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diff --git a/20734-h/20734-h.htm b/20734-h/20734-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..f408031 --- /dev/null +++ b/20734-h/20734-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,6806 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/strict.dtd"> + +<html lang="en"> +<head> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=utf-8"> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css"> +<title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Roman Antiquities, And Ancient Mythology; For Classical Schools. By Charles K. Dillaway, +</title> + +<style type="text/css" media="screen"> +body {margin:5% 15%;} + +h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6 {text-align:center;} + +.bookcontent > p +{ +margin-top: 1em; +text-align: justify; +} + +hr {width:65%;margin:5% auto;} + +table { +border-collapse:collapse; +border:1px solid black; +} + +td {padding:0 0 0 .5em;} + +.smcap {font-variant:small-caps;} + +.pagenum +{ +/*visibility: hidden;*/ +position: absolute; +left:2%; +font-style:normal; +font-variant:normal; +font-weight:normal; +font-size:small; +} + +img {border:3px inset #000000;} + +.center +{ +margin:0 auto; +} + +.framed +{ +border: 3px outset black; +margin:2em auto; +padding:1em 2em 2em 1em; +background:#C3CCCC; +} + +.framed > h3,p {margin:0;padding:0;} + +div.poem +{ +text-align:left; +margin:0 auto; +width:70%; +position: relative; +} + +.poem .stanza +{ +margin-top: 1em; +} + +.poem .i0 {margin-left: 2em;} + +p.ralign {text-align:right;} + +span.ralign +{ +position: absolute; +right: 0; +top: auto; +} + + +.titlepage +{ +width:75%; +margin:0 auto; +padding:5% 1% 10%; +text-align:center; +} + +.titlepage > h1 {font-size:150%;} + +.byline +{ +margin:10% 0 15%; +padding:0; +font-weight:bold; +} + +.copyright +{ +text-align:center; +margin: 10% 0 15%; +} + +.smallfont {font-size:small;} + +.bookcontent +{ +margin:20% 0 10%; +} +.TN +{ +width:30%; +background:#CCCCCC; +margin:0% auto; +border:1px dotted black; +} + +.LOI ul {list-style-type: none;} +.LOI ul > li a {text-decoration:none;} +.TOC ol > li a {text-decoration:none;} + +.TOC, .LOI +{ +position: relative; +width: 55%; +margin:10% auto; +} + +</style> +</head> + +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Roman Antiquities, and Ancient Mythology, by +Charles K. Dillaway + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Roman Antiquities, and Ancient Mythology + For Classical Schools (2nd ed) + +Author: Charles K. Dillaway + +Release Date: March 3, 2007 [EBook #20734] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ROMAN ANTIQUITIES *** + + + + +Produced by Barbara Tozier, V. L. Simpson, Bill Tozier and +the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + + +<div id="a1" class="framed" style="width:50%;"> +<p class="ralign"><i>Pl. 1.</i></p> +<a href="images/fig001-fs.png"> +<img src="images/fig001-th.png" alt="frontis"> +</a> +</div> + +<div class="titlepage"> +<h1>ROMAN ANTIQUITIES, AND ANCIENT MYTHOLOGY; FOR CLASSICAL SCHOOLS.</h1> + +<div class="byline"> +<p>BY</p> +<p>CHARLES K. DILLAWAY,</p> +<p class="smallfont">PRINCIPAL OF THE PUBLIC LATIN SCHOOL IN BOSTON.</p> +</div> + +<p class="smallfont">SECOND EDITION.</p> + +<div class="publisher"> +<p>BOSTON:</p> +<p>LINCOLN, EDMANDS & CO.</p> + +<div class="smallfont" style="margin:10% 0 0 0;"> +CARTER, HENDEE AND CO. BOSTON; COLLINS AND HANNAY,<br> +NEW YORK; KEY AND MEILKE, PHILADELPHIA;<br> +CUSHING AND SONS, BALTIMORE. +</div> + +<p>1833.</p> +</div> + +</div> + +<div class="copyright"> +Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1833, By Lincoln,<br> +Edmands & Co. In the Clerk's office of the District Court of<br> +Massachusetts. +</div> + +<div class="TN"> +<p>[Transcribers' Note:</p> +<p>A detailed <a href="#tn">listing</a> of changes and anomalies is at +the end of this file.]</p> +</div> + +<div class="LOI"> +<h2>POSITION OF THE PLATES.</h2> + +<ul> +<li>No. 1, <span class="ralign"><a href="#a1">before the title page.</a></span></li> +<li>2, before page <span class="ralign"><a href="#a2">27.</a></span></li> +<li>3, "          "<span class="ralign"><a href="#a3">71.</a></span></li> +<li>4, "          "<span class="ralign"><a href="#a4">78.</a></span></li> +<li>5, "          "<span class="ralign"><a href="#a5">82.</a></span></li> +<li>6, "          "<span class="ralign"><a href="#a6">90.</a></span></li> +<li>7, "          "<span class="ralign"><a href="#a7">106.</a></span></li> +<li>8, "          "<span class="ralign"><a href="#a8">133.</a></span></li> +</ul> +</div> + +<hr> +<h2>PREFACE.</h2> + +<p>The editor has endeavored in the following pages to give some account +of the customs and institutions of the Romans and of ancient Mythology +in a form adapted to the use of classical schools.</p> + +<p>In making the compilation he has freely drawn from all creditable +sources of information within his reach, but chiefly from the following: +Sketches of the institutions and domestic customs of the Romans, +published in London a few years since; from the works of Adams, Kennett, +Lanktree, Montfaucon, Middleton and Gesner: upon the subject of +Mythology, from Bell, Spense, Pausanias, La Pluche, Plutarch, Pliny, +Homer, Horace, Virgil, and many others to whom reference has been +occasionally made.</p> + +<p><i>Boston, July, 1832.</i></p> + +<hr style="width:25%"> + +<p>In the second edition now offered to the public much has been added +to the department of Antiquities. A more comprehensive chapter upon the +weights, measures and coins of the Romans has been substituted in the +place of the former one, and many other improvements made which it is +hoped will be found acceptable. As it was not thought expedient to +increase the size of the volume, the additions have been made by +excluding the questions.</p> + +<p><i>Boston, May, 1833.</i></p> + +<hr> +<div class="TOC"> +<h2>CONTENTS.</h2> + +<p>Chap. <span class="ralign">Page.</span></p> +<ol> +<li>Foundation of Rome and division of inhabitants <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap_1_1">9</a></span></li> +<li>The Senate <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap_1_2">13</a></span></li> +<li>Other divisions of the Roman people <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap_1_3">18</a></span></li> +<li>Gentes and Familiæ, Names of the Romans <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap_1_4">19</a></span></li> +<li>Private rights of Roman citizens <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap_1_5">21</a></span></li> +<li>Public rights of Roman citizens <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap_1_6">23</a></span></li> +<li>Places of worship <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap_1_7">24</a></span></li> +<li>Other public buildings <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap_1_8">26</a></span></li> +<li>Porticos, arches, columns, and trophies <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap_1_9">30</a></span></li> +<li>Bagnios, aqueducts, sewers, and public ways <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap_1_10">32</a></span></li> +<li>Augurs and Auguries <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap_1_11">33</a></span></li> +<li>Aruspices, Pontifices, Quindecemviri, Vestals, &c. <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap_1_12">34</a></span></li> +<li>Religious ceremonies of the Romans <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap_1_13">37</a></span></li> +<li>The Roman year <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap_1_14">39</a></span></li> +<li>Roman games <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap_1_15">42</a></span></li> +<li>Magistrates <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap_1_16">44</a></span></li> +<li>Of military affairs <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap_1_17">49</a></span></li> +<li>Assemblies, judicial proceedings, and punishments of the Romans <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap_1_18">53</a></span></li> +<li>Roman dress <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap_1_19">57</a></span></li> +<li>Fine arts and literature <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap_1_20">59</a></span></li> +<li>Roman houses <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap_1_21">61</a></span></li> +<li>Marriages and funerals <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap_1_22">63</a></span></li> +<li>Customs at meals <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap_1_23">66</a></span></li> +<li>Weights, measures, and coins <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap_1_24">67</a></span></li> +</ol> +</div> + +<h2><a href="#mythology">MYTHOLOGY.</a></h2> +<div class="TOC"> +<ol> +<li>Celestial Gods <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap_2_1">71</a></span></li> +<li>Celestial Goddesses <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap_2_2">77</a></span></li> +<li>Terrestrial Gods <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap_2_3">82</a></span></li> +<li>Terrestrial Goddesses <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap_2_4">87</a></span></li> +<li>Gods of the woods <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap_2_5">94</a></span></li> +<li>Goddesses of the woods <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap_2_6">101</a></span></li> +<li>Gods of the sea <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap_2_7">106</a></span></li> +<li>Tartarus and its Deities <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap_2_8">111</a></span></li> +<li>The condemned in Hell <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap_2_9">123</a></span></li> +<li>Monsters of Hell <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap_2_10">126</a></span></li> +<li>Dii Indigites, or heroes who received divine honors after death <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap_2_11">128</a></span></li> +<li>Other fabulous personages <span class="ralign"><a href="#chap_2_12">146</a></span></li> +</ol> +</div> + +<hr> +<div class="bookcontent"> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span></p> + +<h2 id="chap_1_1">CHAPTER I.</h2> + +<h3><i>Foundation of Rome and Division of its Inhabitants.</i></h3> + +<p>Ancient Italy was separated, on the north, by the Alps, from Germany. +It was bounded, on the east and north-east, by the Adriatic Sea, or +<i>Mare Superum</i>; on the south-west, by a part of the Mediterranean, +called the Tuscan Sea, or <i>Mare Inferum</i>; and on the south, by the +<i>Fretum Siculum</i>, called at present the strait of Messina.</p> + +<p>The south of Italy, called <i>Græcia Magna</i>, was peopled by a +colony from Greece. The middle of Italy contained several states or +confederacies, under the denominations of Etrurians, Samnites, Latins, +Volsci, Campanians, Sabines, &c. And the north, containing <i>Gallia +Cisalpina</i> and <i>Liguria</i>, was peopled by a race of Gauls.</p> + +<p>The principal town of the Latin confederacy +was <span class="smcap">Rome</span>. It was situated on the river Tiber, +at the distance of sixteen miles from its mouth.</p> + +<p>Romulus is commonly reported to have laid its foundations on Mount +Palatine, A. M. 3251, B. C. 753, in the third year of the 6th +Olympiad.</p> + +<p>Rome was at first only a small fortification; under the kings and the +republic, it greatly increased in size; but it could hardly be called +magnificent before the time of Augustus Cæsar. In the reign of the +Emperor Valerian, the city, with its suburbs, covered a space of fifty +miles; at present it is scarcely thirteen miles round.</p> + +<p>Rome was built on seven hills, viz. the Palatine, Capitoline, +Quirinal, Esquiline, Viminal, Cælian, and Aventine; hence it was +poetically styled “<i>Urbs Septicollis</i>,”—the seven-hilled city.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" +id="Page_10">[10]</a></span>The greatest number of inhabitants in Rome +was four millions; but its average population was not more than two +millions.</p> + +<p>The people were divided into three tribes, and each tribe into ten +curiæ. The number of tribes was afterwards increased to thirty-five.</p> + +<p>The people were at first only separated into two ranks; the Patrician +and Plebeian; but afterwards the Equites or Knights were added; and at a +later period, slavery was introduced—making in all, four classes: +Patricians, Knights, Plebeians, and Slaves.</p> + +<p>The Patrician order consisted of those families whose ancestors had +been members of the Senate. Those among them who had filled any superior +office, were considered noble, and possessed the right of making images +of themselves, which were transmitted to their descendants, and formed +part of their domestic worship.</p> + +<p>The Plebeian order was composed of the lowest class of freemen. Those +who resided in the city, were called “<i>Plebs urbana</i>;” those who +lived in the country, “<i>Plebs rustica</i>.” But the distinction did +not consist in name only—the latter were the most respectable.</p> + +<p>The <i>Plebs urbana</i> consisted not only of the poorer mechanics +and laborers, but of a multitude of idlers who chiefly subsisted on the +public bounty, and whose turbulence was a constant source of disquietude +to the government. There were leading men among them, kept in pay by the +seditious magistrates, who used for hire to stimulate them to the most +daring outrages.</p> + +<p>Trade and manufactures being considered as servile employments, they +had no encouragement to industry; and the numerous spectacles which were +exhibited, particularly the shows of gladiators, served to increase +their natural ferocity. To these causes may be attributed the final ruin +of the republic.</p> + +<p>The Equestrian order arose out of an institution ascribed to Romulus, +who chose from each of the three tribes, one hundred young men, the most +distinguished for their rank, wealth, and other accomplishments, who +should serve on horseback and guard his person.</p> + +<p>Their number was afterwards increased by Tullus Hostilius, who chose +three hundred from the Albans. They were chosen promiscuously from the +Patricians and Plebeians. The age requisite was eighteen, and the +fortune <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" +id="Page_11">[11]</a></span>four hundred sestertia; that is, about +14,000 dollars. Their marks of distinction, were a horse given them at +the public expense, and a gold ring. Their office, at first, was only to +serve in the army; but afterwards, to act as judges or jurymen, and take +charge of the public revenues.</p> + +<p>A great degree of splendor was added to the Equites by a procession +which they made throughout the city every year, on the 15th day of July, +from the temple of honor, without the city to the Capitol, riding on +horseback, with wreaths of olives on their heads, dressed in the Togæ +palmatæ or trabeæ, of a scarlet color, and bearing in their hands the +military ornaments, which they had received from their general, as a +reward for their valor. At this time they could not be summoned before a +court of justice.</p> + +<p>If any Eques was corrupt in his morals, or had diminished his +fortune, the censor ordered him to be removed from the order by selling +his horse.</p> + +<p>Men became slaves among the Romans, by being taken in war, by way of +punishment, or were born in a state of servitude. Those enemies who +voluntarily surrendered themselves, retained the rights of freedom, and +were called '<i>Dedititii</i>.'</p> + +<p>Those taken in the field, or in the storming of cities, were sold at +auction—“<i>sub corona</i>,” as it was called, because they wore a +crown when sold; or “<i>sub hasta</i>,” because a spear was set up where +the auctioneer stood. These were called Servi or Mancipia. Those who +dealt in the slave trade were called <i>Mangones</i> +or <i>Venalitii</i>: they were bound to promise for the soundness of +their slaves, and not to conceal their faults; hence they were commonly +exposed for sale naked, and carried a scroll hanging to their necks, on +which their good and bad qualities were specified.</p> + +<p>Free-born citizens could not be sold for slaves. Parents might sell +their children; but they did not on that account entirely lose the right +of citizens, for, when freed from slavery, they were called +<i>ingenui</i> and <i>libertini</i>. The same was the case with insolvent +debtors, who were given up to their creditors.</p> + +<p>There was no regular marriage among slaves, but their connexion was +called contubernium. The children of any female slave became the +property of her master.</p> + +<p>Such as had a genius for it were sometimes instructed in literature +and liberal arts. Some of these were sold +at <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span>a +great price. Hence arose a principal part of the wealth of Crassus.</p> + +<p>The power of the master over his slave was absolute. He might scourge +or put him to death at pleasure. This right was often exercised with +great cruelty.</p> + +<p>The lash was the common punishment; but for certain crimes they were +to be branded in the forehead, and sometimes were forced to carry a +piece of wood round their necks, wherever they went, which was called +<i>furca</i>; and whoever had been subjected to the punishment was ever +afterwards called <i>furcifer</i>.</p> + +<p>Slaves also, by way of punishment, were often confined in a +work-house, or bridewell, where they were obliged to turn a mill for +grinding corn. When slaves were beaten, they were suspended with a +weight tied to their feet, that they might not move them. When punished +for any capital offence, they were commonly crucified; but this was +afterwards prohibited under Constantine.</p> + +<p>If the master of a family was slain at his own house, and the +murderer not discovered, all his domestic slaves were liable to be put +to death. Hence we find no less than four hundred in one family punished +on this account.</p> + +<p>Slaves were not esteemed as persons, but as things, and might be +transferred from one owner to another, like any other effects. They +could not appear in a court of justice as witnesses, nor make a will, or +inherit anything, or serve as soldiers, unless first made free.</p> + +<p>At certain times they were allowed the greatest freedom, as at the +feast of Saturn, in the month of December, when they were served at +table by their masters, and on the Ides of August.</p> + +<p>The number of slaves in Rome and through Italy, was immense. Some +rich individuals are said to have had several thousands.</p> + +<p>Anciently, they were freed in three different ways:—1st, <i>Per +censum</i>, when a slave with his master's knowledge inserted his name +in the censor's roll. 2d, <i>Per vindictam</i>, when a master, taking +his slave to the prætor, or consul, and in the provinces to the +pro-consul or pro-prætor, said, “I desire that this man be free, +according to the custom of the Romans”—and the prætor, if he approved, +putting a rod on the head of the slave, pronounced,—"I say that this +man is free, after the manner of the Romans." Wherefore, the lictor or +master turning him round in a cir<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" +id="Page_13">[13]</a></span>cle, and giving him a blow on the cheek, let +him go; signifying that leave was granted him to go, wherever he +pleased. 3d, <i>Per testamentum</i>, when a master gave his slaves their +liberty by his will.</p> + +<hr> +<h2 id="chap_1_2">CHAPTER II.</h2> + +<h3><i>The Senate.</i></h3> + +<p>The Senate was instituted by Romulus, to be the perpetual council of +the republic, and at first consisted only of one hundred, chosen from +the Patricians. They were called Patres, either on account of their age +or the paternal care they had of the state. After the Sabines were taken +into the city, another one hundred was chosen from them by the suffrages +of the curiæ.</p> + +<p>Such as were chosen into the Senate by Brutus, after the expulsion of +Tarquin the proud, to supply the place of those whom that king had +slain, were called Conscripti; that is, persons written or enrolled +together with the Senators, who alone were properly called patres.</p> + +<p>Persons were chosen into the Senate first by the kings, and after +their expulsion, by the consuls, and by the military tribunes; but from +the year of the city 310, by the censors. At first, only from the +Patricians, but afterwards, also from the Plebeians—chiefly, however, +from the Equites.</p> + +<p>Besides an estate of 400, or after Augustus, of 1200 sestertia, no +person was admitted to this dignity but one who had already borne some +magistracy in the Commonwealth. The age is not sufficiently ascertained, +probably not under 30.</p> + +<p>The dictator, consuls, prætors, tribunes of the commons and interrex, +had the power of assembling the Senate.</p> + +<p>The places where they assembled were only such as had formerly been +consecrated by the augurs—and most commonly within the city. They made +use of the temple of Bellona, without the walls, for the giving audience +to foreign ambassadors, and to such provincial magistrates as were to be +heard in open Senates, before they entered the city, as when they +petitioned for a triumph, and in similar cases. When the augurs reported +that an ox had spoken, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" +id="Page_14">[14]</a></span>which we often meet with among the ancient +prodigies, the Senate was presently to sit, sub dio, or in the open +air.</p> + +<p>The regular meetings (<i>senatus legitimus</i>) were on the Kalends, +Nones, and Ides in every month, until the time of Augustus, who confined +them to the Kalends and Ides. The <i>senatus indictus</i> was called for +the dispatch of business upon any other day except the dies Comitialis, +when the Senate were obliged to be present at the Comitia.</p> + +<p>The Senate was summoned anciently by a public officer, named viator, +because he called the Senators from the country—or by a public crier, +when anything had happened about which the Senators were to be consulted +hastily and without delay: but in latter times by an edict, appointing +the time and place, and published several days before. The cause of +assembling was also added.</p> + +<p>If any one refused or neglected to attend, he was punished by a fine, +and by distraining his goods, unless he had a just excuse. The fine was +imposed by him who held the Senate, and pledges were taken till it was +paid—but after 60 years of age, Senators might attend or not, as they +pleased.</p> + +<p>No decree could be made unless there was a quorum. What that was is +uncertain. If any one wanted to hinder the passing of a decree, and +suspected there was not a quorum, he said to the magistrate presiding, +“<i>Numera Senatum</i>,” count the Senate.</p> + +<p>The magistrate who was to preside offered a sacrifice, and took the +auspices before he entered the Senate house. If they were not favorable, +or not rightly taken, the business was deferred to another day. Augustus +ordered that each Senator, before he took his seat, should pay his +devotions with an offering of frankincense and wine, at the altar of +that god in whose temple the Senate were assembled, that they might +discharge their duty the more religiously. When the consuls entered, the +Senators commonly rose up to do them honor.</p> + +<p>The consuls elect were first asked their opinion, and the prætors, +tribunes, &c. elect, seem to have had the same preference before the +rest of their order. He who held the Senate, might consult first any one +of the same order he thought proper.</p> + +<p>Nothing could be laid before the Senate against the will of the +consuls, unless by the tribunes of the people, who might also give their +negative against any decree by <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" +id="Page_15">[15]</a></span>the solemn word “<i>Veto</i>,” which was +called interceding. This might also be done by all who had an equal or +greater authority than the magistrate presiding. If any person +interceded, the sentence was called “<i>Senatus auctoritas</i>,” their +judgment or opinion.</p> + +<p>The Senators delivered their opinions standing; but when they only +assented to the opinion of another, they continued sitting.</p> + +<p>It was not lawful for the consuls to interrupt those who spoke, +although they introduced in their speeches many things foreign to the +subject, which they sometimes did, that they might waste the day in +speaking. For no new reference could be made after the tenth hour, that +is, four o'clock in the afternoon, according to our mode of +reckoning.</p> + +<p>This privilege was often abused, but they were forced to stop by the +noise and clamour of the other Senators. Sometimes magistrates, when +they made a disagreeable motion, were silenced in this manner.</p> + +<p>The Senators usually addressed the house by the title of “<i>patres +conscripti</i>:” sometimes to the consul, or person who presided, +sometimes to both.</p> + +<p>A decree of the Senate was made, by a separation of the Senators, to +different parts of the house. He who presided, said, “Let those who are +of such an opinion pass over to that side, those who think differently, +to this.” Those Senators who only voted, but did not speak, or as some +say, had the right of voting, but not of speaking, were +called <i>pedarii</i>, because they signified their opinion by their +feet, and not by their tongues. When a decree was made without any +opinion being asked or given, it was called “<i>senatus consultum per +discessionem</i>.” But if the contrary, it was simply called “<i>Senatus +consultum</i>.”</p> + +<p>In decreeing a supplication to any general, the opinion of the +Senators was always asked. Hence Cicero blames Antony for omitting this +in the case of Lepidus. Before the vote was put, and while the debate +was going on, the members used to take their seats near that person +whose opinion they approved, and the opinion of him who was joined by +the greatest number was called “<i>Sententia maxime frequens</i>.”</p> + +<p>When affairs requiring secrecy were discussed, the clerks and other +attendants were not admitted: but what passed, was written out by some +of the Senators, and the decree was called tacitum.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" +id="Page_16">[16]</a></span>Public registers were kept of what was done +in the Senate, in the assemblies of the people, and courts of justice; +also of births and funerals, of marriages and divorces, &c. which served +as a fund of information for historians.</p> + +<p>In writing a decree, the time and place were put first; then, the +names of those who were present at the engrossing of it; after that, the +motion with the name of the magistrate who proposed it; to all which was +subjoined what the Senate decreed.</p> + +<p>The decrees were kept in the public treasury with the laws and other +writings, pertaining to the republic. Anciently they were kept in the +temple of Ceres. The place where the public records were kept was called +“<i>Tabularium</i>.” The decrees of the Senate concerning the honors +conferred on Cæsar were inscribed in golden letters, on columns of +silver. When not carried to the treasury, they were reckoned invalid. +Hence it was ordained under Tiberius, that the decrees of the Senate, +especially concerning the capital punishment of any one, should not be +carried there before the tenth day, that the emperor, if absent from the +city, might have an opportunity of considering them, and if he thought +proper of mitigating them.</p> + +<p>Decrees of the Senate were rarely reversed. While a question was +under debate, every one was at freedom to express his dissent; but when +once determined, it was looked upon as the common concern of each member +to support the opinion of the majority.</p> + +<p>The power of the Senate was different at different times. Under the +regal government, the Senate deliberated upon such affairs as the king +proposed to them, and the kings were said to act according to their +counsel as the consuls did afterwards according to their decrees.</p> + +<p>Tarquin the proud, dropped the custom handed down from his +predecessors, of consulting the Senate about everything; banished or put +to death the chief men of that order, and chose no others in their room; +but he was expelled from the throne for his tyranny, and the regal +government abolished, A. U. 243. Afterwards the power of the Senate was +raised to the highest. Everything was done by its authority. The +magistrates were in a manner only its ministers. But when the Patricians +began to abuse their power, and to exercise cruelty on the Plebeians, +especially after the death of Tarquin, the multitude took arms in their +own defence, made a secession from the city, seized on Mons Sacer, and +created tribunes for themselves, who +at<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" +id="Page_17">[17]</a></span>tacked the authority of the Senate, and in +process of time greatly diminished it.</p> + +<p>Although the supreme power at Rome belonged to the people, yet they +seldom enacted anything without the authority of the Senate. In all +weighty matters, the method usually observed was that the Senate should +first deliberate and decree, and then the people order.</p> + +<p>The Senate assumed to themselves exclusively, the guardianship of the +public religion; so that no new god could be introduced, nor altar +erected, nor the Sybiline books consulted without their order. They had +the direction of the treasury, and distributed the public money at +pleasure. They appointed stipends to their generals and officers, and +provisions and clothing to the armies. They settled the provinces which +were annually assigned to the consuls and prætors, and when it seemed +fit, they prolonged their command. They nominated, out of their own +body, all ambassadors sent from Rome, and gave to foreign ambassadors +what answers they thought proper. They decreed all public thanksgivings +for victories obtained, and conferred the honor of an ovation or triumph +with the title of imperator on their victorious generals. They could +decree the title of king to any prince whom they pleased, and declare +any one an enemy by a vote. They inquired into all public crimes or +treasons, either in Rome or other parts of Italy; and adjusted all +disputes among the allied and dependent cities. They exercised a power +not only of interpreting the laws, but of absolving men from the +obligation of them. They could postpone the assemblies of the people, +and prescribe a change of habit to the city, in cases of any imminent +danger or calamity.</p> + +<p>But their power was chiefly conspicuous in civil dissension or +dangerous tumults within the city, in which that solemn decree used to +be passed; “That the consuls should take care that the republic should +receive no harm.” By which decree an absolute power was granted to them +to punish and put to death whom they pleased without a trial; to raise +forces and carry on war, without the order of the people.</p> + +<p>Although the decrees of the Senate had not properly the force of +laws, and took place chiefly in those matters which were not provided +for by the laws, yet they were understood always to have a binding +force, and were therefore obeyed by all orders. The consuls themselves +were obliged to sub<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" +id="Page_18">[18]</a></span>mit to them. They could be annulled or +cancelled only by the Senate itself. In the last ages of the republic, +the authority of the Senate was little regarded by the leading men and +their creatures, who by means of bribery obtained from a corrupted +populace what they desired, in spite of the Senate.</p> + +<p>Augustus, when he became master of the empire, retained the forms of +the ancient republic, and the same names of the magistrates; but left +nothing of the ancient virtue and liberty. While he pretended always to +act by the authority of the Senate, he artfully drew everything to +himself.</p> + +<p>The Senators were distinguished by an oblong stripe of purple sewed +on the forepart of their Senatorial gown, and black buskins reaching to +the middle of the leg, with the letter C in silver on the top of the +foot.</p> + +<p>The chief privilege of the Senators was their having a particular +place at the public spectacles, called orchestra. It was next the stage +in the theatre, or next the arena or open space in the amphitheatre.</p> + +<p>The messages sent by the emperor to the Senate were called epistolæ +or libelli, because they were folded in the form of a letter or little +book. Cæsar was said to have first introduced these libelli, which +afterwards were used on almost every occasion.</p> + +<hr> +<h2 id="chap_1_3">CHAPTER III.</h2> + +<h3><i>Other Divisions of the Roman People.</i></h3> + +<p> +That the Patricians and Plebeians might be connected together by the +strictest bonds, Romulus ordained that every Plebeian should choose from +the Patricians any one he pleased, for his patron or protector, whose +client he was called.</p> + +<p>It was the duty of the patron to advise and defend his client, and to +assist him with his interest and substance. The client was obliged to +pay the greatest respect to his patron, and to serve him with his life +and fortune in any extremity.</p> + +<p>It was unlawful for patrons and clients to accuse or bear witness +against each other, and whoever was found to +have <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" +id="Page_19">[19]</a></span>done so, might be slain by any one with +impunity as a victim to Pluto, and the infernal gods.</p> + +<p>It was esteemed highly honorable for a Patrician to have numerous +clients, both hereditary and acquired by his own merit. In after times, +even cities and whole nations were under the protection of illustrious +Roman families.</p> + +<p>Those whose ancestors or themselves had borne any curule magistracy, +that is, had been Consul, Prætor, Censor or Curule Edile, were called +nobiles, and had the right of making images of themselves, which were +kept with great care by their posterity, and carried before them at +funerals.</p> + +<p>These images were merely the busts of persons down to the shoulders, +made of wax, and painted, which they used to place in the courts of +their houses, enclosed in wooden cases, and seem not to have brought +out, except on solemn occasions. There were titles or inscriptions +written below them, pointing out the honors they had enjoyed, and the +exploits they had performed. Anciently, this right of images was +peculiar to the Patricians; but afterwards, the Plebeians also acquired +it, when admitted to curule offices.</p> + +<p>Those who were the first of their family, that had raised themselves +to any curule office, were called <i>homines novi</i>, new men or +upstarts. Those who had no images of themselves, or of their ancestors, +were called <i>ignobiles</i>.</p> + +<p>Those who favored the interests of the Senate were called optimates, +and sometimes procĕres or principes. Those who studied to gain the favor +of the multitude, were called populares, of whatever order they were. +This was a division of factions, and not of rank or dignity. The +contests between these two parties, excited the greatest commotions in +the state, which finally terminated in the extinction of liberty.</p> + +<hr> +<h2 id="chap_1_4">CHAPTER IV.</h2> + +<h3><i>Gentes and Familiæ; Names of the Romans, &c.</i></h3> + +<p>The Romans were divided into various +clans, (gentes,) and each clan into several families. Those of the same +gens were called gentiles, and those of the same family, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span>agnati. But relations by the father's side were also called agnati, +to distinguish them from cognati, relations only by the mother's +side.</p> + +<p>The Romans had three names, to mark the different clans and families, +and distinguish the individuals of the same family—the prænomen, nomen +and cognomen.</p> + +<p>The prænomen was put first, and marked the individual. It was +commonly written with one letter; as A. for Aulus: C. for +Caius—sometimes with two; as Ap. for Appius.</p> + +<p>The nomen was put after the prænomen, to mark the gens, and commonly +ended in ius; as Cornelius, Fabius. The cognomen was put last, and +marked the family; as Cicero, Cæsar.</p> + +<p>Sometimes there was also a fourth name, called the agnomen, added +from some illustrious action, or remarkable event. Thus, Scipio was +called Africanus, from the conquest of Carthage and Africa: for a +similar reason, his brother was called Asiaticus.