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diff --git a/20153-0.txt b/20153-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..9bd3745 --- /dev/null +++ b/20153-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,8044 @@ +Project Gutenberg's The American Journal of Archaeology, 1893-1, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The American Journal of Archaeology, 1893-1 + +Author: Various + +Editor: The American Journal of Archaeology + +Release Date: December 20, 2006 [EBook #20153] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ARCHAEOLOGY *** + + + + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Rénald Lévesque and the +Online Distributed Proofreaders Europe at +http://dp.rastko.net + + + + + +Page i + + THE + AMERICAN + JOURNAL OF ARCHÆOLOGY + AND OF THE + HISTORY OF THE FINE ARTS + + + VOLUME VIII + + 1893 + + + _PRINCETON_: THE BUSINESS MANAGER + _LONDON_: TRÜBNER & CO. _PARIS_: E. LEROUX + _TURIN_, _FLORENCE_ and _ROME_: E. LOESCHER + _LEIPZIG_: KARL W. HIERSEMANN. + +Page ii + + EDITORS. + + _Managing Editor_: Prof. A.L. FROTHINGHAM, Jr., of Princeton + University, Princeton, N.J. + + _Literary Editor_: Prof. H.N. FOWLER, of Western Reserve + University, Cleveland, Ohio. + + _Editorial Committee on behalf of the Archæological Institute_: + Prof. A.C. MERRIAM, of Columbia College; Mr. T.W. LUDLOW, of + Yonkers, N.Y. + + _Publication Committee for the Papers of the American School of + Classical Studies at Athens_: Prof. A.C. MERRIAM, of Columbia + College; Mr. T.W. LUDLOW, of Yonkers, N.Y. + + _Business Manager_: Prof. ALLAN MARQUAND, of Princeton + University, Princeton, N.J. + + All literary contributions should be addressed to the Managing + Editor; all business communications to the Business Manager. + + + + + CONTRIBUTORS. + + The following are among the contributors to past volumes: + + M.E. BABELON, Conservateur an Cabinet des Médailles, National + Library, Paris + Prof. W.N. BATES, of Harvard University, Cambridge. + Mr. SAMUEL BESWICK, Hollidaysburg, Pa. + Mr. CARLETON L. BROWNSON, of Yale University, New Haven. + Prof. CARL D. BUCK, of University of Chicago, Ill. + Dr. A.A. CARUANA, Librarian and Director of Education, Malta + Mr. JOSEPH T. CLARKE, Harrow, England. + Dr. NICHOLAS E. CROSBY, Princeton University. + Mr. HERBERT F. DE COU. + Dr. WILHELM DÖRPFELD, Secretary German Archæological + Institute, Athens. + M. ÉMILE DUVAL, Director of the Musée Fol, Geneva. + Dr. M.L. EARLE, of Barnard College, New York. + Prof. ALFRED EMERSON, of Cornell University. + Mr. ANDREW FOSSUM, of St. Olaf College, Northfield, Mass. + Prof. HAROLD N. FOWLER, of Western Reserve University, + Cleveland, Ohio. + Prof. A.L. FROTHINGHAM, Jr., of Princeton University. + Dr. A. FURTWÄNGLER, Professor of Archæology in the University + of Berlin. +Page iii Mr. ERNEST A. GARDNER, Director of the British School of + Archæology, Athens. + Padre GERMANO DI S. STANISLAO, Passionista, Rome. + Mr. WM. H. GOODYEAR, Curator, Brooklyn Institute. + Prof. W. HELBIG, former Secretary of the German Archæological + Institute, Rome. + Prof. GUSTAV HIRSCHFELD, of Königsberg, Prussia. + Dr. GEO. B. HUSSEY, of University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Neb. + Dr. ALBERT L. LONG, of Robert College, Constantinople. + Prof. ALLAN MARQUAND, of Princeton University. + Comte de MARSY, Director of the Soc. Franc. d'Archéologie, + _Bulletin Monumental_, _etc._ + Prof. ORAZIO MARUCCHI, member of Archæol. Commission of Rome, + _etc._ + Prof. A.C. MERRIAM, of Columbia College. + Prof. G. MASPERO, former Director of Antiq., Egypt; Prof. at + Collège de France, Paris. + M. JOACHIM MENANT, of Rouen, France. + Mr. WILLIAM MERCER, of Gainsborough, England. + Prof. ADOLPH MICHAELIS, of the University of Strassburg. + Prof. WALTER MILLER, of Leland Stanford, Jr., University, Palo + Alto, Cal. + Prof. THEODOR MOMMSEN, Berlin. + M. EUGÈNE MÜNTZ, Librarian and Conservateur of the École des + Beaux-Arts, Paris. + A.S. MURRAY, Keeper of Greek and Roman Antiquities, British + Museum. + Prof. CHARLES E. NORTON, of Harvard University, Cambridge. + Rev. JOHN P. PETERS, Director of the Babylonian Expedition, + New York City. + Mr. JOHN PICKARD, Professor in the University of Missouri, + Columbia, Mo. + Mr. THEO. J. PINCHES, of the British Museum, London. + Prof. WM. C. POLAND, of Brown University, Providence, R.I. + Mr. W.M. RAMSAY, Professor in the University of Aberdeen. + Dr. FRANZ V. REBER, Professor in the University and + Polytechnic of Munich, _etc._ + M. SALOMON REINACH, Conservateur of the Musée National de + St. Germain. + Prof. RUFUS B. RICHARDSON, of Dartmouth College, Hanover. + Prof. JOHN C. ROLFE, of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. + Dr. TH. SCHREIBER, Prof. of Archæol. in the Univ., and + Director of Museum, Leipzig. + Mr. ROBERT SEWELL, Madras Civil Service, F.R.G.S., M.R.A.S. + Mrs. CORNELIUS STEVENSON, Curator Museum University of Pa., + Philadelphia. + Prof. FRANK B. TARBELL, of University of Chicago, Ill. + Mr. S.B.P. TROWBRIDGE, of New York. + Dr. CHARLES WALDSTEIN, of Cambridge University, England. + Dr. WM. HAYES WARD, President Am. Oriental Society, and Ed. + _Independent_, N.Y. + Mr. HENRY S. WASHINGTON. + Prof. J.R. WHEELER, University of Vermont, Burlington. + Dr. PAUL WOLTERS, Secretary of the German Archæological + Institute at Athens. + Hon. JOHN WORTHINGTON, U.S. Consul at Malta. + Prof. J.H. WRIGHT, of Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. + The Director and Members of the American School of Classical + Studies at Athens. + +Page iv + + PROGRAM. + + The JOURNAL treats of the various branches of archæology and + art history--Oriental, Classic, Christian and Early + Renaissance. Its original articles are predominantly classic on + account of the fact that it has become the official organ of + the ARCHÆOLOGICAL INSTITUTE OF AMERICA and of the AMERICAN + SCHOOL OF CLASSICAL STUDIES AT ATHENS, and the JOURNAL will aim + to further the interests for which the Institute and the School + were founded. In it are published the reports on all the + excavations undertaken in Greece and elsewhere by the Institute + and the School, and the studies carried on independently by the + Directors and members of the School. By decision of the Council + of the Archæological Institute the JOURNAL has been distributed + during 1893 to all members of the Institute, and the same + distribution will be made during 1894. + + Beside articles the JOURNAL contains CORRESPONDENCE, BOOK + NOTICES AND REVIEWS AND ARCHÆOLOGICAL NEWS. It is its aim to + give notices of all important publications recently issued, + sometimes written expressly for the JOURNAL, sometimes + summarized from authorized reviews in other publications. + + The department in which the JOURNAL stands quite alone is the + RECORD OF DISCOVERIES AND INVESTIGATIONS. While all periods and + all countries are represented, special attention is given to + Egypt, Greece and Italy. Not merely are the results of actual + excavations chronicled, but everything in the way of novel + views and investigations as expressed in books and periodicals + is noted. In order to secure thoroughness, more than one + hundred periodicals are consulted and utilized. By these + various methods, all important work is concentrated and made + accessible in a convenient but scholarly form, equally suited + to the specialist and to the general reader. + + It has been the aim of the editors that the JOURNAL, besides + giving a survey of the whole field of archæology, should be + international in character. Its success in this attempt is + shown by the many noted European writers whose contributions + have appeared in its pages during the past eight years. Such + are: MM. Babelon, de Marsy, Maspero, Menant, Müntz and Reinach + for France: MM. Dörpfeld, Furtwängler, Hirschfeld, Michaelis, + Mommsen, Schreiber and Wolters for Germany; MM. Gardner, + Murray, Pinches and Ramsay for England, _etc._ + + The JOURNAL is published quarterly and forms, each year, a + volume of between 500 and 600 pages royal 8vo, illustrated with +Page v colored, heliotype, phototype, half-tone and other plates and + numerous figures. The yearly subscription is $5.00 for America; + and for countries of the Postal Union, 27 francs, 21 shillings + or marks, post-paid. + + Vol. I, containing 489 pages, 11 plates and 16 figures; Vol. + II, containing 521 pages; 14 plates and 46 figures; Vol. III, + containing 531 pages, 33 plates and 19 figures; Vol. IV, + containing 550 pages, 20 plates and 19 figures; Vol. V, + containing 534 pages, 13 plates and 55 figures; Vol. VI, + containing 612 pages, 23 plates and 23 figures; Vol. VII, + containing 578 pages; 26 plates and 8 figures; Vol. VIII, + containing 631 pages, 18 plates and 26 figures--will be sent + bound for $5.50, unbound for $5.00. + + Vol. I has lately been out of print, but will be reprinted + shortly in view of the increasing demand for back volumes; all + who desire to complete their sets should send in their + application. + +Page vi + + + + +CONTENTS OF VOLUME VIII, 1893. + + +No. 1. JANUARY--MARCH. + PAGE. + I.--_THE TEMPLE OF THE ACROPOLIS BURNT BY THE PERSIANS_, + By HAROLD N. FOWLER, 1 + + II.--_NOTES ON THE SUBJECTS OF GREEK TEMPLE-SCULPTURES_, + By F.B. TARBELL and W.N. BATES, 18 + +III.--_PAPERS OF THE AMERICAN SCHOOL OF CLASSICAL STUDIES AT ATHENS_. + I.--_THE RELATION OF THE ARCHAIC PEDIMENT RELIEFS FROM + THE ACROPOLIS TO VASE-PAINTING_, + By CARLETON L. BROWNSON, 28 + II.--_THE FRIEZE OF THE CHORAGIC MONUMENT OF LYSIKRATES + AT ATHENS_, + By HERBERT F. DE COU, 42 + III.--_DIONYSUS_ εν Λίμναις, By JOHN PICKARD, 56 + +CORRESPONDENCE. + _Hunting della Rabbia Monuments in Italy_, By ALLAN MARQUAND, 83 + +REVIEWS AND NOTICES OF BOOKS. + M. COLLIGNON, _Histoire de la Sculpture Grecque_, By A.M. 87 + HEINRICH BRUNN, _Griechische Götterideale_, By A.M. 89 + +ARCHÆOLOGICAL NEWS. + AFRICA (Egypt, Ethiopia, Algeria and Tunisia); ASIA (Hindustan, + Thibet, China, Central Asia, Arabia, Babylonia, Persia, Syria, + Armenia, Caucasus, Asia Minor), By A.L. FROTHINGHAM, Jr., 154 + + +No. 2. APRIL--JUNE. + + I.--_SOME UNPUBLISHED MONUMENTS BY LUCA DELLA ROBBIA_, + By ALLAN MARQUAND, 153 + + II.--_EGYPTIAN CHRONOLOGY_, By SAMUEL BESWICK, 171 + +III.--_A SERIES OF CYPRIOTE HEADS IN THE METROPOLITAN MUSEUM_, + By A.C. MERRIAM, 184 + + IV.--_A TABLET REFERRING TO DUES PAID TO THE TEMPLE OF THE SUN + AT SIPPARA_, By THEO. G. PINCHES, 190 + + V.--_A SEPULCHRAL INSCRIPTION FROM ATHENS_, + By WM. CAREY POLAND, 191 + + VI.--_PAPERS OF THE AMERICAN SCHOOL OF CLASSICAL STUDIES AT ATHENS_. + I.--_SOME SCULPTURES FROM THE ARGIVE HERAEUM_ (reprinted), + By CH. WALDSTEIN, 199 + II.--_EXCAVATIONS AT THE HERAEUM OF ARGOS_, + By CARLETON L. BROWNSON, 206 +Page vii + +CORRESPONDENCE. + MONTEFALCO IN UMBRIA, By WM. MERCER, 226 + LETTERS FROM GREECE, By F.B. TARBELL, 230 + +REVIEWS AND NOTICES OF BOOKS. + ORIENTAL ARCHÆOLOGY, 239 + CLASSICAL ARCHÆOLOGY, 246 + +ARCHÆOLOGICAL NEWS. + AFRICA (Egypt, Central Africa, Algeria); ASIA (China, Cambodia, Asia + Minor); EUROPE (Greece, Italy, Sicily, France, Spain), + By A.L. FROTHINGHAM, Jr., 251 + + +No. 3. JULY-SEPTEMBER. + +I.--_NOTES OF EASTERN TRAVEL_, By JOHN P. PETERS, 325 + +II.--_THE TOPOGRAPHY OF SPARTA_, By NICHOLAS E. CROSBY, 335 + +III.--_THE NEATHERD IN THE ART OF THE MYCENÆAN PERIOD_, +By GEORGE B. HUSSEY, 374 + +IV.--_FASTIGIUM IN PLINY_, N.H. XXXV, 152, By HAROLD N. FOWLER, 381 + +V.--_PAPERS OF THE AMERICAN SCHOOL OF CLASSICAL STUDIES AT ATHENS_. + I.--_EXCAVATIONS IN THE THEATRE AT SICYON IN 1891_, + By M.L. EARLE, 388 + II.--_FURTHER EXCAVATIONS AT THE THEATRE OF SICYON IN 1891_, + By C.L. BROWNSON and C.H. YOUNG, 397 + + III.--_REPORT ON EXCAVATIONS AT SPARTA IN 1893_, + By CH. WALDSTEIN and Z.M. PATON, 429 + +VI.--_NOTES ON ROMAN ARTISTS OF THE MIDDLE AGES_. IV. _THE CLOISTER +OF THE LATERAN BASILICA_, By A.L. FROTHINGHAM, Jr., 437 + +VII.--_SOME INSCRIPTIONS FROM THE ORIENT_, By A.C. MERRIAM, 448 + + +REVIEWS AND NOTICES OF BOOKS. + CLASSICAL ARCHÆOLOGY, 456 + CHRISTIAN ARCHÆOLOGY, 461 + RENAISSANCE, 465 + + +No. 4. OCTOBER-DECEMBER. + +I.--_A HISTORY OF THE AKROPOLIS AT ATHENS_, By WALTER MlLLER, 473 + + +ARCHÆOLOGICAL NEWS. + AFRICA (Egypt, Algeria, Tunisia); ASIA (Hindustan, Thibet, China, + Central Asia, Western Asia, Babylonia, Assyria, Syria, Phœnicia, + Palestine); EUROPE (Italy), By A.L. FROTHINGHAM, Jr., 557 + +Page viii + + +ALPHABETICAL TABLE. + + +AMERICAN SCHOOL OF CLASSICAL STUDIES AT ATHENS, PAPERS OF: + I. The relation of the archaic pediment reliefs from the Akropolis + to vase painting, 28 + II. The frieze of the choragic monument of Lysikrates at Athens, 42 + III. Dionysus εν Λίμναις. 56 + IV. A Sepulchral inscription from Athens, 191 + V. Some Sculptures from the Argive Heræum, 199 + VI. Excavations at the Heræum of Argos, 205 + VII. Excavations in the Theatre at Sicyon in 1891, 388 + VIII. Further Excavations at the Theatre of Sicyon in 1891, 397 + IX. Report on Excavations at Sparta in 1893, 410 + X. Report on Excavations between Schenochori and Koutzopodi, + Argolis, in 1893, 429 + +ARCHÆOLOGICAL NEWS: + Abyssinia, 586 + Africa (Central), 254, 586 + Algeria, 113, 255, 588 + Arabia, 131, 602 + Armenia, 146 + Asia (Central), 128 + Asia (Western), 604 + Asia Minor, 147, 256 + Assyria, 609 + Babylonia, 181, 606 + Cambodia, 256 + Caucasus, 146 + China, 127, 256, 600 + Crete, 270 + Egypt, 91, 253, 557 + Ethiopia, 111 + France, 309 + Greece, 257 + Hindustan, 118, 589 + Italy, 272, 620 + Mongolia, 601 + Palestine, 614 + Persia, 134 + Sicily, 293 + Syria, 140, 610 + Thibet, 127, 598 + Tunisia, 114, 588 + +Page ix + +BATES (W.N., and F.B. Tarbell). Notes on the subjects of Greek + Temple Sculptures, 18 + +BESWICK (Samuel). Egyptian Chronology, 171 + +BROWNSON (Carleton L.). The relation of the archaic pediment reliefs + from the Akropolis to vase-painting, 28 + Excavations at the Heræum of Argos, 205 + (and C.H. Young). Further Excavations at the Theatre of Sicyon + in 1891, 397 + +CROSBY (Nicholas E.). The Topography of Sparta, 335 + +DE COU (Herbert F.). The frieze of the Choragic monument of + Lysikrates at Athens, 42 + +EARLE (M.L.). Excavations in the Theatre at Sicyon in 1891, 388 + +FOWLER (Harold N.). The temple of the Akropolis burnt by the Persians, + 1 + Fastigium in Pliny, N.H. XXXV, 152. 381 + Reviews and Notices of Books: + History of Art in Phrygia, Lydia, Caria and Lycia, by Perrot and + Chipiez; and History of Art in Persia, by the same, 239 + Excursions in Greece to recently explored sites, etc., by + Charles Diehl, 249 + +FROTHINGHAM (A.L., Jr.). Notes on the Roman Artists of the Middle + Ages, IV. The Cloister of the Lateran Basilica, 437 + Archæological News, 91, 251, 559 + +MARQUAND (Allan). Some unpublished monuments by Luca della Robbia, 153 + Correspondence: + Hunting Della Robbia monuments in Italy, 83 + Reviews and Notices of Books; + Histoire de la Sculpture Grecque, by Max Collignon, 87 + Griechische Götterideale, by Heinrich Brunn, 89 + +MEADER (C.L. and Ch. Waldstein). Report on Excavations at Sparta + in 1893, 410 + +MERCER (William). Correspondence: Montefalco in Umbria, 226 + +MERRIAM (A.C.). A series of Cypriote heads in the Metropolitan + Museum, 184 + Some inscriptions from the Orient, 448 + +MILLER (Walter). A History of the Akropolis of Athens, 473 + +PATON, (J.M. and Ch. Waldstein). Report on Excavations between + Schenochori and Koutzopodi, Argolis, in 1893, 429 + +PETERS (John P.). Notes of Eastern Travel, 325 + +PICKARD (John). Dionysus εν Λίμναις, 56 + +POLAND (Wm. Carey). A Sepulchral inscription from Athens, 191 + +TARBELL (Frank B. and W.N. Bates). Notes on the subjects of + Greek Temple Sculptures, 18 + Correspondence: + Letters from Greece, 230 + +WALDSTEIN (Charles). Some Sculptures from the Argive Heræum + (reprinted), 199 + +YOUNG (C.H. and C.L. Brownson). Further Excavations at the + Theatre of Sicyon in 1891, 397 + +Page x + + + +PLATES. + + +I.--The Typhon Pediment of the Akropolis, 28-41 + +II-III.--The frieze of the Choragic Monument of Lysikrates, 42-55 + +IV.--Terracotta Medallions of Or San Michele, by Luca della + Robbia, | + | +V.-- " " " " " " " | + | +VI.--Altar of the Holy Cross, Impruneta, |- 153-170 + | +VII.--Altar of the Madonna, " | + | +VIII.--Crucifixion Relief, " | + +IX.--Head of Hera, from the Argive Heræum, | + | +X.--Metope, " " " | + |- 199-225 +XI.--Heads and Sima, " " " | + | +XII.--Map of the Excavations at the Argive Heneum,| + +XIII.--Hyponomos and Stage of the Theatre, Sicyon, 388-409 + +XIV.--Cloister of S. John Lateran, Rome, 437-447 + +XV.--Plan of the Akropolis at Athens, | + | +XVI.--Sections of the Akropolis Excavations,| + |- 473-556 +XVII.--Herakles and the Old Man of the Sea, | + | +XVIII.--Figure of Athena from a pediment, | + + +Page xi + +FIGURES. + + +Bull on a Babylonian contract tablet, 190 + +Fac-simile of Sepulchral inscription from Athens, 192 + +General Sketch-plan of Sparta, 338 + +Sketch-plan of the Agora, Sparta, 341 + + " " Street called Apheta, Sparta, 345 + + " " Skias Street, Sparta, 349 + + " " Western part of Sparta, 354 + + " " Road from Booneta to Limnaion, Sparta, 365 + + " " Akropolis, Sparta, 368 + +Bull in a fresco at Tiryns, 374 + +Bull from tomb at Gizeh, Egypt, 376 + +Bull from Presse d'Avennes, 376 + +Egyptian vintage scene, Gizeh, 377 + +Bull on Vaphio Cup, 378 + +Hyponomos in the theatre at Sicyon, plans and sections, 389 + +End of conduit, etc., in theatre, Sicyon, 394 + +Two stone blocks, theatre, Sicyon, 406 + +Section of wall AA, Sicyon, 308 + +Plan of circular building, Sparta, 411 + +Section through wall, Sparta, 415 + +Enlarged plan of poros blocks, Sparta, 418 + +Some poros blocks in detail, Sparta, 420 + +View of walls, Sparta, 426 + +Plan of Excavations between Schenochori and Kontzopodi, 430 + +The Pelargikon restored, 489 + +The serpent (Echidna) in the poros pediment, Akropolis, Athens, 497 + +Page xii + +COPYRIGHT, 1893, BY A.L. FROTHINGHAM, JR., AND ALLAN MARQUAND. + +PRINCETON UNIVERSITY PRESS. + + +Page 1 + + + + + AMERICAN + JOURNAL OF ARCHÆOLOGY. + + +Vol. VIII. JANUARY-MARCH, 1893. No. I. + + + + THE TEMPLE ON THE ACROPOLIS BURNT BY THE PERSIANS. + + + The excavations conducted by the Greek Archæological Society at + Athens from 1883 to 1889 have laid bare the entire surface of + the Acropolis, and shed an unexpected light upon the early + history of Attic art. Many questions which once seemed + unanswerable are now definitively answered, and, on the other + hand, many new questions have been raised. When, in 1886, + Kabbadias and Dörpfeld unearthed the foundations of a great + temple close by the southern side of the Erechtheion, all + questions concerning the exact site, the ground-plan, and the + elevation of the great temple of Athena of the sixth century + B.C. were decided once for all.[1] On these points little or + nothing can be added to what has been done, and Dörpfeld's + results must be accepted as final and certain. + + [Footnote 1: DÖRPFELD, Preliminary Report, _Mitth. Ath._, X, p. + 275; Plans and restorations, _Antike Denkmäler_, I, pls. 1, 2; + Description and discussion, _Mitth. Ath._, XI, p. 337.] + + The history of the temple presents, however, several questions, + some of which seem still undecided. When was the temple built? + Was it all built at one time? Was it restored after its + destruction by the Persians? Did it continue in use after the + erection of the Parthenon? Was it in existence in the days of + Pausanias? Did Pausanias mention it in his description of the + Acropolis? Conflicting answers to nearly all of these questions +Page 2 have appeared since the discovery of the temple. Only the first + question has received one and the same answer from all. The + material and the technical execution of the peripteros, + entablature, _etc._, of the temple show conclusively that this + part, at least, was erected in the time of Peisistratos.[2] We + may therefore accept so much without further discussion. Of the + walls of the cella and opisthodomos nothing remains, but the + foundations of this part are made of the hard blue limestone of + the Acropolis, while the foundations of the outer part are of + reddish-gray limestone from the Peiraieus. The foundations of + the cella are also less accurately laid than those of the + peripteros. These differences lead Dörpfeld to assume that the + naos itself (the building contained within the peristyle) + existed before the time of Peisistratos, although he does not + deny the possibility that builders of one date may have + employed different materials and methods, as convenience or + economy dictated.[3] Positive proof is not to be hoped for in + the absence of the upper walls of the naos, but probability is + in favor of Dörpfeld's assumption, that the naos is older than + the peristyle, _etc._[4] It is further certain, that this + temple was called in the sixth century Β.C. το 'Εκατόμπεδον + (see below p. 9). So far, we have the most positive possible + evidence--that of the remains of the temple itself and the + inscription giving its name. The evidence regarding the + subsequent history of the temple is not so simple. + + [Footnote 2: DÖRPFELD, _Mitth. Ath._, XI, p. 349.] + + [Footnote 3: _Mitth. Ath._, XI, p. 345.] + + [Footnote 4: On the other hand, see PETERSEN, _Mitth. Ath._, + XII, p. 66.] + + Dörpfeld (_Mitth. Ath._, XII, p. 25 ff.) arrives at the + following conclusions: (1) The temple was restored after the + departure of the Persians; (2) it was injured by fire B.C. 406; + (3) it was repaired and continued in use; (4) it was seen and + described by Pausanias I. 24.3 in a lost passage. Let us take + up these points in inverse order. The passage of Pausanias + reads in our texts:--Λέλeκται δέ μοι καί πρότρον (17.1), ώς + Άθηναίοις περισσότερόν τι ή τοις άλλοις ές τα θειά εστι + σπουδης· πρώτοι μεν γαρ Άθηνάν έπωνόμασαν Έργάνην, πρωτοι δ' + άκώλους Έρμάς ... όμού δέ σφισιν εν τω ναώ Σπουδαίων δαίμων + εστίν. Dörpfeld marks a lacuna between Έρμάς and όμού, as do +Page 3 those editors who do not supply a recommendation. Dörpfeld, + however, thinks the gap is far greater than has been supposed, + including certainly the mention and probably the full + description of the temple under discussion. His reasons are in + substance about as follows: (1) Pausanias has reached a point + in his periegesis where he would naturally mention this temple, + because he is standing beside it,[5] and (2) the phrase όμου δέ + σφισιν εν τω ναω Σπουδαίων δαίμων eστίν implies that a temple + has just been mentioned. These are, at least, the main + arguments, those deduced from the passage following the + description of the Erechtheion being merely accessory. + + Now, if Pausanias followed precisely the route laid down for + him by Dörpfeld (_i.e._, if he described the two rows of + statues between the Propylaia and the eastern front of the + Parthenon, taking first the southern and then the northern + row), he would come to stand where Dörpfeld suggests. If, + however, he followed some other order (_e.g._, that suggested + by Wernicke, _Mitth._, XII, p. 187), he would not be where + Dörpfeld thinks. Pausanias does not say that the statues he + mentions are set up in two rows.[6] It may be that the + Acropolis was so thickly peopled with statues that each side of + the path was bordered with a double or triple row, or that the + statues were not arranged in rows at all, and that Pausanias + merely picks out from his memory (or his Polemon) a few + noticeable figures with only general reference to their + relative positions. Be this as it may, the assumption that + Pausanias, when he mentions the Σπουδαίων (or σπουδαιων?) + δαίμων, is standing, or imagines that he stands, beside the old + temple rests upon very slight foundations. + + [Footnote 5: DÖRPFELD'S arguments for the continued existence + of the temple, without which his theory that Pausanias + mentioned it must of course fall to the ground, will be + discussed below. It seemed to me advisable to discuss the + Pausanias question first, because, if he mentioned the temple, + it must have existed, if not to his time, at least to that of + Polemon or of his other (unknown) authority.] + + [Footnote 6: The most than can be deduced from the use of πέραν + (c. 24.1) is, that the statues were on both sides of the path.] + + Whether Pausanias, in what he says of Ergane, the legless + Hermæ, _etc._, is, as Wernicke (_Mitth._, XII, p. 185) would + have it, merely inserting a bit of misunderstood learning, is + of little moment. I am not one of those who picture to +Page 4 themselves Pausanias going about copying inscriptions, asking + questions, and forming his own judgments, referring only + occasionally to books when he wished to refresh his memory or + look up some matter of history. The labors of Kalkmann, + Wilamowitz, and others have shown conclusively, that a large + part of Pausanias' periegesis is adopted from the works of + previous writers, and adopted in some cases with little care by + a man of no very striking intellectual ability. It is + convenient to speak as if Pausanias visited all the places and + saw all the things he describes, but it is certain that he does + not mention all he must in that case have seen, and perhaps + possible that he describes things he never can have seen. + Whether Pausanias travelled about Greece and then wrote his + description with the aid (largely employed) of previous works, + or wrote it without travelling, makes little difference except + when it is important to know the exact topographical order of + objects mentioned. In any case, however, his accuracy in detail + is hardly to be accepted without question, especially in his + description of the Acropolis, where he has to try his prentice + hand upon a material far too great for him. A useless bit of + lore stupidly applied may not be an impossibility for + Pausanias, but, however low our opinion of his intellect may + be, he is the best we have,[7] and must be treated accordingly. + The passage about Ergane, _etc._, must not be simply cast aside + as misunderstood lore, but neither should it be enriched by + inserting the description of a temple together with the + state-treasury. The passage must be explained without doing + violence to the Ms. tradition. That this is possible has lately + been shown by A.W. Verrall.[8] He says: _'What Pausanias + actually says is this--:_ "The Athenians are specially + distinguished by religious zeal. The name of Ergane was first + given by them, and the name Hermæ; and in the temple along with + them is a Good Fortune of the Zealous"_--words which are quite + as apt for the meaning above explained_ (_i.e._, a note on the + piety of the Athenians) _as those of the author often are in + such cases.'_ + + [Footnote 7: I think it is F.G. WELCKEK to whom the saying is + attributed: _Pausanias ist ein Schaf, aber ein Schaf mit + goldenem Vliesse._] + + [Footnote 8: HARRISON and VERRALL, _Mythology and Monuments of + Athens_, p. 610. I am not sure that a colorless verb has not + fallen out after Έρμαs, though the assumption of a gap is not + strictly necessary, as Prof. Verrall shows.] + +Page 5 Whether we read Σπουδαίων δαίμων or σπουδαίων Δαίμων is, for + our purposes immaterial. In either case, Verrall is right in + calling attention to the connection between ες τα θεΐα σπουδή + and the δαίμων Σπουδαίων (σπουδαίων), a connection which is now + very striking, but which is utterly lost by inserting the + description of a temple. At this point, then, the temple is not + mentioned by Pausanias. + + But, if not at this point, perhaps elsewhere, for this also has + been tried. Miss Harrison[9] thinks the temple in question is + mentioned by Pausanias, c. 27.1. He has been describing the + Erechtheion, has just mentioned the old αγάλμα and the lamp of + Kallimachos, which were certainly in the Erechtheion,[10] and + continues: κειται δε εν τω ναω της πολιάδος Έρμης ξύλου, κτέ., + giving a list of anathemata, followed by the story of the + miraculous growth of the sacred olive after its destruction by + the Persians, and passing to the description of the Pandroseion + with the words, τω ναω δε της 'Αθηνάς Πανδρόσου ναός συνεχής + εστι. Miss Harrison thinks that, since Athena is Polias, the + ναός της πολιάδος and the ναός της 'Αθήνας are one and the + same, an opinion in which I heartily concur.[11] It remains to + be decided whether this temple is the newly discovered old + temple or the eastern cella of the Erechtheion. The passages + cited by Jahn-Michaelis[12] show that the old άγαλμα bore the + special appellation πολιάς, and we know that the old άγαλμα was + in the Erechtheion. That does not, to be sure, prove that the + Erechtheion was also called, in whole or in part ναός της + πολιάδος (or της 'Αθήνας), but it awakens suspicion to read of + an ancient άγαλμα which we know was called Polias, and which + was perhaps the Polias κατ' εξοχήν, and immediately after, with + no introduction or explanation, to read of a temple of Polias + in which that άγαλμα is not. Nothing is known of a statue in + the newly discovered old temple.[13] + + [Footnote 9: _Myth. and Mon. of Athens_, p. 608 ff.] + + [Footnote 10: _CIA._, I. 322, § 1 with the passage of + Pausanias.] + + [Footnote 11: DÖRPFELD (_Mitth._, XII, p. 58 f.) thinks the + ναός της πολιάδος is the eastern cella of the Erechtheion, the + ναός της 'Αθήνας the newly discovered old temple, but is + opposed by Petersen (see below) and Miss Harrison.] + + [Footnote 12: _Pausanias, Descr. Arcis Athen._, c. 26.6.35.] + + [Footnote 13: For LOLLING'S opposing opinion, see below.] + +Page 6 In the Erechtheion there was, then, a very ancient statue + called Polias; in the temple beside the Erechtheion was no + statue about which anything is known, and yet, according to + Miss Harrison, the new found "old temple" is the ναος της + πολιάδος, while the πολιάς in bodily form dwells next door. + That seems to me an untenable position. Again, the dog + mentioned by Philochoros[14] which went into the temple of + Polias, and, passing into the Pandroseion, lay down (δυσα εις + το πανδρόσειον ... κατέκειτο), can hardly have gone into the + temple alongside of the Erechtheion, because there was no means + of passing from the cella of that temple into the opisthodomos, + and in order to reach the Pandroseion the dog would have had to + come out from the temple by the door by which he entered it. + The fact that the dog went into this temple could have nothing + to do with his progress into the Pandroseion, whereas from the + eastern cella of the Erechtheion he could very well pass down + through the lower apartments and reach the Pandroseion. It + seems after all that when Pausanias says ναος της πολιάδος, he + means the eastern cella of the Erechtheion. But the ναος της + Αθηνας is also the Erechtheion, for E. Petersen has already + observed (_Mitth._ XII, p. 63) that, if the temple of Pandrosos + was συνεχης τω ναω της Αθηνας, the temple of Athena must be + identified with the Erechtheion, not with the temple beside it, + for the reason that the temple of Pandrosos, situated west of + the Erechtheion, cannot be συνεχής ("adjoining" in the strict + sense of the word) to the old temple, which stood upon the + higher level to the south. If Pausanias had wished to pass from + the Erechtheion to the temple of Athena standing(?) beside it, + the opening words of c. 26.6 (Ίερα μεν της Αθηνας εστiν η τε + αλλη πόλις κτέ.) would have formed the best possible + transition; but those words introduce the mention of the + ancient _αγαλμα_ which was in the Erechtheion. That Pausanias + then, without any warning, jumps into another temple of Athena, + is something of which even his detractors would hardly accuse + him, and I hope I have shown that he is innocent of that + offence. + + [Footnote 14: Frg. 146, JAHN-MICH., _Paus. Discr. Arcis. Ath._, + c. 27.2.8.] + + Pausanias, then, does not mention the temple under discussion. + + Xenophon (_Hell._ I. 6) says that, in the year 406 Β.C. ό + παλαιος ναος της Άθηνας ενεπρήσθη. Until recently this +page 7 statement was supposed to apply to the Erechtheion, called + "ancient temple" because it took the place of the original + temple of Athena, from which the great temple (the Parthenon) + was to be distinguished. Of course, the new _building_ of the + Erechtheion was not properly entitled to the epithet "ancient," + but as a _temple_ it could be called ancient, being regarded as + the original temple in renewed form. If, however, the newly + discovered temple was in existence alongside the Erechtheion in + 406, the expression παλαιoς ναός applied to the Erechtheion + would be confusing, for the other temple was a much older + _building_ than the Erechtheion. If the temple discovered in + 1886 existed in 406 B.C., it would be natural to suppose that + it was referred to by Xenophon as ό παλαιος ναός. But this + passage is not enough to prove that the temple existed in 406 + B.C. + + Demosthenes (xxiv, 136) speaks of a fire in the opisthodomos. + This is taken by Dörpfeld (_Mitth_., xii, p. 44) as a reference + to the opisthodomos of the temple under discussion, and this + fire is identified with the fire mentioned by Xenophon. But + hitherto the opisthodomos in question has been supposed to be + the rear part of the Parthenon, and there is no direct proof + that Demosthenes and Xenophon refer to the same fire. If the + temple discovered in 1886 existed in 406 B.C., it is highly + probable that the passages mentioned refer to it, but the + passages do not prove that it existed. + + It remains for us to sift the evidence for the existence of the + temple from the Persian War to 406 B.C. This has been collected + by Dörpfeld[15] and Lolling,[16] who agree in thinking that the + temple continued in existence throughout the fifth and fourth + centuries, however much their views differ in other respects. + But it seems to me that even thus much is not proved. I believe + that, after the departure of the Persians, the Athenians + partially restored the temple as soon as possible, because I do + not see how they could have got along without it, inasmuch as + it was used as the public treasury; but my belief, being + founded upon little or no positive evidence, does not claim the + force of proof. + + [Footnote 15: _Mitth._, XII, p. 25, ff.; 190 ff.; XV, p. 420, + ff.] + + [Footnote 16: Έκατόμπεδον in the periodical Άθηνα 1890, p. 628, + ff. The inscription there published appears also in the Δελτίον + Άρχαιολογικόν, 1890, p. 12, and its most important part is + copied, with some corrections, by Dörpfeld, XV, p. 421.] + +Page 8 Dörpfeld (XV, p. 424) says that the Persians left the walls of + the temple and the outer portico standing; that this is evident + from the present condition of the architraves, triglyphs and + cornices, which are built into the Acropolis wall. These + architectural members were ... taken from the building while it + still stood, and built into the northern wall of the + citadel. But, if the Athenians had wished to restore the temple + as quickly as possible, they would have left these members + where they were. It seems, at least, rather extravagant to take + them carefully away and then restore the temple without a + peristyle, for the restored building would probably need at + least cornices if not triglyphs or architraves; then why not + repair the old ones? It appears by no means impossible that, as + Lolling (p. 655) suggests, only a part of the temple was + restored.[17] Still more natural is the assumption, that the + Athenians carried off the whole temple while they were about + it. I do not, however, dare to proceed to this assumption, + because I do not know where the Athenians would have kept their + public monies if the entire building had been removed. Perhaps + part of the peristyle was so badly injured by the Persians that + it could not be repaired. At any rate, the Athenians intended + (as Dörpfeld, XII, p. 202, also believes) to remove the whole + building so soon as the great new temple should be completed. I + think they carried out their intention. + + [Footnote 17: LOLLING does not say how much of the temple was + restored; but, as he assumes the continuation of a worship + connected with the building, he would seem to imply that at + least part (and in that case, doubtless, the whole) of the + cella was restored, and he also maintains the continued + existence of the opisthodomos and the two small chambers. E. + CURTIUS, _Stadtgeschichte von Athen_, p. 132, believes that + only the western half of the temple was restored. DÖRPFELD, p. + 425, suggests the possibility that the entire building, even + the peristyle, was restored, and that the peristyle remained + until the erection of the Erechtheion.] + + This brings us to the discussion of the names and uses of the + various parts of the older temple and of the new one (the + Parthenon), the evidence for the continued existence of the + older temple being based upon the occurrence of these names in + inscriptions and elsewhere. As these matters have been fully + discussed by Dörpfeld and Lolling, I shall accept as facts + without further discussion all points which seem to me to have + been definitively settled by them. + +Page 9 Lolling, in the article referred to above, publishes an + inscription put together by him from forty-one fragments. It + belongs to the last quarter of the sixth century B.C., and + relates to the pre-Persian temple. Part of the inscription is + too fragmentary to admit of interpretation, but the meaning of + the greater part (republished by Dörpfeld) is clear at least in + a general way. The ταμίαι are to make a list of certain objects + on the Acropolis with certain exceptions. The servants of the + temple, priests, _etc_., are to follow certain rules or be + punished by fines. The ταμίαι are to open in person the doors + of the chambers in the temple. These rules would not concern us + except for the fact that the various parts of the building are + mentioned. The whole building is called το Έκατόμπεδον; parts + of it are the προνήϊον, the νεώς, the οικημα ταμιειον and τα + οίκήματα. There can be no doubt that these are respectively the + eastern porch, the main cella, the large western room and the + two smaller chambers of the pre-Persian temple. But most + important of all is the fact that the whole building was called + in the sixth century B.C. το Έκατόμπεδον. The word οπισθόδομος + does not occur in the inscription, and we cannot tell whether + the western half of the building was called opisthodomos in the + sixth century or not. Very likely it was. + + Lolling (p. 637) says: "No one, I think, will doubt that το + Έκατόμπεδον is the νεως ό Έκατόμπεδος often mentioned in the + inscriptions of the ταμίαι and elsewhere." If this is correct, + the eastern cella of the Parthenon cannot be the νεως ό + Έκατόμπεδος. Lolling maintains that the eastern cella of the + Parthenon was the _Parthenon_ proper, that the western room of + the Parthenon was the opisthodomos, and that the νεως ό + Έκατόμπεδος was the pre-Persian temple. Besides the official + name Έκατόμπεδον or νεως ό Έκατόμπεδος, Lolling thinks the + pre-Persian temple was also called αρχαιος (παλαιος) νεώς.[18] + Dörpfeld maintains that the western cella of the Parthenon was + the _Parthenon_ proper, the western part of the "old temple" +Page 10 was the opisthodomos, and the eastern cella of the Parthenon + was the _νεως ό Έκατόμπεδος_, leaving the question undecided + whether the "old temple" was still called _το Έκατόμπεδον_ in + the fifth century, but laying great stress upon the difference + in the expressions το Έκατόμπεδον and ό νεως ό Έκατόμπεδος.[19] + Both Lolling and Dörpfeld agree that the _πρόνεως_ of the + inscriptions of the fifth century is the porch of the + Parthenon.[20] + + [Footnote 18: LOLLING (p. 643) thinks the αρχαιος νεώς of the + inscriptions of the ταμίαι CIA, II, 753, 758 (_cf_. 650, 672) + is the old temple of Brauronian Artemis, because in the same + inscriptions the ἐπιστάται of Brauronian Artemis are mentioned. + This seems to me insufficient reason for assuming that αρχαιος + νεώς means sometimes one temple and sometimes another.] + + [Footnote 19: _Mitth._, xv, p. 427 ff.] + + [Footnote 20: LOLLING (p. 644) thinks the expression _εν τω νεω + τω Έκατόμπεδον_ could not be used of a part of a building of + which _πρόνεως_ and _Παρθενών_ were parts, _i.e._, that a part + of a temple could not be called _νεώς_. Yet in the inscription + published by Lolling the _προνέιον_ and the _νεώς_ are + mentioned in apparent contradistinction to _απαν το + Έκατόμπεδον_. It seems, as Dörpfeld says, only natural that the + _νεώς_ should belong to the same building as the _πρόνεως_.] + + Among the objects mentioned in the lists of treasure handed + over by one board of _ταμίαι_ to the next (_Ueberyab-Urkunden_ + or "transmission-lists") are parts of a statue of Athena with a + base and a _Νίκη_ and a, shield _εν τω Έκατόμπεδω_. The + material of this statue is gold and ivory. The only gold and + ivory statue of Athena on the Acropolis was, so far as is + known, the so-called _Parthenos_ of Pheidias. Those + inscriptions therefore prove that the Parthenos stood in the + Hekatompedos (or Hekatompedon); that is, that the eastern cella + of the Parthenon was called _Έκατόμπεδος (ον)_ in the fifth + century.[21] Certainly, if there had been a second + chryselephantine statue of Athena on the Acropolis, we should + know of its existence. + + [Footnote 21: This was shown by U. KÖHLER. _Mitth_., v, p. 89 + ff., and again by DÖRPFELD, xv, 480 ff, who quote the + inscriptions. LOLLING'S distinction between _το αγαλμα_ and _το + χρυσουν αγαλμα_ cannot be maintained. _cf. U. Köhler, + Sitzungsber, d. Berlin. Akad._, 1889, p. 223.] + + When the Athenians built the great western room of the + Parthenon, they certainly did not intend it to serve merely as + a store-room for the objects described in the + transmission-lists as _εν τω Παρθενωνι_ or _εκ του Παρθενωνος_, + these being mostly of little value or broken.[22] Now the + treasury of Athens was the opisthodomos, and the western room + of the Parthenon was, from the moment of the completion of the + building, the greatest opisthodomos in Athens. It is natural to +Page 11 regard this (with Lolling) as the opisthodomos where the + treasure was kept. This room was doubtless divided into three + parts by two partitions of some sort, probably of metal,[23] + running from the eastern and western wall to the nearest + columns and connecting the columns. This arrangement agrees + with the provision (_CIA_, I, 32) that the monies of Athena be + cared for έv τω έπι δεξια του όπισθοδόμου, those of the other + gods έv τω eπ' άριοτερά. Until the completion of the Parthenon, + the opisthodomos of the pre-Persian temple might properly be + _the_ opisthodomos κατ' εξοχήν, but so soon as the Parthenon + was finished, the new treasure-house would naturally usurp the + name as well as the functions of its predecessor. + + [Footnote 22: A general view of these transmission-lists may be + found at the back of MICHAELIS' _der Parthenon_: See also H. + LEHNER, _Ueber die attischen Schatzverzeichnisse des vierten + Jahrhunderts_ (which Lolling cites. I have not seen it.)] + + [Footnote 23: See plans of the Parthenon, for instance, the one + in the plan of the Acropolis accompanying Dörpfeld's article, + _Mitth._, XII, _Taf. 1_.] + + But, if the western room of the Periclean temple was the + opisthodomos, where was the Παρθενών proper? It cannot be + identical with the νεώς ό Έκατόμπεδος nor with the + opisthodomos, for the three appellations occur at the same date + evidently designating three different places. It would be + easier to tell where the Παρθενών proper was, if we knew why it + was called Παρθενών. The name was in all probability not + derived from the Parthenos, but rather the statue was named + from the _Parthenon_ after the latter appellation had been + extended to the whole building, for there is no evidence that + the great statue was called Parthenos from the first. Its + official title was, so far as is known, never Parthenos.[24] + The Parthenon was not so named because it contained the + Parthenos, but why it was so named we do not know. The πρόνεως + is certainly the front porch, the Έκατόμπεδος νεώς is certainly + the cella, 100 feet long, the οπισθόδομος is the rear apartment + (of some building, even if I have not made it seem probable + that it is the rear apartment of the Parthenon). These names + carry their explanation with them. But the name Παρθενών gives + us no information. It was a part of the great Periclean temple, + for the name was in later times applied to the whole building, + and the only part of the building not named is the western + porch. It is, however, incredible that the Athenians should use +Page 12 this porch, so prominently exposed to the eyes of every + sight-seer, as a storehouse for festival apparatus, _etc_. It + is more probable that the Παρθενών proper was within the walls + of the building but separated from the other parts in some way. + The middle division of the western room, separated by columns + and metal partitions from the treasury of Athena on the right + and that of the other gods on the left, was large enough and, + being directly in front of the western door, prominent enough, + to deserve a name of its own. If this room was the Παρθενών + proper, it is evident that a fire in the opisthodomos would + cause the Παρθενών to be emptied of its contents, which would + then naturally be inventoried as εκ του Παρθενώνος, while + another list could properly be headed εκ του οπισθοδομον + referring to the treasure-chambers.[25] The name Parthenon + might then be extended first to the entire western part of the + building and then to the whole edifice. This is not a _proof_ + that the Παρθενών was the central part of the western room of + the great temple. A complete proof is impossible. All I claim + is that this hypothesis fulfils all the necessary conditions. + + [Footnote 24: DÖRPFELD, XV, p. 480.] + + [Footnote 25: DÖRPFELD, XII, p. 203 f., argues that these + headings show that the treasure was moved after the fire of 406 + from the opisthodomos of the old temple into the Παρθενών + proper, which was emptied of its contents to make room. But the + explanation given above seems equally possible. Dörpfeld, + (Mitth., vi, p. 283, ff.) proved conclusively that the Παρθενών + was not the eastern cella of the Parthenon. His proof that it + was the great western room is based primarily upon the + assumption (p. 300) that _Der Name Opisthodom bezeichnet hei + alien Tempeln die dem Pronaos entsprechende Hinterhalle_. But + for that assumption the Παρθενών might just as well be the + western porch. Since the discovery of the pre-Persian temple, + however, Dörpfeld maintains that the opisthodomos κατ εξοχήν + was the entire western portion of that temple, consisting of + three rooms besides the porch (though he does not expressly + include the porch). There is, then, no reason in the nature of + things why the whole western part of the Parthenon should not + be called opisthodomos.] + + Let us now compare the nomenclature of the pre-Persian and + Periclean temples. Both were temples of Athena and more + especially of Athena as guardian of the city, Athena Polias; a + _pronaos_ or _proneion_ formed part of each; one temple was + called το Έκατόμεδον, and the main cella of the other was + called ό Έκατομπεδοs νεως[26], and this name was extended to + the whole building. An opisthodomos was a part of each +Page 13 building, and, if I was right in my observations above, the new + one, like the old, was called simply ο οπισθόδομος. As soon as + the great Periclean temple was completed, the temple burnt by + the Persians was quietly removed as had been intended from the + first, the treasure was deposited in the great new + opisthodomos, the old ceremonies which might still cling to the + temple of the sixth century were transferred, along with the + old names, to the splendid new building; the greatest temple on + the Acropolis was now as before the house of the patron goddess + of the land, and contained her treasure and that of her + faithful worshippers, but the two temples did not exist side by + side. There was, then, no reason for differentiating between + the two temples, as, for instance, by calling the one that had + been removed ό αρχαίος veas, because the one that had been + removed was no longer in existence. That the designation + αρχαίος (παλαιός) νεώς is applicable to the Erechtheion has + been accepted for many years and has been explained anew by + Petersen.