a href =
+"#fig291">figure 291</a>). The floor is plastered with clay wherever it
+was necessary in order to bring it to a level, and the coating is
+consequently not of uniform thickness. It is divided into sections by
+low ridges of clay as shown in the plan and sections; the northern
+section is a few inches higher than the other. Extending through the
+clay finish of the floor and into the rock beneath there are four pits,
+indicated on the plan by round spots. The largest of these, situated
+opposite the northern door, was a fire hole or pit about 18 inches in
+diameter at the floor level, of an inverted conical shape, about 10
+inches in depth, and plastered inside with clay inlaid with fragments of
+pottery placed as closely together as their shape would permit. The
+other pits are smaller; one located near the southeastern corner of the
+room is about 6&nbsp;inches in diameter
+<span class = "pagenum">228</span>
+<a name = "page228" id = "page228"> </a>
+<!--png 349-->
+and the same in depth, while the others are mere depressions in the
+floor, in shape like the small paint mortars used by the Pueblos.</p>
+
+<p>The room, when opened, contained a deposit of bat dung and sand about
+3&nbsp;feet thick in the center and averaging about 2&nbsp;feet thick
+throughout the room. This deposit exhibited a series of well-defined
+strata, varying from three-fourths to an inch and a half thick, caused
+by the respective predominance of dung or sand. No evidence of
+disturbance of these strata was found although careful examination was
+made. This deposit was cleared out and a number of small articles were
+found, all resting, however, directly on the floor. The articles
+consisted of fragments of basketry, bundles of fibers and pieces of
+fabrics, pieces of arrowshafts, fragments of grinding stones, three
+sandals of woven yucca fiber, two of them new and nearly perfect, and a
+number of pieces of cotton cloth, the latter scattered over the room and
+in several instances gummed to the floor. Only a few fragments of
+pottery were found in the main room, but outside in the northern
+passageway were the fragments of two large pieces, one an olla, the
+other a bowl, both buried in 3&nbsp;or 4 inches of debris under a large
+slab fallen from the roof.</p>
+
+<p>Owing to its situation this room was one of the most desirable in the
+whole group. The prevailing south wind blows through it at all times,
+and this is doubtless the reason that it was so much filled up with
+sand. In the center of the room the roof has fallen at a comparatively
+recent date from an area about 10 by 7&nbsp;feet, in slabs about an inch
+thick, for the fragments were within 6&nbsp;inches of the top of the
+debris. The walls are smoke-blackened to a very slight extent compared
+with the large room south of&nbsp;it.</p>
+
+<table class = "figfloat" summary = "illustration">
+<tr>
+<td class = "picture">
+<a name = "fig293" id = "fig293"> </a>
+<img src = "images/fig293.png" width = "166" height = "177"
+alt = "section of water pocket" title = "section of water pocket">
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "caption figure">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 293.</span>&mdash;Section<br>
+of water pocket.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>At the northeastern and southwestern corners there are two small
+pockets, opening on the floor level but sunk below it, which seem to
+have been designed to contain water. That in the southwest corner is the
+larger; it is illustrated in the section, figure 293. As shown in the
+section and on the plan (<a href = "#fig291">figure 291</a>), a&nbsp;low
+wall composed of adobe mortar and broken rock was built across the
+opening on the edge of the floor, perhaps to increase its capacity. This
+cavity would hold 15 to 20 gallons of water, a&nbsp;sufficient amount to
+supply the needs of an ordinary Indian family for three weeks or a
+mouth. The pocket in the northeastern corner of the room is not quite so
+large as the one described, and its front is not walled.</p>
+
+<p>West of the main room there is a storage room, nearly circular in
+shape, with a diameter of about 6&nbsp;feet and with a floor raised
+about 2&nbsp;feet above that of the main room. Its roof is but
+3&nbsp;feet above the floor, and across its western end is a low bench a
+couple of inches above the
+<span class = "pagenum">229</span>
+<a name = "page229" id = "page229"> </a>
+<!--png 352-->
+floor. In the northeastern corner there is a shallow cove, also raised
+slightly above the main floor and connecting by a narrow opening with
+the outer vestibule-like rooms on the north. These northern rooms of the
+lodge seem to be simply enlargements of the passageway. The northern
+opening is a window rather than a door as it is about 10 feet above the
+ground and therefore could be entered only by a ladder. The opening is
+cut in the back of a cove in the cliff, and is 6&nbsp;feet from the
+northern end of the main room. At half its length it has been enlarged
+on both sides by the excavation of niches or coves about 4&nbsp;feet
+deep but only 2½ feet high. These coves could be used only for storage
+on a small scale.</p>
+
+<p>In the southeastern corner of the main room there is another opening
+leading into a low-roofed storage cist, approximating 4&nbsp;feet in
+diameter, and this cist was in turn connected with the middle one of the
+three rooms first described. This opening, at the time the room was
+examined, was so carefully sealed and plastered that it was scarcely
+perceptible.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig294" id = "fig294"> </a>
+<img src = "images/fig294.png" width = "416" height = "387"
+alt = "plan of cavate lodges" title = "plan of cavate lodges">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption figure">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 294.</span>&mdash;Plan of cavate lodges,
+group <i>A</i>.<br>
+<span class = "blowup">
+<a href = "images/fig294_alt.png">same figure, north at
+top</a></span></p>
+
+<p>A different arrangement of rooms is shown in plan in figure 294 and
+in section in figure 295. This group occurs at the point marked A on the
+map. The entrance to the main room was through a narrow passage,
+3&nbsp;feet long, leading into the chamber from the face of the bluff,
+which at
+<span class = "pagenum">230</span>
+<a name = "page230" id = "page230"> </a>
+<!--png 353-->
+this point is vertical. The main room is oblong, measuring 17 feet one
+way and 10 the other. At the southern end there is a small cist and on
+the western side near the entrance there is another hardly a foot in
+diameter. North of the main room there is a small, roughly circular room
+with a diameter of about 6&nbsp;feet. It is connected with the main room
+by a passage about 2&nbsp;feet long. On the floor of the main room there
+are two low ridges of clay, similar to those already described, which
+divide it into three sections of nearly equal size.</p>
+
+<table summary = "illustration">
+<tr>
+<td class = "picture">
+<a name = "fig295" id = "fig295"> </a>
+<img src = "images/fig295a.png" width = "300" height = "137"
+alt = "section of cavate lodge" title = "section of cavate lodge">
+</td>
+<td class = "picture">
+<img src = "images/fig295b.png" width = "59" height = "58"
+alt = "section of cavate lodge" title = "section of cavate lodge">
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "picture" colspan = "2">
+<img src = "images/fig295c.png" width = "392" height = "129"
+alt = "section of cavate lodge" title = "section of cavate lodge">
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "caption figure" colspan = "2">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 295.</span>&mdash;Sections of cavate
+lodges, group <i>A</i>.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>East of the main room there is another of considerable size in the
+form of a bay or cove. It measures 13 feet by 6&nbsp;feet, and its floor
+is 20 inches higher than that of the main room, as shown in the section
+(figure 295). Attached to this bay, at its northern end, is a small cist
+about 3&nbsp;feet in diameter, and with its floor sunk to the level of
+the floor of the main room. East of the cove there is another cist about
+4½ feet in diameter and with its floor on the level of the cove.
+Adjoining it on the south and leading out from the southeastern corner
+of the cove or bay, there is a long passage leading into an almost
+circular room 9&nbsp;feet in diameter. The back wall of this room is 33
+feet from the face of the cliff. The passage leading into it is
+6&nbsp;feet long, 2½&nbsp;feet wide at the doorways, bulging slightly in
+the center, and its floor is on the same level as the rooms it connects;
+its eastern end is defined by a ridge of clay about 6&nbsp;inches
+high.</p>
+
+<p><span class = "pagenum">231</span>
+<a name = "page231" id = "page231"> </a>
+<!--png 356-->
+In the eastern side of the circular room last described there is a
+storage cist about 3&nbsp;feet wide and 2&nbsp;feet deep. No fire-pit
+was seen in this cluster, although if the principal apartment were
+carefully cleaned out it is not improbable that one might be found.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig296" id = "fig296"> </a>
+<img src = "images/fig296.png" width = "435" height = "334"
+alt = "plan of cavate lodges" title = "plan of cavate lodges">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption figure">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 296.</span>&mdash;Plan of cavate lodges,
+group <i>B</i>.</p>
+
+<p>A cluster of rooms somewhat resembling the last described is shown in
+plan in figure 296. This cluster occurs at the point marked <i>B</i> on
+the map. The main room is set back 5½ feet from the face of the bluff,
+which is vertical at this point, and is oblong in shape, measuring 19½
+by 11½ feet. Its roof is 7½ feet above the floor in the center of the
+room. Attached to its southern end by a passage only a foot in length is
+a small room or storage cist about 5&nbsp;feet in diameter. At its
+northeastern corner there is another room or cist similar in shape,
+about 7&nbsp;feet in diameter, and reached by a passage 2&nbsp;feet
+long. This small room is also connected with a long room east of the
+main apartment by a passage, the southern end of which was carefully
+sealed up and plastered, making a kind of niche of the northern end. At
+the southeastern corner of the room there is a small niche about
+2&nbsp;feet in diameter on the level of the floor.</p>
+
+<p>The eastern side of the main room is not closed, but opens directly
+into an oblong chamber of irregular size with the roof nearly
+2&nbsp;feet lower and the floor a foot higher than the main room. This
+step in the floor is shown by the line between the rooms on the ground
+plan. The second room is about 6&nbsp;feet wide and 20 feet long, its
+southern end rounding out slightly so as to form an almost circular
+chamber. Near
+<span class = "pagenum">232</span>
+<a name = "page232" id = "page232"> </a>
+<!--png 357-->
+the center of its eastern side there is a passageway 2½ feet long
+leading into a circular chamber 10½ feet in diameter and with its floor
+on the same level as the room to which it is attached. The back wall of
+this room is 35½ feet from the face of the cliff.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig297" id = "fig297"> </a>
+<img src = "images/fig297.png" width = "426" height = "240"
+alt = "plan of cavate lodges" title = "plan of cavate lodges">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption figure">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 297.</span>&mdash;Plan of cavate lodges,
+group <i>E</i>.</p>
+
+<p>A group <ins class = "correction" title =
+"text reads ‘occuring’">occurring</ins> at the point marked <i>E</i> on
+the map (<a href = "#plateXXV">plate <span class =
+"smallroman">XXV</span></a>) is shown in plan in figure 297. It is
+located in a projecting corner of the bluff and marks the eastern limit
+of the cavate lodges at this end of the canyon. The group consists of
+five rooms, and has the distinction of extending four rooms deep into
+the rock. The main room is set back about 13 feet from the face of the
+bluff, about 7&nbsp;feet of this distance being occupied by a narrow
+passageway and the remainder by a cove. The depth from the face of the
+bluff to the back of the innermost chamber is 47 feet. The main room
+measures 16 feet in length and 11 feet in width, and its roof is less
+than 7&nbsp;feet high in the center. Near its center and opposite the
+long passageway mentioned there is a fire-pit nearly 3&nbsp;feet in
+diameter.</p>
+
+<p>At the northeastern corner of the main room there is a wide opening
+leading into a room measuring 8&nbsp;by 7 feet, with a floor raised
+2&nbsp;feet above that of the principal apartment. The roof of this
+chamber is but 4½ feet above the floor. Almost the whole eastern side of
+this room is occupied by a wide opening leading into another room of
+approximately the same size and shape. The roof of this room is only
+3&nbsp;feet 10 inches above the floor, and the floor is raised
+6&nbsp;inches above that on the west. In the northeastern corner there
+is a short narrow passageway leading into a small circular room, the
+fourth of the series, having a diameter of 4&nbsp;feet. The roof of this
+apartment is only 3&nbsp;feet above the floor.</p>
+
+<p>In the southeastern corner of the main room there is a narrow
+passageway leading into a circular chamber about 8&nbsp;feet in
+diameter. This chamber is connected with the second room of the series
+described by a passageway about 2&nbsp;feet long, which opens into the
+southeastern
+<span class = "pagenum">233</span>
+<a name = "page233" id = "page233"> </a>
+<!--png 360-->
+corner of that room. This passageway, at its northern end, is 1½ feet
+below the room into which it opens. One of the most noticeable features
+about this group of rooms is the entire absence of the little nooks and
+pockets in the wall which are characteristic of these lodges, and which
+are very numerous in all the principal groups, noticeably in the group
+next described.</p>
+
+<table class = "figfloat" summary = "illustration">
+<tr>
+<td class = "picture">
+<a name = "fig298" id = "fig298" href = "images/fig298.png">
+<img src = "images/fig298thumb.png" width = "261" height = "377"
+alt = "plan of cavate lodges" title = "plan of cavate lodges"></a>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "caption figure">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 298.</span>&mdash;Plan of<br>
+cavate lodges, group <i>C</i>.<br>
+<span class = "blowup"><a href = "images/fig298.png">
+larger view</a></span></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><span class = "pagenum">234</span>
+<a name = "page234" id = "page234"> </a>
+<!--png 361-->
+At the point marked <i>C</i> on the map there is an elaborate group of
+chambers, consisting of two groups joined together and comprising
+altogether eight rooms. This is shown in plan in figure 298. The rock
+composing the front of the main room of the southern group has recently
+fallen, making a pile of debris about 4&nbsp;feet high. The room
+originally measured about 12 by 22 feet. Its eastern side is occupied by
+a passageway leading into an adjoining chamber and by two shallow,
+roughly semicircular coves, apparently the remains of former small
+rooms. Along the northern wall of the room there are two little nooks at
+the floor level, and along the southern wall there are four, one of them
+(shown on the plan) being dug out like a pit. The roof of the room was
+about 6&nbsp;feet above the floor.</p>
+
+<p>The passageway near the eastern side is 4½ feet long, and is 3½ feet
+wide&mdash;an unusual width. It opens into a roughly circular room,
+8&nbsp;feet in diameter, but with a roof only 3½ feet above the floor.