</p> + +<p>These names were not always used; commonly two, and sometimes only +the sirname. But in speaking to any one, the prænomen was generally used +as being peculiar to citizens, for slaves had no prænomen.</p> + +<p>The sirnames were derived from various circumstances, either from +some quality of the mind; as Cato, from catus, wise: or from the habit +of the body; as Calvus, Crassus, &c.: or from cultivating particular +fruits; as Lentulus, Piso, &c. Quintus Cincinnatus was called Serranus, +because the ambassadors from the senate found him sowing, when they +brought him word that he was made dictator.</p> + +<p>The prænomen was given to boys on the ninth day, which was called +<i>dies lustrĭcus</i>, or the day of purification, when certain religious +ceremonies were performed. The eldest son of the family usually +received the prænomen of his father. The rest were named from their +uncles or other relations.</p> + +<p>When there was only one daughter in the family, she was called by the +name of the gens: thus, Tullia, the daughter of Cicero; and retained the +same after marriage. When there were two daughters, one was called +major, and the other minor. If there were more than two, they were +distinguished by their number; thus—prima, secunda, tertia, &c.</p> + +<p>Those were called <i>liberi</i>, free, who had the power of doing +what they pleased. Those who were born of +pa<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" +id="Page_21">[21]</a></span>rents who had been always free, were +called <i>ingenui</i>. Slaves made free were called <i>liberti</i>, in +relation to their masters; and <i>libertini</i>, in relation to free +born citizens.</p> + +<hr> +<h2 id="chap_1_5">CHAPTER V.</h2> + +<h3><i>Private Rights of Roman Citizens.</i></h3> + +<p> +The right of liberty comprehended not only liberty from the power of +masters, but also from the dominion of tyrants, the severity of +magistrates, the cruelty of creditors, and the insolence of more +powerful citizens. After the expulsion of Tarquin, a law was made by +Brutus, that no one should be king at Rome, and that whoever should form +a design of making himself a king, might be slain with impunity. At the +same time the people were bound by an oath that they would never suffer +a king to be created.</p> + +<p>Citizens could appeal from the magistrates to the people, and the +persons who appealed could in no way be punished, until the people +determined the matter; but they were chiefly secured by the assistance +of the tribunes.</p> + +<p>None but the whole Roman people in the <i>comitia centuriata</i> +could pass sentence on the life of a Roman citizen. No magistrate could +punish him by stripes or capitally. The single expression, “I am a Roman +citizen,” checked their severest decrees.</p> + +<p>By the laws of the twelve tables, it was ordained, that insolvent +debtors should be given up to their creditors, to be bound in fetters +and cords, and although they did not entirely lose the rights of +freemen, yet they were in actual slavery, and often more harshly treated +than even slaves themselves.</p> + +<p>To check the cruelty of usurers, a law was afterwards made that no +debtors should be kept in irons, or in bonds; that the goods of the +debtor, not his person, should be given up to his creditors.</p> + +<p>The people, not satisfied with this, as it did not free them from +prison, demanded an entire abolition of debt, which they used to call +new tables; but this was never granted.</p> + +<p>Each clan and family had certain sacred rights, peculiar to itself, +which were inherited in the same manner as +ef<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" +id="Page_22">[22]</a></span>fects. When heirs by the father's side of +the same family failed, those of the same gens succeeded in preference +to relations by the mother's side of the same family. No one could pass +from a Patrician family to a Plebeian, or from a Plebeian to a +Patrician, unless by that form of adoption which could only be made at +the <i>comitia curiata</i>.</p> + +<p>No Roman citizen could marry a slave, barbarian or foreigner, unless +by the permission of the people.</p> + +<p>A father among the Romans had the power of life and death over his +children. He could not only expose them when infants, but when grown up +he might imprison, scourge, send them bound to work in the country, and +also put them to death by any punishment he pleased.</p> + +<p>A son could acquire no property but with his father's consent, and +what he thus acquired was called his <i>peculium</i> as of a slave.</p> + +<p>Things with respect to property among the Romans were variously +divided. Some were said to be of divine right, and were held sacred, as +altars, temples, or any thing publicly consecrated to the gods, by the +authority of the Pontiffs; or religious, as sepulchres—or inviolable, +as the walls and gates of a city.</p> + +<p>Others were said to be of human right, and called profane. These were +either public and common, as the air, running water, the sea and its +shores; or private, which might be the property of individuals.</p> + +<p>None but a Roman citizen could make a will, or be witnesses to a +testament, or inherit any thing by it.</p> + +<p>The usual method of making a will after the laws of the twelve tables +were enacted, was by brass and balance, as it was called. In the +presence of five witnesses, a weigher and witness, the testator by an +imaginary sale disposed of his family and property to one who was +called <i>familiæ emptor</i>, who was not the heir as some have thought, +but only admitted for the sake of form, that the testator might seem to +have alienated his effects in his life time. This act was called +<i>familiæ mancipatio</i>.</p> + +<p>Sometimes the testator wrote his will wholly with his own hand, in +which case it was called <i>hologrăphum</i>—sometimes it was written by +a friend, or by others. Thus the testament of Augustus was written +partly by himself, and partly by two of his freedmen.</p> + +<p>Testaments were always subscribed by the testator, and usually by the +witnesses, and sealed with their seals +or <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" +id="Page_23">[23]</a></span>rings. They were likewise tied with a thread +drawn thrice through holes and sealed; like all other civil deeds, they +were always written in Latin. A legacy expressed in Greek was not +valid.</p> + +<p>They were deposited either privately in the hands of a friend, or in +a temple with the keeper of it. Thus Julius Cæsar is said to have +intrusted his testament to the oldest of the vestal virgins.</p> + +<p>A father might leave whom he pleased as guardian to his +children;—but if he died, this charge devolved by law on the nearest +relation by the father's side. When there was no guardian by testament, +nor a legal one, the prætor and the majority of the tribunes of the +people appointed a guardian. If any one died without making a will, his +goods devolved on his nearest relations.</p> + +<p>Women could not transact any business of importance without the +concurrence of their parents, husbands, or guardians.</p> + +<hr> +<h2 id="chap_1_6">CHAPTER VI.</h2> + +<h3><i>Public Rights of Roman Citizens.</i></h3> + +<p> +The <i>jus militiæ</i>, was the right of serving in the army, which was +at first peculiar to the higher order of citizens only, but afterwards +the emperor took soldiers not only from Italy and the provinces, but +also from barbarous nations.</p> + +<p>The <i>jus tributorum</i> was the payment of a tax by each individual +through the tribes, in proportion to the valuation of his estates.</p> + +<p>There were three kinds of tribute, one imposed equally on each +person; another according to his property; and a third exacted in cases +of emergency. There were three other kinds of taxes, +called <i>portorium</i>, +<i>decumæ</i> and <i>scriptura</i>.</p> + +<p>The <i>portorium</i> was paid for goods exported and imported, the +collectors of which were called portitores, or for carrying goods over a +bridge.</p> + +<p>The <i>decumæ</i> were the tenth part of corn and the fifth part of +other fruit, exacted from the cultivators of the public lands, either in +Italy or without it.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" +id="Page_24">[24]</a></span>The <i>scriptura</i> was paid by those who +pastured their cattle upon the public lands. The <i>jus saffragii</i> +was the right of voting in the different assemblies of the people.</p> + +<p>The <i>jus honorum</i> was the right of being priests or magistrates, +at first enjoyed only by the Patricians. Foreigners might live in the +city of Rome, but they enjoyed none of the rights of citizens; they were +subject to a peculiar jurisdiction, and might be expelled from the city +by a magistrate. They were not permitted to wear the Roman dress.</p> + +<hr> +<h2 id="chap_1_7">CHAPTER VII.</h2> + +<h3><i>Places of Worship.</i></h3> + +<p><i>Templum</i> was a place which had been dedicated to the worship of +some deity, and consecrated by the augurs.</p> + +<p><i>Ædes sacræ</i> were such as wanted that consecration, which, if +they afterwards received, they changed their names to temples.</p> + +<p><i>Delubrum</i> comprehended several deities under one roof. The most +celebrated temples were the capitol and pantheon.</p> + +<p>The capitol or temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, was the effect of a vow +made by Tarquinius Priscus, in the Sabine war. But he had scarcely laid +the foundation before his death. His nephew Tarquin the proud, finished +it with the spoils taken from the neighboring nations.</p> + +<p>The structure stood on a high ridge, taking in four acres of ground. +The front was adorned with three rows of pillars, the other sides with +two. The ascent from the ground was by a hundred steps. The prodigious +gifts and ornaments with which it was at several times endowed, almost +exceed belief. Augustus gave at one time two thousand pounds weight of +gold, and in jewels and precious stones to the value of five hundred +sestertia.</p> + +<p>Livy and Pliny surprise us with accounts of the brazen thresholds, +the noble pillars that Scylla removed thither from Athens, out of the +temple of Jupiter Olympius; the gilded roof, the gilded shields, and +those of solid silver; the huge vessels of silver, holding three +measures—the golden chariot, &c.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" +id="Page_25">[25]</a></span>This temple was first consumed by fire in +the Marian war, and then rebuilt by Sylla. This too was demolished in +the Vitellian sedition. Vespasian undertook a third, which was burnt +about the time of his death. Domitian raised the last and most glorious +of all, in which the very gilding amounted to twelve thousand +talents—on which Plutarch has observed of that emperor, that he was, +like Midas, desirous of turning every thing into gold. There are very +little remains of it at present, yet enough to make a Christian +church.</p> + +<p>The capitol contained in it three temples: one to Jupiter, one to +Juno, and one to Minerva. Jupiter's was in the centre, whence he was +poetically called “<i>Media qui sedet æde Deus</i>”—the god who sits in +the middle temple.</p> + +<p>The pantheon was built by Marcus Agrippa, son-in-law to Augustus +Cæsar, and dedicated most probably to all the gods in general, as the +name implies. The structure is a hundred and fifty-eight feet high, and +about the same breadth. The roof is curiously vaulted, void places being +here and there for the greater strength. The rafters were pieces of +brass of forty feet in length. There are no windows in the whole +edifice, only a round hole at the top of the roof, which serves very +well for the admission of light. The walls on the inside are either +solid marble or incrusted. The front, on the outside, was covered with +brazen plates, gilt, the top with silver plates, which are now changed +to lead. The gates were brass, of extraordinary work and magnitude.</p> + +<p>This temple is still standing, with little alteration, besides the +loss of the old ornaments, being converted into a Christian church by +Pope Boniface III. The most remarkable difference is that where they +before ascended by twelve steps, they now go down as many to the +entrance.</p> + +<p>There are two other temples, particularly worth notice, not so much +for the magnificence of the structure, as for the customs that depend +upon them, and the remarkable use to which they were put. These are the +temples of Saturn and Janus.</p> + +<p>The first was famous on account of serving for the public +treasury—the reason of which some fancy to have been because Saturn +first taught the Italians to coin money; but most probably it was +because this was the strongest place in the city. Here were preserved +all the public reg<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" +id="Page_26">[26]</a></span>isters and records, among which were +the <i>libri elephantini</i>, or great ivory tables, containing a list +of all the tribes and the schemes of the public accounts.</p> + +<p>The other was a square building, some say of entire brass, so large +as to contain a statue of Janus, five feet high, with brazen gates on +each side, which were kept open in war, and shut in time of peace.</p> + +<hr> +<h2 id="chap_1_8">CHAPTER VIII.</h2> + +<h3><i>Of other public Buildings.</i></h3> + +<p> +Theatres, so called from the Greek θεαομαι, to see, owe their origin to +Bacchus.</p> + +<p>That the theatres and amphitheatres were two different sorts of +edifices, was never questioned, the former being built in the shape of a +semicircle; the other generally oval, so as to make the same figure as +if two theatres should be joined together. Yet the same place is often +called by these names in several authors. They seem, too, to have been +designed for quite different ends: the theatres for stage plays, the +amphitheatres for the greater shows of gladiators, wild beasts, &c. The +following are the most important parts of both.</p> + +<p><i>Scena</i> was a partition reaching quite across the theatre, being +made either to turn round or draw up, to present a new prospect to the +spectators.</p> + +<p><i>Proscenium</i> was the space of ground just before the scene, +where the +<i>pulpitum</i> stood, into which the actors came from behind the scenes to +perform.</p> + +<p>The middle part, or area of the amphitheatre, was called <i>cavæ</i>, +because it was considerably lower than the other parts, whence perhaps, +the name of pit in our play houses was borrowed; and arena, because it +used to be strown with sand, to hinder the performers from slipping.</p> + +<div id="a2" class="center framed" style="width:100%;"> +<p class="ralign"><i>Pl. 2</i></p> +<a href="images/fig024.png"> +<img src="images/fig024th.png" alt="Ruins of the Flavian Amphitheatre"> +</a> +<h3><span class="smcap">Ruins of the Flavian Amphitheatre, commonly +called the Colisæum.</span></h3> +</div> + +<p>There was a threefold distinction of the seats, according to the +ordinary division of the people into senators, knights, and commons. The +first range was called orchestra, from ορχειςθαι, because in that part +of the Grecian theatres, the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" +id="Page_27">[27]</a></span>dances were performed; the second +<i>equestria</i>; and the other <i>popularia</i>.</p> + +<p>The Flavian amphitheatre, now better known by the name of the +<i>Colisæum</i>, from its stupendous magnitude, excites the astonishment of +the world. It was five hundred fifty feet in length, and four hundred +seventy in breadth, and one hundred sixty in height. It was surrounded +to the top by a portico resting on eighty arches, and divided into +four stories. The arrangement of the seats was similar to that in the +theatres; but there was a large box projecting from one side, and +covered with a canopy of state for the accommodation of the emperor +and the magistrates, who were surrounded with all the insignia of +office.</p> + +<p>As combats of wild beasts formed a chief part of the amusements, they +were secured in dens around the arena or stage, which was strongly +encircled by a canal, to guard the spectators against their attacks. +These precautions, however, were not always sufficient, and instances +occurred in which the animals sprung across the barrier.</p> + +<p>This huge pile was commenced by Vespasian, and was reared with a +portion of the materials of Nero's golden palace: its form was oval, and +it is supposed to have contained upwards of eighty thousand persons. A +large part of this vast edifice still remains.</p> + +<p>Theatres, in the first ages of the commonwealth, were only temporary, +and composed of wood. Of these, the most celebrated was that of Marcus +Scaurus—the scenes of which were divided into three partitions, one +above another, the first consisting of one hundred and twenty pillars of +marble; the next, of the like number of pillars, curiously wrought in +glass. The top of all had the same number of pillars adorned with gilded +tablets. Between the pillars were set three thousand statues and images +of brass. The <i>cavca</i> would hold eighty thousand men.</p> + +<p>Pompey the great was the first who undertook the raising of a fixed +theatre, which he built nobly of square stone. Some of the remains of +this theatre are still to be seen at Rome.</p> + +<p>The <i>circi</i> were places set apart for the celebration of several +sorts of games:—they were generally oblong or almost in the shape of a +bow, having a wall quite round, with ranges of seats for the convenience +of spectators. At <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" +id="Page_28">[28]</a></span>the entrance of the circus stood +the <i>carceres</i> or lists, whence they started, and just by them, one +of the <i>metæ</i> or marks—the other standing at the farther end to +conclude the race.</p> + +<p>The most remarkable, was the <i>circus maximus</i>, built by +Tarquinius Priscus:—the length of it was four <i>stadia</i>, or +furlongs, the breadth the same number of acres, with a trench of ten +feet deep, and as many broad, to receive the water, and seats enough for +one hundred fifty thousand men. It was extremely beautiful and adorned +by succeeding princes, and enlarged to such a prodigious extent as to be +able to contain in their proper seats two hundred and sixty thousand +spectators.</p> + +<p>The <i>naumachiæ</i> or places for the shows of sea-engagements are +no where particularly described; but we may suppose them similar to the +<i>circi</i> and amphitheatres.</p> + +<p>The <i>stadia</i> were places in the form of <i>circi</i>, for the +running of men and horses. A beautiful one was built by Domitian. +The <i>xysti</i> were places constructed like porticos, in which the +wrestlers exercised.</p> + +<p>The <i>Campus Martius</i>, famous on so many accounts, was a large +plain field, lying near the Tiber, whence we find it sometimes under the +name of <i>Tiberinus</i>:—it was called <i>Martius</i>, because it had +been consecrated by the old Romans to the god Mars. Besides the pleasant +situation and other natural ornaments, the continual sports and +exercises performed there, made it one of the most interesting sights +near the city. Here the young noblemen practised all kinds of feats of +activity, and learned the use of arms. Here were the races either with +chariots or single horses. Besides this, it was nobly adorned with the +statues of famous men, with arches, columns and porticos, and other +magnificent structures. Here stood the <i>villa publica</i> or palace, +for the reception and entertainment of ambassadors from foreign states, +who were not allowed to enter the city.</p> + +<p>The Roman <i>curiæ</i> were of two sorts, divine and civil. In the +former, the priests and religious orders met for the regulation of the +rites and ceremonies belonging to the worship of the gods. In the other, +the senate used to assemble, to consult about the public concerns of the +commonwealth. The senate could not meet in such a place, unless it had +been solemnly consecrated by the augurs, and made of the same nature as +a temple.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" +id="Page_29">[29]</a></span>The Roman forums were public buildings about +three times as long as they were broad. All the compass of the forum was +surrounded by arched porticos, some passages being left as places of +entrance.</p> + +<p>There were two kinds, <i>fora civilia</i> and <i>fora venalia</i>. +The first were designed for the ornaments of the city, and for the use +of public courts of justice. The others were erected for the necessities +and conveniences of the inhabitants, and were no doubt equivalent to our +markets. The most remarkable were the Roman forum, built by Romulus, and +adorned with porticos on all sides, by Tarquinius Priscus: This was the +most ancient and most frequently used in public affairs.</p> + +<p>The Julian forum, built by Julius Cæsar, with the spoils taken in the +Gallic war; the area alone, cost one hundred thousand <i>sesterces</i>, +equal to 3570 dollars.</p> + +<p>The Augustan forum, built by Augustus Cæsar, containing statues in +the two porticos, on each side of the main building. In one were all the +Latin kings, beginning with Æneas: in the other all the Roman kings, +beginning with Romulus, and most of the eminent persons in the +commonwealth, and Augustus himself among the rest, with an inscription +upon the pedestal of every statue, expressing the chief actions and +exploits of the person it represented.</p> + +<p>The forum of Trajan, erected by the emperor Trajan, with the foreign +spoils he had taken in the wars; the covering was all brass, and the +porticos exceedingly beautiful.</p> + +<p>The chief <i>fora venalia</i> or markets, were <i>boarium</i>, for +oxen and beef, <i>suarium</i>, for swine, <i>pistorium</i>, for +bread, <i>cupedinarium</i>, for dainties, and <i>holitorium</i>, for +roots, sallads and similar things.</p> + +<p>The <i>comitium</i> was only a part of the Roman forum, which served +sometimes for the celebration of the <i>comitia</i>; here stood the +<i>rostra</i>, a kind of pulpit, adorned with the beaks of ships taken in a +sea fight, from the inhabitants of Antium in Italy; here causes were +pleaded, orations made, and funeral panegyrics delivered.</p> + +<hr> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" +id="Page_30">[30]</a></span></p> +<h2 id="chap_1_9">CHAPTER IX.</h2> + +<h3><i>Porticos, Arches, Columns and Trophies.</i></h3> + +<p> +The porticos are worthy of observation: they were structures of curious +work and extraordinary beauty annexed to public edifices, sacred and +civil, as well for ornament as use.</p> + +<p>They generally took their names either from the temples which they +stood near, from the builders, from the nature and form of the building, +or from the remarkable paintings in them.</p> + +<p>They were sometimes used for the assemblies of the senate; sometimes +the jewellers and such as dealt in the most precious wares took their +stand here to expose their goods for sale; but the general use they were +put to, was the pleasure of walking or riding in them, like the present +piazzas in Italy.</p> + +<p>Arches were public buildings designed for the encouragement and +reward of noble enterprises, erected generally to the honor of such +eminent persons as had either won a victory of extraordinary consequence +abroad, or had rescued the commonwealth, at home, from any considerable +danger.</p> + +<p>At first they were plain and rude structures, by no means remarkable +for beauty or taste: but in latter times no expense was thought too +great to render them in the highest manner splendid and magnificent. The +arches built by Romulus were only of brick, that of Camillus of plain +square stone, but those of Cæsar, Drusus, Titus, &c. were all of +marble.</p> + +<p>Their figure was at first semicircular, whence probably they took +their names; afterwards they were built four square, with a spacious +arched gate in the middle, and small ones on each side. Upon the vaulted +part of the middle gate, hung little winged images representing victory, +with crowns in their hands, which, when they were let down, they put +upon the conqueror's head, as he passed under the triumphal arch.</p> + +<p>The columns or pillars, over the sepulchres of distinguished men, +were great ornaments to the city: they were at last converted to the +same design as the arches, for the honorable memorial of some noble +victory or exploit. The <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" +id="Page_31">[31]</a></span>pillars of the emperors Trajan and Antoninus +deserve particular attention for their beauty and curious +workmanship.</p> + +<p>The former was set up in the middle of Trajan's forum, being composed +of twenty-four great stones of marble, but so skilfully cemented as to +appear one entire stone. The height was one hundred forty-four feet; it +is ascended on the inside by one hundred eighty-five winding stairs, and +has forty little windows for the admission of light. The whole pillar is +incrusted with marble, in which are expressed all the noble actions of +the emperor, and particularly the Decian war.</p> + +<p>But its noblest ornament was the gigantic statue of Trajan on the +top, being no less than twenty feet high; he was represented in a coat +of armour proper to the general, holding in his left hand a sceptre, in +his right a hollow globe of fire, in which his own ashes were deposited +after his death.</p> + +<p>The column of Antoninus was raised in imitation of this, which it +exceeded only in one respect, that it was one hundred seventy six feet +high—for the work was much inferior to the former, being undertaken in +the declining age of the empire. The ascent on the inside was by one +hundred six steps, and the windows, in the sides, fifty-six; the +sculpture and the other ornaments were of the same nature as those of +the first, and on the top stood a colossal statue of the emperor, naked, +as appears from his coins.</p> + +<p>Both of these columns are still standing at Rome; the former almost +entire: but Pope Sixtus the first, instead of the two statues of the +emperors, set up St. Peter's on the column of Trajan, and St. Paul's on +that of Antoninus.</p> + +<p>There was likewise a gilded pillar in the forum, called the +<i>milliarium aureum</i>, erected by Augustus Cæsar, at which all the +highways of Italy met and were concluded; from this they counted their +miles, at the end of every mile setting up a stone, whence came the +phrase <i>primus ab urbe pisla</i>.</p> + +<p>But the most remarkable was the <i>columna rostrata</i>, set up to +the honor of Caius Duilius, when he had gained a victory over the +Carthaginian and Sicilian fleets, four hundred ninety-three years from +the foundation of the city, and adorned with the beaks of the vessels +taken in the engagement. This is still to be seen at Rome; the +inscription on the basis is a noble example of the old way of writing, +in the early times of the commonwealth.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" +id="Page_32">[32]</a></span>Trophies were spoils taken from the enemy, +and fixed upon any thing as signs or monuments of victory: they were +erected usually in the place where it was gained and consecrated to some +divinity, with an inscription.</p> + +<hr> +<h2 id="chap_1_10">CHAPTER X.</h2> + +<h3><i>Bagnios, Aqueducts, Sewers and public Ways.</i></h3> + +<p>The Romans expended immense sums of money on their bagnios. The most +remarkable were those of the emperors Dioclesian and Antonius +Caracalla—great part of which are standing at this time, and with the +high arches, the beautiful and stately pillars, the abundance of foreign +marble, the curious vaulting of the roofs, and the prodigious number of +spacious apartments, may be considered among the greatest curiosities of +Rome.</p> + +<p>The first invention of aqueducts, is attributed to Appius Claudius, +four hundred forty-one years from the foundation of the city, who +brought water into the city, by a channel of eleven miles in length—but +afterwards several others of greater magnitude were built: several of +them were cut through the mountains, and all other impediments for about +forty miles together, and of such a height that a man on horseback might +ride through them without the least difficulty. But this is meant only +of the constant course of the channel, for the vaults and arches were in +some places one hundred and nine feet high. It is said that Rome was +supplied with five hundred thousand hogsheads every twenty-four hours by +means of these aqueducts.</p> + +<p>The <i>cloacæ</i> or sewers were constructed by undermining and +cutting through the seven hills upon which Rome stood, making the city +hang, as it were, between heaven and earth, and capable of being sailed +under.</p> + +<p>Marcus Agrippa in his edileship, made no less than seven streams meet +together under ground, in one main channel, with such a rapid current, +as to carry all before them, that they met with in their passage. +Sometimes in a flood, the waters of the Tiber opposed them in their +course, and the two streams encountered each other with great fury: yet +the works preserved their old strength, without any sensible damage: +sometimes the ruins of whole +buildings, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" +id="Page_33">[33]</a></span>destroyed by fire or other casualties, +pressed heavily upon the frame: sometimes terrible earthquakes shook the +foundation: yet they still continued impregnable.</p> + +<p>The public ways were built with extraordinary care to a great +distance from the city on all sides; they were generally paved with +flint, though sometimes, and especially without the city, with pebbles +and gravel.</p> + +<p>The most noble was the Appian way, the length of which was generally +computed at three hundred and fifty miles: it was twelve feet broad, +made of huge stones, most of them blue. Its strength was so great, that +after it had been built two thousand years, it was, in most places, for +several miles together, perfectly sound.</p> + +<hr> +<h2 id="chap_1_11">CHAPTER XI.</h2> + +<h3><i>Of Augurs and Auguries.</i></h3> + +<p>The business of the augurs or soothsayers was to interpret dreams, +oracles, prodigies, &c. and to tell whether any action should be +fortunate or prejudicial to any particular persons, or to the whole +commonwealth.</p> + +<p>There are five kinds of auguries mentioned in authors—1st. From the +appearances in heaven,—as thunder, lightning, comets and other meteors; +as, for instance, whether the thunder came from the right or left, +whether the number of strokes was even or odd, &c.</p> + +<p>2d. From birds, whence they had the name of <i>auspices</i>, +from <i>avis</i> and <i>specio</i>; some birds furnished them with +observations from their chattering and singing,—such as crows, owls, +&c.—others from their flying, as eagles, vultures, &c.</p> + +<p>To take both these kind of auguries, the observer stood upon a tower +with his head covered in a gown, peculiar to his office, and turning his +face towards the east, marked out the heavens into four quarters, with a +short, straight rod, with a little turning at one end: this done, he +staid waiting for the omen, which never signified anything, unless +confirmed by another of the same sort.</p> + +<p>3d. From chickens kept in a coop for this purpose. The manner of +divining from them was as +follows:—early <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" +id="Page_34">[34]</a></span>in the morning, the augur, commanding a +general silence, ordered the coop to be opened, and threw down a handful +of crumbs or corn: if the chickens did not immediately run to the food, +if they scattered it with their wings, if they went by without taking +notice of it, or if they flew away, the omen was reckoned unfortunate, +and to portend nothing but danger or mischance; but if they leaped +directly from the pen, and eat voraciously, there was great assurance of +happiness and success.</p> + +<p>4th. From beasts, such as foxes, wolves, goats, heifers, &c.; the +general observations about these, were, whether they appeared in a +strange place, or crossed the way, or whether they ran to the right or +the left, &c.</p> + +<p>The last kind of divination was from unusual accidents, such as +sneezing, stumbling, seeing apparations, hearing strange voices, the +falling of salt upon the table, &c.</p> + +<hr> +<h2 id="chap_1_12">CHAPTER XII.</h2> + +<h3><i>Of the Aruspices, Pontifices, Quindecemviri, Vestals, &c.</i></h3> + +<p>The business of aruspices was to look upon the beasts offered in +sacrifices, and by them to divine the success of any enterprise.</p> + +<p>They took their observations, 1st. From the beasts before they were +cut up. 2d. From the entrails of those beasts after they were cut up. +3d. From the flame that used to rise when they were burning. 4th. From +the flour of bran, from the frankincense, wine and water, which they +used in the sacrifice.</p> + +<p>The offices of the pontifices were to give judgment in all cases +relating to religion, to inquire into the lives of the inferior priests, +and to punish them if they saw occasion; to prescribe rules for public +worship; to regulate the feasts, sacrifices, and all other sacred +institutions. The master or superintendent of the pontifices was one of +the most honorable offices in the commonwealth.</p> + +<p>The <i>quindecemviri</i> had the charge of the sibylline books; +inspected them by the appointment of the senate in dangerous junctures, +and performed the sacrifices which they enjoined.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" +id="Page_35">[35]</a></span>They are said to have been instituted on the +following occasion: A certain woman called Amalthēa is said to have come +to Tarquin the proud, wishing to sell nine books of sibylline or +prophetic oracles: but upon Tarquin's refusal to give her the price she +asked, she went away and burnt three of them. Returning soon after, she +asked the same price for the remaining six: whereupon, being ridiculed +by the king, she went and burnt three more; and coming back, still +demanded the same price for those which remained. Tarquin, surprised at +this strange conduct of the woman, consulted the augurs what to do; +they, regretting the loss of the books which had been destroyed, advised +the king to give the price required. The woman therefore, having +delivered the books and directed them to be carefully kept, disappeared, +and was never afterwards seen.</p> + +<p>These books were supposed to contain the fate of the Roman empire, +and therefore, in public danger or calamity, they were frequently +inspected; they were kept with great care in a chest under ground, in +the capitol.</p> + +<p>The institution of the vestal virgins is generally attributed to +Numa; their office was to attend upon the rites of Vesta, the chief part +of it being the preservation of the holy fire: they were obliged to keep +this with the greatest care, and if it happened to go out, it was +thought impiety to light it by any common flame, but they made use of +the pure rays of the sun.</p> + +<p>The famous palladium brought from Troy by Æneas, was likewise guarded +by them, for Ulysses and Diomedes stole only a counterfeit one, a copy +of the other, which was kept with less care.</p> + +<p>The number of the vestals was six, and they were admitted between the +years of six and ten. The chief rules prescribed by their founder, were +to vow the strictest chastity for the space of thirty years;—the first +ten they were only novices, being obliged to learn the ceremonies and +perfect themselves in the duties of their religion; the next ten years +they discharged the duties of priestesses, and spent the remaining ten +in instructing others.</p> + +<p>If they broke their vow of virginity, they were buried alive in a +place without the city wall, allotted for that purpose.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" +id="Page_36">[36]</a></span>This severe condition was recompensed with +several privileges and prerogatives: their persons were sacred: in +public they usually appeared on a magnificent car, drawn by white +horses, followed by a numerous retinue of female slaves, and preceded by +lictors; and if they met a malefactor going to punishment, they had the +power to remit his sentence.</p> + +<p>The <i>septemviri</i> were priests among the Romans, who prepared the +sacred feasts at games, processions, and other solemn occasions: they +were likewise assistants to the pontifices.</p> + +<p>The <i>fratres ambarvales</i>, twelve in number, were those priests +who offered up sacrifices for the fertility of the ground. +The <i>curiones</i> performed the rites in each curia.