[27] If the temple burnt by the Persians had continued + to exist alongside of the Parthenon, one might doubt whether it + or the Erechtheion was meant by the expression ό αρχαίος νεώς, + but if one of the two temples was no longer in existence, the + name must belong to the other. It is just possible that in + Hesychios, 'Εκατό μπεδος· νεώς ev τη άκροπόλεί τη Παρθενω + κατασκευασθείς υπό Αθηναίων, μείζων του εμπρησθεντος υπό των + Περσών ποσΐ πεντήκοντα, the expression του έμπρησθεντος υπό των + Περσών (yea or possibly 'Εκατόμπέδου νεώ) was originally chosen + because the expression αρχαίου νεώ (which would otherwise be + very appropriate here) was regularly used to designate the + Erechtheion.[28] + + [Footnote 26: Or το Έκατόμπεδον. Even after Dörpfeld's + arguments, I cannot believe that any great difference in the + use of the two expressions can be found.] + + [Footnote 27: _Mitth_., XII, p. 63 ff. Comparison of modern + with ancient instances is frequently misleading, but sometimes + furnishes a useful illustration. There is in Boston, Mass., a + church called the _Old South_ church. This became too small and + too inconvenient for its congregation, so a new church was + built in a distant part of the city. The intention then was to + destroy the old building, in which case the new one (though new + and in a different part of the city) would have been called the + Old South church. The old building was, however, preserved, and + the new one now goes by the name of the New Old South church, + though I have also heard it called the Old South in spite of + the continued existence of the old building. So the new + building of the Erechtheion retained the name άρχαιος νεως + which had belonged to its predecessor on the same spot.] + + [Footnote 28: LOLLING (p. 638 ff.) discusses the measurements + of the Parthenon and the old Hekatompedon, and finds a slight + inaccuracy in the statement of Hesychios. He thinks, however, + (p. 641) that Hesychios would not compare the two unless they + had both been standing at the same time. Possibly any + inaccuracy may be accounted for by the fact that the older + temple was no longer standing when the comparison was first + made. Possibly, too, the name Hekatompedon was not originally + meant to be taken quite literally, but rather, as Curtitis, + _Stadtgeschichte,_ p. 72, seems to think, as a proud + designation of a grand new building.] + +Page 14 At the end of his last article on this subject, Dörpfeld calls + attention to the fact that "not only the lower step + (_Unterstufe_) of the temple, but also a stone of the stylobate + are still in their old position, and several stylobate-stones + are still lying about upon the temple," and says that the whole + stylobate, with the exception of the part cut away by the + Erechtheion, must therefore have existed in Roman times. I do + not see why quite so much is to be assumed. Even granting that + we know the exact level of the surface of the Acropolis in + classical times at every point, we certainly do not know all + the objects--votive offerings and the like--set up in various + places. Some small part of the stylobate of the ruined temple + may have been used as a foundation for some group of statuary + or other offering,[29] or a fragment of the building itself may + have been left as a reminder to future generations of the + devastations of the barbarians. The existence of these stones + is called by Dörpfeld "a fact hitherto insufficiently + considered" (_eine bishеr nicht genügend beаchtete Thatsache_). + I cannot believe that the fact would have remained so long + "insufficiently considered" by Dörpfeld and others if it were + really in itself a sufficient proof that the pre-Persian temple + continued in existence until the end of ancient Athens. If I am + right in thinking that the temple did not exist during the last + centuries of classical antiquity, it must have ceased to exist + when the Parthenon was completed. Dörpfeld is certainly + justified in saying[30] that "he who concedes the continued +Page 15 existence of the temple until the end of the fourth century has + no right to let the temple disappear in silence later" (_darf + den Tempel nicht spater ohne weiteres verschwinden lassen_). + + [Footnote 29: Whether the present condition of the stone of the + stylobate still _in situ_ favors this conjecture, is for those + on the spot to decide. It looks in Dörpfeld's plans (_Ant. + Denkm.,_ ı, I, and _Mitth.,_ XI, p. 337) as if it had a hole in + it, such as are found in the pedestals of statues.] + + [Footnote 30: _Mitth.,_ xv, 438. This is directed against the + closing paragraph of Lolling's article, where he says: "We + cannot determine exactly when this (the removal of the temple) + happened, but it seems that the temple no longer existed in the + times of Plutarch," _etc._] + + In the above discussion I have purposely passed over some + points because I wished to confine myself to what was + necessary. So I have not reviewed in detail the passages + containing the expression άρχαίος (παλαίòς) νεώς, as they have + been sufficiently discussed by others. So, too, I have omitted + all mention of the μέγαρον τò πρòς έσπέραν τετραμμένον,[31] the + παραστάδες,[32] the passages in Homer,[33] Aristophanes,[34] + and some other writers, because these references and allusions, + being more or less uncertain or indefinite, may be (and have + been) explained, according to the wish of the interpreter, as + evidence for or against the continued existence of the temple + burnt by the Persians. Those who agree with me will interpret + the passages in question accordingly. + + To recapitulate briefly, I hope that I have shown: (1) that + Pausanias does not mention the temple excavated in 1886, and + (2) that the existence of that temple during the latter part of + the fifth and the fourth centuries is not proved. I believe + that the temple continued to exist in some form until the + completion of the Parthenon, but this belief is founded not so + much upon documentary evidence as upon the consideration that + the Athenians and their goddess must have had a treasure-house + during the time from the Persian invasion to the completion of + the Parthenon; especially after the treasure of the confederacy + of Delos was moved to Athens in 454 B.C. As soon, however, as + the Parthenon was completed, the temple burnt by the Persians + was removed. This was before the fire of 406 B.C. The fire, + therefore, injured, as has been supposed hitherto, the + Erechtheion. The opisthodomos, which was injured by fire at + some time not definitely ascertained (but probably not very far + from the date of the fire in the Erechtheion), was the + opisthodomos of the Parthenon. + + [Footnote 31: HEROD, v, 77.] + + [Footnote 32: _CIA_, II, 733, 735, 708.] + + [Footnote 33: _Od._, VII. 80 f.; _Il._, II. 546 ff. _Mitth._, + XII, pp. 26, 62, 207.] + + [Footnote 34: PLUT., 1191 ff. _cf. Mitth._, XII., pp. 69, 206.] + + It will, I hope, be observed, that I do not claim to have + _proved_ the non-existence of the earlier temple after the + completion of the Parthenon. All I claim is that its existence +Page 16 is not proved. Now if, as I hope I have shown, the temple is + not mentioned by Pausanias,[35] and there is no reasonable + likelihood of its silent disappearance between 435 B.C. and the + time of Pausanias, the probabilities are in favor of its + disappearance about 435 B.C., when it was supplanted by the + Parthenon. No one, however, would welcome more gladly than I + any further evidence either for or against its continued + existence. + + HAROLD N. FOWLER. + + _Exeter, New Hampshire_, March, 1892. + + [Footnote 35: The fact that Pausanias does not mention this + temple is not a certain proof that he might not have seen it, + for he fails to mention other things that certainly existed in + his day. This temple, however, if it then existed, must have + been in marked contrast to almost every other building in the + Acropolis, and would have had special attractions for a person + of Pausanias' archæological tastes.] + + + POSTSCRIPT.--This article had already left my hands when I + received the _Journal of Hellenic Studies_ (XII. 2), containing + an article by Mr. Penrose, _On the Ancient Hecatompedon which + occupied the site of the Parthenon on the Acropolis of Athens_. + Mr. Penrose contends that the old Hekatompedon was a temple of + unusual length in proportion to its width, that it stood on the + site of the Parthenon, and was built 100 years or more before + the Persian invasion. He thinks, too, that the Doric + architectural members built into the Acropolis-wall, which are + referred by Dörpfeld to the archaic temple beside the + Erechtheion, belonged to the building on the site of the + Parthenon. He is led to these assumptions chiefly by masons' + marks on some of the stones of the sub-structure of the + Parthenon. He holds it "as incontrovertible that the marks have + reference to the building on which they are found." The + distances between these marks offer certain numerical relations + which must, Mr. Penrose thinks, correspond to some of the + dimensions of the building to which the marks refer. "If they + had reference to the Parthenon, they would have shown a number + of exact coincidences with the important sub-divisions of the + temple." Of these coincidences Mr. Penrose has found but three, + which he considers fortuitous. As accessory arguments he + adduces the condition of the filling in to the south of the +Page 17 Parthenon, and the absence of old architectural material in the + sub-structure of the Parthenon, _etc_. He seems, however, to + rest his case chiefly upon the masons' marks. + + I cannot even attempt to discuss this new theory in detail, but + would mention one or two things which seem to tell against Mr. + Penrose's view. The inscription published by Lolling mentions + an _οίκημα ταμιείον_ and _οίκήματα_ as parts of the + Hekatompedon, and such apartments evidently existed in the + temple beside the Erechtheion. Mr. Penrose assumes that the + temple beside the Erechtheion antedates his Hekatompedon, + without regard to the fact that the use of the stone employed + in the outer foundations of the archaic temple points to a much + later period. The archaic temple was (at least approximately) + 100 feet long, which makes it seem almost impossible that a new + temple should be built on the Acropolis and called the + Hundred-foot-temple (Hekatompedon). I cannot avoid attaching + more importance to these considerations than to the arguments + advanced by Mr. Penrose. It may be, however, that answers to + these and other objections will be found. + + If Mr. Penrose's theory is correct, it is evident that the old + Hekatompedon must have ceased to exist before the building of + the Parthenon. Whether the archaic temple excavated in 1886 + continued to exist or not is, then, another matter. My main + contention (that there is no good reason for assuming the + continued existence through the fifth and fourth centuries B.C. + of the archaic temple) is not affected by Mr. Penrose's theory, + and I leave my arguments, such as they are, for the + consideration alike of those who do and who do not agree with + Mr. Penrose. Much of my article will appear irrelevant to the + former class, but, as Mr. Penrose's views may not be at once + generally accepted, it is as well to leave the discussion of + previous theories as it was before the appearance of Mr. + Penrose's article. + + Η. Ν. F. + + + NOTE.--For a discussion of Mr. Penrose's theories and + conclusions, see now (Nov. 1892), Dörpfeld, _Ath. Mitth.,_ + XVII, pp. 158, ff. + +Page 18 + + + NOTES ON THE SUBJECTS OF GREEK TEMPLE + SCULPTURES. + + + The following compilation is intended to present in compact + form the evidence at present available on this question: How + far did the Greeks choose, for the sculptured decorations of a + temple, subjects connected with the principal divinity or + divinities worshiped in that temple? We have omitted some + examples of sculpture in very exceptional situations, _e.g._, + the sculptured drums of the sixth century and fourth century + temples of Artemis at Ephesos. Acroteria have also been + omitted. But we have attempted to include every Greek temple + known to have had pediment-figures or sculptured metopes or + frieze, and have thus, for the sake of completeness, registered + some examples which are valueless for the main question. The + groups from Delos, attributed on their first discovery to the + pediments of the Apollon-temple, have been proved by + Furtwängler to have been acroteria (_Arch, Zeitung_, 1882, p. + 336 ff.) It does not appear that Lebas had any good grounds for + attributing to a temple the relief found by him at Rhamnus + (_Voyage archéologique Monuments figurés_, No. 19,) and now in + Munich. The frieze from Priene representing a gigantomachy was + not a part of the temple there (Wolters, _Jahrbuch des + deutschen arch. Instituts_, I, pp. 56, ff.) The Poseidon and + Amphitrite frieze in Munich (Brunn, _Beschreibung der + Glyptothek_, No. 115) has been, by some, taken for a piece of + temple decoration, but is too doubtful an example to be + catalogued. The statement of Pausanias (II. 11. 8) about the + pediment-sculptures (_τà έν τοίς àετοίς_) of the Asklepieion at + Titane is hopelessly inadequate and perhaps inaccurate. + + The order of arrangement in the following table is roughly + chronological, absolute precision being impossible. Ionic +Page 19 temples are designated by a prefixed asterisk, the one + Corinthian by a dagger. The others are Doric, and, in the ease + of these, "Sculptures of the Exterior Frieze" refers, of + course, to sculptured metopes. + + It has not been our purpose to discuss at length the + conclusions to be drawn from this evidence. Briefly, the + results may be summarized as follows: + + The principal sculpture (_i.e._, sculpture of the principal + pediment, or, in the absence of pediment-sculpture, the frieze + in the most important situation) included the figure of the + temple divinity, generally in central position, in the + following numbers: [A] 7, 8, 9, 11, 13, 16, 18, 19, 26. If 12, + 14 and 32 had no pediment-sculptures, they should be added; + probably also 33 and 34. In 30 the subject of the + pediment-sculpture, if correctly divined by Conze, was, at any + rate, closely related to the temple-divinities. + + [Footnote A: In counting the Aigina temple we commit + deliberately a _circulus in probando_.] + + The principal sculpture apparently did not include or + especially refer to the temple-divinity in the following: 20, + 24, 25. Practice would seem to have become somewhat relaxed + after about 425 B.C. The very singular temple of Assos, (No. + 5), though earlier, should perhaps be added. + + The temple-divinity was represented in the western pediments of + 7, 13 and perhaps of 20, but not of that in 9, 11, 24 (?) or + 25. + + The subjects of sculptured metopes and friezes were largely or + wholly without obvious relation to the temple-divinity in the + following: 1, 5, 9, 11, 12, 14, 1.9, 23, 29, 32. + + P.B. TARBELL. + W.N. BATES. + +Page 20 + + + PLACE. DIVINITY. DATE. PEDIMENT-SCULPTURES. + + B.C. +1 Selinous Apollon (?) _ca._ 625 + (Temple C) + +2 Selinous _ca._ 625 + +3 Athens _ca._ 600 E.: (?) Zeus fighting Typhon; + (Acropolis) Herakles fighting + serpent. + W. (?): Herakles fighting + Triton; Kerkopes(?) + +4 Athens _ca._ 600 E. (?): Herakles fighting + (Acropolis) Hydra. + W. (?): Herakles fighting + Triton. + +5 Assos VI cent. (?) + +6 Metapontum Apollon VI cent. (?) Subject unknown + +7 Aigina Athena _ca._ 530 (?) E. & W.: Combats of + Greeks and Trojans; + Athena in centre. + +8 Athens Athena _ca._ 530 (?) E. (?): Gigantomachy, + (Acropolis) including Athena (in + centre?) + +9 Delphi Apollon VI cent. after E.: Apollon, Artemis, + 548 Leto, Muses. + W.: Dionysos, Thyiads, + Setting Sun, _etc._ + +10 Selinous VI cent. + (Temple F) + +11 Olympia Zeus _ca._ 460 E.: Preparations for + chariot-race of Pelops + and Oinomaos; + Zeus as arbiter in + centre. + W.: Centauromachy; + Apollon (?) in centre. +Page 21 + OTHER + SCULPTURES OF EXTERIOR FRIEZE SCULPTURED DECORATIONS. + +1 E.: in centre, two quadrigae + with unidentified figs., also + Perseus slaying Medusa, Herakles + carrying Kerkopes, _etc._ + W.: Subjects unknown. + +2 Europa on bull, winged sphinx, + _etc._ + +3 + + +4 + + +5 E. (and W.?): Pair of sphinxes, Exterior architrave: pairs + Centaur, wild hog, man pursuing of sphinxes in centre of E. & + woman, two men in combat, W. fronts (?), Herakles and + _etc._ Triton, Herakles and Centaurs, + symposium, combats + of animals. + + +6 + +7 None. + +8 + + +9 Herakles killing Hydra, Bellerophon + killing Chimaera, + combats of gods and giants, + _etc._ + +10 E.: Scenes from Gigantomachy. + +11 12 metopes over columns and + antæ of pronaos and opisthodomos: + labors of Herakles. +Page 22 + +=================================================================== + | PLACE. | DIVINITY. | DATE. |PEDIMENT-SCULPTURES. +---+-----------+-----------+-----------+--------------------------- + | | | B.C. | + | Selinous | Hera (?) |ca. 450 (?)| + 12| (Temple E)| | | + | | | | + | | | | + | | | | + | | | | + 13| Athens | Athena |ca. 445-438|E.: Birth of Athena. + |(Acropolis)| | |W.: Contest of Athena + | | | | and Poseidon for Attika. + | | | | + | | | | + | | | | + 14| Sunjon | Athena |ca. 435 (?)| + | | | | + | | | | + | | | | + 15| Athens | |ca. 435 (?)|E. & W.: Lost; subjects + | | | |unknown. + | | | | + | | | | + | | | | +*16| Athens | Athena | ca. 432 |None + |(Acropolis)| Nike | | + | | | | + 17| Kroton | Hera | V cent., |Undescribed. + | | | 2d half | + 18| Agrigentum| Zeus | V cent., | + | | | before 405| + 19| Bassae | Apollon |ca. 425 (?)|None. + | | | | + | | | | + | | | | + | | | | + | | | | + +Page 23 + +=================================================================== + |SCULPTURES OF EXTERIOR FRIEZE| OTHER SCULPTURED DECORATIONS. +---+-----------------------------+--------------------------------- + | | + 12| None. |Metopes over pronaos: Herakles + | | and Amazon, Zeus and + | | Hera, Artemis and Aktaion, + | | etc. + | |Metopes over opisthodomos: + | | Athena and Enkelados, _etc._ + 13|E.: Gigantomachy; Athena |Ionic frieze around cella, + | over central | pronaos and opisthodomos: + | intercolumniation. | Panathenaic procession. + |W.: Amazonomachy. | + |S.: Centauromachy and seven | + | scenes from Iliupersis. | + |N.: Iliupersis and nine | + | scenes from Centauromachy. | + 14| |Ionic frieze on four inner sides + | | of E. vestibule, between + | | pronaos and outer columns: + | | Gigantomachy, including + | | Athena over entrance to + | | pronaos (?), Centauromachy, + | | exploits of Theseus. + 15|E.: Labors of Herakles. |Ionic frieze over pronaos + |N. & S., at E. end (four | and across pteroma: battle + | metopes on each side): | scene. + | exploits of Theseus. |Ionic frieze over opisthodomos, + | | Centauromachy. +*16|E.: assemblage of gods, | + | Athena in centre. | + |N. W. S.: battle-scenes. | + 17| | + | | + 18|E.: Gigantomachy. | + |W.: Iliupersis. | + 19|None. |Metopes over pronaos: Apolline + | | and Dionysiac scenes. + | | Interior cella-frieze: + | | Amazonomachy, Centauromachy + | | (Apollon and Artemis + | | represented.) + +Page 24 + +=================================================================== + | PLACE. | DIVINITY. | DATE. |PEDIMENT-SCULPTURES. +---+-----------+-----------+-----------+--------------------------- + | | | B.C. | + 20| near Argos| Hera | ca. 420. |E.: Birth of Zeus (?) + | | | |W.: Battle of Greeks + | | | | and Trojans. (?) +*21| Athens |Erechtheus | 420-408 |None. + |(Acropolis)| | | +*22| Locri | | V cent., |E.: Lost. + |Epizephyrii| |latter part|W.: Subject unknown, + | | | | including Dioscuri (?) +*23|Samothrace | Cabiri | ca. 400 | + 24| Tegea | Athena | IV cent., |E.: Calydonian boar-hunt + | | Alea |first half | (no divinity + | | | | represented.) + | | | |W.: Contest of Telephos + | | | | and Achilles. + 25| Epidauros | Asklepios |ca. 375 (?)|E.: Centauromachy. + | | | |W.: Amazonomachy. + 26| Thebes | Herakles |ca. 370 (?)|Labors of Herakles. +*27| Ephesos | Artemis | ca. 330 | +*28| Troad | Apollon | III cent. | + | | Smintheus | | +*29| Magnesia | Artemis | III cent. | + 30|Samothrace | Cabiri | III cent. |N.: Demeter seeking + | | | III cent. | Persephone (?) +*31| Lagina | Hekate | | + 32| Ilium | Athena (?)|II cent.(?)| + | Novum | | | + | | | | +*33| Teos | Dionysos |Roman times| +*34| Knidos |Dionysos(?)|Roman times| + +Page 25 + +=================================================================== + |SCULPTURES OF EXTERIOR FRIEZE| OTHER SCULPTURED DECORATIONS. +---+-----------------------------+--------------------------------- + | | + 20|E.: Gigantomachy (?) | + |W.: Iliupersis (?) | + | | +*21|Uninterpreted. | + | | +*22| | + | | + | | +*23|Dancing women. | + 24| | + | | + | | + | | + | | + 25| | + | | + 26| | +*27|Mythological scenes. | +*28|Scenes of combat. | + | | +*29|Amazonomachy. | + 30| | + | | +*31|Subjects unknown. | + 32|Helios in chariot, Athena and| + | Enkelados, other scenes of | + | combat. | +*33|Dionysiac procession. | +*34|Dionysiac scenes, etc. | + +Page 26 + + [Note 1: BENNDORF, _Metopen von Selinunt_, pp. 38-50; + SERRADIFALCO, _Antichità di Sicilia_, II, p. 16.] + + [Note 2: _Μonumenti Antichi_, I, p. 950 ff.] + + [Note 3: BRÜCKNER, _Athenische Mittheilungen_, 1889, pp. 67 + ff.; 1890, pp. 84 ff.] + + [Note 4: MEIER, _Ath. Mitth._, 1885, pp. 237 ff., 322 ff.] + + [Note 5: CLARAC, _Musée de Sculpture_, II, pp. 1149 ff.; + CLARKE, _Report on Investigations at Assos_, pp. 105-121. This + temple has been usually assigned to the sixth century. Mr. + Clarke brings it down to about the middle of the fifth. His + arguments have not yet been published in full.] + + [Note 6: LACAVA, _Topografia e Storia di Metaponto_, p. 81.] + + [Note 7: Since the inscription which was at one time supposed + to fix the divinity of this temple has been disposed of by + LOLLING, in _Arch. Zeitung_, XXXI (1874, p. 58), the designation + given above rests solely on the prominence given to Athena in + the pediment-sculptures. As for the date, the building is + assigned by Dörpfeld to the sixth cent. (_Olympia_, _Textband_ + II, p. 20). The pediment-sculptures might be later, but are now + confidently carried by STUDNICZKA (_Ath. Mitth._, 1886, pp. + 197-8) some decades back in the sixth century.] + + [Note 8: STUDNICZKA, _Ath. Mitth._, 1886. pp. 185, ff.; MAYER, + _Giganten and Titanen_, pp. 290-91. According to DÖRPFELD, the + metopes of this temple, or some of them, may have been + sculptured.] + + [Note 9: PAUS., X, 19. 4. EURIP., _Ion_, 184 ff. The temple + seems to have been long in building. If AISCH, _contra Cles._, + § 116, is to be believed, the dedication did not take place + till after 479. According to Pausanias, the pediment-sculptures + were the work of Praxias and Androsthenes. These sculptures + have been generally supposed to have been executed about 424, + but may have been considerably earlier, so far as Pausanias + goes to show. The excavations now in progress will, it is to be + hoped, clear up the whole subject.] + + [Note 10: BENNDORF, _op. cit._, pp. 50-52.] + + [Note 11: PAUS., V., 10. 6-9. For the date, see DÖRPFELD, + _Olympia_, _Textband_ II, pp. 19 ff. FLASCH, in Baumeister's + _Denkmäler_, pp. 1098-1100.] + + [Note 12: BENNDORF, _op. cit._, pp. 53-60. The attribution of + the temple to Hera rests on the dubious ground of a single + votive inscription to Hera found within the cella; _op. cit._, + p. 34.] + + [Note 13: PAUS., I. 24. 5; MICHAELIS, _Der Parthenon_, pp. + 107-265; ROBERT, _Arch. Zeit_, 1884, pp. 47-58; MAYER, + _Giganten and Titanen_, pp. 366-370.] + + [Note 14: FABRICIUS, _Ath. Mitth._, 1884, 338 ff.; for the + date, DÖRPFELD, _ibid._ p. 336.] + + [Note 15: The so-called Theseion.] + + [Note 16: ROSS, _Temple der Nike Apteros_, pls. 11-12; + FRIEDERICHS, _Bausteine_, (ed. Wolters) Nos. 747-760. On the + date, see WOLTERS, _Bonger Studien Reinhard Kekulé gewidmet_, + pp. 92-101.] + + [Note 17: _Eighth Annual Report of the Archæological Institute + of America_, pp. 42 ff.] + + [Note 18: DIOD. SIC., XIII. 82. It is disputed whether Diodoros + speaks of pediment-sculptures or metopes; see PETERSEN, _Kunst + des Pheidias_, p. 208, Note 4. Nothing can be made of the + existing fragments; published by SERRADIFALCO, _Antichità di + Sicilia_, III, pl. 25.] + + [Note 19: COCKERELL. _Temples of Aegina and Bassae_, pp. 49-50, + 52.] + + [Note 20: PAUS, II. 17. 3. The distribution of subjects given + above is that proposed by Dr. Waldstein, in the light of the +Page 27 discoveries made on the site of the Heraion under his direction + in the spring of 1892. See Thirteenth _Annual Report of the + Archæological Institute of America_, p. 64.] + + [Note 21: FRIEDERICHS, Bausteine (ed. Wolters) Nos. 812-820. On + the date see MICHAELIS, Ath. Mitth., 1889, pp. 349 ff.] + + [Note 22: _Notiziz degli Scavi_, 1890, pp. 255-57; PETERSEN, + _Bull, dell' Istituto_, 1890, pp. 201-27.] + + [Note 23: CONZE, _etc., Arch. Untersuchungen auf Samothrake_, + II, pp. 13-14, 23-25.] + + [Note 24: PAUS., VIII. 45. 4-7; TREU, Ath. Mitth., 1881, pp. + 393-423; WEIL, in Baumeister's Denkmäler, 1666-69.] + + [Note 25: Έφημερίς Άρχαιολογική, 1884, pp. 49-60; 1885, pp. + 41-44. For the date see FOUCART, _Bull, de corr. hellén._, + 1890, pp. 589-92.] + + [Note 26: PAUS., IX. 11. 4. The date given above conforms to + the view of BRUNN, _Sitzungsber. d. Münch. Akademie_, 1880, pp. + 435 ff.] + + [Note 27: WOOD, _Discoveries at Ephesus_, p. 271.] + + [Note 28: _Antiquities of Ionia_, IV. p. 46. Mr. Pullan is + inclined to date the temple after Alexander; Prof. Middleton + somewhat earlier (_Smith's, Dict, of Antiq._, 3d ed.,] II, p. + 785). + + [Note 29: CLARAC, _Musée de Sculpture_, II, pp. 1193-1233; pls. + 117 C-J. Additional pieces of the frieze have recently been + found in the course of excavations conducted by the German + Archæological Institute. The date given above for the building + is that suggested by DÖRPFELD, _Ath. Mitth._, 1891, pp. 264-5. + Most of the sculpture is generally regarded as of much later + date.] + + [Note 30: CONZE, _etc._, _Untersuchungen auf Samothrake_, I, + pp. 24-7, 43-4.] + + [Note 3: NEWTON, _Discoveries at Halicarnassus_, _etc._, II, + pp. 554-67.] + + [Note 32: MAYER, _Giganten und Titanen_, pp. 370-71.] + + [Note 33: _Antiquities of Ionia_, IV, pp. 38-9.] + + [Note 34: NEWTON, _Discoveries at Halicarnassus_, _etc._, II, + pp. 449-50, 633.] + +Page 28 + + PAPERS OF THE AMERICAN SCHOOL OF CLASSICAL + STUDIES AT ATHENS. + + THE RELATION OF THE ARCHAIC PEDIMENT + RELIEFS FROM THE ACROPOLIS TO + VASE-PAINTING. + + [PLATE I.] + + + From one point of view it is a misfortune in the study of + archæology that, with the progress of excavation, fresh + discoveries are continually being made. If only the evidence of + the facts were all in, the case might be summed up and a final + judgment pronounced on points in dispute. As it is, the ablest + scholar must feel cautious about expressing a decided opinion; + for the whole fabric of his argument may be overturned any day + by the unearthing of a fragment of pottery or a sculptured + head. Years ago, it was easy to demonstrate the absurdity of + any theory of polychrome decoration. The few who dared to + believe that the Greek temple was not in every part as white as + the original marble subjected themselves to the pitying scorn + of their fellows. Only the discoveries of recent years have + brought proof too positive to be gainsaid. The process of + unlearning and throwing over old and cherished notions is + always hard; perhaps it has been especially so in archæology. + + The thorough investigation of the soil and rock of the + Acropolis lately finished by the Greek Government has brought + to light so much that is new and strange that definite + explanations and conclusions are still far away. The + pediment-reliefs in poros which now occupy the second and third + rooms of the Acropolis Museum have already been somewhat fully + treated, especially in their architectural bearings. Dr. +Page 29 Brückner of the German Institute has written a full monograph + on the subject,[36] and it has also been fully treated by + Lechat in the _Revue Archeologique_.[37] Shorter papers have + appeared in the _Mittheilungen_ by Studniczka[38] and P.J. + Meier.[39] Dr. Waldstein in a recent peripatetic lecture + suggested a new point of view in the connection between these + reliefs and Greek vase-paintings. It is this suggestion that I + have tried to follow out. + + The groups in question are too well known to need a detailed + description here. The first,[40] in a fairly good state of + preservation, represents Herakles in his conflict with the + Hydra, and at the left Iolaos, his charioteer, as a spectator. + Corresponding to this, is the second group,[41] with Herakles + overpowering the Triton; but the whole of this is so damaged + that it is scarcely recognizable. Then there are two larger + pediments in much higher relief, the one[42] repeating the + scene of Herakles and the Triton, the other[43] representing + the three-headed Typhon in conflict, as supposed, with Zeus. + All four of these groups have been reconstructed from a great + number of fragments. Many more pieces which are to be seen in + these two rooms of the Museum surely belonged to the original + works, though their relations and position cannot be + determined. The circumstances of their discovery between the + south supporting-wall of the Parthenon and Kimon's inner + Acropolis wall make it certain that we are dealing with + pre-Persian art. It is quite as certain, in spite of the + fragmentary condition of the remains, that they were pedimental + compositions and the earliest of the kind yet known. + + [Footnote 36: _Mitth. deutsch. arch. Inst. Athen._, XIV, p. 67; + XV, p. 84.] + + [Footnote 37: _Rev. Arch._, XVII, p. 304; XVIII, pp. 12, 137.] + + [Footnote 38: _Mitth. Athen._, XI, p. 61.] + + [Footnote 39: X, pp. 237, 322. _Cf. Studniczka_, _Jahrbuch + deutsch. arch. Inst._, I, p. 87; _Purgold_, _Έφημερίς + Άρχαιολογική_, 1884, p. 147, 1885, p. 234.] + + [Footnote 40: _Mitth. Athen._, X, cut opposite p. 237; + _Έφημερίς_, 1884, πίναξ 7.] + + [Footnote 41: _Mitth. Athen._, XI, _Taf._ II.] + + [Footnote 42: _Idem_, XV, _Taf._ II.] + + [Footnote 43: _Idem_, XIV, _Taf._ II, III.] + + The first question which presents itself in the present + consideration is: Why should these pedimental groups follow + vase paintings? We might say that in vases we have practically + the first products of Greek art; and further we might show + resemblances, more or less material, between these archaic + reliefs and vase pictures. But the proof of any connection + between the two would still be wanting. Here the discoveries +Page 30 made by the Germans at Olympia and confirmed by later + researches in Sicily and Magna Graecia, are of the utmost + importance.[44] In the Byzantine west wall at Olympia were + found great numbers of painted terracotta plates[45] which + examination proved to have covered the cornices of the Geloan + Treasury. They were fastened to the stone by iron nails, the + distance between the nail-holes in terracottas and cornice + blocks corresponding exactly. The fact that the stone, where + covered, was only roughly worked made the connection still more + sure. These plates were used on the cornice of the long side, + and bounded the pediment space above and below. The + corresponding cyma was of the same material and similarly + decorated. + + It seems surprising that such a terracotta sheathing should be + applied on a structure of stone. For a wooden building, on the + other hand, it would be altogether natural. It was possible to + protect wooden columns, architraves and triglyphs from the + weather by means of a wide cornice. But the cornice itself + could not but be exposed, and so this means of protection was + devised. Of course no visible proof of all this is at hand in + the shape of wooden temples yet remaining. But Dr. Dörpfeld's + demonstration[46] removes all possible doubt. Pausanias[47] + tells us that in the Heraion at Olympia there was still + preserved in his day an old wooden column. Now from the same + temple no trace of architrave, triglyph or cornice has been + found; a fact that is true of no other building in Olympia and + seems to make it certain that here wood never was replaced by + stone. When temples came to be built of stone, it seems that + this plan of terracotta covering was retained for a time, + partly from habit, partly because of its fine decorative + effect. But it was soon found that marble was capable of + withstanding the wear of weather and that the ornament could be + applied to it directly by painting. + + [Footnote 44: I follow closely Dr. Dörpfeld's account and + explanation of these discoveries in _Ausgrabungen zu Olympia_, + v, 30 _seq_. See also _Programm zum Winckelmannsfeste_, Berlin, + 1881. _Ueber die Verwendung Terracotten_, by Messrs. DÖRPFELD, + GRÄBER, BORRMANN, and SIEBOLD.] + + [Footnote 45: Reproduced in _Ausgrabungen zu Olympia_, V, + _Taf._ XXXIV. BAUMEISTER, _Denkmäler des klassischen + Altertums_, _Taf._ XLV. RAYET et COLLIGNON, _Histoire de la + Céramique Grecque_, pl. XV.] + + [Footnote 46: _Historische und philologische Aufsätze_, _Ernst + Cartius gewidmet_. Berlin, 1884, p. 137 _seq_.] + + [Footnote 47: V, 20. 6.] + +Page 31 In order to carry the investigation a step further Messrs. + Dörpfeld, Gräber, Borrmann and Siebold undertook a journey to + Gela and the neighboring cities of Sicily and Magna + Graecia.[48] The results of this journey were most + satisfactory. Not only in Gela, but in Syracuse, Selinous, + Akrai, Kroton, Metapontum and Paestum, precisely similar + terracottas were found to have been employed in the same way. + Furthermore just such cyma pieces have been discovered + belonging to other structures in Olympia and amid the + pre-Persian ruins on the Acropolis of Athens. It is not yet + proven that this method of decoration was universal or even + widespread in Greece; but of course the fragile nature of + terracotta and the fact that it was employed only in the oldest + structures, would make discoveries rare. + + Another important argument is furnished by the certain use of + terracotta plates as acroteria. Pausanias[49] mentions such + acroteria on the Stoa Basileios on the agora of Athens. + Pliny[50] says that such works existed down to his day, and + speaks of their great antiquity. Fortunately a notable example + has been preserved in the acroterium of the gable of the + Heraion at Olympia,[51] a great disk of clay over seven feet in + diameter. It forms a part, says Dr. Dörpfeld, of the oldest + artistic roof construction that has remained to us from Greek + antiquity. That is, the original material of the acroteria was + the same used in the whole covering of the roof, namely + terracotta. The gargoyles also, which later were always of + stone, were originally of terracotta. Further we find reliefs + in terracotta pierced with nail-holes and evidently intended + for the covering of various wooden objects; sometimes, it is + safe to say, for wooden sarcophagi. Here appears clearly the + connection that these works may have had with the later reliefs + in marble. + + To make now a definite application, it is evident that the + connection between vase-paintings and painted terracottas must + from the nature of the case be a very close one. But when these + terracottas are found to reproduce throughout the exact designs + and figures of vase-paintings, the line between the two fades + away. All the most familiar ornaments of vase technic recur +Page 32 again and again, maeanders, palmettes, lotuses, the scale and + lattice-work patterns, the bar-and-tooth ornament, besides + spirals of all descriptions. In exception, also, the parallel + is quite as close. In the great acroterium of the Heraion, for + example, the surface was first covered with a dark varnish-like + coating on which the drawing was incised down to the original + clay. Then the outlines were filled in black, red and white. + Here the bearing becomes clear of an incidental remark of + Pausanias in his description of Olympia. He says (v. 10.): εν + δε Ολυμπια (of the Zeus temple) λεβης επιχρυσος επι 'εκαστω του + οροφου τω περατι επικειται. That is originally aeroteria were + only vases set up at the apex and on the end of the gable. + Naturally enough the later terracottas would keep close to the + old tradition. + + [Footnote 48: _Cf. supra, Programm zum Winckelmannsfeste_.] + + [Footnote 49: I, 3. 1.] + + [Footnote 50: His. Nat., xxxv, 158.] + + [Footnote 51: _Ausgrabungen zu Olympia_, v, 35 and _Taf_. + XXXIV.] + + It is interesting also to find relief-work in terracotta as + well as painting on a plane surface. An example where color and + relief thus unite, which comes from a temple in Caere,[52] + might very well have been copied from a vase design. It + represents a female face in relief, as occurs so often in Greek + pottery, surrounded by an ornament of lotus, maeander and + palmette. Such a raised surface is far from unusual; and we + seem to find here an intermediate stage between painting and + sculpture. The step is indeed a slight one. A terracotta + figurine[53] from Tarentum helps to make the connection + complete. It is moulded fully in the round, but by way of + adornment, in close agreement with the tradition of + vase-painting, the head is wreathed with rosettes and crowned + by a single palmette. So these smaller covering plates just + spoken of, which were devoted to minor uses, recall continually + not only the identical manner of representation but the + identical scenes of vase paintings,--such favorite subjects, to + cite only one example, as the meeting of Agamemnon's children + at his tomb. + + [Footnote 52: _Arch. Zeitung_, xxix, 1872, _Taf._ 41; RAYET et + COLLIGNON, _Hist. Céram. Grecque_, fig. 143.] + + [Footnote 53: _Arch. Zeitung_, 1882, _Taf._ 13.] + + From this point of view, it does not seem impossible that + pedimental groups might have fallen under the influence of vase + technic. The whole architectural adornment of the oldest temple + was of pottery. It covered the cornice of the sides, completely +Page 33 bounded the pedimental space, above and below, and finally + crowned the whole structure in the acroteria. It would surely + be strange if the pedimental group, framed in this way by vase + designs, were in no way influenced by them. The painted + decoration of these terracottas is that of the bounding friezes + in vase-pictures. The vase-painter employs them to frame and + set off the central scene. Might not the same end have been + served by the terracottas on the temple, with reference to the + scene within the typanum? We must remember, also, that at this + early time the sculptor's art was in its infancy while painting + and the ceramic art had reached a considerable development. + Even if all analogy did not lead the other way, an artist would + shrink from trying to fill up a pediment with statues in the + round. The most natural method was also the easiest for him. + + On the question of the original character of the pedimental + group, the Heraion at Olympia, probably the oldest Greek + columnar structure known, furnishes important light. Pausanias + says nothing whatever of any pedimental figures. Of course his + silence does not prove that there were none; but with all the + finds of acroteria, terracottas and the like, no trace of any + such sculptures was discovered. The inference seems certain + that the pedimental decoration, if present at all, was either + of wood or of terracotta, or was merely painted on a smooth + surface. The weight of authority inclines to the last view. It + is held that, if artists had become accustomed to carving + pedimental groups in wood, the first examples that we have in + stone would not show so great inability to deal with the + conditions of pedimental composition. If ever the tympanum was + simply painted or filled with a group in terracotta, it is easy + to see why the fashion died and why consequently we can bring + forward no direct proof to-day. It was simply that only figures + in the round can satisfy the requirements of a pedimental + composition. The strong shadows thrown by the cornice, the + distance from the spectator, and the height, must combine to + confuse the lines of a scene painted on a plane surface, or + even of a low relief. So soon as this was discovered and so + soon as the art of sculpture found itself able to supply the + want, a new period in pedimental decoration began. + + Literary evidence to support this theory of the origin of + pediment sculpture is not lacking. Pliny says in his Natural +Page 34 History (xxxv. 156.): _Laudat_ (Varro) _et Pasitelen + qui plasticen matrem caelaturæ et statuariæ sculpturaeque dixit + et cum esset in omnibus his summus nihil unquam fecit antequam + finxit_. Also (xxxiv. 35.): _Similitudines exprimendi quae + prima fuerit origo, in ea quam plasticen Graeci vocant dici + convenientius erit, etenim prior quam statuaria fuit_. In both + these cases the meaning of "plasticen" is clearly working, that + is, moulding, in clay. Pliny, again (xxxv. 152.), tells us of + the Corinthian Butades: _Butadis inventum est rubricam addere + aut ex rubra creta fingere, primusque personas tegularum + extremis imbricibus inposuit, quae inter initia prostypa + vocavit, postea idem ectypa fecit. hinc et fastigia templorum + orta_. The phrase _hinc et fastigia templorum orla_, has been + bracketed by some editors because they could not believe the + fact which it stated. _Fastigia_ may from the whole connection + and the Latin mean "pediments." This is quite in accord with + the famous passage in Pindar,[54] attributing to the + Corinthians the invention of pedimental composition. Here then + we have stated approximately the conclusion which seems at + least probable on other grounds, namely, that the tympanum of + the pediment was originally filled with a group in terracotta, + beyond doubt painted and in low relief. + + [Footnote 54: _Olymp._, XIII, 21.] + + But if we assume that the pedimental group could have + originated in this way, we must be prepared to explain the + course of its development up to the pediments of Aegina and the + Parthenon, in which we find an entirely different principle, + namely, the filling of these tympana with figures in the round. + It is maintained by some scholars, notably by Koepp,[55] that + no connection can be established between high relief and low + relief, much less between statues entirely in the round and low + relief. High relief follows all the principles of sculpture, + while low relief may almost be considered as a branch of the + painter's art. But this view seems opposed to the evidence of + the facts. For there still exists a continuous series of + pedimental groups, first in low relief then in high relief, and + finally standing altogether free from the background, and + becoming sculpture in the round. Examples in low relief are the + Hydra pediment from the Acropolis and the pediment of the +Page 35 Megarian Treasury at Olympia, which, on artistic grounds, can + be set down as the two earliest now in existence. Then follow, + in order of time and development, the Triton and Typhon + pediments, in high relief, from the Acropolis; and after these + the idea of relief is lost, and the pediment becomes merely a + space destined to be adorned with statuary. Can we reasonably + believe that the Hydra and Triton pediments, standing side by + side on the Acropolis, so close to each other in time and in + technic, owe their origin to entirely different motives, merely + for the reason that the figures of one stand further out from + the background than those of the other? Is it not easier to + suppose that the higher reliefs, as they follow the older low + reliefs in time, are developed from them, than to assume that + just at the dividing-line a new principle came into operation? + + [Footnote 55: _Jahrbuch deutschen archäol. Instituts_, II, + 118.] + + It is a commonplace to say that sculpture in relief is only one + branch of painting. Conze[56] publishes a sepulchral monument + which seems to him to mark the first stage of growth. The + surface of the figure and that of the surrounding ground remain + the same; they are separated only by a shallow incised line. + Conze says of it; "The tracing of the outline is no more than, + and is in fact exactly the same as, the tracing employed by the + Greek vase-painter when he outlined his figure with a brush + full of black paint before he filled in with black the ground + about it." The next step naturally is to cut away the surface + outside and beyond the figures; the representation is still a + picture except in the clearer marking of the bounding-line. The + entire further growth and development of the Greek relief is in + the direction of rounding these lines and of detaching the + relief more and more from the back surface. This primitive + picturesque method of treatment is found as well in high relief + as in low. How then can the process of development be different + for the two? I quote from Friedrichs-Wolters[57] on the metopes + of the temple of Apollon at Selinous, which are distinctly in + high relief: "The relief of these works stands very near to the + origin of relief-style. The surface of the figures is kept flat + throughout, although the effort to represent them in their full +Page 36 roundness is not to be mistaken. Only later were relief-figures + rounded on the front and sides after the manner of free + figures. Originally, whether in high or in low relief, they + were flat forms, modelled for the plane surface whose ornament + they were to be." As the sculptured works were brought out + further and further from the background, this background tended + to disappear. It was no longer a distinctly marked surface on + which the figures were projected, but now higher and now lower, + serving only to hold the figures together. When this point was + reached, the entire separation of the figures from one another + and from the background, became easy. That is, the change in + conception is an easy step by which the relief was lost and + free-standing figures substituted. This process of change was + especially rapid in pedimental groups, for the reason stated + above. The pediment field from its architectonic conditions was + never suited to decoration in relief. But we find from the + works before us that such a system was at least attempted, that + painting and an increased projection of relief were employed as + aids. We are bound to seek a logical explanation of the facts + and of their bearing on the later history of art, and it is + safer to assume a process of regular development than a series + of anomalous changes. Koepp (_cf. supra_), for example, assumes + that these two pediments in low relief are simply exceptions to + the general rule, accounting for them by the fact that it was + difficult to work out high reliefs from the poros stone of + which they were made. He seems to forget that the higher + reliefs from the Acropolis are of the same poros. This material + in fact appears to have been chosen by the artist because it + was almost as easy to incise and carve as the wood and clay to + which he had been accustomed. The monuments of later Greek art + give no hint of a distinction to be drawn between high and low + relief. We find on the same stele figures barely attached to + the ground, and others in mere outline. If then there are + reasons for finding the origin of pedimental decoration in a + plane or low-relief composition of terracotta, made more + effective both by a framing of like material and technic, and + by the acroteria at either extremity and above, then the + process of development which leads at length to the pediments + at Aegina and the Parthenon becomes at once easy and natural. + We note first the change from terracotta to a low painted +Page 37 relief in stone, then this relief becomes, from the necessities + of the case, higher and higher until finally it gives place to + free figures. + + [Footnote 56: _Das Relief bei den Griechen. Sitzungs-Berichte + der Berliner Akademie_, 1882, 567.] + + [Footnote 57: _Gipsabgüsse antiker Bilderwerke_, Nos. 149-151.] + + If ceramic art really did exert such an influence on + temple-sculpture, we should be able to trace analogies in other + lines. The most interesting is found in the design and + execution of sepulchral monuments. Milchhoefer[58] is of the + opinion that the tomb was not originally marked by an upright + slab with sculptured figures. He finds what he thinks the + oldest representation of sepulchral ornament in a black-figured + vase of the so-called "prothesis" class.