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diff --git a/20663.txt b/20663.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..2af81e0 --- /dev/null +++ b/20663.txt @@ -0,0 +1,5236 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The American Practical Brewer and Tanner, by +Joseph Coppinger + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The American Practical Brewer and Tanner + +Author: Joseph Coppinger + +Release Date: February 25, 2007 [EBook #20663] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PRACTICAL BREWER AND TANNER *** + + + + +Produced by Robert Cicconetti and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + + THE AMERICAN PRACTICAL BREWER AND TANNER: + + IN WHICH IS EXHIBITED + + THE WHOLE PROCESS OF + + +Brewing without boiling. + +Brewing strong Beer with the extract only of the Hop, leaving out the +substance. + +A simple method of giving new Beer all the qualities of age, thereby +fitting it for the bottle before it is three weeks old. + +A simple method of preventing Beer bursting the bottle. + +An economical mode of constructing Vats above ground, possessing the +temperature of the best cellars and thus rendered fireproof. + +An economical mode by which every Housekeeper may brew his own Beer. + +A method of brewing good Beer from Bran and Shorts, and of preserving +it. + +The Bordeaux method of making and preparing Claret Wine for shipping, +which may be successfully applied to the wines of this country, +particularly those of Kaskaskias. + +The best method and season for malting Indian Corn, from which alone +good Beer can be made, a process highly important to Brewers. + +The best mode of raising Hops. + +The best mode of preparing Seed Barley for sowing. + +Best construction and aspect of Breweries and Malt Houses in this +country. + +The French mode of tanning the heaviest Soal Leather in twenty-one +days, and Calf Skins in three or four. (Highly important.) + + + + BY JOSEPH COPPINGER. + Practical Brewer. + + + + _NEW-YORK_: + PRINTED BY VAN WINKLE AND WILEY, + No. 3 Wall Street. + + + 1815. + + + + +Transcriber's Note: Part of the last sentence in Footnote 6 is +illegible and has been marked [remainder of text is illegible]. In +addition, the Contents were moved from the rear to the front of this +text for the convenience of the reader. + + + + +CONTENTS. + + + Page. + +Advertisement 3 + +Preface 5 + +The best position for placing a brewery and malt + house, also the best aspect, with different + arrangements of the vessels 11 + +A description of the form and plan of a brewery, + distribution of the vessels; the most judicious and + convenient manner of placing them, with a view + to economy, cleanliness, and effect 13 + +Malt house, the best construction of, with proper + barley lofts, dropping room, and flooring, how, + and in what manner made, and best likely to last 18 + +Wooden kilns, how constructed 23 + +A new and economical construction of vats for + keeping beer, which, in this way, may be rendered + fire proof, whilst at the same time possessing + the temperature of the best cellars, although + above ground 29 + +Grinding, how substituted for 31 + +Malting 33 + +Plain practical process of malting 44 + +Malting winter barley 50 + +Malting oats ib. + +Malting rye ib. + +Malting wheat ib. + +Indian corn, how malted 51 + +Fermentation 54 + +Hops, how cultivated 99 + +Barley cultivation 109 + +Table beer 112 + +Small beer for shipping 113 + +Keeping table beer 114 + +Small beer of the best kind 116 + +Another method to brew small beer 118 + +Another process for brewing small beer 120 + +Single ale and table beer 123 + +Strong beer 126 + +Table beer, English method of brewing it 129 + +Unboiled beer 131 + +Strong beer, brewed with the extract of hops, + leaving out the substance 134 + +Table beer for housekeepers, well worth their + attention 136 + +Fermenting and cleansing in the same vessel 138 + +Plate of the worker 139 + +A new method of fermenting strong beer, that will + produce a pure and good liquor 140 + +Process of brewing Windsor ale, on a small scale 142 + +Reading beer, how brewed 145 + +Two-penny amber beer, as brewed in London 147 + +London ale, how brewed 149 + +Windsor ale, on a large scale 151 + +Welsh ale, how brewed 154 + +Wirtemberg ale 156 + +Hock 158 + +Scurvy grass ale 160 + +Dorchester ale 162 + +Porter 165 + +Porter process No. I. 167 + +Porter process No. II. 170 + +Porter process No. III. 172 + +Porter malt 174 + +Porter colouring 176 + +Strong beer 182 + +Filtering operation (with a Plate) 189 + +Returned beer, how to make the most of 193 + +To Bring several sorts of beer, when mixed, + to one uniform taste 194 + +Finings, the best method of preparing them 195 + +Heading 197 + +Bottling beer 198 + +Brewing coppers, the best method of setting them 202 + +Pumps, the best construction of, and how freed + from ice in winter 205 + +Cleansing casks 208 + +To make mead wine 210 + +To make ginger wine 212 + +To make currant wine 213 + +Yest, how prepared to keep good in any climate 214 + +To make a substitute for brewer's yest 217 + +Another method 218 + +Another method 220 + +Process of making and preparing claret wine + for shipping, as practiced in Bordeaux and + its neighbourhood 221 + +Brewing company 227 + +The author's notice about plans and sections of + elevation for breweries and malt houses 230 + +French mode of tanning 232 + + + +_Errata._ + +In the Advertisement, 4th page, 6th line, first word, for _wine_ read +_vine_; and in the next line, first word, for _it_ read _its produce_. + +In page 25, 25th line, the last word should be omitted, and read thus, +_malt or grain intended to be dried on it, requiring less fuel_, &c. + +In page 36, 25th line, first word, for _proportion_ read _preparation_. + + + + +SOUTHERN DISTRICT OF NEW-YORK, _ss._ + + +BE IT REMEMBERED, that on the fourteenth day of September, in the +fortieth year of the independence of the United States of America, +Joseph Coppinger of the said district, has deposited in this office +the title of a book, the right whereof he claims as proprietor, in the +words and figures following, to wit: + +"The American Practical Brewer and Tanner: in which is exhibited the +whole process of Brewing without boiling; Brewing Strong Beer with the +extract only of the Hop, leaving out the substance; a simple method of +giving new Beer all the qualities of age, thereby rendering it fit for +the Bottle before it is three weeks old; a simple method of preventing +Beer bursting the Bottle; an economical mode of constructing Vats +above ground, possessing the temperature of the best Cellars, and thus +rendered fireproof; an economical mode by which every Housekeeper may +brew his own Beer; a method of brewing good Beer from Bran and Shorts, +and of preserving it; the Bordeaux method of making and preparing +Claret Wine for shipping, which may be successfully applied to the +vines of this country, particularly those of Kaskaskias; the best +method and season for malting Indian Corn, from which alone good Beer +can be made, a process highly important to Brewers; the best mode of +raising Hops; the best mode of preparing Seed Barley for sowing; best +construction of Breweries and Malt Houses in this country; the French +mode of tanning the heaviest Soal Leather in twenty-one days, and Calf +Skins in three or four--highly important. +By Joseph Coppinger, Practical Brewer." + +In conformity to the act of the Congress of the United States, +entitled "An act for the encouragement of learning, by securing the +copies of maps, charts, and books to the authors and proprietors of +such copies, during the times therein mentioned;" and also to an act +entitled "an act, supplementary to an act, entitled an act for the +encouragement of learning, by securing the copies of maps, charts, and +books, to the authors and proprietors of such copies, during the times +therein mentioned, and extending the benefits thereof to the arts of +designing, engraving, and etching historical and other prints." + +THERON RUDD, +Clerk of the Southern District of New-York. + + + + +ADVERTISEMENT. + + +Since writing the Preface, I have been induced to make an addition to +this little work, in order to increase its usefulness, by giving the +French mode of tanning, as practised by the famous Mr. Seguine. Of such +importance did the Academy of Arts and Sciences at Paris consider this +improvement, that they thought it worth while to appoint a committee of +their own members to go down to one of the provinces where this +gentleman resides, and there, on the spot, superintend his operations, +which they did with minute attention; and it is from the journal of +their reports to the academy, that the different processes of tanning +leather in this ingenious artist's way are here given; an improvement +that can, no doubt, be successfully applied to that important +manufacture in this country, affording the tanner the opportunity of +turning his capital twelve or fourteen times in a year, instead of +once. This single advantage alone so forcibly recommends its adoption, +particularly in a country like ours, where capital is scarce, that +further comment is unnecessary. I have also added the Bordeaux method +of making and preparing claret wine for shipping, as practised in that +city and its vicinity; which practice may possibly hereafter be +successfully applied to the red wines of this country. The more so, +when it is known that in the reign of Louis XVI., the merchants of +Bordeaux presented a memorial to that monarch, praying him to put a +stop to the importation of the wines of Kaskaskias into France, as +likely, if permitted, to be injurious to the trade of Bordeaux. There +was at that time a College of Jesuits established in that country, the +superiors of which caused the wine to be cultivated with great success, +and quantities of it were at that time sent to France. As that +territory is now in our possession, and its soil and climate peculiarly +favourable to the growth of the grape, which is indigenous there, may +it not be an object well worth the attention of our government, to +encourage and improve the growth of the wine in that section of the +union; which wise measure would, probably, in a few years, supply our +own consumption, and leave a considerable surplus for exportation. To +offer an apology for giving these subjects a place in this publication, +seems wholly unnecessary, when their importance is considered. + + + + +PREFACE. + + +Brewing, in every country, whose soil and climate are congenial to the +production of the raw materials, should be ranked among the first +objects of its domestic and political economy. If any person doubt the +truth of this position, I have only to request him to cast an eye on +England, where the brewing capital is estimated at more than fifteen +millions sterling; and the gross annual revenue, arising from this +capital, at seven million five hundred thousand pounds sterling, +including the hop, malt, and extract duties. Notwithstanding this +enormous excise of 50 per cent. on the brewing capital, what immense +fortunes have been made, and are daily making, in that country, as well +as in Ireland and Scotland, by the intelligent and judicious practice +of this _more than useful art_. Yet how much stronger inducements for +similar establishments in this country, where we have no duty on the +raw materials, or the extract;[1] and where the important article of +hops is raised in as high perfection as in any part of Europe, and +often for one third of the price paid in England. But a still more +important consideration is the health and morals of our population, +which appears to be essentially connected with the progress of the +brewing trade. In proof of this assertion, I will beg leave to state +a well known fact; which is, that in proportion as the consumption +of malt liquors have increased in our large towns and cities, in +that proportion has the health of our fellow citizens improved, and +epidemics and intermittents, become less frequent. The same observation +holds good as respects the country, where it is well known that those +families that brew their own beer, and make a free use of it through +the summer are, in general, all healthy, and preserve their colour; +whilst their less fortunate neighbours, who do not use beer at all, are +devoured by fevers and intermittents. These facts will be less doubted, +when it is known that yest, properly administered, has been found +singularly successful in the cure of fevers. This the practice of the +Rev. Doctor Townsend, in England, places beyond all doubt, where he +states, that in fifty fever cases that occurred in his own parish, +(some of which were of the most malignant kind,) he only missed a cure +in two or three, by administering yest. Having considered the produce +of the brewery as it is connected with health, we may, with equal +propriety, say it is not less so with morals; and its encouragement and +extension, as an object of great national importance, cannot be too +strongly recommended, as the most natural and effectual remedy to the +too great use of ardent spirits, the baneful effects of which are too +generally known, and too extensively felt, to need any particular +description here. The farmer and the merchant will alike find their +account in encouraging and improving the produce of the brewery. The +farmer can raise no crop that will pay him better than hops; as, under +proper management, he may reasonably expect to clear, of a good year, +one hundred dollars per acre. Barley will also prove a good crop, +if proper attention be paid to seed, soil, and time of sowing. The +merchant will alike find his account in encouraging the brewery, from +the many advantages derivable from an extensive export of its produce +to the East and West Indies, South America, the Brazils, but +particularly to Russia, where good beer is in great demand; large +quantities are annually sent there from England, at a much higher rate, +it may be presumed, than we could afford to supply them from this +country. All these considerations united seem forcibly to recommend +giving the breweries of the United States every possible encouragement +and extension. Here, it is but justice to state, that the brewers of +New-York deserve much credit for the high improvement they have made in +the quality of their malt liquors within a few years, which seem to +justify the hope that they will continue these advances to excellence, +until they realise the opinion of Combrune and others, that it is +possible to produce a "_malt wine_." + + [1] Save five per cent. on brewery sales--a war tax. + +[Illustration: + +A Malt House. +B Kiln. +C Dropping Room. +D Mill House. +E Brewery. +F Working Store. +G Vat House and Dry Store. +H Bed Room. +I Office. +K Dwelling House. +L Hop Room. +M Stable. +N Brewing Yard. +O Cooper's Shed. +P Steep.] + + + + +THE AMERICAN PRACTICAL BREWER AND TANNER + + + + +_The best position for placing a Brewery and Malt house, also the +best aspect, with different arrangements of the Utensils._ + + +Cleanliness being as essential in the brewery as in the dairy, it is of +the greatest importance, never to lose sight of it in every part of the +operations, and particularly in selecting the ground and soil to place +a brewery on. The situation to be preferred should be an elevated one, +and the soil either sand or gravel, as it is of great importance in the +preservation of beer that the cellars be dry and sufficiently +ventilated by windows properly disposed. If the cellars of the brewery +be under ground, it would be very desirable to have them kept sweet and +clean by properly constructed sewers, without which, pumping by a hand +or a horse power is a poor substitute, as by this means (which we find +too common in breweries) the washings of the cellars have time to +become putrid, particularly in summer, emitting the most offensive and +unwholesome effluvia, contaminating the atmosphere, and frequently +endangering both the health and lives of the workmen. This is a serious +evil, and should in all cases, as much as possible, be avoided. It is +true, there are times, when a choice of situation cannot be made; in +that case, circumstances must be submitted to, and people do the best +they can. The cellars and coolers of the breweries in this country +should have a northern aspect, and the cellars principally ventilated +from east to west. The windows on the south side of cellars should be +always close shut in summer, and only occasionally opened in winter; +the floors of cellars should be paved with either tile or brick, these +being more susceptible of being kept clean than either pavement or +flags, and not so subject to get out of order. Supposing the brewery to +have all its cellars above ground, which I conceive to be not only +practicable, but, in many cases, preferable to having them under, as +more economical, and more cleanly, particularly where vats for keeping +strong beer are constructed on the plan herein after recommended, in +which it is expected the temperature necessary for keeping beer will be +as securely preserved above, as under ground, and the erections so +constructed, as not only to be air, but fire proof. (See description of +these vats.) + + + + +_A description of the form and plan of a Brewery, distribution of the +Vessels, the most judicious and convenient manner of placing them, with +a view to economy, cleanliness, and effect._ + + +The best plan of a well-constructed brewery I conceive to be that of a +hollow, or oblong square, where all is enclosed by one or two gateways, +(the latter the most complete,) parallel to each other. The first +gateway, forming the brewery entrance, to pass through the dwelling +house; the second, or corresponding gateway, to pass through the +opposite side of the square, into an outer yard, well enclosed with +walls and sheds, containing cooper's shop, &c. where all the empty +casks might be securely preserved from the injury of wind and weather. +This yard should be further sufficiently large to afford room for a hay +reek, firewood, dung, &c. The brewery office should be placed in the +passage of the outer gateway, so that every thing going in and out +might be seen by those who are in the office. The dwelling house, vat +house, and working store, to form one side of the brewery. The malt +house, another. The kiln house, dropping room, and stable, a third +side. The brewery, mill house, and hop room, to form the fourth side; +thus completed, it would form a square, and afford security to whatever +was contained within it, when the gates are locked. The sky cooler is, +generally, the most elevated vessel in the brewery, and when properly +constructed, is of great importance in facilitating both brewing and +malting operations, as it usually supplies the whole quantity of water +wanted in both. It commands the copper, and, of course, all the other +vessels of the brewery: it may be so constructed as to form a complete +roof to the mill loft, and in that situation be most conveniently +placed for being filled from the water cistern, which should be placed +contiguous to the mill walk, and so raised to the sky cooler by one or +more pumps worked by the mill, with a one, two, or three horse power, +according to the length of the lever, and the diameter of the mill. +Sky, or water coolers, in general, are square vessels, made of the best +two inch pine plank, properly jointed, from twenty to twenty-five feet +square, laid on strong joists sufficiently close, and trunneled down +(after pressing) with wooden trunnels from end to end, to prevent +starting or warping; the joists are supported by a couple of strong +beams, equally spaced; the sides of these coolers are generally raised +from eighteen inches to two feet; in Europe they are generally leaded +on their inside, but this expense may be saved, if they are properly +made at first, and afterwards kept constantly full of water. In +constructing these coolers, all the joints should be paid with white +paint before laying, and the sides bolted, and screwed down; the better +and easier to effect which, the thickness of the sides may be three +inches after the saw; there should be a roofing all round the sides, to +protect them from the weather; the bottom of the sky cooler should +command the copper back, which should be made to form the cover of the +copper, and to hold a complete charge of the same. These vessels, when +properly constructed, are extremely useful in preventing waste and +accidents by boiling over, also affording to the brewer, the +opportunity of boiling his wort as fiercely as he pleases--a very +important advantage in brewing porter and strong beer. A description of +this back is not necessary, as every set cooper, who knows his +business, is well acquainted with the proper construction of this +vessel. The stuff it is made of should be two inches thick, well +seasoned, and of the best pine plank. Thus placed on the copper, it +should form a complete cover, water and steam tight, so that when the +copper boils over, it will run into the back, and return again by a +plug hole into the copper. The copper cock should be sufficiently +elevated to command the hop cooler; the latter the wort coolers, No. 1 +and 2. By thus running the worts from one cooler to another, you afford +them the opportunity of depositing in each their feculencies, and +coming nearly fine to the fermenting tuns, which should be sufficiently +elevated above the troughs and casks to be filled, so that the +operation of cleansing may be easily performed by one or more leaders, +to communicate with a two or three piped tun dish, capable of filling +two or three casks at a time. The mill stones, or metal rollers, should +be sufficiently elevated to grind into the malt bin, placed over the +mash tun, which bin should be sufficiently capacious to hold the whole +grist of malt when ground; this bin is generally constructed in the +form of a hopper, with a slide at the bottom, to let the malt into the +mash tun when the water is ready, by being cooled down to its proper +temperature. I would recommend making the mash tun shallow, so that the +diameter shall be three times as long as the staff of the sides, above +the false bottom. To the mash tun there should be a cover, in two or +more pieces, according to size. The receiver, or underbank, which is +placed under the mash tun, should be sufficiently elevated above +ground, so as to enable the dirty or washing water to run off from its +bottom by a plug hole. The fermenting tuns should be placed in a room +where there is a fireplace, so as to raise the temperature in cold +weather; each tun should be cribbed on its sides, with a stationary +cover on the top. The cribs should be made to answer the sweep of the +vessel, and to be put on or off as occasion, or the temperature of the +season, may require. In one corner of the working store, I would +recommend to have placed a set of drains, two in number, one over the +other; the lower drain should be sufficiently elevated to get a bucket +under it, so as to draw off its contents by a plug hole, placed at one +corner of each drain. These drains will soon pay for themselves, by the +quantity of yest that will be deposited on them, at each time of +drawing them off, while the liquor will get fine, and may be applied in +a variety of ways, to answer the purposes of the brewer, what in +filling, starting in the tun, vatting, &c. + + + + +_Malt House, the best construction of, with proper Barley Lofts, +Dropping Room, and Flooring, how, and in what manner made, and best +likely to last._ + + +Malt houses intended to be annexed to breweries, should not be on a +less scale than sixty feet long, by twenty-five feet wide. Unless there +be a proper proportion of flooring to work the grain kindly and +moderately, good malt is not to be expected. Two-floored houses are +generally preferred to any other construction; would recommend placing +the steep outside the house, to be communicated with from the lower +floor by means of an arch way or window; the steep so placed should be +covered with a tight roof; the best materials for making a steep are +good brick, well grouted; the wall should be fourteen inches thick at +least; this kind of steep will be found far superior to wood, as not +liable to leak, or be worked on by rats; the sides and ends of this +steep should be carefully plastered with tarrass mortar; the bottom may +be laid with flag, tiles, or brick.[2] Two barley lofts, the whole +length of the malt house, will be found highly convenient, as affording +sufficient room to different large parcels of barley, and screening the +same from loft to loft as it descends into the steep over wire screens; +a contrivance I have found of great advantage in the malting operation, +as finishing the cleaning of the barley before getting into the steep, +a precaution that should never be omitted. The bottom of the screen +should be cased with wood, communicating from loft to loft with a sack +fastened to hooks at the lower end to receive all the dirt and +screenings that may pass through the screens. The Dutch and German +maltsters generally prefer having their lower or working floor under +ground; but this I take to be a bad plan, unless in elevated +situations, or where the soil is dry and gravelly; for if any spring of +water or damp arises in the malt-house floor, or walls so placed, the +injury to the malt is very great, and should be carefully guarded +against. It is also very important to lay a solid foundation for your +lower floor with stones, brick bats, or coarse gravel, which should be +solidly compacted by ramming for the whole length, then levelled off by +stakes, with a ten-foot level, to the thickness you would wish to give +your floor--say three or four inches: the former thickness, say three +inches, will be found sufficient. Lay your first coat on two inches +thick with hair mortar; when this coat becomes sufficiently stiff, +which will happen within twenty-four hours, you are to begin to lay +your second or last coat of one inch thick over the first, to be +prepared as follows: Take Roche, or unslaked lime, one part, by +measure; fine pit sand, one part; clinker, or forge dust, finely +powdered, two parts; clay or lome, by measure also, one part: let these +different ingredients (taking the precaution of first slaking the Roche +lime) be well mixed together, and then screened by a wire screen, +carefully keeping out of the mixture all lumps and stones; the whole +may be then worked up with a due proportion of water, observing that +this kind of mortar cannot be too much worked or mixed together, nor +too little wetted, just sufficient to work freely with the plastering +trowel; the whole floor should, if possible, be laid in one day, and +for this purpose several hands should be employed; in which case it +will dry more equally and firmly. As soon as the floor begins to set, +and that it will bear a board on it, without sinking in, you should +begin to pound it in all directions, from end to end, with pounders +made of two-inch plank, sixteen inches long, and from nine to twelve +inches wide, with a long handle reaching breast high, and to be placed +in the middle of this board; thus the operation of pounding will +proceed without stooping or much labour. One or two men, with +plastering trowels, should follow the pounders, wetting it with skimmed +milk as they go, and set the floor as even and close as possible. If +these two operations be well conducted there will not be found a single +crack in the whole floor from end to end, which is of great importance +to secure the making of good malt. Each loft should have uprights under +the centre of all the beams from end to end of the house; this +precaution is necessary to prevent the swagging or cracking of the +upper floor. Trap doors should be placed at proper distances in the +upper malt-house floor, to facilitate the shovelling of the couches +from the lower to the upper floor. A well constructed kiln is of great +importance to insure a successful result to the malting operation, and +if large enough to dry off each steep at _one cast_ so much the better. +The most approved covering for malt kilns in England (although not the +most economical) is hair cloth, as it is asserted, it dries the palest +and sweetest malt. Many prefer tiles, as less expensive and more +lasting; others dry on boarded floors, and if this construction be well +managed, I take it to be as good as any, and much cheaper than either +tiles or hair cloth. (See description page 23.) The dropping room for +receiving the malt as it comes off the kiln may be constructed +different ways; but I take it that a ground floor covered with a two +inch plank well jointed, and properly laid, is preferable to a loft for +keeping malt, and in this situation might be heaped to any depth +without injury or danger of breaking down. Malt thus kept, if well +dried before coming off the kiln, is never in danger of heating or +getting slack. The common mode of keeping malt is in bins situated on +upper lofts, often injured by leaks from the roof, and at all times +liable to the depredations of rats, which in the other way can be +effectually guarded against, and is a highly important object of +precaution to be taken by the brewer. Should weevils at any time get +into, or generate in your malt, which is common when held over beyond +twelve or eighteen months, the simplest and easiest way of getting rid +of them, is to place four or five lobsters on your heap of malt, the +smell of which will soon compel the weevils to quit the malt, and take +refuge on the walls, from which they can be swept with a broom into a +sheet or table cloth laid on the malt, and so taken off. It is +asserted, that by this simple contrivance not one weevil will remain in +the heap. Malt intended for brewing should be always screened before +grinding; and for this purpose it is a good contrivance to screen it by +means of the horse mill, as it runs from the hopper to the rollers or +stones to be ground, the expense of which apparatus is comparatively +nothing when compared to the advantages arising from it. + + [2] By some this construction of a steep may be thought too dear; + in that case, a rough wooden one may be substituted, which, + instead of placing outside the house, I would place on the upper + floor of the malt house, so as to afford the opportunity of + getting down its contents to the lower floor by means of a plug + hole, which will save the labour of shovelling; but in summer, + when this steep is not employed, it should be filled with lime + water to prevent leaking, and to keep it sweet. + + + + +_Wooden Kilns, how constructed._ + + +The best form for these kilns is the circular. I will suppose the +diameter sixteen feet; you construct your fire-place suitably to the +burning of wood at about ten feet outside your kiln house, sufficiently +elevated on iron bars to secure the draft of the fire place, from which +runs a proportionate sized flue into the kiln, communicating with a +circular flue which is close covered at top, and rounds the kiln on the +inside at the distance of two feet from the wall; on both sides of this +circular flue holes are left, at the distance of twelve or sixteen +inches apart, on both sides, to let out the smoke and heat; the +platform or floor of this kiln is raised about four or five feet above +the top of the flue, and is made of three quarter inch boards, tongued +and grooved, supported by joists two inches broad, and nine inches +deep, placed at proportioned distances, to give solidity to the floor. +The floor or platform of this kiln should be carefully laid, and well +nailed; in this floor should be placed a wooden chimney, nine inches +square, on