</p> + +<p><i>Feciales</i> (<i>Heralds</i>) were a college of sacred persons, +into whose charge all concerns relating to the declaration of war or +conclusion of peace, were committed.</p> + +<p>Their first institution was in so high a degree laudable and +beneficial, as to reflect great honour on Roman justice and moderation. +It was the primary and especial duty of the heralds, to inquire into the +equity of a proposed war: and if the grounds of it seemed to them +trivial or unjust, the war was declined—if otherwise, the senate +concerted the best measures to carry it on with spirit.</p> + +<p>Feciales were supreme judges in every thing relating to treaties. The +head of their college was called Pater Patratus.</p> + +<p>All the members of this college, while in the discharge of their +duty, wore a wreath of vervain around their heads; and bore a branch of +it in their hands, when they made peace, of which it was an emblem.</p> + +<p>Their authority and respectability continued until the lust of +dominion had corrupted the policy of the Romans; after which their +situations were comparative sinecures, and their solemn deliberations +dwindled into useless or contemptible formalities.</p> + +<p>Among the flamines or priests of particular gods, were, +1st. <i>flamen dialis</i> the priest of Jupiter. This was an office of +great dignity, but subjected to many restrictions; as that he should not +ride on horseback, nor stay one night without the city, nor take an +oath, and several others.</p> + +<p>2d. The <i>salii</i>, priests of Mars, so called, because on solemn +occasions they used to go through the city +dancing, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" +id="Page_37">[37]</a></span>dressed in an embroidered tunic, bound with +a brazen belt, and a <i>toga pretexta</i> or +<i>trabea</i>; having on their head a cap rising to a considerable height in +the form of a cone, with a sword by their side, in their right hand a +spear or rod, and in their left, one of the ancilia or shields of +Mars.—The most solemn procession of the salii was on the first of +March, in commemoration of the time when the sacred shield was believed +to have fallen from heaven in the reign of Numa.</p> + +<p>3d. The <i>luperci</i>, priests of Pan, were so called, from a wolf, +because that god was supposed to keep the wolves from the sheep. Hence +the place where he was worshipped was called lupercal, and his festival +lupercalia, which was celebrated in February, at which the luperci ran +up and down the city naked, having only a girdle of goat skin round +their waists, and thongs of the same in their hands, with which they +struck those they met.</p> + +<p>It is said that Antony, while chief of the luperci, went according to +concert, it is believed, almost naked into the forum, attended by his +lictors, and having made an harangue to the people from the rostra, +presented a crown to Cæsar, who was sitting there, surrounded by the +whole senate and people. He attempted frequently to put the crown upon +his head, addressing him by the title of king, and declaring that what +he said and did was at the desire of his fellow citizens; but Cæsar +perceiving the strongest marks of aversion in the people, rejected it, +saying, that Jupiter alone was king of Rome, and therefore sent the +crown to the capitol to be presented to that God.</p> + +<hr> +<h2 id="chap_1_13">CHAPTER XIII.</h2> + +<h3><i>Religious Ceremonies of the Romans.</i></h3> + +<p>The Romans were, as a people, remarkably attached to the religion +they professed; and scrupulously attentive in discharging the rites and +ceremonies which it enjoined.</p> + +<p>Their religion was Idolatry, in its grossest and widest acceptation. +It acknowledged a few general truths, but greatly darkened these by +fables and poetical fiction.</p> + +<p>All the inhabitants of the invisible world, to which the souls of +people departed after death, were +indiscriminately <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" +id="Page_38">[38]</a></span>called +<i>Inferi</i>. <i>Elysium</i> was that part of hell (<i>apud Inferos</i>,) in which the +good spent a spiritual existence of unmingled enjoyment, and <i>Tartarus</i> +(pl. -ra) was the terrible prison-house of the damned.</p> + +<p>The worship of the gods consisted chiefly in prayers, vows, and +sacrifices. No act of religious worship was performed without prayer; +while praying, they stood usually with their heads covered, looking +towards the east; a priest pronounced the words before them;—they +frequently touched the altars or knees of the images of the gods; +turning themselves round in a circle towards the right, sometimes +putting their right hand to their mouth, and also prostrating themselves +on the ground.</p> + +<p>They vowed temples, games, sacrifices, gifts, &c. Sometimes they used +to write their vows on paper or waxen tablets, to seal them up, and +fasten them with wax to the knees of the images of the gods, that being +supposed to be the seat of mercy.</p> + +<p>Lustrations were necessary to be made before entrance on any +important religious duty, viz. before setting out to the temples, before +the sacrifice, before initiation into the mysteries, and before solemn +vows and prayers.</p> + +<p>Lustrations were also made after acts by which one might be polluted; +as after murder, or after having assisted at a funeral.</p> + +<p>In sacrifices it was requisite that those who offered them, should +come chaste and pure; that they should bathe themselves, be dressed in +white robes, and crowned with the leaves of the tree which was thought +most acceptable to the god whom they worshipped.</p> + +<p>Sacrifices were made of victims whole and sound (<i>Integræ et +sanæ</i>.) But all victims were not indifferently offered to all +gods.</p> + +<p>A white bull was an acceptable sacrifice to Jupiter; an ewe to Juno; +black victims, bulls especially, to Pluto; a bull and a horse to +Neptune; the horse to Mars; bullocks and lambs to Apollo, &c. Sheep and +goats were offered to various deities.</p> + +<p>The victim was led to the altar with a loose rope, that it might not +seem to be brought by force, which was reckoned a bad omen. After +silence was proclaimed, a salted cake was sprinkled on the head of the +beast, and frankincense and wine poured between his horns, the priest +having first tasted the wine himself, and given it to be tasted +by <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" +id="Page_39">[39]</a></span>those that stood next him, which was +called <i>libatio</i>—the priest then plucked the highest hairs between +the horns, and threw them into the fire—the victim was struck with an +axe or mall, then stabbed with knives, and the blood being caught in +goblets, was poured on the altar—it was then flayed and dissected; then +the entrails were inspected by the aruspices, and if the signs were +favorable, they were said to have offered up an acceptable sacrifice, or +to have pacified the gods; if not, another victim was offered up, and +sometimes several. The parts which fell to the gods were sprinkled with +meal, wine, and frankincense, and burnt on the altar. When the sacrifice +was finished, the priest, having washed his hands, and uttered certain +prayers, again made a libation, and the people were dismissed.</p> + +<p>Human sacrifices were also offered among the Romans: persons guilty +of certain crimes, as treachery or sedition, were devoted to Pluto and +the infernal gods, and therefore any one might slay them with +impunity.</p> + +<p>Altars and temples afforded an asylum or place of refuge among the +Greeks and Romans, as well as among the Jews, chiefly to slaves from the +cruelty of their masters, and to insolvent debtors and criminals, where +it was considered impious to touch them; but sometimes they put fire and +combustible materials around the place, that the person might appear to +be forced away, not by men, but by a god: or shut up the temple and +unroofed it, that he might perish in the open air.</p> + +<hr> +<h2 id="chap_1_14">CHAPTER XIV.</h2> + +<h3><i>The Roman Year.</i></h3> + +<p>Romulus divided the year into ten months; the first of which was +called March from Mars, his supposed father; the 2d April, either from +the Greek name of Venus, (Aφροδιτα) or because trees and flowers open +their buds, during that month; the 3d, May, from Maia, the mother of +Mercury; the 4th, June, from the goddess Juno; 5th, July, from Julius +Cæsar; 6th, August, from Augustus Cæsar; the rest were called from their +number, September, October, November, December.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" +id="Page_40">[40]</a></span>Numa added two months—January from Janus, +and February because the people were then purified, (<i>februabatur</i>) +by an expiatory sacrifice from the sin of the whole year: for this +anciently was the last month in the year.</p> + +<p>Numa in imitation of the Greeks divided the year into twelve lunar +months, according to the course of the moon, but as this mode of +division did not correspond with the course of the sun, he ordained that +an intercalary month should be added every other year.</p> + +<p>Julius Cæsar afterwards abolished this month, and with the assistance +of Sosigĕnes, a skilful astronomer of Alexandria, in the year of Rome +707, arranged the year according to the course of the sun, commencing +with the first of January, and assigned to each month the number of days +which they still retain. This is the celebrated Julian or solar year +which has been since maintained without any other alteration than that +of the new style, introduced by pope Gregory, A. D. 1582, and adopted in +England in 1752, when eleven days were dropped between the second and +fourteenth of September.</p> + +<p>The months were divided into three +parts, <i>kalends</i>, <i>nones</i> and +<i>ides</i>. They commenced with the <i>kalends</i>; the <i>nones</i> occurred on the +fifth, and the <i>ides</i> on the thirteenth, except in March, May, July, and +October, when they fell on the seventh and fifteenth.</p> + +<p>In marking the days of the month they went backwards: thus, January +first was the first of the <i>kalends</i> of January—December +thirty-first was <i>pridie kalendas</i>, or the day next before +the <i>kalends</i> of January—the day before that, or the thirtieth of +December, <i>tertio kalendas Januarii</i>, or the third day before +the <i>kalends</i> of January, and so on to the thirteenth, when came +the ides of December.</p> + +<p>The day was either civil or natural; the civil day was from midnight +to midnight; the natural day was from the rising to the setting of the +sun.</p> + +<p>The use of clocks and watches was unknown to the Romans—nor was it +till four hundred and forty-seven years after the building of the city, +that the sun dial was introduced: about a century later, they first +measured time by a water machine, which served by night, as well as by +day.</p> + +<p>Their days were distinguished by the names +of <i>festi</i>, <i>profesti</i>, and <i>intercisi</i>. The <i>festi</i> +were dedicated to religious worship, the +<i>profesti</i> were allotted to ordinary +busi<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" +id="Page_41">[41]</a></span>ness, the days which served partly for one +and partly for the other were called <i>intercisi</i>, or half holy +days.</p> + +<p>The manner of reckoning by weeks was not introduced until late in the +second century of the christian era: it was borrowed from the Egyptians, +and the days were named after the planets: thus, Sunday from the Sun, +Monday from the Moon, Tuesday from Mars, Wednesday from Mercury, +Thursday from Jupiter, Friday from Venus, Saturday from Saturn.</p> + + +<table border="1" summary="A Table of the Kalends, Nones, and Ides."> +<caption><i><b>A Table of the Kalends, Nones, and Ides.</b></i></caption> +<tr> +<th>Days of Month.</th> +<th>Apr, June, Sept, Nov.</th> +<th>Jan, August, December.</th> +<th>March, May, July, Oct.</th> +<th>February.</th> +</tr> +<tr><td>1</td><td>Kalendæ.</td><td>Kalendæ.</td><td>Kalendæ.</td><td>Kalendæ.</td></tr> +<tr><td>2</td><td>IV. Nonas.</td><td>IV. Nonas</td><td>VI.</td><td>IV. Nonas.</td></tr> +<tr><td>3</td><td>III.</td><td>III.</td><td>V.</td><td>III.</td></tr> +<tr><td>4</td><td>Pridie.</td><td>Pridie.</td><td>IV.</td><td>Pridie.</td></tr> +<tr><td>5</td><td>Nonæ.</td><td>Nonæ.</td><td>III.</td><td>Nonæ.</td></tr> +<tr><td>6</td><td>VIII. Idus.</td><td>VIII. Idus.</td><td>Pridie.</td><td>VIII. Idus.</td></tr> +<tr><td>7</td><td>VII.</td><td>VII.</td><td>Nonæ.</td><td>VII.</td></tr> +<tr><td>8</td><td>VI.</td><td>VI.</td><td>VIII. Idus.</td><td>VI.</td></tr> +<tr><td>9</td><td>V.</td><td>V.</td><td>VII.</td><td>V.</td></tr> +<tr><td>10</td><td>IV.</td><td>IV.</td><td>VI.</td><td>IV.</td></tr> +<tr><td>11</td><td>III.</td><td>III.</td><td>V.</td><td>III.</td></tr> +<tr><td>12</td><td>Pridie.</td><td>Pridie.</td><td>IV.</td><td>Pridie.</td></tr> +<tr><td>13</td><td>Idus.</td><td>Idus.</td><td>III.</td><td>Idus.</td></tr> +<tr><td>14</td><td>XVIII. Kal.</td><td>XIX. Kal.</td><td>Pridie.</td><td>XVI. Kal.</td></tr> +<tr><td>15</td><td>XVII.</td><td>XVIII.</td><td>Idus.</td><td>XV.</td></tr> +<tr><td>16</td><td>XVI.</td><td>XVII.</td><td>XVII. Kal.</td><td>XIV.</td></tr> +<tr><td>17</td><td>XV.</td><td>XVI.</td><td>XVI.</td><td>XIII.</td></tr> +<tr><td>18</td><td>XIV.</td><td>XV.</td><td>XV.</td><td>XII.</td></tr> +<tr><td>19</td><td>XIII.</td><td>XIV.</td><td>XIV.</td><td>XI.</td></tr> +<tr><td>20</td><td>XII.</td><td>XIII.</td><td>XIII.</td><td>X.</td></tr> +<tr><td>21</td><td>XI.</td><td>XII.</td><td>XII.</td><td>IX.</td></tr> +<tr><td>22</td><td>X.</td><td>XI.</td><td>XI.</td><td>VIII.</td></tr> +<tr><td>23</td><td>IX.</td><td>X.</td><td>X.</td><td>VII.</td></tr> +<tr><td>24</td><td>VIII.</td><td>IX.</td><td>IX.</td><td>VI.</td></tr> +<tr><td>25</td><td>VII.</td><td>VIII.</td><td>VIII.</td><td>V.</td></tr> +<tr><td>26</td><td>VI.</td><td>VII.</td><td>VII.</td><td>IV.</td></tr> +<tr><td>27</td><td>V.</td><td>VI.</td><td>VI.</td><td>III.</td></tr> +<tr><td>28</td><td>IV.</td><td>V.</td><td>V.</td><td>Prid. Kal.</td></tr> +<tr><td>29</td><td>III.</td><td>IV.</td><td>IV.</td><td>Martii.</td></tr> +<tr><td>30</td><td>Prid. Kal.</td><td>III.</td><td>III.</td><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td>31</td><td>Mens. seq.</td><td>Prid. Kal.<br>Mens. seq.</td><td>Prid. Kal.<br>Mens. seq.</td><td> </td></tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" +id="Page_42">[42]</a></span></p> +<hr> +<h2 id="chap_1_15">CHAPTER XV.</h2> + +<h3><i>Roman Games.</i></h3> + +<p>The Roman Games formed a part of religious worship, and were always +consecrated to some god: they were either stated or vowed by generals in +war, or celebrated on extraordinary occasions; the most celebrated were +those of the circus.</p> + +<p>Among them were first, chariot and horse races, of which the Romans +were extravagantly fond. The charioteers were distributed into four +parties or factions from the different colours of their dresses. The +spectators favored one or other of the colours, as humor or caprice +inclined them. It was not the swiftness of their horses, nor the art of +the men that inclined them, but merely the dress. In the times of +Justinian, no less than thirty thousand men are said to have lost their +lives at Constantinople, in a tumult raised by contention among the +partizans of the several colours.</p> + +<p>The order in which the chariots or horses stood, was determined by +lot, and the person who presided at the games gave the signal for +starting, by dropping a cloth; then the chain of the <i>hermuli</i> +being withdrawn, they sprung forward, and whoever first ran seven times +round the course, was declared the victor; he was then crowned, and +received a prize in money of considerable value.</p> + +<p>Second; contests of agility and strength, of which there were five +kinds; running, leaping, boxing, wrestling and throwing +the <i>discus</i> or quoit. Boxers covered their hands with a kind of +gloves, which had lead or iron sewed into them, to make the strokes fall +with greater weight; the combatants were previously trained in a place +of exercise, and restricted to a particular diet.</p> + +<p>Third; what was called <i>venatio</i>, or the fighting of wild beasts +with one another, or with men, called <i>bestiarii</i>, who were either +forced to this by way of punishment, as the primitive christians often +were, or fought voluntarily, either from a natural ferocity of +disposition, or induced by hire. An incredible number of animals of +various kinds, were brought from all quarters, for the entertainment of +the people, at an immense expense; and were kept in enclosures +called <i>vivaria</i>, till the day of exhibition. Pompey, in +his <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" +id="Page_43">[43]</a></span>second consulship, exhibited at once five +hundred lions, and eighteen elephants, who were all despatched in five +days.</p> + +<p>Fourth; <i>naumachia</i>, or the representation of a sea fight; those +who fought, were usually composed of captives or condemned malefactors, +who fought to death, unless saved by the clemency of the emperors.</p> + +<p>In the next class of games were the shows of gladiators; they were +first exhibited at Rome by two brothers called Bruti, at the funeral of +their father, and for some time they were only exhibited on such +occasions; but afterwards, also by the magistrates, to entertain the +people, chiefly at the <i>saturnalia</i> and feasts of Minerva.</p> + +<p>Incredible numbers of men were destroyed in this manner; after the +triumph of Trajan over the Dacians, spectacles were exhibited for one +hundred twenty-three days, in which eleven thousand animals, of +different kinds, were killed, and ten thousand gladiators fought, whence +we may judge of other instances. The emperor Claudius, although +naturally of a gentle disposition, is said to have been rendered cruel +by often attending these spectacles.</p> + +<p>Gladiators were at first composed of slaves and captives, or of +condemned malefactors, but afterwards also of free born citizens, +induced by hire or inclination.</p> + +<p>When any gladiator was wounded, he lowered his arms as a sign of his +being vanquished, but his fate depended on the pleasure of the people, +who, if they wished him to be saved, pressed down their thumbs; if to be +slain, they turned them up, and ordered him to receive the sword, which +gladiators usually submitted to with amazing fortitude.</p> + +<p>Such was the spirit engendered by these scenes of blood, that +malefactors and unfortunate christians, during the period of the +persecution against them, were compelled to risk their lives in these +unequal contests; and in the time of Nero, christians were dressed in +skins, and thus distinguished, were hunted by dogs, or forced to contend +with ferocious animals, by which they were devoured.</p> + +<p>The next in order were the dramatic entertainments, of which there +were three kinds. First; comedy, which was a representation of common +life, written in a familiar style, and usually with a happy issue: the +design of it was, to expose vice and folly to ridicule.</p> + +<p>Second; tragedy, or the representation of some one serious and +important action; in which illustrious +persons <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" +id="Page_44">[44]</a></span>are introduced as heroes, kings, &c. written +in an elevated style, and generally with an unhappy issue.</p> + +<p>The great end of tragedy was to excite the passions; chiefly pity and +horror: to inspire a love of virtue, and an abhorrence of vice.</p> + +<p>The Roman tragedy and comedy differed from ours only in the chorus: +this was a company of actors who usually remained on the stage singing +and conversing on the subject in the intervals of the acts.</p> + +<p>Pantomimes, or representations of dumb show, where the actors +expressed every thing by their dancing and gestures, without +speaking.</p> + +<p>Those who were most approved, received crowns, &c. as at other games; +at first composed of leaves or flowers, tied round the head with +strings, afterwards of thin plates of brass gilt.</p> + +<p>The scenery was concealed by a curtain, which, contrary to the modern +custom, was drawn down when the play began, and raised when it was +over.</p> + +<hr> +<h2 id="chap_1_16">CHAPTER XVI.</h2> + +<h3><i>Magistrates.</i></h3> + +<p>Rome was at first governed by kings, chosen by the people; their +power was not absolute, but limited; their badges were the <i>trabea</i> +or white robe adorned with stripes of purple, a golden crown and ivory +sceptre; the <i>curule</i> chair and twelve <i>lictors</i> with +the <i>fasces</i>, that is, carrying each a bundle of rods, with an axe +in the middle of them.</p> + +<p>The regal government subsisted at Rome for two hundred and +forty-three years, under seven kings—Romulus, Numa Pompilius, Tullus +Hostilius, Ancus Marcius, Lucius Tarquinius Priscus, Servius Tullius, +and Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, all of whom, except the last, may be +said to have laid the foundation of Roman greatness by their good +government.</p> + +<p>Tarquin being universally detested for his tyranny and cruelty, was +expelled the city, with his wife and family, on account of the violence +offered by his son Sextus to Lucretia, a noble lady, the wife of +Collatinus.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" +id="Page_45">[45]</a></span>This revolution was brought about chiefly by +means of Lucius Junius Brutus. The haughtiness and cruelty of Tarquin +inspired the Romans with the greatest aversion to regal government, +which they retained ever after.</p> + +<p>In the two hundred and forty-fourth year from the building of the +city, they elected two magistrates, of equal authority, and gave them +the name of consuls. They had the same badges as the kings, except the +crown, and nearly the same power; in time of war they possessed supreme +command, and usually drew lots to determine which should remain in +Rome—they levied soldiers, nominated the greater part of the officers, +and provided what was necessary for their support.</p> + +<p>In dangerous conjunctures, they were armed by the senate with +absolute power, by the solemn decree that the consuls should take care +the Republic receives no harm. In any serious tumult or sedition they +called the Roman citizens to arms in these words, “Let those who wish to +save the republic follow me”—by which they easily checked it.</p> + +<p>Although their authority was very much impaired, first by the +tribunes of the people, and afterwards upon the establishment of the +empire, yet they were still employed in consulting the senate, +administering justice, managing public games and the like, and had the +honor to characterize the year by their own names.</p> + +<p>To be a candidate for the consulship, it was requisite to be +forty-three years of age: to have gone through the inferior offices of +<i>quæstor</i>, <i>ædile</i>, and <i>prætor</i>—and to be present in a private +station.</p> + +<p>The office of prætor was instituted partly because the consuls being +often wholly taken up with foreign wars, found the want of some person +to administer justice in the city; and partly because the nobility, +having lost their appropriation of the consulship, were ambitious of +obtaining some new honor in its room. He was attended in the city by two +<i>lictors</i>, who went before him with the <i>fasces</i>, and six +<i>lictors</i> without the city; he wore also, like the consuls, +the <i>toga pretexta</i>, or white robe fringed with purple.</p> + +<p>The power of the prætor, in the administration of justice, was +expressed in three words, <i>do</i>, <i>dico</i>, <i>addico</i>. By the +word <i>do</i>, he expressed his power in giving the form +of <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span>a +writ for trying and redressing a wrong, and in appointing judges or jury +to decide the cause: by <i>dico</i>, he meant that he declared right, or +gave judgment; and by <i>addico</i>, that he adjudged the goods of the +debtor to the creditor. The prætor administered justice only in private +or trivial cases: but in public and important causes, the people either +judged themselves, or appointed persons called <i>quæsitores</i> to +preside.</p> + +<p>The <i>censors</i> were appointed to take an account of the number of +the people, and the value of their fortunes, and superintend the public +morals. They were usually chosen from the most respectable persons of +consular dignity, at first only from among the Patricians, but +afterwards likewise from the Plebeians.</p> + +<p>They had the same ensigns as the consuls, except the <i>lictors</i>, +and were chosen every five years, but continued in office only a year +and a half. When any of the senators or equites committed a dishonorable +action, the censors could erase the name of the former from the list, +and deprive the knight of his horse and ring; any other citizen, they +degraded or deprived of all the privileges of a Roman citizen, except +liberty.</p> + +<p>As the sentence of censors (<i>Animadversio Censoria</i>,) only +affected a person's character, it was therefore properly +called <i>Ignominia</i>. Yet even this was not unchangeable; the people +or next censors might reverse it.</p> + +<p>In addition to the revision of morals, censors had the charge of +paving the streets—making roads, bridges, and aqueducts—preventing +private persons from occupying public property—and frequently of +imposing taxes.</p> + +<p>A census was taken by these officers, every five years, of the number +of the people, the amount of their fortunes, the number of slaves, &c. +After this census had been taken, a sacrifice was made of a sow, a +sheep, and a bull—hence called <i>suove-taurilia</i>. As this took +place only every five years, that space of time was called +a <i>lustrum</i>, because the sacrifice was a lustration offered for all +the people; and therefore <i>condere lustrum</i>, means to finish the +census.</p> + +<p>The title of censor was esteemed more honorable than that of consul, +although attended by less power: no one could be elected a second time, +and they who filled it were remarkable for leading an irreproachable +life; so that it was considered the chief ornament of nobility to be +sprung from a censorian family.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" +id="Page_47">[47]</a></span>The appointment of tribunes of the people, +may be attributed to the following cause; the Plebeians being oppressed +by the Patricians, on account of debt, made a secession to a mountain +afterwards called +<i>mons sacer</i>, three miles from Rome, nor could they be prevailed on to +return, till they obtained from the Patricians a remission of debts for +those who were insolvent, and liberty to such as had been given up to +serve their creditors: and likewise that the Plebeians should have +proper magistrates of their own, to protect their rights, whose person +should be sacred and inviolable.</p> + +<p>They were at first five in number, but afterwards increased to ten; +they had no external mark of dignity, except a kind of beadle, called +<i>viator</i>, who went before them.</p> + +<p>The word <i>veto</i>, I forbid it, was at first the extent of their +power; but it afterwards increased to such a degree, that under pretence +of defending the rights of the people, they did almost whatever they +pleased. If any one hurt a tribune in word or deed, he was held +accursed, and his property confiscated.</p> + +<p>The <i>ediles</i> were so called from their care of the public +buildings; they were either Plebeian or <i>curule</i>; the former, two +in number, were appointed to be, as it were, the assistants of the +tribunes of the commons, and to determine certain lesser causes +committed to them; the latter, also two in number, were chosen from the +Patricians and Plebeians, to exhibit certain public games.</p> + +<p>The <i>quæstors</i> were officers elected by the people, to take care +of the public revenues; there were at first only two of them, but two +others were afterwards added to accompany the armies; and upon the +conquest of all Italy, four more were created, who remained in the +provinces.</p> + +<p>The principal charge of the city quæstors was the care of the +treasury; they received and expended the public money, and exacted the +fines imposed by the people: they kept the military standards, +entertained foreign ambassadors, and took charge of the funerals of +those who were buried at the public expense.</p> + +<p>Commanders returning from war, before they could obtain a triumph, +were obliged to take an oath before the quæstors, that they had written +to the senate a true account of the number of the enemy they had slain, +and of the citizens who were missing.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" +id="Page_48">[48]</a></span>The office of the provincial quæstors was to +attend the consuls or prætors into their provinces; to furnish the +provisions and pay for the army; to exact the taxes and tribute of the +empire, and sell the spoils taken in war.</p> + +<p>The quæstorship was the first step of preferment to the other public +offices, and to admission into the senate: its continuation was for but +one year, and no one could be a candidate for it until he had completed +his twenty-seventh year.</p> + +<p><i>Legati</i> were those next in authority to the quæstors, and +appointed either by the senate or president of the province, who was +then said to +<i>aliquem sibi legare</i>.</p> + +<p>The office of the legati was very dignified and honorable. They acted +as lieutenants or deputies in any business for which they were +appointed, and were sometimes allowed the honor of lictors.</p> + +<p>The <i>dictator</i> was a magistrate invested with royal authority, +created in perilous circumstances, in time of pestilence, sedition, or +when the commonwealth was attacked by dangerous enemies.</p> + +<p>His power was supreme both in peace and war, and was even above the +laws; he could raise and disband armies, and determine upon the life and +fortune of Roman citizens, without consulting the senate or people; when +he was appointed, all other magistrates resigned their offices except +the tribunes of the commons.</p> + +<p>The dictator could continue in office only six months; but he usually +resigned when he had effected the business for which he had been +created. He was neither permitted to go out of Italy, nor ride on +horseback, without the permission of the people; but the principal check +against any abuse of power, was that he might be called to an account +for his conduct, when he resigned his office.</p> + +<p>A master of horse was nominated by the dictator immediately after his +creation, usually from those of consular or prætorian rank, whose office +was to command the cavalry, and execute the orders of the dictator.</p> + +<p>The <i>decemviri</i> were ten men invested with supreme power, who +were appointed to draw up a code of laws, all the other magistrates +having first resigned their offices.</p> + +<p>They at first behaved with great moderation, and administered justice +to the people every tenth day. Ten tables of laws were proposed by them, +and ratified by the people at the <i>comitia centuriata</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" +id="Page_49">[49]</a></span>As two other tables seemed to be +wanting, <i>decemviri</i> were again appointed for another year, to make +them. But as these new magistrates acted tyrannically, and seemed +disposed to retain their command beyond the legal time, they were +compelled to resign, chiefly on account of the base passion of Appius +Claudius, one of their number, for Virginia, a virgin of plebeian rank, +who was slain by her father to prevent her falling into the decemvir's +hands. The <i>decemviri</i> all perished, either in prison or in +banishment.</p> + +<p>The consuls and all the chief magistrates, except the censors and the +tribunes of the people, were preceded in public by a certain number, +according to their rank of office, called lictors, each bearing on his +shoulders as the insignia of office, the <i>fasces</i> +and <i>securis</i>, which were a bundle of rods, with an axe in the +centre of one end; but the lictors in attendance on an inferior +magistrate, carried the <i>fasces</i> only, without the axe, to denote +that he was not possessed of the power of capital punishments.</p> + +<p>They opened a way through the crowd for the consul, saying words like +these—“<i>cedite, Consul venit</i>,” or “<i>date viam Consuli</i>.” It +was their duty also to inflict punishment on the condemned.</p> + +<hr> +<h2 id="chap_1_17">CHAPTER XVII.</h2> + +<h3><i>Of Military Affairs.</i></h3> + +<p>According to the Roman constitution, every free-born citizen was a +soldier, and bound to serve if called upon, in the armies of the state +at any period, from the age of seventeen to forty-six.</p> + +<p>When the Romans thought themselves injured by any nation, they sent +one or more of the priests, called <i>feciales</i>, to demand redress, +and if it was not immediately given, thirty-three days were granted to +consider the matter, after which war might be justly declared; then the +feciales again went to their confines, and having thrown a bloody spear +into them, formally declared war against that nation.</p> + +<p>The levy of the troops, the encampment, and much of the civil +discipline, as well as the temporary command +of <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" +id="Page_50">[50]</a></span>the army, was intrusted to the military +tribunes, six of whom were appointed to each legion.</p> + +<p>During the early period of the republic, the standing army in time of +peace usually consisted of only four legions, two of which were +commanded by each consul, and they were relieved by new levies every +year, the soldiers then serving without any pay beyond their mere +subsistence. But this number was afterwards greatly augmented, and the +inconvenience of raw troops having been experienced, a fixed stipend in +money was allowed to the men, and they were constantly retained in the +service.</p> + +<p>The legion usually consisted of three hundred horse, and three +thousand foot: the different kinds of infantry which composed it were +three, the <i>hastati</i>, <i>principes</i>, and <i>triarii</i>. The +first were so called because they fought with spears: they consisted of +young men in the flower of life, and formed the first line in battle. +The <i>principes</i> were men of middle age who occupied the second +line. The <i>triarii</i> were old soldiers of approved valor, who formed +the third line.</p> + +<p>There was a fourth kind of troops, called <i>velĭtes</i> from their +swiftness and agility: these did not form a part of the legion, and had +no certain post assigned them, but fought in scattered parties, wherever +occasion required, usually before the lines.</p> + +<p>The imperial eagle was the common standard of the legion; it was of +gilt metal, borne on a spear by an officer of rank, styled, from his +office, <i>aquilifer</i>, and was regarded by the soldiery with the +greatest reverence. There were other ensigns, as A. B. C. D. in the +frontispiece.</p> + +<p>The only musical instruments used in the Roman army, were brazen +trumpets of different forms, adapted to the various duties of the +service.</p> + +<p>The arms of the soldiery varied according to the battalion in which +they served. Some were equipped with light javelins, and others with a +missile weapon, called <i>pilum</i>, which they flung at the enemy; but +all carried shields and short swords of that description, usually styled +cut and thrust, which they wore on the right side, to prevent its +interfering with the buckler, which they bore on the left arm.</p> + +<p>The shield was of an oblong or oval shape, with an iron boss jutting +out in the middle, to glance off stones or +darts; <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" +id="Page_51">[51]</a></span>it was four feet long and two and a half +broad, made of pieces of wood joined together with small plates of iron, +and the whole covered with a bull's hide.</p> + +<p>They were partly dressed in a metal cuirass with an under covering of +cloth; on the head they wore helmets of brass, either fastened under the +chin, with plates of the same metal, or reaching to the shoulders, which +they covered and ornamented on the top with flowing tufts of horse +hair.</p> + +<p>The light infantry were variously armed with slings and darts as well +as swords, and commonly wore a shaggy cap, in imitation of the head of +some wild beast, of which the skirt hung over their shoulders. The +troops of the line wore greaves on the legs and heavy iron-bound sandals +on the feet. These last were called <i>caligæ</i>, from which the +emperor Caius Cæsar obtained the name of Caligula, in consequence of +having worn them in his youth among the soldiery.