[59] Here are two women + weeping about a sepulchral mound on which rests an amphora of + like form to the one that bears the scene. He maintains then + that such a prothesis vase was the first sepulchral monument, + that this was later replaced by a vase of the same description + in marble, of course on account of the fragile nature of + pottery. For this reason, too, we find no certain proof of the + fact in the old tombs, though Dr. Wolters[60] thinks that the + discovery of fragments of vases on undisturbed tombs makes the + case a very strong one. The use of such vases or urns of marble + for this purpose became very prevalent. They are nearly always + without ornament, save for a single small group, in relief or + sometimes in color, representing the dead and the bereaved + ones. A very evident connecting-link between these urns and the + later sepulchral stele appears in monuments which show just + such urns projected in relief upon a plane surface. The relief + is sometimes bounded by the outlines of the urn itself,[61] + sometimes a surrounding background is indicated. In many cases + this background assumes the form of the ordinary sepulchral + stele. The Central Museum at Athens is especially rich in + examples of this kind. On two steles which I have noticed + there, three urns are represented side by side. A still more + interesting specimen is a stone so divided that its lower part + is occupied by an urn in relief, above which is sculptured the +Page 38 usual scene of parting. This scene has its normal place as a + relief or a drawing in color on the surface of the urn itself; + here, where the step in advance of choosing the plane stele to + bear the relief seems already taken, the strength of tradition + still asserts itself, and a similar group is repeated on the + rounded face of the urn below. The transition to the more + common form of sepulchral monument has now become easy; but the + characteristics which point to its genesis in the funeral vase + are still prominent. + + [Footnote 58: _Mitth. Athen._, v, 164.] + + [Footnote 59: _Monumenti dell' Inst._, viii, _tav._ v. 1. + _g.h._: found near Cape Kolias; at present in the Polytechnic + Museum at Athens.] + + [Footnote 60: _Attische Grabvasen_, a paper read before the + German Institute in Athens, Dec. 9, 1890.] + + [Footnote 61: Examples are Nos. 2099 and 2100 in the archaic + room of the Louvre. I remember having seen nothing similar in + any other European museum.] + + This process of development, so far as can be judged from + existing types, reaches down to the beginning of the fourth + century B.C. Steles of a different class are found, dating from + a period long before this. Instead of a group, they bear only + the dead man in a way to suggest his position, or vocation + during life. All show distinctly a clinging to the technic of + ceramic art. Sculptured steles and others merely painted exist + side by side. The best known of the latter class is the Lyseas + stele, in the Central Museum at Athens. Many more of the same + sort have been discovered, differing from their vase + predecessors in material and form, but keeping to the old + principles. The outlines, for example, are first incised, and + then the picture is finished with color. The Aristion stele may + be taken as an example of the second order. Relief plays here + the leading part; but it must still be assisted by painting, + while the resemblance to vase-figures in position, arrangement + of clothing, proportion and profile, remains as close as in the + simply painted stele. An ever present feature, also, is the + palmette acroterium, treated in conventional ceramic style. + Loeschke thinks that the origin of red-figured pottery is to be + found in the dark ground and light coloring of these steles. + Whether the opinion be correct or not, it points to a very + close connection between the two forms of art. + + The influence of ceramic decoration spread still further. Large + numbers of steles and bases for votive offerings have been + discovered on the Acropolis, which alike repeat over and over + again conventional vase-patterns, and show the use of incised + lines and other peculiarities of the technic of pottery.[62] + + [Footnote 62: BORRMANN, _Jahrbuch des Instituts_, III, 274.] + + As to specific resemblances between the pediments of the + Acropolis and vase-pictures, the subjects of all the groups are +Page 39 such as appear very frequently on vases of all periods. About + seventy Attic vases are known which deal with the contest of + Herakles and Triton. One of these is a hydria at present in the + Berlin Museum, No. 1906.[63] Herakles is represented astride + the Triton, and he clasps him with both arms as in the + Acropolis group. The Triton's scaly length, his fins and tail, + are drawn in quite the same way. It is very noticeable that on + the vase the contortions of the Triton's body seem much more + violent; here the sculptor could not well follow the + vase-painter so closely. It was far easier for him to work out + the figure in milder curves; but he followed the vase-type as + closely as possible. On the other hand, if the potter had + copied the pedimental group the copy could perfectly well have + been an exact one. The group is very similar also to a scene in + the Assos frieze, with regard to which I quote from + Friedrichs-Wolters;[64] "It corresponds to the oldest Greek + vase-paintings, in which we find beast fights borrowed from + Oriental art, united with Greek myths and represented after the + Greek manner." This frieze is ascribed to the sixth century + B.C., and is not much later than our pediments. + + For the Hydra pediment, there exists a still closer parallel, + in an archaic Corinthian amphora, published by Gerhard.[65] + Athena appears here as a spectator, though she has no part in + the pedimental group; but in every other point, in the drawing + of the Hydra, of Herakles and Iolaos, the identity is almost + complete. Athena seems to have been omitted, because the artist + found it difficult to introduce another figure in the narrow + space. Evidently the vase must have represented a type known to + the sculptor and copied by him. + + [Footnote 63: Published by GERHARD, _Auserlesene griechische + Vasenbilder_, No. 111; RAYET et COLLIGNON, _Hist. Céram. + Grecque_. fig. 57, p. 125. In the National Museum at Naples, + No. 3419, is a black-figured amphora which repeats the same + scene. The drawing and position of the two contestants is just + as on the Berlin vase, the Triton seeking with one hand to + break Herakles' hold about his neck, while with the other he + holds a fish as attribute. Athena stands close by, watching the + struggle.] + + [Footnote 64: _Gipsabgüsse antiker Bildwerke_, Nos. 8-12.] + + [Footnote 65: _Auserlesene Vasenbilder_, Nos. 95, 96.] + + For the Typhon pediment, no such close analogies are possible, + at least in the form and arrangement of figures. It would seem + that this is so simply because no vase-picture of this subject +Page 40 that we know so far answers the conditions of a pedimental + group that it could be used as a pattern. In matters of detail, + a hydria in Munich, No. 125,[66] offers the best illustration. + For example, the vase-painting and the relief show quite the + same treatment of hair, beard and wings in the figure of + Typhon. + + Speaking more generally, we find continually in the pediments + reminiscences of ceramic drawing and treatment. The acroteria, + painted in black and red on the natural surface of poros stone, + take the shape of palmettes and lotuses. The cornices above and + below are of clay or poros, painted in just such designs as + appear on the Olympian terracottas; and these designs are + frequently repeated in the sculptures themselves. The feathers + of Typhon's wings are conventionally represented by a + scale-pattern; the arc of the scales has been drawn with + compass; we observe still the hole left in the centre by the + leg of the compass. The larger pinions at the ends of the wings + have been outlined, regularly by incised lines, and then filled + up with color. All this is as like the treatment of + vase-figures, as it unlike anything else in plastic art. In the + former the scale-pattern is used conventionally to denote + almost anything. Fragments of vases found on the Acropolis + itself picture wings in just this way; or it may be Athena's + aegis, the fleece of a sheep or the earth's surface that is so + represented. On the body of the Triton and the Echidna of the + pediments no attempt is made to indicate movement and + contortion by the position of the scales; it is everywhere the + lifeless conventionality of archaic vase-drawing. In sculptured + representations the scale device is dropped, and with it the + rigid regularity in the ordering of the pinions. Further, in + drawing the scales of the Triton, the artist has dropped usual + patterns and copied exactly a so-called bar-ornament which + decorates the cornice just over the pediment. Here again he + chooses one of the most common motives on vases. For the body + of the Echidna, on the other hand, it is the so-called + lattice-work pattern which represents the scale covering,--a + pattern employed in vases for the most varied purposes, and + found on the earliest Cypriote pottery. Even the roll of the + snake-bodies of Typhon seems to follow a conventional spiral + which we find on old Rhodian ware. + + [Footnote 66: _Ibid._, No. 287.] + +Page 41 The outlining and coloring of the figures is most interesting. + The poros stone of the reliefs is so soft that it could easily + be worked with a knife; so incised lines are constantly used, + and regular geometrical designs traced. Quite an assortment of + colors is employed: black, white, red, dark brown, apparent + green, and in the Typhon group, blue. It is very noticeable + that these reliefs, unlike the others which in general furnish + the closest analogies, the metopes of the temple at Selinous + and the pediment of the Megarian Treasury at Olympia, have the + ground unpainted. This is distinctly after the manner of the + oldest Greek pottery and of archaic wall paintings. Herein they + resemble also another archaic pedimental relief, found near the + old temple of Dionysos at Athens, and representing just such a + procession of satyrs and mænads as appears so often on vases. + + To give a local habitation to the class of pottery which most + nearly influenced the artist of these reliefs, is not easy. + Perhaps it is a reasonable conjecture to make it Kamiros of + Rhodes. Kamiros ware shows just such an admixture of oriental + and geometrical designs as characterizes our pediments. Strange + monsters of all kinds are represented there; while in the + reliefs before us a goodly number of such monsters are + translated to Greek soil. + + CARLETON L. BROWNSON. + American School of Classical Studies, + Athens, Nov. 10, 1891. + +Page 42 + + + PAPERS OF THE AMERICAN SCHOOL OF CLASSICAL + STUDIES AT ATHENS. + THE FRIEZE OF THE CHORAGIC MONUMENT OF + LYSIKRATES AT ATHENS.[67] + + [PLATE II-III.] + + + The small circular Corinthian edifice, called among the common + people the Lantern of Diogenes,[68] and erected, as we know + from the inscription[69] on the architrave, to commemorate a + choragic victory won by Lysikrates, son of Lysitheides, with a + boy-chorus of the tribe Akamantis, in the archonship of + Euainetos (B.C. 335/4), has long been one of the most familiar + of the lesser remains of ancient Athens. The monument was + originally crowned by the tripod which was the prize of the + successful chorus, and it doubtless was one of many buildings + of similar character along the famous "Street of Tripods." [70] + It is the aim of this paper to show, that the earliest + publications of the sculptured reliefs on this monument have + given a faulty representation of them, owing to the + transposition of two sets of figures; that this mistake has + been repeated in most subsequent publications down to our day; + that inferences deduced therefrom have in so far been vitiated; + and that new instructive facts concerning Greek composition in + sculpture can be derived from a corrected rendering of the + original. + + [Footnote 67: It is a pleasure to acknowledge my obligations to + the Director of the School, Dr. Waldstein, who has kindly + assisted me in the preparation of this paper by personal + suggestions.] + + [Footnote 68: This does not exclude the tolerably well-attested + fact, that the name "Lantern of Diogenes" formerly belonged to + another similar building near by, which had disappeared by + 1676.] + + [Footnote 69: _C._ 1. _G._ 221.] + + [Footnote 70: _Cf._ PAUS., I, 20, 1.] + + Although we are not now concerned either with the subsequent + fortunes of the monument arid the story of its preservation, or +Page 43 with its architectural features and the various attempts which + have been made to restore the original design, it may be + convenient to recall briefly a few of the more important facts + pertaining to these questions. The Monument of Lysikrates first + became an object of antiquarian interest in 1669, when it was + purchased by the Capuchin monks, whose mission had succeeded + that of the Jesuits in 1658, and it was partially enclosed in + their _hospitium_.[71] The first attempt to explain its purpose + and meaning was made by a Prussian soldier, Johann Georg + Transfeldt, who, after escaping from slavery in the latter part + of 1674, fled to Athens, where he lived for more than a + year.[72] Transfeldt deciphered the inscription, but was unable + to decide whether the building was a "_templum Demosthenis_" or + a "_Gymnasium a Lysicrate * * * exstructum propter juventutem + Atheniensem ex tribu Acamantia_." [73] Much more important for + the interpretation of the monument was the visit of Dr. Jacob + Spon of Lyons, who arrived at Athens early in the year 1676. + Spon also read the inscription,[74] and, from a comparison with + other similar inscriptions, determined the true purpose of + edifices of this class.[75] Finally the first volume of Stuart + and Revett's _Antiquities of Athens_, which appeared in 1762, + confirmed, corrected and extended Spon's results. Careful and + exhaustive drawings accompanied the description of the + monument. + + In the latter part of the eighteenth and the early part of the + nineteenth century, Athens was visited by many strangers from + western Europe, and the hospitable convent of the Capuchins and + the enclosed "Lantern," which at this time was used as a closet + for books, acquired some notoriety. Late in the year 1821, + however, during the occupation of Athens by the Turkish troops + under Omer Vrioni, the convent was accidentally burned, and its + most precious treasure was liberated, to be sure, but, as may + still be seen, sadly damaged by the fire, and what was still + more unfortunate, left unprotected and exposed to the + destructive mischief of Athenian street-arabs and their less + innocent elders. + + [Footnote 71: SPON, _Voyage_, II, p. 244; LABORDE, _Athènes_, + I, p. 75 and note 2.] + + [Footnote 72: MICHAELIS, _Mitth. Athen_., I, p. 103. ] + + [Footnote 73: _Mitth. Athen._, I, p. 114.] + + [Footnote 74: SPON, III, 2, p. 21 f. ] + + [Footnote 75: SPON, II, p. 174.] + + Aside from some slight repairs and the clearing away of + rubbish, the monument remained in this condition until 1867, +Page 44 when the French Minister at Athens, M. de Gobineau, acting on + behalf of his government, into whose possession the site of the + former monastery had fallen, employed the architect Boulanger + to make such restorations as were necessary to save the + monument from falling to pieces.[76] At the same time the last + remains of the old convent were removed, and some measures + taken to prevent further injury to the ruin. Repairs were again + being made under the direction of the French School at Athens, + when I left Greece, in April, 1892. + + For the architectural study of the monument of Lysikrates + little has been done since Stuart's time. In the year 1845 and + in 1859, the architect Theoph. Hansen made a new series of + drawings from the monument, and upon them based a restoration + which differs somewhat from that of Stuart, especially in the + decoration of the roof. This work is discussed in the monograph + of Von Lützow.[77] + + Confining our attention to the sculptures of the frieze, we + will examine certain inaccuracies of detail which have hitherto + prevailed in the treatment of this important landmark in the + history of decorative reliefs of the fourth century. The + frieze, carved in low relief upon a single block of marble, + runs continuously around the entire circumference of the + structure. Its height is only .012 m. (lower, rectangular + moulding) + .23 m. (between mouldings) + .015 m. (upper, + rounded moulding).[78] It is to be noticed that the figures + rest upon the lower moulding, while they are often (in fourteen + cases) carried to the top of the upper moulding. + + [Footnote 76: VON LÜTZOW, _Zeitschr für bildende Kunst_, III, + pp. 23, 236 f.] + + [Footnote 77: Pp. 239 ff., 264 ff. For another restoration of + the roof _cf._ SEMPER, _Der Stil_, vol. II, p. 242.] + + [Footnote 78: My own measurements.] + + The question as to the subject of the relief was a sore puzzle + to the early travellers. Père Babin finds "_des dieux + marins_";[79] Transfeldt, "_varias gymnasticorum figuras_," + which he thought represented certain games held "_in Aegena + insula_" in honor of Demosthenes.[80] Vernon (1676), who + regarded the monument as a temple of Hercules, sees his labors + depicted in the sculptures of the frieze.[81] Spon, while not + accepting this view, admitted that some, at least, of the acts + of Herakles were represented; so that the building, apart from +Page 45 its monumental purpose, might also have been sacred to that + deity.[82] To Stuart and Revett[83] is due the credit of being + the first to recognize in these reliefs the story of Dionysos + and the pirates, which is told first in the Homeric Hymn to + Dionysos. In the Homeric version, Dionysos, in the guise of a + fair youth with dark locks and purple mantle, appears by the + seashore, when he is espied by Tyrrhenian pirates, who seize + him and hale him on board their ship, hoping to obtain a rich + ransom. But when they proceed to bind him the fetters fall from + his limbs, whereupon the pilot, recognizing his divinity, + vainly endeavors to dissuade his comrades from their purpose. + Soon the ship flows with wine; then a vine with hanging + clusters stretches along the sail-top, and the mast is entwined + with ivy. Too late the marauders perceive their error and try + to head for the shore; but straightway the god assumes the form + of a lion and drives them, all save the pious pilot, + terror-stricken into the sea, where they become dolphins. + + [Footnote 79: WACHSMUTH, _Die Stadt Athen_, I, p. 757.] + + [Footnote 80: _Mitth. Athen._, I, p. 113.] + + [Footnote 81: LABORDE, I, pp. 249 f.] + + [Footnote 82: SPON, II, p. 175.] + + [Footnote 83: I, p. 27.] + + In the principal post-Homeric versions, the Tyrrhenians + endeavor to kidnap Dionysos under pretext of conveying him to + Naxos, the circumstances being variously related. Thus in the + Ναξίακά of Aglaosthenes (_apud_ HYGIN. Poet. Astronom. II. 17), + the child Dionysos and his companions are to be taken to the + nymphs, his nurses. According to Ovid,[84] the pirates find the + god on the shore of Chios, stupid with sleep and wine, and + bring him on board their vessel. On awaking he desires to be + conveyed to Naxos, but the pirates turn to the left, whereupon, + as they give no heed to his remonstrances, they are changed to + dolphins and leap into the sea. Similarly Servius, _Ad. Verg. + Aen._, I. 67. In the _Fabulæ_ of Hyginus (CXXXIV), and in + Pseudo-Apollodorus,[85] Dionysos engages passage with the + Tyrrhenians. Nonnus, however, returns to the Homeric story, + which he has modified, extended, and embellished in his own + peculiar way.[86] These versions, to which may be added that of + Seneca,[87] all agree in making the scene take place on + shipboard, and, if we except the "comites" of Aglaosthenes, in + none of them is the god accompanied by a retinue of satyrs. But + Philostratus[88] pretends to describe a painting, in which two +Page 46 ships are portrayed, the pirate-craft lying in ambush for the + other, which bears Dionysos and his rout. + + [Footnote 84: _Met._, III. 605 ff.] + + [Footnote 85: _Bibliotheca_, III. 5. 3.] + + [Footnote 86: _Dionys._, XLV. 119 ff.] + + [Footnote 87: _Œdipus_, VV. 455-473.] + + [Footnote 88: _Imag._, I. 19.] + + In our frieze, however, the myth is represented in an entirely + different manner. The scene is not laid on shipboard, but near + the shore of the sea, where, as the action shows, Dionysos and + his attendant satyrs are enjoying the contents of two large + craters, when they are attacked by pirates. The satyrs who are + characterized as such by their tails, and in most cases (9 + + 2:7) by the panther-skin, forthwith take summary vengeance upon + their assailants, of whom some are bound, others beaten and + burned, while others take refuge in the sea, only to be changed + into dolphins by the invisible power of the god. + + These modifications of the traditional form of the story have + usually[89] been accounted for by the necessities of plastic + art; and this view has in its favor that the representation in + sculpture of any of the other versions which are known to us, + would be attended by great difficulties of composition, and + would certainly be much less effective. Reisch, however, has + suggested[90] that this frieze illustrates the dithyrambus + which won the prize on this occasion, and that the variations + in the details of the story are due to this. There is no + evidence for this hypothesis, inasmuch as we have no basis upon + which to found an analogy, and know nothing whatever of the + nature of the piece in which the chorus had figured. + + [Footnote 89: _E.g._ OVERBECK, _Plastik³_, II. p. 92; + Friedrichs-Wolters, _Bausteine_, p. 488.] + + [Footnote 90: _Griech. Weihgeschenke_, p. 102.] + + The general arrangement and technic of this relief, the skill + with which unity of design is preserved despite the circular + form, the energy of the action, and the variety of the + grouping, have often been pointed out. More particularly, the + harmony and symmetry, which the composition exhibits, have been + noticed by most of the later writers who have had occasion to + describe the frieze. It is here, however, that we find the + divergencies and inaccuracies which have been alluded to above, + and these are such as to merit a closer examination. + + To begin with the central scene, which is characterized as such + by the symmetrical grouping of two pairs of satyrs about the +Page 47 god Dionysos and his panther and is externally defined by a + crater at either side, we observe that, while the two satyrs + immediately to the right (I¹) and left (I) of Dionysos (0), + correspond in youth and in their attitude toward him, the satyr + at the left (I) has a thyrsus and a mantle which the other does + not possess. These figures have unfortunately suffered much; + the central group is throughout badly damaged, the upper part + of the body and the head of Dionysos especially so. Of the tail + of the panther as drawn in Stuart's work, no trace exists. The + faces of the two satyrs and the head of the thyrsus are also + much mutilated. The other two satyrs (II: II¹), whose faces + are also mutilated, correspond very closely in youth, action, + and nudity. In these two pairs of figures it is also to be + noticed that the heads of I and II at the left face the central + group, while the heads of I¹ and II¹ at the right are + turned away from the centre, toward the right. By this device + the sculptor has obviated any awkwardness which might arise + from the necessity of placing Dionysos in profile. + + Passing now to the scenes outside of the vases, we observe + that, of the first pair of satyrs, the bearded figure at the + left (III), leans upon a tree-stump, over which is thrown his + panther-skin, as he contemplates the contest between his + fellows and the pirates, while against his right side rests a + thyrsus. The corresponding satyr on the right (III¹), also + bearded, but with his head now nearly effaced, wears his mantle + slung over the left shoulder as he advances to the right, + offering with his right hand the freshly filled wine-cup to a + youthful companion (IV¹). The latter, with panther-skin over + left shoulder and arm, and club (partially effaced) in + outstretched right hand, is moving rapidly to the right, as if + to join in the battle; his face (also somewhat mutilated) is + partly turned to the left, and despite his attitude of refusal + he forms a sort of group with his neighbor on that side + (III¹), and has no connection, as has been wrongly + assumed,[91] with the following group to the right (V¹). + Corresponding with this youthful satyr, we have on the left + (IV) a nude bearded satyr (face somewhat damaged,) armed with a + torch instead of a club, moving swiftly to the left to take +Page 48 part in the contest. He has no group-relation with his neighbor + on the right (III), although he maybe supposed to have just + left him. The relation is not sufficiently marked in the case + of the corresponding figures on the other side (III¹, + IV¹) to injure the symmetry. + + [Footnote 91: _British Museum Marbles,_ IX, p. 114.] + + These two pairs of satyrs serve to express the transition from + the untroubled ease of Dionysos and his immediate attendants, + to the violence and confusion of the struggle. Thus the first + pair (III: III¹) seem to feel that their active participation + is unnecessary, and so belong rather to the central scene; + while the second pair (iv: iv¹), hurrying to the combat, are + to be reckoned rather with those who are actively engaged. This + is also emphasized by the symmetrical alternation of young and + old satyrs, _i.e._: + + old young old young old young + VIa Vb IV IV¹ V¹b VI¹b + + and by their correspondence to VII: VII¹. + + On the left side we have next a group, turned toward the right, + consisting of a young satyr with flowing panther-skin (Vb), who + places his left knee on the back of a prostrate pirate (Va) + whom he is about to strike with a club which he holds in his + uplifted right hand. The pirate (face now somewhat damaged) is, + like all of his fellows, youthful and nude. The corresponding + group on the right, faces the left, and represents a nude + bearded satyr (V¹,) with left knee on the hip of a fallen + pirate (V¹a), whose hands he is about to bind behind his + back. Thus the arrangement of the two groups corresponds, but + the action is somewhat different. + + I now wish to point out an error which is interesting and + instructive as illustrating how mistakes creep into standard + archæological literature to the detriment of a proper + appreciation of the original monuments; and I may perhaps hope + not only to correct this error once for all, but also, in so + doing, to make clearer certain noteworthy artistic qualities of + this composition. + + If we turn to the reproductions of the Lysikrates frieze in the + common manuals of Greek sculpture, we find that the group + (V¹) has exchanged places with the next group to the right + (VI¹) while the corresponding groups on the left side (V, + VI) retain their proper position. In order to detect the source + of this confusion, we have only to examine the drawings of + Stuart and Revett, from which nearly all the subsequent +Page 49 illustrations are more or less directly derived. In the first + volume of Stuart and Revett, the groups (V¹ IV¹) occupy + plates XIII and XIV, and it is evident that the drawings have + been in some way misplaced. These plates have been reproduced + on a reduced scale in Meyer's _Gesch. d. bildenden Künste[92]_ + (1825); Müller-Wieseler[93] (1854); Overbeck,[94] _Plastik³_ + (1882); W.C. Perry, _History of Greek Sculpture[95]_ (1882); + Mrs. L.M. Mitchell, _History of Ancient Sculpture;[96]_ + Baumeister, _Denkmäler[97]_ (1887); Harrison and Verrall, + _Andent Athens[98]_ (1890), and in all with the same + misarrangement. + + Nevertheless correct reproductions of the frieze, derived from + other sources, have not been wholly lacking. There is, for + example, a drawing of the whole monument by S. Pomardi in + Dodwell's _Tour through Greece[99]_ (1819), in which the + correct position of these groups is clearly indicated. In 1842 + appeared volume IX of the _British Museum Marbles_ containing + engravings of a cast made by direction of Lord Elgin, about + 1800.[100] Inasmuch as this cast or similar copies have always + been the chief sources for the study of the relief, owing to + the unsatisfactory preservation of the original, it is the more + strange that this mistake should have remained so long + uncorrected,[101] or that Müller-Wieseler should imply[102] + that their engraving was corrected from the British Museum + publication, when no trace of such correction is to be found. A + third drawing in which the true arrangement is shown, is the + engraving after Hansen's restoration of the whole monument, + published in Von Lützow's monograph[103] (1868). Although + Stuart's arrangement violates the symmetry maintained between + the other groups of the frieze, yet Overbeck[104] especially + commends the symmetry shown in the composition of these + portions of the relief. + + [Footnote 92: _Tajel_ 25.] + + [Footnote 96: I _Taf._ 37.] + + [Footnote 94: II, p. 91.] + + [Footnote 95: P. 474.] + + [Footnote 96: P. 487.] + + [Footnote 97: II, p. 841.] + + [Footnote 98: P. 248.] + + [Footnote 99: I, opposite p. 289.] + + [Footnote 100: H. MEYER, _Gesch. der bildenden Künste_, II, p. + 242. note 313.] + + [Footnote 101: Since I first noticed the error from study of + the original monument, it gives me pleasure to observe that Mr. + Murray in his _History of Greek Sculpture_, II, p. 333, note, + has remarked that there is a difference between Stuart's + drawing and the cast, without, however, being able to determine + positively which is correct, owing to lack of means of + verification. He was inclined to agree with the cast.] + + [Footnote 102: I, _Taf._, note 150: _Mit Berücksichtigung der + Abbildungen nach später genommenen Gypsabgüssen in Ancient + Marbles in the Brit, Mus._] + + [Footnote 103: Between pp. 240 and 241.] + + [Footnote 104: Plastik³, II, p. 94.] + +Page 50 Now let us examine the symmetry as manifested in the corrected + arrangement. After the figures which we have found to have a + thoroughly symmetrical disposition, we have on the left side a + group consisting of a bearded satyr (face damaged), with + panther-skin (VI a), about to strike with his thyrsus a pirate + kneeling at the left (VI b), with his hands bound behind his + back. The face of this figure is also somewhat injured. The + corresponding group on the right (VI¹ instead of the erroneous + V¹), represents a youthful satyr with panther-skin thrown over + his arm (VI¹ a), about to strike with the club which he holds + in his uplifted right hand, a pirate (VI¹ b), who has been + thrown on his back, and raises his left arm, partly in + supplication and partly to ward off the blow. As in the groups + V: V¹, so in VI: VI¹, persons, action, and arrangement, are + closely symmetrical, while a graceful variety and harmony is + effected by so modifying each of these elements as to repeat + scarcely a detail in the several corresponding figures. + + After these five fighters, we observe on the left a powerful + bearded satyr (face much injured), with flowing panther-skin, + facing the right, and wrenching away a branch from a tree + (VII). The corresponding figure on the right side (VII¹) is a + nude, bearded satyr, who is breaking down a branch of a tree. + At first the correspondence does not seem to be maintained, for + this satyr faces the right, whereas after the analogy of + figures VII and IV we might expect him to face the left. But a + closer examination shows that this lack of symmetry is apparent + only when figures VII: VII¹ are considered individually, and + apart from the scenes to which they belong. For while IV and + VII, the outside figures of the main scene on the left, + appropriately face each other, the figures IV¹ and VII¹, + which occupy the same position with regard to the chief scene + on the right, are placed so as to face in opposite directions. + By this subtle device, for which the relation between the + figures III¹ and IV¹ furnishes an evident motive, the + sculptor has contrived to indicate distinctly the limits of + these scenes, while the symmetry existing between them is + heightened and emphasized by the avoidance of rigid uniformity. + + The trees serve also to mark the end of the preceding scenes, + and to contrast the land, upon which they stand, with the sea, + of which we behold a portion on either side, while a pair of +Page 51 corresponding, semi-human dolphins (VIII: VIII¹) are just + leaping into the element which is to form their home. These + dolphins are not quite accurately drawn in Stuart and Revett, + for what appears as an under jaw is, as Dodwell[105] rightly + pointed out, a fin, and their mouths are closed; the teeth, + which are seen in Stuart's drawing and all subsequent + reproductions of it, do not exist on the monument. The correct + form of the head may be seen in the British Museum publication. + + [Footnote 105: I, p. 290.] + + After these dolphins, we have on each side another piece of + land succeeded again by a stretch of sea. On these pieces of + land are seen on each side two groups of two figures each, + while a third incipient dolphin (0¹), which does not stand in + group-relation with any of the other figures, leaps into the + sea between them. In these groups there is a general + correspondence, but it does not extend to particular positions + or to accessories. + + At the left we observe first a bearded satyr with torch and + flowing panther-skin (IX a), pursuing a pirate, who flees to + the left (IX b). The space between the satyr and his victim is + in part occupied by a hole, which was probably cut for a beam + at the time when the monument was built into the convent. In + the corresponding places on the right side, we have a bearded + satyr with panther-skin (IX¹ a), about to strike with the + forked club which he holds in his uplifted right hand, a seated + and bound pirate (IX¹ b), whose hair the satyr has clutched + with his left hand. The heads of both figures are considerably + damaged, and the lower part of the right leg of the pirate is + quite effaced. To return to the left side, the tree at the left + of the fleeing pirate (IX b), does not correspond with any + thing on the right side. It serves to indicate the shore of the + sea, while on the other side this is effected by the high rocks + upon which the pirate (X¹ b) is seated. + + The next group on the left is represented as at the very edge + of the water, and consists of a nude bearded satyr (X b), who + is dragging an overthrown pirate (X a) by the foot, with the + evident intention of hurling him into the sea. The legs and the + right arm of this pirate have been destroyed by another hole, + similar to that which is found between figures IX and IX a. On +Page 52 the right side, a bearded satyr, with flowing panther-skin + (x¹ a) rushes to the right, thrusting a torch into the face + of a pirate who is seated on a rock (x¹ b), with his hands + bound behind his back. In his shoulder are fastened the fangs + of a serpent, which is in keeping here as sacred to Dionysos. + Perhaps, as Stuart has suggested,[106] he may be a + metamorphosis of the cord with which the pirate's hands are + bound; but the sculptor has not made this clear. The figures of + this group, which were in tolerable preservation at the time + when Lord Elgin's cast was made, have since been nearly + effaced, particularly the face, legs and torch of the satyr, + and the face and legs of the pirate, also the rocks upon which + he is seated, and the serpent. Between these figures and the + following dolphin, there is a third hole, similar to those + mentioned already, and measuring 15x16 centimetres. + + [Footnote 106: I, p. 34. Stuart cites Nonnus, _Dionys._ XLV. + 137. _Cf._ also _Ancient Marbles in the British Mus._ IX. p. + 115.] + + The less rigid correspondence of these groups (x, ix: ix¹, + x¹), as caused some difficulty. In the text of the _British + Museum Marbles_[107], all that falls between the pair of + dolphins (VII: VIII¹), is regarded as belonging to a + separate composition, grouped about the single dolphin (0¹). + But such an interpolated composition, besides having no purpose + in itself, would vitiate the unity of the entire relief. For, + although the circular form is less favorable to a strongly + marked symmetry than is the plane, at least in compositions of + small extent, still the individual figures and groups must bear + some relation to a common centre, and there can be no division + of interest, or mere stringing together of disconnected figures + or groups of figures. Such a stringing together is assumed by + Mr. Murray, when, in his _History of Greek Sculpture_,[108] he + speaks of seven figures after the pair of dolphins, which, + "though without direct responsion among themselves, still + indicate the continued punishment of the pirates." In the + pirate seated on the rocks (x b), however, Mr. Murray[109] + finds what he calls a "sort of echo" of Dionysos, inasmuch as + he is seated in a commanding position, and is attacked by the + god's serpent. There is, to be sure, a certain external + resemblance in the attitudes of the two figures, but direct +Page 53 connection cannot be assumed without separating x¹ a from + x¹ b, with which, however, it obviously forms a group, and + entirely disregarding the relations which the groups x, ix: + ix¹, x¹ bear to one another and to the dolphin 0¹. And + this Mr. Murray does, when he takes seven figures, among which + x¹ b is evidently to be considered as central instead of what + is plainly four groups of two figures each, _plus_ one dolphin. + + [Footnote 107: IX, p. 115.] + + [Footnote 108: II, p. 333.] + + [Footnote 109: II, p. 332.] + + There is, as we have already said, a general correspondence + between these groups. This is effected, in such a way that the + group ix resembles x¹ in action and arrangement, rather than + 9¹, which, on the other hand, resembles group x, rather than + group ix. In other words, the diagonalism which we have noticed + above in the arrangement of young and old satyrs (vi a, v b, + iv: iv¹, v¹ b, vi¹ a), is extended here to the groups + themselves. + + Moreover, the stretches of sea with the paired dolphins (viii: + viii¹), which are introduced between these groups and those + which had preceded, are not to be regarded as separating the + composition into two parts, but as connecting the central scene + with similar scenes in a different locality. These scenes are + again joined by another stretch of sea with the single dolphin + (0¹), which thus forms the centre of the back of the relief, + opposite Dionysos, and the terminus of the action which + proceeds from the god toward either side. + + I do not mean to say, however, that these scenes beyond the + dolphins (viii: viii¹), are to be looked upon as a mere + repetition of those which have preceded, distinguished only by + greater license in the symmetry, or that the changes of + locality have no other purpose than to lend variety to the + action. On the contrary, if we examine the indications of + scenery in this relief, we see that those features by which the + artist has characterized the place of this part of the action + as the seashore, the trees near the water's edge, the + alternating stretches of land and sea, the dolphins, the satyr + pulling the pirate into the water (x), are confined to the + space beyond the trees. In the scenes on the other side of the + trees, there is not only no suggestion of the sea, but the + rocks and the sequence of figures up to Dionysos indicate + rather that his place of repose is some elevation near the + seashore. The contrast between the more peaceful and luxurious + surroundings of the god and the violent contest with the +Page 54 pirates, is thus carried out and enforced by the sculptural + indications of landscape, as well as by the leading lines of + the composition. Though I would not imply that the composition + of this frieze was in any way governed by the laws which rule + similar compositions in pediments, it is interesting and + instructive to note that the general principles of distribution + of subject which have been followed, are somewhat similar to + those which we can trace in the best-known pediments extant; + thus, as the god in his more elevated position would occupy the + centre of the pediment, so the low-lying seashore and the + scenes which are being enacted upon it correspond to the wings + at either side. + + To recapitulate, the concordance of figures in this relief is + then briefly as follows: In the central scene, _i.e._, inside + the vases, and in the first pair of transitional figures (III, + II, I: I¹, II¹, III¹), equality of persons, but not of + accessories (drapery, thyrsi); action symmetrical. In the + immediately adjacent scenes, including the second pair of + transitional figures and the satyrs at the trees (VII, VI, V, + IV: IV¹, V¹, VI¹, VII¹), the persons are diagonally + symmetrical in VIa, Vb, IV: IV¹, V¹b, VI¹a (_i.e._, + old, young, old: young, old, young), equal in VII: VII¹. The + drapery is diagonally symmetrical in Vb, IV: IV¹, V¹b + (_i.e._, panther-skin, nudity: panther-skin, nudity), equal in + VIa: VI¹a, not symmetrical in VII: VII¹, and the weapons + are not symmetrical, except in VII: VII¹ (_i.e._, thyrsus, + club, torch: club, no weapon, club). The action is symmetrical + throughout, although not exactly the same in V: V¹. In the + scenes beyond the dolphins, the persons are equivalent (X, IX: + IX¹, X¹), while the action, drapery and weapons are + harmonious, but not diagonally symmetrical (_i.e._, IXa = + X¹a, but Xb IX¹a). At the left, a tree, at the right, a + pile of rocks and a serpent.--The persons are, accordingly, + symmetrical throughout; the action is so until past the + dolphins (VIII: VIII¹); the drapery only in II: II¹, and + in VI, V, IV: IV¹, V¹, VI¹; and the weapons not at all. + + It is thus apparent that the correspondence of the figures in + this frieze is by no means rigid and schematic or devoid of + life, but that, on the contrary, the same principles of + symmetry obtain which have been pointed out by many authorities + as prevalent in Greek art.[110] The whole composition exhibits +Page 55 freedom and elasticity, not so indulged in as to produce + discord, but peculiarly appropriate to the element of mirth and + comedy which characterizes the story, and upon which the + sculptor has laid especial stress. + + HERBERT F. DE COU + + Berlin, August 19, 1892. + + [Footnote 110: Brunn, _Bildwerke des Parthenon_; Flasch, _Zum + Parthenonfries_ pp. 65 ff.; and Waldstein, _Essays on the Art + of Pheidias_, pp. 80f., 114ff., 153ff., 194f., 205, 210.] +Page 56 + + + + PAPERS OF THE AMERICAN SCHOOL OF CLASSICAL + STUDIES AT ATHENS. + DIONYSUS εν Λίμναις.[B] + + + The dispute over the number of Dionysiac festivals in the Attic + calendar, more particularly with regard to the date of the + so-called Lenaea, is one of long duration.