the most convenient part of the inside next the wall, with a +wooden register at a convenient distance: this chimney is intended to +let off the great smoke that arises in the kiln at first lighting fire, +particularly if the wood be moist or green. When this has gone off, and +the fire burns clear, the register may be shut within a few inches, in +order to keep up a small draft. It would have been proper to state that +joists, intended to support the floor of this kiln, should be levelled +off to one inch, top and bottom, so as give the fire a better chance to +act upon the malt; these joists should be further paid as soon as, or +before, laying down, with a strong solution of alum water; as also the +bottom face of the boards laid on them, which should be first planed; +the inside of the chimney and register should be also paid with the +alum solution. On the top of the kiln should be placed a ventilator to +draw off the steam of the malt, this may be done by means of a loover +or cow; the latter turns with the wind, the former is stationary. + +There should be skirting boards, nine inches deep, to lie close to the +floor and walls of the kiln, plastered with hair mortar on the top. +This construction of kiln has been introduced by the Dutch, and will be +found the most economical of any, joined to the peculiar advantage of +being capable of drying malt with any kind of fuel, without danger of +communicating any sort of bad flavour to the grain, while the heat can +be securely raised to 120 degrees without any danger of ignition or +burning; a higher heat is not wanted to dry pale malt. Of this, +however, I have some doubts, as wood is a non-conductor of heat, and +possibly is not susceptible of transmitting such a heat to the malt +without danger of ignition. I should think that thin metal plates, one +foot square, cast so as to lap on each other, or tiles, of the same +make or form, would be a better covering; they certainly would convey +the heat more rapidly and securely to the malt or grain intended to be +dried on it, never requiring less fuel than the wooden covering, and +precluding all danger of fire. + +[Illustration: + +A A A A A ground section of the vats. +B the section of elevation.] + + + + +_A new and economical construction of Vats for keeping Beer, which, +in this way, may be rendered fire proof, whilst, at the same time, it +secures a temperature for the liquor equal, it is expected to the best +vaults: it further affords the convenience of having them above +ground._ + + +These vats may be constructed in different forms, either square, oval, +or round; the latter I should prefer, as stronger, and less liable to +leak. These circular vats, to save expense, may be bound with wood +hoops instead of iron ones the splay to be given them as little as +possible barely sufficient to have the hoops tight, and the vessel +staunch. The bottoms of these vats should be elevated at least three +and a half, or four feet from the ground, and solidly bedded in clay, +earth, or sand; the clay, if convenient, to be preferred. As the earth +rises, at every five or six inches, around these vats, it should be +firmly pounded down and compressed, as in the case of tanners' vats; +and this mode of surrounding the vats with dry earth well pounded and +rammed is continued to the top; a stout, close, well-fitted cover of +two inch plank is then placed on each vat, with a hole sixteen inches +square, to let a man down occasionally; this hole should have a short +trunk of an inch and a half plank firmly nailed to its sides, and about +fourteen inches high; then a covering of earth, twelve inches deep, +should be placed all over the tops of these vats, and this earth well +rammed and compacted together; and when levelled off, covered with +composition or a floor of tiles. Each of the trap doors should have a +well-fitted, wooden cover on the top, with a ring of iron in the +centre; this cover should be made fire proof on the outside. The brick +wall in front of these vats need not, I apprehend, exceed fourteen +inches thick, if of brick, just sufficient to resist the force of +pressure from ramming the clay; vats thus placed, with their contents, +may be considered fire proof, and possessing as cool a temperature as +if placed fifteen feet under ground; joined to this, they will last six +times as long as those in cellars or vaults, although bound in iron, at +a considerable higher expense. Two ranges of these vats may be placed +in one house, leaving a sufficient space for a passage in the centre, +with a window at each end to light it. I have never before either heard +or read of this construction; but I have little hesitation in saying it +will in many cases be found preferable to the present mode of placing +vats--it being more convenient, cleanly, economical, and secure, and, +to all intents and purposes, as effectual in point of temperature as +those expensively placed deep under ground. Under the inside of the +head of these vats, and across the joints, should run a piece of +scantling six inches wide, and four inches deep, with an upright of the +same dimensions in the centre, in order to support the covering on the +head, and to prevent sinking, or swagging, from the weight of the +covering that will be necessarily placed over them, which will be from +six to ten inches thick. + + + + +_Grinding, how substituted for._ + + +Malt, for brewing, may be prepared in three different ways, by +grinding, bruising, or pounding; modern practice, however, almost +universally gives the preference to bruising between metal rollers. +This preference, where malt is of the very first quality, may be +justified; but where it is of an inferior quality, which is but too +generally the case, grinding with stones is preferable, as more capable +of producing a fine grist, which, with indifferent malt, is important, +as it will always produce a richer extract, by being finely, rather +than coarsely ground; and it is more soluble in water of suitable +temperature than that malt which is only bruised or cracked, and for +this simple reason, that all imperfect-made malt has a great proportion +of its bulk unmalted, and, of course, in a crude hard state, which will +partially dissolve in water if ground fine, but will not dissolve at +all if only cracked or bruised. A further object of the brewer's +attention should be to prevent the dispersion, or waste, of the finer +parts of the malt, so apt to fly off in the grinding, if not prevented +by having the malt bin close covered, as well as the spout leading into +it from the stones; trifling as this precaution may seem, it is well +worth the brewer's attention. Here it may not be improper to observe, +that in all cases of horse, or cattle mills, where the shaft of the +main wheel is perpendicular, no better ingredient can be placed in the +chamber of the lower box than quick silver, which is far superior to +oil or grease, and will not require renewing for a long time. The brass +of a mill, managed in this way, might be expected to last twenty years, +and the movement smoother and easier. This economical substitute for +oil and grease can, with equal advantage, be applied to water mills, +whether their shafts be horizontal or perpendicular; in a word, to all +kinds of machinery, where the preservation of the gudgeons and brasses +are an object. + + + + +_Malting._ + + +The production of good malt is, without question, the key-stone of the +arch of brewing; therefore the brewer's attention should be invariably +directed to this point, as the most difficult and important part of his +operations. The process of making malt is an artificial or forced +vegetation, in which, the nearer we approach nature in her ordinary +progress, the more certainly shall we arrive at the perfection of which +the subject is capable. The farmer prefers a dry season to sow his +small grain, that the common moisture of the earth may but gently +insinuate itself into the pores of the grain, and thence gradually +dispose it for the reception of the future shower, and the action of +vegetation. The maltster cannot proceed by such slow degrees, but makes +an immersion in water a substitute for the moisture of the earth, where +a few hours infusion is equal to many days employed in the ordinary +course of vegetation, and the grain is accordingly removed as soon as +it appears fully saturated, lest a solution, and, consequently, a +destruction of some of its parts should be the effect of a longer +continuance in water, instead of that separation, which is begun by the +introduction of watery particles into the body. Were it to be spread +thin after this removal, it would become dry, and no vegetation would +ensue; but being thrown into the couch, a kind of vegetative +fermentation commences, which generates heat, and produces the first +appearance of a vegetation. This state of the barley is nearly the same +with that of many days continuance in the earth after sowing, but being +in so large a body, it requires occasionally to be turned over and +spread thinner; the former, to give the outward parts of the heap their +share of the acquired warmth and moisture, both of which are lessened +by exposure to the air; the latter, to prevent the progress of the +vegetative to the putrefactive fermentation, which would be the +consequence of suffering it to proceed beyond a certain degree. To +supply the moisture thus continually decreasing by evaporation and +consumption, an occasional, but sparing, sprinkling of water should be +given to the floor, to recruit the languishing powers of vegetation, +and imitate the shower upon the cornfield; but this should not be too +often repeated; for, as in the field, too much rain, and too little +sun, produces rank stems and thin ears, so here would too much water, +and, of course, too little dry warmth, accelerate the growth of the +malt, so as to occasion the extraction and loss of such of its valuable +parts as, by a slower process, would have been duly separated and left +behind. By the slow mode of conducting vegetation here recommended, an +actual and minute separation of the parts takes place; the germination +of the radicles and acrospire carries off the cohesive properties of +the barley, thereby contributing to the preparation of the saccharine +matter, which it has no tendency to extract, or otherwise injure, but +to increase and meliorate, so long as the acrospire is confined within +the husk; and by as much as it is wanting of the end of the grain, by +so much does the malt fall short of perfection; and in proportion as it +is advanced beyond, is that purpose defeated. + +This is very evident to the most common observation, on examining a +kernel of malt, in the different stages of its progress. When the +acrospire has shot but half the length of the grain, the lower part +only is converted into that mellow saccharine flour we are solicitous +of, whilst the other half exhibits no other signs of it than the whole +kernel did at its first germination: let it advance to two thirds of +the length, and the lower end will not only have increased its +saccharine flavour, but will have proportionably extended its bulk, so +as to have left one third part unmalted. This, or even less than this, +is contended for by many maltsters, as a sufficient advance of the +acrospire, which, they say, has done its business, so soon as it has +passed the middle of the kernel. But we need seek no further for their +conviction of error, than the examination here alluded to. + +Let the kernel be slit down the middle, and tasted at either end whilst +green, or let the effects of mastication be tried when it is dried off; +when the former will be found to exhibit the appearances just +mentioned, the latter to discover the unwrought parts of the grain, in +a stony hardness, which has no other effect in the mash tun, than that +of imbibing a large proportion of the liquor, and contributing to the +retention of those saccharine parts of the malt which are in contact +with it; whence it is a rational inference, that three bushels of malt, +imperfect in their proportion, are equal but to two of that which is +carried to its utmost perfection. By this is meant the farthest advance +of the acrospire, when it is just bursting from its confinement, before +it has effected its enlargement. The kernel is then uniform in its +internal appearance, and of a rich sweetness, in flavour equal to any +thing we can conceive obtainable from imperfect vegetation. If the +acrospire be suffered to proceed, the mealy substance melts into a +liquid sweet, which soon passes into the blade, and leaves the husk +entirely exhausted. The sweet thus produced by the infant efforts of +vegetation, and lost by its more powerful action, revives, and makes a +second appearance in the stem, but is then too much dispersed and +altered in its form to answer any of the known purposes of art. + +The periods of its perfect appearance are in both cases remarkably +critical. It is at first perfect at the instant the kernel is going to +send forth the acrospire, and form itself into the future blade; it is +again discovered perfect when the ear is labouring at its extrication, +and hastening the production of the yet unformed kernels; in this it +appears, the medium of nature's chemistry, equally employed by her in +her mutation of the kernel into the blade, and her formation thus of +other kernels, by which she effects the completion of that circle to +which the operations of the vegetable world are limited. Were we to +inquire by what means the same barley, with the same treatment, +produces unequal portions of the saccharine matter in different +situations, we should perhaps find it principally owing to the +different qualities of the water used in malting, some of which are so +much better suited to the quality of the grain than others, that the +difference is truly astonishing. Hard water is very unfit for every +purpose of vegetation, and soft will vary its effects according to the +predominating quality of its impregnations. Pure elementary water is in +itself supposed to be only the vehicle of the nutriment of plants, +entering at the capillary tubes of the roots rising into the body, and +here depositing its acquired virtues, perspiring by innumerable fine +pores at the surface, and thence evaporating by the purest distillation +into the open atmosphere, where it begins anew its rounds of collecting +fresh properties, in order to its preparation for fresh service. This +theory leads us to the consideration of an attempt to increase the +natural quantity of the saccharum of malt by adventitious means; but it +must be observed, on this occasion, that no addition to water will rise +into the vessels of plants, but such as will pass the filter, the pores +of which appearing somewhat similar to the fine strainers of absorbing +vessels employed by nature in her nicer operations; we by analogy +conclude, that properties so intimately blended with water as to pass +the one, will enter and unite with the economy of the other, and vice +versa. + +Supposing the malt to have obtained its utmost perfection, according to +the criterion here inculcated, to prevent its further progress, and +secure it in that state, we are to call in the assistance of a heat, +sufficient to destroy the action of vegetation, by evaporating every +particle of water, and thence leaving it in a state of preservation fit +for the present or future purpose of the brewer. Thus having all its +moisture extracted, and being by the previous process deprived of its +cohesive property, the body of the grain is left a mere lump of flour, +so easily divisible that, the husk being taken off, a mark may be made +with the kernel, as with a piece of soft chalk. The extractable +qualities of this flour are saccharum, closely united with a large +quantity of the farinaceous mucilage peculiar to bread corn, and a +small portion of oil enveloped by a fine earthy substance, the whole +readily yielding to the impression of water, applied at different +times, and different degrees of heat, and each part predominating in +proportion to the time and manner of its application. In the curing of +malt, as nothing more is requisite than a total extrication of every +watery particle, if we had in the season proper for malting a sun heat +sufficient to produce perfect dryness, it were practicable to produce +beer nearly colourless; but that being wanting, and the force of custom +having made it necessary to give our beers various tinctures and +qualities resulting from fire, for the accommodation of various tastes, +we are necessitated to apply such heats in the drying as shall not only +answer the purpose of preservation, but give the complexion and +property required; to effect this with certainty, and precision, the +introduction of the thermometer is necessary, but the real advantages +of its application are only to be known from experiment, on account of +the different construction of different kilns, the irregularity of the +heat in different parts of the same kiln, the depth of the malt, the +distance of the bulb of the thermometer from the floor; for though +similar heats will produce similar effects in the same situation, yet +the distribution of heat in every kiln is so irregular, that the medium +spot for the local situation of the thermometer as a standard, cannot +be easily fixed for ascertaining effects upon the whole. That done, the +several degrees, necessary for the purposes of porter, amber, pale +beers, &c. are easily discovered to the utmost exactness, and become +the certain rule of future practice. + +Though custom has laid this arbitrary injunction of variety on our malt +liquors, it may not be amiss to intimate the losses we often sustain, +and the inconvenience we combat in our obedience to her mandates. + +The further we pursue the deeper tints of colour by an increase of +heat, beyond that which simple preservation requires the more we injure +the valuable qualities of the malt. It is well known that scorched oils +turn black, and that calcined sugar assumes the same complexion; +similar effects are producible in malts, in proportion to the increase +of heat, or the time of their continuing exposed to it. The parts of +the whole being so intimately united by nature, an injury cannot be +done to the one without affecting the other; accordingly we find that +such parts of the subject as might have been severally extracted for +the purpose of a more intimate union by fermentation, are, by great +heat in curing, burned and blended so effectually together, that all +discrimination is lost--the unfermentable are extracted with the +fermentable, the integrant with the constituent, to the very great loss +of spirituosity and transparency. In paler malts the extracting liquor +produces a separation, which cannot be effected in brown, where the +parts are so incorporated, that unless the brewer is very acquainted +with their several qualities and attachments, he will bring over with +the burned mixture of saccharine and mucilaginous principles, such an +abundance of the scorched oils, as no fermentation can attenuate, no +precipitants remove; for being themselves impediments to the action of +fermentation, they lessen its efficacy; and being of the same specific +gravity with the beer, they remain suspended in, and incorporated with, +the body of it--an offence to the eye, and nausea to the palate, to the +latest period. From this account it is evident the drying of malt is an +article of the utmost consequence concerning the proper degree of heat +to be employed for this purpose. Mr. Combrune has related some +experiments made in an earthen pan, of about two feet diameter, and +three inches deep, in which was put as much of the palest malts, very +unequally grown, as filled it to the brim. This being placed over a +charcoal fire, in a small stove, and kept continually stirred from +bottom to top, exhibited different changes according to the degrees of +heat employed on the whole. He concludes, that true germinated malts +are charred in heats between one hundred and seventy-five, and one +hundred and eighty degrees, and that as these correspond to the degrees +in which pure alcohol, or the finest spirit of the grain itself boils, +or disengages itself therefrom, they may point out to us the reason of +barley being the fittest grain for the purpose of brewing. + +From these experiments, Mr. Combrune has constructed a table of the +different degrees of the dryness of malt, with the colour occasioned by +the difference of heat. Thus, malt exposed to one hundred and nineteen +degrees, is white; to one hundred and twenty-four, cream colour; one +hundred and twenty-nine, light yellow; one hundred and thirty-four, +amber colour; one hundred and thirty-eight, brown; one hundred and +fifty-two, high brown; one hundred and fifty-seven, brown, inclining to +black; one hundred and sixty-two, high brown speckled with black; one +hundred and seventy-one, colour of burned coffee; one hundred and +seventy-six, black. This account not only shows us how to judge of the +dryness of malt by its colour; but also, when grist is composed of +several kinds of malt, what effect the whole will have when blended +together by extraction. Experience proves that the less heat we employ +in drying malt, the shorter time will be required before the beer that +is brewed from it is fit to drink, and this will be according to the +following table: + +----------------------------------------------------------------------- +_A table giving the heats of different coloured malts, and the time +beer takes to ripen when brewed from them._ +----------------------------------------------------------------------- +124 Degrees 1 Month. | 138 Degrees 6 Months. | 152 Degrees 15 Months. +130 Degrees 3 Months. | 143 Degrees 7 Months. | 157 Degrees 20 Months. +134 Degrees 4 Months. | 148 Degrees 10 Months. | 162 Degrees 32 Months. + + + + +_The plain practical process of Malting pale Malt, according to the +most approved English method._ + + +Suppose you are about to malt spring or summer barley, and that your +steep contains sixty bushels. The time generally allowed for this kind +of grain to remain in steep is from forty to forty-eight hours, taking +care to give two waters; the first water is to continue on the grain +twenty-four hours, then run off, and fresh water put on. This +precaution is essentially necessary, in order to make clean bright +malt, and should never be omitted. It is further right, at each +watering, to skim off the surface of the water the light grain, chaff, +and seed weeds, that are found floating on it; all this kind of trash, +when suffered to remain in the steep, is a real injury to the malt, and +considerably depreciates its value when offered for sale, and not less +so when brewed. The depth of water over the barley in the steep need +not exceed two or three inches, but should not be less. When the barley +has remained in steep the necessary time, the water is let off by a +plug hole at the bottom of the steep, with a strainer on the inside of +the hole; when the barley is thus sufficiently strained, it should be +let down by a plug hole in the bottom of the steep into the couch frame +on the lower floor, (or adjoining to it, which would be the better +construction,) which is no more than a square or oblong inclosure of +inch and a half boards ledged together, and about two feet deep, of +sufficient capacity to hold the contents of the steep, and so placed, +in upright grooves, as to ship and unship in this frame. The steeped +barley is to remain for twenty-four hours in the frame, when it should +be broke out, and carefully turned from the bottom to the top, nearly +of the same thickness it was in the frame, not less than sixteen or +eighteen inches, where it should be suffered to remain twenty-four +hours longer, or until the germination begins to appear: but this will +be always shorter or longer, according to the temperature of the +season, and is generally ascertained by sinking your hand towards the +middle of the heap, and bringing up a handful of the grain, which, if +regularly germinated, will make its appearance in every grain of +barley, by appearing white at one end; at this stage of the process, +(supposing the temperature of your malt house sixty degrees,) the heap +should be extended on the floor, to the thickness of eight inches; +after which it should be turned three or four times a day, according to +the season, and the progress of vegetation; gradually reducing the +thickness of the couch to four or five inches; but it should be +remarked, that as soon as the root begins to dry and wither, the +watering pot is to be used; the judicious management of which is one of +the most important parts of the process of malting, and should be paid +particular attention to. One watering, well applied, will, in most +cases, answer the purpose. Two thirds of the whole quantity of water +should be given to the upper surface of the couch, then turn it, and +give the remaining third of the water to the couch when turned. The +whole quantity of water to be used for sixty bushels of American spring +barley, may be averaged at fifty-four gallons; this quantity will, +consequently, allow thirty-six gallons to be as evenly distributed over +the surface of the couch for the first water, as possible; the +remaining eighteen gallons to be put on in the same way: when the couch +is turned after this last watering, the whole couch should be turned +back again; thus, in every turning, the bottom and top should always +exchange places. In this stage of the process, care should be taken to +turn the couch frequently, to prevent the growth of the root, in order +to give the greater facility to the growth of the blade, it being +essentially requisite to keep that of the root stationary, to prevent a +waste of strength in the grain. Three or four days after watering, is +generally found a sufficient time for the blade to grow fully up to the +end of the grain; farther than which it should not be suffered to +proceed. The couch should be now checked in its growth, and thrown on +the second or withering floor, where it should be laid thin, and +frequently turned; this continued operation will bring it dry and sweet +to the kiln, to which it may be committed without further delay. +Although the common practice is to throw it up into what is commonly +termed a sweet-heap, and so remain from twelve to twenty-four hours, or +until you can hardly bear your hand in it; then, and not before, is it +considered fit to go on the kiln. This is a practice that cannot be too +much condemned, or too generally exploded, as producing the very worst +consequences; a few of which I will mention. Green malt, thus treated, +becomes in a manner decomposed; and beer brewed from such malt will +never keep long, acquiring a disagreeable, nauseous flavour, rapidly +tending to acidity, beside becoming unusually high coloured. Although +the malt, before grinding, will have all the appearance of pale malt, +this quality can be easily accounted for by the high heat the malt is +suffered to acquire in the heap before putting it on the kiln. What I +have here mentioned will, I trust, suffice to recommend a more +judicious mode of practice. Forty-eight hours for malt to remain on the +kiln is enough, as pale malt can be completely dried in that time, if +frequently turned, and properly attended to. It is further worthy of +remark, that barley malt should in no case exceed fifteen or sixteen +days from the steep to the kiln, and is often more successfully +effected in twelve or thirteen days. The common practice of maltsters +is to allow twenty one days, which generally brings the green malt in a +mouldy state to the kiln, to the great injury of flavour and +preservation in beer brewed from such malts; whereas, the grain should +be brought as sweet and dry as circumstances will allow of to this last +and important operation of malting, every part of which requires minute +and continued attention. When you suppose your malt sufficiently dry, +make a round space in the centre of your kilncast by shovelling the +malt to the extremities; after which, sweep this space, and shovel back +again your malt from the walls and angles into it; make a round heap of +the whole on the centre of your kiln, sweep your kiln all round the +foot of your heap; so let it stand two hours, then throw it off; this +last operation is performed to give every chance for equal drying. The +practice of many maltsters is to take seventy two hours to dry their +pale malt, keeping all the time a very slow and slack fire, this is +another capital error, and should be corrected with the former ones. +Various are the opinions entertained, as to the best mode of preserving +malt after coming off the kiln: some are of opinion that the +circumambient air should have a free access to it; this opinion, I +admit, might have weight if such malt was to be immediately brewed; but +where it is allowed to remain in heap for four or five months, and +gradually become cool, the less air admitted to have access to it the +better; this has been the practice and opinion of the most judicious +maltsters I have been acquainted with, and, consequently, is what I +would recommend, except in the case of immediate use, where exposure +becomes necessary, particularly after grinding, as malt so treated will +bear a higher liquor, and yield a more preserving extract. + + + + +_Winter Barley._ + + +To avoid useless and unnecessary repetitions, it is enough simply to +state, that winter barley, being a weaker bodied grain than summer, +requires less watering, consequently, a less time in steep, say 36 to +40 hours, and about 32 gallons of water to sixty bushels will be +sufficient on the floor; the other treatment the same. + + + + +_Oats the same_, + + +with about 24 gallons of water on the floor, for sixty bushels, divided +as directed in the case of summer and winter barley; the remaining part +of the process the same. + + + + +_Rye Malt._ + + +Rye may be steeped 48 hours, with 48 gallons of water on the floor; the +remainder of the process the same, quantity of grain sixty bushels. + + + + +_Wheat._ + + +The above time in steep, and same proportion of water on the floor, +will answer to make wheat malt, suppose 60 bushels, varying somewhat +according to season, the time of steeping, and bringing to the kiln; +the remainder of the process the same. + + + + +_Indian Corn Malt, a valuable auxiliary to Brewing materials._ + + +This species of grain well managed, and made into malt, will be found +alike useful to the brewer and distiller, but it is peculiarly adapted +to the brewing of porter; further, it is known to possess more +saccharine matter than any other grain used in either brewing or +distilling, joined to the advantage of not interfering with the season +for malting barley, as this should commence when the former ceases. The +summer months are the fittest for malting this kind of grain, and can +be only very defectively made at any other season, as it requires a +high temperature to force germination, and cause it to give out all its +sweet. The following process, it is expected, will be found to answer +every purpose wished for: suppose your steep to contain sixty bushels, +after you have levelled it off, let on your water as directed in +malting barley; you should give fresh water to your steep at the end of +twenty-four hours. If it is southern corn you are malting, it will +require to remain in steep seventy-two hours in the whole; if it be +northern corn, it will require ninety-six hours, there being a +considerable difference in the density of these two kinds of grain; the +hardest, of course, requires the most water; and, in all