</p> + +<p>The cavalry were armed with spears and wore a coat of mail of chain +work, or scales of brass or steel, often plated with gold, under which +was a close garment that reached to their buskins. The helmet was +surmounted with a plume, and with an ornament distinctive of each rank, +or with some device according to the fancy of the wearers, and which was +then, as now in heraldry, denominated the crest. This term +was <i>crista</i>, derived from the resemblance of the ornament to the +comb of a cock.</p> + +<p>The Romans made no use of saddles or stirrups, but merely cloths +folded according to the convenience of the rider.</p> + +<p>Among the instruments used in war were towers consisting of different +stories, from which showers of darts were discharged on the townsmen by +means of engines called <i>catapultæ</i>, <i>balistæ</i>, +and <i>scorpiones</i>.</p> + +<p>But the most dreadful machine of all was the battering ram: this was +a long beam like the mast of a ship, and armed at one end with iron, in +the form of a ram's head, whence it had its name. It was suspended by +the middle, with ropes or chains fastened to a beam which lay across two +posts, and hanging thus equally balanced, it was violently thrust +forward, drawn back, and again pushed forward, until by repeated strokes +it had broken down the wall.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" +id="Page_52">[52]</a></span>The discipline of the army was maintained +with great severity; officers were exposed to degradation for +misconduct, and the private soldier to corporal punishment. Whole +legions who had transgressed their military duty were exposed to +decimation, which consisted in drawing their names by lot, and putting +every tenth man to the sword.</p> + +<p>The most common rewards were crowns of different forms; the mural +crown was presented to him who in the assault first scaled the rampart +of a town; the castral, to those who were foremost in storming the +enemy's entrenchments; the civic chaplet of oak leaves, to the soldier +who saved his comrade's life in battle, and the triumphal laurel wreath +to the general who commanded in a successful engagement. The radial +crown was that worn by the emperors.</p> + +<p>When an army was freed from a blockade, the soldiers gave their +deliverer a crown called <i>obsidionalis</i>, made of the grass which +grew in the besieged place; and to him who first boarded the ship of an +enemy, a naval crown.</p> + +<p>But the greatest distinction that could be conferred on a commander, +was a triumph; this was granted only by the senate, on the occasion of a +great victory. When decreed, the general returned to Rome, and was +appointed by a special edict to the supreme command in the city; on the +day of his entry, a triumphal arch was erected of sculptured masonry, +under which the procession passed.</p> + +<p>First came a detachment of cavalry, with a band of military music +preceding a train of priests in their robes, who were followed by a +hecatomb of the whitest oxen with gilded horns entwined with flowers; +next were chariots, laden with the spoils of the vanquished; and after +them, long ranks of chained captives conducted by files of lictors. Then +came the conqueror, clothed in purple and crowned with laurel, having an +ivory sceptre in his hand; a band of children followed dressed in white, +who threw perfumes from silver censors, while they chanted the hymns of +victory and the praises of the conqueror. The march was closed by the +victorious troops, with their weapons wreathed with laurel; the +procession marched to the temple of Jupiter, where the victor descended +and dedicated his spoils to the gods.</p> + +<p>When the objects of the war had been obtained by a bloodless victory, +a minor kind of triumph was granted, +in <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" +id="Page_53">[53]</a></span>which the general appeared on horseback, +dressed in white, and crowned with myrtle, while in his hand he bore a +branch of olive. No other living sacrifice was offered but sheep, from +the name of which the ceremony was called an ovation.</p> + +<p>In consequence of the continual depredations to which the coast of +Italy was subject, the Romans commenced the building of a number of +vessels, to establish a fleet, taking for their model a Carthaginian +vessel, which was formerly stranded on their coast.</p> + +<p>Their vessels were of two kinds, <i>naves onerariæ</i>, ships of +burden, and <i>naves longæ</i>, ships of war: the former served to carry +provisions, &c.: they were almost round, very deep, and impelled by +sails.</p> + +<p>The ships of war received their name from the number of banks of +oars, one above another, which they contained: thus a ship with three +banks of oars was called <i>triremis</i>, one with +four, <i>quadriremis</i>, &c.; in these, sails were not used.</p> + +<hr> +<h2 id="chap_1_18">CHAPTER XVIII.</h2> + +<h3><i>Assemblies, Judicial Proceedings, and Punishments of the Romans.</i></h3> + +<p>The assemblies of the whole Roman people, to give their vote on any +subject, were called <i>comitia</i>. There were three kinds, +the <i>curiata</i>, +<i>centuriata</i>, and <i>tributa</i>.</p> + +<p>The <i>comitia curiata</i> were assemblies of the resident Roman +citizens, who were divided into thirty <i>curiæ</i>, a majority of which +determined all matters of importance that were laid before them, such as +the election of magistrates, the enacting of laws and judging of capital +causes.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" +id="Page_54">[54]</a></span><i>Comitia centuriata</i> were assemblies of +the various centuries into which the six classes of the people were +divided.</p> + +<p>Those who belonged to the first class were termed <i>classici</i>, by +way of pre-eminence—hence <i>auctores classici</i>, respectable or +standard authors; those of the last class, who had no fortune, were +called +<i>capite censi</i>, or <i>proletarii</i>; and those belonging to the middle +classes were all said to be <i>infra classem</i>—below the class.</p> + +<p><i>Comitia centuriata</i> were the most important of all the +assemblies of the people. In these, laws were enacted, magistrates +elected, and criminals tried. Their meeting was in the Campus +Martius.</p> + +<p>It was necessary that these assemblies should have been summoned +seventeen days previously to their meeting, in order that the people +might have time to reflect on the business which was to be +transacted.</p> + +<p>Candidates for any public office, who were to be elected here, were +obliged to give in their names before the <i>comitia</i> were summoned. +Those who did so, were said to <i>petere consulatum vel præturam</i>, +&c.; and they wore a white robe called <i>toga candida</i>, to denote +the purity of their motives; on which account they were +called <i>candidati</i>.</p> + +<p>Candidates went about to solicit votes (<i>ambire</i>,) accompanied +by a nomenclator, whose duty it was to whisper the names of those whose +votes they desired; for it was supposed to be an insult not to know the +name of a Roman citizen.</p> + +<p><i>Centuria prærogativa</i> was that century which obtained by ballot +the privilege of voting first.</p> + +<p>When the <i>centuria prærogativa</i> had been elected, the presiding +magistrate sitting in a tent (<i>tabernaculum</i>,) called upon it to +come and vote. All that century then immediately separated themselves +from the rest, and entered into that place of the Campus Martius, called +<i>septa</i> or <i>ovilia</i>. Going into this, they had to cross over a little +bridge (<i>pons</i>;) hence the phrase <i>de ponte dejici</i>—to be deprived of +the elective franchise.</p> + +<p>At the farther end of the <i>septa</i> stood officers, called +<i>diribitores</i>, who handed waxen tablets to the voters, with the names of +the candidates written upon them. The voter then putting a mark +(<i>punctus</i>) on the name of him for whom he voted, threw the tablet into +a large chest; and when all were done, the votes were counted.</p> + +<p>If the votes of a century for different magistrates, or respecting +any law, were equal when counted, the vote of the entire century was not +reckoned among the votes of the other centuries; but in trials of life +and death, if the tablets pro and con were equal, the criminal was +acquitted.</p> + +<p>The candidate for whom the greatest number of centuries voted, was +duly elected, (<i>renunciatus est</i>:) when the votes were unanimous, +he was said <i>ferre omne punctum</i>—to be completely successful.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" +id="Page_55">[55]</a></span>When a law was proposed, two ballots were +given to each voter: one with U. R. written upon it, <i>Uti +Rogas</i>—as you propose; and the other with A. for <i>Antiquo</i>—I +am for the old one.</p> + +<p>In voting on an impeachment, one tablet was marked with A. for +<i>Absolvo</i>—I acquit; hence this letter was called <i>litera salutaris</i>; +the other with C. for <i>condemno</i>—I condemn; hence C. was called <i>litera +tristis</i>.</p> + +<p>In the <i>comitia tributa</i>, the people voted, divided into tribes, +according to their regions or wards; they were held to create inferior +magistrates, to elect certain priests, to make laws, and to hold +trials.</p> + +<p>The <i>comitia</i> continued to be assembled for upwards of seven +hundred years, when that liberty was abridged by Julius Cæsar, and after +him by Augustus, each of whom shared the right of creating magistrates +with the people. Tiberius the second emperor, deprived the people +altogether of the right of election.</p> + +<p>The extension of the Roman empire, the increase of riches, and +consequently of crime, gave occasion to a great number of new laws, +which were distinguished by the name of the person who proposed them, +and by the subject to which they referred.</p> + +<p>Civil trials, or differences between private persons were tried in +the forum by the prætor. If no adjustment could be made between the two +parties, the plaintiff obtained a writ from the prætor, which required +the defendant to give bail for his appearance on the third day, at which +time, if either was not present when cited, he lost his cause, unless he +had a valid excuse.</p> + +<p>Actions were either real, personal, or mixed. Real, was for obtaining +a thing to which one had a real right, but was possessed by another. +Personal, was against a person to bind him to the fulfilment of a +contract, or to obtain redress for wrongs. Mixed, was when the actions +had relation to persons and things.</p> + +<p>After the plaintiff had presented his case for trial, judges were +appointed by the prætor, to hear and determine the matter, and fix the +number of witnesses, that the suit might not be unreasonably protracted. +The parties gave security that they would abide by the judgment, and the +judges took a solemn oath to decide impartially; after this the cause +was argued on both sides, assisted by +witnesses, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" +id="Page_56">[56]</a></span>writings, &c. In giving sentence, the votes +of a majority of the judges were necessary to decide against the +defendant; but if the number was equally divided, it was left to the +prætor to determine.</p> + +<p>Trial by jury, as established with us, was not known, but the mode of +judging in criminal cases, seems to have resembled it. A certain number +of senators and knights, or other citizens of respectability, were +annually chosen by the prætor, to act as his assessors, and some of +these were appointed to sit in judgment with him. They decided by a +majority of voices, and returned their verdict, either guilty, not +guilty, or uncertain, in which latter instance the case was deferred; +but if the votes for acquittal and condemnation were equal, the culprit +was discharged.</p> + +<p>There were also officers called <i>centumviri</i>, to the number at +first of 100, but afterwards of 180, who were chosen equally, from the +35 tribes, and together with the prætor constituted a court of +justice.</p> + +<p>Candidates for office wore a white robe, rendered shining by the art +of the fuller. They did not wear tunics, or waist-coats, either that +they might appear more humble, or might more easily show the scars they +had received on the breast.</p> + +<p>For a long time before the election, they endeavored to gain the +favor of the people, by every popular art, by going to their houses, by +shaking hands with those they met, by addressing them in a kindly +manner, and calling them by name, on which occasion they commonly had +with them a monitor, who whispered in their ears every body's name.</p> + +<p>Criminal law was in many instances more severe than it is at the +present day. Thus adultery, which now only subjects the offender to a +civil suit, was by the Romans, as well as the ancient Jews, punished +corporally.</p> + +<p>Forgery was not punished with death, unless the culprit was a slave; +but freemen guilty of that crime were subject to banishment, which +deprived them of their property and privileges; and false testimony, +coining, and those offences which we term misdemeanors, exposed them to +an interdiction from fire and water, or in fact an excommunication from +society, which necessarily drove them into banishment.</p> + +<p>The punishments inflicted among the Romans, were—fine, +(<i>damnum</i>,) bonds, (<i>vincula</i>,) stripes, (<i>verbera</i>,) +retaliation, (<i>talio</i>,) infamy, (<i>ignominia</i>,) banishment, +(<i>exilium</i>,) slavery, (<i>servitus</i>,) and death.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" +id="Page_57">[57]</a></span>The methods of inflicting death were +various; the chief were—beheading (<i>percussio securi</i>), strangling +in prison (<i>strangulatio</i>), throwing a criminal from that part of +the prison called Robur (<i>precipitatio de robore</i>), throwing a +criminal from the Tarpeian rock (<i>dejectio e rupe Tarpeia</i>), +crucifixion (<i>in crucem actio</i>), and throwing into the river +(<i>projectio in profluentem</i>).</p> + +<p>The last-mentioned punishment was inflicted upon parricides, or the +murderers of any relation. So soon as any one was convicted of such +crimes, he was immediately blindfolded as unworthy of the light, and in +the next place whipped with rods. He was then sewed up in a sack, and +thrown into the sea. In after times, to add to the punishment, a serpent +was put in the sack; and still later, an ape, a dog, and a cock. The +sack which held the malefactor was called <i>Culeus</i>, on which +account the punishment itself is often signified by the same name.</p> + +<p>In the time of Nero, the punishment for treason was, to be stripped +stark naked, and with the head held up by a fork to be whipped to +death.</p> + +<hr> +<h2 id="chap_1_19">CHAPTER XIX.</h2> + +<h3><i>The Roman Dress.</i></h3> + +<p>The ordinary garments of the Romans were the <i>toga</i> and the +<i>tunic</i>.</p> + +<p>The <i>toga</i> was a loose woollen robe, of a semicircular form, +without sleeves, open from the waist upwards, but closed from thence +downwards, and surrounding the limbs as far as the middle of the leg. +The upper part of the vest was drawn under the right arm, which was thus +left uncovered, and, passing over the left shoulder, was there gathered +in a knot, whence it fell in folds across the breast: this flap being +tucked into the girdle, formed a cavity which sometimes served as a +pocket, and was frequently used as a covering for the head. Its color +was white, except in case of mourning, when a black or dark color was +worn. The Romans were at great pains to adjust the toga and make it hang +gracefully.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" +id="Page_58">[58]</a></span>It was at first worn by women as well as +men—but afterwards matrons wore a different robe, called <i>stola</i>, +with a broad border or fringe, reaching to the feet. Courtezans, and +women condemned for adultery, were not permitted to wear +the <i>stola</i>—hence called +<i>togatæ</i>.</p> + +<p>Roman citizens only were permitted to wear the <i>toga</i>, and +banished persons were prohibited the use of it. The <i>toga picta</i> +was so termed from the rich embroidery with which it was +covered:—the <i>toga palmata</i> from its being wrought in figured palm +leaves—this last was the triumphal habit.</p> + +<p>Young men, until they were seventeen years of age, and young women +until they were married, wore a gown bordered with purple, called the +<i>toga prætexta</i>.</p> + +<p>After they had arrived at the age of seventeen, young men assumed the +<i>toga virilis</i>.</p> + +<p>The <i>tunic</i> was a white woollen vest worn below the <i>toga</i>, +coming down a little below the knees before, and to the middle of the +leg behind, at first without sleeves. <i>Tunics</i> with sleeves were +reckoned effeminate: but under the emperors, these were used with +fringes at the hands. The <i>tunic</i> was fastened by a girdle or belt +about the waist, to keep it tight, which also served as a purse.</p> + +<p>The women wore a <i>tunic</i> which came down to their feet and +covered their arms.</p> + +<p>Senators had a broad stripe of purple, sewed on the breast of their +tunic, called <i>latus clavus</i>, which is sometimes put for +the <i>tunic</i> itself, or the dignity of a senator.</p> + +<p>The <i>equites</i> were distinguished by a narrow stripe +called <i>angustus clavus</i>.</p> + +<p>The Romans wore neither stockings nor breeches, but used sometimes to +wrap their legs and thighs with pieces of cloth called from the parts +which they covered, <i>tibialia</i> and <i>feminalia</i>.</p> + +<p>The chief coverings for the feet were the <i>calceus</i>, which +covered the whole foot, somewhat like our shoes, and was tied above with +a +<i>latchet</i> or lace, and the <i>solea</i>, a slipper or sandal which covered +only the sole of the foot, and was fastened on with leather thongs or +strings.</p> + +<p>The shoes of the senators came up to the middle of their legs, and +had a golden or silver crescent on the top of the foot. The shoes of the +soldiery were called <i>caligæ</i>, sometimes shod with nails. Comedians +wore the <i>socci</i> or slippers, and tragedians +the <i>cothurni</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" +id="Page_59">[59]</a></span>The ancient Romans went with their heads +bare except at sacred rites, games, festivals, on journey or in +war.—Hence, of all the honors decreed to Cæsar by the senate, he is +said to have been chiefly pleased with that of always wearing a laurel +crown, because it covered his baldness, which was reckoned a deformity. +At games and festivals a woollen cap or bonnet was worn.</p> + +<p>The head-dress of women was at first very simple. They seldom went +abroad, and when they did they almost always had their faces veiled. But +when riches and luxury increased, dress became, with many, the chief +object of attention. They anointed their hair with the richest perfumes, +and sometimes gave it a bright yellow color, by means of a composition +or wash. It was likewise adorned with gold and pearls and precious +stones: sometimes with garlands and chaplets of flowers.</p> + +<hr> +<h2 id="chap_1_20">CHAPTER XX.</h2> + +<h3><i>Of the Fine Arts and Literature.</i></h3> + +<p>The Romans invented short or abridged writing, which enabled their +secretaries to collect the speeches of orators, however rapidly +delivered. The characters used by such writers were called notes. They +did not consist in letters of the alphabet, but certain marks, one of +which often expressed a whole word, and frequently a phrase. The same +description of writing is known at the present day by the word +<i>stenography</i>. From notes came the word <i>notary</i>, which was given to all +who professed the art of quick writing.</p> + +<p>The system of note-writing was not suddenly brought to perfection: it +only came into favor when the professors most accurately reported an +excellent speech which Cato pronounced in the senate. The orators, the +philosophers, the dignitaries, and nearly all the rich patricians then +took for secretaries note-writers, to whom they allowed handsome pay. It +was usual to take from their slaves all who had intellect to acquire a +knowledge of that art.</p> + +<p>The fine arts were unknown at Rome, until their successful commanders +brought from Syracuse, Asia, Macedonia and Corinth, the various +specimens which those <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" +id="Page_60">[60]</a></span>places afforded. So ignorant, indeed, were +they of their real worth, that when the victories of Mummius had given +him possession of some of the finest productions of Grecian art, he +threatened the persons to whom he intrusted the carriage of some antique +statues and rare pictures, “that if they lost those, they should give +him new ones.” A taste by degrees began to prevail, which they gratified +at the expense of every liberal feeling of public justice and private +right.</p> + +<p>The art of printing being unknown, books were sometimes written on +parchment, but more generally on a paper made from the leaves of a plant +called <i>papyrus</i>, which grew and was prepared in Egypt. This plant +was about ten cubits high, and had several coats or skins, one above +another, which they separated with a needle.</p> + +<p>The instrument used for writing was a reed, sharpened and split at +the point, like our pens, called <i>calamus</i>. Their ink was sometimes +composed of a black liquid emitted by the cuttle fish.</p> + +<p>The Romans commonly wrote only on one side of the paper, and joined +one sheet to the end of another, till they finished what they had to +write, and then rolled it on a cylinder or staff, hence called +<i>volumen</i>.</p> + +<p>But <i>memoranda</i> or other unimportant matters, not intended to be +preserved, were usually written on tablets spread with wax. This was +effected by means of a metal pencil called <i>stylus</i>, pointed at one +end to scrape the letters, and flat at the other to smooth the wax when +any correction was necessary.</p> + +<p>Julius Cæsar introduced the custom of folding letters in a flat +square form, which were then divided into small pages, in the manner of +a modern book. When forwarded for delivery, they were usually perfumed +and tied round with a silken thread, the ends of which were sealed with +common wax.</p> + +<p>Letters were not subscribed; but the name of the writer, and that of +the person to whom they were addressed, were inserted at the +commencement—thus, Julius Cæsar to his friend Antony, health. At the +end was written a simple, Farewell!</p> + +<p>The Romans had many private and public libraries. Adjoining to some +of them were museums for the accommodation of a college or society of +learned men, who were <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" +id="Page_61">[61]</a></span>supported there at the public expense, with +a covered walk and seats, where they might dispute.</p> + +<p>The first public library at Rome, and probably in the world, was +erected by Asinius Pollio, in the temple of liberty, on Mount Aventine. +This was adorned by the statues of the most celebrated men.</p> + +<hr> +<h2 id="chap_1_21">CHAPTER XXI.</h2> + +<h3><i>Roman Houses.</i></h3> + +<p>The houses of the Romans are supposed at first to have been nothing +more than thatched cottages. After the city was burnt by the Gauls, it +was rebuilt in a more solid and commodious manner; but the streets were +very irregular.</p> + +<p>In the time of Nero the city was set on fire, and more than +two-thirds of it burnt to the ground. That tyrant himself is said to +have been the author of this conflagration. He beheld it from the tower +of Mæcenas, and being delighted, as he said, with the beauty of the +flames, played the taking of Troy, dressed like an actor.</p> + +<p>The city was then rebuilt with greater regularity and splendor—the +streets were widened, the height of the houses was limited to seventy +feet, and each house had a portico before it, fronting the street.</p> + +<p>Nero erected for himself a palace of extraordinary extent and +magnificence. The enclosure extended from the Palatine to the Esquiline +mount, which was more than a mile in breadth, and it was entirely +surrounded with a spacious portico embellished with sculpture and +statuary, among which stood a colossal statue of Nero himself, one +hundred and twenty feet in height. The apartments were lined with +marble, enriched with jasper, topaz, and other precious gems: the timber +works and ceilings were inlaid with gold, ivory and mother of pearl.</p> + +<p>This noble edifice, which from its magnificence obtained the +appellation of the golden house, was destroyed by Vespasian as being too +gorgeous for the residence even of a Roman emperor.</p> + +<p>The lower floors of the houses of the great were, at this time, +either inlaid marble or mosaic work. Every +thing <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" +id="Page_62">[62]</a></span>curious and valuable was used in ornament +and furniture. The number of stories was generally two, with underground +apartments. On the first, were the reception-rooms and bed-chamber; on +the second, the dining-room and apartments of the women.</p> + +<p>The Romans used portable furnaces in their rooms, on which account +they had little use for chimneys, except for the kitchen.</p> + +<p>The windows of some of their houses were glazed with a thick kind of +glass, not perfectly transparent; in others, isinglass split into thin +plates was used. Perfectly transparent glass was so rare and valuable at +Rome, that Nero is said to have given a sum equal to £50,000 for two +cups of such glass with handles.</p> + +<p>Houses not joined with the neighboring ones were +called <i>Insulæ</i>, as also lodgings or houses to let. The inhabitants +of rented houses or lodgings, <i>Insularii</i> or <i>Inquilini</i>.</p> + +<p>The principal parts of a private house were the <i>vestibulum</i>, or +court before the gate, which was ornamented towards the street with a +portico extending along the entire front.</p> + +<p>The <i>atrium</i> or hall, which was in the form of an oblong square, +surrounded by galleries supported on pillars. It contained a hearth on +which a fire was kept constantly burning, and around which were ranged +the <i>lares</i>, or images of the ancestors of the family.</p> + +<p>These were usually nothing more than waxen busts, and, though held in +great respect, were not treated with the same veneration as the +<i>penates</i>, or household gods, which were considered of divine origin, +and were never exposed to the view of strangers, but were kept in an +inner apartment, called <i>penetralia</i>.</p> + +<p>The outer door was furnished with a bell: the entrance was guarded by +a slave in chains: he was armed with a staff, and attended by a dog.</p> + +<p>The houses had high sloping roofs, covered with broad tiles, and +there was usually an open space in the centre to afford light to the +inner apartments.</p> + +<p>The Romans were unacquainted with the use of chimnies, and were +consequently much annoyed by smoke. To remedy this, they sometimes +anointed the wood of which their fuel was composed, with lees of +oil.</p> + +<p>The windows were closed with blinds of linen or plates of horn, but +more generally with shutters of wood. +Dur<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" +id="Page_63">[63]</a></span>ing the time of the emperors, a species of +transparent stone, cut into plates, was used for the purpose. Glass was +not used for the admission of light into the apartments until towards +the fifth century of the christian era.</p> + +<p>A villa was originally a farm-house of an ordinary kind, and occupied +by the industrious cultivator of the soil; but when increasing riches +inspired the citizens with a taste for new pleasures, it became the +abode of opulence and luxury.</p> + +<p>Some villas were surrounded with large parks, in which deer and +various foreign wild animals were kept, and in order to render the sheep +that pastured on the lawn ornamental, we are told that they often dyed +their fleeces with various colours.</p> + +<p>Large fish ponds were also a common appendage to the villas of +persons of fortune, and great expense was often incurred in stocking +them. In general, however, country houses were merely surrounded with +gardens, of which the Romans were extravagantly fond.</p> + +<hr> +<h2 id="chap_1_22">CHAPTER XXII.</h2> + +<h3><i>Marriages and Funerals.</i></h3> + +<p>A marriage ceremony was never solemnized without consulting the +auspices, and offering sacrifices to the gods, particularly to Juno; and +the animals offered up on the occasion were deprived of their gall, in +allusion to the absence of every thing bitter and malignant in the +proposed union.</p> + +<p>A legal marriage was made in three different ways, called +<i>confarreatio</i>, <i>usus</i> and <i>coemptio</i>.</p> + +<p>The first of these was the most ancient. A priest, in the presence of +ten witnesses, made an offering to the gods, of a cake composed of salt +water, and that kind of flour called “<i>far</i>,” from which the name +of the ceremony was derived. The bride and bridegroom mutually partook +of this, to denote the union that was to subsist between them, and the +sacrifice of a sheep ratified the interchange of their vows.</p> + +<p>When a woman, with the consent of her parents +or <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" +id="Page_64">[64]</a></span>guardian, lived an entire year with a man, +with the intention of becoming his wife, it was called <i>usus</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Coemptio</i> was an imaginary purchase which the husband and wife +made of each other, by the exchange of some pieces of money.</p> + +<p>A plurality of wives was forbidden among the Romans. The marriageable +age was from fourteen for men, and twelve for girls.</p> + +<p>On the wedding day the bride was dressed in a simple robe of pure +white, bound with a zone of wool, which her husband alone was to +unloose: her hair was divided into six locks, with the point of a spear, +and crowned with flowers; she wore a saffron colored veil, which +enveloped the entire person: her shoes were yellow, and had unusually +high heels to give her an appearance of greater dignity.</p> + +<p>Thus attired she waited the arrival of the bridegroom, who went with +a party of friends and carried her off with an appearance of violence, +from the arms of her parents, to denote the reluctance she was supposed +to feel at leaving her paternal roof.</p> + +<p>The nuptial ceremony was then performed; in the evening she was +conducted to her future home, preceded by the priests, and followed by +her relations, friends, and servants, carrying presents of various +domestic utensils.</p> + +<p>The door of the bridegroom's house was hung with garlands of flowers. +When the bride came hither, she was asked who she was; she answered, +addressing the bridegroom, “Where thou art Caius, there shall I be +Caia.” intimating that she would imitate the exemplary life of Caia, the +wife of Tarquinius Priscus. She was then lifted over the threshold, or +gently stepped over, it being considered ominous to touch it with her +feet, because it was sacred to Vesta the goddess of Virgins.</p> + +<p>Upon her entrance, the keys of the house were delivered to her, to +denote her being intrusted with the management of the family, and both +she and her husband touched fire and water to intimate that their union +was to last through every extremity. The bridegroom then gave a great +supper to all the company. This feast was accompanied with music and +dancing, and the guests sang a nuptial song in praise of the new married +couple.</p> + +<p>The Romans paid great attention to funeral rites, because they +believed that the souls of the unburied +were <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" +id="Page_65">[65]</a></span>not admitted into the abodes of the dead; or +at least wandered a hundred years along the river Styx before they were +allowed to cross it.</p> + +<p>When any one was at the point of death, his nearest relation present +endeavored to catch his last breath with his mouth, for they believed +that the soul or living principle thus went out at the mouth. The corpse +was then bathed and perfumed; dressed in the richest robes of the +deceased, and laid upon a couch strewn with flowers, with the feet +towards the outer door.</p> + +<p>The funeral took place by torch light. The corpse was carried with +the feet foremost on an open bier covered with the richest cloth, and +borne by the nearest relatives and friends. It was preceded by the image +of the deceased, together with those of his ancestors.</p> + +<p>The procession was attended by musicians, with wind instruments of a +larger size and a deeper tone than those used on less solemn occasions; +mourning women were likewise hired to sing the praises of the +deceased.</p> + +<p>On the conclusion of the ceremony the sepulchre was strewed with +flowers, and the mourners took a last farewell of the remains of the +deceased. Water was then thrown upon the attendants, by a priest, to +purify them from the pollution which the ancients supposed to be +communicated by any contact with a corpse.</p> + +<p>The manes of the dead were supposed to be propitiated by blood:—on +this account a custom prevailed of slaughtering, on the tomb of the +deceased, those animals of which he was most fond when living.</p> + +<p>When the custom of burning the dead was introduced, a funeral pile +was constructed in the shape of an altar, upon which the corpse was +laid; the nearest relative then set fire to it:—perfumes and spices +were afterwards thrown into the blaze, and when it was extinguished, the +embers were quenched with wine. The ashes were then collected and +deposited in an urn, to be kept in the mausoleum of the family.</p> + +<hr> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" +id="Page_66">[66]</a></span></p> + +<h2 id="chap_1_23">CHAPTER XXIII.</h2> + +<h3><i>Customs at Meals.</i></h3> + +<p>The food of the ancient Romans was of the simplest kind; they rarely +indulged in meat, and wine was almost wholly unknown. So averse were +they to luxury, that epicures were expelled from among them. But when +riches were introduced by the extension of conquest, the manners of the +people were changed, and the pleasures of the table became the chief +object of attention.</p> + +<p>Their principal meal was what they called <i>cœna</i> or supper. The +usual time for it was the ninth hour, or about three o'clock in the +afternoon.</p> + +<p>While at meals, they reclined on sumptuous couches of a semicircular +form, around a table of the same shape. This custom was introduced from +the nations of the east, and was at first adopted only by the men, but +afterwards allowed also to the women.</p> + +<p>The dress worn at table differed from that in use on other occasions, +and consisted merely of a loose robe of a slight texture, and generally +white.</p> + +<p>Before supper the Romans bathed themselves, and took various kinds of +exercise, such as tennis, throwing the discus or quoit, riding, running, +leaping, &c.</p> + +<p>Small figures of Mercury, Hercules and the penates, were placed upon +the table, of which they were deemed the presiding genii; and a small +quantity of wine was poured upon the board, at the commencement and end +of the feast, as a libation in honor of them, accompanied by a +prayer.</p> + +<p>As the ancients had not proper inns for the accommodation of +travellers, the Romans, when they were in foreign countries, or at a +distance from home, used to lodge at the houses of certain persons whom +they in return entertained at their houses in Rome. This was esteemed a +very intimate connexion, and was called <i>hospitium</i>, or <i>jus +hospitii</i>: hence <i>hospes</i> is put both for a host and a +guest.</p> + +<hr> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" +id="Page_67">[67]</a></span></p> +<h2 id="chap_1_24">CHAPTER XXIV.</h2> + +<h3><i>Weights, Measures and Coins.</i></h3> + +<p>The principal <span class="smcap">Weight</span> in use among the +Romans, was the pound, called <i>As</i> or <i>Libra</i>, which was equal +to 12 oz. avoirdupoise, or 16 oz. 18 pwts. and 13¾ grains, troy +weight. It was divided into twelve ounces, the names of which were as +follow: <i>Uncia</i>, 1 oz.—<i>Sextans</i>, 2 oz.—<i>Triens</i>, 3 +oz.—<i>Quadrans</i>, 4 oz.—<i>Quincunx</i>, 5 oz.—<i>Semis</i>, ½ +lb.—<i>Septunx</i>, 7 oz—<i>Bes</i>, 8 oz.—<i>Dodrans</i>, 9 +oz.—<i>Dextans</i>, 10 oz.