[111] Boeckh + maintained that the Lenaea were a separate festival celebrated + in the month Gamelio. To this opinion August Mommsen in the + _Heortologie_ returns; and maintained as it is by O. + Ribbeck,[112] by Albert Müller,[113] by A.E. Haigh,[114] and by + G. Oehmichen,[115] it may fairly be said to be the accepted + theory to-day. This opinion, however, is by no means + universally received. For example, O. Gilbert[116] has + attempted to prove that the country Dionysia, Lenaea, and + Anthesteria were only parts of the same festival. + + [Footnote B: I wish to express my hearty thanks to Prof. U. von + Wilamowitz-Möllendorff of the University of Göttingen, Prof. K. + Schöll of the University of Munich, Prof. A.C. Merriam of + Columbia College, and Dr. Charles Waldstein and Prof. R. Β. + Richardson, Directors of the American School at Athens, for + many valuable criticisms and suggestions.] + + [Footnote 111: _Vom Unterschied der Lenäen, Anthesterien und + ländlichen Dionysien, in den Abhdl. der k. Akad. der Wiss. zu + Berlin_, 1816-17.] + + [Footnote 112: _Die Anfänge und Entwickelung des Dionysoscultus + in Attika._] + + [Footnote 113: _Bühnen-Alterthümer._] + + [Footnote 114: _The Attic Theatre._] + + [Footnote 115: _Das Bühnenwesen der Griechen und Römer._] + + [Footnote 116: _Die Festzeit der Attischen Dionysien._] + + But while the date of the so-called Lenaea has been so long + open to question, until recently it has been universally held + that some portion at least of all the festivals at Athens in + honor of the wine-god was held in the precinct by the extant + theatre of Dionysus. With the ruins of this magnificent + structure before the eyes, and no other theatre in sight, the + temptation was certainly a strong one to find in this + neighborhood the Limnae mentioned in the records of the + ancients. When Pervanoglu found a handful of rushes in the + neighborhood of the present military hospital, the matter +Page 57 seemed finally settled. So, on the maps and charts of Athens we + find the word _Limnae_ printed across that region lying to the + south of the theatre, beyond the boulevard and the hospital. + When, therefore, _Mythology and Monuments of Athens_, by + Harrison and Verrall, appeared over a year ago, those familiar + with the topography of Athens as laid down by Curtius and + Kaupert were astonished to find, on the little plan facing page + 5, that the Limnae had been removed from their time-honored + position and located between the Coloneus Agoraeus and the + Dipylum. That map incited the preparation of the present + article. + + While investigating the reasons for and against so + revolutionary a change, the writer has become convinced that + here, Dr. Dörpfeld, the author of the new view, has built upon + a sure foundation. How much in this paper is due to the direct + teaching of Dr. Dörpfeld in the course of his invaluable + lectures _An Ort und Stelle_ on the topography of Athens, I + need not say to those who have listened to his talks. How much + besides he has given to me of both information and suggestion I + would gladly acknowledge in detail; but as this may not always + be possible, I will say now that the views presented here after + several months of study, in the main correspond with those held + by Dr. Dörpfeld. The facts and authorities here cited, and the + reasoning deduced from these, are, however, nearly all results + of independent investigation. So I shall content myself in + general with presenting the reasons which have led me to my own + conclusions; for it would require a volume to set forth all the + arguments of those who hold opposing views. + + The passage Thucydides, II. 15, is the authority deemed most + weighty for the placing of the Limnae to the south of the + Acropolis. The question of the location of this section of + Athens is so intimately connected with the whole topography of + the ancient city, that it cannot be treated by itself. I quote + therefore the entire passage: + + το δέ προ τουτου η ακρόπολις ή νυν ούσα πόλις ην, καΐ το υπ' + αυτήν προς νότον μάλιστα τετραμμενον. τεκμηριον δε · τα γaρ + ιeρa εv αυτη τη άκροπόλει και άλλων θεών εστί, καΐ τα εζω προς + τοuτο το μέρος της πολεως μάλλον ΐδρυται, το τε του Διός του + Όλυμπίου, καϊ το Πύθιον, καϊ το της Γης, καΐ το εν Αίμναις + Διονύσου, ω τα αρχαιότερα Διονύσια τη δωδέκατη ποιείται eν μηνΐ + Άνθεστηριώνι · ώσπερ καΐ οι απ' 'Αθηναίων Ιωveς ετι καΐ νυν +Page 58 νομιζουσιν. ΐδρυται δε καΐ αλλά ιερα ταύτη αρχαια. και τη κρήνη + τη νnν μeν των τυράννων ουτω σκευασάυτων Έννεακρούνω καλουμένη, + το δε πάλαι φανερων των πηγων ούσων Καλλιρρόη ωνομασμένη, + εκείνη τε εγγυς ουση τα πλείστου αξια εχρωντο, και νυν ετι απο + του αρχαίου προ τε γαμικων και ες αλλα των ιερων νομίζεται τω + uδατι χρησθαι. + + Two assumptions are made from this text by those who place the + Limnae by the extant theatre. The first is that υπ' αυτήν + includes the whole of the extensive section to the south of the + Acropolis extending to the Ilissus, and reaching to the east + far enough to include the existing Olympieum, with the Pythium + and Callirrhoe, which lay near. The second assumption is that + these are the particular localities mentioned under the + τεκμήριον δε. Let us see if this is not stretching υπ' αυτήν a + little. I will summarize, so far as may be necessary for our + present purpose, the views of Dr. Dörpfeld on the land lying + υπο την ακρόπολιν, or the Pelasgicum. + + That the Pelasgicum was of considerable size is known from the + fact that it was one of the sacred precincts occupied when the + people came crowding in from the country at the beginning of + the Peloponnesian War,[117] and from the inscription[118] which + forbade that stone should be quarried in or carried from the + precinct, or that earth should be removed therefrom. That the + Pelasgicum with its nine gates was on the south, west, and + southwest slopes, the formation of the Acropolis rock proves, + since it is only here that the Acropolis can be ascended + easily. That it should include all that position of the + hillside between the spring in the Aesculapieum on the south + and the Clepsydra on the northwest, was necessary; for in the + space thus included lay the springs which formed the source of + the water-supply for the fortifications. That the citadel was + divided into two parts, the Acropolis proper, and the + Pelasgicum, we know.[119] One of the two questions in each of + the two passages from Aristophanes refers to the Acropolis, and + the other to the Pelasgicum, and the two are mentioned as parts + of the citadel. That the Pelasgicum actually did extend from + the Aesculapieum to the Clepsydra we know from Lucian.[120] + + [Footnote 117: THUCYDEDES, II. 17.] + + [Footnote 118: DITTENBERGER, _S. I. G._ 13, 55 ff.] + + [Footnote 119: THUCYDEDES, II. 17; ARISTOPHANES, _Birds_, 829 + ff.; _Lysistrata_, 480 ff.] + + [Footnote 120: _Piscator_, 42.] + +Page 59 The people are represented as coming up to the Acropolis in + crowds, filling the road. The way becoming blocked by numbers, + in their eagerness they begin to climb up by ladders, first + from he Pelasgicum itself, through which the road passes. As + this space became filled, they placed their ladders a little + further from the road, in the Aesculapieum to the right and by + the Areopagus to the left. Still others come, and they must + move still further out to find room, to the grave of Talos + beyond the Aesculapieum and to the Anaceum beyond the + Areopagus. In another passage of Lucian,[121] Hermes declares + that Pan dwells just above the Pelasgicum; so it reached at + least as far as Pan's grotto. + + [Footnote 121: _Bis Accus_, 9.] + + The fortifications of Mycenæ and Tiryns prove that it was not + uncommon in ancient Greek cities to divide the Acropolis, the + most ancient city, into an upper and a lower citadel. + + Finally, that the strip of hillside in question was in fact the + Pelasgicum, we are assured by the existing foundations of the + ancient walls. A Pelasgic wall extends as a boundary-wall below + the Aesculapieum, then onward at about the same level until + interrupted by the Odeum of Herodes Atticus. At this point + there are plain indications that before the construction of + this building, this old wall extended across the space now + occupied by the auditorium. Higher up the hill behind the + Odeum, and both within and without the Beulé gate, we find + traces of still other walls which separated the terraces of the + Pelasgicum and probably contained the nine gates which + characterized it. Here then we have the ancient city of + Cecrops, the city before Theseus, consisting of the Acropolis + and the part close beneath, particularly to the south, the + Pelasgicum. We shall find for other reasons also that there is + no need to stretch the meaning of the words υπ αυτην προς νότον + to make them cover territory something like half a mile to the + eastward, and to include the later Olympieum within the limits + of our early city. + + Wachsmuth has well said,[122] although this is not invariably + true,[123] that υπο την ακρόπολιν and υπο τη ακροπόλει are used +Page 60 with reference to objects lying halfway up the slope of the + Acropolis. On the next page he adds, however, that Thucydides + could not have meant to describe as the ancient city simply the + ground enclosed within the Pelasgic fortifications, or he would + have mentioned these in the τεκμήρια. Thucydides, in the + passage quoted, wished to show that the city of Cecrops was + very small in comparison with the later city of Theseus; that + the Acropolis was inhabited; and that the habitations did not + extend beyond the narrow limits of the fortifications. He + distinctly says that before the time of Theseus, the Acropolis + was the city. He proceeds to give the reasons for his view: The + presence of the ancient temples on the Acropolis itself, the + fact that the ancient precincts outside the Acropolis were προς + τουτο το μέρος της πολεως, and the neighborhood of the fountain + Enneacrounus. We know, that the Acropolis was still officially + called πολις in Thucydides' day; and πόλις so used would have + no meaning if the Acropolis itself was not the ancient city. + Προς τουτο το μέρος, in the passage quoted, refers to the city + of Cecrops, the Acropolis and Pelasgicum taken together; and + της πολεως refers to the entire later city as it existed in the + time of Thucydides. It is, however, in the four temples outside + the Acropolis included under the τεκμήριον δε that we are + particularly interested. The Pythium of the passage cannot be + that Pythium close by the present Olympieum, which was founded + by Pisistratus. Pausanias (I. 28, 4,) says: "On the descent + [from the Acropolis], not in the lower part of the city but + just below the Propylæa, is a spring of water, and close by a + shrine of Apollo in a cave. It is believed that here Apollo met + Creusa." Probably it was because this cave was the earliest + abode of Apollo in Athens that Euripides placed here the scene + of the meeting of Apollo and Creusa. + + [Footnote 122: _Berichte der philol.-histor. Classe der Königl. + Sächs. Gesell. der Wiss._, 1887, p. 383.] + + [Footnote 123: _Am. Jour. of Archæology_, III. 38, ff.] + + According to Dr. Dörpfeld it was opposite this Pythium that the + Panathenaic ship came to rest.[124] In _Ion_, 285, Euripides + makes it clear that, from the wall near the Pythium, the + watchers looked toward Harma for that lightning which was the + signal for the sending of the offering to Delphi. This passage + would have no meaning if referred to lightning to be seen by +Page 61 looking toward Harma from any position near the existing + Olympieum; for the rocks referred to by Euripides are to the + northwest, and so could not be visible from the later Pythium. + To be sure, in later times the official title of the Apollo of + the cave seems to have been ύπ' aκραίω or εν aκραις, but this + was only after such a distinction became necessary from the + increased number of Apollo precincts in the city. The + inscriptions referring to the cave in this manner are without + exception of Roman date.[125] From Strabo we learn[126] that + the watch looked "toward Harma" from an altar to Zeus Astrapæus + on the wall between the Pythium and the Olympieum. This wall + has always been a source of trouble to those who place the + Pythium in question near the present Olympieum. But this + difficulty vanishes if we accept the authority of Euripides, + for the altar of Zeus Astrapæus becomes located on the + northwest wall of the Acropolis; and from this lofty position + above the Pythium, with an unobstructed view of the whole + northern horizon, it is most natural to expect to see these + flashes from Harma. + + [Footnote 124: PHILOSTRAT. _Vit. Sophist._ II p. 236.] + + [Footnote 125: HARRISON and Verrall, _Mythology and Monuments_, + p. 541.] + + [Footnote 126: STRABO, p. 404.] + + The Olympieum mentioned by Strabo and Thucydides cannot + therefore be the famous structure begun by Pisistratus and + dedicated by Hadrian: we must look for another on the northwest + side of the Acropolis. Here, it must be admitted we could wish + for fuller evidence. Pausanias (I. 18. 8) informs us that "they + say Deucalion built the old sanctuary of Zeus Olympius." + Unfortunately he does not say where it was located. + + Mr. Penrose in an interesting paper read before the British + School at Athens in the spring of 1891, setting forth the + results of his latest investigations at the Olympieum, said + that in the course of his investigations there appeared + foundations which he could ascribe to no other building than + this most ancient temple. But Dr. Dörpfeld, after a careful + examination of these remains, declares that they could by no + possibility belong to the sanctuary of the legendary + Deucalion.[127] + + [Footnote 127: It has been held that Pausanias mentions the + tomb of Deucalion, which was near the existing Olympieum, as a + proof that Deucalion's temple was also here. Pausanias however + merely says in this passage that this tomb was pointed out in + his day only as a proof that Deucalion sojourned at Athens.] + +Page 62 The abandonment of work on the great temple of the Olympian + Zeus from the time of the Pisistratids to that of Antiochus + Epiphanes, would have left the Athenians without a temple of + Zeus for 400 years, unless there existed elsewhere a foundation + in his honor. It is on its face improbable that the citizens + would have allowed so long a time to pass unless they already + possessed some shrine to which they attached the worship and + festivals of the chief of the gods. + + The spade has taught us that the literary record of old + sanctuaries is far from being complete. The new cutting for the + Piræus railroad has brought to light inscriptions referring to + a hitherto unknown precinct in the Ceramicus. + + Mommsen declares[128] that the Olympia were celebrated at the + Olympieum which was begun by Pisistratus; and he adds that the + festival was probably established by him. Of the more ancient + celebration in honor of Zeus, the Diasia, he can only say + surely that it was held outside the city. Certainly we should + expect the older festival to have its seat at the older + sanctuary. + + The εξω της πολεως[129], which is Mommsen's authority in the + passage referred to above, has apparently the same meaning as + the τα εξω (της πολεως) already quoted from Thucydides; _i.e._, + outside of the ancient city--the Acropolis and Pelasgicum. The + list of dual sanctuaries, the earlier by the entrance to the + Acropolis, the later to the southeast, is quite a long one. We + find two precincts of Apollo, of Zeus, of Ge, and, as we shall + see later, of Dionysus. + + Of Ge Olympia we learn[130] that she had a precinct within the + enclosure of the later Olympieum. Pausanias by his mention of + the cleft in the earth through which the waters of the flood + disappeared and of the yearly offerings of the honey-cake in + connection with this, shows the high antiquity of certain rites + here celebrated. It is indeed most probable that these + ceremonies formed a part of the Chytri; for what seems the more + ancient portion of this festival pertains also to the worship + of those who perished in Deucalion's flood. The worship of Ge + _Kourotrophos_ goes back to times immemorial. Pausanias +Page 63 mentions[131] as the last shrines which he sees before entering + the upper city, those of Ge _Kourotrophos_ and Demeter Chloe, + which must therefore have been situated on the southwest slope + of the Acropolis. Here again near the entrance to the Pelasgic + fortification, is where we should expect _a priori_ to find the + oldest religious foundations "outside the Polis." + + [Footnote 128: Heortologie, p. 413.] + + [Footnote 129: THUCYDIDES 126.] + + [Footnote 130: ΡAUS. I. 18. 7.] + + [Footnote 131: ΡAUS. I. 22. 33. SUIDAS, κουροτρόφος.] + + The location of the fourth _hieron_ of Thucydides can best be + determined by means of the festivals, more particularly the + dramatic festivals of Dionysus. That the dramatic + representations at the Greater Dionysia, the more splendid of + the festivals, were held on the site of the existing theatre of + Dionysus, perhaps from the beginning, at least from a very + early period, all are agreed. Here was the precinct containing + two temples of Dionysus, in the older of which was the + xoanon[132] brought from Eleutherae by Pegasus. That in early + times, at least, all dramatic contests were not held here we + have strong assurance. Pausanias[133] the lexicographer, + mentions the wooden seats in the agora from which the people + viewed the dramatic contests before the theatre έn Διονύσου was + constructed--plainly the existing theatre. Hesychius confirms + this testimony.[134] + + [Footnote 132: ΡAUS I. 2, 5 and I. 20, 3.] + + [Footnote 133: ΡAUS., _Lexikoq._ ϊκρια· τα, εν τη αγορα, αφ' ων + έθεωντο τους Διονυσιακούς ayôvas πρίν η κατασκευασθηναι το έν + Διονύσου θέατρον. Cf. EUSTATH. _Comment. Hom._ 1472.] + + [Footnote 134: HESYCH, άπ' αίγείρων.] + + Bekker's _Anecdota_ include mention, also,[135] of the wooden + seats of this temporary theatre. Pollux adds[136] his testimony + that the wooden seats were in the agora. Photius gives the + further important information that the orchestra first received + its name in the agora.[137] There can be no doubt that in very + early times, there were dramatic representations in the agora + in honor of Dionysus; and there must therefore have been a + shrine or a precinct of the god in or close to the agora. The + possibility of presentation of dramas at Athens, especially in + these early times, unconnected with the worship of Dionysus and + with some shrine sacred to him, cannot be entertained for a +Page 64 moment. It is commonly accepted that dramas were represented + during two festivals in Athens,--at the contest at the Lenaeum + and at the City Dionysia. The plays of the latter festival were + undoubtedly given in the extant theatre; but of the former + contest we have an entirely different record. Harpocration + say[138] merely that the Limnae were a locality in Athens where + Dionysus was honored. A reference in Bekker's _Anecdota_ + is[139] more explicit. Here the Lenaeum is described as a place + sacred to (ιερον) Dionysus where the contests were established + before the building of the theatre. In the Etymologicum + Magnum[140] the Lenaeum is said to be an enclosure (περίαυλος) + in which is a sanctuary of Dionysus Lenaeus. Photius + declares[141] that the Lenaeum is a large peribolus in which + were held the so-called contests at the Lenaeum before the + theatre was built, and that in this peribolus there was the + sanctuary of Dionysus Lenaeus. The scholiast to Aristophanes' + _Frogs_ says[142] that the Limnae were a locality sacred to + Dionysus, and that a temple and another building (οϊκος) of the + god stood therein. Hesychius mentions[143] the Limnae as a + locality where the Lenaea were held, and says that the Lenaeum + was a large peribolus within the city, in which was the + sanctuary of Dionysus Lenaeus, and that the Athenians held + contests in this peribolos before they built the theatre. + Pollux speaks[144] of the two theatres, καϊ Διoνυσίακòν θέατρον + καϊ ληναϊκóν. Stephanus of Byzantium quotes[145] from + Apollodorus that the "Lenaion Agon" is a contest in the fields + by the wine-press. Plato implies[146] the existence of a second + theatre by stating that Pherecrates exhibited dramas at the + Lenaeum. If the Lenaea and the City Dionysia were held in the + same locality, it is peculiar that in all the passages + concerning the Lenaeum and the Limnae we find no mention of the + Greater Dionysia. But our list of authorities goes still +Page 65 further. Aristophanes speaks[147] of the contest κατ' αγρούς. + The scholiast declares that he refers to the Lenaea, that the + Lenaeum was a place sacred (ιερόν) to Dionysus, eν αγρούς and + that the word Λήναιον came from the fact that here first stood + the ληνος or wine-press. He adds[148] that the contests in + honor of Dionysus took place twice in the year, first in the + city in the spring, and the second time εν αγροϊς at the + Lenaeum in the winter. The precinct by the present theatre, as + we know, was sacred to Dionysus Eleuthereus. In this temenus no + mention has been found of Dionysus Λίμναιος or Λήναιος. + + [Footnote 135: BEKKER, _Anecdota_ p. 354; _ibid._, p. 419.] + + [Footnote 136: POLLUX, VII. 125.] + + [Footnote 137: PHOTIUS, p. 106; _Ibid._, p. 351.] + + [Footnote 138: HARP. ed. Dind. p. 114. 1. 14.] + + [Footnote 139: BEKKER, Anecdota, p. 278, 1. 8.] + + [Footnote 140: Et. Mag. Έπ Λίληναίω.] + + [Footnote 141: PHOTIUS, p. 101.] + + [Footnote 142: Schol. _Frogs_, 216.] + + [Footnote 143: HESYCH., Λίμναί. Ibid, επί Ληναίυ αγων.] + + [Footnote 144: POLLUX, iv. 121.] + + [Footnote 145: STEPH. BYZ., Λήναιος.] + + [Footnote 146: PLATO, _Protag._, 327 w.] + + [Footnote 147: _Achar._, 202, and schol.] + + [Footnote 148: _Schol. Aristoph. Achar._, 504.] + + Demosthenes tells us[149] that the Athenians, having inscribed + a certain law (concerning the festivals of Dionysus) on a stone + stele, set this up in the sanctuary of Dionysus εν Λίμναις, + beside the altar. "This stele was set up," he continues, in + the most ancient and most sacred precinct[150] of Dionysus, so + that but few should see what had been written; for the precinct + is opened only once every year, on the 12th of the month + Anthesterio. + + [Footnote 149: _Near._ 76.] + + [Footnote 150: I have translated ιερω by precinct. This is + liable to the objection that ιερον may also mean temple; and + ανοίγεται "is opened" of the passage may naturally be applied + to the opening of a temple. But "hieron" often refers to a + sacred precinct, and there is nothing to prevent the verb in + question from being used of a "hieron" in this sense. If we + consult the passages in which this particular precinct is + mentioned we find, in those quoted from Photius and the + _Etymologicum Magnum_, that the Lenaeum contains a hieron of + the Lenaean Dionysus. This might be either temple or precinct. + In the citation from Bekker's _Anecdota_ the Lenaeum is the + hieron at which were held the theatrical contests. This implies + that the hieron was a precinct of some size. The Scholiast to + _Achar._ 202 makes the Lenaeum the hieron of the Lenaean + Dionysus. Here "hieron" is certainly a precinct. Hesych. (επi + Ληναίω αγών) renders this still more distinct by saying that + the Lenaeum contained the hieron of the Lenaean Dionysus, in + which the theatrical contests were held. But Demosthenes in the + _Neaera_ declares that the decree was engraved on a stone + stele. It was the custom to set up such inscriptions in the + open air. This stele was also beside the altar. There were + indeed often altars in the Greek temple, but the chief altar + (βωμος of the passage) was in the open air. Furthermore, if the + decree had been placed in the small temple, the designation + "alongside the altar" would have been superfluous. But in the + larger precinct such a particular location was necessary. Nor + can it be urged, in view of the secret rites in connection with + the marriage of the King Archon's wife to Dionysus on the 12th + of Anthesterio, that hieron must mean temple; since the new + Aristotle manuscript tells us that this ceremony took place in + the Bucoleum.] + + The stele being then visible to the public on but one day of + the year it follows that the entire precinct of Dionysus εν +Page 66 Λίμναις must have been closed during the remainder of the year. + This could not be unless we grant that, in the time of + Demosthenes at least, the Lenaea and the Megala Dionysia were + held in different precincts, and that the Lenaea and + Anthesteria were one and the same festival. + + Pausanias tells us[151] that the xoanon brought from Eleutherae + was in one of the two temples in the theatre-precinct, while + the other contained the chryselephantine statue of Alcamenes. + We know, both from the method of construction and from literary + notices, that these two temples were in existence in the time + of Demosthenes. Pausanias says[152] that on fixed days every + year, the statue of the god was borne to a little temple of + Dionysus near the Academy. Pausanias' use of the plural in + τεταγμέναις ημέραις is excellent authority that the temple of + the xoanon was opened at least on more than one day of every + year. + + From all these considerations it seems to be impossible that + the precinct of the older temple by the extant theatre and the + sanctuary εν Λίμναις could be the same. The suggestion that the + gold and ivory statue of Alcamenes could have been the one + borne in procession at the time of the Greater Dionysia is, of + course, untenable from the delicate construction of such + figures. The massive base on which it stood shows, too, that + its size was considerable. The image borne in procession was + clearly the xoanon which was brought by Pegasus from + Eleutherae. + + Wilamowitz calls attention[153] to another fact. In classic + times the contests of the Lenaea are Διονύσια τα επι Ληναίω, + and the victories are νικαι Ληναϊκαί; the Megala Dionysia are + always τα εν αστει, and the victories here νικαι αστικαί. These + words certainly imply a distinction of place. How early these + expressions may have been used, we learn from the account of + Thespis. Suidas[154] is authority that Thespis first exhibited + a play in 536 B.C.; and the Parian Marble records[155] that he + was the first to exhibit a drama and to receive the tragic + prize εν αστει. + + [Footnote 151: I. 20. 3.] + + [Footnote 152: I. 29. 2.] + + [Footnote 153: _Die Bühne des Aeschylos_.] + + [Footnote 154: _v. Thespis_.] + + [Footnote 155: _C.I.G._, II. 2374.] + +Page 67 But it has also been contended that Limnae and Lemaeum do not + refer to the same locality. It is clear from what has been + said, however, that the Lenaea and the Greater Dionysia must + have been held in different localities. So if Limnae and the + Lenaeum do not refer at least to the same region, there must + have been three separate sanctuaries of Dionysus; for no one + will claim that the Greater Dionysia can have been held in the + Limnae if the Lenaea were not celebrated there. But as we have + seen, Hesychius (εν Λίμναι) declares that the Lenaea were held + εν Λίμναις. The scholiast to Aristophanes says[156] that the + Chytri were a festival of Dionysus Lenaeus; so the Chytri as + well as the Lenaea must have been celebrated in the Lenaeum. + Athenæus in the story of Orestes and Pandion speaks[157] of the + temenus εν Λίμναις in connection with the Choes. In Suidas + (χόες), however, we learn that either Limnaeus or Lenaeus could + be used in referring to the same Dionysus. Such positive + testimony for the identity of the Lenaeum and the sanctuary in + the Limnae, cannot be rejected. + + [Footnote 156: _Acharnians_ 960.] + + [Footnote 157: X, 437 d.] + + We have still more convincing testimony that in the great + period of the drama the two annual contests at which dramas + were brought out were held in different places, in the record + of the time when the wooden theatre was finally + given up, and ό επι Ληναίω αγών became a thing of the past. The + change comes exactly when we should look for it, when the + existing theatre had been splendidly rebuilt by Lycurgus. The + passage is in Plutarch, where he says[158] that this orator + also introduced a law that the contest of the comedians at the + Chytri should take place in the theatre, and that the victor + should be reckoned eις άστυ, as had not been done before. He + further implies that the contest at the Chytri had fallen into + disuse, for he adds that Lycurgus thus restored an agon that + had been omitted. This last authority, however, concerns a + contest at the Chytri, the Anthesteria, and is only one of many + passages which tend to show that ό επι Ληναίω αγών was held at + this festival. The most weighty testimony for making the Lenaea + an independent festival, even in historic times, is given by +Page 68 Proclus in a scholium to Hesiod.[159] He quotes from Plutarch + the statement that there was no month Lenaeo among the + Boeotians. He adds that this month was the Attic Gamelio in + which the Lenaea were held. Hesychius makes the same citation + from Plutarch[160] as to a non-existence of a Boeotian month + Lenaeo, and continues: "But some say that this month is the + (Boeotian) Hermaio, and this is true, for the Athenians [held] + in this month (εν αυτω) the festival of the Lenaea." The great + similarity of the two passages renders it very probable that + both were drawn from the same sources. The omission of Gamelio + by Hesychius, by referring the εν αυτω back to Lenaeo, makes + him authority that the Lenaea were held in that month. This, in + turn implies that Proclus may have inserted Gamelio in order to + bring the statement into relation with the Attic months of his + own day. In the authorities referring to this month is a + suggestion of several facts and a curious struggle to account + for them. Proclus cites Plutarch to the effect that there was + no month Lenaeo among the Boeotians, but, being probably misled + by the very passage in Hesiod for which he has quoted Plutarch, + he adds[161] that they had such a month. He goes on to state + that the month is so called from the Lenaea, or from the + Ambrosia. Moschopulus,[162] Tzetzes,[163] and the Etymologicum + Magnum[164] repeat this last statement. An inscription[165] + referring to a crowning of Bacchus on the 18th of Gamelio may + refer to the same festival. Tzetzes alone is responsible for + the statement that the _Pithoigia_ came in this month. Through + Proclus and Hesychius we are assured of the belief that there + was once an Attic month Lenaeo. Proclus, Hesychius and + Moschopulus tell us that the Lenaea were at some period held in + this month; while Proclus, Moschopulus, Tzetzes, and the + inscription assure us that there was another festival of + Dionysus in this month; and the first three of these + authorities name this festival Ambrosia. A tradition running +Page 69 with such persistency through so many authors affords a strong + presumption that there once existed an Attic month Lenaeo, and + that the Lenaea were celebrated in that month. + + [Footnote 158: [Plut.] _Vit._ 10 _Or._: LYCURG. _Orat._ VII. 1. + 10 p. 841. 1549: _Ptoclus_ to Hesiod, Op. 504.] + + [Footnote 160: HESYCHIUS, Ληναιων μην.] + + [Footnote 161: PROCLUS, To Hesiod Op. 504.] + + [Footnote 162: MOSCHPUL., κατα τον μηνα τον Ληναιωνα.] + + [Footnote 163: TZETZES, μηνα δε Ληναιών.] + + [Footnote 164: Et. Mag., Ληναιωνα.] + + [Footnote 165: _C.I.G._, I. 523. Ι'αμηλιωνος κιττωσεις Διονωσον + θί.] + + Thucydides tells us[166] that the Ionian Athenians carried the + festival Anthesteria with them from Athens, and that they + continued until his day to celebrate it. The Anthesteria are + thus older than the Ionic migration, which took place under the + sons of Codrus.[167] The story of Pandion and Orestes from + Apollodorus places the establishment of the Choes in the time + of this mythical Athenian king. The first and third months of + the Ionic year[168] are the same as those of the Attic. There + can hardly be a doubt, then, that their second month, Lenaeo, + was also carried with the emigrants from the parent city, where + at that time it obtained. + + [Footnote 166: II. 15.] + + [Footnote 167: BOECKII _Vom Unterschied der Lena._, _Anthest. + und Dion._ s. 52.] + + [Footnote 168: The entire argument on the question of the month + is open to the objection that too much weight is given to such + men as Tzetzes and all the tribe of minor scholiasts, whose + opportunities for accurate knowledge were, in many respects, + vastly inferior to those of scholars of our own day. It is easy + indeed to say that their testimony is worth nothing. But where + shall we stop? It is urged that the connection of the Lenaea + with an Attic month Lenaeo arose from an attempt on the part of + the commentators to explain names as they found them. It is + said that this conflict of the authorities proves that there + never was an Attic Lenaeo. This may be true; and the man who + will prove it to be so, and furthermore will give us the + accurate history of the Attic and the Ionic calendars, will do + a great service to Greek scholarship. But he must have at hand + better sources than we possess to-day. Though the later Greek + commentators on the classics have made many amusing and stupid + blunders, though we need not hesitate to disregard their + teaching when it comes into conflict with better authority, or + with plain reason, still they have told us that which is true. + They often furnish us with all that we know of older and better + authors, whose works were their authority. Therefore, unless I + have found testimony against them, I have followed their + teaching. Both here and elsewhere I give their words for what + they are worth; not that I rank Proclus with Thucydides, or the + Et. Mag. with Aristophanes,--but from the conviction that so + remarkable a concurrence of testimony in so many different + writers has not yet been successfully explained away, and could + not indeed exist unless their testimony were founded on a basis + of fact.] + + This gives a time, however remote it may be, when the Athenians + still had the month Lenaeo, yet we hear of no festival Lenaea + among the Ionian cities. It would thus seem that this had lost + its force as an independent festival before the migration. + + Gamelio is said to have received its name from the Gamelia, the + festival of Zeus and Hera. It is hard to believe that while the +Page 70 much more brilliant Lenaea remained in the month, the name + should have passed to the always somewhat unimportant Gamelia. + What reason could be found for this naming, unless that the + Lenaea had first been transferred to the Anthesteria, as all + the testimony tends to prove? This supposition gives an easy + explanation of the repeated reference to Lenaeo as an Attic + month, of the change of the name to Gamelio, and even Tzetzes' + association of the Pithoigia with the Lenaea,--an association + which arises necessarily, if the Lenaea once formed part of the + Anthesteria. The impossibility of transferring in its entirety + a festival which has become rooted in the customs of a people, + is also seen. That remnant of the Lenaea in Lenaeo, the + Ambrosia, survived till quite late in Attic history. It is not + difficult, then, to understand why the other references to the + Lenaea as a separate festival do not agree as to the month. + + A triad of contests is given by Demosthenes[169] where he + quotes the law of Evegoras with reference to the Dionysiac + festivals: the one in Piræus with its comedies and tragedies, η + επι Ληναίω πομπή with its tragedies and comedies, and the City + Dionysia with the chorus of boys, procession, comedies and + tragedies. Here are three different contests in three different + places; and the Anthesteria and Lenaea are included under η επι + Ληναίω πομπή. The purpose of the law was to preserve absolute + security and freedom to both person and property on the days of + the festivals named. Not even an overdue debt could be + collected. In so sweeping a law the Anthesteria could hardly + fail to be included; for at no Attic festival was there more + absolute liberty and equality. In Suidas[170] we learn that the + revellers at the Chytri, going about on carts, jested and made + sport of the passers by, and that later they did the same at + the Lenaea. Thus he gives another proof of the connection + between the two festivals, and shows that ο επι Ληναίω αγων + became a part of the older Anthesteria after the invention of + comedy, and that even then the old custom was kept up. In + Athenæus we find[17l] the Samian Lynceus sojourning in Athens + and commiserated as passing his time listening to the lectures +Page 71 of Theophrastus and seeing the Lenaea and Chytri, in contrast + to the lavish Macedonian feasts of his correspondent. The + latter in the same connection says[172] that certain men, + probably players, who had filled a part in Athens at the + Chytri, came in to amuse the guests. The marriage which he is + attending then took place after the Chytri. It is not likely, + therefore, that in "the Lenaea and Chytri" he is referring to + two festivals separated by a month of time. He speaks, rather, + of two acts of the same celebration. + + [Footnote 169: _Mid._ 10.] + + [Footnote 170: SUIDAS, εκ των αμαξων σώωμματα.] + + [Footnote 171: ATHENÆUS, IV. p. 130.] + + [Footnote 172: Ibid. III. 129.] + + The frogs in Aristophanes claim the temenus Λίμναις and speak + of their song at the Chytri. The scholiast cites[173] + Philochorus, saying that the contests referred to were the + χύτρινοι. + + A suspected passage in Diogenes Laertius declares (III 56) that + it was the custom to contend with tetralogies at four + festivals, the Dionysia, Lenaea, Panathenaea, and Chytri. If + the passage is worth anything, it adds new testimony that there + were dramatic representations at the Anthesteria. The Menander + of Alciphron, also, would hardly exclaim[174] over ποίους + χύτρους, unless the contest were one in which he, as dramatist, + could have a part. + + No other of the extant dramas has been so much discussed in + connection with the question as the _Acharnians_. Those who + hold that the Lenaea and Anthesteria were entirely separate, + have affirmed that the play opens on the Pnyx in Athens, that + the scene changes to the country-house of Dicaeopolis in + Cholleidae, at the season of the country Dionysia in the month + Posideo. Later the time of the Lenaea in the month Gamelio is + represented. Finally the locality is again Athens at the + Anthesteria in Anthesterio. In fact, we are told, the poet has, + in the _Acharnians_, shown his true greatness by overleaping + all restraints of time and place and giving his fancy free + rein. But this is making the _Acharnians_ an isolated example + among the Greek plays which have come down to us. Changes of + scene are foreign to the nature of the Greek drama, as is + acknowledged by A. Miller.[175] + + [Footnote 173: _Schol._ ARIST. _Frogs._ 218.] + + [Footnote 174: _Alciphron Ep._ II. 3. 11.] + + [Footnote 175: _Bühnenalt_., 161.] + + That the beginning of the play is on the Pnyx, there is no + question. In v. 202, Dicaeopolis declares: "I will go in and +Page 72 celebrate the Country Dionysia." This is held to be a statement + of the actual time of year represented in this portion of the + play, and also to indicate the change of place from Athens to + the country. That the country festivals to the wine-god in the + different demes were held on different dates, we learn from the + fact that companies of actors went out from Athens to make the + tour of these provincial festivals.[176] We know, too, that + these rural celebrations were under charge of the + demarchs.[177] In the passage from the _Acharnians_ just cited, + there is no statement that this is the season when the demes + were accustomed to hold their annual Bacchic celebrations. + Rather, in his joy in his newly concluded peace, the hero + declares that he will _now_ hold this festival in honor of the + god of the vine. No surprise is felt at this exceptional date, + particularly as, by his statement below,[178] he has been + prevented for six years from holding the festival at its proper + season. This last passage, however, is the strongest authority + for a change of place in the action. Certainly, if the reading + is correct, in the light of all the remainder of the comedy we + should naturally translate: "in the sixth year, having come + into my deme, I salute you gladly." But we do no violence to + the construction if we say that ελθών ες τον δημον means "going + (_forth_) to my deme." Unquestionably up to the end of the + first choral ode at v. 236, the action has gone on in Athens. + But here, we are told, comes the change of place. In v. 202 + Dicaeopolis has declared that he is "going in." What does he + enter but his house in the city? At v. 236 the chorus also is + in Athens. In v. 237, the voice of Dicaeopolis is heard from + within--his _country_ house, it is said; and in v. 238 the + chorus is as suddenly before this same house! Such rapid + changes might easily take place on a modern stage, but are of a + character to excite remark in an ancient theatre. If there was + a change here, the second scene must have represented + Cholleidae with the three houses of Dicaeopolis, Lamachus, and + Euripides; and the three must be in the same deme; for the + Bacchic procession of Dicaeopolis appears at v. 241, and is + broken up by the chorus at v. 280. As soon as Dicaeopolis, by +Page 73 his by-play, has obtained permission to plead his cause, he + turns (v. 394) to the house of Euripides to borrow the wardrobe + of one of the tragic heroes. Then, when his defense has divided + the chorus, the first half call upon the gorgon-helmeted + Lamachus (v. 566) to bear them aid, and that warrior appears + from his house. + + [Footnote 176: HAIGH, _Attic Theatre_, p. 47.] + + [Footnote 177: ΟEHMICHEN, _Bühnenwesen_, s. 195.] + + [Footnote 178: _Achar._, 266 f.] + + Now the common enemy has prevented the celebration of the + Country Dionysia for six years. How is it possible, under such + circumstances, to conceive of Euripides as composing tragedies + in the country? How could the general Lamachus be living out of + the city in such a time of danger? Certainly the play itself + gives us authority that this scene also is in Athens. At v. 241 + Dicaeopolis would go forth with his procession to hold the + rural Dionysia in his deme. Prevented from doing so, he is from + this on busy with the duties and pleasures of the Choes. His + altercation with the chorus and with Lamachus ended, he (v. 623 + f.) announces that he will open a market for all Boeotians, + Megarians, and Peloponnesians. He sets up (v. 719) the bounds + of his markets, and appoints three "himantes" as agoranomi. + These officials are suggestive of those busy at the + Anthesteria.[179] The first customer, from Megara comes in + with: "Hail, agora in _Athens_" (v. 729), and brings for sale + pigs suitable for sacrifice at the Mysteries (v. 747 and 764). + The Lesser Mysteries came in Anthesterio first after the + Anthesteria. + + [Footnote 179: MOMMSEN, _Heortologie v. Anthesteria._] + + There is no change of place in the course of the action. The + scene, the Pnyx with the houses of Dicaeopolis, Lamachus, and + Euripides near by, remains the same. There is no indication of + a jump in time from Posideo to Gamelio, and again from Gamelio + to Anthesterio. + + Amid all the preparations for the Anthesteria made in the play, + two statements cannot fail to attract attention. In v. 504 f. + the poet informs us that this is not the Greater Dionysia, when + strangers, tribute-bearers, and allies were present. It is the + contest at the Lenaeum. In v. 1150 f. the chorus frees its mind + concerning the miserly fashion in which Antimachus treated them + at a previous celebration of the Lenaea. Shall we say that the + poet, in order to speak of things present before the eyes of +Page 74 the Athenians, steps, in these two passages, entirely outside + the action of the play? By no means. The poet is dealing with a + vital issue. He is fighting against the ruinous war. The power + of his genius is shown by the masterly manner in which he uses + the moment which was present to his hearers. The victor at the + Choes sat among the spectators; the very walls of the theatre + had hardly ceased to resound with the din of the carousers. + Here, or elsewhere, there is mention of but one επι Ληναίω + αγων, that is the Lenaea, or the dramatic contest at the + Anthesteria. + + In fixing the date of the "Dionysia at the Lenaeum," we have + the authority of some interesting inscriptions which have been + collected in Dittenberger S.I.G. II. 374. They are the record + of moneys obtained from the sale of the hides of the victims + sacrificed at various festivals of the Attic year. A portion of + each of four separate lists has been preserved. In the first + and fourth of these, as they stand in Dittenberger, three + Dionysiac festivals are mentioned: that at Piraeus, the + Dionysia εν αστει, and the Dionysia επι Ληναίω. The third list + ends with the Dionysia in Piræus. The remaining incription + mentions two Dionysiac festivals, the one at the Lenaeum, and + that εν αστει. The part of the record which should cover the + Dionysia at Piræus is wanting. The calendar order of all the + festivals mentioned is strictly followed. + + Köhler in _C.I.A._, led by the other inscriptions found with + these four, says that the lists do not contain mention of all + the festivals at which public sacrifices of cattle were made in + that portion of the year covered by the inscriptions, but that + these are to be considered only as records of the hide-money + which was to be devoted to particular uses. As a matter of + fact, however, nearly all the public festivals of importance, + as well as some of less note, are included in these lists; and + it would be difficult to demonstrate that they do not contain a + complete record of the public hide-money for the portion of the + year in which these festivals fall. + + In these inscriptions the peculiarity with reference to the + Dionysia is the same which we find in all other accounts which + seem to give a complete record of these festivals. Only three + are mentioned as held under public authority. Did the omission +Page 75 of the Lenaea and Anthesteria occur only in this case, we + might, following Köhler, admit that the hide-money from this + particular festival was not devoted to this special purpose, + and that for this reason the name did not appear in these + records. But since in no case are there more than three + mentioned; and since the third name is one which covers all + celebrations in honor of Dionysus at the Lenaeum, this + assumption cannot be granted. The important point, and one that + cannot be too strongly emphasized, is that neither in these nor + in any other inscription or official record is there any + mention of the Lenaea or Anthesteria as such. The official + language appears always to have been, as here: Διονύσια επι + Ληναίω, or: η επι Ληναίω πομπή, or, where the dramatic contest + alone was intended: ό επι Ληναίω αγών. Once only in the 5th + century[180] do we find Λήναια used; and here it is synonymous + with ό επι Ληναίω αγών. Wilamowitz has well said that Λήναια as + a name of a separate festival is an invention of the + grammarians. Aristophanes, in the passage from the + _Acharnians_, shows that this name may have been used commonly + for the dramatic contest at the Lenaeum, and we know from + Thucydides that Anthesteria was also used of the entire + festival. It is impossible that in a record like the hide-money + inscriptions, the official title Διονύσια επι Ληναίω should be + employed to cover two festivals separated by an interval of a + month. + + [Footnote 180: _Acharnians_, 1155.] + + But was the Anthesteria a state festival, at which public + sacrifices of cattle were made? The story of its institution by + Pandion shows that it was public from the beginning. + Aristophanes informs us[181] that it maintained this character; + for the Basileus awarded the prize at the Choes. The question + of sacrifice requires fuller treatment. + + Suidas[182] and a scholiast[183] to Aristophanes quote from + Theopompus the story of the establishment of the Chytri. On the + very day on which they were saved, the survivors of the flood + introduced the celebration of this day of the Anthesteria by + cooking a potful of all sorts of vegetables, and sacrificing it +Page 76 to the Chthonian Hermes and those who had perished in the + waters. The scholiast adds that sacrifice was offered to no one + of the Olympian gods on this day. + + [Footnote 181: _Acharnians_, 1225.] + + [Footnote 182: SUIDAS, χύτροι] + + [Footnote 183: Schol. ARISTOPH., _Frogs_. 