cases, the +fresher Indian corn is from the cob the better it will malt. When you +have accomplished the necessary time in your steep, you let off your +water; and, when sufficiently drained, let it down in your couch frame, +where it will require turning once in twelve hours, in order to keep it +of equal temperature; the depth of the grain should be about two feet +and a half in the frame; as it begins to germinate and grow, open your +frame, and thin it down at every turning, until you reduce its +thickness to six or seven inches; thus extending it on your lower +floor, turning it more frequently, as the growth is rapid. The +vegetation of the grain, together with the turning, will by this time +make the watering pot necessary; the criterion by which you will judge +of its fitness for the water, is as soon as you perceive the root or +acrospire begins to wither. Two thirds of your water is to be +distributed over the surface of your couch for the first watering, +which will require thirty-two gallons, and when turned back again, +sixteen gallons for the second watering, making in the whole +forty-eight gallons of water to sixty bushels of corn. This water +should be put on with a gardener's watering pot, as equally as +possible. Supposing this pot to contain four gallons, it will make +eight pots for the first watering, and four for the second. In this +stage of the operation the turnings on the floor should be very +frequent, in order to keep the grain cool, as the heat of the weather, +at this season, will be sufficient to promote and perfect the +vegetation. The second day after the first watering, if the blade is +not sufficiently grown, water again, but in less quantity, say one +half. It will be now four or five days more before the couch is ready +for the kiln, which will be ascertained by the blade becoming the full +length of the corn. After this it should be thrown on the upper floor, +and suffered to wither for a couple of days, turning it frequently; by +this time the blade will have a yellow appearance, the grain will +become tender, and, if tasted, be found uncommonly sweet; in this state +it may be committed to the kiln, and dried in the usual way. + +N. B. It will generally take ten days after it is out of the steep to +perfect the malting of southern corn, and twelve days for northern. + + + + +_Fermentation._ + + +Notwithstanding that progress of improvement in the doctrine of +fermentation has, in the last twenty years, far surpassed any thing in +the same period that preceded it, we have still much to learn. +Fermentation is the instrument or means which nature employs in the +decomposition of vegetable and animal bodies, or reduction of them to +their original elements, or first principles. Fermentation is, +therefore, a spontaneous separation of the component parts of these +bodies, and is one of those processes that is conducted by nature for +their resolution, and the combination and fermentation of other bodies +out of them; therefore, it is one of these operations in which nature +is continually present, and going on before our eyes; this may be one +reason that a very critical observance of it has escaped our attention. +Fermentation brings us acquainted with this unerring axiom; that +nothing in nature is lost; or that matter, of which all things are +composed, is indestructible. For instance, the vinous process of +fermentation, succeeded by distillation, produces ardent spirits, or +alcohol, the elements of which are here described. If we pass this +alcohol, or spirits of wine, through a glass, porcelain, or metallic +tube, heated right hot, provided with a suitable condenser and +apparatus to separate and contain the parts or products, it will be +decomposed and resolved into its primitive elements, carbonic acid gas, +or fixed air, and hydrogen gas, or inflammable air; the oxygen being +decomposed and united with the oxygen, or vital air, into carbonic acid +gas; the water of the spirit of wine being also decomposed, or resolved +into its first principles as herein is stated, forms a part of the +produce before mentioned. + +Hence spontaneous fermentation, vinous, acetous, and putrefactive, is +the natural decomposition of animal and vegetable matters, to which a +certain degree of fluidity is necessary; for where vegetable and animal +substances are dry, as sugar and glue for instance, and are kept so, no +fermentation of any kind succeeds. + +There can be no doubt that spontaneous fermentation first taught +mankind the means of procuring wine and other agreeable beverage; +observation and industry the means of making spirit and vinegar, the +first of which is evidently the produce of art, combined with the +operations of nature. + +With nature for our guide, and our own ingenuity, fermentation has been +made subservient to the various products we now obtain from saccharine +and fermentable matters, such as sugar, molasses, grain, with which we +have made wine, spirits, bread, beer, malt, &c.; which last has much +facilitated our practice in fermentation, but proved the tide-ending, +or point of stagnation to its further improvement. Relying too much on +malted grain in the operation of fermentation, we are presented with +some of the most pleasing and instructive phenomena of nature; the +resolutions and combinations that are formed during the process of the +vinous and acetous stages of fermentation, are interesting, beyond +comparison, to the brewer, malt and molasses distillers, vintager, +cider and vinegar maker, &c. The elastic fluids and volatile principles +that are extricated and escape, formerly so little attended to, are now +better understood. The method of commodiously saving, and +advantageously applying them, and other volatile products, to the +improvement of the fermenting and other fluids, will, I hope, not only +form a new era in the progress of fermenting, brewing, distilling, &c. +but a new source of profit, that may, in time, lead to a recomposition +of those elements from which they were produced, or, at least, the +fermentation of vinous fluids, vinegar, spirit, &c. by resorting to an +inexhaustible source supplied by nature, of these important materials, +and their application to the uses that may be made of that abundance so +easily procurable, and at present so unprofitably wasted. But to +continue our views to the business immediately before us, let us begin +with the several products, by stating that carbonic acid gas, or fixed +air, is copiously extracted from fluids in a state of vinous +fermentation, and sundry mineral and vegetable substances, easily +procurable, for which we have the testimony of our own senses; the same +may be said of hydrogen gas, oxygen gas, &c. Presuming these positions +granted, let us make a short inquiry into the composition of vinous +fluids, &c. Apprehending there are but few people to whom these +observations will be useful, but what will allow that all vinous +fluids, whether intended for beer, wine, cider, &c. are the produce of +saccharine matter, or fermentable matter obtained from the sugar cane, +grain, fruit, &c. and the part which art at present takes in this +beautiful process of nature, is to facilitate her operations in +proportion to observation and experience, in conformity to the object +in view, in making wine, beer, cider, spirit, &c.; or, subsequent to +the vinous, to forward the progress of the acetous fermentation for the +production of vinegar. The saccharine or fermentable matter of +vegetables, consists in what is chemically called hydrogen gas, or +inflammable air; carbonic acid gas, or fixed air; oxygen gas, or vital +air; which last forms nearly one third part of the whole atmosphere, +circumvolving our globe in which we breathe; or, more exactly, +thirty-seven parts of oxygen, and seventy-three of azotic gas, are the +component parts of our atmosphere, except the small proportion of +undecomposed carbonic acid gas there may be found in it. + +Beer, wine, cider, malt and molasses wash, and other product by +distillation; spirit consists of these three elastic fluids or airs, in +composition with various proportions of water. Water itself is a +compound of vital and inflammable air; a proof of this, and of the +indestructibility of matter, these two elastic fluids burned together, +in certain proportions, and in a proper apparatus, reproduce water. By +another chemical process, this very water is reducible to these two +substances, vital and inflammable air; hence, we see, that all +saccharine and fermentable matter, and their products, by fermentation, +are composed of the same materials, and resolvable into the same +elements. + +It is scarcely necessary to give any definition of spontaneous +fermentation, after what has been said on the subject; if it was, I +would say it is that tendency which all fermentable matter has to +decomposition, attended with intestine motion or ebullition, when +sufficiently diluted with water, under a certain temperature of the +atmosphere, the rapidity of which motion is always accompanied by an +increase of temperature, or the change to a greater degree of heat +generated within the body of the fermenting fluid, in proportion to the +rapidity or augmentation of motion or ebullition excited. Fermentation +produced by the addition of yest, or any other suitable ferment, in a +fluid duly prepared, is governed by the same laws, and under the same +influence of temperature, except when it is accelerated or protracted +by the management of the operator, or by the changes induced by the +influence of the atmosphere, rendered more or less subservient to his +purposes, and produces a similar kind of spirit by distillation, +possessing in common the properties of vinous spirit, or is converted +to vinegar by the subsequent process of acetous fermentation, but much +more productive in quantity and quality, so as to answer commercial +purposes. In both spontaneous and excited fermentation, there is a +similar escape of a large quantity of elastic fluid, or carbonic acid +gas, with a considerable proportion of spirit, and some of the water of +the fermented fluid. This gas is known to form a considerable part of +mucilaginous substances, as sugar, molasses, honey, malt, and other +saccharine and fermentable matter. + +Although the doctrine of fermentation, as a science, does not enable us +to alter the spontaneous course of nature; yet if, by the assistance of +the instruments, and means recommended, we are enabled to foresee and +provide for the changes induced by the alterations of the atmosphere, +we can guard against the inconveniences in some cases, and make them +subservient to our purpose in others; so as more securely to conduct +the process in each to advantage; and that with unusual facility; +complex as it at present appears: it will not only be a great +improvement in the present mode of fermentation; but facilitate our +progress to still greater improvements in the doctrine of fermentation. +Therefore, the rule of our conduct, in these pursuits, should be to +watch the operations of nature with the closest attention, and assist +her when languid, and control her when too violent; that is, by +spurring in one instance, and bridling in the other, and accurately and +undeviatingly apply the means proposed in the manner recommended, until +experience enables us to improve it; otherwise, we shall only admire, +without improving or profiting by her choicest phenomena. + +The motions of the planets, perplexed and intricate as they must have +appeared in the infancy of astronomy, are now calculated and known with +ease and precision. + +Attenuation is a term not unaptly applied to fermentation, the property +of attenuation being to divide, then dilute, and rarify thick, gross, +viscid, and dense substances, in which some degree of fluidity is +pre-supposed; it is, therefore, that kind of dilution or fluidity which +is promoted by agitation, and very aptly applied to mark the progress +of fermentation, which is itself the process of nature, for decomposing +vegetable and animal substances under a convenient degree of fluidity; +it exists in intestine motion, either spontaneous or excited, +accompanied with heat, which, under certain limits, is proportioned to +the vigour of the fermentation, which ends in the decomposition of one +class of bodies, and the composition of another; and which may be +instanced in the resolving saccharine substances into hydrogen, oxygen, +and carbon, and the combining them into inflammable spirits, or +alcohol, and inflammable acids or vinegar; to which may be added, the +lower you attenuate, the lighter and more spiritous the fermenting +fluid becomes; and that attenuation, which is the offspring of +fermentation, like the parent process, has its bounds, and can only be +conducted with certainty and advantage by the use of the hydrometer, +thermometer, &c. In this only lies the difference between the old word +fermentation, and the new word attenuation, every thing used as a +ferment, or to promote fermentation, is attenuant. The tendency of the +vinous process of fermentation is to evolve or disentangle the hydrogen +of the fermenting fluid, and unite it, with the carbon and oxygen of +the same fluid, into ardent spirit, wine, beer, or alcohol, which last +is well known to be inflammable. The tendency of the acetous process of +fermentation, is to involve or entangle the hydrogen and carbon of the +fermented fluid, with a greater proportion of oxygen, into vinegar, +which is uninflammable. The fixed air, or carbonic acid gas, so +abundantly extricated during the vinous process of fermentation, which +every one concerned in the process is presumed to be acquainted with, +is either composed of hydrogen and oxygen, or is a composition of +carbon and oxygen, on which philosophers are divided in opinion. As the +result is the same with respect to the formation of wine, beer, and +spirit, I shall enter into no controversial reasoning on this head, +instead of which, I shall endeavour to point out the most effectual +mode of saving and profitably applying it, and the other elements, in +the composition of wine, beer, spirit, and acid. + +As in fermentation, spontaneous or excited, there is a sensible escape +of carbonic acid gas, or fixed air, it may not be improper to note, +that fermentable, or saccharine matter, consists of about twenty-eight +pounds of carbon, eight pounds of hydrogen, and sixty-four pounds of +oxygen, reducible into fixed, inflammable, and vital air, weighing one +hundred subtile pounds in toto, or that every one hundred subtile +pounds of saccharine matter consists of such proportions of these airs +and gasses. + +Attenuation is the result of a due resolution of the fermentable matter +produced by excited fermentation, which divides mucilages, resolves +viscidities, breaks down cohesions, generates heat and motion, +extricates the imprisoned gasses, and, by frequent commixture, promotes +the action and re-action of the component particles on each other, and +by continually exposing a fresh surface and opposition of matter, +brings them within the sphere of each other's attraction. + +As their original attraction is weakened by heat and motion, their +expansion is increased by repulsion; and as they revolve, and recede +from each other in this way, they are fitted, by the change in their +modification, to involve each other, and from new attractions combining +with each other into new substances, according to affinity, under +changes induced in their nature conducive to this end, which not being +exactly known, cannot at present be fully defined. In every brewing, or +preparation of saccharine fluid for fermentation, the following +phenomena occur: first, _heat_ is either disengaged or fixed: secondly, +an _elastic fluid_ is either formed or absorbed in a nascent state: +these two indisputable facts form the uniform and invariable phenomena +of fermentation, and may be admitted as an established _axiom_, that +the proportions, extrication, and action of heat, with the fermentation +and fixation of elastic fluids, during the process, are the foundation +of the vinous products of the fermenting fluid. In conformity to so +rational a theory, I have for many years regulated my practice, the +result of which is the object of these papers. These, therefore, are +the three great objects which should engage our attention; not only +in fermentation, but in every similar process in chemistry, and are +the fundamental principles of our doctrine. FERMENTATION being not +only a decomposition of the fermentable matter, but of the water of +the fluid also; and the fixed air formed during the process being +composed of the hydrogen and oxygen of the fermentable matter, and +the water of the fluid also, there is a perpetual decomposition and +recomposition of that water, which gives fluidity to the whole mass, +taking place during the continuance of the process, part of the +hydrogen and oxygen of which escapes under the form of fixed air, for +want of a proper substance being presented of affinity enough to +absorb and combine with it into wine, beer, or spirit, or some other +necessary assistance in heat, light, motion, oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, +&c. or an intermedium to facilitate the formation of wine, beer, or +spirit, in preference to fixed air. Fixed air, or carbonic acid gas, +consists of about twenty-five parts of oxygen, and nine of carbon, +devested of the mucilage and yest that rises with it. It should be +recollected, that the decomposition of pyrites, the formation of +nitre, respiration, fermentation, &c. are low degrees of combustion, +and though it is the property of combustion to form fixed and +phlogisticated airs, both the modes of doing it, and the quantity of +the products, depend on the manner of oxygenating them in the changes +brought about by the different modes of combustion, or fermentation in +the vinous, acetous, and putrid process, which show the affinity +between them. + +Fermentation is a subsequent _low combustion_ of the vegetable oxydes +or grain, that has undergone a previous, but partial combustion, +something like the slightly charring, or oxydating of wood or +pit-coal, by which the oxygenation is incomplete in both, and rendered +more complete in the former. An ultimate combustion of the fermentable +matter employed, is found only in the putrid process of fermentation, +which is a final or total decomposition of vegetable and animal +substances, in the actual combustion or burning of wood, charcoal, or +bones. + +In the vinous process we have seen the escape of carbonic acid gas; in +the acetous process there is a great escape of azotic gas, or +phlogisticated air, from the decomposition of the air of the atmosphere +consumed in this process, which consists of about two-thirds of azotic +gas, and one third of oxygen gas,[3] the oxygenous part being absorbed +in the acetous process, and azotic set free with more or less hydrogen +and acetic gas, proportioned to the existing heat. If the heat is +beyond a certain degree, a portion of the ethereal part of the +new-formed acid escapes also. + + [3] Twenty-seven parts of oxygen gas, and seventy-three of azotic + gas. + +In the putrid process, the hydrogen escapes under the acriform shape of +inflammable air and azotic gas, and nothing more remains than mere +earth or water, or both, as the case may be, which is exactly similar +to other combustions, of which nothing remains, (if we except +phosphorus) but earth or ashes, with what small portion of alkaline or +other salts they may contain. This alkaline matter being present during +the formation of carbonic and azotic gas, absorbs, to saturation, a due +proportion of them, and generates _tartar_. + +Experience has taught us the truth or justness of this definition, and +though it has brought us acquainted with the results of those three +stages of fermentation, combustion, or decomposition, we have certainly +overlooked the means of applying them with all the advantage they admit +of in the business which is the subject of these papers, and which a +little time and close observation must convince us of; and how much has +been hitherto lost, with the means of saving it in future, shall be +presently explained, and particularly pointed out. + +In the prosecution of this design, where I may not be able to give an +unexceptionable demonstration, I hope always to be provided with a +practical proof, which may prove equally beneficial. + +Let us now see what passes in a state of low combustion, such as may be +the result of fermentation in vegetables, arising from heat, moisture, +and motion, when impacted together. The most obvious occurrence of this +nature is found in new hay, which, under these circumstances, for want +of care and attention, often spontaneously takes fire, particularly in +wet seasons. + +Fermentation, being one of the lowest degrees of combustion, is here +the spontaneous effect of the moist hay being impacted together, and +not properly made, that is, without the superfluous juices being dried +out of it, by which it retains a sufficient degree of fluidity or +moisture to begin a fermentation, in which heat and motion are +generated, and light, in a nascent state, extricated; these appearances +accumulated and accelerated by incumbent pressure, the redundant +moisture being soon exhausted, and the heat and motion increasing, the +actual combustion of the mass takes place, which is much facilitated by +a decomposition of the water of this moisture, and the air of the +atmosphere, unavoidably insinuated between the interstices formed by +the fibres of the hay, as they are impacted together into cocks, or +stacks, breaks out into actual flame, or _light visible_. These are no +novel appearances, but such as fall within the observation of every +one; and the candid maltster will acknowledge, that from the same +cause, though differently produced, similar effects may, and sometimes +do, happen in the malt house, in the preparation of that modern +article of luxury, by which we are enabled to make malt wine; and +these instances are sufficient to prove fermentation to be a low +degree of combustion, and to both simplify and explain the justness of +this doctrine. The malting of corn is the first stage of vegetation, +low combustion, and fermentation. + +From observation and reasoning on what passes before our eyes, we +discover the low species of fermentation, in which the malting of corn +consists, to be a low degree of combustion, which, for want of due +attention, may break out into actual flame. We were always acquainted +with the _effect_: now reasoning on the subject brings us to a +knowledge of the cause. + +To any one well acquainted with the nature of fermentation, it must be +manifest, that the malt distillers have paid more attention, and made +greater progress in the improvement of the process than any other class +of men interested in the success, though far from having arrived at +their _ne plus ultra_. + +The introduction of raw or unmalted corn; the close compactness of +their working tun, or fermenting backs; the order and progressive +succession with which they conduct the process; and the pains they +necessarily take to arrive at a perfect attenuation, by a long +protracted fermentation, with the early conviction of a reward +proportioned to their diligence, and the success attending their best +endeavours, when not frustrated by intervening causes, must be stronger +inducements with them to delight in this instructive process of +nature's formation, than with the brewer, who has not these immediate +tests to encourage his labours, which the others daily derive from +distillation, and which so quickly and uniformly terminates their +hazards and success. The principal object in their view being a high +and deliberate attenuation, with a full vinosity, without any further +regard to the quality or flavour of their mash, as the combination of +these qualities alone produces the required strength, in the cleanest +manner. + +The brewer's cares are many, and of longer duration: he is the vintager +of our northern climates: his porter or ale should be an agreeable malt +wine, suited to the palate of the district or neighbourhood he lives +in, or, ultimately, to the taste of his customers. The time he has +allotted himself for attenuation was first founded in error, derived +from ignorance of the subject, and slavishly continued by that +invincible tyrant, custom. Hurry marks the progress of his fermentation, +which can only be corrected by his speedy mode of _cleansing_, and the +consequent but necessary perishing of a part. He must begin with more +accuracy at the mash tun than the malt distiller, as it is there he +must not only regulate the strength, but, partially, the flavour and +transparency of his malt wine. His object does not end with the malt +distiller's, nor, like his, concentre in one focal point, the solution +of the whole of the farina of the plant or grain employed, regardless +of milkiness or transparency; he must carefully take the heats of his +liquor, so as to solve and combine the qualities he has in view; which, +if he misses in the first mash, is partly irremediable in the succeeding +ones. His cares do not end here; independent of the minutiae of +fermentation and cleansing, he has the flavour, fining, and bringing +forward of his _malt wines_, nearly as much as the strength, to consider +and employ his attention. + +It will scarcely be supposed that I would make these observations +merely with a view of drawing this comparison, though even it might +throw some light on the subject, without an attempt at supplying the +defects pointed out, and remedying the evils represented. + +When the carbonic acid gas, or fixed air, so often mentioned in these +papers may be rendered subservient to part of the improvements I have +in view, and which is the constant, abundant, and uniform result of low +combustion, or vinous fermentation, in proportion of thirty-five pounds +weight to every hundred of saccharine or fermentable matter, fermented +in a due proportion of liquor, or water; from the decomposition of +which last, and the absorption of its oxygen, it is principally +obtained. + +We have previously seen that one hundred pounds of fermentable matter +consists of eight pounds of hydrogen, twenty-eight of carbon, and +sixty-four pounds of oxygen; we have also seen that about thirty-five +pounds of carbon is extricated and detached from this quantity of +fermentable matter, properly diluted in water during fermentation; +allowing the usual quantity of spirit at the same time to be formed by +the process of this superfluous carbon, (as it now appears) must come +principally from that decomposition of the water of dilution, and not +from saccharine matter employed, which contains altogether but +twenty-eight pounds of carbon, the whole of which must necessarily go +to the formation of the fifty-seven pounds of dry alcohol produced. + +But not to descend too deeply into particulars that might lead into +discussions not absolutely necessary in this place, let us take the +produce of ten gallons of ardent spirit, at one to ten over proof. We +here find that much more carbon has been generated, and given to the +atmosphere, than went to the composition of this quantity of spirit, +independent of the large quantity of alcohol dissolved in, and carried +off by it, in its flight as before observed. + +Allowing the average quantity of fermentable matter in a quarter of +malt, barley, or other grain, to be only seventy-five pounds, then four +quarters will be equal to three hundred subtile pounds of raw sugar; or +eighty quarters of the one will be equal to six thousand pounds of the +other, or three tuns weight of unadulterated molasses. + +If we estimate the superfluous carbonic acid gas of this quantity of +materials at only twenty-eight pounds per hundred, that will be sixteen +hundred and eighty pounds dissipated during the fermentation, which is +a loss, on every brewing of this quantity of materials, of upwards of +forty-one gallons of spirit, of the strength of one to ten. + +What is computed here in spirit, may easily be applied to wine, porter, +beer, ale, sweets, &c. In barrels allowing three gallons and three +quarts of spirit per barrel to the former, and four gallons per barrel +to the latter, which gives eleven barrels and three quarters of the +one, and ten barrels and a quarter of the other, lost on each brewing +of eighty quarters of malt, or the average of that quantity of other +materials, by the mismanagement of the fermentation in one point only. + +It must appear evident to every person capable of investigating this +calculation, that every six or seven pounds of carbon, fixed upon each +quarter of malt, or other materials, there will be an augmentation of +gravity or strength on this number of quarters, of ten or twelve +barrels each brewing; that is, every six or seven pounds of this +fugitive carbon that we arrest and fix in the fermenting fluid, as a +component part of the subsequent produce, by presenting the requisite +portion of oxygen and hydrogen, for the purpose within the sphere of +each others attraction, we increase our strength in the before-mentioned +_ratio_. It is of little moment whether this redundant gas comes from +the water of dilution or from the fermentable matter, as under, if we +can by any means turn it to account. + +We have presumed the average quantity of fermentable matter at +seventy-five pounds per quarter; this must be evidently on the best +goods; this will give us a length of three barrels per quarter of malt +of eight bushels, of twenty-five pounds per barrel, specific gravity. +Suppose the apparent attenuation of these goods to be nineteen pounds, +the transparent gravity will be six pounds per barrel, viz. + + Gravity of the worts in the cooler just before letting + down into the guile-tun, per barrel, 25 lb. + Apparent attenuation per barrel, 19 lb. + Transparent gravity per barrel, 6 + --- 25 lb. + + Or take it as it really is, viz. specific gravity + per barrel, 25 lb. + Real attenuation per barrel, 13 lb. 8 oz. + Yest and lees, 5 8 + -------- + 19 lb. + Gravity per barrel, when transparent, 6 + --- 25 lb. + +It may be said that nineteen pounds is the real attenuation, and the +yest and lees produced is part thereof, as the fluid, or beer, in a +state of transparency is but six pounds per barrel specific gravity, +and it may, in some degree, be allowed to be so, as there is really so +much gravity lost during the process of fermentation. If we multiply +thirteen pounds eight ounces, which I have called the real attenuation, +by four, we shall find the result to be fifty-four pounds, which is +nineteen pounds more of superfluous gas upon four barrels of worts, of +twenty-five pounds gravity each, than is extricated from an equivalent +quantity of saccharine matter; that is, from one hundred pounds of raw +sugar or one hundred and twelve pounds of molasses, and their +respective waters of dilution, when the yest and lees do not exceed +five pounds eight ounces per barrel. This may be truly called an +analysis of the fermentable matter, giving the component parts +tolerably exact; though much depends on the management of the +fermentation, and the subsequent cleansing. By this analysis it +appears, that the mucilage of malt, or grain, gives out more gas than +the mucilage of sugar; and leaves a doubt on the mind whether to +adjudge the superfluous gas to the fermentable matter, or to the water +of dilution, or partly to both; but so it is, that these are the +products, whatever source we derive them from, and there is no denying +facts. The yest first added is not brought into this account. + +There is a great similarity of