+Along the northeastern side of this room, there are three small pockets
+opening on the floor level. On the southern side of the room there is a
+wide opening into a small attached room, roughly oblong in shape and
+measuring about 6½ by 4½ feet. Along the southern wall of this little
+room there are two small pockets, and at the southwestern corner the
+rock has been cleared out to form a low cavity in the shape of a half
+dome. In the northwestern corner of the room there is another wide
+passage to a small room attached to the main room. This passage is now
+carefully sealed on its southern side with a slab of stone, plastered
+neatly so as to be hardly perceptible from the southern side. The room
+into which this passage opens on the north is attached to the
+northeastern corner of the main apartment by a narrow passage, 1½ feet
+wide and a foot long. It is roughly circular in shape, about 6&nbsp;feet
+in diameter, and is the only chamber in the southern group which has no
+pockets or cubby-holes. Of these pockets there are no fewer than twelve
+in the southern group. Near the northern corner of the main room there
+is a doorway leading into a cove, which in turn opens into the main room
+of the northern group.</p>
+
+<p>The main room of the northern group is setback about 9&nbsp;feet from
+the face of the bluff, but is entered by a passageway about 3&nbsp;feet
+long, the remainder of the distance consisting of a cove in the cliff.
+The room is 22 feet long and 13 feet wide and its roof is 6½ feet above
+the floor. In the southwestern corner there is a small pocket in the
+wall, and in the northwestern corner two others, all on the floor level.
+In the eastern side, however, there is a cubby-hole nearly 2&nbsp;feet
+in diameter and about 2&nbsp;feet above the floor. This is a rare
+feature. The southern end of the room opens into a kind of cove, raised
+2&nbsp;feet above the floor of the main room, and opening at its
+southern end into the main room of the southern group. In the floor of
+this cove there is a circular pit about 18 inches in diameter (marked in
+the plan, <a href = "#fig298">figure 298</a>). Although resembling the
+fire holes already described, the position of
+<span class = "pagenum">235</span>
+<a name = "page235" id = "page235"> </a>
+<!--png 364-->
+the pit under consideration precludes use for that purpose; it was
+probably designed to contain water. At the northeastern corner of the
+principal apartment there is an oblong chamber or storage cist,
+measuring 6&nbsp;feet by 7&nbsp;feet.</p>
+
+<p>Connected with the main room by a passageway 2&nbsp;feet long cut in
+its eastern wall, there is an almost circular chamber 7&nbsp;feet in
+diameter, and this in turn connects with another chamber beyond it by a
+passageway 2½ feet long and less than 2&nbsp;feet wide. The roofs of the
+two chambers last mentioned are but 4½ and 4&nbsp;feet, respectively,
+above the floor, and in none of the rooms of this group, except the main
+apartment, are pockets or niches found. The whole group extends back
+about 45 feet into the bluff.</p>
+
+
+<h5 class = "section"><a name = "desc_bowlder" id = "desc_bowlder">
+BOWLDER-MARKED SITES.</a></h5>
+
+<p>Within the limits of the region here treated there are many hundreds
+of sites of structures and groups of rooms now marked only by lines of
+water-rounded bowlders. As a rule each site was occupied by only one or
+two rooms, although sometimes the settlement rose to the dignity of a
+village of considerable size. The rooms were nearly always oblong,
+similar in size and ground plan to the rooms composing the village ruins
+already described, but differing in two essential points, viz, character
+of site and character of the masonry. As a rule these remains are found
+on and generally near the edge of a low mesa or hill overlooking some
+area of tillable land, but they are by no means confined to such
+locations, being often found directly on the bottom land, still more
+frequently on the banks of dry washes at the points where they emerge
+from the hills, and sometimes on little islands or raised areas within
+the wash where every spring they must have been threatened with overflow
+or perhaps even overflowed. An examination of many sites leads to the
+conclusion that permanency was not an element of much weight in their
+selection.</p>
+
+<p>Externally these bowlder-marked sites have every appearance of great
+antiquity, but all the evidence obtainable in regard to them indicates
+that they were connected with and inhabited at the same time as the
+other ruins in the region in which they are found. They are so much
+obliterated now, however, that a careful examination fails to determine
+in some cases whether the site in question was or was not occupied by a
+room or group of rooms, and there is a notable dearth of pottery
+fragments such as are so abundant in the ruins already described.
+Excavation in a large ruin of this type, however, conducted by some
+ranchmen living just above Limestone creek, yielded a considerable lot
+of pottery, not differing in kind from the fragments found in stone
+ruins so far as can be judged from description alone.</p>
+
+<!--png 350-->
+<!--png 351-->
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "plateXXXIII" id = "plateXXXIII"> </a>
+<img src = "images/plate33.png" width = "407" height = "302"
+alt = "boulder-marked site" title = "boulder-marked site">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption table">
+Plate XXXIII. Bowlder-Marked Site.</p>
+
+<p>In the southern part of the region here treated bowlder-marked sites
+are more clearly marked and more easily distinguished than in the
+northern part, partly perhaps because in that section the normal ground
+<span class = "pagenum">236</span>
+<a name = "page236" id = "page236"> </a>
+<!--png 365-->
+surface is smoother than in the northern section and affords a greater
+contrast with the site itself. Plate <span class =
+"smallroman">XXXIII</span> shows one of these bowlder-marked sites which
+occurs a little below Limestone creek, on the opposite or eastern side
+of the river. It is typical of many in that district. It will be noticed
+that the bowlders are but slightly sunk into the soil, and that the
+surface of the ground has been so slightly disturbed that it is
+practically level; there is not enough débris on the ground to raise the
+walls 2&nbsp;feet. The illustration shows, in the middle distance,
+a&nbsp;considerable area of bottom land which the site overlooks. In
+plan this site shows a number of oblong rectangular rooms, the longer
+axes of which are not always parallel, the plan resembling very closely
+the smaller stone village ruins already described. It is probable that
+the lack of parallelism in the longer axes of the rooms is due to the
+same cause as in the village ruins, i.e., to the fact that the site was
+not all built up at one time.</p>
+
+<p>The illustration represents only a part of an extensive series of
+wall remains. The series commences at the northern end of a mesa forming
+the eastern boundary of the Rio Verde and a little below a point
+opposite the mouth of Limestone creek. The ruins occur along the western
+rim of the mesa, overlooking the river and the bottom lands on the other
+side, and are now marked only by bowlders and a slight rise in the
+ground. But few lines of wall are visible, most of the ruins consisting
+only of a few bowlders scattered without system. From the northern end
+of the mesa, where the ruins commence, traces of walls can be seen
+extending due southward and at an angle of about 10° with the mesa edge
+for a distance of one-fourth of a mile. Beyond this, for half a mile or
+more southward, remains of single houses and small clusters occur, and
+these are found in less abundance to the southern edge of the mesa,
+where the ruin illustrated occurs. The settlement extended some distance
+east of the part illustrated, and also southward on the slope of the
+hill. Two well-marked lines of wall occur at the foot of the hill, on
+the flat bottom land, but the slopes of the hill are covered with
+bowlders and show no well-defined lines. Scattered about on the surface
+of the ground are some fragments of metates of coarse black basalt and
+some potsherds, but the latter are not abundant.</p>
+
+<p>The bowlders which now mark these sites were probably obtained in the
+immediate vicinity of the points where they were used. The mesa on which
+the ruin occurs is a river terrace, constructed partly of these
+bowlders; they outcrop occasionally on its surface and show clearly in
+its sloping sides, and the washes that carry off the water falling on
+its surface are full of them.</p>
+
+<p>In the northern end of the settlement there are faint traces of what
+may have been an irrigating ditch, but the topography is such that water
+could not be brought on top of the mesa from the river itself. At the
+southern end of the settlement, northeast of the point shown in the
+illustration, there are traces of a structure that may have been a
+<span class = "pagenum">237</span>
+<a name = "page237" id = "page237"> </a>
+<!--png 368-->
+storage reservoir. The surface of the mesa dips slightly southward, and
+the reservoir-like structure is placed at a point just above the head of
+a large wash, where a considerable part of the water that falls upon the
+surface of the mesa could be caught. It is possible that, commencing at
+the northern end of the settlement, a&nbsp;ditch extended completely
+through it, terminating in the storage reservoir at the southern end,
+and that this ditch was used to collect the surface water and was not
+connected with the river. A&nbsp;method of irrigation similar to this is
+practiced today by some of the Pueblo Indians, notably by the Hopi or
+Tusayan and by the Zuni. In the bottom land immediately south of the
+mesa, now occupied by several American families, there is a fine example
+of an aboriginal ditch, described later.</p>
+
+<p>In the vicinity of the large ruin just above Limestone creek,
+previously described, the bowlder-marked sites are especially abundant.
+In the immediate vicinity of that ruin there are ten or more of them,
+and they are abundant all along the edge of the mesa forming the upper
+river terrace; in fact, they are found in every valley and on every
+point of mesa overlooking a valley containing tillable land.</p>
+
+<p>It is probable that the bowlder-marked ruins are the sites of
+secondary and temporary structures, erected for convenience in working
+fields near to or overlooked by them and distant from the home pueblo.
+The character of the sites occupied by them and the plan of the
+structures themselves supports this hypothesis. That they were connected
+with the permanent stone villages is evident from their comparative
+abundance about each of the larger ones, and that they were constructed
+in a less substantial manner than the home pueblo is shown by the
+character of the remains.</p>
+
+<p>It seems quite likely that only the lower course or courses of the
+walls of these dwellings were of bowlders, the superstructure being
+perhaps sometimes of earth (not adobe) but more probably often of the
+type known as “jacal”&mdash;upright slabs of wood plastered with mud.
+This method of construction was known to the ancient pueblo peoples and
+is used today to a considerable extent by the Mexican population of the
+southwest and to a less extent in some of the pueblos. No traces of this
+construction were found in the bowlder-marked sites, perhaps because no
+excavation was carried on; but it is evident that the rooms were not
+built of stone, and that not more than a small percentage could have
+been built of rammed earth or grout, as the latter, in disintegrating
+leaves well-defined mounds and lines of debris. It is improbable,
+moreover, that the structures were of brush plastered with mud, such as
+the Navajo hogan, as this method of construction is not well adapted to
+a rectangular ground plan, and if persistently applied would soon modify
+such a plan to a round or partially rounded one. Temporary brush
+structures would not require stone foundations, but structures composed
+of upright posts or slabs, filled in with brush and plastered with mud,
+and designed to last more
+<span class = "pagenum">238</span>
+<a name = "page238" id = "page238"> </a>
+<!--png 369-->
+than one farming season, would probably be placed on stone foundations,
+as the soil throughout most of the region in which these remains occur
+is very light, and a wooden structure placed directly on it would hardly
+survive a winter.</p>
+
+<p>In the valley of the Rio Verde the profitable use of adobe at the
+present time is approximately limited northward by the thirty-fourth
+parallel, which crosses the valley a little below the mouth of Limestone
+creek. North of this latitude adobe is used less and less and where used
+requires more and more attention to keep in order, although on the high
+tablelands some distance farther northward it is again a suitable
+construction. South of the thirty-fourth parallel, however, adobe
+construction is well suited to the climate and in the valleys of Salt
+and Gila rivers it is the standard construction. Adobe construction (the
+use of sun-dried molded brick) was unknown to the ancient pueblo
+builders, but its aboriginal counterpart, rammed earth or pisé
+construction, such as that of the well known Casa Grande ruin on Gila
+river, acted in much the same way under climatic influences, and it is
+probable that its lack of suitability precluded its use in the greater
+part of the Verde valley. No walls of the type of those of the Casa
+Grande ruin have been found in the valley of the Verde, although
+abundant in the valleys of the Salt and Gila rivers, but it is possible
+that this method of construction was used in the southern part of the
+Verde region for temporary structures; in the northern part of that
+region its use even for that purpose was not practicable.</p>
+
+<p>In this connection it should be noted that all the ruins herein
+described are of buildings of the northern type of aboriginal pueblo
+architecture and seem to be connected with the north rather than the
+south.</p>
+
+
+<!--png 354-->
+<!--png 355-->
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "plateXXXIV" id = "plateXXXIV"> </a>
+<img src = "images/plate34.png" width = "475" height = "298"
+alt = "irrigating ditch" title = "irrigating ditch">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption table">
+Plate XXXIV. Irrigating Ditch on the Lower Verde.</p>
+
+<h5 class = "section"><a name = "desc_ditches" id = "desc_ditches">
+IRRIGATING DITCHES AND HORTICULTURAL WORKS.</a></h5>
+
+<p>One of the finest examples of an aboriginal irrigating ditch that has
+come under the writer’s notice occurs about 2&nbsp;miles below the mouth
+of Limestone creek, on the opposite or eastern side of the river. At
+this point there is a large area of fertile bottom land, now occupied by
+some half dozen ranches, known locally as the Lower Verde settlement.