—<i>Deunx</i>, 11 oz.</p> + +<p>The As and its divisions were applied to anything divided into twelve +parts, as well as to a pound weight. The twelth part of an acre was +called Uncia and half a foot, Semis, &c.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">The Measures for Things +Dry.</span>—<i>Modius</i>, a peck—<i>Semimodius</i>, a +gallon—<i>Sextanus</i>, a pint—<i>Hemina</i>, one-half pint, and 3 +smaller measures, for which we have not equivalent names in English. One +Modius contained 2 <i>Semimodii</i>—each Semimodius contained 8 +<i>Sextarii</i>—each Sextarius, 2 <i>Heminæ</i>—each Hemina, 4 <i>Acetabula</i>—each +Acetabulum, 1½ <i>Cyathi</i>—each Cyathus—4 <i>Ligulæ</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">The Liquid Measures of Capacity</span> were +the <i>Culeus</i>, which was equal to 144½ gallons—it contained +20 <i>Amphoræ</i> or +<i>Quadrantales</i>—each Amphora, 2 <i>Urnæ</i>—each Urna, 4 <i>Congii</i>—each +Congius, 6 <i>Sextarii</i>—and each Sextarius, 2 <i>Quartarii</i> or +naggins—each Quartarius, 2 <i>Heminæ</i>—each Hemina, 3 <i>Acetabula</i> or +glasses—each Acetabulum, 1½ <i>Cyathi</i>—and each Cyathus, 4 +<i>Ligulæ</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">The Measures of Length</span> in use among the +Romans were, +<i>Millarium</i> or <i>Mille</i>, a mile—each mile contained 8 <i>Stadia</i>, or +furlongs—each Stadium, 125 <i>Passus</i>—each Pace, 5 feet.</p> + +<p>The <i>Pes</i>, or foot, was variously divided. It contained +4 <i>Palmi</i> or handbreadths, each of which was therefore 3 inches +long—and it contained 16 <i>Digiti</i>, or finger breadths, each of +which was therefore three-quarters of an inch long—and it contained +12 <i>Unciæ</i>, or inches: any number of which was used to signify the +same number of ounces.</p> + +<p><i>Cubitus</i>, a cubit, was 1½ feet long—<i>Pollex</i>, a +thumb's breadth, 1 inch—<i>Palmipes</i>, a foot and hand's breadth, +i.e. 15 inches long—<i>Pertica</i>, a perch, 10 feet +long—the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" +id="Page_68">[68]</a></span>lesser <i>Actus</i> was a space of ground +120 feet long by four broad—the greater Actus was 120 feet square—two +square Actus made a <i>Jugerum</i>, or acre, which contained therefore +28,000 square feet.</p> + +<p>The first money in use among the Romans was nothing more than +unsightly lumps of brass, which were valued according to their weight. +Servius Tullius stamped these, and reduced them to a fixed standard. +After his reign, the Romans improved the old, and added some new coins. +Those in most frequent use, were +the <i>As</i>, <i>Sestertius</i>, <i>Victoriatus</i>, +<i>Denarius</i>, <i>Aureus</i>.</p> + +<p>The <span class="smcap">As</span> was a brass coin, stamped on one +side with the beak of a ship, and on the other with the double head of +Janus. It originally weighed one pound; but was afterwards reduced to +half an ounce, without suffering, however, any diminution of value. It +was worth one cent and forty-three hundredths.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Sestertius</span> was a silver coin, stamped on +one side with Castor and Pollux, and on the opposite with the city. This +was so current a coin, that the word <i>Nummus</i>, money, is often used +absolutely to express it. It was worth three cents and fifty-seven +hundredths.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Denarius</span> was a silver coin, valued at ten +asses; that is, fourteen cents and thirty-five hundredths of our money. +It was stamped with the figure of a carriage drawn by four beasts, and +on the other side, with a head covered with a helmet, to represent +Rome.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Victoriatus</span> was a silver coin, half the +value of a Denarius. It was stamped with the figure of Victory, from +whence its name was derived. Being worth five Asses, it was +called <i>Quinarius</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Libella</i>, <i>Sembella</i>, <i>Teruncius</i>, were also silver +coins, but of less value than the above. Libella was of the same worth +as the As—Sembella was half a Libella, equal to seventy-one hundredths +of a cent—and the Teruncius was half of a Sembella.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Aureus Denarius</span> was a gold coin, about the +size of a silver Denarius, and probably stamped in a similar manner. At +first, forty Aurei were made out of a pound of gold; but under the +Emperors it was not so intrinsically valuable, being mixed with +alloy.</p> + +<p>The value of the Aureus, which was also called <i>Solidus</i>, varied +at different times. According to Tacitus, it was +val<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" +id="Page_69">[69]</a></span>ued and exchanged for 25 Denarii, which +amounted to three dollars, fifty-eight cents and seventy-five +hundredths.</p> + +<p>The Abbreviations used by the Romans to express these various kinds +of money, were, for the As, L.—for the Sesterce, L. L. S. or H. S.—for +the Quinary, V. or λ.—for the Denarius, X. or :!:</p> + +<p>Sesterces were the kind of money in which the Romans usually made +their computations.—1,000 Sesterces made up a sum +called <i>Sestertium</i>, the value of which in our money, was +thirty-five dollars and seventy cents.</p> + +<p>The art of reckoning by Sesterces was regulated by these rules:</p> + +<p>First—If a numeral adjective were joined to Sestertii, and agreed +with it in case, it signified just so many Sesterces; as +<i>decem Sestertii</i>, 10 Sesterces—thirty-five cents and seven tenths.</p> + +<p>Second—If a numeral adjective, of a different case, were joined to +the genitive plural of Sestertius, it signified so many thousand +Sesterces; as <i>decem Sestertium</i>, 10,000 Sesterces—$357.</p> + +<p>Third—If a numeral adverb were placed by itself, or joined to +Sestertium, it signified so many hundred thousand Sesterces; as +<i>Decies</i>, or <i>decies Sestertium</i>, 1,000,000 <i>Sesterces</i>—$35,700.</p> + +<p>Fourth—When the sums are expressed by letters, if the letters have a +line over them, they signify also so many hundred thousand Sesterces: +thus, H. S. M̅. C̅.—denotes the sum of 1,100 times 100,000 Sesterces, +i.e. 110,000,000—nearly +$4,000,000. <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" +id="Page_70">[70]</a></span></p> + +<div id="a3" class="center framed" style="width:100%"> +<h3>THE GODS DESCENDING TO BATTLE</h3> +<p class="ralign"><i>Pl. 3.</i></p> +<a href="images/fig072.png"> +<img src="images/fig072th.png" alt="THE GODS DESCENDING TO BATTLE"> +</a> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">IN AID OF TROY, LATONA, PHŒBUS CAME,</span><br> +<span class="i0">MARS FIERY HELM'D, THE LAUGHTER LOVING DAME,</span><br> +<span class="i0">XANTHUS, WHOSE STREAMS IN GOLDEN CURRENTS FLOW,</span><br> +<span class="i0">AND THE CHASTE HUNTRESS OF THE SILVER BOW.</span><br> +</div> +</div> +<p class="ralign"><i>Pope's Homer's Iliad. B. 20. L. 51.</i></p> +</div> + +<hr> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" +id="Page_71">[71]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="mythology" id="mythology">MYTHOLOGY.</a></h2> + +<hr> +<h2 id="chap_2_1">CHAPTER I.</h2> + +<h3><i>Celestial Gods.</i></h3> + +<p>JUPITER, the supreme god of the Pagans, though set forth by +historians as the wisest of princes, is described by his worshippers as +infamous for his vices. There were many who assumed the name of Jupiter; +the most considerable, however, and to whom the actions of the others +are ascribed, was the Jupiter of Crete, son to Saturn and Rhea, who is +differently said to have had his origin in Crete, at Thebes in Bœotia, +and among the Messenians.</p> + +<p>His first warlike exploit, and, indeed, the most memorable of his +actions, was his expedition against the Titans, to deliver his parents, +who had been imprisoned by these princes, because Saturn, instead of +observing an oath he had sworn, to destroy his male children, permitted +his son Jupiter, by a stratagem of Rhea, to be educated. Jupiter, for +this purpose, raised a gallant army of Cretans, and engaged the Cecrŏpes +as auxiliaries in this expedition; but these, after taking his money, +having refused their services, he changed into apes. The valor of +Jupiter so animated the Cretans, that by their aid he overcame the +Titans, released his parents, and, the better to secure the reign of his +father, made all the gods swear fealty to him upon an altar, which has +since gained a place among the stars.</p> + +<p>This exploit of Jupiter, however, created jealousy in Saturn, who, +having learnt from an oracle, that he should +be <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" +id="Page_72">[72]</a></span>dethroned by one of his sons, secretly +meditated the destruction of Jupiter as the most formidable of them. The +design of Saturn being discovered by one of his council, Jupiter became +the aggressor, deposed his father, threw him into Tartarus, ascended the +throne, and was acknowledged as supreme by the rest of the gods.</p> + +<p>The reign of Jupiter being less favorable to his subjects than that +of Saturn, gave occasion to the name of the silver age, by which is +meant an age inferior in happiness to that which preceded, though +superior to those which followed.</p> + +<p>The distinguishing character of his person is majesty, and every +thing about him carries dignity and authority with it; his look is meant +to strike sometimes with terror, and sometimes with gratitude, but +always with respect. The Capitoline Jupiter, or the Jupiter Optimus +Maximus, (him now spoken of,) was the great guardian of the Romans, and +was represented, in his chief temple, on the Capitoline hill, as sitting +on a curule chair, with the lightning in his right hand, and a sceptre +in his left.</p> + +<p>The poets describe him as standing amidst his rapid horses, or his +horses that make the thunder; for as the ancients had a strange idea of +the brazen vault of heaven, they seem to have attributed the noise in a +thunder storm to the rattling of Jupiter's chariot and horses on that +great arch of brass all over their heads, as they supposed that he +himself flung the flames out of his hand, which dart at the same time +out of the clouds, beneath this arch.</p> + +<p>APOLLO was son of Jupiter and Latona, and brother of Diana, and of +all the divinities in the pagan world, the chief cherisher and protecter +of the polite arts, and the most conspicuous character in heathen +theology; nor unjustly, from the glorious attributes ascribed to him, +for he was the god of light, medicine, eloquence, music, poetry and +prophecy.</p> + +<p>Amongst the most remarkable adventures of this god, was his quarrel +with Jupiter, on account of the death of his son Æsculapius, killed by +that deity on the complaint of Pluto, that he decreased the number of +the dead by his cures. Apollo, to revenge this injury, killed the +Cyclops who forged the thunder-bolts. For this he was banished heaven, +and endured great sufferings on earth, being forced to hire himself as a +shepherd to Admetus, king of Thessaly. During his pastoral servitude, he +is said <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" +id="Page_73">[73]</a></span>to have invented the lyre to sooth his +troubles. He was so skilled in the bow, that his arrows were always +fatal. Python and the Cyclops experienced their force.</p> + +<p>He became enamored of Daphne, daughter of the river Peneus of +Thessaly. The god pursued her, but she flying to preserve her chastity, +was changed into a laurel, whose leaves Apollo immediately consecrated +to bind his temples, and become the reward of poetry.</p> + +<p>His temple at Delphi became so frequented, that it was called the +oracle of the earth; all nations and princes vieing in their munificence +to it. The Romans erected to him many temples.</p> + +<p>The animals sacred to him were the wolf, from his acuteness of sight, +and because he spared his flocks when the god was a shepherd; the crow +and the raven, because these birds were supposed to have, by instinct, +the faculty of prediction; the swan, from its divining its own death; +the hawk, from its boldness in flight; and the cock, because he +announces the rising of the sun.</p> + +<p>As to the signification of this fabulous divinity, all are agreed +that, by Apollo, the sun is understood in general, though several +poetical fictions have relation only to the sun, and not to Apollo. The +great attributes of this deity were divination, healing, music, and +archery, all which manifestly refer to the sun. Light dispelling +darkness, is a strong emblem of truth dissipating ignorance;—the warmth +of the sun conduces greatly to health; and there can be no juster symbol +of the planetary harmony, than Apollo's lyre, the seven strings of which +are said to represent the seven planets. As his darts are reported to +have destroyed the monster Python, so his rays dry up the noxious +moisture which is pernicious to vegetation and fertility.</p> + +<p>Apollo was very differently represented in different countries and +times, according to the character he assumed. In general he is described +as a beardless youth, with long flowing hair floating as it were in the +wind, comely and graceful, crowned with laurel, his garments and sandals +shining with gold. In one hand he holds a bow and arrows, in the other a +lyre; sometimes a shield and the graces. At other times he is invested +in a long robe, and carries a lyre and a cup of nectar, the symbol of +his divinity.</p> + +<p>He has a threefold authority: in heaven, he is +the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" +id="Page_74">[74]</a></span>Sun; and by the lyre intimates, that he is +the source of harmony: upon earth he is called <i>Liber Pater</i>, and +carries a shield to show he is the protector of mankind, and their +preserver in health and safety. In the infernal regions he is +styled <i>Apollo</i>, and his arrows show his authority; whosoever is +stricken with them being immediately sent thither. As the Sun, Apollo +was represented in a chariot, drawn by the four +horses, <i>Eöus</i>, <i>Æthon</i>, <i>Phlegon</i>, +and <i>Pyröeis</i>.</p> + +<p>Considered in his poetical character, he is called indifferently +either <i>Vates</i> or <i>Lyristes</i>; music and poetry, in the +earliest ages of the world, having made but one and the same +profession.</p> + +<p>MERCURY was the offspring of Jupiter and Maia, the daughter of Atlas. +Cyllëne, in Arcadia, is said to have been the scene of his birth and +education, and a magnificent temple was erected to him there.</p> + +<p>That adroitness which formed the most distinguishing trait in his +character, began very early to render him conspicuous. Born in the +morning, he fabricated a lyre, and played on it by noon; and, before +night, filched from Apollo his cattle. The god of light demanded instant +restitution, and was lavish of menaces, the better to insure it. But his +threats were of no avail, for it was soon found that the same thief had +disarmed him of his quiver and bow. Being taken up into his arms by +Vulcan, he robbed him of his tools, and whilst Venus caressed him for +his superiority to Cupid in wrestling, he slipped off her cestus +unperceived. From Jupiter he purloined his sceptre, and would have made +as free with his thunder-bolt, had it not proved too hot for his +fingers.</p> + +<p>From being usually employed on Jupiter's errands, he was styled the +messenger of the gods. The Greeks and Romans considered him as presiding +over roads and cross-ways, in which they often erected busts of him. He +was esteemed the god of orators and eloquence, the author of letters and +oratory. The <i>caduceus</i>, or rod, which he constantly carried, was +supposed to be possessed of an inherent charm that could subdue the +power of enmity: an effect which he discovered by throwing it to +separate two serpents found by him fighting on Mount Cytheron: each +quitted his adversary, and twined himself on the rod, which Mercury, +from that time, bore as the symbol of concord. His musical skill was +great, for to him is as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" +id="Page_75">[75]</a></span>cribed the discovery of the three tones, +treble, bass, and tenor.</p> + +<p>It was part of his function to attend on the dying, detach their +souls from their bodies, and conduct them to the infernal regions. In +conjunction with Hercules, he patronized wrestling and the gymnastic +exercises; to show that address upon these occasions should always be +united with force. The invention of the art of thieving was attributed +to him, and the ancients used to paint him on their doors, that he, as +god of thieves, might prevent the intrusion of others. For this reason +he was much adored by shepherds, who imagined he could either preserve +their own flocks from thieves, or else help to compensate their losses, +by dexterously stealing from their neighbors.</p> + +<p>At Rome on the fifteenth of May, the month so named from his mother, +a festival was celebrated to his honor, by merchants, traders, &c. in +which they sacrificed a sow, sprinkled themselves, and the goods they +intended for sale, with water from his fountain, and prayed that he +would both blot out all the frauds and perjuries they had already +committed, and enable them to impose again on their buyers.</p> + +<p>Mercury is usually described as a beardless young man, of a fair +complexion, with yellow hair, quick eyes, and a cheerful countenance, +having wings annexed to his hat and sandals, which were distinguished by +the names of <i>petăsus</i> and <i>talaria</i>: the <i>caduceus</i>, in +his hand, is winged likewise, and bound round with two serpents: his +face is sometimes exhibited half black, on account of his intercourse +with the infernal deities: he has often a purse in his hand, and a goat +or cock, or both, by his side.</p> + +<p>The epithets applied to Mercury by the ancients were Εναγωνιος, the +presider over combats; Στροφαιος, the guardian of doors; Εμπολαιος, the +merchant; Εριουνιος, beneficial to mortals; Δολιος, subtle; Ἡγεμονιος, +the guide, or conductor.</p> + +<p>As to his origin, it must be looked for amongst the Phœnicians. The +bag of money which he held signified the gain of merchandise; the wings +annexed to his head and his feet were emblematic of their extensive +commerce and navigation; the caduceus, with which he was said to conduct +the spirit of the deceased to Hades, pointing out the immortality of the +soul, a state of rewards and punishments after death, and a +resuscitation of the body: it is +described <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" +id="Page_76">[76]</a></span>as producing three leaves together, whence +it was called by Homer, the <i>golden three-leaved wand</i>.</p> + +<p>BACCHUS was the son of Jupiter, by Semĕle, daughter of Cadmus, king +of Thebes, in which city he is said to have been born. He was the god of +good-cheer, wine, and hilarity; and of him, as such, the poets have not +been sparing in their praises: on all occasions of mirth and jollity, +they constantly invoked his presence, and as constantly thanked him for +the blessings he bestowed. To him they ascribed the forgetfulness of +cares, and the delights of social converse.</p> + +<p>He is described as a youth of a plump figure, and naked, with a ruddy +face, and an effeminate air; he is crowned with ivy and vine leaves, and +bears in his hand a thyrsus, or javelin with an iron head, encircled +with ivy and vine leaves: his chariot is sometimes drawn by lions, at +others by tigers, leopards, or panthers; and surrounded by a band of +Satyrs, Bacchæ, and Nymphs, in frantic postures; whilst old Silēnus, his +preceptor, follows on an ass, which crouches with the weight of his +burden.</p> + +<p>The women who accompained him as his priestesses, were called +Mænădes, from their madness; Thyădes, from their impetuosity; Bacchæ, +from their intemperate depravity; and Mimallōnes, or Mimallonĭdes, from +their mimicking their leaders.</p> + +<p>The victims agreeable to him were the goat and the swine; because +these animals are destructive to the vine. Among the Egyptians they +sacrificed a swine to him before their doors; and the dragon, and the +pye on account of its chattering: the trees and plants used in his +garlands were the fir, the oak, ivy, the fig, and vine; as also the +daffodil, or narcissus. Bacchus had many temples erected to him by the +Greeks and the Romans.</p> + +<p>Whoever attentively reads Horace's inimitable ode to this god, will +see that Bacchus meant no more than the improvement of the world by +tillage, and the culture of the vine.</p> + +<p>MARS was the son of Jupiter and Juno, or of Jupiter and Erys. He was +held in high veneration among the Romans, both on account of his being +the father of Romulus, their founder, and because of their own genius, +which always inclined them to war. Numa, though otherwise a pacific +prince, having, during a great +pestilence, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" +id="Page_77">[77]</a></span>implored the favor of the gods, received a +small brass buckler, called <i>ancīle</i> from heaven, which the nymph +Egeria advised him to keep with the utmost care, as the fate of the +people and empire depended upon it. To secure so valuable a pledge, Numa +caused eleven others of the same form to be made, and intrusted the +preservation of these to an order of priests, which he constituted for +the purpose, called <i>Salii</i>, or priests of Mars, in whose temple +the twelve ancilia were deposited.</p> + +<p>The fiercest and most ravenous creatures were consecrated to Mars: +the horse, for his vigor; the wolf, for his rapacity and quickness of +sight; the dog, for his vigilance; and he delighted in the pye, the +cock, and the vulture. He was the reputed enemy of Minerva, the goddess +of wisdom and arts, because in time of war they are trampled on, without +respect, as well as learning and justice.</p> + +<p>Ancient monuments represent this deity as of unusual stature, armed +with a helmet, shield, and spear, sometimes naked, sometimes in a +military habit; sometimes with a beard, and sometimes without. He is +often described riding in a chariot, drawn by furious horses, completely +armed, and extending his spear with one hand, while, with the other, he +grasps a sword imbued with blood. Sometimes Bellona, the goddess of war, +(whether she be his sister, wife or daughter, is uncertain,) is +represented as driving his chariot, and inciting the horses with a +bloody whip. Sometimes Discord is exhibited as preceding his chariot, +while Clamor, Fear, Terror, with Fame, full of eyes, ears, and tongues, +appear in his train.</p> + +<div id="a4" class="center framed" style="width:100%;"> +<h3>JUNO & MINERVA GOING TO ASSIST THE GREEKS.</h3> +<p class="ralign"><i>Pl. 4.</i></p> +<a href="images/fig079.png"> +<img src="images/fig079th.png" alt="SATURNIA LENDS THE LASH"> +</a> +<h4>SATURNIA LENDS THE LASH, THE COURSERS FLY.</h4> + +<p class="ralign"><i>Pope's Homer's Illiad, B. 8. L. 47.</i></p> +</div> + +<hr> +<h2 id="chap_2_2">CHAPTER II.</h2> + +<h3><i>Celestial Goddesses.</i></h3> + +<p>JUNO, daughter of Saturn and Rhea, was sister and wife of Jupiter. +Though the poets agree that she came into the world at the same birth +with her husband, yet they differ as to the place. Some fix her nativity +at Argos, others at Samos, near the river Imbrasus. The latter opinion +is, however, the more generally received. Samos, was highly honored, and +received the name of Parthenia, from the consideration that so eminent a +<i>vir<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" +id="Page_78">[78]</a></span>gin</i> as Juno was educated and dwelt there +till her marriage.</p> + +<p>As queen of heaven, Juno was conspicuous for her state. Her usual +attendants were Terror, Boldness—Castor and Pollux, accompanied by +fourteen nymphs; but her most inseparable adherent was Iris, who was +always ready to be employed in her most important affairs: she acted as +messenger to Juno, like Mercury to Jupiter. When Juno appeared as the +majesty of heaven, with her sceptre and diadem beset with lilies and +roses, her chariot was drawn by peacocks, birds sacred to her; for which +reason, in her temple at Eubœa, the emperor Adrian made her a most +magnificent offering of a golden crown, a purple mantle, with an +embroidery of silver, describing the marriage of Hercules and Hebe, and +a large peacock, whose body was of gold, and his train of most valuable +jewels. There never was a wife more jealous than Juno; and few who have +had so much reason: on which account we find from Homer that the most +absolute exertions of Jupiter were barely sufficient to preserve his +authority.</p> + +<p>There was none except Apollo whose worship was more solemn or +extensive. The history of the prodigies she had wrought, and of the +vengeance she had taken upon persons who had vied with, or slighted her, +had so inspired the people with awe, that, when supposed to be angry, no +means were omitted to mitigate her anger; and had Paris adjudged to her +the prize of Beauty, the fate of Troy might have been suspended. In +resentment of this judgment, and to wreak her vengeance on Paris, the +house of Priam, and the Trojan race, she appears in the Iliad to be +fully employed. Minerva is commissioned by her to hinder the Greeks from +retreating; she quarrels with Jupiter; she goes to battle; cajoles +Jupiter with the cestus of Venus; carries the orders of Jupiter to +Apollo and Iris; consults the gods on the conflict between Æneas and +Achilles; sends Vulcan to oppose Xanthus; overcomes Diana, &c.</p> + +<p>She is generally pictured like a matron, with a grave and majestic +air, sometimes with a sceptre in her hand, and a veil on her head: she +is represented also with a spear in her hand, and sometimes with a +<i>patĕra</i>, as if she were about to sacrifice: on some medals she has +a peacock at her feet, and sometimes holds the Palladium. Homer +represents her in a chariot adorned with gems, having wheels of ebony, +nails of silver, and horses with reins of +gold, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" +id="Page_79">[79]</a></span>though more commonly her chariot is drawn by +peacocks, her favourite birds. The most obvious and striking character +of Juno, and that which we are apt to imbibe the most early of any, from +the writings of Homer and Virgil, is that of an imperious and haughty +wife. In both of these poets we find her much oftener scolding at +Jupiter than caressing him, and in the tenth Æneid in particular, even +in the council of the gods, we have a remarkable instance of this.</p> + +<p>If, in searching out the meaning of this fable, we regard the account +of Varro, we shall find, that by Juno was signified the earth; by +Jupiter, the heavens; but if we believe the Stoics, by Juno is meant the +air and its properties, and by Jupiter the ether: hence Homer supposes +she was nourished by Oceănus and Tethys: that is, by the sea; and +agreeable to this mythology, the poet makes her shout aloud in the army +of the Greeks, the air being the cause of the sound.</p> + +<p>MINERVA, or Pallas, was one of the most distinguished of the heathen +deities, as being the goddess of wisdom and science. She is supposed to +have sprung, fully grown and completely armed, from the head of +Jupiter.</p> + +<p>One of the most remarkable of her adventures, was her contest with +Neptune. When Cecrops founded Athens, it was agreed that whoever of +these two deities could produce the most beneficial gift to mankind, +should have the honor of giving their name to the city. Neptune, with a +stroke of his trident, formed a horse, but Minerva causing an olive-tree +to spring from the ground, obtained from the god the prize. She was the +goddess of war, wisdom, and arts, such as spinning, weaving, music, and +especially of the pipe. In a word, she was patroness of all those +sciences which render men useful to society and themselves, and entitle +them to the esteem of posterity.</p> + +<p>She is described by the poets, and represented by the sculptors and +painters in a standing attitude, completely armed, with a composed but +smiling countenance, bearing a golden breast-plate, a spear in her right +hand, and the ægis in her left, having on it the head of Medusa, +entwined with snakes. Her helmet was usually encompassed with olives, to +denote that peace is the end of war, or rather because that tree was +sacred to her: at her feet is generally placed the owl or the cock, the +former being the emblem of wisdom, and the latter of war.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" +id="Page_80">[80]</a></span>Minerva represents wisdom, that is, skilful +knowledge joined with discreet practice, and comprehends the +understanding of the noblest arts, the best accomplishments of the mind, +together with all the virtues, but more especially that of chastity. She +is said to be born of Jupiter's brain, because the ingenuity of man did +not invent the useful arts and sciences, which, on the contrary, were +derived from the fountain of all wisdom. She was born armed, because the +human soul, fortified with wisdom and virtue, is invincible; in danger, +intrepid; under crosses, unbroken; in calamities, impregnable.</p> + +<p>The owl, a bird seeing in the dark, was sacred to Minerva; this is +symbolical of a wise man, who, scattering and dispelling the clouds of +error, is clear-sighted where others are blind.</p> + +<p>VENUS was one of the most celebrated deities of the ancients. She was +the goddess of beauty, the mother of love, and the queen of laughter. +She is said to have sprung from the froth of the sea, near the island +Cyprus, after the mutilated part of the body of Urănus had been thrown +there by Saturn. Hence she obtained the name of Aphrodite, from Αφρος, +<i>froth</i>. As soon as Venus was born, she is said to have been laid in a +beautiful couch or shell, embellished with pearls, and by the assistance +of Zephyrus wafted first to Cythēræ, an island in the Ægæan, and thence +to Cyprus; where she arrived in the month of April. Here, immediately on +her landing, flowers sprung beneath her feet, the Horæ or Seasons +awaited her arrival, and having braided her hair with fillets of gold, +she was thence wafted to heaven. As she was born laughing, an emanation +of pleasure beamed from her countenance, and her charms were so +attractive, in the assembly of the gods, that most of them desired to +obtain her in marriage. Vulcan, however, the most deformed of the +celestials, became the successful competitor.</p> + +<p>One of the most remarkable adventures of this goddess was her contest +with Juno and Minerva for the superiority of beauty. At the marriage of +Peleus and Thetis, the goddess Discordia, resenting her not being +invited, threw a golden apple among the company, with this inscription, +<i>Let the fairest take it</i>. The competitors for this prize were +Juno, Venus, and Minerva. Jupiter referred them to Paris, who then led a +shepherd's life on Mount Ida. Before him the goddesses appeared. Juno +offered him <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" +id="Page_81">[81]</a></span>empire or power, Minerva wisdom, and Venus +promised him the possession of the most beautiful woman in the world. +Fatally for himself and family, the shepherd, more susceptible of love +than of ambition or virtue, decided the contest in favor of Venus.</p> + +<p>The sacrifices usually offered to Venus, were white goats and swine, +with libations of wine, milk and honey. The victims were crowned with +flowers, or wreaths of myrtle, the rose and myrtle being sacred to +Venus. The birds sacred to her were the swan, the dove, and the +sparrow.</p> + +<p>It were endless to enumerate the variety of attitudes in which Venus +is represented on antique gems and medals; sometimes she is clothed in +purple, glittering with diamonds, her head crowned with myrtle +intermixed with roses, and drawn in her car of ivory by swans, doves, or +sparrows: at other times she is represented standing with the Graces +attending her, and in all positions Cupid is her companion. In general +she has one of the prettiest, as Minerva has sometimes one of the +handsomest faces that can be conceived. Her look, as she is represented +by the ancient artists and poets, has all the enchanting airs and graces +that they could give it.</p> + +<div id="a5" class="center framed" style="width:100%;"> +<h3>AURORA.</h3> +<p class="ralign"><i>Pl. 5.</i></p> +<a href="images/fig088.png"> +<img src="images/fig088th.png" alt="AURORA"> +</a> +<div class="poem"> +<div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">HERE THE GAY MORN RESIDES IN RADIANT BOWERS,</span><br> +<span class="i0">HERE KEEPS HER REVELS WITH THE DANCING HOURS.</span><br> +</div> +</div> +<p class="ralign"><i>Pope's Homer's Odyssey. B. 12. L. 2.</i></p> +</div> + +<p>LATONA. This goddess was daughter of Cæus the Titan and Phœbe, or, +according to Homer, of Saturn. As she grew up extremely beautiful, +Jupiter fell in love with her; but Juno, discovering their intercourse, +not only expelled her from heaven, but commanded the serpent Python to +follow and destroy both her and her children. The earth also was caused +by the jealous goddess to swear that she would afford her no place in +which to bring forth. It happened, however, at this period, that the +island Delos, which had been broken from Sicily, lay under water, and +not having taken the oath, was commanded by Neptune to rise in the Ægean +sea, and afford her an asylum. Latona, being changed by Jupiter into a +quail, fled thither, and from this circumstance occasioned it to be +called Ortygia, from the name in Greek of that bird. She here gave birth +to Apollo and Diana. Niŏbe, daughter of Tantălus, and wife of Amphīon, +king of Thebes, experienced the resentment of Latona, whose children +Apollo and Diana, at her instigation, destroyed. Her beauty became fatal +to Tityus, the giant, who was put to death also by the same divinities. +After having been long persecuted +by <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" +id="Page_82">[82]</a></span>Juno, she became a powerful deity, beheld +her children exalted to divine honors, and received adoration where they +were adored.</p> + +<p>In explanation of the fable, it may be observed, that as Jupiter is +taken for the maker of all things, so Latona is physically understood to +be the <i>matter</i> out of which all things were made, which, according +to Plato, is called Λητω or Latona, from ληθειν to lie <i>hid</i> or +<i>concealed</i>, because all things originally lay hid in darkness till the +production of <i>light</i>, or birth of Apollo.</p> + +<p>AURORA, goddess of the morning, was the youngest daughter of Hyperion +and Theia, or, according to some, of Titan and Terra. Orpheus calls her +the harbinger of Titan, for she is the personification of that light +which precedes the appearance of the sun. The poets describe this +goddess as rising out of the ocean in a saffron robe, seated in a +flame-colored car, drawn by two or four horses, expanding with her rosy +fingers the gates of light, and scattering the pearly dew. Virgil +represents her horses as of flame color, and varies their number from +two to four, according as she rises slower or faster.</p> + +<p>She is said to have been daughter of Titan and the earth, because the +light of the morning seems to rise out of the earth, and to proceed from +the sun, which immediately follows it. She is styled mother of the four +winds, because, after a calm in the night, the winds rise in the +morning, as attendant upon the sun, by whose heat and light they are +begotten. There is no other goddess of whom we have so many beautiful +descriptions in the poets.</p> + +<hr> +<h2 id="chap_2_3">CHAPTER III.</h2> + +<h3><i>Terrestrial Gods.</i></h3> + +<p>SATURN was the son of Cœlus and Titæa or Terra, and married his +sister Vesta. She, with her other sisters, persuaded their mother to +join them in a plot, to exclude Titan, their elder brother, from his +birthright, and raise Saturn to his father's throne. Their design so far +succeeded, that Titan was obliged to resign his claim, though on +condition, that Saturn brought up no male children, and thus the +succession might revert to the Titans +again. <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" +id="Page_83">[83]</a></span>Saturn, it is said, observed this covenant +so faithfully, that he devoured, as soon as they were born, his +legitimate sons. His punctuality, however, in this respect, was at last +frustrated by the artifice of Vesta, who, being delivered of twins, +Jupiter and Juno, presented the latter to her husband, and concealing +the former, sent him to be nursed on Mount Ida in Crete, committing the +care of him to the Curētes and Corybantes.