appearance between the two species of +low combustion, fermentation and respiration. Fermentation, like +respiration, is the spontaneous effort of involuntary motion to +decomposition; and in the fermenting mass, as in the animal system, it +raises the temperature of both above that of the surrounding +atmosphere: that is, it is the cause of heat and involuntary motion, +both in the fermenting mass and in the animal system; and, like slow +combustion, consumes both, and resolves them into their first +principles, from which tendency the latter is constantly withheld by +the ingesta, fuel, or food, thrown in. I am well aware I must not carry +this reasoning any further. + +Deep investigation may be thought not to be the object of our research; +but we must always have two things in view in inquiries of this nature; +indeed, in every pursuit of useful knowledge, where, like the present, +it is connected with the first principles, to pursue the winding path +of nature, through all her meanderings, up to the ultimate source of +these elements, which are the instruments of her operations; and when +we are favoured with a knowledge of these, either as the reward of +laboured assiduity and attention, or the result of chance, to copy the +original as close as we can. + +I know I shall be justly accused with tautology. I must plead guilty to +the charge, not having leisure to apply the pruning hook of correction. +The misfortune is, that new doctrines must appear in a new dress, by +which they wear the garb of novelty, though, with respect to first +principles, there is nothing new under the sun; yet the application of +these principles might have remained in oblivion for ever if not called +into action. The man who in an age calls them into action, and +beneficially applies them for the good of that community of which he is +a member, may be virtually, though not literally, called the discoverer +of a principle. The man that projects, and the man that executes a +voyage of discovery, have superior claims to the man at the mast head +who first cries out land. The new turn that the discoveries of modern +philosophers has given to natural philosophy, requiring a change of +names as well as system; unusual words are unavoidably introduced to +express new terms of science, which gives a different character and +fashion to the whole, that I should have great pleasure in avoiding, +were it possible, which it obviously is not, finding it easier to glide +down the stream than oppose its torrent. + +Notwithstanding that I have calculated upon nineteen pounds only of +twenty-five pounds per barrel of fermentable matter being attenuated, +and have even in that quantity included five pounds eight ounces of +lees and yest, (the least quantity produced,) such calculation must not +be admitted to preclude the practicability of attenuating almost every +particle of fermentable matter, and replacing it with an equivalent +particle of spirit, if that spirit which is now carried off by the +avolation of the fixed air, is, agreeably to my proposal, either +arrested in its flight, or filtered, after its escape from the guile +tun and cleansing vat, by the proper apparatus. + +Having in a former part of these papers observed, that attenuation may +be carried too far, it may be necessary for me to reconcile these +seemingly opposite positions, which should be understood in this way: +When the quantity of fermentable matter, suspended in a barrel of +worts, intended for beer, or ale, is from five to ten pounds more than +twenty-five pounds per barrel, every particle of it may be safely +attenuated, as the quantity of spirit generated will be sufficient to +preserve the beer, or ale, for any requisite length of time, provided +it has been properly hopped, &c., or in lieu thereof, received certain +other additions to improve its vinosity, strength, and keeping; when +the quantity of fermentable matter in worts is from five to fifteen +pounds per barrel less than twenty-five pounds, the height of the +attenuation ought to be limited on keeping beer and ale; the spirit +generated being insufficient to preserve so much fermented fluid in a +drinkable state for any length of time, with the usual additions only, +even during the summer heats of our own climate; and if so, it is +totally unfit for either exportation to warm latitudes, or for keeping +at home. + +For the right understanding of these observations, we should consider +that the unattenuated fermentable matter is perpetually furnishing a +gradual supply of fixed air and spirit, by means of the imperceptible +fermentation always going on in vinous liquors. + +Weak beers and ales fret and spoil very soon in warm weather, which +proceeds from the development and avolation of their fixed air; strong +beers and ales have their limits under the same influence of heat, +time, change of the atmosphere, &c., and owe their preservation to two +things, viz. to a due proportion of fermentable matter unattenuated, or +the quantity of spirit they contain; as under these circumstances they +are either preserved by the spirit already formed, or that continually +supplied by the spontaneous decomposition of the fermentable matter +they contain, slowly developing and yielding a fresh supply of air and +spirit; hence beer and ales, not too highly attenuated, derive strength +and spirituosity from age, when properly stored or cellared, and duly +secured from the changes of the atmosphere. + +These observations are applicable to sweets, or made wines, and to +those which are the produce of the grape, the progress of fermentation +and attenuation being (or ought to be) interrupted in them by racking +off, which is similar to cleansing in beers and ales: and in Madeiras, +and other dry wines, the incipient acidity is corrected and restrained, +by proper additions introduced in the early part of the process, and +with others of similar effect when the wines are making up, either for +use or exportation. + +We may gather from these observations, that worts attenuated for beer +or ale, to the decomposition of all their fermentable matter, that is, +attenuated so high, or so low, that their specific gravity is reduced +to the standard of common water, and from that to the degree of levity +spirit is known to give to water, in the proportion to the quantity +added, and left to the preservation of the spirit formed, they have +little or no auxiliary assistance from their original products, already +exhausted by the highest or completest attenuation obtainable; an +important circumstance, always to be attended to, particularly by those +who affect an unnecessarily high attenuation! + +The intelligent brewer may, by the assistance of these observations, +form a most accurate rule for the regulation of his future conduct in +the management of fermentation, according as his beer or ale is to +be weak or strong, or for present use or long keeping; for the +accomplishment of which, the use of the hydrometer and thermometer +claim his peculiar attention, and will undoubtedly answer his +expectations, when joined to the certainty he is now at, of knowing +when he is, or is not, to expect the development of fixed air and +additional spirit, by which he can govern himself accordingly. + +These observations lead to a removal of the difficulties that lay in +the way, and, at the same time, suggest a mode of applying the present, +or of constructing a future _hydrometer_, for ascertaining the strength +or the quantity of the vinous spirit in beer, wine, ale, and other +fermented fluids, which has long been a desirable object. + +The distiller, having none of these niceties to attend to, is governed +by the ultimate extent of the attenuation the worts, or wash, is found +capable of, and which is both assisted and protracted by its superior +density, in its progress from specific gravity to specific levity, if +such an expression is admissible. + +Fermentation, begun in a fluid more or less saturated with saccharine +or fermentable matter, the process is finished sooner or later, and +usually in proportion to the degree of saturation, and the being +conducted with more or less vigour under a well regulated temperature; +for the more a fluid abounds with this matter, the grosser and denser +it must necessarily be, and the longer will the attenuation be +protracted; the longer it is protracted, in air-tight vessels, and in a +healthy and vigourous state of decomposition, the more spiritous and +strong will that wash turn out, and the greater the produce of spirit +in distillation; hence, it is both protracted and assisted by its +density. + +A languid may be truly called an unhealthy decomposition, it being +productive of diseases common to misconducted fermentation, acidity, +putridity, and lack of spirits, with a tendency to precipitate and burn +upon the bottom of the still; hence, all the decompositions are +confounded together, as in spontaneous fermentation. + +The formation of acidity during the process, is not of that injury to +the distiller that it is to the brewer, nor is this recent acidity +vinegar, as has been supposed by some chemists, but the incipient state +of combination of resolving elements, whose particles are in that +juxtaposition best suited to absorb developing hydrogen in a nascent +state, and intimately to combine with it into vinous spirit, the +approximation to which is promoted by time and incumbent pressure: +these positions shall be explained as I proceed. + +The reason that putridity is so rarely discovered in excited +fermentation, is, that it is usually counteracted by the previously +evolved acidity, and corrected, but not saturated or neutralized; for, +were that the case, the putrid could not immediately succeed the +acetous process in the same fluid, nor exist together, as they are +known to do in declining beer, vinegar, &c. + +The reason that acidity is not more frequently observed and attended to +than it is, is because of its being sheathed or covered by the +unattenuated sweets, or fermentable matter of the wash that remains +undecomposed. + +On the other hand, when acidity is very prevalent, it may be mistaken +for unattenuated fermentable matter, acidity increasing the density and +specific gravity of the fluid. + +Putridity, from the avolation of its products, promotes levity, and +that in proportion as its increase surpasses that of the general acid; +and it is not until the action of the acetous becomes languid, that the +putrid process gains the ascendency, when it is then difficult to +overcome. + +Although these observations may show how the hydrometer, or its use, in +unexperienced hands may be baffled, they both distinguish and explain +the value of its application; they do more--they elucidate the doctrine +of fermentation, and illustrate the goodness of Providence, who has +made nothing in vain, but provided nature with its own resources for +conducting every operation in the great plan of the universe with +uniform and unerring security. + +In the decomposition of fermentable matter, either by combustion or +fermentation, (which I have defined to be synonimous,) a portion of +inflammable air, or hydrogen, is first evolved; secondly, another +portion of inflammable air, united with pure air, or oxygen gas, +evolves under the form of fixed air; this is the constant and uniform +phenomena of these decompositions, and are progressively going on from +the beginning to the end of the fermentation, while there is any +fermentable matter to attenuate. A due portion of oxygen uniting in a +nascent state with a correspondent portion of inflammable or hydrogen, +and fixed air, forms the spiritous particles dispersed through the +fermenting fluid, which create vinosity, and constitute it wine, beer, +or wash. + +During which, so great is the avolation of fixed air, (as we have +seen,) that much of the ethereal part of the new formed, or, rather, +the scarcely-formed spirit, is carried off with it in a gaseous state. +This is much assisted by the agency of the atmosphere, which is the +solvent and receptacle of ethereal products, whose affinity for them +must be as great as it is perfect and immediate--which demonstrates the +necessity of having air-tight vats. When we consider the composition of +the atmosphere, and that it owes its formation and existence to this +cause, and, thereby becomes the menstruum of all created matter, we may +be better able to understand the composition and formation of vinous +spirits, and, by closely copying the original, more successfully +imitate nature. We have seen that the principal phenomena in fermenting +fluids is a brisk intestine motion of their parts, excited in all +directions with a loss of transparency, or a muddiness, a hissing +noise, the generating of gentle heat, and an exhalation of gas. This +heat, we must now observe, is always very sensible before the +extrication of any gas. We have adverted to the similarity existing +between respiration and fermentation, which is remarkably so in the +equality of heat produced in both in a healthy state of either, and +which seldom exceeds ninety-six degrees of Fahrenheit's thermometer; +but there are instances of their being much higher in both, without +producing much injury to either. Instances of this could be adduced at +home, without referring to warmer climates of the East and West Indies, +where the temperature of the atmosphere is so much higher than with us; +and that the temperature of the fermenting fluid, when at its height, +always exceeds that of the surrounding atmosphere in these latitudes, +which makes the similarity still stronger between these two decomposing +processes. This is a general and just remark; but, in order to regulate +it by practical facts, we must name the medium standard of heat, which +rarely exceeds eighty-five degrees with the brewers; this is the medium +of seventy-four and ninety-six degrees; but the medium heat is not +unfrequently up to ninety-six degrees in the distiller's fermenting +backs of Great Britain. Much depends on the degree of temperature the +fermentation is pitched at: here, nothing is spoken of but the +cleansing heat with the brewers, and the medium heat with the +distillers. + +For the maintenance of combustion, the free access of air being +necessary, an objection may be raised to air-tight vats, as unfit to +carry on this process in, to the exclusion of external air; which +objection may seem to gather force from the compression it occasions of +the fixed air on the decomposing fluid, which is allowed to extinguish +active combustion. I must acknowledge these are formidable objections +to my definition of low combustion, but I by no means find them +unanswerable. + +The aptitude of new hay, malt, and other vegetable matters, to +spontaneous combustion, when impacted together by incumbent pressure, +and a certain degree of moisture, should be recollected; and that this +tendency is not destroyed by excluding the admission of external air, +but by quickly cooling and dividing the impacted hay. + +The great quantity of oxygen, or vital air, both in the water of +dilution, and in the fermentable matter, with which the fluid is more +or less saturated, should be also recollected, which is about +eighty-five parts in the former, and sixty-four parts of one hundred in +the latter. + +Though, in an unelastic or fixed state, it is one of the properties of +combustion to disengage and render it elastic, great part of which, +during the low combustion which it supports, and in which heat is +visible or perceptible, and light in an invisible state developed, +three parts of this oxygen, with about one third of its weight of +carbon, is converted into an elastic state, under the form of fixed +air, that separates from the decomposing mass; a circumstance attending +also on the combustion of coal and other combustible substances during +their decomposition by that process, which supported in them by the +external air of the atmosphere, where heat and light are both visible +from the intensity and velocity of the combustion; and wholly invisible +in the former, not from exclusion of external air, but from the length +of time elapsed in low combustion; the one being performed +instantaneously, and the other taking several days from its +decomposition. Although fixed air is known to extinguish a lighted +candle, and destroy animal life, that is, to be equally unfit for the +combustion of inflammable bodies, or the support of animal respiration, +it is also known to be as successfully employed as atmospheric air, or +even dephlogisticated air, to melt glass, &c., when applied to the +clear flame of a wax candle, by passing a current of it through a +blow-pipe, to direct that flame on the glass to be melted.[4] + + [4] Count Rumford on the Economy of Fuel. + +This will not be so much to be wondered at, when we consider that the +proportion of vital air in fixed air is as twenty-seven to nine, and in +atmospheric air, the proportion of azotic gas or phlogisticated air, to +vital air, is as seventy-three to twenty-seven; therefore, the former +contains three fourths of vital air, and the latter little better than +one fourth; but the fixed air is in a combined, and the phlogisticated +air in an uncombined state. Among the processes made use of by nature +for the decomposition of vegetable and animal substances, fermentation, +or low combustion, is a principle one. Air, in a fixed or unelastic +state, may be as necessary here as air in an elastic state is known to +be in the active combustion of inflammable bodies. Chemists and +philosophers are no strangers to two sorts of combustion, one in +external air, and the other in close vessels. + +But this is not the combustion alluded to in fermentation, where all +the requisites for complete decomposition is to be found independent of +contact with the atmosphere; here one part is oxygenated at the expense +of the other, and the other disoxygenated in favour of it. + +Nor does the solution, or decomposition of metals by acids, the +combustion of inflammable and vital air for the production of water, +stand in need of external heat or fire, any more than the low +combustion in which fermentation consists for the production of spirit, +beer, or wine, than that generated by the self-operation of its own +temperature; similar to this is the self-animating principle or power +with which nature has endowed the animal body of generating its own +heat by respiration. + +In fermentation, the caloric, or matter of heat, which is plentifully +disengaged by the condensation of oxygen, is prevented from breaking +out into flame with the condensing hydrogen, from the presence of +affinities in the fermenting mass, ready to absorb and fix them into +vinous spirit, ale, beer, &c., with the other component element, +carbon; by which they are too instantaneously taken up and fixed, to +amount to more than bare ebullition, and pass at once from an incipient +state of elasticity, to a fixed and non-elastic one, while the +redundant heat, which would otherwise appear, is taken up and carried +off by the abundant formation of carbonic acid gas, which requires so +great a quantity of caloric to render it permanently elastic, as not +only keeps this sort of combustion under ignition, but much below the +degree of heat at which the accumulating vinous spirit could be raised +to the evaporable or distilling point, though capable, as already +observed, of detaching a considerable portion of it with the volatile +gas, and of the water of solution, or the water of composition recently +formed from the present attractions in its most volatile and incipient +state of formation; both which we have seen ascend with the fixed air +extricated, partly in a combined, and partly in an uncombined state. + +One part of hydrogen is sufficient to saturate and fix above five of +carbon, and they require nearly sixteen parts of oxygen to complete +their formation into alcohol, while the water of dilution undergoes a +proportionate decomposition and recomposition, to assist the +resolutions and combinations, and support the admirable equilibrium +preserved by nature. + +At the same time that the extreme levity of the hydrogen gas accounts +for the great quantity of heat which it holds in combination, and the +high temperature requisite to effect its decomposition, and that such +is its capacity for heat, that though combined with oxygen and water, +it still possesses the property of absorbing a great deal more. It is +this property that renders aqueous vapour lighter than atmospheric air +in which it ascends; yet we have just now demonstrated the resolution +and combination of hydrogen gas, and oxygen gas, both extricated from +the fermentable matter and the water of dilution, and their formation +into spirit, &c., at a temperature not many degrees above that of the +incumbent atmosphere, and no higher than that excited by respiration in +the animal system. + +In which we have shown the vegetable oxyde, (saccharine matter,) when +reduced by the admixture of water, to form the worts or wash, to be a +carbonated hydrogenous fluid, containing the elements of wine, beer, +ale, spirit, &c., and the mode of producing them under circumstances +conducive to their formation; these are motion, heat, pressure, and +mutual attraction, called into existence by a species of low +combustion, or fermentation, somewhat similar to respiration. In which +the materials, the products, and the liberation of caloric are +ultimately the same, whether the operation is attended by visible fire +from the velocity of action, or weak incalescence from the slow +progression of its motion; in which the component elements are +continually assuming a gasseous form, and as constantly losing it by +the force of mutual attraction for each other. No sooner is the +equilibrium broken, in one instance, by their gasseous appearance, than +it is restored by their condensation, and the heat liberated by the +latter taken up by the former, by which the equilibrium is preserved; +in this consists the increase of temperature above that of the +surrounding atmosphere, accompanied by the discharge of fixed air; to +fix, and advantageously apply which, shall be the next consideration; +and, by an accurate imitation of the modification employed by nature, +to render the fermenting fluid so much the stronger by such fixation. +To accomplish which, we must advert to what has been delivered in the +preceding pages, particularly to the proportions in which the +equilibrium preserved by nature consists, and exactly to her manner of +combining them in sugar, malt, and other saccharine matter, her mode of +breaking this equilibrium, or decomposing them by fermentation, and +recombining them into wine, beer, &c., and by the same process +restoring the equilibrium. + +It cannot be doubted, but that, in the investigation of the acetous +process of fermentation with the attenuation we do the vinous, they +will mutually reflect light on each other; in which it will come out +that wine, beer, ale, vinegar, spirit, &c., are not the only commercial +preparation to which the doctrine of fermentation, or low combustion, +may be advantageously applied, but also to others, that are perhaps +equally important and productive. + +The cleansing being at the meridian, or greatest temperature of the +heat of the fermenting fluid, and the object of that cleansing being to +reduce the heat, and thereby allay the violence of the fermentation, by +which an immediate decomposition takes place, the lighter impurities +buoyed up to the top of the fluid flows off with the yest, while the +heavier dregs descend to the bottom, and the fermentation gradually +declines as the cleansing draws to a conclusion, and the fermenting +fluid forms a turbid heterogeneous mass, very perceptibly approaching +towards a transparent homogeneous fluid in its progress to a drinkable +state. + +In laying out a brewery, the air should have free access to the coolers +on all sides, under and over; cleansing vessels should be similarly +situated, and, if avoidable, the coolers should not lay immediately +over them, to raise their temperature, which should not be many degrees +above that of the atmosphere, at temperate, which is fifty-two degrees; +but the descent from the cleansing heat (seventy-five to eighty-five) +should be progressive, that is, not sudden. A sudden chill would +precipitate the grosser, and diffuse the lighter dregs throughout the +fermenting fluid, which should be thrown off from the surface in +cleansing; this would retard the fining, and empoverish the beer or +ale; while the mode recommended will be found to promote transparency, +and give strength and body, that is, fullness and spirituosity. In +general, the cleansing commences too soon for the strength and quality +of the goods, particularly for porter, since the introduction of a +greater proportion of pale malt than formerly used; a more perfect +fermentation is now requisite to keep up the genuine distinction in +that flavour of porter from ordinary beers and ales, which, since the +change of _lengths_, has much declined, though the only characteristic +quality that gives it merit over other malt liquors--an object that +deserves consideration in this great commercial branch of trade, and +source of national wealth, where the loss of distinction will be the +loss of trade. The rough, astringent, thirst-creating smack is the +produce of the brown malt, and a well conducted fermentation. The +porter now brewed can no more bear the sudden chill of a cooling +atmosphere in the barrel cleansing, without too immediate a +condensation and separation of its parts, than it is able to sustain +the quick changes of a warm atmosphere, without an immediate tendency +to acidity. As things now are, either extreme can only be avoided by a +more attentive advertence to the mode of _cleansing_, so as to prevent +a predominant tendency to either by adopting the means proposed, or +such other, on the same principles, as are equally likely to preserve +the quality, increase the strength, promote transparency, and avoid +acidity. I know it may be urged by the most able brewers, that a high +and rapid fermentation in the cleansing is a principal cause of that +flavour for which porter is distinguished; that this kind of fermentation +leads to a more perfect attenuation; and some of them may, with great +truth, add, a perfect attenuation is the genuine mode of early bringing +beer forward. This I most readily grant; it is the doctrine I wish to +inculcate. The greater gravity of keeping beers, preserves them in a +_mild state_, while their spirituosity prevents acidity. The flavour of +the colouring matter now in use, nor the change it induces, is not, by +any means, adapted to preserve the genuine flavour of porter, or +compensate for that made in the change of malt; a change I by no means +condemn, with respect to the malt; but however advantageous to the +length, we must not altogether give up flavour, while we may equally as +well, and indeed much better, preserve both by a due admixture of each +sort of malt, and with suitable additions and proper correctives in the +process or preparation of porter, both salubrious; as by the subsequent +mixture of stale and mild beer, before sending out, or, afterwards, by +drawing them from different casks into the same pot, when on draught, +to suit the palate of each respective customer. + +I hope it is by this time understood, that my views are to raise the +_Process of Brewing_ above the vulgar error that tyrant custom has +entailed on it, and by the free exercise of the brewer's abilities, +both in a scientific and tradesman-like manner, so as advantageously to +preserve flavour and quality, with almost any proportions of every sort +of malt he may occasionally be obliged to use. + +The world is continually exclaiming that _experience_ is better than +_theory_. This is very true; for example, he who has had a very long +experience, may, in general, perform operations with tolerable +exactness; but this he undeviatingly does by certain stated means, +without any deeper intelligence of the process. I would, with Mr. +_Chaptal_, compare such a man to a blind person who is acquainted with +the road, and can pass along it with ease, and perhaps even with the +confidence and assurance of a man who sees perfectly well, but is at +the same time incapable of avoiding accidental obstacles, of shortening +his way, or taking the most direct course, and alike incapable of +laying down any rules which he can communicate to others. This is the +state of the artist of mere experience, however long the duration of +his practice may have been, as the simple performer of operations. + +Brewing, fermenting, distilling, &c., are branches of commercial +chemistry, that generally challenge the attention and secure the +protection of those governments that constitute them sources of revenue +and trade. Chemistry is as much the basis of the arts and manufactures, +as mathematics is the fundamental principle of mechanics. In the +process of brewing porter, ale, threepenny, &c., to be subsequently +treated of, the practical minutia of fermentation and attenuation shall +be circumstantially laid down in each, so as to account for, and +distinguish the variety of flavour, &c., assignable to each _cause +effected_ by the different modes of treatment. + + + + +_Hops, the best method of cultivating and raising them._ + + +A rich, deep soil, rather inclining to moisture, is, on the whole, the +best adapted for the cultivation of hops; but it is observable that any +soil (stiff clay only excepted) will suit the growing of hops when +properly prepared; and in many parts of Great Britain they use the +bog-land, which is fit for little else. The ground on which hops are to +be planted should be made rich with that kind of manure best suited to +the soil, and rendered fine and mellow by being ploughed deep, and +harrowed several times. The hills should be at the distance of six or +eight feet apart from each other, according to the richness of the +ground. On lands that are rich, the vines will run the most; the hills +must therefore be the further apart. + +At the first opening of the spring, when the frosts are over, and +vegetation begins, sets, or small pieces of the roots of hops, must be +obtained from hops that are esteemed the best.