+The ditch extends across the northern and western part of this area.
+Plate <span class = "smallroman">XXXIV</span> shows a portion of this
+ditch at a point about one eighth of a mile east of the river. Here the
+ditch is marked by a very shallow trough in the grass-covered bottom,
+bounded on either side by a low ridge of earth and pebbles. Plate <span
+class = "smallroman">XXXV</span> shows the same ditch at a point about
+one-eighth of a mile above the last, where it was necessary to cut
+through a low ridge. North of this point the ditch can not be traced,
+but here it is about 40 feet above the river and about 10 feet above a
+modern (American) ditch. It is probable that the water was taken out of
+the river about 2&nbsp;miles above this place, but the ditch was run on
+the sloping side of the mesa which has been recently
+<span class = "pagenum">239</span>
+<a name = "page239" id = "page239"> </a>
+<!--png 372-->
+washed out. No traces of the ditch were found east of the point shown in
+plate <span class = "smallroman">XXXIV</span>, but as the modern
+acequia, which enters the valley nearly 10 feet below the ancient one,
+extends up the valley nearly to its head, there is no reason to suppose
+that the ancient ditch did not irrigate nearly the whole area of bottom
+land. The ancient ditch is well marked by two clearly defined lines of
+pebbles and small bowlders, as shown in the illustration. Probably these
+pebbles entered into its construction, as the modern ditch, washed out
+at its head and abandoned more than a year ago, shows no trace, of a
+similar marking.</p>
+
+<!--png 358-->
+<!--png 359-->
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "plateXXXV" id = "plateXXXV"> </a>
+<img src = "images/plate35.png" width = "477" height = "299"
+alt = "irrigating ditch" title = "irrigating ditch">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption table">
+Plate XXXV. Old Irrigating Ditch, Showing Cut Through Low Ridge.</p>
+
+<p>A little west and south of the point shown in <a href =
+"#plateXXXIV">plate <span class = "smallroman">XXXIV</span></a> the
+bottom land drops off by a low bench of 3&nbsp;or 4 feet to a lower
+level or terrace, and this edge is marked for a distance of about a
+quarter of a mile by the remains of a stone wall or other analogous
+structure. This is located on the extreme edge of the upper bench and it
+is marked on its higher side by a very small elevation. On the outer or
+lower side it is more clearly visible, as the stones of which the wall
+was composed are scattered over the slope marking the edge of the upper
+bench. At irregular intervals along the
+<span class = "pagenum">240</span>
+<a name = "page240" id = "page240"> </a>
+<!--png 373-->
+wall there are distinct rectangular areas about the size of an ordinary
+pueblo room, i.e., about 8&nbsp;by 10 and 10 by 12 feet.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig299" id = "fig299" href = "images/fig299.png">
+<img src = "images/fig299thumb.png" width = "447" height = "155"
+alt = "map of irrigating ditch" title = "map of irrigating ditch"></a>
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption figure">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 299.</span>&mdash;Map of an ancient
+irrigating ditch.<br>
+<span class = "blowup"><a href = "images/fig299.png">
+larger view</a> (lettering in red added by transcriber)</span></p>
+
+<!--png 362-->
+<!--png 363-->
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "plateXXXVI" id = "plateXXXVI"> </a>
+<img src = "images/plate36.png" width = "444" height = "329"
+alt = "ditch" title = "ditch">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption table">
+Plate XXXVI. Old Ditch Near Verde, Looking Westward.</p>
+
+<p>In February, 1891, there was an exceptional flood in Verde river due
+to prolonged hard rain. The river in some places rose nearly 20 feet,
+and at many points washed away its banks and changed the channel. The
+river rose on two occasions; during its first rise it cut away a
+considerable section of the bank near a point known as Spanish wash,
+about 3½ miles below Verde, exposing an ancient ditch. During its second
+rise it cut away still more of the bank and part of the ancient ditch
+exposed a few days before. The river here makes a sharp bend and flows a
+little north of east. The modern American ditch, which supplied all the
+bottom lands of the Verde west of the river, was ruined in this vicinity
+by the flood that uncovered the old ditch. Figure 299 is a map of the
+ancient ditch drawn in the field, with contours a foot apart, and
+showing also a section, on a somewhat larger scale, drawn through the
+points <i>A</i>, <i>B</i> on the map. Plate <span class =
+"smallroman">XXXVI</span> is a view of the ditch looking westward across
+the point where it has been washed away, and plate <span class =
+"smallroman">XXXVII</span> shows the eastern portion, where the ditch
+disappears under the bluff.</p>
+
+<!--png 366-->
+<!--png 367-->
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "plateXXXVII" id = "plateXXXVII"> </a>
+<img src = "images/plate37.png" width = "454" height = "298"
+alt = "ditch" title = "ditch">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption table">
+Plate XXXVII. Old Ditch Near Verde, Looking Eastward.</p>
+
+<p>The bank of the river at this point consists of a low sandy beach,
+from 10 to 50 feet wide, limited on the south by a vertical bluff 10 to
+12 feet high and composed of sandy alluvial soil. This bluff is the edge
+of the bottom land before referred to, and on top is almost flat and
+covered with a growth of mesquite, some of the trees reaching a diameter
+of more than 3&nbsp;inches. The American ditch, which is shown on the
+map, runs along the top of the bluff skirting its edge, and is about 14
+feet above the river at its ordinary stage. The edge of the bluff is
+shown on the map by a heavy black line. It will be observed that the
+ancient ditch occurs on the lower flat, about 3&nbsp;feet above the
+river at its ordinary stage, and its remains extend over nearly 500
+feet. The line, however, is not a straight one, but has several decided
+bends. One of these occurs at a point just west of that shown in the
+section. About 80 feet east of that point the ditch makes another turn
+southward, and about 40 feet beyond strikes the face of the bluff almost
+at right angles and passes under&nbsp;it.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig300" id = "fig300"> </a>
+<img src = "images/fig300.png" width = "439" height = "345"
+alt = "irrigating ditch" title = "irrigating ditch">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption figure">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 300.</span>&mdash;Part of old irrigating
+ditch.</p>
+
+<p>About 50 feet north of the main ditch, at the point where it passes
+under the bluff, there are the remains of another ditch, as shown on the
+map. This second ditch was about a foot higher than the main structure,
+or about 4&nbsp;feet above the river; it runs nearly parallel with it
+for 30 feet and then passes into the bluff with a slight turn toward the
+north. It is about the same size as the main ditch, but its section is
+more evenly rounded. Figure 300 shows this ditch in section.</p>
+
+<p>As already stated, the American ditch is about 14 feet above the
+river, while the ancient ditch is less than 4&nbsp;feet above the water.
+This decided difference in level indicates a marked difference in the
+character of the river. The destruction of the modern ditch by the flood
+of
+<span class = "pagenum">241</span>
+<a name = "page241" id = "page241"> </a>
+<!--png 376-->
+1891 is not the first mishap of that kind which has befallen the
+settlers. The ditch immediately preceding the current one passed nearly
+over the center of the ancient ditch, then covered by 10 feet or more of
+alluvial soil, and if a ditch were placed today on the level of the
+ancient structure it would certainly be destroyed every spring. The
+water that flowed through the modern ditch was taken from the river at a
+point about 3&nbsp;miles farther northward, or just below Verde. The
+water for the ancient ditch must have been taken out less than a mile
+above the southern end of the section shown in the map.</p>
+
+<p>At first sight it would appear that the ancient ditch antedated the
+deposit of alluvial soil forming the bottom land at this point, and this
+hypothesis is supported by several facts of importance. It is said that
+ten years ago the bottom land, whose edge now forms the bluff referred
+to, extended some 25 or 30 feet farther out, and that the river then
+flowed in a channel some 200 or 300 feet north of the present one. Be
+this as it may, the bottom land now presents a fairly continuous
+surface, from the banks of the river to the foothills that limit the
+valley on the west and south, and it is certain that this bottom land
+extended over the place occupied by the ancient ditch; nor is it to be
+supposed that the ancient ditches ended abruptly at the point where they
+now enter the bluff. The curves in the line of the ancient ditch might
+indicate that it was constructed along the slope of a hill, or on an
+uneven
+<span class = "pagenum">242</span>
+<a name = "page242" id = "page242"> </a>
+<!--png 377-->
+surface, as a deep excavation in fairly even ground would naturally be
+made in a straight line.</p>
+
+<!--png 370-->
+<!--png 371-->
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "plateXXXVIII" id = "plateXXXVIII"> </a>
+<img src = "images/plate38.png" width = "491" height = "360"
+alt = "bluff over ditch" title = "bluff over ditch">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption table">
+Plate XXXVIII. Bluff Over Ancient Ditch, Showing Gravel Stratum.</p>
+
+<p>The face of the bluff shows an even deposit of sand, without apparent
+stratification, except here and there a thin layer or facing of mud
+occurs, such as covers the bottom of the ancient ditch and also of the
+modern ditch. Singularly enough, however, over the ancient ditch, about
+5&nbsp;feet above its bottom, there is a stratum of sand and gravel, and
+on top, within a few inches of the surface of the ground, a&nbsp;thin
+stratum of mud. This mud stratum extends only about 8&nbsp;feet
+horizontally and is slightly hollowed, with its lowest part over the
+center of the ditch. The gravel stratum also was laid down over the
+ditch, is tilted slightly southward and occurs in two layers, together
+about a foot thick. It first appears a few feet south of the point where
+the main ditch enters the bluff and over the ditch both layers are
+distinctly marked, as shown in plate <span class =
+"smallroman">XXXVIII</span>. Both layers are clearly marked to a
+distance of 4&nbsp;feet north of the northern side of the main ditch;
+here the lower layer thins out, but the upper layer continues faintly
+marked almost to the edge of the small ditch. At this point the gravel
+stratum becomes pronounced again and continues over the small ditch,
+almost pure gravel in places, with a decided dip westward. At a point
+just beyond the northern side of the small ditch the gravel layer
+disappears entirely.</p>
+
+<p>The occurrence of this gravel in the way described seems to indicate
+that the ditch was built along the slope of a low hill forming the edge
+of the bottom land at that time, and that subsequently detritus was
+deposited above it and over the adjacent bottom land forming a smooth
+ground surface. Against this hypothesis it must be stated that no
+evidence whatever was found of more than a single deposit of sandy loam,
+although the exposures are good; but perhaps were an examination made by
+a competent geologist some such evidence might be developed.</p>
+
+<p>There is one fact that should not be lost sight of in the discussion,
+viz, the very low elevation of the ditch above the river. The Verde is,
+as already stated, a&nbsp;typical mountain stream, with an exceptionally
+high declivity, and consequently it is rapidly lowering its bed. If, as
+already conjectured, the water for the ancient ditch was taken from the
+river but a short distance above the point where remains of the ditch
+are now found&mdash;and this assumption seems well supported by the
+character of the adjacent topography&mdash;the slight elevation of the
+bed of the ditch above the river would indicate that, in the first
+place, the ditch was located, as already suggested, along the slope of a
+hill, and in the second place, that the ditch was built at a period of
+no great antiquity. The occurrence of the high bluff under which the
+ditch now passes does not conflict with this suggestion, for the
+deposition of the material composing it and its erosion into its present
+form and condition may be the result of decades rather than of centuries
+of work by
+<span class = "pagenum">243</span>
+<a name = "page243" id = "page243"> </a>
+<!--png 380-->
+a stream like the Verde, and certainly a hundred, or at most a hundred
+and fifty years would suffice to accomplish it. At the present time a
+few floods deposit an amount of material equal to that under discussion,
+and if subsequently the river changed its channel, as it does at a dozen
+different points every spring, a&nbsp;few decades only would be required
+to cover the surface with grass and bushes, and in short, to form a
+bottom land similar to that now existing over the ancient ditch.</p>
+
+<p>In conclusion it should be noted, in support of the hypothesis that
+the ditch was built before the material composing the bluff was laid
+down, that immediately under the ditch there is a stratum of hard
+adobe-like earth, quite different from the sand above it and from the
+material of which the bluff is composed. This stratum is shown clearly
+in <a href = "#plateXXXVIII">plate <span class =
+"smallroman">XXXVIII</span></a>.</p>
+
+<p>The hypothesis which accords best with the evidence now in hand is
+that which assumes that the ditch was taken out of the river but a short
+distance above the point illustrated, and that it was built on the slope
+of a low hill, or on a nearly flat undulating bottom land, before the
+material composing the present bottom or river terrace was deposited,
+and that the ditch, while it may be of considerable antiquity, is not
+necessarily more than a hundred or a hundred and fifty years old; in
+other words, we may reach a fairly definite determination of its minimum
+but not of its maximum antiquity.</p>
+
+<p>On the southern side of Clear creek, about a mile above its mouth,
+there are extensive horticultural works covering a large area of the
+terrace or river bench. These have already been alluded to in the
+description of the village ruin overlooking them, but there are several
+features which are worthy a more detailed description. For a distance of
+2&nbsp;miles east and west along the creek, and perhaps half a mile
+north and south, there are traces of former works pertaining to
+horticulture, including irrigating ditches, “reservoirs,” farming
+outlooks, etc.</p>
+
+<!--png 374-->
+<!--png 375-->
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "plateXXXIX" id = "plateXXXIX"> </a>
+<img src = "images/plate39.png" width = "484" height = "298"
+alt = "ditch and horticultural works"
+title = "ditch and horticultural works">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption table">
+Plate XXXIX. Ancient Ditch and Horticultural Works on Clear Creek.</p>
+
+<p>At the eastern end of these works, about 3&nbsp;miles above the mouth
+of Clear creek, the main ditch, after running along the slope of the
+hill for some distance, comes out on top of the mesa or terrace nearly
+opposite the Morris place. The water was taken from the creek but a
+short distance above, hardly more than half a mile. West of the point
+where the ditch comes out on the mesa top, all traces of it disappear,
+but they are found again at various points on the terrace. Plate <span
+class = "smallroman">XXXIX</span> shows a portion of the terrace below
+and opposite the rectangular ruin previously described. In the distant
+foreground the light line indicates a part of the ancient ditch. Plate
+<span class = "smallroman">XL</span> shows the same ditch at a point
+half a mile below the last, where it rounds a knoll. In the distance is
+the flat-topped hill or mesa on which the rectangular ruin previously
+described is located. About a hundred yards southeast of this point
+further traces of the ditch may be seen, and connected with it at that
+point are a number of rectangular areas, which were cultivated patches
+when the ditch was in use.</p>
+
+<!--png 378-->
+<!--png 379-->
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "plateXL" id = "plateXL"> </a>
+<img src = "images/plate40.png" width = "512" height = "277"
+alt = "ditch" title = "ditch">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption table">
+Plate XL. Ancient Ditch Around a Knoll, Clear Creek.</p>
+
+<p><!--png 381-->
+<span class = "pagenum">244</span>
+<a name = "page244" id = "page244"> </a>
+The whole surface of the terrace within the limits described is covered
+by small water-worn bowlders scattered so thickly over it that travel is
+seriously impeded. In many parts of it these bowlders are arranged so as
+to inclose small rectangular areas, and these areas are connected with
+the old ditch just described. <a href = "#plateXXXIX">Plate <span class
+= "smallroman">XXXIX</span></a> shows something of this surface
+character; and in the right hand portion of it may be seen some of the
+rows of bowlders forming the rectangular areas. The rows which occur at
+right angles to the ditch are much more clearly marked than those
+parallel to it, and the longer axes of the rectangular areas are usually
+also at right angles to the ditch line. On the ground these traces of
+inclosures can hardly be made out, but from an elevated point, such as
+the mesa on which, the rectangular ruin overlooking these works is
+located, they show very clearly and have the appearance of windrows.