</p> + +<p>The reign of Saturn was so mild and happy, that the poets have given +it the name of the golden age. The people, who before wandered about +like beasts, were then reduced to civil society; laws were enacted, and +the art of tilling and sowing the ground introduced; whence Varro tells +us, that Saturn had his name <i>a satu</i>, from <i>sowing</i>.</p> + +<p>He was usually represented as an old man, bare-headed and bald, with +all the marks of infirmity in his eyes, countenance, and figure. In his +right hand they sometimes placed a sickle or scythe; at others, a key, +and a circumflexed serpent biting its tail, in his left. He sometimes +was pictured with six wings, and feet of wool, to show how insensibly +and swiftly time passes. The scythe denoted his cutting down and +subverting all things, and the serpent the revolution of the +year, <i>quod in sese volvitur annus</i>.</p> + +<p>JANUS was a pagan deity, particularly of the ancient Romans. He was +esteemed the wisest sovereign of his time, and because he was supposed +to know what was past, and what was to come, they feigned that he had +two faces, whence the Latins gave him the epithets of Biceps, Bifrons, +and Biformis.</p> + +<p>He is introduced by Ovid as describing his origin, office and form: +he was the ancient Chaos, or confused mass of matter before the +formation of the world, the reduction of which into order and +regularity, gave him his divinity. Thus deified, he had the power of +<i>opening</i> and <i>shutting</i> every thing in the universe: he was arbiter of +peace and war, and keeper of the door of heaven. He was the god who +presided over the beginning of all undertakings; the first libations of +wine and wheat were offered to him, and the preface of all prayers +directed to him. The first month of the year took its denomination from +Janus.</p> + +<p>It is certain that Janus early obtained divine honors among the +Romans. Numa ordained that his temple should be shut in time of peace, +and opened in time of <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" +id="Page_84">[84]</a></span>war, from which ceremony Janus was called +Clusius and Patulcius.</p> + +<p>The peculiar offerings to Janus were cakes of new meal and salt, with +new wine and frankincense. In the feasts instituted by Numa, the +sacrifice was a ram, and the solemnities were performed by men, in the +manner of exercises and combats. Then all artificers and tradesmen began +their works, and the Roman consuls for the new year solemnly entered on +their office: all quarrels were laid aside, mutual presents were made, +and the day concluded with joy and festivity. Janus was seated in the +centre of twelve altars, in allusion to the twelve months of the year, +and had on his hands fingers to the amount of the days in the year. +Sometimes his image had four faces, either in regard to the four seasons +of the year, or to the four quarters of the world: he held in one hand a +key, and in the other a sceptre; the former may denote his opening, as +it were, and shutting the world, by the admission and exclusion of +light; and the latter his dominion over it.</p> + +<p>VULCAN was the offspring of Jupiter and Juno. He was so remarkably +deformed that Jupiter threw him down from heaven to the isle of Lemnos. +In this fall he broke his leg, as he also would have broken his neck, +had he not been caught by the Lemnians. It is added that he was a day in +falling from heaven to earth. Some report that Juno herself, disgusted +at his deformity, hurled down Vulcan into the sea, where he was nursed +by Thetis and her nymphs, whilst others contend that he fell upon land, +and was brought up by apes. It is probable that Juno had some hand in +his disgrace, since Vulcan, afterwards, in resentment of the injury, +presented his mother with a golden chair, which was so contrived by +springs unseen, that being seated in it she was unable to rise, till the +inventor was prevailed upon to grant her deliverance.</p> + +<p>The first abode of Vulcan on earth was in the isle of Lemnos. There +he set up his forges, and taught men the malleability and polishing of +metals. Thence he removed to the Liparean islands, near Sicily, where, +with the assistance of the Cyclops, he made Jupiter fresh thunder-bolts +as the old ones decayed. He also wrought an helmet for Pluto, which +rendered him invisible; a trident for Neptune, which shook both land and +sea; and a dog of brass for Jupiter, which he animated so as to perform +the functions of nature. At the request of Thetis he fabricated the +divine <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" +id="Page_85">[85]</a></span>armor of Achilles, whose shield is so +beautifully described by Homer; as also the invincible armor of Æneas, +at the entreaty of Venus. However disagreeable the person of Vulcan +might be, he was susceptible notwithstanding of love. His first passion +was for Minerva, having Jupiter's consent to address her; but his +courtship, in this instance, failed of success, not only on account of +his person, but also because the goddess had vowed perpetual virginity. +He afterwards became the husband of Venus.</p> + +<p>He was reckoned among the gods presiding over marriage, from the +torches lighted by him to grace that solemnity. It was the custom in +several nations, after gaining a victory, to pile the arms of the enemy +in a heap on the field of battle, and make a sacrifice of them to +Vulcan. As to his worship, Vulcan had an altar in common with +Prometheus, who first invented fire, as did Vulcan the use of it, in +making arms and utensils. His principal temple was in a consecrated +grove at the foot of mount Ætna, in which was a fire continually +burning. This temple was guarded by dogs, which had the discernment to +distinguish his votaries by tearing the vicious, and fawning upon the +virtuous.</p> + +<p>He was highly honored at Rome. Romulus built him a temple without the +walls of the city, the augurs being of opinion that the god of fire +ought not to be admitted within. But the highest mark of respect paid +him by the Romans was, that those assemblies were kept in his temple +where the most important concerns of the republic were debated, the +Romans thinking they could invoke nothing more sacred to confirm their +treaties and decisions, than the avenging fire of which that god was the +symbol.</p> + +<p>This deity, as the god of fire, was represented differently in +different nations: the Egyptians depicted him proceeding from an egg, +placed in the mouth of Jupiter, to denote the radical or natural heat +diffused through all created beings. In ancient gems and medals he is +figured as a lame, deformed and squalid man, with a beard, and hair +neglected; half naked; his habit reaching down to his knee only, and +having a round peaked cap on his head, a hammer in his right hand, and a +smith's tongs in his left, working at the anvil, and usually attended by +the Cyclops, or by some of the gods or goddesses for whom he is +employed.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" +id="Page_86">[86]</a></span>The poets described him as blackened and +hardened from the forge, with a face red and fiery whilst at his work, +and tired and heated after it. He is almost always the subject either of +pity or ridicule. In short, the great celestial deities seem to have +admitted Vulcan among them as great men used to keep buffoons at their +tables, to make them laugh, and to be the butt of the whole company.</p> + +<p>If we wish to come at the probable meaning of this fable, we must +have recourse to Egyptian antiquities. The Horus of the Egyptians was +the most mutable figure on earth, for he assumed shapes suitable to all +seasons, and to all ranks. To direct the husbandman he wore a rural +dress; by a change of attributes he became the instructer of smiths and +other artificers, whose instruments he appeared adorned with. This Horus +of the smiths had a short or lame leg, to signify that agriculture or +husbandry will halt without the assistance of the handicraft or mechanic +arts. In this apparatus he was called <i>Mulciber</i>, +(from <i>Mulci</i>, to direct and manage, and <i>ber</i> or <i>beer</i>, +a cave or mine, comes Mulciber, the king of the mines or forges;) he was +called also Hephaistos, (from +<i>Aph</i>, <i>father</i>, and <i>Esto</i>, <i>fire</i>, comes Ephaisto, or Hephaiston, the +father of fire; and from <i>Wall</i>, to work, and Canan, to <i>hasten</i>, comes +<i>Wolcon</i>, Vulcan, or <i>work furnished</i>;) all which names the Greeks and +Romans adopted with the figure, and, as usual, converted from a <i>symbol</i> +to a <i>god</i>.</p> + +<p>ÆOLUS, god of the winds, is said to have been the son of Jupiter by +Acasta or Sigesia, daughter of Hippotas. His residence was, according to +most authors, at Rhegium in Italy; but wherever it was, he is +represented as holding the winds, enchained in a vast cave, to prevent +their committing any more such devastations as they had before +occasioned; for, to their violence was imputed not only the disjunction +of Sicily from Italy, but also the separation of Europe from Africa, by +which a passage was opened for the ocean to form the Mediterranean sea. +According to some, the Æolian, or Lipări islands were uninhabited till +Lipărus, son of Auson, settled a colony there, and gave one of them his +name. Æŏlus married his daughter Cyăne, peopled the rest and succeeded +him on the throne. He was a generous and good prince, who hospitably +entertained Ulysses, and as a +proof <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" +id="Page_87">[87]</a></span>of his kindness, bestowed on him several +skins, in which he had enclosed the winds. The companions of Ulysses, +unable to restrain their curiosity, having opened the skins, the winds +in consequence were set free, and occasioned the wildest uproar; +insomuch that Ulysses lost all his vessels, and was himself alone saved +by a plank. It may not be improper to remark, that over the rougher +winds the poets have placed Æŏlus; over the milder, Juno; and the rain, +thunder and lightning they have committed to Jupiter himself.</p> + +<p>MOMUS, son of Somnus and Nox, was the god of pleasantry and wit, or +rather the jester of the celestial assembly; for, like other monarchs, +it was but reasonable that Jupiter too should have his fool. We have an +instance of Momus's fantastic humor in the contest between Neptune, +Minerva, and Vulcan, for skill. The first had made a bull, the second a +house, and the third a man. Momus found fault with them all. He disliked +the bull because his horns were not placed before his eyes, that he +might give a surer blow: he condemned Minerva's house because it was +immovable, and could not therefore be taken away if placed in a bad +neighborhood; and in regard to Vulcan's man, he said he ought to have +made a window in his breast, by which his heart might be seen, and his +secrets discovered.</p> + +<hr> +<h2 id="chap_2_4">CHAPTER IV.</h2> + +<h3><i>Terrestrial Goddesses.</i></h3> + +<p>CYBELE, <i>or</i> Vesta <i>the elder</i>. It is highly necessary, in +tracing the genealogy of the heathen deities, to distinguish between +this goddess and Vesta the <i>younger</i>, her daughter, because the +poets have been faulty in confounding them, and ascribing the attributes +and actions of the one to the other. The elder Vesta, or Cybĕle, was +daughter of Cœlus and Terra, and wife of her brother Saturn, to whom she +bore a numerous offspring. She had a variety of names besides that of +Cybĕle, under which she is most generally known, and which she obtained +from Mount Cybĕlus, in Phrygia, where sacrifices to her were first +instituted. Her sacrifices and festivals, like those +of <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" +id="Page_88">[88]</a></span>Bacchus, were celebrated with a confused +noise of timbrels, pipes, and cymbals; the sacrificants howling as if +mad, and profaning both the temple of the goddess, and the ears of their +hearers with the most obscene language and abominable gestures.</p> + +<p>Under the character of Vesta, she is generally represented upon +ancient coins in a sitting posture, with a lighted torch in one hand, +and a sphere or drum in the other. As Cybĕle, she makes a more +magnificent appearance, being seated in a lofty chariot drawn by lions, +crowned with towers, and bearing in her hand a key. Being goddess, not +of cities only, but of all things which the earth sustains, she was +crowned with turrets, whilst the key implies not only her custody of +cities, but also that in winter the earth locks those treasures up, +which she brings forth and dispenses in summer: she rides in a chariot, +because (fancifully) the earth hangs suspended in the air, balanced and +poised by its own weight; and that the chariot is supported by wheels, +because the earth is a voluble body and turns round. Her being drawn by +lions, may imply that nothing is too fierce and intractable for a +motherly piety and tenderness to tame and subdue. Her garments are +painted with divers colors, but chiefly green, and figured with the +images of several creatures, because such a dress is suitable to the +variegated and more prevalent appearance of the earth.</p> + +<p>VESTA was the daughter of Vesta the elder, by Saturn, and sister of +Ceres, Juno, Pluto, Neptune and Jupiter. She was so fond of a single +life, that when her brother Jupiter ascended the throne, and offered to +grant whatever she asked, her only desires were the preservation of her +virginity, and the first oblation in all sacrifices. Numa Pompilius, the +great founder of religion among the Romans, is said first to have +restored the ancient rites and worship of this goddess, to whom he +erected a circular temple, which in succeeding ages was not only much +embellished, but also, as the earth was supposed to retain a constant +fire within, a perpetual fire was kept up in the temple of Vesta, the +care of which was intrusted to a select number of young females +appointed from the first families in Rome, and called <i>Vestal +virgins</i>.</p> + +<p>As this Vesta was the goddess of fire, the Romans had no images of +her in her temple; the reason for which, assigned by Ovid, is that fire +has no representative, as no <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" +id="Page_89">[89]</a></span>bodies are produced from it: yet as Vesta +was the guardian of houses or hearths, her image was usually placed in +the porch or entry, and daily sacrifices were offered up to her. It is +certain nothing could be a stronger or more lively symbol of the supreme +being than fire; accordingly we find this emblem in early use throughout +the east. The Romans looked upon Vesta as one of the tutelar deities of +their empire; and they so far made the safety and fate of Rome depend on +the preservation of the sacred fire in the temple of Vesta, that they +thought the extinction of it foreboded the most terrible misfortune.</p> + +<p>CERES was daughter of Saturn and Ops, or Vesta. Sicily, Attica, +Crete, and Egypt, claim the honor of her birth, each country producing +the ground of its claims, though general suffrage favors the first. In +her youth, being extremely beautiful, Jupiter fell in love with her, and +by him she had Perephăta, called afterwards Proserpine. For some time +she took up her residence in Corcyra, so called in later times, from a +daughter of Asōpus, there buried, but anciently <i>Drepănum</i>, from +the sickle used by the goddess in reaping, which had been presented her +by Vulcan. Thence she removed to Sicily, where the violence of Pluto +deprived her of Proserpine. Disconsolate at her loss, she importuned +Jupiter for redress; but obtaining little satisfaction, she lighted +torches at the volcano of Mount Ætna, and mounting her car, drawn by +winged dragons, set out in search of her beloved daughter. This +transaction the Sicilians annually commemorated by running about in the +night with lighted torches and loud exclamations.</p> + +<p>It is disputed, by several nations, who first informed Ceres where +her daughter was, and thence acquired the reward, which was the art of +sowing corn. Some ascribe the intelligence to Triptolĕmus, and his +brother Eubulĕus; but the generality of writers agree in conferring the +honor on the nymph Arethūsa, daughter of Nereus and Doris, and companion +of Diana, who, flying from the pursuit of the river Alphēus, saw +Proserpine in the infernal regions.</p> + +<div id="a6" class="centered framed" style="width:100%"> +<p class="ralign"><i>Pl. 6.</i></p> +<a href="images/fig095.png"> +<img src="images/fig095th.png" alt="APOLLO AND THE MUSES"> +</a> +<h3>APOLLO AND THE MUSES.</h3> + +</div> + +<p>It must be owned that Ceres was not undeserving the highest titles +bestowed upon her, being considered as the deity who had blessed men +with the art of cultivating the earth, having not only taught them to +plough and sow, but also to reap, harvest, and thresh out their grain; +to make flour and bread, and fix limits or boundaries to +ascertain <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" +id="Page_90">[90]</a></span>their possessions. The garlands used in her +sacrifices were of myrtle, or rape-weed; but flowers were prohibited, +Proserpine being carried off as she gathered them. The poppy alone was +sacred to her, not only because it grows amongst corn, but because, in +her distress, Jupiter gave it her to eat, that she might sleep and +forget her troubles. Cicero mentions an ancient temple dedicated to her +at Catania, in Sicily in which the offices were performed by matrons and +virgins only, no man being admitted.</p> + +<p>If to explain the fable of Ceres, we have recourse to Egypt; it will +be found, that the goddess of Sicily and Eleusis, or of Rome and Greece, +is no other than the Egyptian Isis, brought by the Phœnicians into those +countries. The very name of <i>mystery</i>, from <i>mistor</i>, +a <i>veil</i> or +<i>covering</i>, given to the Eleusinian rites, performed in honor of Ceres, +shows them to have been of Egyptian origin. The Isis, or the +emblematical figure exhibited at the feast appointed for the +commemoration of the state of mankind after the flood, bore the name of +Ceres, from Cerets, <i>dissolution</i> or <i>overthrow</i>. She was represented in +mourning, and with torches, to denote the grief she felt for the loss of +her favorite daughter <i>Persephŏne</i> (which word, translated, signifies +corn lost) and the pains she was at to recover her. The poppies with +which this Isis was crowned, signified the joy men received at their +first abundant crop, the word which signifies a <i>double crop</i>, being +also a name for the <i>poppy</i>. Persephŏne or Proserpine found again, was a +lively symbol of the recovery of corn, and its cultivation, almost lost +in the deluge. Thus, emblems of the most important events which ever +happened in the world, simple in themselves, became when transplanted to +Greece and Rome, sources of fable and idolatry.</p> + +<p>Ceres was usually represented of a tall majestic stature, fair +complexion, languishing eyes, and yellow or flaxen hair; her head +crowned with a garland of poppies, or ears of corn; holding in her right +hand a bunch of the same materials with her garland, and in her left a +lighted torch. When in a car or chariot, she is drawn by lions, or +winged dragons.</p> + +<p>MUSÆ, the <i>Muses</i>. This celebrated sisterhood is said to have +been the daughters of Jupiter and Mnēmŏsyne. They were believed to have +been born on Mount Piĕrus, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" +id="Page_91">[91]</a></span>and educated by Euphēme. In general they +were considered as the tutelar goddesses of sacred festivals and +banquets, and the patronesses of polite and useful arts. They supported +virtue in distress, and preserved worthy actions from oblivion. Homer +calls them superintendants and correctors of manners. In respect to the +sciences, these sisters had each their separate province; though poetry +seemed more immediately under their united protection.</p> + +<p>These divinities, formerly called Mosæ, were so named from a Greek +word signifying <i>to inquire</i>; because, by inquiring of them, the +sciences might be learnt. Others say they had their name from their +resemblance, because there is a similitude, an infinity, and relation, +betwixt all the sciences, in which they agree together, and are united +with each other; for which reason they are often painted with their +hands joined, dancing in a circle round Apollo their leader.</p> + +<p>They were represented crowned with flowers, or wreaths of palm, each +holding some instrument, or emblem of the science or art over which she +presided. They were depicted as in the bloom of youth; and the bird +sacred to them was the swan, probably because that bird was consecrated +to their sovereign Apollo. There was a fountain of the Muses near Rome, +in the meadow where Numa used to meet the goddess Egeria; the care of +which and of the worship paid to the Muses, was intrusted to the Vestal +virgins.</p> + +<p>Their names were as follows: Clio, who presided over history. Her +name is derived from κλειος, <i>glory</i>, or from κλειω, +to <i>celebrate</i>. She is generally represented under the form of a +young woman crowned with laurel, holding in her right hand a trumpet, +and in her left a book: others describe her with a lute in one hand, and +in the other a +<i>plectrum</i>, or quill.</p> + +<p>Euterpe is distinguished by <i>tibiæ</i> or pipes whence she was +called also Tibīcĭna. Some say logic was invented by her. It was very +common with the musicians of old to play on two pipes at once, agreeably +to the remarks before Terence's plays, and as we often actually find +them represented in the remains of the artists. It was over this species +of music that Euterpe presided, as we learn from the first ode of +Horace.</p> + +<p>Thălīa presided over comedy, and whatever was +gay, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" +id="Page_92">[92]</a></span>amiable, and pleasant. She holds a mask in +her right hand, and on medals she is represented leaning against a +pillar. She was the Muse of comedy, of which they had a great mixture on +the Roman stage in the earliest ages of their poetry, and long after. +She is distinguished from the other Muses in general by a mask, and from +Melpomĕne, the tragic Muse, by her shepherd's crook, not to speak of her +look, which is meaner than that of Melpomĕne, or her dress, which is +shorter, and consequently less noble, than that of any other of the +Muses.</p> + +<p>Melpomĕne was so styled from the dignity and excellence of her song. +She presided over epic and lyric poetry. To her the invention of all +mournful verses, and, particularly, of tragedy, was ascribed; for which +reason Horace invokes her when he laments the death of Quintilius Varus. +She is usually represented of a sedate countenance, and richly habited, +with sceptres and crowns in one hand, and in the other a dagger. She has +her mask on her head, which is sometimes placed so far backward that it +has been mistaken for a second face. Her mask shows that she presided +over the stage; and she is distinguished from Thălīa, or the comic Muse, +by having more of dignity in her look, stature, and dress. Melpomĕne was +supposed to preside over all melancholy subjects, as well as tragedy; as +one would imagine at least from Horace's invoking her in one of his +odes, and his desiring her to crown him with laurel in another.</p> + +<p>Terpsĭchŏre; that is, the <i>sprightly</i>. Some attribute her name +to the pleasure she took in dancing; others represent her as the +protectress of music, particularly the flute; and add, that the chorus +of the ancient drama was her province, to which also logic has been +annexed. She is further said to be distinguished by the flutes which she +holds, as well on medals as on other monuments.</p> + +<p>Erăto, presided over elegiac or amorous poetry, and dancing, whence +she was sometimes called Saltatrix. She is represented as young, and +crowned with myrtle and roses, having a lyre in her right hand, and a +bow in her left, with a little winged Cupid placed by her, armed with +his bow and arrows.</p> + +<p>Polyhymnia. Her name, which is of Greek origin, and signifies <i>much +singing</i>, seems to have been given her for the number of her songs, +rather than her faithfulness of memory. To Polyhymnia belonged that +har<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" +id="Page_93">[93]</a></span>mony of voice and gesture which gives a +perfection to oratory and poetry. She presided over rhetoric, and is +represented with a crown of pearls and a white robe, in the act of +extending her right hand, as if haranguing, and holding in her left a +scroll, on which the word <i>Suadere</i> is written; sometimes, instead +of the scroll, she appears holding a <i>caduceus</i> or sceptre.</p> + +<p>Urania, or Cœlestis. She is the Muse who extended her care to all +divine or celestial subjects, such as the hymns in praise of the gods, +the motions of the heavenly bodies, and whatever regarded philosophy or +astronomy. She is represented in an azure robe, crowned with stars and +supporting a large globe with both hands: on medals this globe stands +upon a tripod.</p> + +<p>Calliŏpe, who presides over eloquence and heroic poetry; so called +from the ecstatic harmony of her voice. The poets, who are supposed to +receive their inspirations from the Muses, chiefly invoked Calliŏpe, as +she presided over the hymns made in honor of the gods. She is spoken of +by Ovid, as the chief of all the Muses. Under the same idea, Horace +calls her <i>Regina</i>, and attributes to her the skill of playing on +what instrument she pleases.</p> + +<p>ASTRÆA, or ASTREA, goddess of justice, was daughter of Astræus, one +of the Titans; or according to Ovid, of Jupiter and Themis. She +descended from heaven in the golden age, and inspired mankind with +principles of justice and equity, but the world growing corrupt, she +re-ascended thither, where she became the constellation in the Zodiac +called Virgo.</p> + +<p>This goddess is represented with a serene countenance, her eyes bound +or blinded, having a sword in one hand, and in the other a pair of +balances, equally poised, or rods with a bundle of axes, and sitting on +a square stone. Among the Egyptians, she is described with her left hand +stretched forth and open, but without a head. According to the poets, +she was conversant on earth during the golden and silver ages, but in +those of brass and iron, was forced by the wickedness of mankind to +abandon the earth and retire to heaven. Virgil hints that she first +quitted courts and cities, and betook herself to rural retreats before +she entirely withdrew.</p> + +<p>NEMESIS, daughter of Jupiter and Necessity, or, according to some, of +Oceănus and Nox, had the care of <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" +id="Page_94">[94]</a></span>revenging the crimes which human justice +left unpunished. The word Nemĕsis is of Greek origin, nor was there any +Latin word that expressed it, therefore the Latin poets usually styled +this goddess Rhamnusia, from a famous statue of Nemĕsis at Rhamnus in +Attica. She is likewise called Adrastea, because Adrastus, king of +Argos, first raised an altar to her. Nemĕsis is plainly divine +vengeance, or the eternal justice of God, which severely punishes the +wicked actions of men. She is sometimes represented with wings, to +denote the celerity with which she follows men to observe their +actions.</p> + +<hr> +<h2 id="chap_2_5">CHAPTER V.</h2> + +<h3><i>Gods of the Woods.</i></h3> + +<p><i>Pan</i>, the god of shepherds and hunters, leader of the nymphs, +president of the mountains, patron of a country life, and guardian of +flocks and herds, was likewise adored by fishermen, especially those who +lived about the promontories washed by the sea. There is scarcely any of +the gods to whom the poets have given a greater diversity of parents. +The most common opinion is, that he was the son of Mercury and Penelŏpe. +As soon as he was born, his father carried him in a goat's skin to +heaven, where he charmed all the gods with his pipe, so that they +associated him with Mercury in the office of their messenger. After this +he was educated on Mount Mænălus, in Arcadia, by Siŏne and the other +nymphs, who, attracted by his music, followed him as their +conductor.</p> + +<p>Pan, though devoted to the pleasures of rural life, distinguished +himself by his valor. In the war of the giants he entangled Typhon in +his nets. Bacchus, in his Indian expedition, was accompanied by him with +a body of Satyrs, who rendered Bacchus great service. When the Gauls +invaded Greece, and were just going to pillage Delphi, Pan struck them +with such a sudden consternation by night, that they fled without being +pursued: hence the expression of a <i>Panic fear</i>, for a sudden +terror. The Romans adopted him among their deities, by the names +of <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" +id="Page_95">[95]</a></span>Lupercus and Lycæus, and built a temple to +him at the foot of Mount Palatine.</p> + +<p>He is represented with a smiling, ruddy face, and thick beard +covering his breast, two horns on his head, a star on his bosom, legs +and thighs hairy, and the nose, feet, and tail of a goat. He is clothed +in a spotted skin, having a shepherd's crook in one hand, and his pipe +of unequal reeds in the other, and is crowned with pine, that tree being +sacred to him.</p> + +<p>Pan probably signifies the universal nature, proceeding from the +divine mind and providence, of which the heaven, earth, sea, and the +eternal fire, are so many members. Mythologists are of opinion that his +upper parts are like a man, because the superior and celestial part of +the world is beautiful, radiant, and glorious: his horns denote the rays +of the sun, as they beam upwards, and his long beard signifies the same +rays, as they have an influence upon the earth: the ruddiness of his +face resembles the splendor of the sky, and the spotted skin which he +wears is the image of the starry firmament: his lower parts are rough, +hairy, and deformed, to represent the shrubs, wild creatures, trees, and +mountains here below: his goat's feet signify the solidity of the earth; +and his pipe of seven reeds, that celestial harmony which is made by the +seven planets; lastly, his sheep-hook denotes that care and providence +by which he governs the universe.</p> + +<p>SILENUS. As Bacchus was the god of good humor and fellowship, so none +of the deities appeared with a more numerous or splendid retinue, in +which Silēnus was the principal person; of whose descent, however, we +have no accounts to be relied on. Some say he was born at Malea, a city +of Sparta; others at Nysa in Arabia; but the most probable conjecture +is, that he was a prince of Caria, noted for his equity and wisdom. But +whatever be the fate of these different accounts, Silēnus is said to +have been preceptor to Bacchus, and was certainly a very suitable one +for such a deity, the old man being heartily attached to wine. He +however distinguished himself greatly in the war with the giants, by +appearing in the conflict on an ass, whose braying threw them into +confusion; for which reason, or because, when Bacchus engaged the +Indians, their elephants were put to flight by the braying of the ass, +it was raised to the skies, and there made a constellation.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" +id="Page_96">[96]</a></span>The historian tells us that Silēnus was the +first of all the kings that reigned at Nysa; that his origin is not +known, it being beyond the memory of mortals: it is likewise said that +he was a Phrygian, who lived in the reign of Midas, and that the +shepherds having caught him, by putting wine into the fountain he used +to drink of, brought him to Midas, who gave him his long ears; a fable +intended to intimate that this extraordinary loan signified the faculty +of receiving universal intelligence. Virgil makes Silēnus deliver a very +serious and excellent discourse concerning the creation of the world, +when he was scarcely recovered from a fit of drunkenness, which renders +it probable that the sort of drunkenness with which Silēnus is charged, +had something in it mysterious, and approaching to inspiration.</p> + +<p>He is described as a short, corpulent old man, bald-headed, with a +flat nose, prominent forehead and long ears. He is usually exhibited as +over-laden with wine, and seated on a saddled ass, upon which he +supports himself with a long staff in the one hand, and in the other +carries a <i>cantharus</i> or jug, with the handle almost worn out with +frequent use.</p> + +<p>SYLVANUS. The descent of Sylvānus is extremely obscure. Some think +him son of Faunus, some say he was the same with Faunus, whilst others +suppose him the same deity with Pan, which opinion Pliny seems to adopt +when he says that the Ægipans were the same with the Sylvans. He was +unknown to the Greeks; but the Latins received the worship of him from +the Pelasgi, upon their migration into Italy, and his worship seems +wholly to have arisen out of the ancient sacred use of woods and groves, +it being introduced to inculcate a belief that there was no place +without the presence of a deity. The Pelasgi consecrated groves, and +appointed solemn festivals, in honor of Sylvānus. The hog and milk were +the offerings tendered him. A monument consecrated to this deity, by one +Laches, gives him the epithet of Littorālis, whence it would seem that +he was worshipped upon the sea-coasts.</p> + +<p>The priests of Sylvānus constituted one of the principal colleges of +Rome, and were in great reputation, a sufficient evidence of the fame of +his worship. Many writers confound the Sylvāni, Fauni, Satyri, and +Silēni, with Pan.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" +id="Page_97">[97]</a></span>Some monuments represent him as little of +stature, with the face of a man, and the legs and feet of a goat, +holding a branch of cypress in his hand, in token of his regard for +Cyparissus, who was transformed into that tree. The pineapple, a +pruning-knife in his hand, a crown coarsely made, and a dog, are the +ordinary attributes of the representations of this rural deity. He +appears sometimes naked, sometimes covered with a rustic garb which +reaches down to his knee.</p> + +<p>Sylvānus, as his name imports, presided over woods, and the fruits +that grew in them; agreeable to which, (in some figures) he has a lap +full of fruit, his pruning-hook in one hand, and a young cypress tree in +the other. Virgil mentions the latter as a distinguishing attribute of +this god: the same poet, on another occasion, describes him as crowned +with wild flowers, and mentions his presiding over the cornfields as +well as the woods.</p> + +<p>SATYRI, <i>or</i> SATYRS, a sort of demi-gods, who with the Fauns and +Sylvans, presided over groves and forests under the direction of Pan. +They made part of the <i>dramatis persōnæ</i> in the ancient Greek +tragedies, which gave rise to the species of poetry called +satirical.</p> + +<p>There is a story that Euphēmus, passing from Caria to the extreme +parts of the ocean, discovered many desert islands, and being forced by +tempestuous weather to land upon one of them, called Satyrĭda, he found +inhabitants covered with yellow hair, having tails not much less than +horses. We are likewise told, that in the expedition which Hanno the +Carthaginian made to the parts of Lybia lying beyond Hercules' pillars, +they came to a great bay called the Western Horn, in which was an island +where they could find or see nothing by day-light but woods, and yet in +the night they observed many fires, and heard an incredible and +astonishing noise of drums and trumpets; whence they concluded that a +number of Satyrs abode there.</p> + +<p>It is pretended there really were such monsters as the pagans deified +under the name of Satyrs; and one of them, it is said, was brought to +Sylla, having been surprised in his sleep. Sylla ordered him to be +interrogated by people of different countries, to know what language he +spoke; but the Satyr only answered with cries, not unlike those of goats +and the neighing of horses. This +mon<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" +id="Page_98">[98]</a></span>ster had a human body, but the thighs, legs, +and feet of a goat. To the above stories may be added that of the Satyr +who passed the Rubicon in presence of Cæsar and his whole army.