[5] Cut off from the main +stalk or root, six inches in length, branches or suckers, most healthy, +and of the last year's growth, if possible to be procured; if not, they +should be wrapped in a cloth, kept in a moist place, excluded from the +air. A hole should then be made large and deep, and filled with rich +mellow earth. The sprouts should be set in this earth with the bud +upwards, and the ground pressed close about them. If the buds have +begun to open, the uppermost must be left just out of the ground, +otherwise cover it with the earth an inch. Two or three sets to a pole +is sufficient, and three poles to a hill will be found most productive; +place one of the poles towards the north, the other two at equal +distances, about two feet apart. The sets are to be placed in the same +manner as the poles, that they may the easier climb. The length of the +poles may be from fourteen to eighteen feet, according as the soil is +rich or poor. The poles should be placed so as to incline to each +other, meet at their tops, and there be tied. This is contrary to the +European method, but will be found best in America. In this way they +will strengthen and support each other, and form so great a defence +against the violent gusts of wind, to which our climate is frequently +subject in the months of July and August, as to prevent their being +blown down. They will, likewise, form a three-sided pyramid, which will +have the greatest possible advantage from the sun. It is suggested by +experience, that hops which grow near the ground are the best. Too long +poles, therefore, are not good, and care should be taken that the vines +do not run beyond the poles, twisting off their tops will prevent it. +The best kinds of wood for poles are alder, ash, birch, elm, chestnut, +and cedar, their durability is directly the reverse of the order in +which they stand; charring, or burning the end put into the ground, +will preserve them. Hops should not be poled till the spring of the +second year, and then not till they have been dressed. All that is +necessary for the first year, is to keep the hops free from weeds, and +the ground light and mellow by hoeing and ploughing often, if the yard +be large enough to admit of it. The vines, when run to the length of +four or five feet, should be twisted together, to prevent their bearing +the first year, for that would injure them. In the months of March or +April, of the second year, the hills must be opened, and all the +sprouts or suckers cut off, within one inch of the old root, but that +must be left entire with the roots that run down;[6] then cover the +hills with fine earth and manure. The hops must be kept free from weeds +and the ground mellow by hoeing often through the season, and hills of +earth gradually raised around the vines during the summer. The vines +must be assisted in running on the poles with woolen yarn, suffering +them to run with the sun. By the last of August, or the first of +September, the hops will be ripe, and fit to gather. This may be easily +known by their colour changing, and having a fragrant smell; their seed +grows brown and hard. As soon as ripe, they must be gathered without +delay, for a storm or frost will injure them materially. The most +expeditious method of picking hops, is to cut the vines three feet from +the ground, pull up the poles and lay them on crotches, horizontally, +at a height that may be conveniently reached, put under them a bin of +equal length, and four may stand on each side to pick at the same time. +Fair weather should always be chosen to gather hops and they should +never be gathered when dew or moisture is on them, as it subjects them +to mould. They should be dried as soon as possible after they are +gathered; if not immediately, they must be spread on a floor to prevent +their changing colour. The best mode of drying them is with a fire of +charcoal and kiln, covered with hair cloth in the manner of a +malt-kiln.[7] The fire should be steady and equal, and the hops gently +stirred from time to time. Great attention is necessary in this part of +the business, that the hops be uniformly and sufficiently dried; if too +much dried they will look brown, and, of course, be materially injured +in their quality, and proportionably reduced in their price. If too +little dried, they will lose their natural colour and flavour. They +should be on the hair cloth about six inches thick after it had been +moderately warmed, then a steady fire kept up till the hops are nearly +dry, lest the moisture or sweat the fire has raised should fall back +and change their colour. After the hops have been in this situation +seven, eight, or nine hours, and have got through sweating, and when +struck with a stick will leap up; then throw them into a heap, mix them +well, and spread them again, and let them remain till they are all +equally dry. While they are in a sweat, it will be best not to move +them for fear of burning, slacken the fire, when the hops are to be +turned, and increase it afterwards. Hops are sufficiently dried, when +their inner stalks break short, and their leaves become crisp, and fall +off easily. They will crackle a little when their seed is bursting, and +then they should be removed from the kiln. Hops that are dried in the +sun lose their rich flavour, and, if under cover, they are apt to +ferment and change with the weather, and lose their strength; moderate +fire preserves the colour and flavour of the hops, by evaporating the +water, and retaining the oil of the hop. After the hops are taken from +the kiln, they should be laid in a heap, to acquire a little moisture +to fit them for bagging. It would be well to exclude them from air by +covering them with blankets. Three or four days will be sufficient for +them to be in that state. When the hops are so moist that they may be +pressed together without breaking, they are fit for bagging. Bags made +of coarse linen cloth, eleven feet in length, and seven in +circumference, which hold about two hundred pounds weight, are most +commonly used in Europe: but any size that best suits may be made use +of. To bag hops, a hole is made through the floor of a loft, large +enough for a man to pass through with ease. The bag must be fastened to +a hoop, larger than the hole, that the floor may serve to support the +bag; for the convenience of handling the bags, some hops should be tied +up in each corner of the bag, to serve as handles. The hops should be +gradually thrown into the bag, and trod down continually, till the bag +is filled. The mouth of the bag must then be sown up, and the hops are +then fit for market. The closer and harder hops are packed, the longer +and better they will keep; but they should be kept dry. In most parts +of Great Britain where hops are cultivated, they estimate the charge of +cultivating one acre of hops at forty-two dollars, for manuring and +tilling, exclusive of poles and rent of land; poles they estimate at +sixteen dollars per annum, but in this country they would not amount to +half that sum; one acre is computed to require three thousand poles, +which will last from eight to twelve years, according to the quality of +the wood used. The English growers of hops think they have a very +indifferent crop if the produce of one acre does not amount to one +hundred and thirty-three dollars, but, much more frequently, it amounts +to two hundred dollars, and sometimes so high as four hundred dollars +per acre. In this country, experiments have been equally flattering. A +gentleman in Massachusetts, in the summer of 1791, raised hops, from +one acre of ground that sold for three hundred dollars; it is allowed, +that land in this state is equally favourable to the growth of hops. +Upon a low estimate, we may fairly compute the nett profit of one acre +of hops to be eighty dollars, over and above poles, manure, and labour; +and in a good year a great deal more might be expected. There is one +circumstance further we think has weight, and ought to be mentioned: in +the English estimate the expense put down is what they can hire the +labour done for by those who make it their business to perform the +different parts of the cultivation. A great saving may, therefore, be +made by our farmers in the article of labour, for much of it may be +performed by women and children. Added to this, we have another +advantage of no small moment in this country: the hop harvest will come +between our two great harvests, the small grain and Indian corn, +without interfering with either but in England the case is otherwise: +the small grain and hop harvest come in together, and create a great +scarcity of hands, it being then the most busy season of the year. It +is found, by experience, that the soil and climate of the eastern +states are more favourable to the growth of hops than Great Britain; +they not being so subject to moist, foggy weather of long continuance, +which is most injurious to hops; and the southern and middle states are +still more favourable to the growth of hops than the eastern states, in +point of flavour and strength. The State of New-York unites some +advantages from either extreme of the union. The cultivators of land in +this state have every inducement, which policy or interest can offer, +to enter with spirit into the cultivation of hops; as we shall thereby +be able to supply our own demand, which is now every year increasing, +instead of sending to our neighbours for every bag we consume; a +circumstance the more unaccountable, as hops, are on all hands, allowed +to be one of the most profitable crops that can be raised; the culture +requires but little land, the labour may be performed at intervals, so +as not to interfere with other business of the farm, and be generally +performed by women and children. There is hardly a farmer in this state +but may, with ease, raise from one quarter of an acre, to as much as +three or four acres, the advantage of which would, in a few years, be +most sensibly felt both by the individual concerned, and the state at +large. In the city of New-York there are, at present, a number of large +and respectable breweries, and new ones, from time to time, may +reasonably be expected to be added to their number. All these +establishments are now supplied with hops from Massachusetts and +Connecticut; these considerations should certainly stimulate a few +spirited cultivators to lead the way, and raise hops; their laudable +example would soon be followed by others; so that in a few years we +should have prime hops of our own in abundance, for home consumption or +exportation. This subject will, I hope, appear sufficiently important +to recommend itself; to say more is therefore unnecessary. + + [5] Of the different kinds of hops, the long white is the most + esteemed; it yields the greatest quantity, and is the most + beautiful. The beauty of hops consists of their being of a pale + bright green color. Care should be taken to obtain all of one + sort; but if different sorts are used, they must be kept separate + in the field, for there is a material difference in their time of + ripening; and if mixed in the field, will occasion extra trouble + at the time of gathering them in. + + [6] Hops must be dressed every year, as soon as the frost will + permit; on this being well done depends, in a great measure, the + success of the crop. It is thought by many to be the best method + to manure the hop yard in the fall, and cover the hills entirely + with the manure, asserting, with other advantages, that this + prevents the frost from injuring plants during the winter. Hops + had better be gathered before they are full ripe than remain till + they are over ripe, for then they will lose their seed by the + wind, or on being handled. The seed is the strongest part of the + hop, and when they get too ripe will lose their green colour, + which is very necessary to preserve as the most valuable part of + the [remainder of text is illegible] + + [7] Kilns covered with the splinters of walnut, or ash, will + answer the purpose, and come cheaper than hair cloth. + + + + +_Barley Cultivation._ + + +However unconnected this subject may appear with a treatise on brewing, +I cannot help thinking that, in this country, it is much more +intimately connected with it than one would, at a first view, incline +to suppose, and for the following reasons; first, Because the proper +cultivation of barley is not generally known, save in the eastern +states, and but very little raised in any of the others; secondly, +Without good barley it is impossible to make good malt, consequently, +good beer--and it must be acknowledged, that a great proportion of the +barley that is raised, even in the eastern states, is but very +imperfectly suited to the purposes of the brewery, being what is termed +winter barley, and generally a poor, thin, lank grain, by no means +qualified to make good malt. This is so well known in England, that it +is very rarely met with in the barley markets, and seldom, or ever, +purchased by a brewer. The summer, or spring barley, always getting the +preference, being the largest bodied grain, and, of course, the best +suited to the purposes of making prime malt, the want of which, is +frequently severely felt by the brewers of this country, from the +impossibility they often find themselves in of procuring good barley, +being obliged to use such as they can get, which, for the most part, is +very ill suited to their purpose. It will be, then, their interest to +give every encouragement to the farmer to raise spring barley in +preference to the winter, to procure the best seed, of that +description, that he can find, to clean it well, to steep it in well or +spring water for twelve hours, stirring it frequently from the bottom +of the tub or vessel all around; and previous to each stirring, all the +floating grains, seed weeds, &c., should be carefully skimmed off: thus +nothing will remain for seed but sound and perfect grain. The first +water should be drawn off at the end of six hours, and immediately +replaced by fresh; this again drawn off at the end of six hours more; +it should be sown, broad cast, the following day, being first +previously mixed with a sufficient quantity of wood ashes to dry it as +much as will be necessary for the purpose of sowing. Thus managed, if +the ground be in proper tilth, and fitly prepared, this grain will make +its appearance the fifth or sixth day after sowing; whereas, if the +seed be sown dry, it will probably be three weeks or more before it +comes up, particularly if the season be dry. I cannot more forcibly +recommend this practice than by giving a brief sketch of an experiment +made in England, and taken from the Bath and West of England Society's +reports. A farmer selected four acres of the same field, treated and +prepared it for seeding exactly in the same way, he then divided it +into two equal parts; he sowed one part with dry seed, in the common +way, the other with steeped seed, as here recommended, and the +consequence was, that the latter produced a double crop, although the +seed in both cases was the same, save the difference of treatment. The +superior quality and condition of the crop seemed to keep pace with the +increased quantity. The beginning or middle of March, if the weather be +dry, is the best time to sow spring or summer barley. This mode of +preparing seed wheat, is highly recommended as an assured preservative +against the smut, fly, &c., insuring a sound good crop of grain. Barley +should be always cut in dry weather, yet not suffered to be too ripe +before cutting; stacking it in the field for a few weeks before +removing it to the barn, helps and prepares it for malting, by sweating +and drying it. Barley, immediately brought to the malt house from the +field, rarely makes good malt, as a great proportion of it becomes +staggy, and will not grow. Those who can corroborate the truth of these +remarks, and sufficiently appreciate them, will readily justify and +excuse this seeming departure from the original plan of this little +work. + + + + +_Table Beer._ + + +There is no production of the brewery more important to society than +good table beer, whether it be considered as a diluent to animal food, +or a diet drink in fever cases, even of the most malignant kind, where, +to my knowledge, it has been preferred to all others, and that with the +greatest success, sanctioned by the advice of some of the most eminent +physicians. This justifies my recommending it, and giving several +processes for making this useful liquor. + + + + +_Small Beer for Shipping._ + + + 12 Bushels of Pale Malt. + 12 Bushels of Amber Malt. + -- + 24 + -- + 14 lb. of Hops. + + Cleansed 24 Barrels. + +Let your malt be fine ground; first liquor 172; mash one hour, stand +one hour, run down smartly; beat of second mash 180; mash one hour, +stand two hours, boil two hours; making your length sufficiently long +to give one barrel of beer to each bushel of malt. Pitch your tun at 70 +degrees, giving one gallon of solid yest; cleanse within twenty-four +hours. The fresher this beer is sent out the better: being very thin in +body and low priced, it cannot be expected to last long. + + + + +_Keeping Table Beer._ + + + PROCESS. + + Commenced brewing at six in the morning, heat of the air 60 + degrees, per Fahrenheit's Thermometer. + + 48 Bushels of Pale Malt. + 16 Bushels of Amber Malt. + -- + 64 + -- + 72 lb. of Hops. + + Cleansed 45 Barrels of Table Beer. + +10 lb. liquorice ball, which was previously melted down in boiling +water, by frequent stirring, to a liquid, and then put in with the hops +when added to the worts. Ran the necessary quantity of boiling water +into the mash tun for the first mash, and when cooled down to 168, +commenced mashing, which continued three quarters of an hour, stood one +hour, ran down briskly; mashed a second time at 180, for half an hour; +stood half an hour; mixed both worts, boiled one hour and a half as +hard as possible, throwing into the copper, before boiling, half a +pound of ground ginger, with half a pound of ground mustard; pitched +these worts at 70 degrees, giving 3 gallons of solid yest; remained in +the tun 36 hours, and was headed over, before cleansing, with four +pounds of flour and one pound of salt mixed together. This kind of beer +will have attenuated sufficiently in from 30 to 36 hours. + + + + +_Small Beer of the best kind, how brewed, which, in a good cellar, +will keep as long as can be reasonably wanted._ + + + MATERIALS. + + 15 bushels of Pale Malt. + 7 lb. Hops. + + Cleansed 10 1/2 Barrels Beer, heat of the air 50 by Fahrenheit's + Thermometer. + +Boiled the first copper; drew the fire; then ran ten inches of boiling +hot water into the keeve; added two inches of cold water, mixed both +well together, which made up at 168; then put in the malt gradually, +mashing all the time, for about half an hour; the mash being thin, did +not require a longer operation. Before mashing, rubbed the 7 pounds of +hops in a tub, sprinkling over them, when rubbed, about one quarter of +a pound of white salt, then poured on boiling water in sufficient +quantity to saturate them well, after which they were close covered; +the keeve having stood two hours, the tap was set, and ran down twelve +inches. Did not boil the second copper, but raised its heat to 184, +mashed a second time, and stood one hour, ran down as before, and +completed the length in the underbank, cleared the copper, had it +rinced out, got up the worts, put in the hops, extract and all, made up +the fire, and boiled one hour and a half as hard as possible, +previously adding to them four pounds of brown sugar that had been +dissolved in a bucket with hot water, also half a pound of ground +mustard; this beer remained on the coolers about eight hours, pitched +it next morning at 72 degrees, adding only one gallon of solid yest, +ran slowly into the tun which made up at 61 degrees; came on gradually, +remained in the tun 31 hours, and raised to 66, affording but two +degrees of attenuation. Notwithstanding this beer worked well in the +casks, yet moderately, was frequently filled at close intervals, and +was glass fine the fifth day. The sugar was added to assist the colour +as well as the strength, the mustard to give flavour. + + + + +_Another Method._ + + +To brew small beer somewhat stronger, take 30 bushels of pale malt, +(have it ground fine,) 10 pound of hops, steep them as in the preceding +process. Turn out of your copper 16 barrels of beer, give your first +liquor at 165, your second at 175, mash, run down, stand, and boil as +before. But before you commence brewing, take five pounds of brown +sugar, put it into a metal pot with some water, set it on the fire, +keep it constantly stirring till it begins to smell strong, then take +it off the fire, and add to it, gradually, three gallons of water, at +the temperature of blood heat, stirring the water and the sugar well +together, till the whole be perfectly blended; this prepared liquor +should be added to the worts in the copper before boiling. The +fermentation, &c., to be conducted as before, save only the pitching, +yest, to be increased by half a gallon, which half gallon is not to be +added to the worts until twelve hours after the first gallon. +Attenuation should proceed until the heat rises four degrees above the +pitching heat, which should be the same as in the preceding process. In +both instances, the tuns should be covered during the period of +fermentation, but taken off for the purpose of rousing before +cleansing; these covers should be put on again, in order to prevent the +dispersion or waste of the gasses, which is always a loss of +spirituosity. + + + + +_A good sound keeping Table Beer may be Brewed from wheaten Bran and +Shorts, and, in many situations, when Malt cannot be procured, would be +found an excellent substitute. This process is well worth the attention +of housekeepers._ + + + PROCESS AS FOLLOWS: + + 40 Bushels of Shorts. + 20 Bushels of Bran. + + 16 lb. of Hops will give 25 Barrels of Small Beer. + +Boil your first copper, run into your mash tun as much boiling water +as, when reduced with cold, will bring it to the temperature of 1.0, +then commence your mashing operation, putting in two bushels of shorts, +and one bushel of bran at a time; when these are well mixed with the +water, put in more, mash again, and so continue to do till all is in; +it will take from half an hour to three quarters to mash this quantity +properly; let your mash stand two hours, run down as in the preceding +processes, and give your second liquor 165; mash a second time, stand +one hour, boil your first wort one hour very hard with half your hops, +which should have been steeped, rubbed, and salted, as before directed; +boil your second wort one hour and a half in the same way, putting on +the remainder of your hops, with one pound of ground mustard, and five +pounds of brown sugar, reduced, by boiling, to a colouring matter, as +already directed in the previous process; make up your two boilings in +your tun at the heat of 65, giving three gallons of solid yest; let +your attenuation proceed ten degrees, or to 75, then cleanse, and +continue to fill your casks in the usual way. It has been found that +beer brewed from these materials has stood the summer heats much better +than beer brewed from malt alone; this may be accounted for by the +extract of malt possessing a much larger proportion of saccharine +matter than that obtainable from bran and shorts. In families, this +beer may be brewed in the proportion of one or two barrels at a time; +and in the country, where brewer's yest may not be procurable, leaven, +diluted with blood-warm water, may be substituted for brewer's yest, +and will answer, but not so well; neither will attenuation go so high, +as fermentation with leaven, when applied to liquids, is generally +languid and slow. + + + + +_Single Ale and Table Beer._ + + + 100 Bushels of Malt. + 60 lb. of Hops. + + Heat of the air 50 degrees. + + Cleansed or tunned 30 Barrels of Single Ale; with 16 Barrels of + Table Beer after. + +First, or mashing liquor, 168, run your whole quantity of boiling +liquor into your mash tun, and when it cools down to the above point of +168, begin to run in your malt gradually from your malt bin; this +quantity will require four or five hands to mash it well, which will +generally take three quarters of an hour; when sufficiently mashed, +cover your tun, let it stand two hours; run down this first mash +smartly by two cocks within the hour; let your hops be rubbed, steeped, +and salted, as before directed; added to these worts, as they began to +boil, three gallons of the essentia bina or liquid colouring, with one +pound and a half of ground mustard, and one pound of liquorice root +finely powdered, boiled the whole two hours as hard as possible, there +being a second copper for this operation, there was liquor prepared for +the small beer and run on the keeve at the heat of 185; mashed well a +second time, and stood two hours; by this time the first wort was let +run into the hop back, and so on the cooler. After which, ran down the +small beer, got it into the small copper, adding about six hand buckets +of the hops that had been boiled on the single ale; these answered to +preserve the beer, with one pound of ground mustard to assist flavour, +and two gallons of the essentia bina to give colour; boiled the small +beer one hour smartly. The strong worts were let into the tun in three +portions, there being three coolers; the first division, at 65, had two +gallons and a half of yest given to it; the second, at 66, the same +quantity of yest; the third, at 65, was let down without yest, when all +were in the tun made up at 64; in thirteen hours the tun had a handsome +appearance of work; came on regularly, and attenuated to 76, having +gained 12 degrees within sixty hours, then cleansed and filled the +casks every three hours for the first eight fillings. Thus managed, +this single ale was fit to send out the fifth day after brewing. When +this ale is racking off the butts, to be sent out, would recommend +putting two ounces of ground rice into each barrel which will create +briskness, and much improve the beer. Ran the small beer into the hop +back of the strong beer, and so on the coolers, thereby giving it a +chance to lick up all the strong ale it met with in its progress to the +tun, which it entered at 65 with three gallons of yest, and was +cleansed within thirty-six hours. The quantity of beer here mentioned +would be much improved by the addition of six or seven pounds of brown +sugar or molasses; but if good table beer is wanted, it can be only +obtained from whole grists of malt, and is well worth the difference of +expense to those who can afford it, and appreciate quality. + + + + +_Strong Beer._ + + + Brewed, November, 1810, the following materials. Heat of the air 50 + degrees. + + 40 Bushels of Pale Malt. + 20 Bushels of Amber Malt. + -- + 60 + -- + 40 lb. of Hops, the best quality. + + Cleansed 20 Barrels of Beer. + +Rubbed, salted, and steeped the hops, as already directed, in a close +vessel, ran a sufficient quantity of boiling water on the mash tun for +the first mash, which was suffered to cool down to 165; mashed well for +nearly one hour, stood two hours; ran down smartly, boiled the first +wort one hour very hard, with about half the hops; mashed a second time +at about 185: took about half an hour in the operation, ran down +smartly after two hours' standing, got up this second mash smartly into +the copper, taking the necessary precaution of rincing the copper out +clean, for the reception of the second wort, which was boiled two hours +very hard, with the remainder of the hops; these two worts were run +together on the same cooler; after standing a few hours, were run on a +second cooler, and there suffered to remain till they came down to 65; +were then let into the tun, with two gallons of solid yest, by a large +plug hole in a few minutes so as to have scarcely suffered any +diminution of their heat; in twelve hours after, there was added two +gallons more of yest, roused the tun a second time, came on gradually, +and attenuated within 56 hours ten degrees, and so was cleansed at the +heat of 75, this beer was filled every two hours, for the first +twenty-four, and in a few days more became transparently fine; this +beer should have added to it, before sending out, four ounces of +steeped hops, and two ounces of ground rice to each barrel; the five +pounds of hops wanted for this operation is previously put to steep in +a clean tub with some of the beer. This beer, if thus brewed with good +materials, and treated as directed, will be found to give satisfaction. +During the winter half year, the fermenting tun should be always +covered; in summer, only partially so; the less strong beer is +attempted to be brewed in that season the better, as it will not keep, +necessity alone should compel the brewer to work, in this country, +during the summer months; and then at small beer only. + + + + +_Table Beer, English method of brewing it._ + + + Take 8 bushels of Malt, and 6 lb. of Hops. + + This quantity of materials should deliver four barrels of beer. + + First liquor 161; mash the first time one hour. + + Second liquor 170; mash the second time half an hour. + + Third liquor 152; mash the third time twenty minutes. + +Boil the three runnings together for two hours in a close covered +copper; three pints of good solid yest will be sufficient to pitch this +quantity, mixing it, before adding, with about one gallon of the wort, +then add this to the rest; a low attenuation for this kind of beer will +not answer, the specific gravity being too light, the fermentation +rarely exceeding 30 hours in the tun. It being generally wanted for +immediate use; it is pitched high, and worked quick. It is further +important to bung it down close as soon as it has done working. This +kind of beer may be securely and advantageously administered to fever +patients, instead of other drink: I have known it to be attended with +the happiest consequences. + + + + +_Unboiled beer, how Brewed._ + + +The following process, I confess, I never myself tried, but, from the +manner it was spoken of by the party giving it, I would strongly +recommend a trial of it on a small scale, at first, until its +advantages and superiority was well ascertained over the old and long +established mode of boiling wort. Mash your full complement of malt, or +rather one third more, and that in the usual way, (suppose you are +brewing strong beer,) and while your mash stands, let your copper have +as much cold water run into it as will save it from burning; rouse your +fire, salt and rub your hops, as recommended in previous processes; let +their quantity be increased one third more than if brewed in the +ordinary way; and when got into your copper, cover close, and let these +hops simmer for two hours, _but not boil_; then run down your first +wort in sufficient quantity as, when added to the water and the extract +of the hops, will give you the length you contemplate; you will observe +the malt is increased to meet the quantity of water in the copper; but +this cannot be considered a loss, as the second mash will answer for +single ale, or good table beer; the hops in the same way. When you have +got your intended complement of strong wort in your copper, rouse it +well, cover close, and let your copper stand two hours more, keeping up +a moderate fire just enough to make it simmer _but not boil_; during +this time your second mash may be going on with water from your second +copper; this, as already stated, will make single ale, or good table +beer; if the latter, it may be boiled in the usual way, but not longer +than half an hour, on account of the increased quantity of hops; which +hops should be all retained in the copper after the first worts are run +off, by means of a strainer placed at the mouth of the cock hole; one +hour strong boiling will be sufficient for the succeeding wort, if +single ale be wanted; the remainder of the process for both worts is +the same as already directed for such quality of drinks. It was further +stated to me that unboiled beer will appear very turbid and unpromising +for some time after it is brewed, and will take three months at least +to come round; but that after that period it will improve rapidly, and +become transparently fine; when second worts are found too weak, they +may be assisted with good Muscovado sugar, of which eight pounds is +considered equivalent to one bushel of malt. In fact, pleasant beer +might be made from sugar alone, without any malt. + + + + +_Strong Beer, of an excellent quality and flavour, brewed from the +extract of the Hop only, rejecting the substance._ + + +This extract was obtained by the hot infusion, in a close covered +wooden vessel set to infuse the evening before brewing; in this process +one third more hops should be allowed; these hops need not be wasted, +as they will answer well for table beer, or single ale, brewed +according to the preceding processes; but, in either case, one hour's +strong boiling will answer for single ale, half an