+Traces of these horticultural works would be more numerous, and
+doubtless more distinct, were it not that a considerable part of the
+area formerly under cultivation has been picked over by the modern
+settlers in this region, and immense quantities of stone have been
+removed and used in the construction of fences. This has not been done,
+however, in such a manner as to leave the ground entirely bare, yet bare
+areas occur here and there over the surface, where doubtless once
+existed a part of the general scheme of horticultural works.</p>
+
+<!--png 382-->
+<!--png 383-->
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "plateXLI" id = "plateXLI"> </a>
+<img src = "images/plate41.png" width = "475" height = "273"
+alt = "ancient work" title = "ancient work">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption table">
+Plate XLI. Ancient Work on Clear Creek.</p>
+
+<p>One such bare area occurs close to the edge of the terrace about a
+mile and a half above the mouth of the creek. In its center is a
+structure called for convenience a reservoir, although it is by no means
+certain that it was used as such. It occurs about 100 yards from the
+creek, opposite the Wingfield place, and consists of a depression
+surrounded by an elevated rim. It is oval, measuring 108 feet north and
+south and 72 feet east and west from rim to rim. The crown of the rim is
+5&nbsp;feet 8&nbsp;inches above the bottom of the depression and about
+3&nbsp;feet above the ground outside. The rim is fairly continuous,
+except at points on the northern and southern sides, where there are
+slight depressions, and these depressions are further marked by extra
+large bowlders. At its lowest points, however, the rim is over
+2&nbsp;feet above the ground, which slopes away from it for some
+distance in every direction. Plate <span class = "smallroman">XLI</span>
+shows the eastern side of the depression; the large tree in the middle
+distance is on the bank of Clear creek and below the terrace. Plate
+<span class = "smallroman">XLII</span> shows the northern gateway or dip
+in the rim, looking southward across the depression. The large bowlders
+previously referred to can be clearly seen. A&nbsp;depression similar to
+this occurs on the opposite side of the valley, about half a mile from
+the river. In this case it is not marked by bowlders or stones of any
+description, but is smooth and rounded, corresponding to the surface of
+the ground in its vicinity. In the latter as in the former case, the
+depression occurs on a low knoll or swell in the bottom land, and the
+surface of the ground slopes gently away from it for some distance in
+every direction.</p>
+
+<!--png 386-->
+<!--png 387-->
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "plateXLII" id = "plateXLII"> </a>
+<img src = "images/plate42.png" width = "484" height = "329"
+alt = "gateway" title = "gateway">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption table">
+Plate XLII. Gateway to Ancient Work, Clear Creek.</p>
+
+<p><span class = "pagenum">245</span>
+<a name = "page245" id = "page245"> </a>
+<!--png 384-->
+The purpose of these depressions is not at all clear, and although
+popularly known as reservoirs it is hardly possible that they were used
+as such. The capacity of the Clear creek depression is about 160,000
+gallons, or when two-thirds full, which would be the limit of its
+working capacity, about 100,000 gallons. The minimum rate of evaporation
+in this region in the winter months is over 3&nbsp;inches per month,
+rising in summer to 10 inches or more, so that in winter the loss of
+water stored in this depression would be about 10,000 gallons a month,
+while in summer it might be as high as 35,000 or even 40,000 gallons a
+month. It follows, therefore, that even if the reservoir were filled to
+its full working capacity in winter and early spring it would be
+impossible to hold the water for more than two months and retain enough
+at the end of that time to make storing worth while. It has been already
+stated, however, that these depressions are situated on slight knolls
+and that the land falls away from them in every direction. As no surface
+drainage could be led into them, and as there is no trace on the ground
+of a raised ditch discharging into them, they must have been filled, if
+used as reservoirs, from the rain which fell within the line that
+circumscribes them. The mean annual rainfall (for over seventeen years)
+at Verde, a&nbsp;few miles farther northward in the same valley, is
+11.44 inches, with a maximum annual fall of 27.27 inches and a minimum
+of 4.80 inches. The mean annual fall (for over twenty-one years) at Fort
+McDowell, near the mouth of the Rio Verde, is 10-54 inches, with a
+maximum of 20.0 inches and a minimum of 4.94 inches.<a class = "tag"
+name = "tag8" id = "tag8" href = "#note8">8</a></p>
+
+<p>If these depressions were used as reservoirs it is a fair presumption
+that the bottoms were plastered with clay, so that there would be no
+seepage and the only loss would be by evaporation. Yet this loss, in a
+dry and windy climate such as that of the region here treated, would be
+sufficient to render impracticable a storage reservoir of a cross
+section and a site like the one under discussion. Most of the rainfall
+is in the winter months, from December to March, and it would require a
+fall of over 12 inches during those months to render the reservoir of
+any use in June; it would certainly be of no use in July and August, at
+the time when water is most needed, save in exceptional years with
+rainfall much in excess of the mean.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand, there is the hypothesis that these depressions
+represent house structures; but if so these structures are anomalous in
+this region. The contour of the ground does not support the idea of a
+cluster of rooms about a central court, nor does the débris bear it out.
+Mr. F.&nbsp;H. Cushing has found depressions in the valleys of Salt and
+Gila rivers somewhat resembling these in form and measurement, and
+situated always on the outskirts of the sites of villages. Excavations
+were made, and as the result of these he came to the conclusion that
+<span class = "pagenum">246</span>
+<a name = "page246" id = "page246"> </a>
+<!--png 385-->
+the depressions were the remains of large council chambers, as the
+floors were hard, plastered with mud, and dish-shaped, with a fire-hole
+in the center of each; and no pottery or implements or remains of any
+kind were found except a number of “sitting stones.” Mr. Cushing found
+traces of upright logs which formed the outer wall of the structure; he
+inferred from the absence of drainage channels that the structure was
+roofed, and as the ordinary method of roofing is impracticable on the
+scale of these structures, he supposed that a method similar to that
+used by the Pima Indians in roofing their granaries was employed, the
+roof being of a flattened dome shape and composed of grass or reeds,
+formed in a continuous coil and covered with earth. If the depressions
+under discussion, however, are the remains of structures such as these
+described, they form a curious anomaly in this region, for, as has been
+already stated, the affinities of the remains of this region are with
+the northern architectural types, and not at all with those of the
+southern.</p>
+
+<p>There is a third hypothesis which, though not supported by direct
+evidence, seems plausible. It is that the depression of Clear creek, and
+perhaps also the one on the opposite side of the Verde, were thrashing
+floors. This hypothesis accords well with the situation of these
+depressions upon the tillable bottom lands, and with their relation to
+the other remains in their vicinity; and their depth below the surface
+of the ground would be accounted for, under the assumption here made of
+their use, by the high and almost continuous winds of the summer in this
+region. Perhaps the slight depressions at the northern and southern side
+of the oval were the gateways through which the animals which trampled
+the straw or the men who worked the flails passed in and out. Whether
+used in this way or not, these depressions would be, under the
+assumption that the bottom was plastered with mud, not only practicable,
+but even desirable thrashing floors, as the grain would be subjected
+during thrashing to a partial winnowing. This suggestion would also
+account for the comparatively clean ground surface about the depressions
+and for their location on slightly elevated knolls.</p>
+
+<!--png 390-->
+<!--png 391-->
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "plateXLIII" id = "plateXLIII"> </a>
+<img src = "images/plate43.png" width = "478" height = "307"
+alt = "single room" title = "single room">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption table">
+Plate XLIII. Single-Room Remains on Clear Creek.</p>
+
+<p>Scattered over the whole area formerly under cultivation along Clear
+creek are the remains of small, single rooms, well marked on the ground,
+but without any standing wall remaining. These remains are scattered
+indiscriminately over the terrace without system or arrangement; they
+are sometimes on the flat, sometimes on slight knolls. They number
+altogether perhaps forty or fifty. Plate <span class =
+"smallroman">XLIII</span> shows an example which occurs on a low knoll,
+shown also in plate <a href = "#plateXL"><span class =
+"smallroman">XL</span></a>; it is typical of these remains. It will be
+noticed that the masonry was composed of river bowlders not dressed or
+prepared in any way, and that the débris on the ground would raise the
+walls scarcely to the height of a single low story.</p>
+
+<p>The location of these remains, their relation to other remains in the
+vicinity, and their character all support the conclusion that they were
+<span class = "pagenum">247</span>
+<a name = "page247" id = "page247"> </a>
+<!--png 388-->
+small temporary shelters or farming outlooks, occupied only during the
+season when the fields about them were cultivated and during the
+gathering of the harvest, as is the case with analogous structures used
+in the farming operations among the pueblos of to-day. Their number and
+distribution do not necessarily signify that all the terrace was under
+cultivation at one time, although there is a fair presumption that the
+larger part of it was, and the occurrence of the ditch at both the upper
+and the lower ends of the area strengthens this conclusion.</p>
+
+<p>As it is impossible that an area so large as this should be
+cultivated by the inhabitants of one village, it is probable that a
+number of villages combined in the use of this terrace for their
+horticultural operations; and, reasoning from what we know to have been
+the case in other regions, it is further probable that this combination
+resulted in endless contention, and strife, and perhaps finally to the
+abandonment of these fields if not of this region. The rectangular ruin
+already illustrated is situated on a hill south of the terrace and
+overlooks it from that direction; on the opposite side of Clear creek,
+on the hill bounding the valley on the north, there are the remains of a
+large stone village which commanded an outlook over the terraces in
+question; and a little farther up the creek, on the same side and
+similarly situated, there was another village which also overlooked
+them. There were doubtless other villages and small settlements whose
+remains are not now clearly distinguishable, and it is quite probable
+that some of the inhabitants of the large villages in the vicinity, like
+those near Verde, hardly 3&nbsp;miles northward, had a few farming
+houses and some land under cultivation on this terrace.</p>
+
+<p>Thus it will be seen that there was no lack of cultivators for all
+the tillable land on the terrace, and there is no reason to suppose that
+the period when the land was under cultivation, and the period when the
+villages overlooking it were occupied, were not identical, and that the
+single-house remains scattered over the terrace were not built and
+occupied at the same period. The relation of the stone villages to the
+area formerly cultivated, the relation of the single-room remains to the