218.] + + In Suidas we find a hint of the other ceremonies on the Chytri. + According to him, there were sacrifices to Dionysus as well as + to Hermes. This suggests that the Chytri was but one day of the + Anthesteria, and, though the worship of the departed may have + been the older portion of the celebration, it was later + overshadowed by the festivities in honor of the wine-god. As + the text of his argument in his oration against Midias, + Demosthenes cites four oracular utterances, two from Dodona, + the others probably from Delphi. In the first the god calls + upon the children of Erechtheus, as many as inhabit the city of + Pandion, to be mindful of Bacchus, all together throughout the + wide streets to return fit thanks to the Bromian, and crowned + with wreaths, to cause the odor of sacrifice to rise from the + altars. In this oracle, Athens is the city of Pandion, because + it was reported that under his rule the worship of Dionysus was + introduced into the city. This and the other commands from + Dodona and Delphi concerning Dionysus refer to the introduction + of the worship of the god; for in every one the statement is + absolute; there is no reference to a previous worship and a + backsliding on the part of the people, κνισάν βωμοΐσι of the + first oracle can refer only to a sacrifice of animals. Stronger + still is the statement in the fourth oracle (from Dodona) where + the command is given to fulfil sacred rites (ίερα τελεΐν) to + Dionysus, and to sacrifice to Apollo and to Zeus. (Άπόλλωνι + Άποτροπαίω βοūν θυσαι ... Δú Κτησίω βοūν λευκόν.) The command + "to mix bowls of wine and to establish choral dances," in the + second and fourth oracles, serves as an explanatory comment on + "return fit thanks to the Bromian" in the first. "Let free men + and slaves wear wreaths and enjoy leisure for one day," must + refer to the Pithoigia. In this feast the slaves had a part, + and enjoyed a holiday. Hence the saying[184] "Forth, slaves, it + is no longer the Anthesteria." In obedience to the oracles + then, public sacrifices could not have been lacking at the + Anthesteria. Therefore, this festival must have been officially + known as the Dionysia έπί Ληναίω. + + [Footnote 184: θύραζε Kαρες ούκέτ 'Ανθεστήρια.] + +Page 77 The dramatic contests at the Lenaeum, like those at the Greater + Dionysia, were undoubtedly preceded by sacrifices. The αγων επι + Ληναίω could hardly be separated from the Dionysia επι Ληναίω. + Therefore the hide-money inscriptions are also authority that + Lenaea and Anthesteria are but two references to the same + festival. + + Thucydides, as we have seen,[185] knew of but two Dionysia in + Athens itself; those εν αστει and the Anthesteria. Of these, + using the comparative degree, he states that the latter were + the άρχαιότερα. In his time the dramatic contests εν Λίμναις + were in their glory, yet he mentions but one celebration in + this locality. So here also we must conclude that Anthesteria + was the name of the whole festival which Harpocration tells us + was called πιθοίγια, χοές and χύτροι; that there was, in the + flourishing period of the drama, no separate festival Lenaea, + but that the αγών at the Chytri came to be so called to + distinguish it from that at the City Dionysia. + + [Footnote 185: II. 15.] + + It is interesting in connection with Thucydides' statement that + the Ionian Athenians in his day still held the Anthesteria, to + examine the record of this festival in the Ionic cities of Asia + Minor. To be sure we have very little information concerning + the details of this celebration among them; but we do find two + statements of importance. _C.I.G._ 3655 mentions certain honors + proclaimed at the Anthesteria in the theatre in Cyzicus. + Comparison with similar observances at Athens indicates that + theatrical representations were to follow. _C.I.G._ 3044, + τώγωνος Άνθεστηριοισίν, refers to Teos. From the constant use + of αγών referring to theatrical performances in connection with + the festivals of Dionysus the word can hardly mean anything + else here. So these two inscriptions, referring to two + colonies, add their testimony that dramas were presented also + at the Anthesteria in Athens. + + Finally, Aristotle's _Politeia_ falls into line with the + hide-money records. In § 56, the statement is made that the + Archon Eponymos had the Megala Dionysia in charge. In the + following section, the Archon Basileus is said to have control, + not of the Lemaea or of the Anthesteria--for neither is + mentioned by name,--but of the Dionysia επι Ληναίω. The + Basileus and the Epimeletae together directed the procession; +Page 78 but the basileus alone controlled the [dramatic] contest. Here + again, it is inconceivable that either Anthesteria or Lenaea + should be omitted; so both must be included under Dionysia επι + Ληναίω. + + We thus find our position supported by inscriptions of + undoubted authority, and by a list of names ranging in time + from before Aristophanes to the 9th century A.D., and in weight + from Thucydides and Aristotle to the Scholiasts. + + If the Limnae were not by the existing theatre of Dionysus, + where were they? Not on the south side of the Acropolis, as a + careful examination of the ground proves. In our study of the + theatre-precinct, we found that the earth here in antiquity was + at a much higher level than at present, while immediately + outside the wall of this precinct to the south, the ground was + considerably lower than it is now. The present height of the + theatre-precinct is 91.4 m. above the sea level; of the Odeum, + 97.7 metres; of the Olympieum, 80.8 m.; of the ground within + the enclosure of the Military Hospital due south from the + theatre, 75 m.; of Callirrhoe in the Ilissus opposite the + Olympieum, 59 m.; of the Ilissus bed opposite the theatre, 50 + m. From the present level of the theatre to the bed of the + stream there is a fall of more than 41 m.; the fall is about + equally rapid along the entire extent of the slope to the south + of the Acropolis, while the soil is full of small stones. + Surely, it would take more than the oft-cited handful of rushes + to establish a swamp on such a hillside. We have, however, + excellent geological authority that from the lay of the land + and the nature of the soil, there never could have been a swamp + there. The Neleum inscription[186] can be held to prove nothing + further than that, as Mr. Wheeler suggests, the drain from the + existing theatre ran through this precinct. We must therefore + seek the Limnae elsewhere. + + [Footnote 186: _Am. Journal of Archæology_, III. 38-48.] + + We know that from time immemorial the potters plied their trade + in the Ceramicus, because here they found the clay suitable for + their use. The so-called Theseum is 68.6 m. above the + sea-level; the present level at the Piræus railroad station, + 54.9 m.; at the Dipylum (and here we are on the ancient level), + only 47.9 m. Out beyond the gate comes a long slope, extending +Page 79 till the Cephissus is reached, at an elevation of 21 m. So the + Dipylum is over 43 m. below the present level of the + theatre-precinct; and it is the lowest portion of the ancient + city. Here, therefore, in the northwest part of the city, is + where we should expect from the lay of the land and the nature + of the soil to find the marshes. Out in the open plain beyond + this quarter of the city to-day, after every heavy rain, the + water collects and renders the ground swampy. With the Dipylum + as a starting-point, there is no difficulty in supposing that, + in very ancient times, the Limnae extended to Colonus Agoraeus, + to the east into the hollow which became a portion of the agora + in the Ceramicus, and to the west into the depression between + Colonus Agoraeus and the Hill of the Nymphs. The exact extent + and character of the low ground in these two directions can + only be determined by excavating the ancient level, which, as + it appears to me, has not been reached by the deep new railroad + cutting running across this section north of the so-called + Theseum. + + The excavations of Dr. Dörpfeld between Colonus Agoraeus and + the Areopagus, have shown that the ruins and the ancient street + at this point have been buried to a great depth by the débris + washed down from the Pnyx. Unfortunately, these diggings have + not been extensive enough to restore the topography of the west + and southwest slopes of Colonus Agoraeus. + + We have abundant notices, besides those already given, of a + precinct or precincts of Dionysus in this section. Hesychius + speaks[187] of a house in Melite where the tragic actors + rehearsed. Photius repeats[188] the statement almost word for + word. Philostratus mentions[189] a council-house of the artists + near the gate of the Ceramicus. Pausanias (I. 2. 5), just after + entering the city, sees within one of the stoas the house of + Poulytion which was dedicated to Dionysus Melpomenus. He speaks + next of a precinct with various αγαλματα, and among them the + face of the demon of unmixed wine, Cratus. Beyond this precinct + was a building with images of clay, representing, among other + scenes, Pegasus, who brought the worship of Dionysus to Athens. +Page 80 This building also was plainly devoted to the cult of the + wine-god. In fact, the most venerable traditions in Athens, + with reference to Dionysus, centre here. All the various + representations here are connected with the oldest legends. + Pausanias (I. 3. 1.) says that the Ceramicus had its very name + from Ceramus, a son of Dionysus and Ariadne. + + [Footnote 187: HESYCH. Μελιτέων οίκος.] + + [Footnote 188: PHOTIUS. Μελιτέων οίκος.] + + [Footnote 189: PHILOST. _Vit. Soph._ p. 251.] + + We have already seen that an orchestra was first established in + the agora. Timæus adds[190] that this was a conspicuous place + where were the statues of Harmodius and Aristogiton, which we + know to have stood in the agora. + + The scholiast to the _De Corona_ of Demosthenes[191] says that + the "hieron" of Calamites, an eponymous hero, was close to the + Lenaeum. Hesychius words this statement differently, saying + that [the statue of] the hero himself was near the Lenaeum. We + know that the statues of eponymous heroes were set up in the + agora. Here again the new Aristotle manuscript comes to our + support, telling us (_Pol_. c. 3) that the nine archons did not + occupy the same building, but that the Basileus had the + Bucoleum, near the Prytaneum, and that the meeting and marriage + of the Basileus' wife with Dionysus still took place there in + his time. That the Bucoleum must be on the agora, and that the + marriage took place in Limnaean-Lenaean territory, have long + been accepted. The location of the Limnae to the northwest at + the Acropolis must thus be considered as settled. + + Dr. Dörpfeld maintains that the ancient orchestra and the later + Agrippeum theatre near by, mentioned by Philostratus,[192] lay + in the depression between the Pnyx and the Hill of the Nymphs, + but considerably above the foot of the declivity. + + [Footnote 190: TIM. _Lex. Plat._] + + [Footnote 191: DEMOS, de Corona, 129, scholium.] + + [Footnote 192: PHILOSTRATUS, _Vit. Soph._, p. 247.] + + From the passage of the _Neaera_ quoted above we know that the + old orchestra could not have been in the sacred precinct of + Dionysus Limnaeus, for this was opened but once in every year, + on the 12th of Anthesterio,[193] while the Chytri and therefore + ό επι Ληναίω αγών were held on the following day. This involves + too that the Pithoigia as well as the "contests at the Lenaeum" +Page 81 could not have been celebrated in the sanctuary εν Λίμναις, + though portions of each of these divisions of the Anthesteria + were held in the Lenaeum, which contained the Limnaea _hieron_. + + [Footnote 193: See also THUCYDIDES above.] + + The Lenaeum must lie εν Λίμναις, and therefore on the low + ground. A passage in Isæus (8. 35) is authority that the + sanctuary of Dionysus εν Λίμναις was εν αστει; _i.e._, within + the Themistoclean walls. So we have it located within narrow + limits, somewhere in the space bounded on the east by the + eastern limit of the agora in Ceramicus, south by the + Areopagus, west by the Pnyx and the Hill of the Nymphs, and + north by the Dipylum. + + From the neighborhood of the Dionysiac foundations and + allusions mentioned by Pausanias immediately upon entering the + city, we may be justified in locating this ancient cult of + Dionysus εν Λίμναις still more exactly, and placing it + somewhere on or at the foot of the southwestern slope of + Colonus Agoraeus. More precise evidence of its site we may + obtain from future excavation: though as this region lay + outside the Byzantine city-walls, the ruins may have been more + or less completely swept away. + + In view of its position outside of the gate of the ancient + Pelasgic city, by the wine-press, we understand why the contest + in the Lenaeum was called a contest κατ' αγρούς. Because + enclosed later within the walls of Themistocles, the Limnae + were also referred to as εν αστει. Situated as they were in the + territory of the agora, we see why, although the Archon + Eponymus directed the City Dionysia, the Archon Basileus + presided[194] over the Anthesteria, and therefore over "the + contest at the Lenaeum"; and the agoranomi, the superintendents + of the market-place, whose duties were confined to the agora, + επετέλεσαν τους χύτρους.[195] + + [Footnote 194: POLLUX VIII. 89, 90. (ARISTOT. Άθες Πολιτεία.)] + + [Footnote 195: MOMMSEN, _Heortologie_, p. 352 note.] + + In closing, it may not be without interest to review the + picture presented of the most ancient Athens. Behind the + nine-gated Pelasgic fortifications lay the city, with its + temples, its palace, "the goodly house of Erechtheus," and its + dwellings for the people, remains of which can even now be seen + within the Pelasgicum. Immediately without the gate stood the + Pythium, the Olympieum, the temple of Ge _Kourotrophos_, and +Page 82 other foundations. Directly before the entrance, some two + hundred paces from the city-walls, was the spring Enneacrounus, + whose water was most esteemed by the citizens. Not far from + this was the wine-press. Here the people built the first altar, + the first temple, the first orchestra, and instituted the first + festival in honor of the wine-god, long before the new + Dionysian cult was brought in from Eleutherae; and here for + centuries were raised every year about the orchestra tiers of + wooden seats in preparation for the annual dramatic contests. + + JOHN PICKARD, + American School of Classical Studies, + Athens, 1891. + +Page 83 + + + CORRESPONDENCE. + + + HUNTING DELLA ROBBIA MONUMENTS IN ITALY. + + _To the Managing Editor of the American Journal of Archæology:_ + + _Dear Sir_: Having made a special study of the altarpiece by + Andrea Delia Robbia in the Metropolitan Museum, New York, my + desire was aroused to examine all the glazed terracotta + sculptures of the Delia Robbia school, which form such an + important part of Italian Renaissance sculpture. So I sailed + for Italy on the 6th of last May, taking with me a good camera + and a sufficient number of celluloid films, knowing beforehand + that there were many of these monuments which had never been + photographed and were consequently imperfectly known. An + investigation of this character, which takes one over the + mountains and into the valleys, from one end of Italy to the + other, may well be described as a hunting expedition; and, + though requiring severe labor and constant sacrifices, has in + it a considerable element of sport. Although Dr. Bode, of + Berlin in various writings has shown a more discriminating + knowledge of this subject than other writers, nevertheless the + work of Cavallucci and Molinier, _Les Della Robbia_, was more + useful to me as a guide and starter. They had catalogued as + many as 350 of these monuments in Italy, and briefly described + them. But their attributions were uncertain. Prof. Cavallucci + told me in Florence that unless he had a document in hand + indicating the authorship of a monument he felt great + hesitation in making attributions. And I could see, the more I + studied his work, that he considered it more important to + discover documents than to observe monuments. Here then was a + great opportunity to see a large series of monuments, to + compare them and allow them to tell their own story in regard + to their origin. Having with the aid of geographical + dictionaries and government maps located these 350 monuments, I + made up my mind to see as many of them as possible. This was no + easy task, as they were widely distributed and, as I + progressed, the number of uncatalogued monuments constantly + increased. I can give here but a bare outline of my trip. + Starting at Genoa, I went to Massa and Pisa and Lucca; from + Lucca following the valley of the Serchio as far north as +Page 84 Castelnuovo. Here I found a fine series of unphotographed + monuments, and began to learn that works of the same author and + period are very likely to be found in neighboring towns, + especially when lying along a valley. Similarly, starting from + Pracchia above Pistoia I studied another series of + unphotographed monuments at Gavinana, Lizano and Cutigliano. + These monuments may prove to be of importance in solving the + problem of the authorship of the celebrated Pistoian frieze. + + At Prato the monuments of this class have been photographed, + and are well known. Florence and its immediate surroundings + contain the most important works of Luca and of Giovanni Delia + Robbia, but is very poor in examples of Andrea Delia Robbia. + Hence the Florentines have a very inadequate notion of Andrea's + work, which must be studied at Arezzo, La Verna, Prato, Siena + and Viterbo. At Florence I was fortunate enough to find an + unpublished document ascribing one of the medallions at Or San + Michele to Luca Delia Robbia. Two of these medallions by the + elder Luca had never been photographed before, but have now + been taken by Alinari. So far as I know, the monuments at + Impruneta, ten miles from Florence, are unknown to students of + this subject. Three of them have been photographed by Brogi, + who gives no attributions. They are not mentioned by Cavallucci + nor by Dr. Bode; yet they are amongst the very finest works by + Luca Delia Robbia. In the private collection of the Marquis + Frescobaldi I recognized a fine Luca Delia Robbia, and in that + of the Marquis Antinori an excellent example of Giovanni's + work. Less important discoveries made in this region are too + numerous to mention. At Empoli, not many miles from Florence, + are several uncatalogued monuments and a fine example of a tile + pavement, which I identified as Delia Robbia work. I then + visited Poggibonsi and Volterra and Siena, and satisfied myself + that the beautiful coronation of the Virgin at the Osservanza + outside Siena is a chef-d'oeuvre of Andrea Delia Robbia. From + Asciano I visited Monte San Savino, Lucignano and Foiano and + took photographs of some fine, unrecognized works of Andrea + Delia Robbia. Another starting point was Montepulciano for a + long drive to Radicofani, a weird Etruscan site, whose churches + contained half a dozen unphotographed Delia Robbias, then to S. + Fiora, whose monuments have a greater reputation than they + deserve, to S. Antimo, a fine Cistercian ruin, and Montalcino. + At Perugia I photographed the monuments of Benedetto Buglione, + thus laying the basis for a study of his works, a number of + which may now be identified. In the case of his pupil, Santi + Buglione, I was less successful, as the chapel at Croce + dell'Alpe, which contained two authenticated altarpieces of his +Page 85 seems to have disappeared, not only from sight, but from the + memory of the inhabitants of the neighborhood. So the + reconstruction of his style involves a wider stretch of the + scientific imagination. At Acquapendente I found a unique + glazed terracotta altar signed by Jacopo Benevento, at Bolsena + took the first photograph of several monuments, and at Viterbo + had photographs made of the important lunettes by Andrea Delia + Robbia. At Rome I penetrated the mysteries of the Vatican and + discovered there a signed monument by Fra Lucas, son of Andrea + Delia Robbia, and found in the Industrial Museum several + monuments, which I identified as by the same author. Hitherto + Fra Lucas has been known only as the maker of tile pavements. + At Montecassiano there is a large monument concerning which a + document has been published in many Italian journals, ascribing + the authorship to Fra Mattia Delia Robbia. This has been + published from a drawing, and my photograph is the first taken + from the original monument. On the basis of a very imperfect + acquaintance with his style, other monuments are being freely + attributed to Fra Mattia. In the Marche there is a series of + terracotta altarpieces attributed to Pietro Paolo Agabiti, a + local painter of the XVI century. These attributions are purely + hypothetical, and the hypothesis that Fra Mattia might have + been their author is now being tested by local archaeologists. + I travelled over a large portion of this province, seeing some + important monuments, but without making discoveries of + importance. Umbria in general proved even less fruitful, the + terracotta monuments being of poor quality and showing little + or no Delia Robbia influence. + + A very interesting region comprises Città di Castello, Borgo + San Sepolcro, Arezzo and the Casentino. Here Andrea Delia + Robbia left his impress strongly marked, especially in the very + beautiful altarpieces at La Verna. As we approach Florence we + find more by Giovanni and his school, especially noteworthy + being the monuments at Galatrona and San Giovanni. + + When obliged to return home there remained very few known Delia + Robbia monuments in Italy which I had not visited; almost + everywhere I found more than had been already catalogued, and + my collection of photographs of these monuments is undoubtedly + the most complete in existence. Already considerable knowledge + has been gained of the differences of style, which + characterized the various members of the school, as I hope to + show in a series of articles for the _American Journal of + Archæology_. In order to complete this work I shall still have + to hunt further in the museums and private collections of + Spain, Portugal, France, England, Germany and Austria. There + are a few Delia Robbia monuments in this country, of which one +Page 86 is in Princeton, one in New York, one in Newport, R.I., and + several in Boston. + + Beside the direct pleasures of the chase and the bagging of + game, there are many incidental pleasures in such a hunting + expedition. + + One learns of the whereabouts of other monuments, acquires a + knowledge of the country, of the language, of the people and of + all the local surroundings that help explain to us the + significance of the past. + + Yours sincerely, + + ALLAN MARQUAND. + Guernsey Hall, Princeton, N.J., Dec, 27, 1892. + +Page 87 + + + REVIEWS ΑND NOTICES OF BOOKS. + + + ΜAXIME COLLIGNON. _Histoire de la Sculpture Grecque._ Tome I. + Firmin-Didot et Cie. Paris, 1892. + + + This is the first volume of what is likely to prove for some + time to come the best general history of Greek sculpture. The + personal inspection of monuments made during his connection + with the French school at Athens, and his training as a + lecturer at the Faculté des Lettres at Paris, have given M. + Collignon an admirable training for the production of this + book. We see in it also a hearty appreciation of more + specialized work. This is essentially a history from the + archæaeological standpoint, the monuments of Greek sculpture, + rather than written documents, being assumed as fundamental + material. In this respect he represents a more advanced stage + of archæological science than Overbeck. Again we feel in + reading the volume the constant assumption that the history of + Greek sculpture is a continuous evolution. Even when the + development is checked, as by the Dorian invasion, the element + of continuity is emphasized. The Dorians construct new forms + out of the elements which they find already established in + Greece. Thus the connecting links evincing the continuous flow, + are not lost sight of when he comes to treat of the different + schools. This regard for the general conditions of development + tempers his judgment and prevents him from formulating or + approving of irrelevant and improbable hypotheses. This is an + admirable temper for one who writes a general history. We do + not find here remote analogies and startling theories. There is + an even flow to the narrative which indicates to us that the + knowledge of Greek sculpture is now more connected, and that + many gaps have been filled in the list during a few years. Yet + M. Collignon is not a literary trimmer, steering a middle + course between opposing theories. He merely seeks for near and + probable causes, and is not carried away by resemblances which + have little historical value. His method is fundamentally the + historical method, the four books which compose the first + volume treating of the Primitive Periods, Early Archaic, and + Advanced Archaic Periods, and The Great Masters of the V + century. It is unnecessary to give here the general analysis of + the book, as it does not differ essentially from other similar +Page 88 histories, but we may notice the systematic method with which + he treats his material. At the opening of each new period he + briefly notes the general historical conditions, then having + classed the monuments by schools he considers the + characteristics of a few representative examples, and finally + endeavors to summarize the style of the school or period. In + doing this he is handling considerable new material which has + not yet found its way into general histories. Even to + specialists, this general treatment of a subject with which + they may be familiar in detail, is valuable. The book is a + summary and index to a large number of monographs scattered in + French, German, Greek and English periodicals, and we find it + much more convenient to have these references at the foot of + each page rather than gathered together at the end of the + volume as in Mrs. Mitchell's excellent history. Of course it is + no easy matter to distinguish sharply the characteristics of + different schools in a country as small as Greece, where there + was so much interaction, and the formulas, which are laid down + now, may require correction in a few years. Still the attempt + is well made, and is helpful in consolidating our knowledge. + + In a work of whose method we cordially approve, the defects, if + there be any, are likely to be in the way of omission of + material or under-valuation of that which is taken into + consideration. In the direction of omission we find that + practically no use whatever has been made of Cyprus as a school + of archaic Greek art, yet there is considerable material for + this in European museums as well as in the Metropolitan museum + in New York. In unduly estimating the value of the material in + hand, we find here and there more influence attributed to the + Phoenicians, than we should be inclined to allow. For example + (p. 43,) the ceiling at Orchomenos, is explained as Phoenician + because of the rosettes, and the same design upon Egyptian + ceilings at Thebes is explained as Phoenician also. Evidently + M. Collignon has not yet learned the grammar of the Egyptian + lotus. We commend him to Prof. Goodyear. He is also in error in + ascribing the first use of the term "lax-archaic" to Brunn's + article in the _Muth. Ath._ vii. p. 117, for it held an + important place in Semper's classification of Doric monuments + made three years earlier. But these are minor matters. The book + is abundantly illustrated, having twelve excellent plates in + lithograph and photogravure, and two hundred and seventy-eight + in the tone process and photoengraving. We regret that the tone + process had not been more extensively used, as the drawings do + not and cannot give a sufficiently full impression of the + objects. However, is it quite proper that the maker of a tone + process plate should sign it as is done here _Petit sculpsit_? + + A.M. + +Page 89 + + HEINRICH-BRUNN. _Griechische Götterideale in ihren Formen + erlüutert._ 8vo. pp. VIII, 110. München, Verlagsanstalt für + Kunst und Wissenschaft. 1892. + + This is not a systematic treatise, but a series of nine papers, + all of which, except the last, have been already published. But + we are grateful to Dr. Brunn and to his publishers for having + collected these articles, which were scattered in various + periodicals and written at wide intervals of time. In their + present form they are instructive as revealing to us Dr. + Brunn's general habits of mind in approaching his subject, as + well as more useful and better adapted to a wide circle of + readers. The first of these articles on the Farnese Hera + appeared in the _Bullettino dell' Instituto_, in 1846, and is + described as the "first attempt at the analytical consideration + of the ideal of a Greek God," while the entire series may be + taken as evidence that "the intellectual understanding of ideal + artistic productions can be reached only on the basis of a + thorough analysis of form." For his analysis of sculptural + form, and his keen intuitions, Dr. Brunn has long been held in + high esteem, and it is interesting to learn what we can of his + methods. In considering the Hera head he first examined the + original, afterwards a cast of it for many hours, then compared + these impressions with observations made upon a human scull. In + doing this he brings the work of art to nature, so as to + substantiate or correct his impressions. We see him following + the same method in the articles upon the Medusa and upon + Asklepios. But this reference to nature is for the most part + casual and incidental. It is not to nature but to literature + that he resorts for help. He is not content to trust himself + entirely to the method enunciated in the preface. He does not + rest satisfied with the ideals as he reads them in the + sculptured faces. He rather assumes that these ideals were + fixed before they were expressed in marble. He looks at the + heads of Hera and Zeus through "ox-eyed" and "dark-browed" + glasses. He accepts the Divine ideal from the pages of Homer, + rather than from the marble form, whenever it is possible. His + mind is still imbued with doctrines concerning the "eternity of + ideas" and "inward necessity," which he must have reached in + some other way than by the analysis of external forms. + + But while we may regard the method as not consistently applied, + we have no fault to find with the method and no sentiment but + that of admiration for the fine powers of observation displayed + in these articles. There seems to be nothing in the form of the + eye that escapes his attention. The slightest variations in the + form of the lids, in the positions of the eyeball, he notices +Page 90 and assumes that they were made the vehicles of expression. + Similarly the forehead, the mouth, the chin, the hair are most + attentively studied as vehicles of expression. Surely few, even + trained archæologists, can read these pages without having + their powers of observation quickened. By far the greater + portion of workers in the field of Greek sculpture are + concerned at the present time with the morphology of art for + the sake of its history. The analysis of forms is utilized to + ascertain an historical series, to discover schools, to + establish dates. Here we find scarcely a mention of schools or + artists, no reference to history and not a date. The analysis + of form leads to the interpretation of monuments and the + establishment of ideals. It is the physiology, not the history + of art. The publishers, who are gaining a world-wide reputation + for their photo process reproductions, have added to this book + a series of fine phototype plates. + + A.M. + +Page 91 + + + + + ARCHÆOLOGICAL NEWS. + + SUMMARY OF RECENT DISCOVERIES AND INVESTIGATIONS. + + + PAGE | PAGE | PAGE + ALGERIA, 113 | BABYLONIA, 131 | PERSIA, 134 + ARABIA, 131 | CAUCASUS, 146 | SYRIA, 140 + ARMENIA, 146 | CHINA, 127 | THIBET, 127 + ASIA (CENTRAL), 128 | ETHIOPIA, 111 | TUNISIA, 114 + ASIA MINOR, 147 | HINDUSTAN, 118 | + + + + AFRICA. + + + EGYPT. + + TEXTS OF THE PYRAMIDS.--_Biblia_ for November, 1892, contains + an article by Dr. Brugsch on "The Texts of the Pyramids." It + mentions the opening of one of the smaller pyramids of the + Sakkarah group in 1880 by Mariette Pasha and the discovery of a + number of hieroglyphic inscriptions beautifully chiseled into + the walls of the inner aisles and chamber, which gave the name + of the maker of the pyramid as Pepi, and fixed its date at the + VI Dynasty or about 3,000 B.C. Prof. Brugsch then gives an + account of his own work at the request of Mariette upon a + second pyramid opened by Mariette's men at Sakkarah, where the + walls of the chamber were covered with hieroglyphic + inscriptions. A granite coffin, also, was found adorned with + hieroglyphics repeating in different places the name of the + King. The inscriptions on the walls had been destroyed in a + number of places by treasure hunters. + + Maspero, Mariette's successor, opened a number of pyramids of + the same group and found a great quantity of inscriptions. As a + result, new texts were discovered in a number of pyramids of + which three belonged to the royal houses of the V and VI + Dynasties. Maspero then published a copy of all these + inscriptions together with their translation as far as this was + possible. + + These discoveries establish the important point in the study of + the language, that its "iconographic phrase" dates from the + most ancient times and goes back even to Menes the first king. + The grammar, vocabulary and the construction of words and + sentences betray the awkward stiffness of a language in its + first literary beginnings, but it is shown in all its youthful + strength and pregnance. + + A reciprocal comparison of all the texts found establishes the + fact that they belong to a collection of texts known as "the + Book." This "book" contained all the formulas and conjurations +Page 92 used after death, is a guide for the deceased in the unknown + future, and a book of charms, in which guise the Egyptian faith + made its appearance in the most ancient period of culture, + although containing nothing of the philosophy or history of the + ancient Egyptians, it gives us much interesting information + relating to mythology, geography, astronomy, botany and + zoology. + + For the ancient Egyptians believed that their earthly + districts, cities and temples had heavenly counterparts of the + same name; in fact, the whole geography of this world was + duplicated in the world to come. The celestial inhabitants + consist of the immortal company of the "shining" with the solar + god at their head. Each constellation is designated as the + abode of the soul of one god benificent or maleficent. In his + wanderings the soul of man came in contact with these abodes of + the evil gods and the book which covered the walls of his + mortuary chamber provided charms which made him proof against + harm. + + The texts of the pyramids promise to the departed the enjoyment + of a new life which he continues to live in the earth, in the + body, in heaven, in the spirit. The soul had power to reunite + itself to the body at will. We find in the texts mention of + Egyptian political institutions at the remotest period, the + existence of a high type of civilization. Agriculture was + highly developed. All the domestic animals, with the exception + of the horse and camel, are introduced, the arts of cooking, of + dressing and of personal adornment, all find mention. + + The texts of the pyramids then, though they fail to give us any + information with regard to the life or history of the kings + whose chambers they adorned have still much significance for + the universal history of civilization. + + + THE MARRIAGE OF AMENOPHIS IV.--The Amarna tablets show that + Amenophis married other Babylonian princesses besides Thi his + first wife who bore the title of "Royal mother, Royal wife, and + Queen of Egypt." A large tablet on exhibition at the British + Museum with two others in the museum at Berlin and one at Gizeh + gives a very entertaining correspondence between Amenophis and + Kallima-Sin, king of Chaldea and brother of one of Amenophis' + wives and father of two others. The tablet in the British + Museum is relative to the alliance with Lukhaite the youngest + daughter of the Chaldean king. + + Kallima-Sin is reluctant to give his daughter to the Pharaoh + and advances various reasons for his indisposition while + Amenophis smoothly explains away the various impediments. + + Matters take a new turn in the Berlin letter where we find the + Babylonian requesting a wife of the Egyptian monarch, the + request is curtly refused, whereupon Kallima-Sin replies, +Page 93 "Inasmuch as thou hast not sent me a wife, I will do in like + manner unto thee and hinder any lady from going from Babylon to + Egypt." Another letter however shows that Kallima-Sin finally + consented on condition of large emolument to send Lukhaite to + Egypt, and this very mercenary and diplomatic alliance was + finally made.--_Biblia_, V, pp. 108, 109. + + + THE DATE OF THE FOURTH EGYPTIAN DYNASTY.--Mr. Petrie's + statement in _Medum_ as to the passage-angle of Senefru's + pyramid completes a chain of astronomical evidence proving the + commencement of the IV Dynasty to have been very approximately + 3700 B.C. + + The entrance passage of the Medum pyramid has a polar distance + (allowing for the azimuth error of the passage) of about 45, + and, if intended for observation of a circumpolar star, fixes + the date of the structure within not very wide limits. Between + 4900 and 2900 B.C. no naked eye star was within this distance + of the pole, except the sixth magnitude star 126 Piazzi (XIII) + which was so situate about 3820 to 3620 B.C., its minimum + distance being about 36'. Allowing an uncertainty of a few + minutes of arc, a date fifty years on either side of these + extremes would satisfy the requirements of the case. + + The passage-angle of the Great Pyramid is 3° 30' below the pole + (3° 34' in the built portion, the latest). The Second Pyramid + passage has also an angle of about 3° 31' polar distance + (Smyth's measures--Perring and Vyse, whose angle measures are + not accurate, give 4° 5'). Finally the northern "trial-passage" + east of the Great Pyramid has the polar distance 3° 22' + or - + 8'. Now at the date 3650 B.C. the star 217 Piazzi (somewhat + brighter than that last named) was at a distance of 3° 29' from + the pole, increasing to 3° 34' by 3630 B.C. + + East of the Great Pyramid there are certain straight trenches + (one at the Ν.Ε. corner) running respectively 13° 6', 24° 22', + and 75° 58' east of North and west of South. At about the date + named these trenches pointed very nearly to Canopus at setting + and to Arcturus and Altair at rising, the average error of + azimuth being less than a degree. + + But even these differences of half a degree or so are accounted + for. Refraction at the horizon amounts to about 35' of arc; if + we assume that the Egyptian (?) astronomers took it roundly at + 30', and that they intended to observe the stars on the true + and not the apparent horizon, we find the azimuths would have + been (3645 B.C.):-- + + Canopus 13° 3' (W. of S.), Trench 13° 6' + Arcturus 24° 23' (E. of N.), " 24° 22' + Altair 76° 0' ( " ), " 75° 58' + + These figures speak for themselves. The dates 3645 B.C. for the + trenches and external works, and 3630 B.C. for the completion +Page 94 of the entrance passage, with an interval of fifteen years, + accord with the probabilities of the case. It should be + remembered that they are deduced quite independently. + + The net result is that the three reigns of Senefru, Khuffu, and + Kaffra may be definitely assigned to the century 3700-3600 + B.C.--G.F. HARDY, in _Academy_, Oct. 29. + + + THE PETRIE PAPYRI.--A paper was read by Prof. Mahaffy at the + Oriental Congress upon "The Gain to Egyptology from the Petrie + Papyri."--The first part of the papyri placed in his hands by + Mr. Flinders Petrie consisted of classical documents which had + already been printed by the Royal Irish Academy in the + Cunningham Memoirs. Of these a large volume had appeared, which + was exciting vehement controversy in Germany. But in addition + to these there was a great mass of private papers which had not + yet been printed, but which had been deciphered partly by Prof. + Sayce and partly by himself. These papers were in two + languages-Greek and demotic, or the popular language of the + Egyptians. These were in part hieroglyphs done into cursive. Of + these demotic fragments a large quantity had been sent to the + British Museum. The Greek papyri still remain in his own hands. + Strange to say, only one of these texts is bilingual. These + interesting documents might be divided into--(1) legal + agreements, of which some were contracts, others receipts, + others again taxing agreements; (2) correspondence, partly of a + public and partly of a private character. In the former were + official reports, petitions, complaints. The private + correspondence was especially interesting in showing the + condition of society at that date. A large number of + Macedonians and Greeks were settled in the Fayum under the + second Ptolemy, about 270 B.C. In addition there was a large + number of prisoners from Asia, who must have been brought into + Egypt after the great campaign of the third Ptolemy, about 246 + B.C. This mixed body were the recipients of large grants of + land in the Fayum. It was interesting to find that many of + these grants were as large as 100 acres, and the occupiers are + thus called εκατοντάρονροι. The farms were divided into three + classes of land. First, there was what was called the Royal + land, probably fruitful land was meant; the second class was + called αβροχος, or land still in need of irrigation; and the + third αφορος, or land which would bear nothing. This latter was + also called αλμυρίς, or the salt marsh, which was still common + in Egypt. These recipients or allottees of land were called by + a name familiar to all readers of Greek history--κληρουχοί. + Prof. Mahaffy had found no native landowner mentioned in the + papyri. But in many cases the natives had an interest in the +Page 95 crops on something like a _metayer_ system. Among the crops + grown were the vine, olives, wheat, barley, rye. There was + evidence in the legal papers that alienation of these farms was + not allowed. Among the contracts are many between Greeks and + natives. The principal officers of the Nome were the Strategos, + the Oeconomos, and the επιμελητης, or overseer. The + commissioner of works had charge of drainage and irrigation + works. It was amusing to find that two currencies were + prevalent at that period, silver and copper. This discovery + disposed of the current theory that the copper currency only + came in under the late Ptolemies. The phrases for the rate of + exchange had long been known--χαλκος ου αλλαγή, but he had now + got hold of a later term, ισόνομος which might be translated + 'at par.' These documents were also valuable, as being + transcriptions from Egyptian into Greek, with respect to our + knowledge of the Egyptian language. As the Egyptians did not + write down their vowels, the vocalisation of the language was + hardly yet known. But results of much importance were + gained--first, of a palaeographical, and, secondly, of a + linguistic character. We now know exactly how they wrote in the + third century B.C., and we have also learnt what was the Greek + used by the respectable classes of that epoch. The Greek was + far purer and better than that of the Septuagint would lead us + to expect. There was still a large number of papers to be + deciphered, and a large addition to our knowledge might be + expected.--_Academy_, Sept. 24. + + + A GREEK PAPYRUS OF THE OLD TESTAMENT.--At the Orientalist + Congress in London a most interesting document was submitted by + the Rev. Professor Hechler. It is a papyrus manuscript + discovered a few months ago in Egypt, and is supposed by some + authorities to be the oldest copy extant of portions of the Old + Testament books of Zachariah and Malachi. These pages of + papyrus when intact were about ten inches high and seven inches + wide, each containing 28 lines of writing, both sides of the + sheet being used. The complete line contains from fourteen to + seventeen letters. The sheets are bound together in the form of + a book in a primitive though careful manner with a cord and + strips of old parchment. The Greek is written without intervals + between the words. The papyrus is in fair preservation, and is + believed to date from the third or fourth century. It thus + ranks in age with the oldest Greek manuscripts of the + Septuagint version of the Old Testament in London, Rome and St. + Petersburg. The differences in this papyrus tend to the + conclusion that it was copied from some excellent original of + the Septuagint, which was first translated about the year 280 + B.C. The first summary examination has shown that it has + several new readings which surpass some of the other Septuagint +Page 96 texts in clearness of expression and simplicity of grammar. It + would also appear that it was copied from another Septuagint + Bible and was not written, as was frequently the case, from + dictation. A second scribe has occasionally corrected some + mistakes of orthography made by the original copyist. These are + still to be distinguished by the different color of the ink. + + Professor Hechler said it was sincerely to be hoped that this + papyrus of the Bible, probably the oldest now known to exist, + would soon be published in fac-simile. + + + THE DATE OF THE AEGEAN POTTERY.--Quite a discussion has been + carried on between Mr. Flinders Petrie and Mr. Cecil Torr on + the subject of the period of the Aegean pottery in Egypt which + Mr. Torr regards as having been assigned to too early a date by + Mr. Petrie. The recent discovery of such fragments in the ruins + of the palace of Khuenaten at Tell-el-Amarna, which existed for + little over half a century in the xiv century B.C., would + appear to prove beyond doubt the correctness of Mr. Petrie's + position.--See _Classical Review_ for March; Academy, May 14 + and 21, etc. + + + A PROFESSORSHIP OF EGYPTOLOGY.--Miss A.B. Edwards has left + almost the whole of her property to found a professorship of + Egyptology, under certain conditions, at University College, + London, The value of the chair will amount to about $2,000 a + year. Mr. W.M. Flinders Petrie has been appointed to this + chair, and no better selection could have been made. + + + EXCAVATIONS BY DR. BRUGSCH, COUNT D'HULST AND M. NAVILLE.--Dr. + H. Brugsch has been excavating during the past spring in the + Fayoum. At Hawara he has discovered a considerable number of + painted portraits. At Illahun he opened a tomb of the eleventh + dynasty, which had not been entered since the mummy was + originally deposited in it. Unfortunately the roof fell in + before it could be properly cleared out. At Shenhour he came + across the remains of a small temple. Since leaving the Fayoum + he has been working on the site of Sais. + + Count d'Hulst has been excavating at Behbet, near Mansourah, on + behalf of the Egypt Exploration Fund. The ruined temple there + is Ptolemaic, but the cartouche of Ramses II has been found in + the course of the excavations. + + Mr. Naville has returned to Europe. His excavations at Jmei + el-Amdîd, the supposed site of Mendes, have been unfruitful, + and he has fared no better at Tel el-Baghliyeh.--_Athenaeum_ + May 16. + +Page 97 + EXCAVATIONS BY LIEUT. LYONS AT WADY HALFAH, ABUSIR, + MATUGAH.