hour for table beer +will be sufficient, on account of the increased quantity of hops. + +When you have got up your first wort in your copper, that you intend to +preserve with extract, boil the first half hour without it, and one +hour with it, very hard in both instances. It should have been +mentioned that, in preparing your first, or mashing liquor, two pounds +of rice is to be added to your water in the copper before boiling, +supposing the length of your brewing 20 barrels, or in that proportion. + +Strong beer brewed with the extract alone, as here recommended, has +turned out remarkably well, and if the hops are good, will be found +more delicately flavoured than other beer; supposing the malt alike +good. Pitching, cleansing, and filling, to be conducted as already +recommended in preceding processes, with the tun close covered during +the fermentation. + + + + +_Table Beer._ + + +Table beer, of a superior quality, may be brewed in the following +manner, a process well worth the attention of the brewer, the gentleman +and the farmer, whereby the beer is altogether prevented from working +out of the cask, and the fermentation conducted without any apparent +admission of the external air. I have made the scale for one barrel, in +order to make it more generally useful to the community at large; +however, the same proportions will answer for a greater or less +quantity, only proportioning the materials and utensils. Take one peck +of good malt ground, one pound of hops, put them in twenty gallons of +water, and boil them for half an hour, then run them into a hair cloth +bag, or sieve, so as to keep back the hops and malt from the wort, +which, when cooled down to 65 degrees by Fahrenheit's thermometer, add +to them 2 gallons of molasses, with one pint, or a little less, of good +yest, mix these with your wort, and put the whole into a clean barrel, +and fill it up with cold water to within four inches of the bung hole, +(this space is requisite to leave room for fermentation,) bung down +tight, and if brewed for family use, would recommend putting in the +cock at the same time, as it will prevent the necessity of disturbing +the cask afterwards; in one fortnight this beer might be drawn, and +will be found to improve to the last. + + + + +_Fermenting and Cleansing in the same Vessel._ + + +The following recommendation to brewers is well worth their attention, +that is, to ferment their strong, or what they call their stock beer, +in the vat they propose to keep it in, until fit to turn out; this +practice will be found advantageous to the flavour and preserving +quality of such beer, as close fermentation has a decided preference +over what is termed open. One or more workers may be placed in the side +of such vat, a few inches above the surface of the enclosed liquor; +thus the head as it rises will have the opportunity of running off; +such fermentation should further be conducted coolly and slowly, the +pitching heat, in this case, should not exceed 60 degrees of +Fahrenheit, and the yest one third in quantity less than if applied in +open vessels, but the yest should be mixed with a double quantity of +the wort at 65, in a separate vessel before pitching. When vats are +wanting, the operation may be conducted in hogsheads or butts, allowing +a tin or wooden worker to each cask. In brewing small quantities of +strong beer, this contrivance supersedes the necessity of fermenting +tuns, or troughs, no small saving of expense, whilst it makes the beer +more spiritous and preserving. The annexed plate shows the form and +application of the worker, whether of tin or wood. + +[Illustration: + +A The cask in which the worker is placed. + +B The spout of the worker, which takes off the yest. + +C The plug at the angle of the worker to admit the pipe of a + tundish, in order to fill the cask as it works.] + + + + +_Another Method of fermenting Strong Beer that might be expected to +produce a pure and excellent liquor._ + + +Mash, run down, and boil in the usual way, suffer your worts, after +drawing your fire, to remain on your copper two hours, doors and hatch +open. If in winter, the deeper your worts lie on the cooler the better; +when they have come down to the proper heat of pitching, give your yest +to them on the cooler, mixing it gently with the whole guile, and when +properly headed with yest, which will probably happen within +twenty-four hours, run off your worts gently into barrels, leaving your +top and bottom yest on the cooler undisturbed, till all the cooler is +cleared; but previous to running your worts into the barrels, put half +a pint of good solid yest into each, and when full, clap your tin +workers into the bung holes, and so let it finish its fermentation for +about a week longer, filling the casks occasionally as they work. When +done working, bung down or vat them; if you wish to add any kind of +flavouring substance to this beer, the best time to do it is at +commencing the second fermentation, experience teaching that all +fermented liquors should have such substances added to them during, or +at the commencement of their fermentation, which is preferable to +adding these substances in the boil; I mean spices, and delicate +flavouring substances. + + + + +_Process of Brewing Windsor Ale on a small scale._ + + +Windsor ale is a very pale, light, agreeable ale, as fine as wine, and +unquestionably the best fermented of any malt liquor sent to the London +market. + +Length drawn, three barrels per quarter of eight bushels, the malt +pale, with two pounds of hops of the first quality; heat of the first +liquor 182, two barrels of which is generally allowed to each quarter +of malt, for the first mash; one barrel per quarter for the second; the +same quantity for the third is as little liquor as can be dispensed +with in three mashings; for short liquor and stiff mashes are essential +to this quality of ale, in order to leave as little as possible in the +copper for evaporation on account of the short boiling. Mash quick, run +down quick, get your wort as fine as possible into your underbank; let +your first mash stand two hours, your second one hour and three +quarters. Give your second mashing liquor at 190; if you mash a third +time, give your liquor at 175; stand half an hour; these worts should +be pitched from 52 to 60, but not higher. The mode of doing so is also +different from the generality of other malt liquor; your yest should be +fresh, smooth, and solid. Begin yesting this ale a few barrels at a +time, and when that has caught, add the remainder gradually, in about +48 hours, or from that to 60. This guile of ale will assume a close +head of yest, which should be carefully skimmed off as fast as it forms +after the first skimming: by this is not meant the first or worty head +formed soon after the yest has taken, but the close yesty head already +mentioned, which usually takes the time stated, say from 48 to 60 +hours, when no more yest rises, and the guile remains quite flat; you +will find the heat you pitched at, say 56, 58, or 60 degrees will by +this time have increased to 80, or even more, and the specific gravity +of the wort diminished from 26 or 27 pound per barrel, to six or seven +pound per barrel; this attenuation will give it all the pungency and +spirituosity it stands in need of. At this time your cleansing +operation commences; after which it will work but little in the casks. +It should be filled regularly every two or three hours, after +cleansing, for the first twenty-four. After it has done working, you +should immediately start it into an air-tight vat, with about one pound +of hops well rubbed to every three barrels of ale in your brewing; if +you use spent hops, such as has been boiled on the first mash, you may +use a greater quantity, say half a pound more to each three barrels of +beer, taking the precaution that they are become quite cool. This ale, +thus treated, will be found glass fine in the course of a fortnight, +and fit to be racked off into hogsheads or barrels. It will improve by +age both in flavour and quality. But it should not be boiled more than +fifteen minutes. + + + + +_Reading Beer, how made._ + + +Reading beer is made in a town of that name about thirty miles distant +from London; the quality of its beer is much spoken of, the mode of +brewing it is stated to be as follows: + + Scale of Brewing, suppose 22 Barrels. + + 80 Bushels of Pale Malt. + 98 lb. of Hops. + 3 lb. of Grains of Paradise, pounded or ground. + 5 lb. of Coriander Seed, do. + 14 lb. of the best brown Sugar. + +Your malt should be some days ground, and if exposed on an open loft, +after grinding, so much the better. Boil your first copper, run on your +mash tun till you have your complement, then occasionally rouse your +water with your mashing oars, or dashers, till you get it down to 175: +put your malt in slowly, for fear of setting; keep mashing all the +time, which should be continued full one hour, stand two hours, run +your worts, when you set tap, as fine as you can get them into your +underbank; this you will effect by drawing off successively five or six +buckets of the first run, and throwing them over your grains in the +mash tun; when you perceive they come off glass fine, lay by your +bucket. Give your second mashing liquor at 178 degrees, mash three +quarters of an hour, stand one hour. Give your third liquor at 158, +mash half an hour, stand one hour; boil your first copper of worts, +which should take the half of your three runs, one hour as hard as you +can; your second, two hours in the same way; run the two boilings into +one cooler, and pitch at 64, giving one gallon of solid smooth yest; +skim off the yest, as in the case of Windsor ale, until the attenuation +rises to 80 degrees, which will have advanced it, from the pitching +heat of 64, sixteen degrees. Before you commence the operation of +cleansing, mix one quarter of a pound of bay salt, with half a peck of +malted bean flour, scatter this mixture over the surface of your tun, +rouse well, cleanse, and fill in the usual way. + + + + +_Two-penny Amber Beer, as brewed in London._ + + +This beer is in great demand, and large quantities of it consumed, and +is supposed more profitable to the brewer than any other species of +malt liquor, it being generally brewed, drank, and paid for within the +fortnight. + + PROCESS. + + 200 Bushels of Pale Malt. + 112 lb. of Hops. + 20 lb. of Liquorice Ball + 30 lb. of Molasses, + 4 lb. of Grains of Paradise, ground. + + Cleansed 81 Barrels. + +Heat of first mashing liquor 169; mash one hour, stand two hours, run +down smartly; specific gravity of this wort 26 pound per barrel; second +mash 170, mash half an hour, stand one hour, run down as before; +specific gravity of this wort 11 pound and a half per barrel; third +mash 160, mash twenty minutes, stand half an hour; gravity six pound +per barrel; divide these three runnings into two boilings; boil the +first copper for three quarters of an hour, the second one hour, in +both cases as hard as possible; the hops and other ingredients should +be put in at the first boil, and so retained in the copper by means of +a strainer; pitch these worts at 64 degrees, giving two gallons of +solid yest at first, with two gallons more in twelve hours after: +remained in the tun about 60 hours, or until its attenuation reached 80 +degrees; used over the surface of the tun, before cleansing, four pound +of ground ginger, half a pound of bay salt, and about half a peck of +wheaten flour, mixed all together, and scattered over the surface of +the tun; roused well, and cleansed 81 barrels. This quality of beer, +when brewed from good materials, and managed as directed, makes a +wholesome and a pleasant beverage; but, to do it justice, should have +more time allowed it for coming to perfection. + + + + +_London Ale, how brewed._ + + +Ale is, of all other malt liquor, the most delicate, and will bear less +tampering with. It will therefore require your nicest care through +every part of the process. Transparency, pungency, and flavour, are +qualities that highly recommend this liquor, and should be particularly +aimed at by the brewer. Hard water is, by some, supposed to be more +favourable for making this kind of ale than soft. + + Heat of the air 60 degrees. + + 200 Bushels of Pale Malt + 206 lb. of Hops. + 4 lb. of Grains of Paradise, pounded or ground. + 4 lb. of Coriander Seed, do. + 1 lb. of Orange Powder, do. + + Cleansed 65 Barrels of Beer. + +First mash 173, mashed one hour, stood one hour, ran down smartly; +specific gravity of this wort 32 pounds per barrel; the heat appears +more favourable for obtaining the whole sweet of the mash than the +preceding one by six pounds per barrel, an object well worth the +attention of the brewer; second mash 172, specific gravity of this wort +22 pounds per barrel; mashing, standing, &c., the same as in the +preceding process; boiled the first wort one hour; the second wort two +hours, very hard in both instances; pitched the tun at 62 degrees +giving two gallons of yest at first, and two gallons twelve hours +after. + +Remained in the tun about 80 hours, or until it attenuated to 74, or +twelve degrees over the heat it was pitched at; used over the surface +of the tun, at cleansing, four pound of ground ginger, half a pound of +bay salt, with half a peck of wheat flour well mixed, roused the tun +well. + +You should observe, in working amber beer, to cleanse with the sweets +on, but in ale you should work it low in order to get the sweets off. +This ale should be carefully filled as it works and closely attended to +until done working; then put into each cask, if of a large size, two +handfuls of spent hops, that have been previously cooled, and but a +short time boiled; then bung down, and it will be fit to send out. + + + + +_Windsor Ale, brewed on a large Scale._ + + +This ale has experienced so great a demand in London and its vicinity +for a few years back, as materially to affect the London pale beer +brewery; it is a liquor better calculated for winter than the summer +season. The London brewers have been induced to brew on the same +principle, and in many instances they exceed the original. Here follows +the London process for brewing this kind of beer, which, I apprehend, +will be well worth the American brewers' imitation, as good ale is a +species of malt liquor rarely met with in this country. + + 200 Bushels of Pale Malt. + 224 lb. of Hops. + 40 lb of Honey. + 4 lb. of Coriander Seed, ground. + 2 lb. of the Grains of Paradise, ground. + + 65 Barrels Cleansed. + +Procure your hops of the best quality, rub them in one or more large +tubs, pour cold water on them in sufficient quantity to wet them all +over, and so let them infuse till the next day, which should be the day +on which you brew. When your first copper has just boiled, run a +sufficient quantity of water into your mash tun for your first mash; +and when this has cooled down to 176 degrees, run in your malt slowly, +and mash well for one hour and a quarter; after which, let your mash +tun stand two hours, run down smartly and fine; keep your mash tun +close covered from the time you have done mashing till you begin to set +tap; give your second mashing liquor at 186, mash one hour, stand one +hour, run down as before; give your third liquor for the last mash at +160, mash one hour, stand one hour run down as before; divide these +three worts into two parts, boil your first copper one hour, putting in +your ingredients with your hops, save the 40 pounds of honey, which +should be reserved to be put into the copper a few minutes before +striking off; rouse your copper well at the time of putting in the +honey, and continue the same till run off, otherwise, it will pitch to +the bottom of the copper, and likely be the cause of burning; your +second worts should boil two hours on the same hops and ingredients, +which should be retained in the copper by a strainer, pitch your tun at +62 degrees, giving two gallons of good yest at first, and two gallons +more in twelve hours after; let your fermenting heat rise to 80 +degrees; thus your attenuation will have gained 18 degrees, which will +probably cause your guile to remain in the tun from 60 to 80 hours. Use +salt and bean meal flour as directed in the preceding process, and in +the same proportion, before cleansing; fill, &c., as already directed. + + + + +_Welsh Ale, how brewed._ + + +This it a luscious and richly flavoured ale, much liked, but very heady. + + PROCESS. + + 72 Bushels of Pale Malt. + 70 lb. of Hops. + 20 lb. of best brown Sugar. + 2 lb. of Grains of Paradise, ground. + +Heat of the first mashing liquor 175, mash one hour and a half, putting +in your malt very gradually, and mash uncommonly well, and let it stand +two hours; second liquor at 190, mash one hour, and stand two more; run +down as before, boil these two runs together for one hour and a half, +putting in your hops, &c., save the sugar, which is to be put in but a +few minutes before striking off, at which time the rousing of the +copper should commence, and so continue until the worts are nearly run +off. Small beer may be brewed, in the usual way, after both these +worts, in which case, cold water will answer full as well as hot; pitch +your strong worts at 62, with a small proportion of good yest, and let +your fermenting heat rise to 80; thus your attenuation will proceed 18 +degrees; cleanse with salt and bean flour as already directed, but in +suitable proportion in point of quantity to your malt, fill in the +usual way, and when nearly done working, use fine ale to top with, +before you bung down, putting into each barrel one large handful of +scalded hops, that have been previously cooled down. + + + + +_Wirtemberg Ale._ + + + BREWED AS FOLLOWS: + + 128 Bushels of Pale Malt. + 32 Bushels of Amber Malt. + --- + 160 Bushels of Malt. + --- + 188 lb. of Hops. + 28 lb. of Honey. + 20 lb. of Sugar. + 4 lb. of Hartshorn Shavings. + 4 lb. of Coriander Seed, ground. + 1 lb. of Caraway Seed, ground. + + Cleansed 50 Barrels of Ale. + +Give your first mashing liquor at 172, mash for one hour and a half, +stand two hours, run down fine, but smartly. + +Second mashing liquor 180, mash one hour, stand two hours, run down as +before; get up your two worts; put in, with your hops, the other +ingredients, save the honey and sugar, which is to be put into your +copper but a few minutes before striking off, rousing your copper while +any wort remains in it. This ale should be boiled hard for one hour and +a half; pitch your tun at 62, raise your fermenting heat to 80, which +will generally rise in the course of 70 hours. Give of good solid yest +four gallons, two gallons at first, and two gallons more in twelve +hours after, rouse your tun each time. + + + + +_Hock._ + + +This is a beer that has within a few years had a great run, +particularly in Germany. + + PROCESS AS FOLLOWS: + + 112 Bushels of Pale Malt. + 48 Bushels of Amber Malt. + --- + 160 Bushels. + --- + 206 lb. of Hops. + 4 lb. of Cocculus Indicus Berry, ground. + 2 lb. of Fabia Amora, or Bitter Bean. + 20 lb. of Brown Sugar, of good quality. + + Cleansed 54 Barrels. + +First liquor 176, mash one hour and a quarter, stand one hour and a +half; second liquor 182, mash one hour, stand two hours; when both +worts are in the copper, add your hops and other ingredients, except +the sugar, which is to be put in as already directed a little time +before striking off, boil two hours and a quarter as hard as you can. +Pitch your tun at 64, giving four gallons of solid yest at once, and +cleanse the second day, or in forty-eight hours; fill as already +directed, and put into each barrel one handful of fresh steeped hops +before bunging down. + + + + +_Scurvy Grass Ale._ + + +This species of ale is considered a great sweetener of the blood, has +been much approved of, and is strongly recommended as a wholesome and +pleasant medicine. + + PROCESS AS FOLLOWS: + + 40 Bushels of Pale Malt. + 25 lb. of Hops. + 10 lb. of Molasses. + 2 lb. of Alexandrian Senna. + 5 Bushels of Garden Scurvy Grass. + + Cleansed 14 Barrels of Ale. + +Your malt should be fine ground; give your first liquor at 170, mash +one hour, stand one hour; heat of your second liquor 172, mash three +quarters of an hour, stand one hour; give your third mashing liquor at +160, mash twenty minutes, stand half an hour; these three worts should +be run into your copper together, and boil together for one hour +gently, for one quarter of an hour more as hard as you can; all your +ingredients to be put in with your hops, except the molasses, which +should only be put in a few minutes before striking off; from the time +you put in your molasses, keep stirring your copper until its contents +is nearly off. About the middle of your fermentation, procure one pound +of horse-radish, wash it well, dry it with a cloth, after which slice +it thin, and throw it into your tun, rousing immediately after; when +done, replace your tun cover, pitch your worts at 66 degrees, with +about two gallons of solid yest; cleanse the third day, with the sweets +on. This ale is drank both hot and cold. + + + + +_Dorchester Ale._ + + +This quality of ale is by many esteemed the best in England, when the +materials are good, and the management judicious. + + 54 Bushels of the best Pale Malt. + 50 lb. of the best Hops. + 1 lb. of Ginger. + 1/4 of a lb. of Cinnamon, pounded. + + Cleansed 14 Barrels, reserving enough for filling. + +Boil your copper, temper your liquor in the same to 185, and when +ready, run it on your keeve a little at a time, putting in the malt and +the water gradually together, mashing at the same time; when the whole +of your malt is thus got in, continue the operation of mashing half an +hour, cap with dry malt, and let your mash stand one hour and a half. +Second liquor 190, mash three quarters of an hour, stand two hours; in +both mashes get your worts as fine as you can into your underbank; rub +and salt, before mashing, 30 pounds of your hops; infuse them in +boiling water before mashing, and let the vessel containing them be +close covered. The other twenty pounds of hops should have been rubbed +the evening before brewing, but not salted, put into another close +vessel, covered with boiling water, and there suffered to digest for +12 hours: at the time of putting the hops in your copper, the extract, +in both cases, is to be added; but the first 30 pounds of hops in +substance _only_ to be added; these, with the two extracts will be +sufficient for the brewing; the remaining 20 pounds of hops will answer +for single ale, or table beer, but should be used on the same day. Your +worts being now in the copper, with the hops and extract, boil hard for +one hour; after which, draw your fire, open your copper and ash-pit +doors, and so let it stand one hour, then strike off gently on your +cooler; when your worts are cooled down to 55, prepare your puncheons, +suppose four, containing four barrels each; see that they are dry, +sweet, and clean; take three pints of solid yest for each puncheon, to +which you should add three quarts of the wort at 65, mix and blend the +wort and yest together, putting this proportion to each cask, containing +four barrels, then fill up with the wort, at the heat of 55, already +mentioned; put in your tin workers, one into each puncheon, and when you +perceive it begins to work freely, which probably will not be till the +third or fourth day, begin to fill up your casks, and so continue doing +from time to time, till they have done working. (The tin worker is +described in page 139.) This mode of brewing appears to be peculiarly +adapted for shipping to warm climates; the fermentation being slowly +and coolly conducted: it is also well calculated for bottling. + +Table beer may be made, after this strong, of good quality, with cold +water, if not over drawn; 10 pound of the steeped hops will be +sufficient to preserve this beer; one hour's boiling will be enough; +ferment as already directed, and add six pounds of sugar just before +striking off, rousing, as already directed, while any remains in the +copper. + + + + +_Porter._ + + +In England, is a liquor of modern date, which has nearly superseded the +use of brown stout, and very much encroached on the consumption of +other malt liquors, till it has become the staple commodity of the +English brewery, and of such consequence to the government, in point of +revenue, that it may be fairly said to produce more than all the rest. +Porter, when well brewed, and of a proper age, is considered a +wholesome and pleasant liquor, particularly when drank out of the +bottle; a free use is made of it in the East and West Indies, where +physicians frequently recommend the use of it in preference to Madeira +wine: the following three processes are given under the denomination of +No. I., II., and III., the first and second of which I knew to be the +practice of two eminent houses in the trade. The third I cannot so +fully answer for. An essential object to attend to, in order to ensure +complete success to the porter process, is the preparation of the malt. +Directions for that purpose will be found at the end of these processes. + + + + +_Porter Process._ + +No. I. + + + MATERIALS. + + 186 Bushels of Pale Malt. + 94 Bushels of Brown Malt. + --- + 280 Bushels of Malt. + --- + 300 lb. of Hops. + 10 lb. of Gentian Root, sliced. + 10 lb. of Calamus. + 10 lb. of the essence of Gentian. + + Cleansed 121 barrels. The hops, with the other ingredients, to be + put in with the first boil, and retained in the copper by wire + strainers, or otherwise, for the succeeding worts. + +First mashing liquor 165, mash one hour, stand one hour, run down +smartly; second mash 170, mash one hour, stand one hour, run down as +before; third mash 180, mash half an hour, stand half an hour, run down +smartly; divide these three runs into two boilings, boil your first +copper as hard as you can for half an hour, the second for three hours +as hard as possible; pitch your first wort at 65 degrees, with 10 +gallons of smooth yest; pitch your second at 70 degrees, with six +gallons, both runs to mix in the same tun, as soon as the head of your +tun begins to fall and close, which will possibly happen from thirty to +forty hours, at which time it is expected the fermenting heat will rise +to 80, but in no case should it be suffered to exceed it; two pecks of +bean meal flour, with two pounds of bay salt mixed together, should be +evenly scattered over the surface of the tun, before cleansing, and +then well roused. After cleansing, this drink should be filled every +two hours, for the first twelve fillings, after which, twice a day will +be sufficient; and, in about a week after cleansing, porter so brewed, +and treated as here directed, will be glass fine, and in a week more +may be vatted. As porter is generally sent out in iron-bound hogsheads +of seventy gallons each, there should, at the time of going out, be +three half pints of finings, with as much heading mixed through the +finings at will go on a two shilling piece; this fining and heading +should be well stirred in the hogshead by means of a fining brush used +for the purpose, with a long iron handle; treated thus, porter will +fall fine in a few days. The faster draught porter is drawn off the +cask the better it will drink; for when too long, it is apt to get +flat, and sour. + + + + +_Porter Process._ + +No. II. + + + 160 Bushels of Pale Malt. + 120 Bushels of Brown Malt. + --- + 280 + --- + 350 lb. of Hops. + + Cleansed 121 Barrels of Porter. + +Heat of the first mashing liquor one hundred and seventy-two, mash one +hour, stand one hour, run down smartly; second mashing liquor one +hundred and eighty, mash one hour, stand two hours, run down as before; +third mash one hundred and sixty-four, mash half an hour, stand half an +hour, run down smartly; boil the extract of the first, with half the +extract of the second mash; boil as hard as you can for one hour and a +quarter, then strike off, retaining your hops in the copper for your +second boil, which includes half your second wort, and the whole of +your third; these should be boiled for four hours as hard as you can +make them; pitch your first wort at seventy, or so high that, when in +the tun, it will make up at sixty-four, to which give six gallons of +smooth yest; pitch your second wort at sixty-five, giving seven gallons +more of yest; when all your worts are in your tun, it should make up at +sixty-four. Thus managed, it will be fit to cleanse in thirty-six or +forty hours; the closing and falling in of the head will direct the +period of performing this operation; fill, &c., as in the foregoing +process. + + + + +_Porter Process._ + +No. III. + + + 88 Bushels of Pale Malt. + 102 lb. of Hops. + 12 Gallons of Essentia Bina, or sugar colouring. + + Cleansed twenty-seven and a half Barrels of Porter. + +First mashing liquor one hundred and sixty, mash one hour, stand one +hour; second mashing liquor one hundred and seventy, mash one hour, +stand one hour and three quarters; third mashing liquor one hundred and +seventy-five, mash half an hour, stand one hour; divide these three +runs into two equal parts, boil the first one hour, the second two +hours and a half, as hard as you can in both instances; pitch your +first wort at sixty, giving two gallons of solid yest; your second at +sixty-five, giving the same complement of yest; let your fermenting +heat rise to eighty, then cleanse, first topping your tun with two +pounds of bean meal flour, and half a pound of bay salt pounded and +mixed with the flour; fill fine, and head your porter casks, as already +directed to do with hogsheads; let your finings and heading be in that +proportion with lesser casks. + + + + +_Porter Malt._ + + +This species of malt should be made from strong, well-bodied barley, +the process exactly the same as for pale malt, until it is about half +dried on the kiln; you then change your fuel under the kiln from coak +or coal to ash or beech wood, which should be split into small handy +billets, and a fierce, strong fire kept up, so as to complete the +drying and colouring in three hours, during which time it should be +frequently turned; when the colour is found sufficiently high, it may +be thrown off; the workmen should be provided with wooden shoes, to +protect their feet from the uncommon heat of the kiln in this last part +of the process, which requires the grain to snap again from the +excessive heat of the kiln. For the better performing this part of the +process, I would recommend a wire kiln to be placed adjoining the tiled +one, from which it may be cast on the wire; this would be a better and +more certain mode of conveying the porter flavour to the malt, than if +the drying was finished on the tiled kiln. Where a wire kiln was +thought too dear, a tiled one might be made to answer. + + + + +_Porter Colouring._ + + +In modern language, is termed _essentia bina_. This is made from brown +sugar, and is now generally substituted by the London brewers for porter +malt, as more economical, and full as well calculated to answer all the +purposes of flavour and colouring. Muscovado, or raw sugar, with lime +water, are the usual ingredients of this colouring matter. Another kind, +of inferior quality, is prepared from molasses, boiled until it is +considerably darker, bitter, and of a thicker consistence; and when +judiciously made, at the close of the boiling, it is set on fire and +suffered to burn five or six minutes, then it is extinguished, and +cautiously diluted with water to the original consistence of treacle. +The burning or setting on fire gives it the greater part of its flavour, +which is an agreeable bitterness, and burns out the unassimilating oil. +Muscovado, or raw sugar, when