</p> + +<p>The Satyrs of the ancients were the ministers and attendants of +Bacchus. Their form was not the most inviting; for though their +countenances were human, they had horns on their foreheads, crooked +hands, rough and hairy bodies, feet and legs like a goat's, and tails +which resembled those of horses. The shepherds sacrificed to them the +firstlings of their flocks, but more especially grapes and apples; and +they addressed to them songs in their forests by which they endeavored +to conciliate their favor. When Satyrs arrived at an advanced age they +were called Silēni.</p> + +<p>FAUNI, <i>or</i> FAUNS, a species of demi-gods, inhabiting the +forests, called also <i>Sylvāni</i>. They were sons of Faunus and Fauna, +or Fatua, king and queen of the Latins, and though accounted demi-gods, +were supposed to die after a long life. Arnobius, indeed, has shown that +their father, or chief, lived only one hundred and twenty years. The +Fauns were Roman deities, unknown to the Greeks. The Roman Faunus was +the same with the Greek Pan; and as in the poets we find frequent +mention of <i>Fauns</i>, and <i>Pans</i>, or <i>Panes</i>, in the plural +number, most probable the Fauns were the same with the Pans, and all +descended from one progenitor.</p> + +<p>The Romans called them <i>Fauni</i> and <i>Ficarii</i>. The +denomination +<i>Ficarii</i> was not derived from the Latin <i>ficus</i> a <i>fig</i>, as some have +imagined, but from <i>ficus</i>, <i>fici</i>, a sort of fleshy tumor or +excrescence growing on the eyelids and other parts of the body, which +the Fauns were represented as having. They were called Fauni, <i>a fando</i>, +from <i>speaking</i>, because they were wont to speak and converse with men; +an instance of which is given in the voice that was heard from the wood, +in the battle between the Romans and Etrurians for the restoration of +the Tarquins, and which encouraged the Romans to fight. We are told that +the Fauni were husbandmen, the Satyrs vine-dressers, and the Sylvāni +those who cut down wood in the forests.</p> + +<p>They were represented with horns on their heads, pointed ears, and +crowned with branches of the pine, which +was <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" +id="Page_99">[99]</a></span>a tree sacred to them, whilst their lower +extremities resembled those of a goat.</p> + +<p>Horace makes Faunus the guardian and protector of men of wit, and +Virgil, a god of oracles and predictions; but this is, perhaps, founded +on the etymology of his name, for φωνειν in Greek, and <i>Fari</i> in +Latin, of which it has been supposed a derivative, signify +to <i>speak</i>; and it was, perhaps, for the same reason, they called +his wife <i>Fauna</i>, that is, <i>Fatidica</i>, <i>prophetess</i>. +Faunus is described by Ovid with horns on his head, and crowned with the +pine tree.</p> + +<p>PRIAPUS is said, by some, to have been the son of Bacchus and Nais, +or as others will have it, of Chiŏne; but the generality of authors +agree, that he was son of Bacchus and Venus. He was born at Lampsăchus, +a city of Mysia, at the mouth of the Hellespont, but in so deformed a +state, that his mother, through shame, abandoned him. On his growing up +to maturity, the inhabitants of the place banished him their +territories, on account of his vicious habits; but being soon after +visited with an epidemic disease, the Lampsacans consulted the oracle of +Dodōna, and Priāpus was in consequence recalled. Temples were erected to +him as the tutelar deity of vineyards and gardens, to defend them from +thieves and from birds.</p> + +<p>He is usually represented naked and obscene, with a stern +countenance, matted hair, crowned with garden herbs, and holding a +wooden sword, or scythe, whilst his body terminates in a shapeless +trunk. His figures are generally erected in gardens and orchards to +serve as scarecrows. Priāpus held a pruning-hook in his hands, when he +had hands, for he was sometimes nothing more than a mere log of wood, as +Martial somewhat humorously calls him. Indeed the Roman poets in general +seem to have looked on him as a ridiculous god, and are all ready enough +either to despise or abuse him.</p> + +<p>Trimalchio, in his ridiculous feasts described by Petronius, had a +figure of this god to be held up during his dessert: it was made of +paste, and, as Horace observes on another occasion, that he owed all his +divinity to the carpenter, Petronius seems to hint that he was wholly +obliged for it to the pastry cook in this. Some mythologists make the +birth of Priāpus allude to that radical moisture which supports all +vegetable productions, and which is +produced <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" +id="Page_100">[100]</a></span>by Bacchus and Venus, that is, the solar +heat, and the fluid whence Venus is said to have sprung. Some affirm +that he was the same with the Baal of the Phœnicians, mentioned in +scripture.</p> + +<p>ARISTÆUS, son of Apollo, by the nymph Cyrene, daughter of Hypseus, +king of the Lapĭthæ, was born in Lybia, and in that part of it where the +city Cyrene was built. He received his education from the nymphs, who +taught him to extract oil from olives, and to make honey, cheese, and +butter; all which arts he communicated to mankind. Going to Thebes, he +there married Autonŏe, daughter of Cadmus, and, by her, was father to +Actæon, who was torn in pieces by his own dogs. At length he passed into +Thrace, where Bacchus initiated him into the mysteries of the Orgia, and +taught him many things conducive to the happiness of life. Having dwelt +some time near Mount Hemus, he disappeared, and not only the barbarous +people of that country, but the Greeks likewise decreed him divine +honors.</p> + +<p>It is remarked by Bayle, that Aristæus found out the solstitial +rising of Sirius, or the dog-star; and he adds, it is certain that this +star had a particular relation to Aristæus; for this reason, when the +heats of the dog-star laid waste the Cyclădes, and occasioned there a +pestilence, Aristæus was entreated to put a stop to it. He went directly +into the isle of Cea, and built an altar to Jupiter, offered sacrifices +to that deity, as well to the malignant star, and established an +anniversary for it. These produced a very good effect, for it was from +thence that the Etesian winds had their origin, which continue forty +days, and temper the heat of the summer. On his death, for the services +he had rendered mankind, he was placed among the stars, and is the +Aquarius of the Zodiac.</p> + +<p>TERMINUS was a very ancient deity among the Romans, whose worship was +first instituted by Numa Pompilius, he having erected in his honor on +the Tarpeian hill a temple which was open at the top. This deity was +thought to preside over the stones or land-marks, called Termĭni, which +were so highly venerated, that it was sacrilege to move them, and the +criminal becoming devoted to the gods, it was lawful for any man to kill +him. The Roman Termĭni were square stones or posts, much resembling our +mile-stones, erected to show that no force or violence should be used in +settling mutual boun<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" +id="Page_101">[101]</a></span>daries; they were sometimes crowned with a +human head, but had seldom any inscriptions; one, however, is mentioned +to this effect, “Whosoever shall take away this, or shall order it to be +taken away, may he die the last of his family.”</p> + +<p>VERTUMNUS, the Proteus of the Roman ritual, was the god of tradesmen, +and, from the power he had of assuming any shape, was believed to +preside over the thoughts of mankind. His courtship of Pomōna makes one +of the most elegant and entertaining stories in Ovid. The Romans +esteemed him the god of tradesmen, from the turns and changes which +traffic effects. There was no god had a greater variety of +representations than Vertumnus. He is painted with a garland of flowers +on his head, a pruning hook in one hand, and ripe fruits in the other. +Pomōna has a pruning hook in her right hand, and a branch in her left. +Pliny introduces this goddess personally, even in his prose, to make her +speak in praise of the fruits committed to her care. We learn from Ovid +that this goddess was of that class which they anciently called +Hamadryads.</p> + +<p>Both these deities were unknown to the Greeks, and only honored by +the Romans. Some imagine Vertumnus an emblem of the year, which, though +it assume different dresses according to the different seasons, is at no +time so luxuriant as in autumn, when the harvest is crowned, and the +fruits appear in their full perfection and lustre; but historians say +that Vertumnus was an ancient king of the Tuscans, who first taught his +people the method of planting orchards, gardens, and vineyards, and the +manner of cultivating, pruning, and grafting fruit-trees; whence he is +reported to have married Pomōna. Some think he was called Vertumnus, +from turning the lake Curtus into the Tiber.</p> + +<hr> +<h2 id="chap_2_6">CHAPTER VI.</h2> + +<h3><i>Goddesses of the Woods.</i></h3> + +<p>Diana, daughter of Jupiter and Latōna, and sister of Apollo, was born +in the island of Delos. She had +a <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" +id="Page_102">[102]</a></span>threefold divinity, being styled Diāna on +earth, Luna, or the moon, in heaven, and Hecăte, or Proserpine, in hell. +The poets say she had three heads, one of a horse, another of a woman, +and the third of a dog. Hesiod makes Diāna, Luna, and Hecăte, three +distinguished goddesses.</p> + +<p>Of all the various characters of this goddess, there is no one more +known than that of her presiding over woods, and delighting in hunting. +The Diāna Venatrix, or goddess of the chase, is frequently represented +as running on, with her vest flying back with the wind, notwithstanding +its being shortened, and girt about her for expedition. She is tall of +stature, and her face, though so very handsome, is something manly. Her +feet are sometimes bare, and sometimes adorned with a sort of buskin, +which was worn by the huntresses of old. She often has a quiver on her +shoulder, and sometimes holds a javelin, but more usually her bow, in +her right hand. It is thus she makes her appearance in several of her +statues, and it is thus the Roman poets describe her, particularly in +the epithets they give this goddess, in the use of which they are so +happy that they often bring the idea of whole figures of her into your +mind by a single word. The statues of this Diāna were very frequent in +woods: she was represented there in all the different ways they could +think of; sometimes as hunting, sometimes as bathing, and sometimes as +resting herself after her fatigue. The height of Diāna's stature is +frequently marked out in the poets, and that, generally, by comparing +her with her nymphs.</p> + +<p>Another great character of Diāna is that under which she is +represented as the intelligence which presides over the planet of the +moon; in which she is depicted in her car as directing that planet. Her +figure under this character is frequently enough to be met with on gems +and medals, which generally exhibit her with a lunar crown, or crescent +on her forehead, and sometimes as drawn by stags, sometimes by does, +but, more commonly than either, by horses. The poets speak of her +chariot and her horses; they agree with the artists in giving her but +two, and show, that the painters of old generally drew them of a perfect +white color.</p> + +<p>A third remarkable way of representing Diāna was with three bodies; +this is very common among the an<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" +id="Page_103">[103]</a></span>cient figures of the goddess, and it is +hence the poets call her the triple, the three-headed, and the +three-bodied Diāna. Her distinguishing name under this triple appearance +is Hecăte, or Trivia; a goddess frequently invoked in enchantments, and +fit for such black operations; for this is the infernal Diana, and as +such is represented with the characteristics of a fury, rather than as +one of the twelve great celestial deities: all her hands hold +instruments of terror, and generally grasp either cords, or swords, or +serpents, or fire-brands.</p> + +<p>There are various conjectures concerning the name <i>Hecăte</i>, +which is supposed to come from a Greek word signifying +an <i>hundred</i>, either because an hundred victims at a time used to +be offered to her, or else because by her edicts the ghosts of those who +die without burial, wander an hundred years upon the banks of the Styx. +Mythologists say that Hecăte is the <i>order</i> and <i>force</i> of the +Fates, who obtained from the divine power that influence which they have +over human bodies; that the operation of the Fates are hidden, but +descend by the means and interposition of the stars, wherefore it is +necessary that all inferior things submit to the cares, calamities, and +death which the Fates bring upon them, without any possibility of +resisting the divine will.</p> + +<p>Hesiod relates of Hecate, to show the extent of her power, that +Jupiter had heaped gifts and honors upon her far above all the other +deities; that she was empress of the earth and sea, and all things which +are comprehended in the compass of the heavens; that she was a goddess +easy to be entreated, kind, and always ready to do good, bountiful of +gold and riches, which are wholly in her power; that whatever springs +from seed, whether in heaven, or on earth, is subject to her, and that +she governs the fates of all things.</p> + +<p>PALES was a rural goddess of the Romans. She was properly the +divinity of shepherds, and the tutelar deity and protectress of their +flocks. Her votaries had usually wooden images of her. A feast called +Palilia or Parilia was celebrated on the twenty-first of April, or, +according to some, in May, in the open fields. The offerings were milk +and cakes of millet, in order to engage her to defend their flocks from +wild beasts and infectious diseases. As part of the ceremony, they +burned heaps of straw, and leaped over them. Some make Pales the same +with Ves<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" +id="Page_104">[104]</a></span>ta or Cybĕle. This goddess is represented +as an old woman.</p> + +<p>FLORA, the goddess of flowers, was a Roman deity. The ancients made +her the wife of Zephyrus, to intimate that Flora, or the natural heat of +the plant, must concur with the influence of the warmest wind for the +production of flowers. Varro reckons Flora among the ancient deities of +the Sabines, which were received into Rome on the union of the Sabines +with the Romans. Ovid says, that her Greek name was Chloris, and that +the Latins changed it into Flora.</p> + +<p>FERONIA was the goddess of woods and orchards. She is called Feronia +from the verb <i>fero, to bring forth</i>, because she <i>produced</i> +and +<i>propagated</i> trees, or from <i>Ferōnĭci</i>, a town situated near the foot of +Mount Soracte, in Italy, where was a wood, and a temple dedicated to +her; which town and wood are mentioned by Virgil, in his catalogue of +the forces of Turnus. The Lacedemonians first introduced her worship +into Italy under Evander; for these people, being offended at the rigor +of the laws of Lycurgus, resolved to seek out some new plantation, and +arriving, after a long and dangerous voyage, in Italy, they, to show +their gratitude for their preservation, built a temple to Feronia, so +called from their <i>bearing patiently</i> all the fatigues and dangers they +had encountered in their voyage. This edifice casually taking fire, the +people ran to remove and preserve the image of the goddess, when on a +sudden the fire became extinguished, and the grove assumed a native and +flourishing verdure.</p> + +<p>Horace mentions the homage that was paid to this deity, by washing +the face and hands, according to custom, in the sacred fountain which +flowed near her temple. Slaves received the cap of liberty at her +shrine, on which account they regarded her as their patroness. How +Feronia was descended, where born, or how educated, is not transmitted +to us; but she is said to have been wife to Jupiter Anxur, so called, +because he was worshipped in that place.</p> + +<p> +NYMPHÆ, <i>the</i> NYMPHS, were certain inferior goddesses, inhabiting +the mountains, woods, valleys, rivers, seas, &c. said to be daughters of +Oceanus and Tethys. According to ancient mythology, the whole universe +was full of these nymphs, who are distinguished into several ranks and +classes, though the general division of them is +into <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" +id="Page_105">[105]</a></span>celestial and terrestrial. I. The +Celestial Nymphs, called <i>Uraniæ</i>, were supposed to govern the +heavenly bodies or spheres. II. The Terrestrial Nymphs, +called <i>Epigeiæ</i>, presided over the several parts of the inferior +world; these were again subdivided into those of the water, and those of +the earth.</p> + +<p>The Nymphs of the water were ranged under several classes: 1. The +Oceanĭdes, or Nymphs of the ocean. 2. The Nereids, daughters of Nereus +and Doris. 3. The Naiads, Nymphs of the fountains. 4. The Ephydriădes, +also Nymphs of the fountains; and 5. The Limniădes, Nymphs of the lakes. +The Nymphs of the earth were likewise divided into different classes; +as, 1. The Oreădes, or Nymphs of the mountains. 2. The Napææ, Nymphs of +the meadows; and 3. The Dryads and Hamadryads, Nymphs of the woods and +forests. Besides these, there were Nymphs who took their names from +particular countries, rivers, &c. as the Dardanĭdes, Tiberĭdes, +Ismenĭdes, &c.</p> + +<p>Pausanias reports it as the opinion of the ancient poets that the +Nymphs were not altogether free from death, or immortal, but that their +years wore in a manner innumerable; that prophecies were inspired by the +Nymphs, as well as the other deities; and that they had foretold the +destruction of several cities: they were likewise esteemed as the +authors of divination.</p> + +<p>Meursius is of opinion, that the Greeks borrowed their notion of +these divinities from the Phœnicians, for <i>nympha</i>, in their +language, signifying <i>soul</i>, the Greeks imagined that the souls of +the ancient inhabitants of Greece had become Nymphs; particularly that +the souls of those who had inhabited the woods were called Dryads; those +who inhabited the mountains, Oreădes; those who dwelt on the sea-coasts, +Nereids; and, lastly, those who had their place of abode near rivers or +fountains, Naiads. Though goats were sometimes sacrificed to the Nymphs, +yet their stated offerings were milk, oil, honey and wine. They were +represented as young and beautiful virgins, and dressed in conformity to +the character ascribed to them.</p> + +<div id="a7" class="center framed" style="width:100%"> +<h3>NEPTUNE RISING FROM THE SEA</h3> +<p class="ralign"><i>Pl. 7.</i></p> +<a href="images/fig113.png"> +<img src="images/fig113th.png" alt="HE SITS SUPERIOR"> +</a> +<h4>HE SITS SUPERIOR & THE CHARIOT FLIES.</h4> + +<p class="ralign"><i>Pope's Homer's Iliad. B. 13. L. 41</i></p> +</div> + +<hr> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" +id="Page_106">[106]</a></span></p> +<h2 id="chap_2_7">CHAPTER VII.</h2> + +<h3><i>Gods of the Sea.</i></h3> + +<p>NEPTUNE was the son of Saturn, and Rhea or Ops, and brother of +Jupiter. When arrived at maturity, he assisted his brother Jupiter in +his expeditions, for which that god, on attaining to supreme power, +assigned him the sea and the islands for his empire. Whatever attachment +Neptune might have had to his brother at one period, he was at another +expelled heaven for entering into a conspiracy against him, in +conjunction with several other deities; whence he fled, with Apollo, to +Laomedon, king of Troy, where Neptune having assisted in raising the +walls of the city, and being dismissed unrewarded, in revenge, sent a +sea-monster to lay waste the country.</p> + +<p>On another occasion, this deity had a contest with Vulcan and +Minerva, in regard to their skill. The goddess, as a proof of her's, +made a horse, Vulcan a man, and Neptune a bull, whence that animal was +used in the sacrifices to him, though it is probable that, as the victim +was to be black, the design was to point out the raging quality and fury +of the sea, over which he presided. The Greeks make Neptune to have been +the creator of the horse, which he produced from out of the earth with a +blow of his trident, when disputing with Minerva who should give the +name to Cecropia, which was afterwards called Athens, from the name in +Greek of Minerva, who made an olive tree spring up suddenly, and thus +obtained the victory.</p> + +<p>In this fable, however, it is evident that the horse could signify +nothing but a ship; for the two things in which that region excelled +being ships and olive-trees, it was thought politic by this means to +bring the citizens over from too great a fondness for sea affairs, to +the cultivation of their country, by showing that Pallas was preferable +to Neptune, or, in other words, <i>husbandry to sailing</i>, which, +without some further meaning, the production of a horse could never have +done. It notwithstanding appears that Neptune had brought the management +of the horse, as likewise the art of building ships, to very great +perfection; insomuch that Pamphus, who was the +most <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" +id="Page_107">[107]</a></span>ancient writer of hymns to the gods, calls +him the benefactor of mankind, in bestowing upon them horses and ships +which had stems and decks that resembled towers.</p> + +<p>If Neptune created the horse, he was likewise the inventor of +chariot-races; hence Mithridātes, king of Pontus, threw chariots, drawn +by four horses, into the sea, in honor of Neptune: and the Romans +instituted horse-races in the circus during his festival, at which time +all horses ceased from working, and the mules were adorned with wreaths +of flowers.</p> + +<p>Neptune, represented as a god of the sea, makes a considerable +figure: he is described with black or dark hair, his garment of an azure +or sea-green color, seated in a large shell drawn by whales, or +sea-horses, with his trident in his hand, attended by the sea-gods +Palæmon, Glaucus, and Phorcys; the sea-goddesses Thetis, Melita, and +Panopēa, and a long train of Tritons and sea-nymphs.</p> + +<p>The inferior artists represent him sometimes with an angry and +disturbed air; and we may observe the same difference in this particular +between the great and inferior poets as there is between the bad and the +good artists. Thus Ovid describes Neptune with a sullen look, whereas +Virgil expressly tells us that he has a mild face, even where he is +representing him in a passion. Even at the time that he is provoked, and +might be expected to have appeared disturbed, and in a passion, there is +serenity and majesty in his face.</p> + +<p>On some medals he treads on the beak of a ship, to show that he +presided over the seas, or more particularly over the Mediterranean sea, +which was the great, and almost the only scene for navigation among the +old Greeks and Romans. He is standing, as he generally was represented; +he most commonly, too, has his trident in his right hand: this was his +peculiar sceptre, and seems to have been used by him chiefly to rouse up +the waters; for we find sometimes that he lays it aside when he is to +appease them, but he resumes it when there is occasion for violence. +Virgil makes him shake Troy from its foundation with it; and in Ovid it +is with the stroke of this that the waters of the earth are let loose +for the general deluge. The poets have generally delighted in describing +this god as passing over the calm surface of the waters, in his chariot +drawn by sea-horses. The fine <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" +id="Page_108">[108]</a></span>original description of this is in Homer, +from whom Virgil and Statius have copied it.</p> + +<p>In searching for the mythological sense of the fable, we must again +have recourse to Egypt, that kingdom which, above all others, has +furnished the most ample harvest for the reaper of mysteries. The +Egyptians, to denote navigation, and the return of the Phœnician fleet, +which annually visited their coast, used the figure of an Osīris borne +on a winged horse, and holding a three-forked spear, or harpoon. To this +image they gave the name of Poseidon, or Neptune, which, as the Greeks +and Romans afterwards adopted, sufficiently proves this deity had his +birth here. Thus the maritime Osīris of the Egyptians became a new deity +with those who knew not the meaning of the symbol.</p> + +<p>TRITON. It is not agreed who were the parents of Triton; but he was a +sea-deity, the herald and trumpeter of Oceănus and Neptune. He sometimes +delighted in mischief, for he carried off the cattle from the Tanagrian +fields, and destroyed the smaller coasting vessels; so that to appease +his resentment, the Tanagrians offered him libations of new wine. +Pleased with its flavor and taste, he drank so freely that he fell +asleep, and tumbling from an eminence, one of the natives cut of his +head. He left a daughter called Tristia.</p> + +<p>The poets ordinarily attribute to Triton, the office of calming the +sea, and stilling of tempests: thus in the Metamorphoses we read, that +Neptune desiring to recall the waters of the deluge, commanded Triton to +sound his trumpet, at the noise of which they retired to their +respective channels, and left the earth again habitable, having swept +off almost the whole human race.</p> + +<p>This god is exhibited in the human form from the waist upwards, with +blue eyes, a large mouth, and hair matted like wild parsley; his +shoulders covered with a purple skin, variegated with small scales, his +feet resembling the fore feet of a horse, and his lower parts +terminating in a double forked tail: sometimes he is seen in a car, with +horses of a bright cerulean. His trumpet is a large conch, or sea-shell. +There were several Tritons, but one chief over all, the distinguished +messenger of Neptune, as Mercury was of Jupiter, and Iris of Juno.</p> + +<p>OCEANUS, oldest son of Cœlus and Terra, or Vesta. He married Tethys, +and besides her had many other <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" +id="Page_109">[109]</a></span>wives. He had several sisters, all Nymphs, +each of whom possessed an hundred woods and as many rivers. Oceănus was +esteemed by the ancients as the father both of gods and men, who were +said to have taken their beginning from him, on account of the ocean's +encompassing the earth with its waves, and because he was the principal +of that radical moisture diffused through universal matter, without +which, according to Thales, nothing could either be produced or +subsist.</p> + +<p>Homer makes Juno visit Oceănus at the remotest limits of the earth, +and acknowledge him and Tethys as the parents of the gods, adding, that +she herself had been brought up under their tuition. Many of his +children are mentioned in poetical story, whose names it would be +endless to enumerate, and, indeed, they are only the appellations of the +principal rivers of the world. Oceănus was described with a bull's head, +to represent the rage and bellowing of the ocean when agitated by +storms. Oceănus and Tethys are ranked in the highest classes of +sea-deities, and as governors in chief over the whole world of +waters.</p> + +<p>NEREUS, a sea-deity, was son of Oceănus, by Tethys. Apollodōrus gives +him Terra for his mother. His education and authority were in the +waters, and his residence, more particularly, the Ægean seas. He had the +faculty of assuming what form he pleased. He was regarded as a prophet; +and foretold to Paris the war which the rape of Helen would bring upon +his country. When Hercules was ordered to fetch the golden apples of the +Hesperĭdes, he went to the Nymphs inhabiting the grottoes of Eridănus, +to know where he might find them; the Nymphs sent him to Nereus, who, to +elude the inquiry, perpetually varied his form, till Hercules having +seized him, resolved to hold him till he resumed his original shape, on +which he yielded the desired information. Nereus had, by his sister +Doris, fifty daughters called Nereids. Hesiod highly celebrates him as a +mild and peaceful old man, a lover of justice and moderation. Nereus and +Doris, with their descendants the Nereids, or Oceaniads, so called from +Oceănus, are ranked in the third class of water deities.</p> + +<p>PALÆMON, <i>or</i> MELICERTES, was son of Athămas, king of Thebes and +Ino. The latter fearing the rage of her husband, who in his madness had +killed his son Learchus, took Melicertes in her arms, and leaped with +him from the rock Molyris into the sea. Neptune +received <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" +id="Page_110">[110]</a></span>them with open arms, and gave them a place +among the marine gods, only changing their names, Ino being called +Leucothea, or Leucothŏe, and Melicertes, Palæmon. Ino, under the name +Leucothea, is supposed, by some, to be the same with Aurora: the Romans +gave her the name of Matuta, she being reputed the goddess that ushers +in the morning; and Palæmon, they called Portumnus, or Portunnus, and +painted him with a key in his hand, to denote that he was the guardian +of harbors. Adorations were paid to him chiefly at Tenĕdos, and the +sacrifice offered to him was an infant.</p> + +<p>Pausanias says that the body of Melicertes was thrown on the Isthmus +of Corinth where Sisyphus, his uncle, who reigned in that city, +instituted the Isthmian games in his honor. For this fable we are +indebted to the fertile invention of the Greeks, Melicertes being no +other than the Melcarthus or the Hercules of Tyre, who, from having been +drowned in the sea, was called a god of it, and from his many voyages, +the guardian of harbors.</p> + +<p>GLAUCUS, a sea-deity. His story, which is very fanciful, shows the +extravagance of poetical fiction amongst the ancients. Before his +deification, Glaucus is said to have been a fisherman of Anthēdon, who +having one day remarked that the fishes which he laid on a particular +herb revived and threw themselves into the sea, resolved himself to +taste it, and immediately followed their example: the consequence was, +that he became a Triton, and ever after was reputed a marine deity, +attending with the rest on the car of Neptune.</p> + +<p>The descent of this deity is exceeding dubious. He is said to have +carried off Ariadne from the island Dia, for which Bacchus bound him +fast with vine-twigs. The ship Argo is said to have been constructed by +him, and he is not only mentioned as commanding her, when Jason fought +with the Tyrrhenians, but as being the only one of her crew that came +off without a wound. He dwelt some time at Delos, and, besides +prophesying with the Nereids, is affirmed to have instructed Apollo in +the art.</p> + +<p>SCYLLA was the daughter of Phorcus, or Phorcys, by Ceto. Glaucus, +being passionately fond of Scylla, after vainly endeavoring to gain her +affections, applied to Circe, and besought her, by her art, to induce +her to return his affection. On this, Circe disclosed to him her +passion, but Glaucus remaining inexorable, the enchantress vowed +revenge, and by her magic charms so infected the fountain in which +Scylla bathed, that on entering it, her lower +parts <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" +id="Page_111">[111]</a></span>were turned into dogs; at which the nymph, +terrified at herself, plunged into the sea, and there was changed to a +rock, notorious for the shipwrecks it occasioned.</p> + +<p>Authors are disagreed as to Scylla's form; some say she retained her +beauty from the neck downwards, but had six dog's heads: others +maintain, that her upper parts continued entire, but that she had below +the body of a wolf, and the tail of a serpent. The rock named Scylla, +lies between Italy and Sicily, and the noise of the waves beating on it +is supposed to have occasioned the fable of the barking of dogs, and +howling of wolves, ascribed to the imaginary monster.</p> + +<p>CHARYBDIS was a rapacious woman, a female robber, who, it is said, +stole the oxen of Hercules, for which she was thunder-struck by Jupiter, +and turned into a whirlpool, dangerous to sailors. This whirlpool was +situated opposite the rock Scylla, at the entrance of the Faro from +Messina, and occasioned the proverb of running into one danger to avoid +another. Some affirm that Hercules killed her himself; others, that +Scylla committed this robbery, and was killed for it by Hercules.</p> + +<hr> +<h2 id="chap_2_8">CHAPTER VIII.</h2> + +<h3><i>Tartarus and its Deities.</i></h3> + +<p>TARTARUS <i>or</i> HELL, the region of punishment after death. The +whole imaginary world, which we call Hell, though according to the +ancients it was the receptacle of all departed persons, of the good as +well as the bad, is divided by Virgil into five parts: the first may be +called the previous region; the second is the region of waters, or the +river which they were all to pass; the third is what we may call the +gloomy region, and what the ancients called Erĕbus; the fourth is +Tartărus, or the region of torments; and the fifth the region of joy and +bliss, or what we still call Elysium.</p> + +<p>The first part in it Virgil has stocked with two sorts of beings; +first, with those which make the real misery of mankind upon earth, such +as war, discord, labor, grief, cares, distempers, and old age; and, +secondly, with fancied terrors, and all the most frightful creatures of +our own imagination, such as Gorgons, Harpies, Chimæras and the +like.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" +id="Page_112">[112]</a></span>The next is the water which all the +departed were supposed to pass, to enter into the other world; this was +called Styx, or the hateful passage: the imaginary personages of this +division are the souls of the departed, who are either passing over, or +suing for a passage, and the master of a vessel who carries them over, +one freight after another, according to his will and pleasure.</p> + +<p>The third division begins immediately with the bank on the other side +the river, and was supposed to extend a great way in: it is subdivided +again into several particular districts; the first seems to be the +receptacle for infants. The next for all such as have been put to death +without a cause; next is the place for those who have put a period to +their own lives, a melancholy region, and situated amidst the marshes +made by the overflowings of the Styx, or hateful river, or passage into +the other world: after this are the fields of mourning, full of dark +woods and groves, and inhabited by those who died of love: last of all +spreads an open champaign country, allotted for the souls of departed +warriors; the name of this whole division is Erĕbus: its several +districts seem to be disposed all in a line, one after the other, but +after this the great line or road divides into two, of which the right +hand road leads to Elysium, or the place of the blessed, and the left +hand road to Tartărus, or the place of the tormented.</p> + +<p>The fourth general division of the subterraneous world is this +Tartărus, or the place of torments: there was a city in it, and a prince +to preside over it: within this city was a vast deep pit, in which the +tortures were supposed to be performed: in this horrid part Virgil +places two sorts of souls; first, of such as have shown their impiety +and rebellion toward the gods; and secondly, of such as have been vile +and mischievous among men: those, as he himself says of the latter more +particularly, who hated their brethren, used their parents ill, or +cheated their dependants, who made no use of their riches, who committed +incest, or disturbed the marriage union of others, those who were +rebellious subjects, or knavish servants, who were despisers of justice, +or betrayers of their country, and who made and unmade laws not for the +good of the public, but only to get money for themselves; all these, and +the despisers of the gods, Virgil places in this most horrid division of +his subterraneous world, and in the vast abyss, which was the most +terrible part even of that division.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" +id="Page_113">[113]</a></span>The fifth division is that of Elysium, or +the place of the blessed; here Virgil places those who died for their +country, those of pure lives, truly inspired poets, the inventors of +arts, and all who have done good to mankind: he does not speak of any +particular districts for these, but supposes that they have the liberty +of going where they please in that delightful region, and conversing +with whom they please; he only mentions one vale, towards the end of it, +as appropriated to any particular use; this is the vale of Lethe or +forgetfulness, where many of the ancient philosophers, and the +Platonists in particular, supposed the souls which had passed through +some periods of their trial, were immersed in the river which gave its +name to it, in order to be put into new bodies, and to fill up the whole +course of their probation, in an upper world.