+area immediately about them, the character of the remains, and the known
+methods of horticulture followed by the Pueblo Indians, all support the
+conclusion that these remains were not only contemporaneous but also
+related to one another.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<span class = "pagenum">248</span>
+<a name = "page248" id = "page248"> </a>
+<!--png 389-->
+
+<h4 class = "chapter"><a name = "struc" id = "struc">
+STRUCTURAL CHARACTERISTICS.</a></h4>
+
+<h5 class = "section"><a name = "struc_masonry" id = "struc_masonry">
+MASONRY AND OTHER DETAILS.</a></h5>
+
+<p>The masonry of the stone villages throughout all the region here
+treated is of the same type, although there are some variations. It does
+not compare with the fine work found on the San Juan and its
+tributaries, although belonging to that type&mdash;the walls being
+composed of two faces with rubble filling, and the interstices of the
+large stones being filled or chinked with spalls. This chinking is more
+pronounced and better done in the northern part of the region than in
+the south.</p>
+
+<!--png 394-->
+<!--png 395-->
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "plateXLIV" id = "plateXLIV"> </a>
+<img src = "images/plate44.png" width = "440" height = "326"
+alt = "boulder foundations" title = "boulder foundations">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption table">
+Plate XLIV. Bowlder Foundations Near Limestone Creek.</p>
+
+<!--png 398-->
+<!--png 399-->
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "plateXLV" id = "plateXLV"> </a>
+<img src = "images/plate45.png" width = "414" height = "330"
+alt = "masonry" title = "masonry">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption table">
+Plate XLV. Masonry of Ruin Near Limestone Creek.</p>
+
+<p>The rock employed depended in all cases on the immediate environments
+of the site of the village, the walls being composed in some cases of
+slabs of limestone, in other cases of river bowlders only, and in still
+others of both in combination. The walls of the large ruin near
+Limestone creek were composed of rude slabs of limestone with an
+intermixture of bowlders. The bowlders usually occur only in the lower
+part of the wall, near the ground, and in several cases, where nothing
+exists of the wall above the surface of the ground, the remains consist
+entirely of bowlders. A&nbsp;good example of this peculiarity of
+construction is shown in plate <span class = "smallroman">XLIV</span>,
+and plate <ins class = "correction" title = "text reads ‘LXV’"><span
+class = "smallroman">XLV</span></ins> shows the character of stone
+employed and also a section of standing wall on the western side of the
+village. A&nbsp;section of standing wall near the center of the ruin is
+illustrated in <a href = "#plateXIII">plate <span class =
+"smallroman">XIII</span></a>. It will be noticed that some of the walls
+shown in this illustration are chinked, but to a very slight extent. The
+wall represented in plate <span class = "smallroman">XLV</span> has
+slabs of limestone set on edge. This feature is found also in other
+ruins in this region, notably in those opposite Verde, though it seems
+to be more used in the south than in the north. An example occurring in
+the ruin opposite Verde is shown in plate <span class =
+"smallroman">XLVI</span>. In this case chinking is more pronounced; the
+walls are from 2&nbsp;to 2½ feet thick, built in the ordinary way with
+two faces and an interior filling, but the stones are large and the
+filling is almost wholly adobe mortar. The two faces are tied together
+by extra long stones which occasionally project into the back of one or
+the other face.</p>
+
+<!--png 402-->
+<!--png 403-->
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "plateXLVI" id = "plateXLVI"> </a>
+<img src = "images/plate46.png" width = "439" height = "329"
+alt = "masonry" title = "masonry">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption table">
+Plate XLVI. Masonry of Ruin Opposite Verde.</p>
+
+<p>The western cluster of the ruin last mentioned, shown on the ground
+plan (<a href = "#plateXVII">plate <span class =
+"smallroman">XVII</span></a>), has almost all its walls still standing,
+and the masonry, while of the same general character as that of the main
+cluster, is better executed. The stones composing the walls are smaller
+than those in the main cluster and more uniform in size, and the
+interstices are carefully chinked. The chinking is distinctive in that
+spalls were not used, but more or less flattened river pebbles. The
+different color and texture of these pebbles make them stand out from
+the wall distinctly, giving quite an ornamental effect.</p>
+
+<!--png 406-->
+<!--png 407-->
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "plateXLVII" id = "plateXLVII"> </a>
+<img src = "images/plate47.png" width = "417" height = "329"
+alt = "standing walls" title = "standing walls">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption table">
+Plate XLVII. Standing Walls Opposite Verde.</p>
+
+<p>
+<!--png 392-->
+<span class = "pagenum">249</span>
+<a name = "page249" id = "page249"> </a>
+That portion of the standing wall of the ruin opposite Verde, which
+occurs in the saddle northeastward from the main cluster, shown on the
+plan in <a href = "#plateXVII">plate <span class =
+"smallroman">XVII</span></a>, represents the best masonry found in this
+region. As elsewhere stated, this was probably the last part of the
+village to be built. These walls are shown in plate <span class =
+"smallroman">XLVII</span>. It will be noticed that the stones are of
+very irregular shape, rendering a considerable amount of chinking
+necessary to produce even a fair result, and that the stones are
+exceptionally large. The masonry of this village is characterized by the
+use of stones larger than common, many of them being larger than one man
+can carry and some of them even larger than two men can handle.</p>
+
+<p>All the larger and more important ruins of this region are
+constructed of limestone slabs, sometimes with bowlders. The smaller
+ruins, on the other hand, were built usually of river bowlders,
+sometimes with an intermixture of slabs of limestone and sandstone but
+with a decided preponderance of river bowlders. This would seem to
+suggest that this region was gradually populated, and that the larger
+structures were the last ones built. This suggestion has been already
+made in the discussion of the ground plans, and it is, moreover, in
+accord with the history of the pueblo-builders farther northward,
+notably that of the Hopi.</p>
+
+<!--png 410-->
+<!--png 411-->
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "plateXLVIII" id = "plateXLVIII"> </a>
+<img src = "images/plate48.png" width = "401" height = "300"
+alt = "masonry" title = "masonry">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption table">
+Plate XLVIII. Masonry of Ruin at Mouth of the East Verde.</p>
+
+<p><a href = "#plateXXI">Plate <span class = "smallroman">XXI</span></a>
+illustrates a type of bowlder masonry which occurs on Clear creek; plate
+<span class = "smallroman">XLVIII</span> shows the masonry of the ruin
+at the mouth of the East Verde, and <a href = "#plateXVI">plate <span
+class = "smallroman">XVI</span></a> shows that of a ruin at the month of
+Fossil creek. In all these examples the stone composing the walls was
+derived either from the bed of an adjacent stream or from the ground on
+which they were built, and was used without any preparation whatever;
+yet in the better examples of this type of masonry a fairly good result
+was obtained by a careful selection of the stones. A&nbsp;still ruder
+type of masonry sometimes found in connection with village ruins is
+shown in <a href = "#fig290">figure 290</a>. This, however, was used
+only as in the example illustrated, for retaining walls to trails or
+terraces, or analogous structures.</p>
+
+<p>In a general way it may be stated that the masonry of the village
+ruins of this region is much inferior to that of the San Juan region,
+and in its rough and unfinished surfaces, in the use of an inferior
+material close at hand rather than a better material a short distance
+away, and in the ignorance on the part of the builders of many
+constructive devices and expedients employed in the best examples of
+pueblo masonry, the work of this region may be ranked with that of the
+Tusayan&mdash;in other words, at the lower end of the scale.</p>
+
+<br>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig301" id = "fig301"> </a>
+<img src = "images/fig301.png" width = "390" height = "535"
+alt = "cavate lodges" title = "cavate lodges">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption figure">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 301.</span>&mdash;Walled front cavate
+lodges.</p>
+
+<p>There is but little masonry about the cavate lodges, and that is rude
+in character<ins class = "correction" title = "text has comma">.
+</ins>As elsewhere stated, walled fronts are exceptional in this region,
+and where they occur the work was done very roughly. Figure 301 shows an
+example that occurs in the group of cavate lodges already described. It
+will be noticed that little selection has been exercised in the stones
+employed, and that an excess of mortar has
+<!--png 393-->
+<span class = "pagenum">250</span>
+<a name = "page250" id = "page250"> </a>
+been used to fill in the large interstices. <a href = "#fig290">Figure
+290</a> (p.&nbsp;221), which shows a storage cist attached to the group
+of cavate lodges, marked <i>D</i> on the map (<a href =
+"#plateXXV">plate <span class = "smallroman">XXV</span></a>), exhibits
+the same excessive use of adobe or mud plastering. At several other
+points in the area shown on this map there are short walls, sometimes
+inside the lodges, sometimes outside. In all cases, however, they are
+rudely constructed and heavily plastered with mud; in short, the masonry
+of the cavate lodges exhibits an ignorance fully equal to that of the
+stone villages, while the execution is, if anything, ruder. It is
+singular that, notwithstanding the excessive use of mud mortar and mud
+plastering in the few walls that are found there, such plastering was
+almost never used on the walls in the
+<span class = "pagenum">251</span>
+<a name = "page251" id = "page251"> </a>
+<!--png 396-->
+interiors of the lodges, perhaps because no finer finish than the rough
+surface of the rock was considered desirable.</p>
+
+<p>The cavate lodges seem to have been excavated without the aid of
+other tools than a rough maul or a piece of stone held in the hand, and
+such a tool is well adapted to the work, since a blow on the surface of
+the rock is sufficient to bring off large slabs. Notwithstanding the
+rude tools and methods, however, some of the work is quite neat,
+especially in the passageways (which are often 3&nbsp;or 4 feet long and
+quite narrow) and in the smaller chambers. In the excavation of these
+chambers benches were left at convenient places along the wall and
+niches and cubby-holes were cut, so that in the best examples of cavate
+lodges the occupants, it would seem, were more comfortable, so far as
+regards their habitation, than the ordinary Pueblo Indian of today, and
+better supplied with the conveniences of that method of living. It
+should be stated in this connection, however, that although the group of
+cavate lodges gives an example of an extensive work well carried out,
+the successful carrying out of that work does not imply either a large
+population or a high degree of skill; the only thing necessary was time,
+and the amount of time necessary for the work is not nearly so great, in
+proportion to the population housed, as was required for the better
+types of pueblo work in the San Juan country (the village ruins of the
+Chaco canyon for example), and probably no more than would be required
+for the construction of rooms of equal size and of the rather poor grade
+of work found in this region.</p>
+
+<p>Although no examples of interior wall-plastering were found in the
+group of cavate lodges described, such work has been found in
+neighboring lodges; and in this group plastered floors are quite common.