treated in a similar manner, and diluted +to the same consistence before it sets, obtains a bitterness that more +nearly strikes the porter flavour on the palate; it is of a deep dark +colour, between black and red. To prepare it to advantage, take three +pounds, or three hundred weight of Muscovado sugar, for every two +pounds, or two hundred pounds, of essentia bina intended to be made, put +it into an iron boiler set in brick work, so that the flue for conveying +the smoke of the fire into the chimney, rises but about two thirds of +the height of the boiler in its passage to the chimney. The boiler +should have a socket or pivot in the centre of its bottom to receive the +spindle of wrought iron, with a crank in it, above the brim of the +boiler, the upper end of which turns on a corresponding pivot in an iron +bar fixed across several feet above the boiler, with a transverse iron +arm to reach from the crank for some feet over the boiler for a man to +stand, and turn it with its scraper of iron also, which works on the +bottom of the boiler to keep the sugar from burning on the bottom before +the upper part melts; this arm may be placed in a wooden handle at the +end, and held by the man, lest it become too hot for his hand. Put one +gallon of pure water into the boiler with every hundred weight of sugar +to be employed, that is, one pint to every fourteen pounds weight of +sugar, then add the sugar, light the fire, and keep it stirring until it +boils, regulating the fire so as not to suffer it to boil over; as it +begins to lessen in quantity, dip the end of the poker into it, to see +if it candies as it cools, and grows proportionably bitter to its +consistence; mark the height of the sugar in the boiler when it is all +melted, to assist in judging of its decrease; when the specimen taken +out candies, or sets hard pretty quickly, put out the fire under the +boiler, and set the vapour or smoke arising from the boiler on fire, +which will communicate to the boiling sugar, and let it burn for ten or +twelve minutes, then extinguish it with a cover ready provided for the +purpose, and faced with sheet iron, to be let down on the mouth of the +boiler with a chain or rope, so as exactly to close the boiler. + +As soon as it is extinguished, cautiously add _strong lime water_ by a +little at a time, working the iron stirrer well all the time the water +is adding, so as to mix and dilute it all alike to the consistence of +treacle; before it sets in the boiler, which it would do, as the heat +declined, in a manner that would give a great deal of trouble to dilute +it after, and be imperfectly done then, it is easy to conceive this kind +of work requires to be done in an open place, or out-house, to prevent +accidents from fire. If the _essentia bina_ is neither burned too little +nor too much, it is a rich, high-flavoured, grateful bitter, that +preserves and gives an inimitable flavour and good face to porter; to +be added in proportion as the nature and composition of the grist is +varied with a greater or less proportion of pale malt. _To convert old +hock into brown stout_, it will take three pounds of _essentia bina_ of +middling or ordinary kind, and but two pounds of the best made from +Muscovado raw sugar as directed, it should weigh ten pounds to the +gallon. The _essentia bina_ should be mixed with some finings, and +roused into the tun soon after the yesty head gathers pretty strong, in +order to undergo the decomposing power of fermentation, part of it being +prone to float on the surface of the beer under the form of a flying +lee. When employed in the usual way of colour, with this precaution, the +colouring and preserving parts unite with the beer, and the gross charry +parts precipitate with the lees, and other feculencies in the tun, +previous to cleansing, adding a firm and keeping quality to the beer. +Lime water for diluting the burnt sugar, in the proportion of _essentia +bina_: thirty pounds of lime will make one puncheon, or one hundred and +twenty gallons of lime water: put fresh lime from the kiln, previously +slaked into coarse powder, into an airtight cask, gradually add the +water, stirring up the lime to expose a fresh surface to the solvent +powers of the water, which will rarely dissolve more than one ounce troy +weight in the gallon, or retain so much when kept ever so closely +excluded from the external air. If Roche lime was first grossly pounded, +and slaked in the cask, the lime water might be made still stronger; the +reason for directing the water to be slowly and cautiously added at the +first, is for the more conveniently mixing the lime with the water, +which otherwise would not be properly wet. Do not fill the vessel within +a few gallons of the bung-hole, that it may be rolled over and over with +effect, fifteen or twenty different times before left to settle, in +order to have the water fully saturated with the lime; when settled it +should be perfectly clear. It is important, as well at necessary to +state, that when the lime water is about to be added to the _essentia +bina_ in the kettle, it should be hot, otherwise there would be danger +of cracking the cast iron, of which the kettle is composed, as well as +causing a partial explosion and waste of the sugar when coming in +contact with the cold medium of the lime water; this precaution should +be carefully attended to. + + + + +_Strong Beer._ + + +Process for brewing strong beer, alleged to be the practice in +Switzerland, by which it is asserted that an excellent and preserving +beer will be produced. I would recommend a small experiment to be made +at first, in order to establish its character and success on a more +extended scale. At a first view, there appears to be one serious +objection to this process, and that is, that it requires but a small +quantity of oily or fatty matter to destroy the fermentation of any +guile of beer. In answer, it may perhaps be truly said, that the +precaution of skimming off the fatty matter, as it rises on the surface +of this beer while in the copper, as well as the time allowed it there +to settle, also, its straining through the hops before getting on the +cooler, gives another chance to deposite this matter in the hops, if +any should remain in the copper after the skimming off. + + PROCESS AS FOLLOWS: + + 60 Bushels of Pale Barley Malt. + 20 Bushels of Pale Wheat Malt. + --- + 80 Bushels. + --- + 170 lb. of the best Hops, to be rubbed, salted, and steeped in + one or more close vessels before mashing, or the evening + before brewing, still better. + 54 lb. of lean Beef to be put into the copper with the worts, + this will average two pounds to the barrel. + 7 lb. of Rice, also, to be put in with the Beef. + 1 lb. of ground Mustard to be put in with the Hops. + + Cleansed 27 Barrels. + +These worts are to be boiled one hour without the hops, in order to +afford the greater facility of skimming the fat off the surface. After +they have boiled the first half hour, the fire is damped, the boil left +to subside, and the copper to be then carefully skimmed. (This points +out the necessity of an open copper for this operation.) After which, +the fire is started again, and the worts made to boil another half hour, +and skimmed a second time in the same way; after which the hops and +mustard are added with three gallons of the _essentia bina_, and then +boiled for one hour and a half, as hard as the copper will allow without +boiling over or wasting; the fire is then drawn, ash-pit and copper +doors left open, the copper covered, and suffered to stand two hours, +then struck off on the hop back. The temperature of the external air at +the time you brew this quality of beer should not be higher than fifty +degrees. Your first, or mashing liquor, should boil, then run your whole +complement into your mash tun, which when cooled down to one hundred and +sixty-five, begin putting in your malt, one sack at a time, and mash for +one hour and a quarter, stand one hour, run down as fine as you can, yet +smartly; second mash one hundred and eighty-five, need not boil, but +when brought to that heat in your copper, begin mashing, and mash well +for three quarters of an hour, stand two hours; boil, skim, and hop, as +already directed. It is to be understood that the produce of these two +mashes are to be boiled together, forming a clear length, when cleansed, +of twenty-seven barrels; pitch your worts at sixty, previously mixing in +a tub, fifteen gallons of your wort at seventy, with one gallon of solid +yest, some time before pitching, which will give it time to catch before +adding to the remainder of the wort. Twelve hours after another gallon +of pure yest is to be added, and the tun well roused, then covered; the +attenuation suffered to proceed to eighty degrees, _but not higher_. +This mode of pitching worts might be successfully applied to other +qualities of beer and ale, and will be found a safe and good process. + + + + +_Filtering Operation._ + +(With a Plate.) + +[Illustration + +A The fountain. +B B The cocks. +C The trunk communicating with the space between the two bottoms. +D The filtering tub. +E The false bottom. +F The spout for carrying off the ascending liquor. +G The receiver of the filtered liquor by ascent. +H The receiver of the filtered liquor by descent.] + + +This simple operation, if my view of its effects on malt liquors, as +well as other fermented liquors, be correct, will do more towards their +improvement and preservation, than any thing hitherto attempted to be +tried on them, after their fermentation has been completed; and for +this plain reason, that it will at once disengage them from all +fermentable matter, and render them transparently fine and preserving; +thus immediately fitting them for the bottle, or putting up into tight +casks, for home consumption or exportation, which will soon recover the +beer or ale so treated from the flatness that will necessarily be +induced by a long exposure to the air during the continuance of the +operation; further to remedy which, I would recommend putting into each +barrel, before the cask is filled with this beer, half a pound of +ground rice, then fill, bung down tight, and in a short time briskness +and activity will be restored to the liquor, whether intended for draft +or bottle. This mode might, with equal success, be applied to every +kind of fermented liquor, particularly to cider, wine, and perry, also +to river and rain water. There are two modes of filtration, one by +descent, the other by ascent; the latter operation seems to be the most +perfect, though not the most economical or expeditious. + +The preparation of the filtering medium is as follows. Your filtering +vessel should be in proportion to the scale of work you intend +operating on. The vessel containing the filter, should have the form +somewhat of an inverted cone, in proportion wider at top than at +bottom; over the bottom of this vessel should be placed a false one, +about three or four inches distant from the other; this upper bottom +should be perforated with holes, rather large bored, at the angles of +every square inch of its surface; your fake bottom being laid, provide +two pieces of clean thick blanketing the full size of the vessel, lay +these pieces one over the other, over them a stratum six inches deep, +of rather coarsely pounded charcoal; this should be previously wetted +with some of the beer or ale, till brought to the consistence of coarse +mortar; over this lay another stratum of fine clean pit sand, and so +on, stratum super stratum, of sand and charcoal, till you have reached +within six inches of the top; the cover of this vessel, which is also +perforated with holes somewhat smaller than those of the bottom, is let +down in the vessel to within one inch of the filtering medium, and in +that position is well secured by buttons, or otherwise. When you filter +by descent, you run your liquor over this cover, which, by means of the +holes, will be distributed evenly over the upper surface of the filter; +and so you continue running on your liquor as fast as you see the +operation will take it. + +When you wish to filter by ascent, you introduce the liquor to be +filtered between the two bottoms. As the fountain which supplies this +liquor is higher than the filtering vessel, it will naturally force its +way through the false bottom, filtering medium, &c., until it runs off +pure at spout F into the receiver G. Those persons who live on the +banks, or in the vicinity of our great rivers, such as the Missouri, +Ohio, Mississippi, &c., may purify their drinking water in this way, +with great advantage to their health, and consequent increase of +comfort to themselves and families. It is also well adapted to the use +of those who navigate these waters, particularly such as proceed in +steam-boats, where convenient room can be always found for such useful +and salutary purposes, and to them I strongly recommend its use. It may +also be advantageously applied to filtering rain water, which, to some +constitutions, may be more congenial than either spring or river water. + + + + +_Returned Beer, to make the most of, and double its value._ + + +Suppose, for example, you have one hundred and fifty barrels of this +beer, (or in that proportion, adjust your mixing ingredients +accordingly,) put the whole into one vat that it will fill; then take +half a barrel of colouring, twenty-eight pounds cream of tartar, +twenty-eight pounds of ground alum, one pound of salt of steel, +otherwise called green copperas, with two barrels of strong finings; +mix these ingredients well together, put them into your vat, and rouse +well; after which, let the vat remain open for three days; then shut +down the scuttle close, and sand it over; in one fortnight it will be +fit for use; your own good sense will then direct its application. + + + + +_To bring several sorts of Beer which have been mixed to one uniform +taste._ + + +EXAMPLE. + +Suppose you have one hundred barrels of this description in your vat; +take six pounds of porter extract, six pounds of orange peel, ground, +one pound of heading, composed of half a pound of alum, with half a +pound of green copperas mixed, six pounds of Indian bark; mix these +ingredients with one butt of finings, rouse your vat well, let it +remain open three days, then close down your vat, and sand it over; it +will be fit in one fortnight to use. + + + + +_Finings, the best method of preparing them._ + + +A very important object indeed, is finings in the management of porter +and brown beers, and sometimes the paler kinds need their agency before +they will become transparently fine: without this quality no beer can +be acceptable to the consumer, and should be always a particular aim of +the brewers to obtain. Take five pounds of isinglass, beat each piece +in succession on a stone or iron weight, until you find you can +conveniently shred it into small pieces, and so treat every piece until +you have got through the whole; thus shredded, steep it in sour porter +or strong beer that is very fine, then set the beer and the isinglass +on the fire, and there let it remain till you raise the heat to one +hundred and ninety, but no higher, keeping it, while on the fire, +constantly stirring; then have your hogshead of clear beer ready, +strain your dissolved isinglass through a hair sieve into it, which you +must take care to mix well; thus assimilated it will be fit for use in +twelve hours. + +It is worth remarking, that at the time of sending out porter or brown +beer to your customers is the time to put in both your fining and +heading, the jolting it then gets in the carriage will assist its +fining more effectually, after it has rested a few days in the +customer's cellar. + + + + +_Heading._ + + +Is variously composed, and differently prepared; what is here +recommended will be found safe and effectual. Porter, or brown stout, +when intended for draught, should never be sent out in the cask without +fining and heading; the usual practice is to put your heading into your +fining, and so both into the cask just before filling up and bunging +down. The proportion for one hogshead of sixty-three gallons is three +half pints of fining, with as much heading put into the fining as you +can take up upon a cent piece; the heading here recommended is composed +of equal parts of sal martus (or green copperas) and alum, both finely +powdered and mixed in equal parts, so as to be intimately blended with +each other before using. The advantages derivable from heading are +merely apparent, giving a close frothy head to the beer in the quart or +mug it is drawn in; supporting the vulgar prejudice, that such beer is +better and stronger than that where no such appearance manifests +itself. + + + + +_Bottling Beer._ + + +This is a branch of trade, that, under proper management, might be made +very productive and profitable, whereas, in the manner it is now +generally conducted, proves a losing one, occasioned by the great +breakage of bottles, arising from the impure state of the beer at the +time of putting into bottle. In consequence of this bad management, I +have known a person, extensive in the trade, to lose on an average from +two to three dozen bottles, as well as beer, on every hogshead he put +up which happened to lie over till summer, or was bottled in that +season; this loss was too heavy to expect much profit from a business +so conducted; to obviate both these consequences, I would recommend +beer, ale, and porter, intended for the bottle, to be carefully +filtered through charcoal and sand, as directed in the operation of +filtering; being thus purified from all its feculencies and fermentable +matter, it will be in the best possible state for taking the bottle, in +that mild and gentle way that will not endanger the loss of one or the +other. It will further have the good effect of recovering the beer or +ale, thus filtered, from the flatness that will necessarily be induced +by that operation, giving the liquor all the briskness and activity +that can be wished for. If beer, porter, or ale, be intended for +exportation to a warmer climate than our own, the operation will be +found particularly suited to it. Choose your corks of the best quality, +and steep them in pure strong spirit from the evening before you begin +your bottling operation; this precaution is essentially necessary to +all beer intended to be shipped, or sent off to a warmer climate than +our own, such as the East and West Indies, South America, &c. In more +temperate climes, the simple precaution of filtering alone will be +found to answer every necessary purpose, without steeping the corks in +spirits. But suppose you bottle for home consumption, in that case you +will naturally wish to have your beer, ale, and porter, get up in the +bottle in as short a space of time as possible, in that case you should +pack away your bottles in dry straw in summer, in sawdust in winter, as +your object at that season will naturally be rather to accelerate than +retard fermentation; here you should carefully watch its progress from +day to day, by drawing a bottle from the centre of the heap, as nearly +as you can get at it; place this bottle between you and the light, and +if you perceive a chain of small bubbles in the neck of the bottle, +immediately under the cork, you may conclude your beer is up in the +bottle, then draw a few more bottles, and if the same appearance +continues in them also, it is time to draw all your bottles from the +heap they were originally packed in, and set them on their bottoms in a +square frame ten inches deep, size optional; fill up this frame with +the bottles of porter, or ale, so drawn in a ripe state, then get one +or more bushels of bay salt, and scatter it as evenly as you can over +the bottles, until the space between their necks is nearly half filled; +then another course of bottles may be sunk between these, with their +necks down through the salt, so as to form an upper tier; thus treated, +not a single bottle will be found to break from the force of +fermentation, and the salt will answer for a fresh supply of bottles, +as often as you may find it necessary to draw, or send them out, this +quantity will answer your purpose for years, if you only keep it dry; +another advantage, and no small one, derivable from a bottling +operation conducted in this way, will be, that a loft will be found +more convenient for the purpose than a ground floor, as less damp, and +more likely to preserve the salt dry, which a more moist atmosphere +would naturally dissolve. The practice here recommended may, with equal +success, be applied to cider and perry. + + + + +_Brewing Coppers, the best method of setting them._ + + +This article, at a first view, may not appear to have much connexion +with brewing, but, when attentively considered, it has a very material +one, as also with economy, by saving nearly one half the fuel. It is a +well-known fact in brewing, that the quicker and stronger the operation +of boiling is performed, the better such beer will preserve, and the +sooner it will become fine; although this opinion is combated by many, +experience has proved it in my practice. I will suppose the copper you +are about to set to contain two thousand gallons, the diameter of its +bottom, five feet; let your fire blocks, if possible, be of soapstone, +one for each side, and one for the end, of sufficient thickness and +length, and full twelve inches deep, to the top of your sleepers; three +courses of brick, sloped off from the top of the fire stone, with the +usual quantity of mortar, and plastered over, will afford sufficient +elevation for the fire to act on the bottom of the copper, leaving a +space of about eighteen or twenty inches from the bottom to the top of +the sleepers; the breadth of the fireplace need not exceed twenty-six +inches. When the copper is about to be placed on the blocks, by +swinging, or otherwise, three feet of the bottom of the copper should +be on one side from the centre of the furnace, and but two feet on the +other; I would have but one flue or entrance for the fire to round this +copper, which flue should be placed on the three feet side, twenty-four +inches long at the mouth; distance of the brick work from the copper, +six inches, to narrow to five at the closing; the first closing to be +three feet high on the side of the copper; the second closing, to be +two feet above that, leaving twenty-one inches clear flue, allowing +three inches for the thickness of the brick and mortar; the throat of +the first flue, leading into the second; twenty-four inches distance of +upper flue from the copper, five inches closing into four and a half +inches at top. A short distance above the top of your copper should be +placed an iron register to regulate the fire, so contrived as to be +handily worked backward and forward by the brewer, or the man tending +the fire, as circumstances may direct. The furnace door should be in +two parts, one to hang on each side of the frame, and so lap over a +small round hole, with a sliding shut to it, should be fixed in one of +these doors, to admit the iron slicer to stir the fire. The clear of +the furnace frame need not exceed sixteen inches high, by eighteen +inches wide. A copper so set and proportioned, by being kept close +covered at top, might be expected to boil cold water in one hour and +fifteen minutes, perhaps in one hour, and that with a great saving of +fuel compared with the same sized copper set in the ordinary way. + + + + +_Pumps, the best and most economical construction, also the most +effectual, and least liable to fail or get out of order; how best +treated in cold weather to prevent freezing, or when frozen to remove +the inconvenience._ + + +Freezing often retards the brewer's operations, and gives him +considerable trouble and delay. To obviate these inconveniences, I +would recommend having the rod of wood, instead of iron, so long as to +work in a brass chamber, two feet above the lower box; if the pump be +long, the rod may be made with joints of iron, and keys properly made, +so as to have it in two, three, or four pieces, capable of being taken +asunder; suppose the diameter of your chamber to be six inches, I would +have the diameter of the rod five inches, which, being so much lighter +than the column of water it displaces, will make the stroke +comparatively light and easy to the horse, and not near so great a +strain on the pump, delivering as much water or wort, it is expected, +as will be found necessary for all the purposes of a brewery. But +should it so happen, that any deficiency is found in the quantity of +water and wort so delivered, it is only necessary to reduce the +diameter of the wooden rod, from one quarter to half an inch more, and +this will proportionably augment the quantity of water and wort +delivered at each stroke. The water pumps, which in winter are exposed +to the effects of the external air, should have a casing round them of +boards from the level of the ground to half their height above it, +which casing should be stuffed with dry hay, straw, or shavings, and +well rammed; this casing should be water-tight round the pump, at the +top, and a cock placed over it on one side of the pump, to let off the +standing water; then stuff the mouth of the pump with hay or straw, and +so treated the remaining water in the pump will never freeze in the +coldest winter. + +But where these precautions have not been taken, and the charge in your +pump becomes frozen, and you wish to clear it, get one quart of bay +salt, throw it into your pump, stop the mouth of it at the top, and in +the course of a few hours the salt will have dissolved the ice in your +pump, and you may go to work; this is much more effectual and less +troublesome than using hot water, which must be repeated in great +quantities before it will produce its effect. + + + + +_Cleansing Casks._ + + +Trifling and simple as this operation may appear, it is still one that +is highly important to the brewer, and requires minute and constant +attention. Burning and steaming casks seems to be two most effectual +modes of accomplishing this important object. If your casks have been +long in use, and thereby contracted any musty or bad smell, the best +way is to open them; wash them well out with boiling water; set them to +dry, and then fire them, after which, they may be washed out again with +hot water, and, when dry, headed for use; every cask after emptying, +that is not perfectly sweet, should be treated in this way, +particularly when intended for stock or keeping beer. New casks that +have never been used, are best prepared by steaming them, and a small +boiler, containing from sixty to one hundred gallons will be best +suited to this purpose. If you have tin pipes communicating from one +cask to another, you can steam four or five at a time, and the work +goes on expeditiously. Fresh emptied small beer, and single-ale casks, +can be sufficiently cleansed by chaining them; after which, rincing +them out with hot water will be found a sufficient cleansing for such +casks, as they are generally but a short time on draught. The operation +of chaining casks is performed by putting into them, with boiling +water, a small iron chain, two or three yards long, and then tossing +your cask several times round and round so as to get the chain to rub, +and act upon every part of the inside head, &c., this will take off the +yest, &c. The smoother and evener all brewers' casks are made on their +inside the better, as they are thereby the more easily cleaned. Every +brewer should be particular in recommending to his customers carefully +to cork up every cask as drawn off--by this simple precaution they will +be preserved sweet for months, while the neglect of it will cause them +to get foul in a short time, to the great increase of trouble and +expense to the brewer before he can sufficiently purify them. It is +also a necessary precaution to keep casks, when brought home, from the +action of the sun and weather, by placing them under proper sheds; +where casks are supposed to occupy one fifth of the brewer's active +capital, they should at all times be carefully looked after. + + + + +_The following processes are given principally for the use of gentlemen +farmers, housekeepers, and others, who may occasionally wish, as well as +find their account, in brewing their Mead or Metheglin._ + + +THE PROCESS. + +For every pipe of mead allow one hundred and sixty-eight pounds of +honey. On a small scale, take ten gallons of water, two gallons of +honey, with a handful of raced ginger, and two lemons, cut them in +slices, and put them, with the honey and ginger, into the water, boil +for half an hour, carefully skimming all the time; use a strong +ferment, and attenuate high, not under seventy-eight; in the boiling +add two ounces of hops to the above ten gallons of water and two +gallons of honey. In about three weeks, or one month, after cleansing +and working off, this mead will be fit to bottle. This liquor, when +thus made, is wholesome and pleasant, and little, if any, inferior to +the best white wines. It is particularly grateful in summer, when drank +mixed with water. + + + + +_Ginger Wine._ + + +Take sixteen quarts of water, boil it, add one pound of bruised ginger, +infuse it in the water for forty-eight hours, placed in a cask in some +warm situation; after which time strain off this liquor, add to it +eight pounds of lump sugar, seven quarts of brandy, the juice of twelve +lemons, and the rinds of as many Seville oranges; cut them, steep the +fruit, and the rinds of the oranges, for twelve hours in the brandy, +strain your brandy, add it to your other ingredients, bung up your +cask, and in three or four weeks it will be fine; if it should not, a +little dissolved isinglass will soon make it so. + + + + +_Currant Wine._ + + +Take five gallons of currant juice, and put it into a ten gallon cask, +with twenty pounds of Havanna, or lump sugar, fill the cask with water, +let it ferment, with the bung out, for some days; as it wastes fill up +with water; when done working, bung down; and in two or three months +after it will be fit for use: two quarts of French brandy added, after +the fermentation ceases, would improve the liquor, and communicate to +it a preserving quality. Wine may be made from strawberries, +raspberries, and cherries in the same way. + + + + +_Yest, how prepared, so as to preserve sweet and good in any +climate._ + + +This operation, I apprehend, however simple it may appear, will have +very important consequences, whether we consider it as a medicine (and +in putrid fevers there is, perhaps, no better known) or a ferment. It +will be well worth the attention of the physician, the brewer, the +distiller, the merchant, and the housekeeper, whether resident in the +temperate, or in the torrid zone. + +Mr. Felton Mathew, merchant in London, obtained a patent for the +above-mentioned object, which may be found in the Repertory of Arts, +vol. V. page 73. Mr. Mathew used a press with a lever, the bottom made +with stout deal or oak timber, fit for the purpose, raised with strong +feet a convenient distance from the ground, so as to admit the beer to +run off into whatever is prepared to receive it; into the back of it is +let a strong piece of timber, or any other fit material, to secure one +end of the lever, the top of which should work on an iron bolt or pin; +when the lever is thus prepared, get your yest into hair-cloth bags, +or, if not conveniently had, into coarse canvas bags; when filled, tie +them securely at the mouth, and place one bag at a time in a trough of +a proper size with a false bottom full of holes, on this bottom should +be placed an oblong perforated shape, about the