--Lieut. H.G. Lyons has been continuing exploration at + _Wady Halfah_. He has cleared out the sand from one of the + temples, and found there eleven slabs with figures of a king + making offerings to the god Horus of Behen or Wady Halfah in a + chamber in front of the Hall of Columns. The names in the + cartouches have been erased, and it is, therefore, impossible + to identify the king. A second temple, with sandstone pillars + and mud brick walls, is inscribed in many places with the name + of Thothmes IV. This building had been flooded and filled to a + depth of 2 ft. with fine sand. The third temple of Wady Halfah + was completely surrounded by a line of fortifications, the + flanks of which rest on the river, but of these works only the + foundation remains. The discovery of them is, however, + decidedly important, for in them we must see beyond doubt the + great frontier fortress which marked the limit of the rule of + Egypt on the south. + + About five miles beyond the rock of _Abusir_, Lieut. Lyons has + excavated the large space, about two hundred yards square, + which is mentioned in Burckhard's 'Travels in Nubia,' and upon + which stand the ruined walls of what has been variously + described as a Roman fort or a monastery. He has come to the + conclusion that the building is undoubtedly Egyptian, and has + traced the site of the ancient stone temple inside it. + + He reports that he has discovered old Egyptian fortresses at + Halfa and at Matuga, twelve miles south, the latter containing + a cartouche of Usertesen III: and has opened three rocktombs at + Halfa.--_Academy_, July 16 and Aug. 6. + + + NOTES BY PROF. SAYCE.--Besides Tel el-Amarna, I have visited + El-Hibeh and the little temple of Shishak, which was uncovered + there last year. It is, unfortunately, in a most ruinous + condition. One of the natives took me to a recently-found + necropolis at a place under the cliffs called Ed-Dibân, some + two miles distant, which is plainly of the Roman age, and its + occupants belonged to the poorer classes. + + In the White Monastery near Sohâg, I found a stone with the + cartouche of Darius, which had formed part of the ancient + temple of Crocodilopolis. + + I picked up some fine flint spear-heads near the line of Roman + forts on the north side of the Gebel Sheikh Embârak, where I + discovered an enormous manufactory of flint weapons and tools + three years ago. + + Lastly, I may add that at the back of the Monastery of Mari + Girgis, about three miles south of Ekhmim, I found that another + cemetery of the early Coptic period has been discovered, and +Page 98 that it is providing the dealers with fresh supplies of ancient + embroideries.--A.H. SAYCE, in _Academy_, Feb. 27. + + + PRESERVATION OF MOHAMMEDAN MONUMENTS.--The Soc. for the + Protection of Ancient Buildings has protested, through Sir + Evelyn Baring, against the so-called restoration of the mosque + El-Mouyayyed and the mosque of Barkouk. It is proposed to + rebuild the domed minaret of Barkouk's mosque and the + suppressed bell-tower of the Sultan's mosque, which is to be + replaced by a bulbous roof.--_Chron. des Arts_, 1892, No. 31. + + + ABU-SIMBEL.--The Council of Ministers has granted £1,000 for + the preservation of Abu-Simbel, which is in danger of partial + destruction. The rock above the four colossi on the façade, + which is of sandstone with layers of clay, had become fissured, + threatening an immediate fall. A party of sappers from the army + of occupation have been sent to the temple, who, after binding + with chains the falling rock, will break it up. Further + examination will be made to ascertain whether additional work + is required for the protection of this temple.--_Academy_, + March 5. + + + ASSOUAN.--DAM.--A huge dam is to be thrown across the Nile at + Assouan: its height will raise the water to the level of the + floors of the ruins at Philae, enhancing rather than detracting + from their picturesque grandeur. It is said that the structure + of the dam will harmonize with the ancient architecture of + Philae. The material already cut and lying in the quarries of + Assouan will be almost sufficient to complete the + dam.--_Biblia_, V. p. 109. + + + TOMBS.--Some new tombs have been opened, one by the Crown + Princess of Sweden and Norway, the other by Mr. James. One of + them belonged to the reign of Nofer-Ka-Ra; and, in an + inscription found in it, Prof. Schiaparelli has read the name + of the land of Pun, which accordingly, was already known to the + Egyptians in the age of the dynasty.--PROF. SAYCE in _Academy_. + + + CAIRO (NEAR). DESTRUCTION OF AN ANCIENT CHRISTIAN CHURCH.--Rev. + Greville J. Chester writes (_Acad._ March 19). Permit me to + draw public attention to an almost incredible act of vandalism + which was perpetrated during the last year in Egypt, close to + the capital. The finest Roman ruin in Egypt was the fortress of + Babylon, south of Cairo, known also as Mus'r el Ateekeh and + Dayr esh Shemma. One of the most interesting sights in that + Dayr was the Jewish synagogue, anciently the Christian Church + of St. Michael, but desecrated by being handed over in the +Page 99 middle ages by an Arab Sultan to the Jews, and thenceforward to + the present time used by them as a place of worship. The + building was of much architectural interest. The old Christian + nave and aisles were preserved intact; but the Jews had + destroyed the apse which must have existed, and had replaced it + by a square Eastern sanctuary, and over the niche, within which + were preserved the Holy Books of the Law, had adorned the wall + with numerous Hebrew texts executed in gesso, forming an + interesting example of Jewish taste and work in the middle + ages. Some of the ancient Christian screenwork of wood was + preserved, but was turned upside down, probably because + gazelles and other animals formed part of the design. Behind + this building, in a sort of court, the very finest portion of + the original wall of the Roman fortress was visible, and, what + is more important, the inner and most perfect circuit of one of + the Roman bastion-towers, which outside looked out on the + desert. + + All this is now a thing of the past. The Jews have razed the + ancient church and synagogue to the ground, and in its place + have erected a hideous square abomination, supported internally + on iron pillars. Of the fine Roman wall which bounded the + property, and with it the bastion-tower, with its courses of + brick at regular intervals, and its deeply-splayed windows, not + a vestige now remains. + + + CAIRO.--GIZEH MUSEUM.--M. de Morgan has been appointed director + of the Museum in place of M. Grébaut. This will meet with + general approval. He is young and energetic, and the work he + has done in the Caucasus and in Persia has placed him in the + front rank of archaeologists and explorers. Moreover, he is an + engineer, and therefore possesses a practical knowledge which, + in view of the conservation of the ancient monuments of Egypt, + is a matter of prime importance. He has asked the Board of + Public Works for £50,000 in order to secure the building + against fire; it is built of very inflammable material. During + the past summer the museum has been entirely rearranged by him. + Of the rooms in the palace, only some thirty-eight contained + antiquities last winter; now, however, about eighty-five are + used as exhibition rooms, and, for the first time, it is + possible to see of what the Egyptian collection really + consists. On the ground floor the positions of several of the + large monuments have been changed, and the chronological + arrangement is better than it was before. In one large room are + exhibited for the first time eleven fine _mastaba_ stelæ of the + Ancient Empire, (VI. Dyn.) which were brought from Sakkarah + during the past summer; they are remarkable for the brightness + of the colours, the vigour of the figures, and the beauty of + the hieroglyphics. On the same floor are two splendid colossal + statues of the god Ptah which have been excavated at Memphis + the hieroglyphics. On the same floor are two splendid colossal + statues of the god Ptah which have been excavated at Memphis +Page 100 during last summer, and many other large objects from the same + site. In a series of rooms, approached from the room in which + the Dêr el-Bahari mummies are exhibited, are arranged the + coffins and mummies of the priests of Amen which were brought + down from Thebes two years ago. The coffins are of great + interest, for they are ornamented with mythological scenes and + figures of gods which seem to be peculiar to the period + immediately following the rule of the priest-kings at Thebes, + _i.e._, from about B.C. 1000 to 800. + + A new and important feature in the arrangement of the rooms on + the upper floor is the section devoted to the exhibition of + papyri. Here in flat glazed cases are shown at full length fine + copies of the 'Book of the Dead,' hieratic papyri, including + the unique copy of the 'Maxims of Ani.' and many other papyri + which have been hitherto inaccessible to the ordinary visitor. + To certain classes of objects, such as scarabs, blue glazed + _faïence_, linen sheets, mummy bandages and garments, + terracotta vases and vessels, alabaster jars, &c., special + rooms are devoted. The antiquities which, although found in + Egypt, are certainly not of Egyptian manufacture, _e.g._, Greek + and Phœnician glass, Greek statues, tablets inscribed in + cuneiform from Tel el-Amarna, &c., are arranged in groups in + rooms set apart for them; and the monuments of the Egyptian + Christians or Copts are also classified and arranged in a + separate room.--_Athenæum_, May 14 and Nov. 19. + + + THE FRENCH SCHOOL AT CAIRO.--M. Maspero analyzed before the + _Acad. des Inscr._ (Oct. 28), the recent work and immediate + prospects of the French School at Cairo. The _Memoirs_ recently + issued show the field that it covers at present. First comes a + fascicule of Greek texts, the mathematical papyrus of Akmim, + explained and commented by M. Baillet; a long fragment of the + Greek text of the Book of Enoch, remains of the apocryphal + Gospel and Apocalypse of St. Peter, reproduced by M. Bouriant. + All these works are of extreme importance for primitive church + history. Arab archæology is represented by memoirs of M. + Casonova on an Arab globe, on sixteen Arab steles, and + especially by M. Burgoin's great work on Arab art in Egypt. + Father Scheil makes an incursion into Assyriology by his + publication of some of the Tel el-Amarna tablets, and in this + connection M. Maspero states that the intention of the school + is to extend their researches to Syria and Mesopotamia and to + include the entire East both ancient and modern. In the + Egyptian domain, besides the Theban fragments of the Old + Testament and the remains of the Acts of the Council of + Ephesos, the notable event is the appearance of the first + fasciculus of the work on _Edfu_ by M. de Rochemonteix. In it a +Page 101 complete temple will be placed before students. The entire + Egyptian religion will be illustrated, in all its + rituals,--ritual of foundation, of sacrifice, of the feast of + Osiris. M. Benedite has commenced in the same way the + publication of the Temples of Philae.--_Revue Critique_, 1892, + No. 45. + + The investigations enumerated above are far from being all. + They represent merely the official governmental side of the + work. The learned societies have done a great deal; such as the + Ecole des lettres of Algiers, the management of historical + monuments (Tebessa), and the French School of Rome. + + + EL-KARGEH.--PLASTER BUSTS.--At a meeting of the _Académie des + Inscriptions_, M. Héron de Villefosse exhibited four painted + plaster busts from El-Kargeh, in the Great Oasis, which have + recently been sent to the Louvre by M. Bouriant, director of + the French School at Cairo. They have been taken from the lids + of sarcophagi; but the peculiarity about them is that the heads + were not in the same plane with the body, but as it were erect. + The features have been modelled with extraordinary + verisimilitude; the eyes are of some glassy material, in black + and white; the hair was modelled independently, and afterwards + fitted to the plaster head; the painting is in simple + colours--various shades of red for the skin, and black or brown + for the hair. M. Héron de Villefosse maintained that they were + certainly portraits. The physiognomy of one is Jewish; another + recalls a bronze head from Cyrene in the British Museum, which + Fr. Lenormant considered to be of Berber type; the third might + be Syrian, and the fourth Roman. The date is probably about the + time of Septimius Severus. M. Maspero declared that he had + never seen anything of the kind in any museum.--_Academy_, July + 9. + + These busts have been placed on exhibition at the Louvre, in + the _Salle des fresques_.--_Chron. des Arts_, 1892, No. 28. + + According to a writer in the _Temps_, two are Greeks, one + Syrian and one a Jew. The Greeks are blond with straight hair; + the others have dark brown curly hair. All are bearded. The + drapery is white.--_Chron. des Arts_, 1892, No. 30. + + The department of Greek and Roman antiquities at the Louvre has + also received from M. Bouriant two funerary inscriptions found + in the necropolis dating from the second century A.D. One is + Latin, tha other Greek.--_Chron. des Arts_, 1892, No. 32. + + + CHATBI (NEAR).--NECROPOLIS.--M. Botti has discovered between + Chatbi and Ibrahimieh a Roman necropolis of the first or second + century A.D.. at a depth of fourteen metres. It is excavated in + soft calcareous stone and its chambers and corridors are +Page 102 reached by a rock-cut staircase. + + The bodies are both laid on the floor and placed in jars. They + were intact.--_Chron. des Arts_, 1892, No. 30. + + + EL-QAB.--Mr. Taylor has been excavating here for the Egypt + exploration fund, in continuation of the previous year's work. + Prof. Sayce reports, after Mr. Taylor's departure (_Acad._, + March 12), that more of the foundations of the old temple which + stood within the temple were then visible than the preceding + year. The fragmentary remains show that among its builders were + Usertesen (xii dyn.), Sebekhotep II (xiii dyn.), Amenophis I + and Thothmes III (xviii dyn.) and Nektanebo I (xxx dyn.) In one + of the tombs Nofer-Ka-Ra is alluded to as (apparently) the + original founder of the sanctuary. + + + GEBELEN.--TEMPLE OF HOR-M-HIB.--Prof. Sayce writes. "On the + voyage from Luxor to Assuan I stopped at Gebelon, and found + that the Bedouin squatters there had unearthed some fragments + of sculptured and inscribed stones on the summit of the + fortress built by the priest-king Ra-men-kheper and queen + Isis-m-kheb to defend this portion of the Nile. On examination + they turned out to belong to a small temple which must once + have stood on the spot. The original temple, I found, had been + constructed of limestone by Hor-m-hib, the last king of the + xviii dynasty, and brilliantly ornamented with sculpture and + painting. Additions had been made to the temple, apparently by + Seti I.; since besides the stones belonging to Hor-m-hib, there + were other fragments of the same limestone as that of which the + temple of Seti at Abydos is built, and covered with bas-reliefs + and hieroglyphs in precisely the same delicate style of art. + Eventually a building of sandstone had been added to the + original temple on the west side by Ptolemy VII Philometor. It + may be noted that Ra-men-kheper used bricks burnt in the kiln + as well as sun-dried bricks in the construction of the + fortress, as he also did in the construction of the fortress at + El-Hibeh.--_Academy_, March 12." + + + HAT-NUB.-THE EARLY QUARRY.-This interesting quarry has been + recently discovered by Mr. Griffith. Mr. Petrie writes: Allow + me to note that in this quarry, described by Mr. Griffith + (_Academy_, Jan. 23), and situated ten miles southeast of El + Tell in this plain, the main quarry does not contain any name + later than the vi Dynasty. The tablet in the thirtieth year + being of Pepi II (Nefer-ka-ra), and mentioning the _sed_ + festival in that year, this might refer to the Sothiac festival + of 120 years falling in that year, and so be important as a + datum. There are seven painted inscriptions of Pepi II, + containing about fifty lines in all. There are also a great + number of incised graffiti.--_Academy_, Feb. 20. +Page 103 + + HAWARA.--MUMMY PORTRAITS.--Among the most important discoveries + of the year is that by Dr. Brugsch, of three mummy portraits in + the desert of Hawara. These were found, uncoffined, and buried + at a very slight depth below the surface. + + The first is that of a woman: the portrait is brilliantly + executed in tempera, on canvas, and is the most ancient of + paintings on canvas known, for its date cannot be fixed later + than the first century B.C. + + The next portrait was on the mummy of a man but instead of a + painting on canvas is a relief in stucco, gilded. The features + are carefully reproduced, as are the beard and whiskers. + + The third mummy was provided with a beautifully executed + portrait on wood which is one of the best examples of ancient + painting, though not so rare as the other, for ancient + portraits painted on wood have long been known.--_Biblia_, + V.P. + + + HELIOPOLIS.--M. Philippe, the Cairo dealer in antiquities, is, + with permission from the Gizeh Museum, carrying on excavations + at Heliopolis, which have brought to light some tombs of the + Saïtic period.--_Academy_, Nov. 12. + + + KOM-EL-AHMAR.--"At Kom el-Ahmar, opposite El-Qab, I visited two + recently-discovered tombs, which contain the cartouches of + Pepi, and are in a fairly perfect condition. The walls are + covered with delicate paintings in the style of those of + Beni-Hassan, and explanatory inscriptions are attached to them. + The early date of the paintings and inscriptions makes them + particularly interesting. The tombs are still half buried in + the sand, and only the upper part of the internal decoration is + visible."--PROF. SAYCE, in _Academy_, April 2. + + + MEIR.--The authorities of the Gizeh Museum have, on the + suggestion of Johnson Pasha, caused excavations to be made at + Meïr, near Deirut, in Upper Egypt, which have already resulted + in the discovery of some tombs of the XI dynasty. It is + intended to continue these excavations.--_Academy_, Nov. 12. + + MEMPHIS.--DISCOVERIES BY M. DE MORGAN.--At a meeting of the + _Acad. des Inscr._ Prof. Maspero communicated the result of the + excavations on the site of Memphis by M. de Morgan. He has + discovered among the ruins of the temple of Ptah a number of + monuments of importance. First, a large boat of granite, + similar to that in the museum at Turin, on which the figures + are destroyed; next, several fragmentary colossi of Rameses II, + and in particular two gigantic upright figures, dedicated by + this king, of Ptah, the god of Memphis, enshrouded in + mummy-wrappings and holding a sceptre in both hands; lastly, + some isolated figures, arranged in a court or a chamber. The +Page 104 importance of this discovery, said Prof. Maspero, will be + realised when we bear in mind that we possess no divine image + of large size, and that the very existence of statues of gods + in Egyptian temples has sometimes been denied.--_Academy_, + Sept. 17. + + + SEHEL.--THE TENTH DYNASTY.--Prof. Sayce reports that he has + been finding evidences of the little-known X dynasty in the + immediate neighborhood of the First Cataract. "Mr. Griffith and + Prof. Maspero have shown that certain of the tombs at Siût + belonged to the period when this dynasty ruled in Egypt. I have + now discovered inscriptions which show that its rule was + recognized on the frontiers of Nubia. + + "An examination of the position occupied by the numerous + inscriptions on the granite rocks of the island of Sehêl have + made it clear to me that we must recognize two periods in the + history of the sanctuary for which the island was famous. + During the second period the temple stood on the eastern slope + of an eminence where I found remains of it two years ago. As I + also found fragments of it bearing the name of Thothmes III on + the one hand, and of Ptolemy Philopator on the other, it must + have existed from the age of the XVII dynasty down to Ptolemaic + times. Throughout this period the inscriptions left by pious + pilgrims to the shrine all face the site of the temple. So also + do a certain number of inscriptions which belong to the age of + the XII and XIII dynasties. But the majority of the + inscriptions which belong to the latter age, like the + inscriptions which are proved by the occurrence of the names of + Antef and Mentuhotep to be of the time of the _xi_ dynasty, + face a different way. They look southward. + + "This winter I have come across a large number of inscriptions + on the mainland side of the channel which look northward, that + is, towards the island. A few of these inscriptions are of the + time of the XII dynasty, but the greater number belong to the + XI dynasty, and one is dated in the forty-first year of + Ra-neb-kher. It would seem, therefore, that at the epoch when + they were inscribed on the rocks the sanctuary of Sehêl stood + either in the middle of the southern channel of the river or + upon its edge. + + "On the island side of the channel there are a good many + inscriptions which are shown by the weathering of the + hieroglyphs to be older than the age of the XI dynasty. Indeed, + the inscription of an Antef is cut over one of them. They all + present the same curious forms of hieroglyphic characters, and + contain for the most part titles and formulæ not met with in + the later texts. Moreover, they are not dedicated like the +Page 105 later texts to the divine trinity of the Cataract, Khnum, + Anuke, and Sati, but to a deity whose name is expressed by a + character resembling an Akhem seated on a basket. Mr. Wilbour + and I first noticed it last year. + + "One of the early inscriptions contains a cartouche which reads + Ra-nefer-hepu, the last element being represented by the + picture of a rudder. Now Mr. Newberry and his companions at + Beni-Hassan have discovered that one of the groups of tombs + which exist there is of older date than the time of the XII + dynasty. In this group of tombs occurs the name of a lady who + was called Nefer-hepu. She must have been born in the reign of + Ra-nefer-hepu, and will consequently belong, not to the age of + the XI dynasty, but to that of one of the dynasties which + preceded it. + + "That this dynasty was the X is made pretty clear by the + inscriptions on the mainland side of the channel I have + described. Here I have found inscriptions of the early sort + mingled with those of the XI dynasty in such a way as to show + that they cannot have been widely separated in age. Moreover, + in one of them, the name of Khatî is associated with that of + Ra-mer-ab; and Khatî is not only a name which characterises the + XI dynasty, but it was also the name of the owner of one of the + tombs at Siût, which Mr. Griffith has proved to belong to the + time of the X dynasty. We were already acquainted with the name + of Ra-mer-ab from a scarab; and two years ago Mr. Bouriant + obtained a bronze vase which gave the double name of Ra-mer-ab + Kherti. Kherti is a king of the X dynasty. By the side of the + inscription which contains the name of Ra-mer-ab, I found + others with the names of Ra-mer-ankh and Ameni. That Ameni was + a king of the X dynasty has already been suspected. + + "The inscriptions I have copied this winter, therefore, have + not only given us the names of some kings of the X dynasty, one + of them previously unknown; they have also shown that the power + of the dynasty was acknowledged as far south as the Cataract. + Moreover, they indicate that the government must have passed + from the X to the XI dynasty in a peaceful and regular manner." + + + SHAT-ER-RIGALEH.--Prof. Sayce writes: I have visited the + famous "Shat er-Rigâleh," the valley a little north of Silsilis + and the village of El-Hammâni, in which so many monuments of + the XI dynasty have been discovered by Messrs. Harris, + Eisenlohr, and Flinders Petrie. To these I have been able to + add another cartouche, that of Ra-nofer-neb, a king who is + supposed to belong to the XIV dynasty. His name and titles have + been carved on the rock at the northern corner of the entrance + into the valley by a certain Ama, a memorial of whom was found + by Mr. Petrie in the Wadi itself (_A Season in Egypt_, pl. XV. + No. 438). Mr. Spicer, whose dahabiyeh accompanied mine, +Page 106 photographed the inscriptions in which Mentuhotep-Ra-neb-kher + of the XI dynasty is mentioned, as well as the one which + enumerates the names of three kings of the XVIII dynasty, + Amenophis I, Thothmes I, and Thothmes II. One of the + inscriptions of Mentuhotep is dated in the thirty-ninth year of + the king's reign. The epithet _mâ-kheru_ "deceased" is attached + only to the cartouche of Amenophis I, not to those of the other + two kings, proving that they reigned + contemporaneously.--_Academy_, March 12. + + + TEL EL-AMARNA.--EXCAVATIONS BY MR. PETRIE.--Mr. Petrie + communicates the following report to the _Academy_: "During the + last four months I have been excavating at this place, the + capital of Khuenaten. Past times have done their best to leave + nothing for the present--not even a record. The Egyptians + carried away the buildings in whole blocks down to the lowest + foundations, completely smashed the sculptures, and left + nothing in the houses; and the Museum authorities, and a + notorious Arab dealer, have cleared away without any record + what had escaped the other plunderers of this century. I have + now endeavoured to recover what little remained of the art and + history of this peculiar site, by careful searching in the + town. From the tombs I am debarred, although the authorities + are doing nothing whatever there themselves, and the tomb of + Khuenaten remains uncleared, with pieces of the sarcophagus and + vessels thrown indiscriminately in the rubbish outside." + + The region of main interest is the palace; and the only way to + recover the plan was by baring the ground, and tracing the + bedding of the stones which are gone. For this I have cleared + all the site of the buildings, and in course of the work + several rooms with portions of painted fresco pavements have + been found. One room which was nearly entire, about 51 by 16 + feet, and two others more injured, have now been entirely + exposed to view, and protected by a substantial house, well + lighted, and accessible to visitors, erected by the Public + Works Department. With the exception of a pavement reported to + exist at Thebes, these are the only examples of a branch of art + which must have been familiar in the palaces of Egypt. The + subjects of these floors are tanks with fish, birds, and lotus; + groups of calves, plants, birds, and insects; and a border of + bouquets and dishes. But the main value of these lies in the + new style of art displayed; the action of the animals, and the + naturalistic grace of the plants, are unlike any other Egyptian + work, and are unparalleled even in classical frescoes. Not + until modern times can such studies from nature be found. Yet + this was done by Egyptian artists; for where the lotus occurs, +Page 107 the old conventional grouping has constrained the design, and + the painter could not overstep his education, though handling + all the other plants with perfect individuality. That + Babylonian influence was not active, is seen by the utter + absence of any geometrical ornament; neither rosettes or stars, + frets or circles, nor any other such elements are seen, and + perhaps no such large piece of work exists so clear of all but + natural forms. Some small fragments of sculptured columns show + that this flowing naturalism was as freely carried out in + relief as in colour. + + Of the architecture there remain only small pieces flaked off + the columns. By comparing these the style can be entirely + recovered; and we see that both the small columns in the + palace, and those five feet thick in the river frontage, were + in imitation of bundles of reeds, bound with inscribed bands, + with leafage on base and on capital, and groups of ducks hung + up around the neck. A roof over a well in the palace was + supported by columns of a highly geometrical pattern, with + spirals and chevrons. In the palace front were also severer + columns inscribed with scenes, and with capitals imitating + gigantic jewellery. The surface was encrusted with brilliant + glazes, and the ridges of stone between the pieces were gilt, + so that it resembled jewels set in gold. An easy imitation of + this was by painting the hollows and ridges, and the crossing + lines of the setting soon look like a net over the capital. We + are at once reminded of the "net work" on the capitals of + Solomon, and see in these columns their prototype. + + This taste for inlaying was carried to great lengths on the + flat walls. The patterns were incrusted with coloured glazes, + and birds and fishes were painted on whole pieces and let into + the blocks; hieroglyphs were elaborately carved in hard stones + and fixed in the hollowed forms, black granite, obsidian, and + quartzite in white limestone, and alabaster in red granite. The + many fragments of steles which have come from here already, and + which I have found, appear to show a custom of placing one + stele--with the usual adoration of the sun by the king and + queen--in each of the great halls of the palace and temple. + These steles are in hard limestone, alabaster, red granite, and + black granite. I have found more steles on the rocks on both + sides of the Nile, and have seen in all eight on the eastern + and three on the western cliffs. + + The history of this site, and of the religious revolutions, is + somewhat clearer than before. Khuenaten came to the throne as a + minor; for in his sixth year he had only one child, and in his + eighth year only two, as we learn from the steles, suggesting + that he was not married till his fifth year apparently. On his + marriage he changed his name from Amenhotep IV (which occurs on +Page 108 a papyrus from Gurob in his fifth) to Khuenaten (which we find + here in the sixth). A scarab which I got last year in Cairo + shows Amenhotep (with Amen erased subsequently) adoring the + cartouches of the Aten, settling his identity with Khuenaten. + In a quarry here is the name of his mother, Queen Thii, without + any king; so she was probably regent during his minority, and + started this capital here herself. + + The character of the man, and the real objects of his + revolution in religion and art, are greatly cleared by our now + being able to see him as in the flesh. By an inexplicable + chance, there was lying on the ground, among some stones, a + plaster cast taken from his face immediately after his death + for the use of the sculptors of his funeral furniture; with it + were the spoilt rough blocks of granite _ushabtis_ for his + tomb. The cast is in almost perfect condition, and we can now + really study his face, which is full of character. There is no + trace of passion in it, but a philosophical calm with great + obstinacy and impracticability. He was no vigorous fanatic, but + rather a high bred theorist and reformer: not a Cromwell but a + Mill. An interesting historical study awaits us here from his + physiognomy and his reforms. No such cast remains of any other + personage in ancient history. + + According to one view, he was followed successively by four + kings, Ra saa ka khepru, Tut ankhamen, Ai, and Horemheb, in + peaceable succession. But of late it has been thought that the + last three were rival kings at Thebes; and that they upheld + Amen in rivalry to Khuenaten and his successor, who were cut + very short in their reigns. Nothing here supports the latter + view. A great number of moulds for making pottery rings are + found here in factories; and those of Tut ankhamen are as + common and as varied as of Khuenaten, showing that he was an + important ruler here for a considerable time. Of Ai rings are + occasionally found here, as also of Horemheb, who has left a + block of sculpture with his cartouche in the temple of Aten. So + it is certain that he actually upheld the worship of Aten early + in his reign, and added to the buildings here, far from being a + destructive rival overthrowing this place from Thebes. + Afterwards he re-established Amen (as I got a scarab of his in + Cairo, "establishing the temple of Amen"), and he removed the + blocks of stone wholesale from here to build with at Thebes. + Later than Horemheb there is not a trace here; Seti and Ramessu + are absolutely unknown in this site, showing that it was + stripped of stone and deserted before the XIX dynasty. Hence, + about two generations, from 1400 to 1340 B.C., are the extreme + limits of date for everything found here. The masonry was + re-used at Thebes, Memphis, and other places where the name of + Khuenaten has been found. +Page 109 + The manufactures of this place were not extensive--glass and + glazes were the main industries; and the objects so common at + Gurob (metal tools, spindles, thread, weights, and marks on the + pottery) are all rare here. The furnace and the details of + making the coloured blue and green frits, have been found. + Pottery moulds for making the pendants of fruits, leaves, + animals, &c., are abundant in the factories; and a great + variety of patterned "Phoenician" glass vases are found, but + only in fragments. + + The cuneiform tablets discovered here were all in store rooms + outside the palace; they were placed by the house of the + Babylonian scribe, which was localised by our finding the waste + pieces of his spoilt tablets in rubbish holes. A large quantity + of fragments are found of the Aegean pottery, like that of the + early period at Mykenae and Ialysos. This is completely in + accord with what I found at Gurob, but with more variety in + form. The Phoenician pottery which I found at Lachish is also + found here, so we now have a firm dating for all these styles. + The connexion between the naturalistic work of these frescoes + and the fresco of Tiryns and the gold cups of Vaphio is + obvious; and it seems possible that Greece may have started + Khuenaten in his new views of style, which he carried out so + fully by his native artists. The similarity of the geometrical + pattern columns to the sculptures of the Mykenae period is + striking; hitherto such Egyptian decoration was only known in + colour, and not in relief. We have yet a great deal to learn as + to the influences between Greece and Egypt, but this place has + helped to open our eyes.--W.M. FLINDERS PETRIE in _Academy_, + April 9. + + + CUNEIFORM TABLETS.--Prof. Sayce while in Egypt spent several + days at Tel el-Amarna with Mr. Petrie, and examined the + fragments of cuneiform tablets which he has discovered there. + Among them are portions of letters from the governors of + Musikhuna, in Palestine, and Gebal, in Phœnicia. The most + interesting were some lexical fragments. One or two of these + formed part of a sort of comparative dictionary of three (or + perhaps five) different languages, one of them of course being + Babylonian, in which the words of the other languages are + explained at length. The work seems to have been compiled by + "order of the King of Egypt." Another work was a dictionary of + Sumerian and Babylonian, in which the pronunciation of the + Sumerian is given as well as their ideographic representation. + Thus the Babylonian _risápu_ and _di_ _kate_ are stated to be + the equivalents not only of the ideographic _gaz-gaz_, but also + of the phonetically written _ga-az-ga-az_. This confirms the +Page 110 views of Professors Sayce and Oppert, expressed long ago, as to + the comparatively late date at which _Accado-Sumerian_ ceased + to be a spoken language.--_Academy_, May 14. + + + TOMB OF KHUENATEN OR AMENOPHIS IV.--Prof. Sayce writes to the + _Academy_ of Feb. 27. I have been spending a few days at Tel + el-Amarna. Mr. Flinders Petrie is excavating the ruins of the + old city of Khuenaten, while M. Alexandre, on behalf of the + Gizeh Museum, has spent the summer and autumn among the tombs + of Tel el-Amarna, and his labours have been rewarded by some + important discoveries. At the entrance to one of the tombs, for + instance, he has found stelae of the usual tombstone shape let + into the wall like the dedication tablets of Greek and Roman + times. The removal of the sand from the foot of the great stela + of Khuenaten, first discovered by Prisse d'Avennes, has brought + to light a most interesting text. This describes the distance + of the stelae erected by the Pharaoh one from the other, and + thus defines the limits of the territory belonging to the city + which he built. + + But M. Alexandre's crowning discovery--a discovery which is one + of the most important made in Egypt in recent years--did not + take place until December 30. It was nothing less than the + discovery of the tomb of Khuenaten himself. The tomb is well + concealed, and is at a great distance from the river and the + ruins of the old city. Midway between the northern and the + southern tombs of Tel el-Amarna, in the amphitheatre of cliffs + to the east of the ancient town, are two ravines, more than + three miles from the mouth of one of them, towards the head of + a small valley is the tomb. It resembles the famous "Tombs of + the Kings" at Thebes, being in the form of a subterranean + passage cut in the rock, and sloping downwards at an acute + angle to a distance of more than 100 metres. In front of the + entrance is a double flight to steps also cut out of the rock, + with a slide for the mummy between them. After entering the + passage of the tomb, which is broad and lofty, we pass on the + right another long passage, probably intended for the queen, + but never finished. Soon afterwards we come to a chamber, also + on the right, which serves as an antechamber to another within. + The walls of both chambers have been covered with stucco, and + embellished with hieroglyphs and sculptures. Among the latter + are figures of prisoners from Ethiopia and Syria, of the solar + disk, and of female mourners who weep and throw dust on their + heads. From the inscriptions we learn that the two chambers + were the burial-place of Khuenaten's daughter Aten-mert, who + must consequently have died before him. It further follows that + Ra-si-aa-ka, Aten-mert's husband, who received the titles of + royalty in consequence of his marriage, must have been coregent + with Khuenaten. +Page 111 + Khuenaten himself was buried in a large square-columned hall at + the extreme end of the tomb. Fragments of his granite + sarcophagus have been found there by M. Alexandre, as well as + pieces of the exquisitely fine mummy cloth in which his body + was wrapped. At the entrance to the tomb M. Alexandre also + picked up broken _ushebtis_, upon which the cartouches of + Khuenaten are inscribed. Before the Pharaoh had been properly + entombed it would seem that his enemies broke into his last + resting-place, destroyed his sarcophagus, tore the wrappings of + his mummy to shreds, and effaced the name and image of his god + wherever it was engraved upon the wall. The only finished + portions of the tomb are the chambers in which his daughter was + buried. Elsewhere the tomb is in the same condition as the + majority of the tombs of his adherents. The walls have never + been covered with stucco, much less painted or sculptured, and + even the columns of the magnificent hall in which his + sarcophagus was placed remains rough-hewn. It is clear that the + king died suddenly, and that he was buried in haste on the + morning of a revolution. His followers may have made a stand + against their enemies for a few months, but it is difficult to + believe from the state in which the tomb has been found that + they can have done so for a longer time. Very shortly after + Khuen-Aten's death his city must have been destoyed, never to + be inhabited again. + + Mr. Petrie in a letter to the _Academy_ says: "It has long been + known that the Arabs had obtained access to the tomb of the + remarkable founder of Tel el-Amarna; the heart scarab of + Khuenaten was sold two or three years ago at Luxor, and the + jewellery of Neferti-iti, his queen, a year or two before + that." + + The entrance is like that of the tomb of Seti I at Thebes; but + the sloping passage is about half the length of + that.--_Academy_, Feb. 6. + + + COLLECTION IN LONDON.--The collections of sculpture, painting, + faience, &c., which Mr. Flinders Petrie brought back from his + excavations last winter at Tel el-Amarna have been placed on + view at 4 Oxford-mansion, Oxford-circus, W. Their special + interest is that they reveal an hitherto unknown form of art, + remarkable both for its originality and for its spirited + rendering of natural objects. The resemblance to some of the + finest objects of Mycenaean work is very striking. The + exhibition remained open until October 15.--_Academy_, Sept. + 24. + + + ETHIOPIA. + + NORTHERN ETBAI.--EXPEDITION TO THE NORTHERN ETBAI.--A recent + scientific expedition to northern Etbai or northern Aethiopia, +Page 112 by the order of the Khedive, is the subject of a very + interesting paper by Ernest A. Floyer, in the _Journal of the + Royal Asiatic Society_ for October. + + The chief investigation of the expedition was devoted to the + remains of certain large mining stations which proved to be + doubly interesting, as giving evidence of two distinct periods + of the mining industry. + + Mines have been opened over almost the entire surface, and the + remains of numerous towns mark the dwelling places of the + miners. + + Not only in the mines is found evidence of two methods, one + very ancient and another less ancient; but in the settlements + above were discovered remains of Ptolemaic construction, + together with the stone huts of a race probably aboriginal, and + preceding or contemporaneous with but not unknown to the + ancient Egyptians. + + The Ptolemaic miner seem to have employed the ancient methods + to a great extent, so that it would seem that there could never + have been any complete cessation of mining for a very long + period. + + The miners of Rameses' time, too, used methods of great + antiquity. In the Wadi Abba stands a rock temple with + hieroglyphic inscriptions stating that Sethos, father of + Rameses the Great, had discovered gold mines in this region. + Golenischeff believes this temple to have been erected by the + Ptolemies. At the mines of Sighait is an hieroglyphic + inscription recording the visit of a royal scribe and a mine + inspector. This is faintly inscribed on the face of a steep + rock. At the emerald mines of Sikait may be seen a number of + Greek dedications over rock-cut temples. Near the Wadi Khashat, + where topazes are found, there stands a square enclosure, the + platform of a temple, and numerous ruined structures of + apparent Greek origin. It would appear from these remains that + the Ptolemies examined all of the ancient mines and reopened a + certain number--here they erected their temples, houses and + barracks for slaves, here they constructed high roads for their + carts and oxen, with caravan service, and post houses built at + intervals. + + Beside these Ptolemaic ruins are found some traces of the + prehistoric miners, and in a few cases as at the mines of the + Um Roos these exist alone. The most important traces are the + stone huts built of large stones in two lines, and of uniform + irregularity. In connection with these huts there is not a + single mark or inscription of any kind which might lead to a + solution of the problem with regard to their origin. + + Their implements, quantities of which are found at Um Roos were + as crude as their abodes, in fact the use of some of them + cannot be determined. The mines, though extensive, are little + more than burrows, and in a few cases it is not known for what +Page 113 mineral they were excavated. The writer, after dismissing the + Æthiopians, the Kushites and the ancient Egyptians, as the + probable pre-Ptolemaic miners, suggests that the Etbai was + peopled by a negroid tribe of natural miners, the possible + ancestors of the copper miners in the mountains north of + Kordofan. + + Near the Wadi Sikait, not far from the temples with Greek + inscriptions already referred to, is a fine building of + apparently later date, and supposed by the writer to have been + a church from its construction, for the mines were worked + steadily during the third and fourth centuries of the Christian + era. The structure has no roof over the main portion, but what + was apparently an apse still retains its roof of long slabs of + schist. The body is filled with fallen slabs. The walls show a + side window and several niches, which features suggested a + Christian church. + + + ALGERIA AND TUNISIA. + + M. René de la Blanchère in making, to the _Acad. des + Inscriptions_, his report on the excavations and discoveries in + Tunisia and Algeria during 1891, calls attention to the new + organization of the archæological administration of this + region. Up to the present time Tunisia and Algeria had separate + organizations, but the following arrangement has now gone into + effect: M. de la Blanchère is delegate of Public Instruction + and Fine Arts, in Algeria and Tunisia, and the mission under + him is at present composed of Μ. Μ. Doublet, inspector of + antiquities in the Regency; Pradère, conservator of the Museum + of Bardo; Wood, attaché at the same museum; Gauckler, + historical student, and Marye: it is quite distinct from the + local administrations. Although it supplies the greater number + of the agents of the Bey's service of antiquities, which it + created, it has no connection with its administration any more + than with that of similar organizations in Algeria, such as + that of historical monuments. Its object is: (1) to keep the + Committee of Historic works (of Algeria and Tunisia) informed + of all that happens in Africa in the domain of archæology, to + transmit to it any documents and to make researches regarding + necessary work; (2) to carry on three important publications, + two of which have already been partly published; the + _Collections du Musée Alaoui, the Musées et collections + archéologiques de l'Algérie_, and the _Catalogue général des + musées de l'Afrique française_; (3) to hold itself at the + disposal of the French ministry and the local authorities for + any work deemed necessary, excavations, organization of + museums, enterprises of learned societies, explorations, etc. + The head of the mission, being a delegate of the ministry, has +Page 114 the right to oversee the Tunisian service of antiquities, and + has also for both Algeria and Tunisia the permanent inspection + of libraries and museums. + + By means of this central organization, all the desiderata for + African archæology are obtained, and the best methods are put + in practice for excavations, the organization of museums, and + the publication of antiquities. + + + TUNISIA. + + M. de la Blanchère reports that in 1891 the most urgent need in + Tunisia was the classification of monuments that should be + preserved. The operation is being carried on under the + direction of M. Doublet; enquiry was opened in regard to about + 150 monuments, nearly all of great importance, of which 27 are + already classified. No excavations were undertaken by the + service of antiquities, its funds being all employed on + finishing the Bardo museum. It has, however, overseen or + authorized the following enterprises, the most important of + which will be found described in their alphabetical order: + Sfaks; Sousse; Henchir Maatria; Dougga; Teboursouk; Henchir + Tinah; Maktar. + + + CARTHAGE.