+The object of plastering the floors was to secure a fairly even surface
+such as the soft rock did not provide, and this was secured not by the
+application of layers of clay but by the use of clay here and there
+wherever needed to bring the surface up to a general level, and the
+whole surface was subsequently finished. This final finishing was
+sometimes omitted, and many floors are composed partly of the natural
+rock and partly of clay, the latter frequently in spots and areas of
+small size.</p>
+
+<p>The floors were often divided into a number of sections by low ridges
+of clay, sometimes 8&nbsp;inches broad. These ridges are shown on the
+ground plans (figures <a href = "#fig294">294</a> to <a href =
+"#fig298">298</a>, and in <a href = "#plateXXV">plate <span class =
+"smallroman">XXV</span></a>). Their purpose is not clear, although it
+can readily be seen that in such domestic operations as sorting grain
+they would be useful.</p>
+
+
+<h5 class = "section"><a name = "struc_openings" id = "struc_openings">
+DOOR AND WINDOW OPENINGS.</a></h5>
+
+<p>The masonry of this region was so roughly and carelessly executed
+that little evidence remains in the stone villages of such details of
+construction as door and window openings. Destruction of the walls seems
+to have commenced at these openings, and while there are
+<span class = "pagenum">252</span>
+<a name = "page252" id = "page252"> </a>
+<!--png 397-->
+numerous standing walls, some with a height of over 10 feet, no perfect
+example of a door or window opening was found. It is probable that the
+methods employed were similar or analogous to those used today by the
+Hopi, and that the wooden lintel and stone jamb was the standard
+type.</p>
+
+<!--png 414-->
+<!--png 415-->
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "plateXLIX" id = "plateXLIX"> </a>
+<img src = "images/plate49.png" width = "329" height = "442"
+alt = "doorway" title = "doorway">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption table">
+Plate XLIX. Doorway to Cavate Lodge.</p>
+
+<table class = "figfloat" summary = "illustration">
+<tr>
+<td class = "picture">
+<a name = "fig302" id = "fig302"> </a>
+<img src = "images/fig302.png" width = "259" height = "412"
+alt = "bowlders in footway" title = "bowlders in footway">
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "caption figure">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 302.</span>&mdash;Bowlders in
+footway,<br>
+cavate lodges.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>In the cavate lodges window openings are not found; there is but one
+opening, the doorway, and this is of a pronounced and peculiar type. As
+a rule these doorways are wider at the top than at the bottom and there
+are no corners, the opening roughly approximating the shape of a pear
+with the smaller end downward. The upper part of the opening consists
+always of the naked rock, but the lower part is generally
+<span class = "pagenum">253</span>
+<a name = "page253" id = "page253"> </a>
+<!--png 400-->
+framed with slabs of sandstone. Plate <span class =
+"smallroman">XLIX</span> shows an example that occurs in the upper tier
+of lodges at its eastern end. The floor of this lodge is about
+2&nbsp;feet above the bench from which it was entered, and this specimen
+fails to show a feature which is very common in this group&mdash;a line
+of water-worn bowlders extending from the exterior to the interior of
+the lodges through the doorway and arranged like stepping stones. This
+feature is shown in figure 302, which represents the doorway of group
+<i>E</i>, shown on the general map (<a href = "#plateXXV">plate <span
+class = "smallroman">XXV</span></a>) and on the detailed
+<span class = "pagenum">254</span>
+<a name = "page254" id = "page254"> </a>
+<!--png 401-->
+plan, <a href = "#fig297">figure 297</a>. Figure 303 shows a type in
+which the framing is extended up on one side nearly to the top, while on
+the other side it extends only to half the height of the opening, which
+above the framing is hollowed out to increase its width. This example
+occurs near that shown in plate <span class = "smallroman">XLIX</span>,
+and the floor of the chamber is raised about 2&nbsp;feet above the bench
+from which it is entered. The illustration gives a view from the
+interior, looking out, and the large opening on the right was caused by
+the comparatively recent breaking out of the wall. Figure 303 shows the
+doorway to the group of chambers marked <i>E</i> on the general map, an
+interior view of which is shown in figure 302. In this example the
+obvious object of the framing was to reduce the size of the opening, and
+to accomplish this the slabs were set out 10 or 12 inches from the rock
+forming the sides of the opening, and the intervening space was filled
+in with rubble. Plate <a href = "#plateXXXII">plate <span class =
+"smallroman">XXXII</span></a>, which shows the interior of the main room
+in group <i>D</i>, shows also the large doorway on the north.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig303" id = "fig303"> </a>
+<img src = "images/fig303.png" width = "330" height = "441"
+alt = "doorway" title = "doorway">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption figure">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 303.</span>&mdash;Framed doorway, cavate
+lodges.</p>
+
+<table class = "figfloat" summary = "illustration">
+<tr>
+<td class = "picture">
+<a name = "fig304" id = "fig304"> </a>
+<img src = "images/fig304.png" width = "155" height = "196"
+alt = "doorway" title = "doorway">
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "caption figure">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 304.</span>&mdash;Notched doorway<br>
+in Canyon de Chelly.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>It will be noticed that these doorways all conform to one general
+plan and that this plan required an opening considerably larger in its
+upper third than in the lower two-thirds of its height. This requirement
+seems to be the counterpart or analogue of the notched doorway, which is
+the standard type in the cliff ruins of Canyon de Chelly and other
+regions, and still very common in Tusayan (Moki). Figure 304 shows a
+notched doorway in Canyon de Chelly and figure 305 gives an example of
+the same type of opening in Tusayan. The object of this peculiar shape
+in the regions mentioned has been well established,<a class = "tag" name
+= "tag9" id = "tag9" href = "#note9">9</a> and there is no reason to
+suppose that similar conditions and a similar object would not produce a
+similar result here. This type of opening had its origin in the time
+when the pueblo builders had no means, other than blankets, of
+temporarily closing door openings and when all the supplies of the
+village were brought in on the backs of the inhabitants. In order to
+secure protection against cold and storm the opening was made of the
+smallest possible size consistent with its use, and the upper part of
+the opening was made larger in order to permit the introduction of back
+loads of faggots and other necessaries. This purpose would be almost as
+well served by the openings of the cavate lodges as by the notched
+doorway, and at the same time the smallest possible opening was exposed
+to the weather. The two types of openings seem
+<span class = "pagenum">255</span>
+<a name = "page255" id = "page255"> </a>
+<!--png 404-->
+simply to be two different methods of accomplishing the same
+purpose&mdash;one in solid rock, the other in masonry. That it was
+considered desirable to reduce the openings as much as possible is
+evident from the employment of framing slabs in the lower portions,
+reducing the width of that part generally to less than a foot, while the
+upper portions are usually 3&nbsp;feet and more in width, and the
+absence of framing slabs in the upper part of the openings was probably
+due to their use as suggested; no slabs could be attached with
+sufficient firmness to resist the drag of a back load of wood, for
+example, forced between them. The strict confinement of door openings to
+one type suggests a short, rather than a long, occupancy of the site
+under discussion, a&nbsp;suggestion which is borne out by other details;
+and this unity of design renders it difficult to form a conclusion as to
+the relative age of the two types of openings under discussion. So far
+as the evidence goes, however, it supports the conclusion that the
+doorways of the cavate lodges were derived from a type previously
+developed, and that the idea has been modified and to some extent
+adapted to a different environment; for if the idea had been developed
+in the cavate lodges there would be a much greater number of variations
+than we find in fact. There can be
+<span class = "pagenum">256</span>
+<a name = "page256" id = "page256"> </a>
+<!--png 405-->
+no doubt, however, that the cavate lodge doorways represent an earlier
+type in development, if not in time, than the notched doorways of
+Tusayan.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig305" id = "fig305"> </a>
+<img src = "images/fig305.png" width = "410" height = "402"
+alt = "doorway" title = "doorway">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption figure">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 305.</span>&mdash;Notched doorway in
+Tusayan.</p>
+
+
+<h5 class = "section"><a name = "struc_chimneys" id = "struc_chimneys">
+CHIMNEYS AND FIREPLACES.</a></h5>
+
+<p>Nowhere in the village ruins or in the cavate lodges of the lower
+Verde were any traces of chimneys or other artificial smoke exits found.
+The village ruins are too much broken down to permit definite statement
+of the means employed for smoke exits, but had the inhabitants employed
+such exits as are in use in the pueblos today some evidence of them
+would remain. Probably there was no other exit than the door, and
+perhaps trapdoors or small openings in the roofs, such as were formerly
+employed in the inhabited pueblos, according to their traditions. In the
+cavate lodges no exit other than the door was possible, and many of them
+are found with their walls much blackened by smoke.</p>
+
+<p>The fireplaces or fire holes of the cavate lodges have already been
+alluded to, and one of the best examples found is illustrated in <a href
+= "#plateXXXII">plate <span class = "smallroman">XXXII</span></a>, and
+the location of a number of others is shown on the general plan. These
+fireplaces are located not in the center of the chamber, but near the
+principal doorway, and doubtless the object of this location was to
+facilitate the escape of the smoke. Fire holes were never located in
+interior rooms. The fireplace illustrated in <a href =
+"#plateXXXII">plate <span class = "smallroman">XXXII</span></a> has been
+already described (p.&nbsp;227); it was excavated in the solid rock of
+the floor and was lined with fragments of pottery laid in mud mortar as
+closely as their shape would permit. A&nbsp;part of this pottery lining
+can be seen in the illustration. When the room was cleared out the fire
+hole was found to be about half full of fine ashes.</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+<span class = "pagenum">257</span>
+<a name = "page257" id = "page257"> </a>
+<!--png 408-->
+
+<h4 class = "chapter"><a name = "concl" id = "concl">
+CONCLUSIONS.</a></h4>
+
+
+<p>The ruins of the lower Verde valley represent a comparatively late
+period in the history of the Pueblo tribes. The period of occupancy was
+not a long one and the population was never large, probably not
+exceeding at any time 800 or 1,000 souls, possibly less than 700; nor
+were the dwellings in that region all occupied at the same time.</p>
+
+<p>There is no essential difference, other than those due to immediate
+environment, between the architecture of the lower Verde region and that
+of the more primitive types found in other regions, Tusayan for example.
+The Verde architecture is, however, of a more purely aboriginal type
+than that of any modern pueblo, and the absence of introduced or foreign
+ideas is its chief characteristic. There are no chimneys, no adobe
+walls, no constructive expedients other than aboriginal and rather
+primitive ones. The absence of circular kivas<a class = "tag" name =
+"tag10" id = "tag10" href = "#note10">10</a> or sacred council chambers
+is noteworthy.</p>
+
+<p>The circular kiva is a survival of an ancient type&mdash;a survival
+supported by all the power of religious feeling and the conservatism in
+religious matters characteristic of savage and barbarous life; and while
+most of the modern pueblos have at the present time rectangular kivas,
+such, for example, as those at Tusayan, at Zuñi, and at Acoma, there is
+no doubt that the circular form is the more primitive and was formerly
+used by some tribes which now have only the rectangular form. Still the
+abandonment of the circular and the adoption of the rectangular form,
+due to expediency and the breaking down of old traditions, was a very
+gradual process and proceeded at a different rate in different parts of
+the country. At the time of the Spanish conquest the prevailing form in
+the old province of Cibola was rectangular, although the circular kiva
+was not entirely absent; while, on the other hand, in the cliff ruins of
+Canyon de Chelly, whose date is partly subsequent to the sixteenth
+century, the circular kiva is the prevailing, if not the exclusive form.
+But notwithstanding this the Hopi Indians of Tusayan, to whom many of
+the Canyon de Chelly ruins are to be attributed, today have not a single
+circular kiva. The reason for this radical departure from the old type
+is a simple one, and to be found in the single term environment. The
+savage is truly a child of nature and almost completely under its sway.
+A&nbsp;slight difference in the geologic formations of two regions will
+produce a difference in the arts of the inhabitants of those
+<span class = "pagenum">258</span>
+<a name = "page258" id = "page258"> </a>
+<!--png 409-->
+regions, provided the occupancy be a long one. In the case of the
+Tusayan kivas the rectangular form was imposed on the builders by the
+character of the sites they occupied. The requirement that the kiva
+should be under ground, or partly under ground, was a more stringent one
+than that it should be circular, and with the rude appliances at their
+command the Tusayan builders could accomplish practically nothing unless
+they utilized natural cracks and fissures in the rocks. Hence the
+abandonment of the circular form and also of the more essential
+requirement, that the kiva should be inclosed within the walls of the
+village or within a court; the Tusayan kivas are located
+indiscriminately in the courts and on the outskirts of the village,
+wherever a suitable site was found, some of them being placed at a
+considerable distance from the nearest house.</p>
+
+<p>It will be seen, therefore, that it is impossible to base any
+chronologic conclusions on the presence or absence of this feature,
+notwithstanding the undoubted priority of the circular form, except in
+so far as these conclusions are limited to some certain region or known
+tribal stock. If it be assumed that the Verde ruins belong to the
+Tusayan, and all the evidence in hand favors that assumption, the
+conclusion follows that they should be assigned to a comparatively late
+period in the history of that tribe.</p>
+
+<p>That the period of occupancy of the lower Verde valley was not a long
+one is proved by the character of the remains and by what we know of the
+history of the pueblo-building tribes. There are no very large areas of
+tillable land on the lower Verde and not a large number of small ones,
+and aside from these areas the country is arid and forbidding in the
+extreme. Such a country would be occupied only as a last resort, or
+temporarily during the course of a migration. The term migration,
+however, must not be taken in the sense in which it has been applied to
+European stocks, a&nbsp;movement of people en masse or in several large
+groups. Migration as used here, and as it generally applies to the
+Pueblo Indians, means a slow gradual movement, generally without any
+definite and ultimate end in view. A&nbsp;small section of a village,
+generally a gens or a subgens, moves away from the parent village,
+perhaps only a few miles. At another time another section moves to
+another site, at still another time another section moves, and so on.
+These movements are not possible where outside hostile pressure is
+strong, and if such pressure is long continued it results in a
+reaggregation of the various scattered settlements into one large
+village. Such in brief is the process which is termed migration, and
+which has covered the southwest with thousands of village ruins. Of
+course larger movements have occurred and whole villages have been
+abandoned in a day, but as a rule the abandonment of villages was a
+gradual process often consuming years.</p>
+
+<p>Before the archeologic investigation of the pueblo region commenced
+and when there was little knowledge extant by which travelers could
+<span class = "pagenum">259</span>
+<a name = "page259" id = "page259"> </a>
+<!--png 412-->
+check their conclusions, the immense number of ruins in that region was
+commonly attributed to an immense population, some writers placing the
+number as high as 500,000. Beside this figure the present population,
+about 9,000, is so insignificant that it is hardly surprising that the
+ancient and modern villages were separated and attributed to different
+tribal stocks.</p>
+
+<p>The process briefly sketched above explains the way in which village
+ruins have their origin; a&nbsp;band of 500 village-building Indians
+might leave the ruins of fifty villages in the course of a single
+century. It is very doubtful whether the total number of Pueblo Indians
+ever exceeded 30,000. This is the figure stated by Mr. A.&nbsp;F.