form of a brick mould; +in this oblong shape or box, without either bottom or top, is placed +the bag containing the yest, on which the press is let down, and +gradually forced, as the beer exudes, or gradually runs off; when no +more liquid runs from the shape, the press is taken off, and the bag +opened, its contents taken out, which will crumble to pieces; in this +state it should be thinly spread on canvass, previously stretched in +frames, which will permit the heated air of the kiln to pass through it +in all directions, and thus gradually finish the process to perfect +dryness, which will be completely effected by ninety degrees of heat: +at the commencement of the drying, it would be proper to pass the edge +of a board over each frame, in order to reduce the lumps of yest, and +thereby make them as small as possible. When completely dry, put it +into tight casks or bottles so as to exclude air and moisture: thus +secured, it will preserve good as long as wanted in any climate, and be +found a valuable article of domestic economy, as well as medicine. When +to be used, the necessary quantity should be dissolved in a little warm +water, at the temperature of from eighty to ninety degrees of heat, +with the addition of a proportionate quantity of sugar; the addition of +sugar is only recommended when used to raise bread, but not when given +as medicine; in the opinions of several intelligent men, this is +considered the simplest and most effectual method of preserving yest, +and, as such, is hereby strongly recommended. + + + + +_To make a substitute for Brewer's Yest._ + + +Take six pounds of ground malt, and three gallons of boiling water, +mash them together well, cover the mixture, and let it stand three +hours, then draw off the liquor, and put two pounds of brown sugar to +each gallon, stirring it well till the sugar is dissolved, then put it +in a cask just large enough to contain it, covering the bung hole with +brown paper; keep this cask in a temperature of ninety-eight degrees. +Prepare the same quantity of malt and boiling water as before, but +without sugar, then mix all together, and add one quart of yest; let +your cask stand open for forty-eight hours, and it will be fit for use. +The quart of yest should not be added to these two extracts at a higher +heat than eighty degrees. + + + + +_Another method to make twenty-six gallons of the substitute._ + + +Put twenty-six ounces of hops to as many gallons of water, boil it for +two hours, or until you reduce the liquor to sixteen gallons; add malt +and sugar in the proportion before mentioned, and mash your malt at the +heat of one hundred and ninety degrees; let it stand two hours and a +half, then strain it off, and add to the malt ten gallons more of water +at the same degree of heat, and mash a second time; let it stand two +hours, then strain it off as before; when your first mash is blood +heat, or ninety-eight, put to it one gallon of the preceding +substitute, mix it well, and let it stand ten hours; then take the +produce of the second mash, and add it, at ninety-eight, to the rest, +mix it well, and let it stand six hours, it will be then fit for use in +the same manner, and for the same purposes as brewer's yest is applied; +the advantages alleged in favour of this method are, that it will keep +sweet and good longer than brewer's yest, and in any reason or +temperature be fit for use. + + + + +_Brewer's Yest._ + + +May be generated in the following way: Take one pound of leaven, made +with wheaten flour, such as the French generally use to raise their +bread, dilute the pound of leaven with water or wort, the latter to +choose at ninety degrees of heat, add it to your wort at the heat of +sixty-five, supposing your barrel to be filled with wort at this heat; +then add your leaven, diluted as mentioned, until your cask be full; to +effect which, with less waste and more certainty, it may be better to +put into your barrel the diluted leaven first, then fill up with wort +at the temperature mentioned; after a day or two the beer will begin to +work out yest, and will serve as a ferment for another brewing; thus, +after three or four brewings, your yest will become so improved that it +will be nearly equal to any brewer's yest, and the experiment in +certain situations is well worth trying, when a proper ferment is +wanted and cannot be otherwise procured. + + + + +_Process for making and preparing Claret Wine for shipping; without +which preparation such wines are considered unfit for exportation, +being in its natural state about the strength of our common Cider._ + + +Claret wine, before the French revolution, was the staple article of +export from the great commercial City of Bordeaux, to every part of +Europe. And, it may be presumed, will soon again reassume its wanted +importance. The vintage generally begins, for making this sort of wine, +about the middle or latter end of September, and is generally finished +in all the month of October. The mode by which the juice is expressed +from the grape, is by the workmen trampling them with their bare feet in +a large reservoir or cooler, (not the cleanest operation in the world,) +which has an inclination to the point where the spout or spouts are +placed for taking off the expressed juice, which is conveyed to large +open vats, that are thus filled with this juice to within ten or twelve +inches of the upper edge; this space is left to make room for the +fermentation, which spontaneously takes place in this liquor. After the +first fermentation is over, and the wine begins to purify itself, which +is ascertained by means of a small cock placed in the side of the vat, +and takes place generally by the middle of February, or beginning of +March, in the following year; it is then racked off into hogsheads, +carefully cleansed, and a match of sulphur burned in each cask before +filling; when thus racked off, it is bunged up, and immediately bought +up by brokers for the Bordeaux merchants, and here it is made to undergo +the second or finishing fermentation, in the following manner: It may be +proper here to remark, that claret wine is generally divided into three +growths, first, second, and third; the first growths, namely, Latour, +Lafeet, and Chateaux Margo, are uniformly rented for a term of years, at +a given price, to English merchants, through whom, or their agents +_only_ is there a possibility of procuring any portion of this wine. The +second growths are shipped to the different markets of Europe, North and +South America; and the third growth principally to Holland and Hamburgh. +In order to strengthen the natural body of claret wine, and to render it +capable of bearing the transition of the sea, the first and second +growths are allowed from ten to fifteen gallons of good Alicant wine to +every hogshead, with one quart of stum.[8] The casks are then filled up +and bunged down. They are then ranged three tier high from one end of +the cellar to the other, each tier about eighteen inches, with two +stanchions of stout pine plank, firmly placed between the heads of each +hogshead, from one end of the cellar to the other, until they have +reached, and are supported by, the end walls of the building. This +precaution is necessary to guard against the force of fermentation, +which is often so strong as to burst out the heads of the hogsheads, +notwithstanding the precautions taken to secure them in the situation +during the summer heats. The wine cooper, who has the charge of these +wines, regularly visits them twice a day, morning and evening, in order +to see the condition of the casks, and when he finds the fermentation +too strong, he gives vent, and thus prevents the bursting of the casks. +The third, or inferior growth, is exactly treated in same way, with the +single exception of having Benicarlo wine substituted for Alicant in +preparing them for their second fermentation, as cheaper and better +suited to their quality; both these wines are of Spanish growth, and +brought to Bordeaux by the canal of Languedoc: they are naturally of a +much stronger body than native claret. Thus mixed and fermented, the +claret becomes fortified, and rendered capable of bearing the transition +of seas and climates. About the latter end of September, or beginning of +October, the fermentation of these wines begins to slacken, and they +gradually become fine; in this state they are racked off into fresh +hogsheads carefully cleansed, and a match of sulphur burned in each +before filling. After this operation, they are suffered to remain +undisturbed (save that they are occasionally ullaged,) till about to be +shipped, when they are racked off a second time, and fined down with the +white of ten eggs to each hogshead; these whites are well beat up +together with a small handful of white salt; after this fining, when +rested, the hogsheads are filled up again with pure wine, and then +carefully bunged down with wooden bungs, surrounded with clean linen to +prevent leaking; in this state the wines are immediately shipped. Here +it may be proper to state, that the lees that remain on the different +hogsheads that have been racked off, are collected and put into pipes of +one hundred and forty, or one hundred and fifty gallons each, and this +lee wine, as it is termed, is fined down again with a proportionate +number of eggs and salt. After which, it is generally shipped off as +third growth, or used at table mixed with water. If at any time +hereafter the method herein given of making and preparing claret wine +for shipping, as practised in Bordeaux and its neighbourhood, should +be applied to the red wines of this country, particularly those of +Kaskaskias; it may be proper here to give a description of the mode in +which these wines are racked, which will be found simple, effectual, and +expeditious; I mean for the lower or ground tiers. The upper, or more +elevated ones, rack themselves, without coercion of any kind. When you +are about to rack a hogshead of wine upon the ground tier, you place +your empty hogshead close to the full one, in which you then put your +brass racking cock; on the nozzle of which cock you tie on a leather +hose, which is generally from three to four feet long; on the other +end of this hose is a brass pipe, the size of the tap hole, with a +projecting shoulder towards the hose to facilitate knocking in this pipe +into the empty hogshead, which is then removed a sufficient distance +from the full hogshead in order to stretch the hose, now communicating +with both. The cock is then turned, and the wine soon finds its level in +the empty hogshead; then a large sized bellows, with an angular nozzle, +and sharp iron feet towards the handle, which feet are forced down into +the hoops of the cask on which it rests, in order to keep this bellows +stationary, whilst the nozzle is hammered in tight at the bung hole of +the racking hogshead; the bellows is then worked by one man, and in +about five minutes the racking of the hogshead is completed. The +pressure of the air introduced into the hogshead, by the bellows, acts +so forcibly on the surface of the liquor, that it requires but a few +minutes to finish the operation; when the cock is stopped, the hose +taken off, and a new operation commences. This mode may possibly, in +some cases, be advantageously applied to racking off beer, ale, and +cider. + + [8] Stum is a certain quantity of white wine, strongly impregnated + with sulphur. The mode of preparing it is as follows: A hogshead + half filled with good white wine, or what is termed in French _vin + de grave_; from fifteen to twenty long matches of sulphur are + successively burned to this hogshead, with the bunghole closed. + After this operation, the white wine becomes so impregnated with + sulphur, that it has acquired all its taste and flavour, and is + thus used as a ferment. + + + + +_Brewing Company._ + + +It is obvious to very slight observation, that the day is not distant +when the brewing trade in this country will, as in England, become an +object of great national importance, highly deserving the protection +and encouragement of our general government, by freeing its produce +from all duty, and thereby affording further inducements to the +speculating and enterprising capitalists of this country to embark +their funds in a trade that, above all others, is the best calculated +to make them a sure and profitable return. In addition to the pleasing +consideration that they are thereby combating and putting down the +greatest immorality our country is chargeable with, namely, the too +great use of ardent spirits, substituting in their place a wholesome +and invigorating beverage. The person, therefore, whoever he may be, +who contributes his money, or his talents, to this useful and moral +purpose, deserves to rank high among the best friends of his country. + +Under these impressions it is that I beg leave to recommend to my +fellow citizens the immediate establishment of a brewing company, with +a capital of from thirty to forty thousand dollars, to be subscribed +for in shares the most likely to be made up. With either of these sums +a handsome beginning could be made, and the profits would in a few +years encourage and justify enlargement to any prudent extent that +could be reasonably wished for or required. In proof of the correctness +of this opinion, I will beg leave to state a fact that has happened in +my own time. When the mercantile house of Beamish & Crawford, of Cork, +erected a porter brewery in that city, about twenty-five years ago, +that establishment was the first of the kind in that town, and then +stood alone, and notwithstanding that many large and rich ones in the +same business have since been added, the original company have so +progressed in fame and fortune, as to be now considered one of the +first-rate breweries in Europe; and by the improved quality of their +porter have, in a great degree, excluded the English from the West +India market, their porter getting the preference there, as well as in +Bristol and Liverpool, to which places large quantities are annually +sent by that company. How much stronger inducements have we to form +similar establishments in this country, where our excise on brewery +produce bears no sort of proportion with that paid in England, and does +not here exceed five per cent. on brewery sales. This being a war tax, +it may be presumed it will not continue long. Our capacity to raise +barley and hops, in as high perfection as in any part of Europe, is +acknowledged; all then that is wanting is encouragement; afford this to +our farmers, and they will soon convince you that no assertion is +better founded. If so, the sooner a company of this description is +formed the better for those who may be concerned; and for this plain +reason, that notwithstanding the enormous excise chargeable on the raw +materials and produce of the brewery in England, large fortunes have +been, and are daily accumulating in that country by the judicious +exercise of the brewing trade, as will appear by the following +statement of the quantity of porter alone (beside other malt liquors) +brewed by the twelve first breweries in London, in one year, ending 5th +of July, 1810. + + _Barrels of Porter._ + Barclay, Perkins & Co. 235,053 + Read, Mecar & Co. 211,009 + Trueman & Hanbury. 144,990 + Felix, Calvert & Co. 133,493 + Whitebread & Co. 110,939 + Amery, Meux & Co. 93,660 + Combe & Co. 85,150 + Brown & Perry. 84,475 + Godwin, Skinner & Co. 74,223 + Elliot & Co. 57,851 + Taylor. 54,510 + Cloyer & Co. 41,590 + --------- + Total quantity of Barrels of Porter, 1,326,943 + + * * * * * + +NOTICE. + +The author informs those persons who may feel disposed to engage in +the brewing and malting trades, that he can furnish them with ground +plans, and sections of elevation, both of breweries and malt houses, +on different scales, whether intended to be erected together, or +separately, as will be found to unite, economy, convenience, and +effect, joined to a considerable saving to those who are not +themselves judges of such erections, or how they should be disposed. +An experience of twenty-five years in both businesses, accompanied by +a diligent and attentive practice, justifies these assertions. + +His terms will be found reasonable, and all letters (post paid) +addressed to Joseph Coppinger, 193 Duane-street, New-York, will +receive attention. + +A few copies of this work may be had by applying as above; but any +number may be had at 45 John-street. + + + + +TANNING. + + +The following is the French mode of tanning all kinds of leather in a +short time, highly important to the manufacturers of leather in this +country, as it points out a secure and profitable mode of turning their +capital twelve or thirteen times in a year, instead of once. + + + + +_Washing Hides._ + +The best method of washing hides is to stretch them in a frame, and +place them, thus stretched, in running water. If running water cannot +be conveniently had, still water can be made to answer by frequent +stirrings and agitations; the remainder of the operation of cleansing +is performed as in the common way. + + + + +_On taking off the Hair._ + + +Begin by shaking some lime in a pit, to which put a great quantity of +water, then stir this water well, that it may become saturated with the +lime, then place your hides in the pit perpendicularly; for this +purpose, several wooden poles should be fixed across the pit; to these +poles the hides are to be fastened with strings at proper distances, +each hide being first cut in two; whilst the hides were thus placed in +the lime water, the lime itself, which had deposited on the bottom of +the pit, was frequently stirred up to increase the strength of the +water, and to make it more operative; the hair thus treated, will, in +about eight days, come off the hide with great ease. A shorter and a +better method may effect this purpose in two days; that is, to plunge +the hides, after being washed and cleaned, into a solution of tan, +which (having been already used) contains no longer any of the tanning +principle, mixed with a five hundredth, or even a thousandth part of +the oil of vitriol, commonly called sulphuric acid; this operation not +only takes off the hair, but raises and swells the hide; as, in the old +way, is generally effected by barley sourings. However, further +swelling and raising is necessary, and the hides should again be +plunged in another quantity of spent tan-water mixed with the one +thousandth part of the oil of vitriol, and thus steeped a second time; +their swelling and raising will be completed in about forty-eight +hours; after this operation the hides will acquire a yellow colour, +even to the interior part of their substance. To determine if the +swelling and raising be sufficiently completed, let one of the corners +of the hide be cut, and if it is in a proper state there will not +appear any white streak in the middle, but the hide throughout its +whole substance will have acquired a yellow colour, and +semi-transparent appearance. Mr. S---- is of opinion, that swelling and +raising hides is not necessary, and that the hides tanned without this +operation are less permeable to water. On tanning on the new principle, +as practised by Mr. S----, he places several rows of casks on stillings +sufficiently elevated above the ground to place a can or tub under +them; these casks were filled with fresh finely ground tan, then a +certain quantity of water was poured into the first of them, which +water, as it ran through the tan, exhausted and carried off the soluble +part, and as fast as it ran into the vessels below, was taken away and +poured on the second cask, and so on successively until the solution +was sufficiently saturated, and thus it may have been brought to ten or +twelve degrees of the arometer for salts. In order to exhaust the tan +of the first cask, Mr. S---- continued pouring water on the first cask +until it ran off clear; at which time the tan was deprived of its +soluble part; these liquors, as it may be easily conceived, were +carefully kept for future operations; large wooden vats are considered +the best sort of vessels for holding this solution, as well as for +making and preparing it; hogsheads, on a small scale, may be made to +answer. It is particularly in the use of this solution that Mr. S----'s +method consists; the quickness with which the solution acts is truly +astonishing, and when we see it, there is cause of surprise in thinking +why it was not found out before. As soon as the hides are taken out of +the water, impregnated with sulphuric acid, Mr. S---- puts them into a +weak solution of tan, in which he leaves them for the space of one or +two hours; he afterwards plunges them into other solutions of tan, more +or less charged with the tanning principle, in proportion to their +strength, so that in the experiments at which we were present, some +heavy hides were tanned in six or eight days, others in twenty and +twenty-five days. In placing the hides in the solutions, some +precautions are necessary; the hides should be suspended on a wheel, or +in a frame where they should be stretched, and placed one inch apart, +so as to admit the solution freely about them; Mr. S---- recommends +cutting off the head and the neck of the hide, and a slip down each +side, in which slip the feet and belly part are to be comprehended; and +the circumstance which determines Mr. S---- to cut the hide in this +manner is, that the feet, and the parts that are near the belly, are +more spongy and more easily penetrated by the tan; and as they produce +leather of an inferior quality they may be more advantageously tanned +separately, than put promiscuously into the solutions of tan with the +rest. The remaining part of the hide is to be divided into two or more +parts or pieces, so as to be easily placed in the vats or casks. + + + + +_Drying the Hides._ + + +The hides, when taken out of the solution of tan, must be dried with +the usual precautions, that is to say, so slowly, that the skin does +not shrink on the flesh side. With respect to thinner hides, for the +upper leather of shoes, Mr. S---- begins by washing and taking off the +flesh in the manner already described, or, as is done in the common way +for strong soal leather; he then takes off the hair by means of clear +lime-water; he does not make them undergo the operation of swelling, +but puts them immediately into weak solutions of tan, the strength of +which he gradually increases, but without ever bringing it to the +degree of contraction, which he gives it when it is to be used in +tanning thick leather; two, three, or four days, are enough for tanning +the thinner kind of leather. Leather which is not sufficiently +impregnated with the tanning principle, is generally known by a white +speck or streak, which is observable in the middle of its substance. We +can affirm that those hides which were tanned in our presence, in a few +days, were completely tanned, as the above mentioned white streak was +not perceivable; we may also add, that Mr. S----'s method has the +advantage of affording the opportunity of observing and examining, from +time to time, the progress of the operation; for this purpose nothing +more is necessary but to take a slip off the hide out of the vat, and +cut off a corner of it, the white streak already spoken of will appear +more or less thick, until the tanning is completed; it has been +generally supposed, that the tan in the tanpits had no other effect +upon the leather than that of hardening and bracing the fibres of the +skin, which has been relaxed by the preliminary of tanning. Mr. S----, +however, examined the operation more closely, and discovered that there +existed in the tan a principle which was soluble in water, by which the +tanning was brought about. That this principle afterwards became fixed +in the leather in consequence of a particular combination between the +said principle and the skin; and this combination produced a substance +that was not soluble in water; all this has been demonstrated by Mr. +S----, in the most evident manner. It is well known that if leather, +which has not been tanned, is boiled in water, it is in a short time +almost entirely dissolved therein. This solution, by being +concentrated, produces a jelly, or size, which, by farther evaporation, +and being dried in the air, becomes what is called glue. Mr. S---- +having, in the course of his experiments, examined the effects of a +solution of tan upon a solution of glue, observed that they were hardly +mixed together before a white felamentous precipitate took place, owing +to a combination of the glue with the tanning principle contained in +the solution of tan. This precipitate is insoluble in water, either hot +or cold, and acquires colour by being exposed to the light. The +foregoing experiment furnishes a true explanation of the process of +tanning; for it will easily be conceived that the solution of tan acts +upon the hides (from which glue is produced) in the same manner as it +acts upon glue; this is what really happens in common tanpits, and Mr. +S----'s new method, in which the solution of tan gradually penetrates +the hides, and as it penetrates combines with it, producing a gradual +change of colour that is very observable, till at last the colour of +the hide is changed throughout, and it acquires a compact texture and +marbled appearance, like that of a nutmeg: by this it plainly appears, +that a precipitation also takes place in the action of tanning, +although the hide is not dissolved, but merely swelled so as to enable +the solution to penetrate it more easily. The property which animal +jelly, or glue, possesses, of being precipitated by a solution of the +tanning principle, furnishes a means of discovering what substances may +be useful in tanning: nothing more is necessary than to make a solution +or infusion of the vegetable substance supposed proper for that +purpose, and that upon being mixed with a solution of glue, will show +by the greater or less quantity of precipitate produced, what +probability there is that such substance might be advantageously +employed in tanning. + + + + +_Another Remark._ + + +Lime-water also offers an excellent means of discovering such +substances. If lime-water be added to a solution of tan, the mixture +instantly produces a copious precipitate; and if a sufficient quantity +of lime-water be added to neutralize the whole of the tanning +principle, then the supernatant liquor, although still possessing +colour, will not form any precipitate with glue; I mean in solution. In +like manner the liquor separated from a precipitation, caused by the +mixture of a solution of tan with one of glue, will not produce any +precipitate with lime-water, if, during the precipitation, the tanning +principle has been completely neutralized. This shows evidently that +Doctor M'Bride's method of exhausting the tan by means of lime-water is +defective, and that by so doing a loss of the tanning principle takes +place, in proportion to the quantity of it contained or combined with +the lime dissolved in the lime-water. + + + + +_Another Remark._ + + +As in summer the solution of tan is disposed to run into the vinous +fermentation, and, of course, from that into the acetous, and have its +principal changed, no more of the solution of tan should be prepared in +the summer season than is wanted for immediate use. In winter, this +precaution in not necessary, as in that season it will keep, and may be +then prepared for exportation to any part of Europe and thus converted +into a profitable article of commerce. + + +_A table showing the time different hides took to be completed, in +the operations of preparing and tanning._ + + +Ten ox hides, taken the 17th of August, were completely tanned by the +6th of September, in all, twenty days. + +Washing the hides, 2 days. +Taking off the hair, 5 do. +Raising or swelling, 5 do. +Second washing, 2 do. +Tanning, (properly so called,) 6 do. + --------- + 20 days. + + +Ten ox hides, taken the 19th of July, were tanned the 9th of August, +making twenty-one days. + +Washing, 2 days. +Taking off the hair, 10 do. +Swelling, 1 do. +Tanning, 8 do. + --------- + 21 days. + + +One ox hide, taken the 3d of September, was tanned the 2d of October, +making twenty-nine days. + +Washing, 1 day. +Taking off the hair and swelling, 3 do. +Tanning, 25 do. + --------- + 29 days. + + +Another ox hide, taken the 5th of September, was tanned the 3d of +October, making twenty-eight days. + +Washing, 1 day. +Taking off the hair and swelling, 2 do. +Tanning, 25 do. + --------- + 28 days. + + +N.B. The tanning solutions made use of to these hides was less strong, +and of a cooler temperature than usual, by which the time employed in +the tanning operation was prolonged. + + + + +_Calf Skins._ + + +Sixteen very thick calf skins, taken the 18th of July, were tanned by +the 31st of the same month. + +Washing, 1 day. +Taking off the hair, 8 do. +Tanning, 4 do. + --------- + 13 days. + --------- + + +Six calf skins, taken the 19th of July, were tanned the 2d of August, +making fourteen days. + +Washing, 2 days. +Taking off the hair, 9 do. +Tanning, 3 do. + --------- + 14 days. + --------- + + +Six dried calf skins, began the 14th of August, were tanned the 28th +of August. + +Washing, 2 days. +Taking off the hair and swelling, 11 do. +Tanning, 1 do. + --------- + 14 days. + --------- + + +Six calf skins, began the 20th of August, were finished the 10th of +September. + +Taking off the hair and washing, 20 days. +Tanning, (properly so called,) 1 do. + --------- + 21 days. + --------- + + +Three calf skins were brought from another tan-yard, the operation of +tanning had been begun upon them, they having been thirteen days in +the tanpit, in which it was intended they should have remained eleven +months, (which was the usual time allowed such skins in the old way of +tanning;) two of these skins were tanned in twenty-four hours, the +third was tanned in forty-eight hours. + +Six other calf skins took thirteen days. + +Washing and taking off the hair, 6 days. +Tanning, 7 do. + --------- + 13 days. + --------- + + +_Three salted Cow Hides_, + +Began the 14th of August, were finished the 12th of September. + +Washing and taking off the hair, 20 days. +Tanning, 9 do. + --------- + 29 days. + --------- + + +_One fresh Horse Hide_, + +Began the 30th of August, was finished the 13th of September. + +Washing, 1 day. +Taking off the hair, 6 do. +Tanning, 7 do. + --------- + 14 days. + --------- + + +_Another fresh Horse Hide_, + +Began the 4th of September, was finished the 19th of September. + +Washing, 1 day. +Taking off the hair, 7 do. +Tanning, 7 do. + --------- + 15 days. + --------- + + +_Two dried Sheep Skins_, + +Began the 14th of August, were finished the 12th of September. + +Washing and taking off the wool, 25 days. +Tanning, 4 do. + --------- + 29 days. + --------- + + +_Three Goat Skins_, + +Began the 16th of August, were finished the 10th of September. + +Washing and taking off the hair, 23 days. +Tanning, 2 do. + --------- + 25 days. + --------- + + +_Five Goat Skins_, + +Began the 19th of August, were finished the 10th of September. + +Washing and taking off the hair, 20 days. +Tanning, 2 do. + --------- + 22 days. + --------- + + + +THE END + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The American Practical Brewer and +Tanner, by Joseph Coppinger + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PRACTICAL BREWER AND TANNER *** + +***** This file should be named 20663.txt or 20663.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/2/0/6/6/20663/ + +Produced by Robert Cicconetti and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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