--M. do Vogüé has communicated to the _Acad. des Ins._ + (March 18) a report on the continuation of Father Delattre's + excavations at Carthage, which go on giving interesting results + which will be fully described in a publication by the explorer + himself. At another point a funerary inscription was found of + an iron caster. This is the first time the profession is + mentioned in Carthaginian texts, which had hitherto mentioned + only gold and bronze casters. Of course there was no casting of + iron at that time, but only working of the metal.--_Revue + arch._ 1892, II, p. 254. + + + TERRACOTTA MOULDS.--M. Héron de Villefosse communicated to the + _Acad. des Inscr._ (Nov. 11,) the photographs of seventy-two + moulds for intaglios, in terracotta, selected from a collection + of over three hundred which were found in the lower part of + Carthage, between the hill of St. Louis and the sea. They were + all executed in antiquity. There are coin, types, a head of + Herakles, similar to that of some silver coins attributed to + Jugurtha, the fronting head of Silenus of the coins of Kyzikos, + the galley of the coins of Sidon, etc., all of the purest Greek + style. There are also some female heads, recalling Greek + Sicilian coins; standing figures; an Athena, a Pan, a Hermes + fastening his heel-pieces, a Marsyas, an amazon, a nude woman + fastening her sandal, recalling coins of Larissa in Thessaly; + some of groups, a man overthrown by a lion, a lion devouring a + horse, a man standing and killing a kneeling woman, an episode +Page 115 of the contest of Achilles and Penthesilea; finally some purely + Egyptian types, such as scarabs with royal cartouches. This + collection of moulds was probably made by a manufacturer with + the purpose of reproducing them.--_Rev. Critique_, 1892, No. + 47. + + + CHEMTOU-SIMITHU.--Excavations have been carried on at this site + by M. Toutain: they were continued, thanks to a subvention from + the _Acad. des Inscriptions_. In a letter to the Academy dated + June 16, M. Geffroy gives an account of what had been + discovered up to date. Nearly the whole of the ancient theatre + was discovered in a few weeks. In the space occupied by the + orchestra was a mosaic, with all the shades of Numidian marble, + nine metres in diameter. These are interesting peculiarities in + the construction and arrangement of the theatre. It is neither + adossed to a hill nor completely isolated: the lower part of + the hemicycle of steps which was completely buried, is well + preserved. M. Toutain had commenced researches in two necropoli + of the city hoping to find tombs and epitaphs of the freedmen + and slaves employed in the neighbouring quarries. He had begun + the excavation of a large building, perhaps a basilica or a + curia, which appears to be about 40 metres long. + + In a letter to the _Académie_, dated October 16, M. Toutain + gives information of further discoveries, principally in the + theatre and forum. A square was discovered 20 met. wide by 25 + met. long, paved with large slabs of granite of greenish blue + schist. It is situated in the midst of the ruins of several + important monuments, notably a temple and a basilica, and is + certainly the forum of Simithu. It is bounded on the south by a + monumental exædra whose substructions of cut stone are still in + place, and whose architectural decoration can be reconstructed + by means of the bases, fragments, columns, capitals, and pieces + of cornice which have come to light. Toward the north the forum + is bounded by two structures separated by a narrow paved + street. + + A mile-stone found is important, as containing the name of + Emperor Galerius, and dating from the short period when, after + the abdication of Diocletian and Maximianus, Hercules, + Constantius Chlorus, and Galerius were Augusti (May 1, 305, to + July 25, 306). It has also a topographic interest as belonging + to the cross-road from _Thuburbo majus_ to Tunis or Carthage, + passing by Onellana and Uthina. M. Toutain has traced a system + of bars, basins and cisterns, to supply with rain water a small + Roman city, whose ruins are now called Bab-Khaled. It would + appear as if the public buildings of the city were inhabited + and made over at the Byzantine period.--_Revue critique_ 1892, + No. 44; _Revue arch._, 1892, II, pp. 260, 266-7; _Chron. des + arts_ 1892, No. 34. +Page 116 + + CHERCHELL.--M. Victor Waille has communicated to the _Acad. des + Insc._ the first results of excavations on the field of + manœuvres at Cherchell. Captain Hétet and lieutenant Perrin + conducted them. Three mosaic pavements were copied: there was + found a dedicatory inscription to the governor C. Octavius + Pudens Cæsius Honoratus, and some bronzes, among which were the + base of a candelabrum and the handle of a chiseled vase, + decorated with a helmeted bust of Roma, of the Byzantine + period. The excavations are especially fruitful in small + objects, pottery, bronzes, coins, etc.--_Chron. des arts_, + 1892, No. 31; _Ami des mon._ 1892, p. 250. + + + DOUGGA.--The excavations carried on by MM. Denis and Carton, + resulted in the clearing of the temple of Saturn; the discovery + of the dedicatory inscription showing it to have been erected + for the safety of Septimius Severus and Clodius Albinus; the + finding of a large number of native steles; and the clearing of + the theatre. + + + HADRUMETUM.--A small lead tablet covered on both sides with + inscriptions, has been found in the Roman necropolis. It is a + _tabella devotionis_, to be compared with others found at + Hadrumetum, at Carthage and in Gaul. On one side is a series of + magic names, accompanied by the figure of a genius with a + rooster's head, standing in a boat and holding a torch, on the + other side is an adjuration addressed to a certain _deus + pelagicus ærius_: infernal maledictions are called down on the + horses and drivers of the green and white factions of the + circus. There was a god or genius named Taraxippos, "the scarer + of horses," as M. Heuzey remarks.--_Rev. arch._ 1892, II, p. + 267. + + + MAKTAR.--M. Border exhumed from the mines of the basilica, next + to the amphitheatre, four fragments of an imperial dedicatory + inscription, and a most interesting altar bearing a dedication + in eighteen lines on the occasion of the sacrifice of a bull + and a ram for the safety of an Emperor, whose name is hammered + out; M. Doublet conjectures him to have been + Elagabalus.--_A.d.M._ 1892, p. 109. + + + SOUSSE.-In the neo-punic necropolis, on which the camp is + situated, two entire vases and 28 fragments of vases were + found, decorated with painted inscriptions. In the Roman + necropolis, along the Kairwan road, several interesting + discoveries were made, among them a hypogeum containing several + frescoes in fair preservation, containing curious figures and + inscriptions, and also some inscriptions on marble or + stucco.--_A.d.M._ 1892, p. 109. + + + TEBOURSOUK.--MM. Denis and Carton have excavated the megalithic + necropolis of Teboursouk, whose tombs are stone circles, with + one or more small dolmens in the centre.--_A.d.M._ 1892, p. + 109. +Page 117 + + TUNIS.--Hans von Behrs has contributed to the _Vossische + Zeitung_ a report on the museum of the Bardo near Tunis. A + summary of it is given in the _Berlin Philologische + Wochenschrift_, November 19. + + + ALGERIA. + + M. de la Blanchère reports that in Algeria M. Gauckler + investigated in 1891 the provinces of Algiers and Constantine, + and spent some time at Cherchell whose antiquities he studied + and partly published alone or in collaboration with M. de + Waille. He planned at the same time an excavation. M. Marye was + charged with the plan for organizing, for the first time, a + collection of mussulman art, of native industrial art, and of + Turkish and Arabic monuments. + + The work regarded as most pressing by M. de la Blanchère in + 1891 was the publication of African museums. The first series + of the _collections du musée Alaoui_ was almost completed: the + _musées d'Oran_ and _de Constantine_ were in the press, + following the _musée d'Alger_ published in the preceding year. + The general catalogue will be drawn up as each establishment is + definitively organized. The first place belongs to the Bardo + museum whose catalogue had already been partly compiled by M. + de la Blanchère. The museum of Oran, under its conservator, + Demaeght, has been finally organized, and occupies a fine + building given by the city. It has been enriched by several + additions, notably the famous inscription of king Masuna. The + museum of Constantine has received among other things, the + results of an interesting excavation made at Collo, especially + some curious vases with female silhouettes. The museum of the + Bardo can, however, never be rivalled by any of the museums of + Algeria. The immense palace is already nearly full, although + the museum in 1891 was but four years old. The large hall is + full, with its nine large cases; there are about 500 square + metres of mosaics, 50 statues of large fragments, about 1200 + inscriptions, and a multitude of small objects. + + + TIPASA.--The local curate, M. l'Abbé Saint-Gérand, has made + some important excavations in an early Christian church. He + found that the altar was placed at the end opposite the apse on + a kind of platform or _béma_ attached to the wall. Several + inscriptions were found set into the mosaic pavement. One is + the epitaph of Alexander, a bishop of Tipasa, another the + dedication of the construction by him. To this bishop is + attributed the merit of grouping about the altar the tombs of + certain "righteous ancients," _justi priores_, by whom are + undoubtedly meant his predecessors in the Episcopacy.--_Chron. + des arts_, 1892, No. 14. +Page 118 + Professor Gsell assisted in the excavations above described and + further details in a communication to the _Académie des + Inscriptions_. The building mentioned was a funerary chapel + built to the east of Tipasa by Bishop Alexander to contain the + tombs of his predecessors. Near by a Christian sarcophagus was + found with reliefs of Christ giving the law, Moses striking the + rock and other subjects. + + In the same locality is the basilica of Saint Salsa erected + over her tomb. Built in the fourth century, it was decorated in + the middle of the fifth by Potentius, probably a bishop; and + enlarged in the second half of the sixth. It was still an + object of veneration in the seventh century.--_Chron. des + arts_, 1892, No. 28. + + + + ASIA. + + + HINDUSTAN. + + MUHAMMADAN COINS.--Mr. S. Lane-Poole has completed his + "Catalogue of the Coins of the Mogul Emperors of Hindustan in + the British Museum," dating from 1525, the invasion of Buber, + to the establishment of British currency in 1835. + + It describes over 1400 coins, chiefly gold and silver, of this + splendid coinage. "In his introduction Mr. Lane-Poole deals + with various historical, geographical, and other problems + suggested by the coinage, and with difficulties of + classification presented by the early imitative issues of the + East India company and the French compagnie des Indes." This + volume, the fourteenth, completes the cataloguing of all the + Muhammadan coins in the museum.--_Journal Royal Asiatic + Society_ 1892, p. 425. + + + INDIAN NUMISMATICS.--Mr. Rodgers, Honorary Numismatist to the + government of India, has finished his "Catalogue of the Coins + with Persian or Arabic inscriptions in the Lahore museum," and + practically finished his "Catalogue of the Coins in the + Calcutta museum." His own immense collection has now been + purchased by the Punjab government, and he has nearly completed + his catalogue of that. + + These catalogues will be of very great importance alike for the + numismatic and for the modern history of India.--_Journ. Royal + Asiatic Society_, 1892, p. 425. + + + NEW VARIETY OF MAURYA INSCRIPTIONS.--Prof. Buhler has made a + very careful study of impressions of nine votive inscriptions + from the relic-caskets discovered by Mr. Rea in the ruined + stupa of Bhattiprolu in the Kistna District (Madras). He has + made out their contents, and has arrived at the conclusion that + they are written in a new variety of the Southern Maurya or Làt +Page 119 alphabet. Twenty-three letters of these inscriptions agree + exactly with those ordinarily used in the edicts of Asoka which + have long been held to belong to the first attempts of the + Hindus in the art of writing. Four letters are entirely + unusual, while the lingual l is introduced, which does not + occur in Asoka's inscriptions. Further peculiarities are + presented in the notation of the medial and final vowels. The + appearance of the letters would indicate that the Bhattiprolu + inscriptions probably belong to a period only a few decades + later than that of Asoka's edicts. By a comparison of these + incriptions with Asoka's edicts, and with the inscriptions of + Nâuâgleât, Hathegumplia, Bharhut and Triana, it becomes evident + that they hold an intermediate position between the two sets, + but are much more nearly related to those of the third century + B.C. than those of the second. If this be true, the date of the + Bhattiprolu inscription cannot be placed later than 200 B.C., + and the inscriptions themselves prove that several distinct + varieties of the Southern Maurya alphabet existed during the + third century, B.C. + + This fact would remove one of the strongest arguments in favor + of the theory that writing was introduced into India during the + rule of the Maurya dynasty--_i.e._, the absence of local sorts + of letters in which the edicts of Asoka were written in places + widely separated, for this may be explained by a desire to + imitate as closely as possible the character of the original + edict. + + If then the Bhattiprolu inscriptions show a system of + characters radically different from those of Asoka's edicts and + at the same time in all probability coeval with them a strong + point is gained for the side of those who are of the opinion + that the introduction of writing into India took place + centuries before the accession of the Maurya Dynasty. It is a + curious fact that of all the anomalous letters in the + Bhattiprolu alphabet not one bears any trace to the later + alphabets of India, all the characters of which are derived + from those of Southern Maurya. The language of these + inscriptions is a Prakrit dialect and is closely connected with + the literary Pali.--_Journ. Royal Asiatic Society_, 1892, p. + 602. + + + THE INDIAN HELL.--In a number of the _Journal Asiatique_ + (Sept., Oct., '92), M. Léon Feer publishes an article entitled + "_L'Enfer Indien_," in which he confines himself to the + Buddhist hells, leaving the Brahmanic hells for another study. + He avails himself of all previously printed matter and adds new + material. His object is to group together and classify all the + ideas on infernal punishments, on the crimes for which they are + inflicted and their duration. There are separate chapters on: +Page 120 (1) the name and number of hells; (2) the eight large hot + hells; (3) the attribution of the hells to distinct crimes; (4) + the small hells. There are many questions in connection with + them which he leaves unsolved. Then come the cold hells: (1) + the Chinese hells; (2) Southern hells; (3) the number and names + of the cold hells (of both north and south); (4) the duration + of one's dwelling in the various hells; (5) on the + non-existence of the cold hells; (6) on the period of time + spent in all the hells, etc. The main conclusions are, that: + All Buddhists recognize eight burning hells, with ascending + intensity, surrounded by secondary hells of numbers varying + from four to sixteen. Beside those there are eight cold hells, + but only in the North, their names being considered in the + South as expressing merely the different periods of sojourn in + the eighth hell. The number of hells is at least 12, at most + 32. + + + ARCHÆOLOGICAL SURVEY.--The second volume of the new series of + the Archaæological Survey of India is devoted to a catalogue of + the antiquities and inscriptions in the North-Western Provinces + and Oudh, compiled by Dr. A. Fuhrer. No part of India, not even + the Panjab, is so crowded with historic spots, associated not + only with the life and teaching of Buddha, and with the Hindu + theogony, but also with the Muhammadan conquest. Most of the + ground has already been worked over by Sir A. Cunningham and + his assistants; but there are square miles of ruined mounds + still almost untouched. We continually hear of finds of ancient + coins made by peasants during the rainy season; but the author + is careful to point out that what is now wanted is systematic + exploration, like that of Mr. Petrie in Egypt. The present + volume is based rather upon printed documents than upon + original research, though it shows everywhere the traces of + personal knowledge. Its object is to carry out the orders of + the Government, by placing on record a catalogue of the + existing monuments, classified according to their archæological + importance, their state of repair, and their custody. It is + arranged in the order of administrative divisions and + districts; but copious indices enable the student to bring + together any particular line of investigation.--_Academy_, + September. + + + A HISTORICAL DOCUMENT.--Dr. M. Aurel Stein, principal of the + Oriental College at Lahore, has now ready for publication the + first volume of his critical edition of the Rajatarangini, or + Chronicles of the Kings of Kashmir, upon which he has been + engaged for some years. This work, which was written by the + poet Kalhana in the middle of the twelfth century, is of + special interest as being almost the sole example of historical + literature in Sanskrit. Hitherto it has only been known + +Page 121 (Missing in the source document.) + +Page 122 (Missing in the source document.) + +Page 123 + Near the stûpa is the site of the ancient village and fort; + long ridges of earth, in form of a square, mark the position of + the walls; within these, various articles have been turned up, + large bricks, broken sepulchral urns and grain jars, together + with beads of various material and Buddhist lead coins, both + round and square; they bear the lion and the dugoba, emblems of + the Andhra dynasty. The inscriptions of some are preserved. + + + II. GHANTASALA.--At Ghantasala is a mound 112 feet in diameter + and 23 feet in height; the excavations here disclosed the + remains of a stûpa from which the complete plan was determined. + In the centre is a solid cube of brick work 10 feet square, + enclosed in a chamber 19 feet square with walls over 3 feet in + thickness; outside this is a circular wall 3 ft. 6 inches + thick, 55 feet 10 inches in diameter, this is enclosed in + another circular brick wall 18 feet 3 inches thick, with a + diameter of 111 feet; this was the main outer wall of the + structure, the exterior surface bore a _chunam_ facing. About + the base is a raised procession path 5 feet 7 in. broad, and 4 + feet 6 in. high, a projection is found at each of the cardinal + points. The inmost squares are connected by walls 2 feet 4 in. + thick, running parallel to these sides from the centre and + corners, the cells formed by the intersections of these walls + are packed with mud. + + The fact that the main walls, _i.e._, those of the squares and + circles, are thicker than the others may indicate that they + were carried up to form stories, or they may have been simply + to strengthen the dome, if the exterior wall was carried up in + that form. Further excavations in the mound discovered a marble + slab carved with the Supada, a piece of a carved top rail panel + and a number of carved slabs. + + When the brick work was excavated a well 6 inches square filled + with earth was found under 3 feet of solid brick work. Among + the debris, at the top, were found pieces of a broken _chatti_, + and a number of small articles, beads and a coin, which it had + probably contained. Just below these was a _chatti_ of red + earthenware, 4-1/2 in. in diameter, with a semi-circular lid, + filled with black earth. Within this was a glazed _chatti_ + 2-1/4 in. in diameter, and 1-3/4 in. in height. It contained + numerous leads, bits of bone, small pearls, bits of gold leaf + and small pieces of mineral. + + A number of marble sculptures have been removed from the stûpa + of Ghantasala, and are now in the village. Among them are + several pieces carved with lotus flowers, and other ornaments + and inscriptions, square and circular moulded vases, a circular + base carved with horses, elephants and other animals, an + umbrella, a panel with rail and figures, and two carved slabs. +Page 124 Other remains found in and near Ghantasala are an "ancient + brass _dipa_, with a Telugu inscription and a small brass image + of Siva" now in the temple, a "small _chakra_ and a _trisula_, + each with pillar base." Brick walls and brick debris are found + all about the neighborhood, but so demolished as to make it + impossible to determine what the buildings were. + + + III. BHATTIPROLU.--On the report in the stûpa of Bhattiprolu, a + former letter is referred to in which an account is given of + certain inscribed caskets, and other relics found in the centre + of the dome some time before. The reports continue with the + account of further excavations by means of trenches. Those + about the exterior discovered an unbroken procession path at + the small east quadrant, the face of the dome too at this point + is intact to a height of over 5 ft. In the trenches at the + north side there was found two pieces of a marble umbrella, + having a curve of a radius of 1 foot 6 in., a small piece of a + pilaster base from a slab, a pilaster capital with horses and + riders, and the half of what had been a large slab carved with + the lower portion of a draped figure. + + At some distance from the basement, or procession path, the + remains of six marble bases of the rail were found standing in + position--they are 1 ft. 11., by 12 in., by 1 ft. 10 in., in + height, spaced by a distance of 1 ft. 7 in. in each, they are + sunk 1 ft. 6 in. below the brick floor, and rest on a broad + marble slab. + + A large number of ancient sites and mounds were examined in the + neighborhood of Repalle. At _Anantaiarum, Buddhâní, Chandavôlu_ + and _Puapuâ_. Considerable surface has been excavated for + various purposes; the earth, a kind of black mud, is found to + be thickly mixed with broken pottery and bones of animals; + occasionally a pillar or other building stone is turned up. At + Môrakûru, copper, lead and rarely gold and silver coins are + found mixed with the broken pottery. + + At _Krudarnudi, Maudura, Mûlpûrn_ and _Periarli_, mounds were + examined, the earth was found to consist of black mud mixed + with pottery and ashes. The mounds differ only in extent, and + portions of several have been removed. + + + BHATTIPROLU.--A BUDDHIST STUPA.--Mr. Rea during last season + examined the remains of a stûpa at Bhattiprolu in the Kistna + district, the marble casing of which had been used by the Canal + engineers; and in it he has made discoveries of very + considerable interest. + + He found the stûpa had been a solid brick building 132 feet in + diameter, surrounded by a procession path about eight feet + wide. It must thus have been of very nearly the dimensions of + the Amarāvati stûpa. Fragments or chips only of the outer +Page 125 casing of marble were found in the area he excavated. When the + dome and portions of the drum had been previously demolished + for the materials, inside the dome there was found "a casket + made of six small slabs of stone dove-tailed into one another, + measuring about 2-1/2 feet by 1-1/2 by 1 foot; inside this was + a clay _chatti_ containing a neat soap-stone casket, which + enclosed a crystal phial. In this latter was a pearl, a few + little bits of gold leaf, and some ashes." Mr. Rea considered + that there might still be another deposit of relics; and having + discovered the centre of the original brickwork, he found there + a shaft or well 9-1/2 inches in diameter filled with earth, + which went down about 15 feet. Following this he found at one + side near the bottom a stone box about 11 inches by 8 and 5 + inches deep, with an inscription round the upper lip. Inside + was a small globular blackstone relic casket, two small + hemipsherical metal cups a little over an inch in diameter, + with a gold bead on the apex of one, and the bead (fallen out) + of the other; another small bead, two double pearls, also four + gold lotus flowers 1.2 inch in diameter, two _trisulas_ in thin + plates 1.2 by 1 inch, seven triangular bits of gold, a single + and a double gold bead--the weight of these gold articles being + about 148 grains. There was also a hexagonal crystal 2.56 + inches long by 0.88 inch in diameter, pierced along the axis, + and with an inscription lightly traced on the sides. The stone + relic casket measures 4-1/2 inches each way, the lid fitting on + with a groove, and it contained a cylindric crystal phial 2-1/2 + inches in diameter and 1-1/4 inches high, moulded on the sides + and flat on top and bottom; the lid fitted in the same way as + that of the casket. Inside was a flattish piece of + bone--possibly of the skull--and under the phial were nine + small lotus flowers in gold leaf; six gold beads and eight + small ones; four small lotus flowers of thin copper; nineteen + small pierced pearls; one bluish crystal bead; and twenty-four + small coins in a light coloured metal, possibly brass, smooth + on one side and with lotus flowers, _trisulas_, feet, &c., on + the obverse. These had been arranged on the bottom and attached + in the form of a _svastika_. + + Two and a half feet below this was a second deposit on the + opposite or north side of the shaft. The central area of the + cover, in this case, has an inscription in nineteen lines with + two lines round it--the letters being filled in with white. In + the lower stone was a receptacle 6-1/4 inches deep, by 7-1/2 in + diameter, having a raised rim 1-1/2 inches broad, bearing + another inscription of two lines on the upper surface--the + letters also filled in with lime. The cavity was nearly filled + with earth, and contained a phial 1-5/8 inches in diameter and + 2-3/4 inches high, with a lid moulded like a _dagoba_. The +Page 126 phial and lid were lying separate, and there was no sign of a + relic. Mixed with the earth were 164 lotus leaves and buds, two + circular flowers, a trisula and a three-armed figure like a + _svastika_, all in gold leaf, two gold stems for lotus flowers, + six gold beads, and a small gold ring--weighing, collectively, + about 310 grains; also two pearls, a garnet, six coral beads, a + bluish, flat, oval bead, a white crystal bead, two greenish, + flat, six-sided crystal drops, a number of bits of corroded + copper leaf in the shape of lotus flowers, a minute umbrella, + and some folded pieces about 2 inches by 1-3/8, showing traces + of letters or symbols pricked upon them with a metal point, but + too corroded to permit of unfolding or decipherment. + + Next, at a slightly lower level on the east side of the shaft, + he came upon a third black stone cover, with an inscription of + eight lines cut on the under surface in a sunk, circular area + in the centre. The lower stone again bears an inscription round + the rim of the cavity in one line--the letters being whitened. + The receptacle was 5-3/4 inches deep, 7-1/2 wide at the top, + and 5 at the bottom. It was also nearly filled with earth, and + contained a crystal phial similar to that in the second, the + lid lying apart; but close to it was the relic casket, perhaps + of chrysolite, less than half an inch each way by + three-eighths, in which is drilled a circular hole 0.28 inch in + diameter, closed by a small, white crystal stopper with + hexagonal top. The neck is covered with gold leaf, and a sheet + of the same was fixed outside to the bottom. This unique casket + contains three small pieces of bone. With it were found a + bluish bead 5/8 inch long, a smaller one, and one of yellow + crystal, a small hexagonal crystal drop, slightly yellowish in + colour, a flat one of white crystal, a bone bead, six pearls, + thirty-two seed pearls--all pierced, thirty lotus flowers, a + quatrefoil, and a small figure of gold leaf. + + The alphabet of the inscriptions presents features of peculiar + interest, which I leave to be discussed by Prof. Bühler.--Jas. + Burgess in _Acad._ May 21. + + Ν.Β.--Further details are given under the headings "_New + variety of Maurya inscriptions_", and also under "_Buddhist + Stupas in the Kistna district._" + + + GAUΗATI.--ASSAM.--Mr. Joseph Chunder Dutt has reprinted from + the _Indian Nation_ (Calcutta) an account of an archægeological + visit to Gauhati, the ancient capital of Assam. The temples, + &c., he describes mostly date only from the eighteenth century, + as is shown by the inscriptions which he is careful to quote. + There are, however, many ruins of older buildings and fragments + of sculpture, which would perhaps repay more detailed + examination. The destruction of some of these is due to the + misdirected activity of British engineers.--_Academy_, Feb. 6. +Page 127 + + PANJAB.--REMAINS OF ANCIENT BUDDHIST TEMPLES.--The _Journal of + the Royal Asiatic Society_ for October, 1892, contains a note + in "Ancient remains of Temples on the Bannu Frontier," an + unfrequented part of the Panjab. The ruins of two temples stand + on a hillock rising from the Indus. The tradition with regard + to them is that the Paridwas retired here to spend twelve years + of exile after being defeated by the Kerwá. A short distance + from these ruins is the site of a third temple now completely + demolished. This temple was completely demolished. This temple + was built of bricks of light pressed (?) clay about 12x9x3 + inches in size. On breaking some of the bricks they were found + to bear distinctly the impression of tree leaves, and brought + under the influence of a petrifying spring which exists not far + from the spot. + + The remains are undoubtedly of great antiquity, and appears to + have been Buddhist temples of the tall, conical kind. Their + Buddhistic origin is made certain by the eight-leafed lotus + ornaments which characterize the carvings. + + + THIBET. + + Mr. Rockhill, who made himself so well-known by his first + expedition to Thibet, is at present engaged in a second + journey, in the hope of this time reaching the capital Lhassa. + + The Duke of Orleans and his companion have already published + the results of their journey undertaken shortly after Mr. + Rockhill's first. + + + CHINA. + + THE GAME OF WEI-CHI.--At a meeting in Shanghai of the Chinese + Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, M. Volpicelli read a paper + on "The Game of Wei-Chi," the greatest game of the Chinese, + especially with the literary class and ranked by them superior + to chess. Like chess, this game is of a general military and + mathematical character, but is on a much more extensive scale, + the board containing 361 places and employing nearly 200 men on + a side. All of the men, however, have the same value and + powers. + + The object is to command as many places on the board as + possible--this may be done by enclosing empty spaces or by + surrounding the enemy's men. Very close calculation is always + essential in order that a loss in one region may be met by + gains in another, thus employing skillful strategy when the + contestants are evenly matched. The game has come down from + great antiquity, being first mentioned in Chinese writings +Page 128 about B.C. 625. It was in all probability introduced by the + Babylonian astronomers who were at that time the instructors of + all the East.--_Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society_, 1892, p. + 421. + + + CENTRAL ASIA. + + + EXPEDITION OF M. DUTREUIL DE RHINS.--The _Académie des + Inscriptions_ sent M. Dutreuil de Rhins some time since on an + archæological expedition to Further Asia. Beside the income of + the Gamier fund previously accorded to him for the purpose, it + has accorded him a grant of 30,000 francs. The last news from + him was a report.--_Chron. des Arts_, 1892, No. 22. + + + THE ORKHON INSCRIPTIONS.--We quote from the _Times_ the + following report of two papers read before the Oriental + Congress, in the section of China and the Far East: + + "A paper was contributed by Mr. E. Delmar Morgan on 'The + Results of the Russian Archæological Researches in the Basin of + the Orkhon in Mongolia.' Mr. Morgan drew attention to a + splendid atlas of plates presented to the Congress by Dr. + Radlof, of St. Petersburg, containing photographs and + facsimiles of inscriptions copied by the members of the + archæological expedition sent by the Imperial Academy of + Sciences to investigate the ruins on the Orkhon. These ruins + comprise (1) the remains of an ancient Uighur town west of the + Orkhon, (2) the ruins of a Mongol palace to the east of that + river, and a large granite monument shattered into pieces. + Excavations were also made of the burial places of the Khans of + the Tukiu or Turks inhabiting this part of Asia previously to + the Uighurs, who drove them out. The earliest inscription dates + from 732 A.D.., and refers to a brother of the Khan of the + Tukiu mentioned in Chinese history. Additional interest + attaches to these inscriptions owing to the fact that some of + the characters are identical with those discovered on the + Yenissei. The expedition to which the paper referred visited + the monastery of Erdenitsu, and found there a number of stones + with inscriptions in Mongol, Tibetan, and Persian, brought from + the ruins of a town not far off. These ruins have been + identified with Karakoram, the capital city of the first Khans + of the dynasty of Jenghiz Khan. + + "Prof. Donner wished to present to the Congress a publication + by the Société Finno-Ougrienne at Helsingfors, containing + inscriptions from the valley of the Orkhon, brought home by the + Finnish Expedition in 1890. There are three large monuments, + the first erected 732 A.D.., by the order of the Chinese + Emperor in honour of Kiuèh-Jeghin, younger brother of the Khan +Page 129 of the Tukiu (Turks). On the west side it has an inscription in + Chinese, speaking of the relations between the Tukiu and + Chinese. The Tartar historian, Ye-lu-chi, of the thirteenth + century, saw it and gave some phrases from the front of it. On + all the other sides is a long inscription of 70 lines in runic + characters, which cannot be a mere translation of the Chinese + because it numbers about 1400 words, while the Chinese + inscription contains only about 800. The other monument has + also a Chinese inscription on one side, but greatly effaced. On + the other sides are runic inscriptions in 77 lines at least. + This monument was erected, by order of the Chinese Emperor, in + honour of Mekilikn (Moguilen), Khan of the Tukiu, who died 733 + A.D.. About two-thirds of its runic inscription nearly line for + line contains the same as the first monument, a circumstance of + importance for the true reading of the text. The third + monument, which has been the largest one, was destroyed by + lightning and shattered into about fifty fragments. It is + trilingual--viz., Chinese, Uighur, and runic or Yenissei + characters. On comparing the texts they are found to contain + many identical words and forms, proving that the languages were + nearly identical. M. Devéria thinks that this is the memorial + stone which the Uighur Khan, 784 A.D.., placed at the gateway + of his palace to record the benefits the Uighurs had done to + the Chinese Empire. Concerning the characters of these + inscriptions they show small modifications. The tomb + inscriptions at Yenissei seem to be the more original; some + characters have been altered in the Tukiu alphabet and also in + the third monument, representing in that way the three several + nations--the Tukiu, the Uighurs, who followed them, and the + Hakas, or Khirgiz, at Yenissei. A comparison of the characters + themselves with the alphabets in Asia Minor shows that about + three-fourths of them are identical with the characters of the + Ionian, Phrygian, and Syrian [?]. The other part has + resemblances with the graphic systems of India and Central + Asia. We can now expect that the deciphering of these + interesting inscriptions will soon give us reliable specimens + of the oldest Turk dialects."--_Academy_, Sept. 17. + + + SIMFEROPOL.--At Simferopol Prof. Messelowski has made the most + interesting discovery of a Scythian warrior's grave, dating + probably from about the second or third century. The skeleton + lay on its back facing the east, on the head was a cap with + gold ornaments, and little gold plates were also fixed to + portions of the dress. Near the head stood two amphoræ and a + leathern quiver containing copper-headed arrows. At the feet + were the bones of an ox, an iron knife, four amphoraæ and some + lances--these were in a very rusty condition. The quiver had a +Page 130 fine gold-chased ornament upon it representing a flying eagle + gripping in its talons a small animal. It is admirably worked. + The skeleton itself fell to pieces immediately.--_Biblia_, + Oct., 1892. + + + SEMITIC EPIGRAPHY AND ANTIQUITIES.--M. Clermont-Ganneau has + published in the _Journal Asiatique_ for 1892, No. 1, a series + of the discoveries and investigations made in Semitic epigraphy + and antiquities during the year 1891. It is the address by + which he opened his course at the Collège de France. He + commences with Phœnicia and notices besides such discoveries as + are reported in the Journal, such books as Goblet d'Aviella's + _La migration des symboles_, which is a comparative study of + Oriental art symbols, and Ph. Berger's _Histoire de l'écriture + dans l'antiquité_, which treats especially of the development + of the Phœnician alphabet. As an original supplement he + describes some antiquities recently sent to him, which had been + found in the necropolis of Sidon, _e.g._, a terracotta head of + Egyptian style; a smaller head of Cypriote style; a statuette + of Bes; two gold ear-rings; bottom of a Greek vase with a + Phœnician inscription; piece of a diorite scarcophagus cover of + Egyptian origin, probably that of a king of Sidon. Another + complete anthropoid sarcophagus from the same site at Sidon has + been sent to Constantinople. Still another sarcophagus of this + type has been found in Spain, at Cadiz, the ancient Gades. Its + importance is incalculable, as it proves for the first time the + passing of the Phœnicians to Spain. Mr. Clermont-Ganneau then + takes up Aramean antiquities and inscriptions, especially those + of Palmyra. Among them are a number secured by the writer + himself; they are three fine monumental funerary inscriptions + and six funerary busts of men and women, two of which are + finely executed and remarkably well preserved; all are + inscribed and several are dated. He notices the publication of + the valuable _Journal d'un voyage en Arabie_ (1883-1884) by + Charles Huber, in which the five note-books of the traveller + are reproduced. It will be remembered that he was treacherously + murdered during his journey. Dr. Euting in his _Sinaïtische + Inschriften_ publishes 67 inscriptions copied by him in the + Sinaitic peninsula. His readings are very careful and accurate. + Three of the texts are dated and are important in view of the + controversy as to the age of all these inscriptions. + + Palestine and Hebrew antiquities are very fully treated. M. + Clement-Ganneau reads the famous Lachish inscription ךסהל = _ad + libandum_; he calls attention to hematite weight with an early + inscription found at Sebaste; mentions the vandalism + perpetrated in cutting away the famous Pool of Siloam + inscription, _etc._ He notes the importance of the discovery by + MM. Lees and Hanauer in the subterranean structures at +Page 131 Jerusalem called "Solomon's Stables," of the spring of an + immense ancient arch, analogous to Robinson's arch. It + introduces quite a new element in the complicated problem of + the Jewish Temple. Mr. Wrightson, an English engineer, + concludes that the two arches or bridges formed part of a + continuous system of parallel arches which occupied, between + the two east and west walls, the sub-structure of the entire + southern part of the esplanade of the temple. Mr. Schick's + investigations are carefully noticed. Finally praise is given + to the new publication of the Abbé Vigouroux, _Dictionnaire de + la Bible_. + + + ARABIA. + + A HISTORY OF YEMEN.--The British Museum acquired in 1886 the + MS. of Omârah's 'History of Yemen,' a work of which it was long + feared that no copy was at the present day in existence. + Omârah's 'History' extends over a period of about three hundred + and fifty years. It commences with the foundation of the city + and principality of Zabid in the ninth century, and extends + down to the eve of the conquest by the Ayyûbites in the + twelfth. Mr. Henry C. Kay, a member of the Council of the Royal + Asiatic Society, has prepared the MS. for publication, together + with an English translation, notes and indices. The volume also + contains, besides other similar matter, an account and + genealogical list of the Imāms of Yemen, down to the thirteenth + century, derived from the Zeydite MSS. recently added to the + British Museum library.--_Athenæum_. + + COINS OF THE BENU RASOOL DYNASTY OF SULTANS.--Out of the + fourteen sovereigns who composed the Benu Rasool dynasty, we + are in possession of the coins of only eight, and these the + first eight; their inscriptions are in Arabic, and it is by no + means easy to decipher all of them. The mints of these are: + Aden, Zebîd, El-Mahdjâm, Thabat, Sana and Taiz, and each is + characterized by a particular figure, a fish for Aden, a bird + for Zebîd, a lion for El-Mahdjâm, and other symbols. There are + also noticed several coins struck by rebels under the Benu + Rasool dynasty.--_Revue Numismatique_, III s. tom. 10, III + trim. 1892, p. 350. + + + BABYLONIA. + + A BAS-RELIEF OF NARAM-SIN.--At a meeting of the _Acad. des + Inscriptions_ M. Maspero exhibited a photograph of a Chaldean + bas-relief from Constantinople. It was erected by, and bears + the name of King Naram-sin, who reigned over Babylonia about + 3800 B.C. Though much mutilated, what remains shows workmanship + of a refined kind. It represents a human figure standing, +Page 132 clothed (as on the most ancient cylinders) with a robe that + passes under one arm and over the shoulder, and wearing a + conical head-piece flanked with horns. The general appearance + strikingly recalls Egyptian monuments of the same date. The + relief is extremely low, the lines clear, but not stiff. There + is no muscular exaggeration as is often the case in the + cylinders. Naram-sin, like his father, Sargon I, has left the + reputation (perhaps legendary) of a great conqueror; a campaign + against Magan is attributed to him. M. Maspero was disposed to + explain the style of the bas-relief by the Egyptian influence. + It differs widely from the sculptures of Telloh, which are less + refined and artistically advanced. But these, though of later + date, come from a provincial town, not from a capital. M. + Menant mentioned that the collection of M. de Clerq contains a + cylinder, also of remarkable workmanahip, with an inscription + with characters of the same style as those on the bas-relief in + question; but it bears the name of Sargani, king of Agyadi, who + is several generations earlier than Sargon I. Both of these are + examples of an art which was never surpassed in + Chaldea.--_Academy_, Oct. 15; _Chron. des Arts_, 1892, No. 33. + + + TELLOH.--BABYLONIAN SCULPTURE--The later excavations of M. de + Sarzec at Telloh, in so far as they concern sculpture, are + treated by M. Heuzey in some communications to the _Acad. des + Inscriptions_. M. de Sarzec has reconstructed from some + fragments a series of reliefs relating to King Ur-Nina, the + ancestor of King E-anna-du, who is commemorated in the _stele + of the vultures_. The sculptures of Ur-Nina are of rude and + primitive workmanship and belong to the earliest period of + Babylonian sculpture. The king is represented more than once, + either carrying on his head the sacred basket, or seated and + raising in his hand the drinking-horn. Around him are ranged + his children and servants, all with their names inscribed upon + the drapery. Among them is A-kur-gal, who is to succeed his + father, replacing another prince, his older brother. The + reunion of these fragments has given us an historic and + archæological document of the highest antiquity.--_Revue + Critique_, 1892, No. 44. + + At a meeting of the _Acad. des Inscr._ M. Heuzey read a paper + upon the "Stèle des Vautours." M. de Sarzec has been able to + find and piece together several additional fragments, from + which it appears that the name of the person who set up the + pillar was E-anna-du, king of Sirpula, son of A-kur-gal, and + grandson of King of Ur-Nina. He is represented in front of his + warriors, beating down his enemies, sometimes on foot, + sometimes in a chariot, of which only a trace remains. The +Page 133 details of the armor resemble in some respects that of the + Assyrians of a much later date. From what can be read of the + inscription, it seems that the conquered enemies belonged to + the country of Is-ban-ki. There is also mention of a city of + Ur, allied with Sirpula. The pillar was sculptured on both + faces. On the reverse is a royal or divine figure, of large + size, holding in one hand the heraldic design of Sirpula (an + eagle with the head of a lion), while the other brandishes a + war-club over a crowd of prisoners, who are tumbling one over + another in a sort of net or cage. In illustration of this + scene, M. Heuzey quoted the passage from Habakkuk (i. 15), + describing the vengeance of the Chaldeans: "They catch them in + their net and gather them in their drag."--_Academy_, Sept. 3. + + + THE BABYLONIAN STANDARD WEIGHT.--Prof. Sayce writes: "Mr. + Greville Chester has become the possessor of a very remarkable + relic of antiquity, discovered in Babylonia, probably on the + site of Babylon. It is a large weight of hard green stone, + highly polished, and of a cone-like form. The picture of an + altar has been engraved upon it, and down one side runs a + cuneiform inscription of ten lines. They read as follows: + + "One maneh standard weight, the property of Merodach-sar-ilani, + a duplicate of the weight which Nebuchadrezzar, king of + Babylon, the son of Nabopolassar, king of Babylon, made in + exact accordance with the weight prescribed by the deified + Dungi, a former king." + + The historical importance of the inscription is obvious at the + first glance. Dungi was the son and successor of Ur-Bagas, and + his date may be roughly assigned to about 3000 B.C. It would + appear that he had fixed the standard of weight in Babylonia; + and the actual weight made by him in accordance with this + standard seems to have been preserved down to the time of + Nebuchadrezzar, who caused a duplicate of it to be made. The + duplicate again became the standard by which all other weights + in the country had to be tested. + + The fact that Dungi is called "the deified" is not surprising. + We know of other early kings of Chaldaea who were similarly + raised to the rank of gods. One of them prefixes the title of + "divine" to his own bricks; another, Naram-Sin, the son of + Sargon, of Accad, is called "a god" on the seal of an + individual who describes himself as his "worshipper. It is + possible that in this cult of certain Babylonian kings we have + an evidence of early intercourse with Egypt."