+Bandelier, whose intimate acquaintance with the eastern part of the
+pueblo region gives his opinion great weight. The apparently trifling
+causes which sometimes result in the abandonment of villages have been
+already alluded&nbsp;to.</p>
+
+<p>The lower Verde forms no exception to the general rule sketched
+above. Scattered along the river, and always located on or immediately
+adjacent to some area of tillable land, are found many small ruins,
+typical examples of which have been described in detail. These form the
+subordinate settlements whose place in the general scheme has been
+indicated. The masonry is generally of river bowlders only, not dressed
+or prepared in any way. The number of these settlements is no greater
+than would be required for one complete cycle or period, although the
+evidence seems to support the hypothesis that the movement commenced in
+the northern part of the region and proceeded southward in two or
+perhaps three separate steps. It is possible, however, that the movement
+was in the other direction. This question can be settled only by a
+thorough examination of the regions to the north and south.</p>
+
+<p>There are two, possibly three, points in the region discussed where a
+stand was made and the various minor settlements were abandoned, the
+inhabitants congregating into larger bands and building a larger village
+for better defense against the common foe. These are located at the
+extreme northern and southern limits of the region treated, opposite
+Verde and near Limestone creek, and possibly also at an intermediate
+point, the limestone ruin above Fossil creek. These more important ruins
+are all built of limestone slabs, and the sites are carefully selected.
+The internal evidence supports the conclusion that the movement was
+southward and that in the large ruin near Limestone creek the
+inhabitants of the lower Verde valley had their last resting place
+before they were absorbed by the population south of them, or were
+driven permanently from this region. The strong resemblance of the
+ground plan of this village to that of Zuñi has been already commented
+on, and it is known that Zuñi was produced in the way stated, by the
+inhabitants of the famous “seven cities of Cibola,” except that in this
+case Zuñi was the second site adopted, the aggregation into one village,
+or more properly a number of villages on one site, having taken place a
+few years before. The fact that Zuñi dates only
+<span class = "pagenum">260</span>
+<a name = "page260" id = "page260"> </a>
+<!--png 413-->
+from the beginning of the last century should not be lost sight of in
+this discussion.</p>
+
+<p>The inhabitants of the Verde valley were an agricultural people, and
+even in the darkest days of their history, when they were compelled to
+abandon the minor settlements, they still relied on horticulture for
+subsistence, and to a certain extent the defense motive was subordinated
+to the requirements of this method of life. There can be no doubt that
+the hostile pressure which produced the larger villages was Indian,
+probably the Apache and Walapai, who were in undisputed possession at
+the time of the American advent, and but little doubt that this pressure
+consisted not of regular invasions and set sieges, but of sudden raids
+and descents upon the fields, resulting in the carrying off of the
+produce and the killing of the producers. Such raids were often made by
+the Navajo on Tusayan, Zuñi, and the eastern pueblos and on the Mexican
+villages along the Rio Grande for some years after the American
+occupation, and are continued even today in a small way on the Tusayan.
+The effect of such raids is cumulative, and it might be several years
+before important action would result on the part of the village Indians
+subjected to them. On the other hand, several long seasons might elapse
+during which comparative immunity would be enjoyed by the village. In
+the lower Verde there is evidence of two such periods, if not more, and
+during that time the small pueblos and settlements previously referred
+to were built. None of these small settlements was occupied, however,
+for more than a few decades, the ground plans of most of them indicating
+an even shorter period.</p>
+
+<p>That cavate lodges and cliff-dwellings are simply varieties of the
+same phase of life, and that life an agricultural one, is a conclusion,
+supported by the remains in the lower Verde valley. The almost entire
+absence of cliff-dwellings and the great abundance of cavate lodges has
+already been commented on, and as the geologic formations are favorable
+to the latter, and unfavorable to the former on the Verde, whereas the
+Canyon de Chelly, where there are hundreds of cliff-dwellings and no
+cavate lodges, the conditions are reversed, this abundance of cavate
+lodges may be set down as due to an accident of environment. The cavate
+lodge of the Rio Verde is a more easily constructed and more convenient
+habitation than the cliff-dwelling of Canyon de Chelly.</p>
+
+<p>An examination and survey of the cliff ruins of Canyon de Chelly,
+made some years ago by the writer, revealed the fact that they were
+always located with reference to some area of adjacent tillable land and
+that the defensive motive exercised so small an influence on the
+selection of the site and the character of the buildings that it could
+be ignored. It was found that the cliff-dwellings were merely farming
+outlooks, and that the villages proper were almost always located on the
+canyon bottom. With slight modifications these conclusions may be
+extended over the Verde region and applied to the cavate lodges there.
+<span class = "pagenum">261</span>
+<a name = "page261" id = "page261"> </a>
+<!--png 418-->
+The relation of these lodges to the village ruins and the character of
+the sites occupied by them support the conclusion that they were farming
+outlooks, probably occupied only during the farming season, according to
+the methods followed by many of the Pueblos today, and that the
+defensive motive had little or no influence on the selection of the site
+or the character of the structures. The bowlder-marked sites and the
+small single-room remains illustrate other phases of the same
+horticultural methods, methods somewhat resembling the “intensive
+culture,” of modern agriculture, but requiring further a close
+supervision or watching of the crop during the period of ripening. As
+the area of tillable land in the pueblo region, especially in its
+western part, is limited, these requirements have developed a class of
+temporary structures, occupied only during the farming season. In
+Tusayan, where the most primitive architecture of the pueblo type is
+found, these structures are generally of brush; in Canyon de Chelly they
+are cliff-dwellings; on the Rio Verde they are cavate lodges,
+bowlder-marked sites and single house remains; but at Zuñi they have
+reached their highest development in the three summer villages of Ojo
+Caliente, Nutria, and Pescado.</p>
+
+<!--png 416-->
+<!--png 417-->
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "plateL" id = "plateL"> </a>
+<img src = "images/plate50.png" width = "390" height = "298"
+alt = "doorway" title = "doorway">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption table">
+Plate L. Doorway to Cavate Lodge.</p>
+
+<p>Since the American occupancy of the country and the consequent
+removal of the hostile pressure which has kept the Pueblo tribes in
+check, development has been rapid and now threatens a speedy extinction
+of pueblo life. The old Laguna has been abandoned, Acoma is being
+depopulated, the summer pueblos of Zuñi are now occupied all the year
+round by half a dozen or more families, and even in Tusayan, the most
+conservative of all the pueblo groups, the abandonment of the home
+village and location in more convenient single houses has commenced. It
+is the old process over again, but with the difference that formerly the
+cycle was completed by the reaggregation of the various families, and
+little bands into larger groups under hostile pressure from wilder
+tribes, but now that pressure has been permanently removed, and in a few
+years, or at most in a few generations, the old pueblo life will be
+known only by its records.</p>
+
+
+<a name = "page262" id = "page262"> </a>
+<!--png 419-->
+
+<h4>Footnotes</h4>
+
+<div class = "footnote">
+
+<p>
+<a name = "note1" id = "note1" href = "#tag1">1.</a>
+Tenth Ann. Rep. U.S. Geol. Survey for 1876 (Washington, 1878), p.
+477.</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name = "note2" id = "note2" href = "#tag2">2.</a>
+Eighth Ann. Rep. Bureau of Ethnology, 1886-’87, Wash., 1891, pl.
+lxxvi.</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name = "note3" id = "note3" href = "#tag3">3.</a>
+Ibid., pp. 1-228.</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name = "note4" id = "note4" href = "#tag4">4.</a>
+The kiva is the assembly chamber, termed estufa in some of the older
+writings, particularly those of the early Spanish explorers. A&nbsp;full
+description of these peculiar structures has already been published in
+an article on Pueblo architecture; Eighth Ann. Rep. Bureau of Ethnology,
+1886-’87, Wash., 1891, pp. 1-228.</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name = "note5" id = "note5" href = "#tag5">5.</a>
+Tenth Ann Rep. U.S. Geol. Survey, 1876, pp. 288-391.</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name = "note6" id = "note6" href = "#tag6">6.</a>
+Seventh Ann. Rep. Bur. Eth., 1891, p. xix.</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name = "note7" id = "note7" href = "#tag7">7.</a>
+Seventh Ann. Rep. Bur. Eth., op. cit., p. XXII.</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name = "note8" id = "note8" href = "#tag8">8.</a>
+Report on Rainfall (Pacific coast and western states and territories),
+Signal Office U.S. War Dept., Senate Ex. Doc. 91, 50th Cong., 1st Sess.,
+Washington, 1889; pp. 70-73 (Errata, p.&nbsp;4).</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name = "note9" id = "note9" href = "#tag9">9.</a>
+A Study of Pueblo Architecture, by Victor Mindeleff: 8th. Ann. Rep. Bur.
+Eth. for 1886-1887; Washington, 1891, pp. 1-228.</p>
+
+<p class = "mynote">
+This article is available from Project Gutenberg as
+<a href = "http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/19856">e-text 19856</a>.</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name = "note10" id = "note10" href = "#tag10">10.</a>
+As this term has been already defined, it is here used without further
+explanation. For a full discussion of these structures, see “A Study of
+Pueblo Architecture,” by Victor Mindeleff, in 8th. Ann. Rep. Bur. Eth.,
+1886-87, Washington, 1891.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class = "mid">
+
+<h4><a name = "index" id = "index">INDEX</a></h4>
+
+<table class = "index" summary = "index">
+<tr>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Acoma</span>, Abandonment of</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page261">261</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&mdash;, Kivas in</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page257">257</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&mdash;, Selection of site of</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page215">215</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Adobe</span>, Absence of, in Verde
+ruins</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page187">187</a>,
+<a href = "#page257">257</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&mdash; construction of modern introduction</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page238">238</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&mdash;, Limit to use of</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page238">238</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Age</span> of cavate lodges</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page225">225</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&mdash; &mdash; Verde ruins</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page209">209</a>,
+<a href = "#page257">257</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Agriculture</span>, Ancient, in Verde
+valley</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page247">247</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Anawita</span>, Tusayan tradition by</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page188">188</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Apache</span>, Effect of, on pueblo
+tribes</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page260">260</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Architecture</span> of ancient Verde
+pueblos</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page185">185</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>
+<span class = "smallcaps">Bandelier</span>, A. F., on ancient pueblo
+population
+</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page259">259</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Basketry</span> in cavate lodges</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page228">228</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Beaver Creek</span> cliff ruin,
+Description of</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page186">186</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Bone</span> implements in cavate
+lodges</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page223">223</a>,
+<a href = "#page224">224</a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<table class = "index" summary = "index continues">
+<tr>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Bowlders</span>, ancient pueblo walls
+of</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page206">206</a>,
+<a href = "#page217">217</a>,
+<a href = "#page246">246</a>,
+<a href = "#page249">249</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&mdash; on line of ancient irrigating ditch</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page244">244</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&mdash;, Sites marked by, in Verde valley</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page194">194</a>,
+<a href = "#page235">235</a>,
+<a href = "#page261">261</a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<table class = "index" summary = "index continues">
+<tr>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Brush</span>, Structures of,
+discussed</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page237">237</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Camp Verde</span> established and
+abandoned</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page185">185</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Canyon de Chelly</span>, Cliff dwellings
+in</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page254">254</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&mdash;, Kivas in</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page257">257</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Casa Grande</span>, Character of structure
+of</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page238">238</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&mdash; and San Juan ruins compared</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page186">186</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Cavate lodges</span>, Ancient, how
+excavated</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page251">251</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&mdash; described and figured</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page217">217</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&mdash; in Verde valley</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page187">187</a>,
+<a href = "#page192">192</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&mdash; on Fossil creek</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page203">203</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&mdash;, Reason for abundance of</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page260">260</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Cave dwellings</span> in Arizona</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page224">224</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>
+<span class = "smallcaps">Chaco</span> ruins and Casa Grande compared
+</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page186">186</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>
+<span class = "smallcaps">Chimneys</span>, Absence of, in Verde cavate
+lodges
+</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page187">187</a>,
+<a href = "#page256">256</a>,
+<a href = "#page257">257</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Chinking</span> of walls</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page248">248</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>
+<span class = "smallcaps">Ci-pa</span>, an ancient Hopi stopping place
+</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page189">189</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Cists</span>. <i>See</i> Storage cist;
+Water pocket</td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Cliff dwellings</span>, Absence of, in
+Verde valley</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page187">187</a>,
+<a href = "#page260">260</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&mdash; in Arizona</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page224">224</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&mdash; why constructed</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page260">260</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&mdash;. <i>See</i> Cavate lodge.</td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Corn</span> found in cavate lodges</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page225">225</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Courts</span> in ancient Verde ruins</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page196">196</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&mdash;. <i>See</i> Plaza.</td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>
+<span class = "smallcaps">Cushing</span>, F. H., on depressed structures
+in Arizona
+</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page245">245</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>
+<span class = "smallcaps">Debris</span>, Height of ancient villages
+judged by
+</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page198">198</a>,
+<a href = "#page240">240</a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<table class = "index" summary = "index continues">
+<tr>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Defensive</span> motive of cliff
+dwellings</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page260">260</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&mdash; sites of ancient Verde villages</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page193">193</a>,
+<a href = "#page206">206</a>,
+<a href = "#page208">208</a>,
+<a href = "#page214">214</a>,
+<a href = "#page215">215</a>,
+<a href = "#page216">216</a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<table class = "index" summary = "index continues">
+<tr>
+<td><p>
+<span class = "smallcaps">De Forest</span>, J. W., on Connecticut indian
+spades
+</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page183">183</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>
+<span class = "smallcaps">Diller</span>, J. S., on formation in which
+cavate lodges occur
+</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page219">219</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Dimensions</span> of ancient pueblos</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page211">211</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Doorways</span> in cavate lodges</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page222">222</a>,
+<a href = "#page251">251</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Espejo, A. de</span>, Expedition of, in
+1583</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page185">185</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Farfan, M</span>, Visit of, to Arizona in
+1598</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page185">185</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Fiber</span> Bundles of, in cavate
+lodges</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page228">228</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>
+<span class = "smallcaps">Fireholes</span> in ancient Arizona structures
+</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page232">232</a>,
+<a href = "#page246">246</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Fireplace</span> in cavate lodges</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page224">224</a>,
+<a href = "#page256">256</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Flagstaff</span>, Ariz., Cavate lodges
+near</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page217">217</a>,
+<a href = "#page223">223</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Floors</span> plastered for leveling</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page251">251</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>
+<span class = "smallcaps">Freshet</span>, Effect of, on ancient Verde
+irrigating ditch
+</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page240">240</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&mdash; in Rio Verde</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page191">191</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Gardens</span> of cavate village</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page224">224</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>
+<span class = "smallcaps">Gentes</span>, Aggregation, of, in villages
+</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page195">195</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Granaries</span>, Pima, how formed</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page246">246</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>
+<span class = "smallcaps">Ground-plan</span>, how affected by long
+occupancy
+</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page212">212</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Havasupai</span> cavate lodges</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page224">224</a>,
+<a href = "#page225">225</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Hawikuh</span>, Mission established
+at</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page229">229</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Height</span> of ancient Verde
+pueblos</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page209">209</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>
+<span class = "smallcaps">Hoffman</span>, W. J., on Beaver creek cliff
+ruin
+</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page186">186</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&mdash; on Montezuma well</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page186">186</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>
+<span class = "smallcaps">Holmes</span>, W. H., on San Juan cavate
+lodges
+</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page222">222</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Homolobi</span>, an ancient Hopi
+village</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page189">189</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>
+<span class = "smallcaps">Hopi</span>, Canyon de Chelly ruins attributed
+to the
+</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page257">257</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Horn</span> implements in cavate
+lodges</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page224">224</a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<table class = "index" summary = "index continues">
+<tr>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Horticulture</span>, Ancient, on Rio
+Verde</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page187">187</a>,
+<a href = "#page194">194</a>,
+<a href = "#page238">238</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Implements</span> in cavate lodges</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page224">224</a>,
+<a href = "#page228">228</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Irrigation</span> ditches in Verde
+valley</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page194">194</a>,
+<a href = "#page237">237</a>-<a href = "#page238">238</a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<table class = "index" summary = "index continues">
+<tr>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Jacal</span> structures</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page237">237</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Kiva</span> architecture, Evolution
+of</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page257">257</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>&mdash; circular, Absence of, in Verde cavate lodges</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page257">257</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&mdash; in Verde ruins</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page196">196</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Laguna</span>, Abandonment of</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page261">261</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>
+<span class = "smallcaps">Leroux</span>, &mdash;&mdash;, Ruins in Verde
+valley mentioned by
+</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page186">186</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Mancos river</span>, Cavate lodges on</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page222">222</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Marriage</span> custom of the pueblos</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page197">197</a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<table class = "index" summary = "index continues">
+<tr>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Masonry</span> of ancient Verde
+villages</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page201">201</a>,
+<a href = "#page203">203</a>,
+<a href = "#page204">204</a>,
+<a href = "#page212">212</a>,
+<a href = "#page248">248</a>,
+<a href = "#page259">259</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&mdash; &mdash; cavate lodges</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page225">225</a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<table class = "index" summary = "index continues">
+<tr>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Mearns</span>, E. A., on Verde ruins</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page186">186</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Metates</span> in cavate lodges</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page223">223</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Migration</span>, Pueblo, how
+effected</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page258">258</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&mdash; tradition of the Hopi</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page188">188</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Military</span> art of ancient
+pueblos</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page215">215</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Mindeleff</span>, V., on notched
+doorways</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page254">254</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&mdash; on pueblo kivas</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page257">257</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Montezuma well</span> described</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page186">186</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>
+<span class = "smallcaps">Mortar</span>, Excessive use of, in ancient
+villages
+</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page249">249</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Navajo</span>, Effect of, on pueblo
+tribes</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page260">260</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&mdash;, Hogan construction by the</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page237">237</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>
+<span class = "smallcaps">Nelson</span>, E. W., on certain ruined pueblo
+features
+</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page202">202</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Nutria</span>, a&nbsp;Zuñi summer
+village</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page206">206</a>,
+<a href = "#page261">261</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Ojo Caliente</span>, a&nbsp;Zuñi summer
+village</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page206">206</a>,
+<a href = "#page261">261</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Oñate, Juan de</span>, Expeditions of</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page185">185</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Oraibi</span>, Architectural character
+of</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page195">195</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Oven</span> in cavate lodge</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page226">226</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Palat-kwabi</span>, a&nbsp;Hopi stopping
+place</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page189">189</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Pálü-lü-koña</span>, the Hopi serpent
+deity</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page188">188</a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<table class = "index" summary = "index continues">
+<tr>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Passageway</span> in cavate lodge</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page222">222</a>,
+<a href = "#page225">225</a>,
+<a href = "#page227">227</a>,
+<a href = "#page231">231</a>,
+<a href = "#page232">232</a>,
+<a href = "#page235">235</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&mdash;, Absence of, in Verde ruins</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page199">199</a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<table class = "index" summary = "index continues">
+<tr>
+<td><p>
+<span class = "smallcaps">Pat-Ki-Nyûmû</span>, the Hopi water-house
+phratry
+</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page188">188</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Pescado</span>, a&nbsp;Zuñi summer
+village</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page206">206</a>,
+<a href = "#page261">261</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Pima</span>, Granaries of the</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page246">246</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Pisé</span> construction in Arizona</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page238">238</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Plastering</span> in Verde cavate
+lodges</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page222">222</a>,
+<a href = "#page225">225</a>,
+<a href = "#page251">251</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Plaza</span> in cavate village</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page223">223</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&mdash;. <i>See</i> Court.</td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Population</span> of ancient cavate
+lodges</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page251">251</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&mdash; &mdash; pueblos</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page203">203</a>,
+<a href = "#page211">211</a>,
+<a href = "#page259">259</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Potsherds</span> around cavate lodges</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page224">224</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&mdash; in cavate lodges</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page228">228</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&mdash; in Verde ruins</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page213">213</a>,
+<a href = "#page217">217</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&mdash; on bowlder-marked sites</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page235">235</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&mdash;, Cavate fireplace lined with</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page256">256</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>
+<span class = "smallcaps">Powell</span>, J. W. on Arizona cavate lodges
+</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page223">223</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&mdash; &mdash; Santa Clara cavate lodges</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page224">224</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>
+<span class = "smallcaps">Prescott</span>, Arizona, Mines discovered
+near
+</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page185">185</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&mdash;, Visit of Espejo to vicinity of</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page185">185</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Quesada, A. de</span>, Visit of, to
+Arizona</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page185">185</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Rainfall</span> in Verde valley</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page245">245</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Reservoir</span>, ancient, Traces of</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page236">236</a>,
+<a href = "#page237">237</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&mdash;, Depression like, in Verde valley</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page245">245</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>
+<span class = "smallcaps">Roof</span> timbers, Source of, in Verde
+valley
+</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page196">196</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>
+<span class = "smallcaps">Rooms</span>, Arrangement of, in cavate lodges
+</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page220">220</a>,
+<a href = "#page221">221</a>,
+<a href = "#page229">229</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&mdash;, Detached, in Verde ruins</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page198">198</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&mdash;, Distribution of, in ancient villages</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page197">197</a>,
+<a href = "#page210">210</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&mdash;, Size of, in ancient villages</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page198">198</a>,
+<a href = "#page210">210</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Ruins</span>, Extent of, in the
+southwest</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page259">259</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&mdash; of Verde valley</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page185">185</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Sandal</span> in cavate lodges</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page228">228</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">San Francisco</span>, early name of Rio
+Verde</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page186">186</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&mdash; <span class = "smallcaps">Mountain</span>, Cavate lodges
+near</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page217">217</a>,
+<a href = "#page223">223</a>,
+<a href = "#page225">225</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">San Juan river</span>, Cavate lodges
+on</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page222">222</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Santa Clara</span>, Cavate lodges
+near</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page217">217</a>,
+<a href = "#page224">224</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&mdash;, Ancient pueblos of</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page225">225</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Site</span> of cavate lodges</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page219">219</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&mdash;, Selection of, of ancient villages</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page215">215</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>
+<span class = "smallcaps">Sitting stones</span> in ancient Arizona
+structures
+</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page246">246</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Springerville</span>, N. Mex., Ruins
+at</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page202">202</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>
+<span class = "smallcaps">Stephen</span>, A. M., Tusayan tradition
+obtained by
+</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page188">188</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Stepping-stones</span> to cavate
+lodge</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page253">253</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>
+<span class = "smallcaps">Stevenson</span>, JAS., Cavate lodges visited
+by
+</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page223">223</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Stone</span> implements in cavate
+lodges</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page223">223</a>,
+<a href = "#page224">224</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Storage</span> cist described and
+figured</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page221">221</a>,
+<a href = "#page250">250</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&mdash; room in cavate lodge</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page228">228</a>,
+<a href = "#page229">229</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>
+<span class = "smallcaps">Summer</span> village, Ruins of, on Rio Verde
+</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page206">206</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Tags</span>, Architectural character
+of</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page195">195</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&mdash;, Defensive character of</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page215">215</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Textile</span> fabrics in cavate
+lodges</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page228">228</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Thrashing floors</span> in Verde
+valley</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page246">246</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Tradition</span> of Hopi water-people</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page188">188</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Tsegi</span>. <i>See</i> Canyon de
+Chelly.</td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Tusayan</span>, Primitive architecture
+of</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page261">261</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&mdash;, Kivas in</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page257">257</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&mdash;, Notched doorways in</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page254">254</a>,
+<a href = "#page255">255</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&mdash;, Occupancy of Verde valley by the</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page188">188</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&mdash;, Water gentes of the</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page188">188</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&mdash;. <i>See</i> Hopi.</td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Vargas, diego de</span>, New Mexico
+reconquered by</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page231">231</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Verde river</span>, Former name of</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page186">186</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&mdash; <span class = "smallcaps">Valley</span>, Aboriginal remains
+in</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page185">185</a>-<a href =
+"#page261">261</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Villages</span>, Ancient, in Verde
+valley</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page192">192</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Walapai</span> and Havasupai affinity</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page224">224</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&mdash;, Effect of, on pueblo tribes</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page260">260</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&mdash; tradition of cavate lodges</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page225">225</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Walls</span>, Ancient pueblo, how
+built</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page248">248</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&mdash;, Carved, in ancient ruins</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page202">202</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&mdash;, Defensive, in Verde ruins</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page202">202</a>,
+<a href = "#page203">203</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&mdash;, Massive, in Verde ruin</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page199">199</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>
+<span class = "smallcaps">Water people</span> of Tusayan probably from
+south
+</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page188">188</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&mdash; pockets in cavate lodge</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page228">228</a>,
+<a href = "#page235">235</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&mdash; storage in ancient Verde pueblo</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page199">199</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Window-openings</span> of cavate
+lodges</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page222">222</a>,
+<a href = "#page251">251</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Women</span>, House building by</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page197">197</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>
+<span class = "smallcaps">Wood</span>, Implements of, in cavate lodges
+</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page224">224</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Zuñi</span>, Adoption of site of</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page215">215</a>,
+<a href = "#page259">259</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&mdash;, Defensive character of</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page215">215</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&mdash;, Kivas in</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page257">257</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&mdash;, Population of</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page195">195</a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Aboriginal Remains in Verde Valley,
+Arizona, by Cosmos Mindeleff
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+</body>
+</html>
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diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt
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@@ -0,0 +1,11 @@
+This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements,
+metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be
+in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES.
+
+Procedures for determining public domain status are described in
+the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org.
+
+No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in
+jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize
+this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright
+status under the laws that apply to them.
diff --git a/README.md b/README.md
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+++ b/README.md
@@ -0,0 +1,2 @@
+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #19961 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/19961)