--_Academy_, Dec. + 19. + + + CATALOGUE OF BRITISH MUSEUM TABLETS.--Stored in the British + Museum are some 50,000 inscribed pieces of terracotta or + clay-tablets, forming the libraries of Assyria and Babylonia. +Page 134 The great impetus given to cuneiform studies has made it + necessary that the tablets should be catalogued, and the + trustees have now issued a descriptive catalogue of some 8,000 + inscribed tablets. The inscriptions in question come from the + Kuyuryik Mound, at Nineveh. The tablets embrace every class of + literature, historical documents, hymns, prayers and + educational works, such as syllabaries or spelling-books, and + dictionaries. The catalogues, of which the second is just + issued, are prepared by Dr. Bezold.--_Biblia_, Sept., 1892. + + + ASHNUNNAK.--M. Pognon, French Consul at Bagdad, has announced + to the _Acad. des Inscriptions_ that he has discovered the + exact location of the region called anciently the land of + Ashnunnak. He declares that he is not yet ready to announce his + discovery more exactly, but publishes several bricks with the + names and titles of several princes of Ashnunnak hitherto + unknown. These are Ibalpil, Amil and Nulaku. + + + PERSIA. + + M. de MORGAN'S RESEARCHES IN PERSIA AND LURISTAN.--In a + communication to the _Acad. des Inscr._ M. de Morgan gives a + report upon his mission in Persia and Luristan, of which the + following are a few extracts. "In the valley of the Lar, I made + a study of the subterranean habitations excavated in the rock + and made a plan of the very ancient castle, Molla-Kölo, which + once defended the pass of Vahné. Finally, in the ravine called + _Ab-é-pardöma_, I discovered in the alluvion some stone + instruments presenting very ancient paleolithic characters. At + Amol, I studied the ruins of the ancient city and gathered some + interesting collections containing quite a number of pieces of + pottery and some bronzes of the xiv century."..... "Near + Asterabad there is a mound called _Khaighruch-tépè_. I + attempted to make some excavations of this point; unfortunately + my work here was arrested by order of the Persian government + just when, after twenty days of working with sixty laborers, I + had reached a depth of 11½ meters. In this excavation I found + some human bones, some pottery, some whorls and some thin + objects composed of bronze much decomposed; all in the midst of + ashes and cooking-debris. At the bottom was a skeleton + stretched upon a very regular bed of pebbles, and I am of the + opinion that _Khaighruch-tépè_ was primitively raised as a tomb + and afterwards served for the construction of a village, the + successive ruins of which coming to increase the importance of + the mound. At a depth of 11½ meters I found more cinders and + debris, indicating that I had not yet come to the level of the + earliest works.".... "The _tépès_ are near together in the +Page 135 eastern part of the Mazanderan and in the Turkoman steppe; but + in the Lenkoran, the Ghilan and the western Mazanderan they are + entirely wanting. It is concluded from this observation that + the people who built here were not aborigines of the north of + Persia, but that their migration moreover has left traces on + the right and on the left of the Caspian. The Scythians of + Herodotus present a very satisfactory solution for the problem + of the Caspian _tépès_".... "From an archaeological point of + view the Lenkoran was absolutely virgin soil and the finding of + the first tomb was not an easy task. Finally, after long and + minute research in the forests, I discovered the necropolis of + Kravelady, composed of dolmens almost completely despoiled, but + in sufficiently good condition to permit me to organize the + natives in research for burial places of the same sort. I at + first encountered much repugnance on the part of the + inhabitants to excavate the tombs; finally, with some money and + very long explanations, I brought them to terms and, thanks to + my tomb-hunters, I found and excavated the necropoli of Horil, + Beri, Djon, Tülü, Mistaïl, Hiveri, _etc._ These tombs present, + according to their age, very different characteristics; the + most ancient and at the same time the largest, contain rude + arms of bronze. Those of the period following show the bronze + well worked, iron, gold and silver being employed as jewels. + Although we saw iron in very small quantities in the tombs of + the second period, it is not until the third that it appears as + the material of arms; at the same time, the jewels take the + forms of animals, which change, as I have shown in the case of + Russian Armenia in my preceding mission, indicates the + appearance of a strange tribe possessed of special arts. During + the last epoch all the arms are of iron. The pottery found in + the tombs is glazed. + + "As to the form of the monuments, it is very variable at + different ages; there are some covered passages or chambers + completely closed, some dolmens with openings like those of + India. At the very time when my excavations were attaining + their greatest importance I was compelled to discontinue them + by order of the Russian administration and was obliged to leave + the country, having only made a beginning in archaeology. An + _ukase_ of the Czar reserves the excavations in all his great + empire for the Archæological Society of St. Petersburg. But + this interdict did not arrive until after I had excavated about + two hundred and twenty tombs, so that we now possess more than + fifteen hundred objects, vases, arms, trinkets of gold, bronze, + silver, _etc._ + + "At Moukri, thanks to the kindness of a Kurd chief, I was + enabled to excavate a tomb which, although it held no objects +Page 136 of value, still contained some interesting relics. I have not + yet been able to assign a date to any of them." .... "During my + stay at Moukri I set up a map on the scale of 1/250000, and + marked upon it all the ruins, mounds and ancient tombs.... + + "Although blockaded by snow at Hamadan I was able to visit the + ancient Ecbatana and there acquired a small collection of Greek + jewels and Chaldean cylinders. I found no trace whatever of the + ancient palace; they told me that the last debris had been + reduced to lime and that houses had been built over the rest. + On the other hand, the trilingual inscription of the Elvend, + the _Ghendj-nûméh_, is still admirably preserved, but the cold + prevented me from taking a squeeze. After having visited and + photographed the ruins of Dinâver, Kinghârer, Bisoutoun and + several remains encountered on the route, I visited + Tagh-é-Bostan, near Kirmanshahan; I took numerous photographs + and squeezes of the more interesting fragments, like the + pahlavi inscriptions of the smallest monument. At Zohab, I took + the inscriptions of Ler-é-poul and of Hourin-cheïkh-khan, made + plans of the ruins of Ler-é-poul, those of the Sassanian palace + of Kasr-é-Chirîon and of Haoueh-Ruri; drew up a map on a scale + of 1/250000 of the gates of the Zagros, and of the country + around." ..... "Having arrived at Houleilan,..... I found the + remains of a large number of towns and castles of the Sassanian + epoch, besides some very ancient _tépès_. At Chirvan, near the + fort of the Poncht-é-Kouh, are the ruins of a Sassanian town. I + made a plan of it. Near it is a great _tell_ of unburnt + brick...... In the valleys, situated near the plain, in the + passes are some _tells_, and it is near one of them that I had + the good fortune to find more than eight hundred objects carved + in flint. Beyond these _tells_ which guard the frontier of the + Semite border, the Poncht-é-Kouh does not contain a single + ruin. In antiquity, as to-day, it was inhabited by nomads. On + leaving the Poncht-é-Kouh, I entered the valley of the Kukha, + where I encountered numerous ruins. I then advanced into + Louristan, continually finding _tells_, of which the principal + ones are those of Zakha and of Khorremâbâd. ..... Finally + arriving at Susiana, we again found civilization, but also a + country well known and that does not form a part of my + mission."--_Journal Asiatique_, No. 2, 1892, pp. 189-200. + + + COINS OF THE SATRAPS.--1. Money had been invented and was in + circulation in the Greek cities of Asia Minor almost two + hundred years, when Darius I introduced the daric. The Greek + coins in circulation along the coast had not penetrated far + from the Mediterranean, even the new Persian coinage was used + chiefly in the commerce with the Greeks on the frontier, and +Page 137 for the payment of Greek mercenaries, enrolled in the armies of + the Great King. The interior of the empire, during the whole + period of the Achæmenidæ, continued to employ wedges of + precious metals in exchange. The coinage of the Persian empire + divides into four clearly defined groups, according to the + direct authority of its issue. (1) The coinage of the Great + King; (2) The coinage of the tributary Greek towns; (3) The + coinage of the tributary dynasties; (4) The coinage + occasionally struck for the satraps, chiefs of the Persian + army. It is the last category that is described in the paper + here summarized. The towns then, and the tributary dynasties, + and, under some circumstances, the satraps enjoyed the right to + coin money but only in electrum, silver and bronze; the great + King reserved the exclusive right to issue coins in gold; and + this principle became universally acknowledged, so that gold + effectually became the unique standard of the Persian empire. + The few departures from this rule are not worthy of + consideration. The towns of Asia Minor paying tribute to the + great King continued to issue money, just as they had during + their independence, retaining their own types, and betraying in + no way their subjection. The tributary kings placed under the + surveillance of satraps were allowed various degrees of liberty + in issuing coinage, according to their countries and to their + varying relations to the persian monarch; the dynasties of + Caria, of Cyprus, of Gebal and of Tyre, like the tributary + cities mentioned above, continued their old coinage, while + those of Sidon and of Cilicia placed upon their coins, the + figure of the Achæmenidean prince. + + Besides the coinage already mentioned there exists a number of + coins bearing the names of satraps, and the questions are + raised, under what circumstances were these issued, and with + what extraordinary powers was a satrap invested, who was + permitted to issue money in his own name? The theory is + advanced, that the satraps of the Persian empire never held the + right to coin money in their capacity as satraps. All the + instances we have of satrapal coins were issued by satraps + invested with the command of armies. Fr. Lenormant says: "All + the pieces known, which bear the names of high functionaries of + Persia, mentioned in history, particularly those of Cilicia, + should be ranged in the class of military coins; that is, coins + issued by generals placed at the head of armies, on a campaign, + and not as satraps exercising their regular powers." The only + satrapies in which money was coined, before Alexander, are the + following. The sixth satrapy, which comprised Egypt and + Cyrenaica. The fifth satrapy or that of Syria, comprising + Arabia, Mesopotamia, Syria, Phœnicia, Palestine and the island + of Cyprus. The fourth satrapy or that of Cilicia, which +Page 138 acquired in the V century the states north of the Taurus. The + first satrapy or that of Ionia, comprising Pamphilia, Lycia, + Caria, Pisidia, Ionia and Eolis. The twelfth satrapy, known as + the satrapy of Sardis, or of Lydia. The thirteenth satrapy, + known also as the satrapy of Phrygia, which comprised, besides + the coast of the Hellespont, all the central region of Asia + Minor between the Taurus and the Black Sea. This huge province + was divided in the fifth century into the satrapies of Greater + Phrygia, Lesser Phrygia, and Cappadocia. + + 2. The coinage in circulation in Egypt, during the Achæmenidean + supremacy was all of foreign origin, the staters of the Kings + of Tyre and Sidon and the tetradrachmas of Athens. The commerce + with Greece, and especially the incessant wars in which Greek + mercenaries were largely employed, tended to make Athenian + silver popular in the eastern countries. For the pay of these + mercenaries, the Persians and Egyptians had recourse to silver + money, and especially to those types with which the Greeks were + acquainted. Thus the prevalence of Athenian coins in the Orient + is accounted for by these circumstances. The generals of the + Persian and Egyptian armies made use of the Athenian coins + which had long been in circulation in the country. They merely + imprinted upon the coin of Attic origin a counter-mark to + officially authorize the circulation, and when the original + Athenian coins in the country were insufficient to pay the + troops, they struck off others as nearly like them as + possible--these, however, are easily recognized by the defects + of workmanship and altered inscriptions. One sort has in place + of the Greek lettering an Aramean inscription. On a certain + number of these we find the name Mazaios, the famous satrap of + Cilicia, who undertook to subdue the insurgent king of Sidon. + + The imitation of Athenian coins and the coins of Alexander was + continued in Arabia down to the first century of our era. The + Athenian coins were not the only ones copied in Egypt, + Palestine, and Arabia. The coinage of the kings of Sidon were + frequently imitated by the Aramean chiefs, of whom Bagoas was + one. Then, too, the kings of Sidon had supreme command of the + imperial fleet and had the paying of the naval army. Later, + Mazaios, placed at the head of the Persian army, for a time + imitated the Sidonian coins, substituting his name for that of + the Sidonian dynasty. Bagoas, in turn, did likewise. + + 3. In Phœnicia and northern Syria, which formed the greater + part of the fifth satrapy, a great quantity of coins were + struck off by the tributary dynasties. The kings of Tyre, + Sidon, Gebal, and Aradus had their own coinage, but there seems + to have been no satrapal coinage struck off in Phœnicia. In +Page 139 northern Syria, when Mazaios added this satrapy to his own, he + levied and assembled troops from that entire region; this + accounts for the numerous issues of coins in northern Syria at + that time. + + 4. The dynasties of Cilicia coined money under the same + conditions as did the cities of Phœnicia, Caria and Lydia. The + chief mint of Cilicia was at Tarsus, but money was also coined + at Soli and at Mallus. About the end of the fifth century a + coinage was issued from these mints which is ascribed to + uncertain satraps. The distinguishing mark of these coins, + according to Mr. Waddington, is the use of the neuter adjective + in ικον, but this theory is not conclusive. Besides these + anonymous coins there were others coined in Cilicia bearing the + names of satraps, who were the envoys of the great king to + raise armies and equip fleets. The satrap Tiribazus employed + the mints at Issus, at Soli and Mallus; the satrap Pharnabazus + established his mints in various cities in Cilicia, + particularly at Nagidus; Datamus also issued coinage in + Cilicia. M. Six holds that Mazaios coined money, not only in + Cilicia, but also in Syria and Mesopotamia, and preserved the + right to a coinage under Alexander, but always in a military + capacity. + + 5. After the conquest of Alexander, his generals issued coinage + under his name in their satrapal authority. These were the + coins of Alexander, bearing on one side the particular symbol + of the generals who had issued them; there were the eagle of + Ptolemy, the demi-lion of Lysimachus or the horned horse of + Seleucus. Those of the generals who became kings, in 306, + issued coins in their own name, preserving on them the personal + emblems which they had employed in their satrapal authority. + The generals who did not become kings never issued a coinage in + their own names. + + 6. On the island of Cyprus are found numerous coins which + present all the distinctive signs of satrapal money; they are + believed to have been struck by Evagoras II, the successor of + Nicocles I; but the question arises, Were these satrapal pieces + of Evagoras coined on the island? It has been held that they + were issued from a mint on the continent, in Caria, because the + army of Evagoras was recruited in Asia Minor, and because their + weights are Rhodian, but the form of the letters is Phœnician, + as upon all Cypriote corns; while, on the other hand, in Asia + Minor the Semitic money is inscribed with Aramean characters. + Moreover, all symbols and types which figure on these coins are + essentially Cypriote.--E. BABELON in _Revue Numismatique_, + 1892, p. 277. + + + SASSANIAN COINS.--The Museum of the Hermitage has just come + into possession of the collection of coins of General Komarof, +Page 140 once governor of Russian Turkistan. It consists of more than + two thousand pieces, of which sixty are of gold. The most + remarkable coins of this rich collection are: Four Sassanian + pieces in gold, unpublished, (one of Hormuzd II and three of + Sapor II), a dinar of Nasr I, a dinar of Kharmezi of Tamerlan, + a dinar of Abdallah-ben-Khazim, and about fifty unpublished + Sassanian silver coins.--_Revue Numismatique_, 1892, p. 348. + + + PERSEPOLIS.--CASTS OF SCULPTURES.--The English archæologist Mr. + Cecil Smith has lately returned from an expedition to Persia. + He had with him two Italian makers of casts, and by their means + has obtained a valuable series of casts of the sculptures of + Persepolis from moulds of a fibrous Spanish paper. Among the + casts are those of a long frieze (perron) which decorated the + stairway of the main hall or "apadâna," erected by Xerxes; it + represents a procession of figures presenting to the king the + reports of his governors and the offerings of his subjects. + Another cast is that of the famous monolith of Cyrus.--_Chron. + des Arts_, 1892, No. 31. We understand that the collection of + casts of the Metropolitan Museum is to receive a copy of all + these casts. + + + SYRIA. + + EDESSA.--HISTORICAL SKETCH.--M. Rubens Duval, the eminent + Syriac scholar, has been publishing in the _Journal Asiatique_ + a history of the city of Edessa under the title: "_Histoire + religieuse et litteraire d'Edesse jusqu' à la première + Croisade_", (_Jour. As._ t. 18, No. 1 to t. 19, No. 1). This + monograph has been crowned by the French Academy. It includes a + considerable amount of information concerning the monuments of + the city, especially those belonging to the early Christian + period, and some idea can be gained of them by the following + abridged note. As Edessa was one of the principal cities of the + Christian East, the information is of interest. Edessa was from + its position a fortress of the first rank and reputed + impregnable. The citadel rose on a peak on the southwest angle + of the rampart. At the west end there still remain two columns + with Corinthian capitals, one of which bears an inscription + with the name of Queen Shalmat, daughter of Ma'nu, probably the + wife of King Abgar Ukhama. Within the citadel, on the great + square called Beith-Tebhara, King Abgar VII built, after the + inundation of 202, a winter palace, safe from the river floods, + and the nobles followed his example. In the city itself were + the porticoes or forum near the river, the Antiphoros or + town-hall, restored by Justinian. In 497, the governor of the + city, Alexander, built a covered gallery near the Grotto Gate +Page 141 and Public Baths, near the public storehouse; both the summer + and winter baths were surrounded by a double colonnade. To the + south, near the Great Gate, were other baths, and near them the + theatre. Within the Beth Shemesh Gate was a hospital and + outside it a refuge for old men. North of the city, near the + wall, was the hippodrome, built by Abgarus IX on his return + from Rome. The city had six gates which still exist under + different names. + + Edessa is one of the few cities that are known to have had a + Christian church as early as the second century. This church + was destroyed by the inundation of 201, was then rebuilt, being + the only church in the city, suffered from the inundation of + 303 and was rebuilt from its foundations in 313 by Cona, bishop + of Edessa, and his successor Sa'd. It was called the Ancient + Church, "the cathedral," also sometimes the Church of St. + Thomas, because in 394 it received the relics of the apostle + Thomas. The Frankish pilgrim woman who visited it at the close + of the fourth century, or later, speaks of its size, beauty and + the novelty of its arrangement. Duval believes her words to + relate to Justinian's building, believing in a later date than + is usually assigned to the above document. In 525 the church + was overthrown by an inundation and then rebuilt by Justinian + in such splendor as to be regarded as one of the wonders of the + world. It was overthrown by earthquakes in 679 and 718. + + The other churches were as follows: + + 370. The Baptistery is built. + 379. Church of S. Daniel or S. Domitius, built by Bishop + Vologese. + 409. Church of S. Barlaha, built by Bishop Diogenes. + 412. Church of S. Stephen, formerly a Jewish synagogue, + built by Bishop Rabbula. + 435. The New Church, called later the Church of the Holy + Apostles, built by Bishop Hibhas. + " Church of S. John the Baptist and S. Addasus, built by + Bishop Nonnus (died 471), successor of Hibhas. + " Church of S. Mar Cona. + 489. Church of the Virgin Mother of God, built on the site + of the School of the Persians after its destruction in + 489. + c.505. Martyrium of the Virgin, built by Bishop Peter early in + VI century. + + Outside the walls were the following churches: + + Towards the N. Chapel of SS. Cosmas and Damian, built by Nonnus + (middle ν century). + + E. Church of SS. Sergius and Simeon, which was burned in 503 by + the Persian King Kawad. +Page 142 + W. Church of Confessors, built in 346 by Bishop Abraham, + and burned by Kawad in 503. + Church of the Monks, near the citadel. + + The cliffs to the west had been from early times excavated for + burial purposes. In the midst of the tombs rose the mausoleums + of the family of the Abgars, especially that of Abshelama, son + of Abgarus. They were also honeycombed with anchorites' cells. + This mountain received the name of the Holy Mountain and was + covered with monasteries, among which were the following: + Eastern Monks; S. Thomas; S. David; S. John; S. Barbara; S. + Cyriacus; Phesilta; Mary _Deipara_; of the Towers; of Severus; + of Sanin; of Kuba; of S. James. Arab writers mention over 300 + monasteries around Edessa. Two aqueducts, starting from the + villages of Tell-Zema and Maudad to the north, brought + spring-water to the city; they were restored in 505 by Governor + Eulogius. + + Bishop Rabbulas (412-435) built a hospital for women from the + stones of four pagan temples which were destroyed. He destroyed + the church of the sect of Bardesanes and the church of the + Arians, erecting other structures with their materials. After + the Persian wars (505) Eulogius, governor of Edessa, rebuilt + many of the damaged public monuments. He repaired the outer + ramparts and the two aqueducts; rebuilt the public baths, the + prætorium, and other structures. The bishop, Peter, restored + the cathedral and built the Martyrium of the Virgin, and also + covered with bronze one of the cathedral doors. Justinian + restored and rebuilt many buildings after the inundation of + 524-25. Even under the early period of Muhammadan rule the + Christian structures were cared for. Under the Khalif + Abd-el-Malik (685-705) the Edessene Christian Athanasius, who + enjoyed great political influence, rebuilt the Church of the + Virgin, which was on the site of the School of the Persians; + rebuilt also the Baptistery in which he placed the portrait of + Christ sent to Abgarus and placed in it fountains like those of + the Ancient Church, decorating it also with gold, silver and + bronze revetments. He also built two large basilicas at Fostat + in Egypt. There is an interesting account of an artistic + treasure of great value discovered in a house belonging to a + noble family of the Goumêaus in 797 and belonging to the Roman + and Byzantine period; it is supposed to have been hidden in + 609. The churches were often destroyed and rebuilt according to + the tolerance or intolerance of the Muhammadan governors. At + one period of persecution, c. 825, a mosque was built in the + _tetrapylum_ in front of the Ancient Church. It is not + important to trace the vicissitudes of the building of Edessa + any further. +Page 143 + + COINS OF THE KINGS OF EDESSA.--Marquis de Vogué sends to M.E. + Babelon a description of a bronze coin brought from Syria, + found either in the province of Alep or of Damas. It bears the + name of Abgarus, the name of several of the kings of Edessa. + The type is that of the small bronze pieces attributed to + Mannou VIII; the character and inscriptions are the same. It + must then be attributed to a king Abgarus whose reign + approaches as nearly as possible that of Mannou VIII. Mr. + Rubens Duval, in his history of Edessa, mentions two kings of + this name, Abgarus VIII, whose reign cut into that of Mannou + VIII, and Abgarus IX, who succeeded him. It is to one of these + two princes that this coin must be assigned. It is possible + that this monument may shed some light upon a portion of + Oriental chronology, hitherto very dark. Two other coins are + described from M. Vogué's collection, one of which, it seems, + should be attributed to the same king Abgarus as the preceding; + the other bears a name which M. Duval assigns to Abgarus XI, + who reigned for two years during a short restoration of the + government of Edessa.--_Revue Numismatique_, 1892, p. 209. + + + SINJIRLI.--SEMITIC INSCRIPTIONS.--The German Oriental Committee + discovered, as is well known, an ancient city buried under a + number of mounds at a place called Sinjirli in the Amanus + Mountains. Here were found a number of statues bearing cuniform + inscriptions, Hittite inscriptions and two long Aramean + inscriptions of the VIII or IX century B.C. + + M. Helévy, the well-known French Orientalist, was sent by the + Paris Institute to the Museum of Berlin, where these statues + are placed, to report upon the inscriptions. M. Helévy finds + that the two kings were rulers of Yadi and that their reigns + were a century apart. The first statue is that of Panémon, + founder of his dynasty--a 40 line inscription relates the + events of his reign, the protection of the Jews, _etc._ The + second is a king who was a vassal of Tiglath-Pilezer, king of + Assyria. The inscription describes wars of his father, his own + relations with Assyria, his defeats and victories. It gives an + account of his own reign and terminates by invoking the + protection of the gods. + + M. Helévy says that these inscriptions are not in the Aramean + language, as was first supposed, but a Phœnician dialect very + analogous to Hebrew, which was spoken by the people whom the + Assyrians named Hatte, that is to say, Hittites or Hetheim. He + adds that the current opinion as to their not being of Semitic + race is quite erroneous and that the hieroglyphics discovered + in various parts of Asia Minor are of Anatolian and not of + Assyrian origin, the few texts of this kind found at Hamath and +Page 144 Aleppo being due to Anatolian conquerors, whose domination, + however, was very temporary in character.--_Journal of the + Royal Asiatic Society_, 1892, Oct., p. 887. + + + NAMES OF CITIES AT MEDINET HABU.--Prof. Sayce writes: The list + of places conquered by Rameses III in Palestine and Syria, + which I copied on the pylon of Medinet Habu, turns out to be + even more interesting than I had supposed, as a whole row of + them belongs to the territory of Judah. Thus we have the "land + of Salem," which, like the Salam of Rameses II, is shown by the + Tell-el-Amarna tablets to be Jerusalem, _arez hadast_, or "New + Lands," the Hadashah of Joshua (XV. 37), Shimshana or Samson, + "the city of the Sun" (Josh. XV. 10), Carmel of Judah, Migdol + (Josh. XV. 37), Apaka or Aphekah (Josh. XV. 53), "the Springs + of Khibur" or Hebron, Shabuduna, located near Gath, by Thothmes + III, and Beth-Anath, the Beth-Anoth of Joshua (XV. 59). The + discovery of these names in the records of an Egyptian king, + who reigned about 1200 B.C., raises a question of some interest + for students of the Old Testament.--_Academy_, April 2. + + + JAFFA.--The Committee of the Palestine Exploration Fund have + received through Mr. Bliss a squeeze of a long inscription + stated to have been recently discovered at a place not far from + Jaffa, which appears to contain about 250 letters in the + Phœnician character.--_Academy_, March 5. + + + JERUSALEM.--A BYZANTINE BRACELET.--Mr. Maxwell Somerville of + Philadelphia has added to his collection a large bronze + bracelet found near Jerusalem and bearing a Greek inscription. + It was communicated to the _Acad. des Inscr._ by M. le Blant. + At one end of the inscription is a lion _courant_, at the other + a serpent _rampant_. On the left end is soldered a small round + plaque on which is engraved a subject identical with that found + on some of the amulets published by M. Schlumberger in the + _Rev. des Études Grecques_ (see under _Byzantine Amulets_ in + Greek news of this number). A mounted warrior--whom Mr. + Schlumberger identifies as Solomon--pierces with his lance a + prostrate female figure who apparently represents the devil, a + "Fra Diavalo."--_Chron. des Arts_, 1892, No. 23. + + + RETHPANA-DEAD SEA.--Prof. Sayce has discovered at Medinet Habû + the Egyptian name of the Dead Sea. Between the names of Salem + and Yerdano and the Jordan comes "the lake of Rethpana." As the + Dead Sea is the only "lake" in that part of the world, the + identification of the name is certain. Rethpana could + correspond with a Canaanite Reshpôn, a derivative from Reshpu, + the sun-god, who revealed himself in flames of + fire.--_Academy_, May 14. +Page 145 + + TEL-EL-HESY--LACHISH.--CUNEIFORM TABLET.--We quote from a + letter written to the Times by Mr. James Glaisher, chairman of + the executive committee of the Palestine Exploration Fund:-- + + The excavations commenced two years ago by Dr. Flinders Petrie + at a mound in Palestine named Tell-el-Hesy have been continued + during the last six months by Mr. F.J. Bliss, of Beirût. The + Tell has been identified by Major Conder and Dr. Flinders + Petrie with the ancient city of Lachish, an identification + which is now amply confirmed. + + Mr. Bliss has found among the _débris_ a cuneiform tablet, + together with certain Babylonian cylinders and imitations or + forgeries of those manufactured in Egypt. A translation of the + tablet has been made by Prof. Sayce; it is as follows:-- + + 'To the Governor. [I] O, my father, prostrate myself at thy + feet. Verily thou knowest that Baya (?) and Zimrida have + received thy orders (?) and Dan-Hadad says to Zimrida, "O, my + father, the city of Yarami sends to me, it has given me 3 + _masar_ and 3 ... and 3 falchions." Let the country of the King + know that I stay, and it has acted against me, but till my + death I remain. As for thy commands (?) which I have received, + I cease hostilities, and have despatched Bel(?)-banilu, and + Rabi-ilu-yi has sent his brother to this country to [strengthen + me (?)].' + + The letter was written about the year 1400 B.C. It is in the + same handwriting as those in the Tell-el-Amarna collection, + which were sent to Egypt from the south of Palestine about the + same time. + + Now, here is a very remarkable coincidence. In the + Tell-el-Amarna collection we learn that one Zimrida was + governor of Lachish, where he was murdered by some of his own + people, and the very first cuneiform tablet discovered at + Tell-el-Hesy is a letter written to this Zimrida. + + The city Yarami may be the Jarmuth of the Old Testament. + + 'Even more interesting,' writes Prof. Sayce, 'are the + Babylonian cylinders and their imitations. They testify to the + long and deep influence and authority of Babylon in Western + Asia, and throw light on the prehistoric art of Phœnicia and + Cyprus. The cylinders of native Babylonian manufacture belong + to the period B.C. 2000-1500; the rest are copies made in the + West. One of these is of Egyptian porcelain, and must have been + manufactured in Egypt, in spite of its close imitation of a + Babylonian original. Others are identical with the cylinders + found in the prehistoric tombs of Cyprus and Syria, and so fix + the date of the latter. On one of them are two centaurs + arranged heraldically, the human faces being shaped like those +Page 146 of birds. European archæologists will be interested in learning + that among the minor objects are two amber beads.--_Academy_, + July 9. + + The _Quarterly Statement_ of the Palestine Exploration Fund for + April contains a detailed report of Mr. F.J. Bliss's + excavations at Tell-el-Hesy, the site of Lachish, during last + winter, illustrated with several plans and woodcuts. The most + interesting objects found were a number of bronze weapons, and + fragments of pottery with markings, both from the lowest or + Amorite town. Mr. W.M. Flinders Petrie adds a note on the + weights discovered, almost all of which belong to the Phœnician + and Aeginetan systems. + + + ARMENIA. + + SEALS OF KING LEO II AND LEO V.--At a meeting of the _Acad. des + Inscr._ M. Schlumberger communicated three magnificent bulls or + gold seals of Leo II, king of Lesser Armenia. These gold bulls, + appended to letters from this king to Pope Innocent III, + written early in the XIII century, are preserved in the Vatican + archives, and are probably the only examples of the king in + existence. Leo II, in royal costume, is on one side; the lion + of Armenia on the other. Another royal Armenian seal is + preserved in the Bibliothèque Nationale. It is that of Leo V, + the last king of the dynasty, who died, an exile, in + Paris.--_Chron. des Arts_, 1892, No, 6. + + + CAUCASUS. + + THE IRON AGE.--M. Ernest Ghautre has given a statement of his + ideas on the iron age in the Caucasus and elsewhere in a + pamphlet entitled, _Origine et Ancienneté du premier age du fer + au Caucase_, Lyon, 1892. He says: "Necropoli of unequalled + richness have been discovered in the Great Caucasus and on + several points of Transcaucasia. These necropoli, in which + inhumation appears to have been almost exclusively used, should + be divided into two large groups. The most ancient corresponds + to the Hallstatt period; the later to the Scythian period in + the East and the Gallic period in the West. The Hallstatt type + or that of the first iron age is met with especially in the + most ancient tombs of the necropolis of Kobau, in Ossethia; + those of the second iron age are to be found essentially in the + necropolis of Kambylte in Digouria and certain localities of + Armenia. The first iron age was introduced into the region of + the Caucasus between the XX and XV century B.C. by a + dolichocephalic population of Mongolo-Semitic or Semito-Kushite + and not of Iranian origin. It was transformed toward the VII + century by the invasion of a brachycephalic Scythian people of + Ural-Altaic origin." +Page 147 + + ANI.--The Russians are excavating at Ani, in Turkish Armenia, + the ancient capital. They have found some ecclesiastical and + other antiquities.--_Athenæum_, Sept. 3. + + + ASIA MINOR. + + PRIVATE GREEK COINAGE BY REFUGEES.--The Persian kings accorded + to certain illustrious Greeks who had sought refuge in Asia + Minor on Persian territory the right to coin money. To this + they joined the privileges inherent in the title of hereditary + despot which was granted to them. The principal coinages are + those of Themistokles at Magnesia, of Georgion at Gambrium, and + of Euripthenes at Pergamon. M. Babelon read a memoir on the + subject before the _Soc. des Antiquaires_, giving genealogical + details regarding those families of exiles.--_Chron. des Arts_, + 1892, No. 16. + + + COMPARISON OF HITTITE AND MYCENÆAN SCULPTURES.--M. Heuzey has + read before the _Acad. des Inscr._ (Oct. 14) a comparative + study on an engraved gold ring found at Mycenæ and a relief in + the Louvre which belongs to the series of Hittite reliefs and + was found at Kharpout, in the Upper Euphrates region on the + frontier of Armenia and Cappadocia. The relief is surmounted by + two lines of ideographic inscription. The subject on both is a + stag-hunt; the stag is hunted in a chariot, as was always done + before the horse was used for riding, that is before the VIII + century B.C. The relief is a rustic variant of the Assyrian + style; certain details prove it to belong to the IX century. + The stag is of the variety called _hamour_ by the Arabs, + characterized by horns palm-shaped at their extremities. On the + ring the attitudes are far more lively and bold, but the + identity of the subject is none the less striking.--_Revue + Critique_, 1892, No. 43. + + + HITTITE INSCRIPTION.--M. Menant has communicated to the _Acad. + des Inscr._ (Aug. 7, 1891,) a new Hittite inscription, noted + during the preceding summer, in the pass of Bulgar-Maden, in + Asia Minor. It is in perfect preservation and of unusual + length, and is therefore of great value for the study of the + Hittite language. M. Menant sees at the beginning the genealogy + and titles of a prince, some other of whose inscriptions have + already been found; then an invocation to the patron divinities + of his kingdom; then the main body of the inscription, which + will doubtless be the most difficult to decipher; and at the + close a re-enumeration of the divinities already + invoked.--_Revue Critique_, 1891, No. 35-6. + + + THE DECIPHERMENT OF THE HITTITE INSCRIPTIONS.--Prof. Sayce + writes: "I have, I believe, at last succeeded in breaking +Page 148 through the blank wall of the Hittite decipherment. Twelve + years ago, with the help of the bilingual text of Tarkondêmos, + I advanced a little way, but want of material prevented me from + going further. At length, however, the want has been supplied, + and new materials have come to hand, chiefly through the + discoveries of Messrs. Ramsay, Hogarth, and Headlam in Asia + Minor. The conclusions to be derived from the latter are stated + in an article of mine which has just been published in the last + number of the _Recueil de Travaux relatifs à la Philogie et à + l'Archéologie égyptiennes et assyriennes_. Since that article + was written, I have once more gone through the Hittite texts in + the light of our newly-acquired facts, and have, I believe, + succeeded in making out the larger part of them." + + As in the languages of Van, of Mitanni, and of Arzana, the + Hittite noun possessed a nominative in _-s_, an accusative in + _-n_, and an oblique case which terminated in a vowel, while + the adjective followed the substantive, the same suffixes being + attached to it as to the substantive with which it agreed. The + character which I first conjectured to have the value of _se_, + and afterwards of _me_, really has the value of _ne_. + + The inscriptions of Hamath, like the first and third + inscriptions of Jerablûs, are records of buildings, the second + inscription of Jerablûs is little more than a list of royal or + rather high-priestly titles, in which the king "of Eri and + Khata" is called "the beloved of the god (Sutekh), the mighty, + who is under the protection of the god Sarus, the regent of the + earth, and the divine Nine; to whom the god (Sutekh) has given + the people of Hittites... the powerful (prince), the prophet of + the Nine great gods, beloved of the Nine and of ..., son of the + god. The first inscription of Jerablûs states that "the high + priest and his god have erected "images" to Sarus- * -erwes and + his son. Who the latter were is not mentioned, nor is the name + of the son given. Those who have read what I have written + formerly on the Hittite inscriptions will notice that I was + wrong in supposing that Sarus- * -erwes and his father were the + father and grandfather of the Carchemish king to whom the + monument belongs.-_Academy_, May 21, 1892. + + One of the most curious facts that result from my decipherment + of the texts--supposing it to be correct--is the close + similarity that exists between the titles assumed by the + Hittite princes and those of the Egyptian Pharaohs of the XVIII + and XIX dynasties. The fact has an important bearing on which + the monuments of Hamath and Carchemish must be assigned. The + similarity extends beyond the titles, the Hittite system of + writing presenting in many respects a startling parallelism to + that of the Egyptian hieroglyphs. Thus, "word" or "order" is +Page 149 denoted by a head, a phonetic character, and the ideograph of + "speaking," the whole being a fairly exact counterpart of the + Egyptian _tep-ro_, an "oral communication." It would seem as if + the inventer of the Hittite hieroglyphs had seen those of + Egypt, just as Doalu, the inventor of the Sei syllabary, is + known to have seen European writing. This likeness between the + graphic systems of the Hittites and Egyptians has been a + surprise to me, since I had hitherto believed that, as the + Hittite hieroglyphs are so purely native in origin, the graphic + system to which they belong must also be purely + native.--_Academy_, May 21. + + + ARAMΕΑΝ COINS OF CAPPADOCIA.--M. Six, enumerating all the coins + bearing the names of Datames, mentions only those of the + ordinary type of Sinope, with a Greek inscription. M. Babelon + finds coins of Datames in Cilicia as well, and reads this name + in the Aramean inscriptions which M. Six interprets _Tarcamos_. + The name of Datames is historic, but the reading of M. Six has + not come down to us. The coins in question bear a striking + likeness to those of Pharnabazus, their types being identical. + We know that Datames succeeded Pharnabazus in the command of + the Persian armies, their coins then must have been struck + under the same circumstances and in the same mints, that is, in + the ports of Cilicia where preparations were made for the + expedition against Egypt. Later, Datames was charged with + subduing the rebellious Sinope, here we have an explanation of + the coins of Sinopean type bearing the name of Datames. Why may + not this man be the same whom Diodorus designates satrap of + Cappadocia? + + 2. There are two similar drachmas, one in possession of the + Cabinet des Medailles, the other in the Waddington collection; + they are Cappadocian coins of the type of Sinope, like those of + Datames. The Aramean inscription on the back of these coins has + been given a variety of interpretations which appear to be + equally possible. M. Babelon, after careful study, fixes upon + _Abrocomou_, the only reading in which we can recognize an + historic personage. Abrocomas was one of the principal + lieutenants of Artaxerxes II and was a colleague of Pharnabazus + in the Egyptian campaign. If we accept this reading of the + drachma's inscription we must infer that Abrocomas became + satrap of Cappadocia, he was in all probability successor to + Datames, his coins plainly of later date; their weight and + their style show that they belong to the older coinage of + Sinope and they are no less certainly anterior to those of + Arianthes, which they somewhat resemble. + + 3. Arianthes must have been the immediate successor of + Abrocomas, the identity of style, of types and of material in + these coins point to this conclusion. M. Six places two + governors of Cappadocia between Datames and Arianthes, whose +Page 150 names he finds on certain coins. M. Babelon shows that the + drachma which bears one of these names, is a manifest imitation + of the drachmas of Datames; he also points out that the + inscription itself is plainly an alteration of the Aramean name + of Datames. The other name he proves to be a deformation of + _Abrocomas_ and states his belief that neither of these + supposed governors of Cappadocia ever existed and cites other + instances of the imitation of coins and the alteration of + inscriptions.--_Revue Numismatique_, III S. tom. 10. II trim., + 1892, p. 168. + + + HITTITE LETTER OF DUSRATTA.--Among the 300 letters from + Tell-el-Amarna is one written to Amenophis III by Dusratta, + king of Mitani, the region immediately east of the Euphrates. + The letter which was written on both sides of a clay tablet in + cuneiform characters begins with an introduction of seven lines + in Assyrian, but the remaining 605 lines are in the native + language of Dusratta. + + The content refers to an embassy sent from Egypt to ask for the + hand of his daughter and to recognition of his conquests in + Phœnicia. The most important parts are those relating to his + religion and to the affairs of state. We find that the religion + of the Hittites, Armenians and Akkadians was probably the same + as well as their language, which was more nearly akin to pure + Turkish than to any other branch of Mongol speech. Dusratta was + a Minyan and his power seems to have been the chief in Armenia + at this time. + + From the letter we find that Dusratta was to receive a large + portion of Phoenicia and Northern Syria, which he was to rule + as a tributary of Amenophis III. + + The latter part of the letter refers to the marriage of + Yadukhepa, daughter of Dusratta, to the heir of Egypt, with + assurances of increased renewal of friendship between the + kingdoms. + + The letter is especially important because we may obtain from + it, in connection with the letter of Laskondam, also written in + Hittite, many of the forms of the Hittite language, its grammar + and vocabulary of 400 words. + + By these it is shown to be clearly a Mongol language, closely + related with the Akkadian, though somewhat later.--_Biblia_, + Sept., 1892. + + + ANGORA.--At a meeting of the _Acad. des Inscr_. M.J. Menant + exhibited the rubbing of a Hittite bas-relief found at Angora, + which is now at Constantinople. It shows two personages, with + an inscription in Hittite characters by the side of each. One + of them is the god Sandu, to whom a king (with a name not yet + deciphered) is making an offering. +Page 151 + + APAMΕΙΑ.--CHRISTIAN CHURCH.--Mr. G. Weber has published a study + of the early Christian church of Apameia (_Une église antique à + Dinair_) which he considers to be the earliest of which any + remains exist in Asia; he regards it as having been built under + Constantine,--_Revue Arch._, 1892, 1, p. 131. + + + KARIA.--TEMPLE NEAR STRATONIKEIA--A large temple of Hecate was + found last year in Caria, near the ancient Stratonikeia (Eski + Hissar). Hamdi Bey, the director of the museum at + Constantinople, has been carrying on excavations. He has + secured about 160 ft. of the sculptured frieze complete, and + has repaired the road to the coast ready for its shipment. A + member of the _École Française_ has been invited by him to + assist him, and the results will be published by the + School.--_Athenæum_, Oct. 1. + + + SEBASTOPOLIS.--M. Leon, the French vice-consul at Siwas, has + communicated to the _Acad. des Inscr._ the discovery of a + series of Greek inscriptions copied by him, which have enabled + him to fix with certainty the site of the ancient city of + Sebastopolis. They also furnish important information regarding + its constitution.--_Athenæum_, Feb. 27. + + + A.L. 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