</p> + +<p>In each of these three divisions, on the other side of the river +Styx, which perhaps were comprehended under the name of Ades, as all the +five might be under that of Orcus, was a prince or judge: Minos for the +regions of Erĕbus; Rhadamanthus for Tartărus; and Æăcus for Elysium, +Pluto and Proserpine had their palace at the entrance of the road to the +Elysian fields, and presided as sovereigns over the whole subterraneous +world.</p> + +<p>PLUTO, son of Saturn and Ops, assisted Jupiter in his wars, and after +victory had crowned their exertions in placing his brother on the +throne, be obtained a share of his father's dominions, which, as some +authors say, was the eastern continent, and lower regions of Asia; but, +according to the common opinion, Pluto's division lay in the west. He +fixed his residence in Spain, and lived in Iberia, near the Pyrrenæan +mountains: Spain being a fertile country, and abounding in minerals and +mines, Pluto was esteemed the god of wealth; for it must be here +observed, that the poets confound Pluto, god of hell, with Plutus, god +of riches, though they were distinct deities, and always so considered +by the ancients.</p> + +<p>Pluto's regions being supposed to lie under ground; and as he was the +first who taught men to bury their dead, it was thence inferred that he +was king of the infernal regions, whence sprung a belief, that as all +souls descended to him, so when they were in his possession, he bound +them with inevitable chains, and delivered them to be tried by judges, +after which he dispensed rewards and punishments according to their +several deserts. Pluto was +therefore <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" +id="Page_114">[114]</a></span>called the infernal Jupiter, and oblations +were made to him by the living, for the souls of their friends +departed.</p> + +<p>Although Pluto was brother of Jupiter, yet none of the goddesses +would condescend to marry him, owing to the deformity of his person, +joined to the darkness of his mansions. Enraged at this reluctance in +the goddesses, and mortified at his want of issue, Pluto ascended his +chariot, and drove to Sicily, where chancing to discover Proserpine with +her companions gathering flowers in a valley of Enna, near mount Ætna, +the grisly god, struck with her charms, instantly seized her, and +forcing her into his chariot, went rapidly off to the river Chemarus, +through which he opened himself a passage to the realms of night. +Orpheus says, this descent was made through the Cecropian cave in +Attica, not far from Eleusis.</p> + +<p>His whole domains are washed with vast and rapid rivers, whose +peculiar qualities strike horror into mortals. Cocytus falls with an +impetuous roaring; Phlegĕthon rages with a torrent of flames; the +Acharusian fen is dreadful for its stench and filth: nor does Charon, +the ferryman, who wafts souls over, occasion any less horror; Cerbĕrus, +the triple-headed dog, stands ready with open mouths to receive them; +and the Furies shake at them their serpentine locks.</p> + +<p>Thus far the common fable; but the following seems the true +foundation of the story which has been so much disguised; Pluto having +retired into Spain, applied himself to the working of the mines of +silver and gold, which in that country, were very common, especially on +the side of Cadiz, where he fixed his abode. Bœtica, his residence, was +that province now called Andalusia, and the river Bœtis, now +Guadalquiver, gave that name to it. This river formed of old, at its +mouth, a small island, called Tartessus, which was the Tartessus of the +ancients, and whence Tărtarus was formed.</p> + +<p>It may be remarked, that though Spain be not now fertile in mines, +yet the ancients speak of it as a country where they abounded. +Posidonius says, that its mountains and hills were almost all mountains +of gold; Arienus, that near Tartessus was a mountain of silver; and +Aristotle, that the first Phœnicians who landed there, found such +quantities of gold and of silver, that they made anchors for their ships +of those precious metals. This, doubtless, is what determined Pluto, who +was ingenius in such operations, +to <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" +id="Page_115">[115]</a></span>fix himself near to Tartessus; and this +making him pass also for a wealthy prince, procured for him the name of +Pluto, instead of that of Agelestus.</p> + +<p>The situation of Pluto's kingdom, which was low in respect to Greece, +occasioned him to be looked on as the god of hell; and as he continually +employed laborers for his mines, who chiefly resided in the bowels of +the earth, and there commonly died, Pluto was reputed the king of the +dead. The ocean, likewise, upon whose coasts he reigned, was supposed to +be covered with darkness. These circumstances united, appear to have +been the foundation of the fables afterwards invented concerning Pluto +and his realms of night. It is probable, for example, that the famous +Tartărus, the place so noted in the empire of this god, comes from +Tartessus, near Cadiz: the river Lethe not unlikely from the +Guada-Lethe, which flows over against that city; and the lake Avernus, +or the Acheronian fen, from the word Aharona, importing, <i>at the +extremities</i>, a name given to that lake, which is near the ocean.</p> + +<p>Pluto was extremely revered both by the Greeks and Romans. He had a +magnificent temple at Pylos. Near the river Corellus, in Bœotia, he had +also an altar, for some mystical reason, in common with Pallas. His +chief festival was in February, and called Charistia, because their +oblations were made for the dead. Black bulls were the victims offered +up, and the ceremonies were performed in the night, it not being lawful +to sacrifice to him in the day time, on account of his aversion to the +light. The cypress tree was sacred to Pluto, boughs of which were +carried at funerals.</p> + +<p>He is usually represented in an ebony chariot, drawn by his four +black horses, Orphnæus, Æthon, Nycteus, and Alastor. As god of the dead, +keys were the ensigns of his authority, because there is no possibility +of returning when the gates of his palace are locked. Sometimes he holds +a sceptre, to denote his power; at other times a wand, with which he +directs the movements of his subject ghosts. Homer speaks of his hemlet +as having the quality of rendering the wearer invisible; and tells us +that Minerva borrowed it when she fought against the Trojans, that she +might not be discovered by Mars. Perseus also used this hemlet when he +cut off Medusa's head.</p> + +<p>Mythologists pretend that Pluto is the earth, the natural powers and +faculties of which are under his direction, +so <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" +id="Page_116">[116]</a></span>that he is monarch not only of all riches +which come from thence, and are at length swallowed up by it, but +likewise of the dead; for as all living things spring from the earth, so +are they resolved into the principles whence they arose. Proserpine is +by them reputed to be the seed or grain of fruits or corn, which must be +taken into the earth, and hid there before it can be nourished by +it.</p> + +<p>PLUTUS, the god of riches. Though Plutus be not an infernal god, yet +as his name and office were similar to Pluto's, we shall here +distinguish them, although both were gods of riches. Pluto was born of +Saturn and Ops, or Rhea, and was brother of Jupiter and Neptune; but +Plutus, the god of whom we here speak, was son of Jason or Jasion by +Ceres. He is represented blind and lame, injudicious and fearful. Being +lame, he confers estates but slowly: for want of judgment, his favors +are commonly bestowed on the unworthy; and as he is timorous, so he +obliges rich men to watch their treasures with fear. Plutus is painted +with wings, to signify the swiftness of his retreat, when he takes his +departure. Little more of him remains in story, than that he had a +daughter named Euribœa; unless the comedy of Aristophănes, called by his +name, be taken into the account.</p> + +<p>Aristophănes says that this deity, having at first a very clear +sight, bestowed his favors only on the just and good: but that after +Jupiter deprived him of vision, riches fell indifferently to the good +and the bad. A design being formed for the recovery of his sight, Penia +or poverty opposed it, making it appear that poverty is the mistress of +arts, sciences, and virtues, which would be in danger of perishing if +all men were rich; but no credit being given to her remonstrance, Plutus +recovered his sight in the temple of Æsculapius, whence the temples and +altars of other gods, and those of Jupiter himself, were abandoned, the +whole world sacrificing to Plutus alone.</p> + +<p>PROSERPINE, the daughter of Jupiter and Ceres, was educated with +Minerva and Diāna. By reason of this familiar intercourse, each chose a +place in the island of Sicily for her particular residence. Minerva look +the parts near Himĕra; Diāna those about Syracuse; and Proserpine, in +common with her sister goddesses, enjoyed the pleasant fields of Enna. +Near at hand are groves and gardens, surrounded with morasses and a deep +cave, with a passage under ground, opening towards the north. In this +happy re<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" +id="Page_117">[117]</a></span>tirement was Proserpine situated, when +Pluto, passing in his chariot through the cave, discovered her whilst +busy in gathering flowers, with her attendants, the daughters of +Oceănus. Proserpine he seized, and having placed her in his chariot, +carried her to Syracuse, where the earth opening, they both descended to +the infernal regions.</p> + +<p>She had not been long there when the fame of her charms induced +Theseus and Pirithŏus to combine for the purpose of carrying her thence; +but in this they failed. When Ceres, who was disconsolate for the loss +of her daughter, discovered where she was, Jupiter upon her repeated +solicitations, promised that Proserpine should be restored, provided she +had not yet tasted any thing in hell. Ceres joyfully descended, and +Proserpine, full of triumph, prepared for her return, when lo! +Ascalăphus, son of Achēron and Gorgyra, discovered that he saw +Proserpine, as she walked in the garden of Pluto, eat some grains of a +pomegranate, upon which her departure was stopped. At last, by the +repeated importunity of her mother to Jupiter, she extorted as a favor, +in mitigation of her grief, that Proserpine should live half the year in +heaven, and the other half in hell.</p> + +<p>Proserpine is represented under the form of a beautiful woman, +enthroned, having something stern and melancholy in her aspect. Statius +has found out a melancholy employment for her, which is, to keep a sort +of register of the dead, and to mark down all that should be added to +that number. The same poet mentions another of her offices of a more +agreeable nature: he says, when any woman dies who had been a remarkably +good wife in this world, Proserpine prepares the spirits of the best +women in the other to make a procession to welcome her into Elysium with +joy, and to strew all the way with flowers where she is to pass.</p> + +<p>Some represent Proserpine, Luna, Hecăte, and Diāna, as one; the same +goddess being called Luna in heaven, Diāna on earth, and Hecăte in hell: +and they explain the fable of the moon, which is hidden from us in the +hemisphere of the countries beneath, just so long as it shines in our +own. As Proserpine was to stay six months with her mother, and six with +her husband, she was the emblem of the seed corn, which lies in the +earth during the winter, but in spring sprouts forth, and in summer +bears fruit.</p> + +<p>The mythological sense of the fable is this: the name of Proserpine, +or Persephŏne, among the Egyptians, was +used <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" +id="Page_118">[118]</a></span>to denote the change produced in the earth +by the deluge, which destroyed its former fertility, and rendered +tillage and agriculture necessary to mankind.</p> + +<p>PARCÆ, <i>or</i> FATES, were goddesses supposed to preside over the +accidents and events, and to determine the date or period of human life. +They were reckoned by the ancients to be three in number, because all +things have a beginning, progress, and end. They were the daughters of +Jupiter and Themis, and sisters to the Horæ, or Hours.</p> + +<p>Their names, amongst the Greeks, were Atrŏpos, Clotho, and Lachĕsis, +and among the Latins, Nona, Decĭma, Morta. They are called Parcæ, +because, as Varro thinks, they distributed to mankind good and bad +things at their birth; or, as the common and received opinion is, +because they spare nobody. They were always of the same mind, so that +though dissensions sometimes arose among the other gods, no difference +was ever known to subsist among these three sisters, whose decrees were +immutable. To them was intrusted the spinning and management of the +thread of life; Clotho held the distaff, Lachĕsis turned the wheel, and +Atrŏpos cut the thread.</p> + +<p>Plutarch tells us they represented the three parts of the world, viz. +the firmament of the fixed stars, the firmament of the planets, and the +space of air between the moon and the earth; Plato says they represented +time past, present, and to come. There were no divinities in the pagan +world who had a more absolute power than the Fates. They were looked +upon as the dispensers of the eternal decrees of Jupiter, and were all +of them sometimes supposed to spin the party-colored thread of each +man's life. Thus are they represented on a medal, each with a distaff in +her hand. The fullest and best description of them in any of the poets, +is in Catullus: he represents them as all spinning, and at the same time +singing, and foretelling the birth and fortunes of Achilles, at Peleus' +wedding.</p> + +<p>An ingenious writer, in giving the true mythology of these +characters, apprehends them to have been, originally, nothing more than +the mystical figure or symbols which represented the months of January, +February, and March, among the Egyptians, who depicted them in female +dresses, with the instruments of spinning and weaving, which was the +great business carried on in that season. These images they called +<i>Parc</i>, which signifies <i>linen cloth</i>, to denote +the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" +id="Page_119">[119]</a></span>manufacture produced by this temporary +industry. The Greeks, ever fertile in invention, and knowing nothing of +the true sense of these allegorical figures, gave them a turn suitable +to their genius.</p> + +<p>FURIES, EUMENIDES <i>or</i> DIRÆ, were the daughters of Nox and +Achĕron. Their names were Alecto, Megæra, and Tisiphŏne. As many crimes +were committed in secret, which could not be discovered from a +deficiency of proof, it was necessary for the judges to have such +officers as by wonderful and various tortures should force from the +criminals a confession of their guilt. To this end the Furies, being +messengers both of the celestial and terrestrial Jupiter, were always +attendant on their sentence.</p> + +<p>In heaven they were called Diræ, (<i>quasi Deorum iræ</i>) or +ministers of divine vengeance, in punishing the guilty after death; on +earth +<i>Furies</i>, from that madness which attends the consciousness of guilt; +<i>Erynnis</i>, from the indignation and perturbations they raise in the +mind; <i>Eumenĭdes</i>, from their placability to such as supplicate them, as +in the instance of Orestes, and Argos, upon his following the advice of +Pallas, and in hell, <i>Stygian dogs</i>.</p> + +<p>The furies were so dreaded that few dared so much as to name them. +They were supposed to be constantly hovering about those who had been +guilty of any enormous crime. Thus Orestes, having murdered his mother +Clytemnestra, was haunted by the Furies. Œdipus, indeed, when blind and +raving, went into their grove, to the astonishment of all the Athenians, +who durst not so much as behold it. The Furies were reputed so +inexorable, that if any person polluted with murder, incest, or any +flagrant impiety, entered the temple which Orestes had dedicated to them +in Cyrenæ, a town of Arcadia, he immediately became mad, and was hurried +from place to place, with the most restless and dreadful tortures.</p> + +<p>Mythologists have assigned to each of these tormentresses their +proper department. Tisiphŏne is said to punish the sins arising from +hatred and anger; Megæra those occasioned by envy; and Alecto the crimes +of ambition and lust. The statues of the Furies had nothing in them +originally different from the other divinities. It was the poet Æschylus +who, in one of his tragedies, represented them in that hideous manner +which proved fatal to many of the spectators. The description of these +deities by the poet passed from the theatre to the temple: from that +time they Were <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" +id="Page_120">[120]</a></span>exhibited as objects of the utmost horror, +with Terror, Rage, Paleness, and Death, for their attendants; and thus +seated about Pluto's throne, whose ministers they were, they awaited his +orders with an impatience congenial to their natures.</p> + +<p>The Furies are described with snakes instead of hair, and eyes +inflamed with madness, brandishing in one hand whips and iron chains, +and in the other torches, with a smothering flame. Their robes are +black, and their feet of brass, to show that their pursuit, though slow, +is steady and certain. As they attended at the thrones of the Stygian +and celestial Jupiter, they had wings to accelerate their progress +through the air, when bearing the commands of the gods: they struck +terror into mortals, either by war, famine, pestilence, or the +numberless calamities incident to human life.</p> + +<p>NOX, <i>or</i> NIGHT, the oldest of the deities, was held in great +esteem among the ancients. She was even reckoned older than Chaos. +Orpheus ascribes to her the generation of gods and men, and says, that +all things had their beginning from her. Pausanias has left us a +description of a remarkable statue of this goddess. “We see,” says he, +“a woman holding in her right hand a white child sleeping, and in her +left a black child likewise asleep, with both its legs distorted; the +inscription tells us what they are, though we might easily guess without +it: the two children are Death and Sleep, and the woman is Night, the +nurse of them both.”</p> + +<p>The poets fancied her to be drawn in a chariot with two horses, +before which several stars went as harbingers; that she was crowned with +poppies, and her garments were black, with a black veil over her +countenance, and that stars followed in the same manner as they preceded +her; that upon the departure of the day she arose from the ocean, or +rather from Erĕbus, and encompassed the earth with her sable wings. The +sacrifice offered to Night was a cock because of its enmity to darkness, +and rejoicing at the light.</p> + +<p>SOMNUS, <i>or</i> SLEEP, one of the blessings to which the pagans +erected altars, was said to be son of Erĕbus and, Night, and brother of +Death. Orpheus calls Somnus the happy king of gods and men; and Ovid, +who gives a very beautiful description of his abode, represents him +dwelling in a deep cave in the country of the Cimmerians. Into this +cavern the sun never enters, and a perpetual +stillness <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" +id="Page_121">[121]</a></span>reigns, no noise being heard but the soft +murmur caused by a stream of the river Lethe, which creeps over the +pebbles, and invites to slumber; at its entrance grow poppies, and other +soporiferous herbs. The drowsy god lies reclined on a bed stuffed with +black plumes, the bedstead is of ebony, the covering is also black, and +his head is surrounded by fantastic visions.</p> + +<p>We learn from Statius, that the attendants and guards before the +gates of this palace were Rest, Ease, Indolence, Silence, and Oblivion; +as the ministers or attendants within are a vast multitude of Dreams in +different shapes and attitudes. Ovid teaches us who were the supposed +governors over these, and what their particular districts or offices +were. The three chiefs of all are Morpheus, Phobētor, and Phantăsos, who +inspire dreams into great persons only: Morpheus inspires such dreams as +relate to men, Phobētor such as relate to other animals, and Phantăsos +such as relate to inanimate things. They have each their particular +legions under them, to inspire the common people with the sort of dreams +which belong to their province.</p> + +<p>MINOS was son of Jupiter and Eurōpa, and brother of Rhadamanthus and +Sarpēdon. After the death of his father, the Cretans, who thought him +illegitimate, would not admit him as a successor to the kingdom, till he +persuaded them it was the divine pleasure he should reign, by praying +Neptune to give him a sign, which being granted, the god caused a horse +to rise out of the sea, upon which he ascended the throne.</p> + +<p>Nothing so much distinguished him as the laws he enacted for the +Cretans, which obtained him the name of one of the greatest legislators +of antiquity. To confer the more authority on these laws, Minos retired +to a cave of Mount Ida, where he feigned that Jupiter, his father, +dictated them to him; and every time he returned thence a new injunction +was promulgated by him. Homer calls him Jupiter's disciple; and Horace +says he was admitted to the secrets of that god. Strabo and Ephŏrus +contend, that Minos dwelt nine years in retirement in this cave, and +that it was afterwards called the cave of Jupiter.</p> + +<p>Antiquity entertained the highest esteem for the institutes of Minos: +and the testimonies of ancient authors on this head are endless. It +will, therefore, suffice to observe that Lycurgus travelled to Crete on +purpose to collect the laws of Minos for the benefit of the +Lacedemonians; and that <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" +id="Page_122">[122]</a></span>Josephus, partial as he was to his own +nation, has owned, that Minos was the only one among the ancients who +deserved to be compared to Moses. He was reputed the judge of the +supreme court of Pluto, Æăcus judged the Europeans; the Asiatics and +Africans fell to the lot of Rhadamanthus; and Minos, as president of the +infernal court, decided the differences which arose between these two +judges. He sat on a throne by himself, and wielded a golden sceptre.</p> + +<p>RHADAMANTHUS was the son of Jupiter and Eurōpa, and brother of Minos. +He was one of the three judges of hell. It is said that Rhadamanthus, +having killed his brother, fled to Œchalia in Bœotia, where he married +Alcmēna, widow of Amphitryon. Some make Rhadamanthus a king of Lycia, +who on account of his severity and strict regard to justice, was said to +have been one of the three judges of hell, where his province was to +judge such as died impenitent. It is agreed, that he was the most +temperate man of his time, and was exalted amongst the law-givers of +Crete, who were renowned as good and just men. The division assigned to +Rhadamanthus in the infernal regions was Tartărus.</p> + +<p>ÆACUS, son of Jupiter and Ægīna, was king of Œnopia, which, from his +mother's name, he called Ægīna. The inhabitants of that country being +destroyed by a plague, Æăcus prayed to his father that by some means he +would repair the loss of his subjects, upon which Jupiter, in compassion +changed all the ants within a hollow tree into men and women, who, from +a Greek word signifying <i>ants</i>, were called <i>Myrmidons</i>, and +actually were so industrious a people as to become famous for their +ships and navigation.</p> + +<p>The meaning of which fable is this: The pirates having destroyed the +inhabitants of the island, excepting a few, who hid themselves in caves +and holes for fear of a like fate, Æăcus drew them out of their retreats +and encouraged them to build houses, and sow corn; taught them military +discipline, and how to fit out and navigate fleets, and to appear not +like ants in holes, but on the theatre of the world, like men. His +character for justice was such, that in a time of universal drought he +was nominated by the Delphic oracle to intercede for Greece, and his +prayers were heard. The pagan world also believed that Æăcus, on account +of his impartial justice, was chosen by +Pluto, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" +id="Page_123">[123]</a></span>with Minos and Rhadamanthus, one of the +three judges of the dead, and that it was his province to judge the +Europeans, in which capacity he held a plain rod as a badge of his +office.</p> + +<hr> +<h2 id="chap_2_9">CHAPTER IX.</h2> + +<h3><i>The condemned in Hell.</i></h3> + +<p>TYPHŒUS, a giant of enormous size, was, according to Hesiod, son of +Erĕbus, or Tartărus and Terra. His stature was prodigious. With one hand +he touched the east, and with the other the west, while his head reached +to the stars. Hesiod has given him an hundred heads of dragons, uttering +dreadful sounds, and eyes which darted fire; flame proceeded from his +mouths and nostrils, his body was encircled with serpents, and his +thighs and legs were of a serpentine form. When he had almost +discomfited the gods, who fled from him into Egypt, Jupiter alone stood +his ground, and pursued the monster to Mount Caucăsus in Syria, where he +wounded him with his thunder; But Typhœus, turning upon him, took the +god prisoner, and after having cut, with his own sickle, the muscles of +his hands and feet, threw him on his shoulders, carried him into +Cilicia, and there imprisoned him in a cave, whence he was delivered by +Mercury, who restored him to his former vigor. Typhœus afterwards fled +into Sicily, where the god overwhelmed him with the enormous mass of +mount Ætna.</p> + +<p>Historians report, that Typhœus was brother of Osīris, king of Egypt, +who in the absence of that monarch, formed a conspiracy to dethrone him; +and that having accordingly put Osīris to death, Isis, in revenge of her +husband, raised an army, the command of which she gave to Orus her son, +who vanquished and slew the usurper: hence the Egyptians, in abhorrence +of his memory, painted him under their hieroglyphic characters in so +frightful a manner. The length of his arms signified his power, the +serpents about him denoted his address and cunning, the scales which +covered his body, expressed his cruelty and dissimulation, and the +flight of the gods into Egypt showed the precautions taken by the great +to screen themselves from his fury and resentment. Mythologists take +Typhœus and <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" +id="Page_124">[124]</a></span>the other giants, to have been the winds; +especially the subterraneous, which cause earthquakes to break forth +with fire, occasioned by the sulphur enkindled in the caverns under +Campania, Sicily, and the Æolian islands.</p> + +<p>TITYOS, <i>or</i> TITYUS, was son of Jupiter and Elara. He resided in +Panopea, where he became formidable for rapine and cruelty, till Apollo +killed him for offering violence to his mother Latona. After this he was +thrown into Tartărus, and chained down on his back, his body taking up +such a compass as to cover nine acres. In this posture two vultures +continually preyed upon his liver, which constantly grew with the +increase of the moon, that there might never be wanting matter for +eternal punishment.</p> + +<p>PHLEGYAS, son of Mars and Chryse, daughter of Halmus, was king of +Lapithæ, a people of Thessaly. Apollo having seduced his daughter +Coronis, Phlegyas, in revenge, set fire to the temple of that god at +Delphi, for which sacrilege the deity killed him with his arrows, and +then cast him into Tartărus; where he was sentenced to sit under a huge +rock, which threatened him with perpetual destruction.</p> + +<p>IXION was son of Phlegyas, king of the Lapithæ in Thessaly. He +married Dia, daughter of Deioneus, whose consent he obtained by +magnificent promises, but, failing afterwards to perform them, Deioneus +seized on his horses. Ixion dissembled his resentment, and inviting +Deioneus to a banquet, received him in an apartment previously prepared, +from which, by withdrawing a door, his father-in-law was thrown into a +furnace of fire. Stung, however, with remorse, and universally despised, +Ixion was overpowered with frenzy, till Jupiter at length re-admitted +him to favor, and not only took him into heaven, but intrusted him also +with his counsels. So ungrateful, notwithstanding, did Ixion become, as +to attempt the chastity of Juno herself. This so incensed Jupiter that +the angry deity hurled him into Tartărus, and fixed him on a wheel +encompassed with serpents, which was doomed to revolve without +intermission.</p> + +<p>SALMONEUS, king of Elis, was son of Æolus, (not he who was king of +the winds, but another of the name) and Anarete. Not satisfied with an +earthly crown, Salmoneus panted after divine honors; and, in order that +the people might esteem him a god, he built a brazen bridge over the +city, and drove his chariot along it, imitating, +by <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" +id="Page_125">[125]</a></span>this noise, Jupiter's thunder; at the same +time throwing flaming torches among the spectators below, to represent +his lightning, by which many were killed. Jupiter, in resentment of this +insolence, precipitated the ambitious mortal into hell, where, according +to Virgil, Æneas saw him.</p> + +<p>SISIPHUS, <i>or</i> SISYPHUS, a descendant of Æŏlus, married Merope, +one of the Pleiades, who bore him Glaucus. He resided at Ephyra, in +Peloponnesus, and was conspicuous for his craft. Some say he was a +Trojan secretary, who was punished for discovering secrets of state; +whilst others contend that he was a notorious robber killed by Theseus. +However, all the poets agree that he was punished in Tartărus for his +crimes, by rolling a great stone to the top of a hill, which constantly +recoiling and rolling down again, incessantly renewed his fatigue, and +rendered his labor endless.</p> + +<p>Ovid, in one passage, seems to describe Sisyphus as bending under the +weight of a vast stone; “but the more common way of speaking of his +punishment,” says the author of Polymetis, “agrees with the fine +description of him in Homer, where we see him laboring to heave the +stone that lies on his shoulders up against the side of a steep +mountain, and which always rolls precipitately down again before he can +get it to rest upon the top. Lucretius makes him only an emblem of the +ambitious; as Horace too seems to make Tantălus only an emblem of the +covetous.”</p> + +<p>BELIDES, <i>or</i> DANAIDES: They were the fifty daughters of Danăus, +son of Belus, surnamed the <i>ancient</i>. Some quarrel having arisen +between him and Egyptus his brother, it determined Danăus on his voyage +into Greece; but Egyptus having fifty sons, proposed a reconciliation, +by marrying them to his brother's daughters. The proposal was agreed to, +and the nuptials were to be celebrated with singular splendor, when +Danăus, either in resentment of former injuries, or being told by the +oracle that one of his sons-in-law should destroy him, gave to each of +his daughters a dagger, with an injunction to stab her husband. They all +executed the order but Hypermnestra, the eldest, who spared the life of +Lyncæus. These Belĭdes, for their cruelty, were consigned to the +infernal regions, there to draw water in sieves from a well, till they +had filled, by that means, a vessel full of holes.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" +id="Page_126">[126]</a></span>TANTALUS, king of Phrygia, was the son of +Jupiter and Plota. Whether it was for this cause, the violation of +hospitality, or for his pride, his boasting, his want of secrecy, his +insatiable covetousness, his imparting nectar and ambrosia to mortals, +or for all of them together, since he has been accused of them all, +Tantălus was thrown into Tartărus, where the poets have assigned him a +variety of torments. Some represent a great stone as hanging over his +head, which he apprehended to be continually falling, and was ever in +motion to avoid it. Others describe him as afflicted with constant +thirst and hunger, though the most delicious banquets were exposed to +his view; one of the Furies terrifying him with her torch whenever he +approached towards them. Some exhibit him standing to the chin in water, +and whenever he stooped to quench his thirst, the water as constantly +eluding his lip. Others, with fruits luxuriously growing around him, +which he no sooner advanced to touch, than the wind blew them into the +clouds.</p> + +<hr> +<h2 id="chap_2_10">CHAPTER X.</h2> + +<h3><i>Monsters of Hell.</i></h3> + +<p>HARPYIÆ, <i>or</i> HARPIES, were three in number, their names, +Celæno, Aëllo, and Ocypĕte. The ancients looked on them as a sort of +Genii, or Dæmons. They had the faces of virgins, the ears of bears, the +bodies of vultures, human arms and feet, and long claws, hooked like the +talons of carnivorous birds. Phineas, king of Arcadia, being a prophet, +and revealing the mysteries of Jupiter to mortals, was by that deity +struck blind, and so tormented by the Harpies that he was ready to +perish for hunger; they devouring whatever was set before him, till the +sons of Boreas, who attended Jason in his expedition to Colchis, +delivered the good old king, and drove these monsters to the islands +called Strophădes: compelling them to swear never more to return.</p> + +<p>The Harpies, according to the ingenious Abbé la Pluche, had their +origin in Egypt. He further observes, in respect to them, that during +the months of April, May, and June, especially the two latter, Egypt +being very subject to tempests, which laid waste their olive grounds, +and carried <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" +id="Page_127">[127]</a></span>thither numerous swarms of grasshoppers, +and other troublesome insects from the shores of the Red Sea, the +Egyptians gave to their emblematic figures of these months a female +face, with the bodies and claws of birds, calling them <i>Harop</i>, or +winged destroyers. This solution of the fable corresponds with the +opinion of Le Clerc, who takes the harpies to have been a swarm of +locusts, the word <i>Arbi</i>, whence Harpy is formed, signifying, in +their language, a locust.</p> + +<p>GORGONS were three in number, and daughters of Phorcus or Porcys, by +his sister Ceto. Their names were Medūsa, Euryăle, and Stheno, and they +are represented as having scales on their bodies, brazen hands, golden +wings, tusks like boars, and snakes for hair. The last distinction, +however, is confined by Ovid to Medūsa.</p> + +<p>According to some mythologists, Perseus having been sent against +Medūsa by the gods, was supplied by Mercury with a falchion, by Minerva +with a mirror, and by Pluto with a helmet, which rendered the wearer +invisible. Thus equipped, through the aid of winged sandals, he steered +his course towards Tartessus, where, finding the object of his search, +by the reflection of his mirror, he was enabled to aim his weapon, +without meeting her eye, (for her look would have turned him to stone) +and at one blow struck off her head. When Perseus had slain Medūsa, the +other sisters pursued him, but he escaped from their sight by means of +his helmet. They were afterwards thrown into hell.</p> + +<p>SPHINX was a female monster, daughter of Typhon and Echidna. She had +the head, face, and breasts of a woman, the wings of a bird, the claws +of a lion, and the body of a dog. She lived on mount Sphincius, infested +the country about Thebes, and assaulted passengers, by proposing dark +and enigmatical questions to them, which if they did not explain, she +tore them in pieces. Sphinx made horrible ravages in the neighborhood of +Thebes, till Creon, then king of that city, published an edict over all +Greece, promising that if any one should explain the riddle of Sphinx, +he would give him his own sister Iocasta in marriage.</p> + +<p>The riddle was this, “What animal is that which goes upon four feet +in the morning, upon two at noon, and upon three at night?” Many had +endeavored to explain this riddle, but failing in the attempt, were +destroyed by the monster; till Œdipus undertook the solution, and thus +ex<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" +id="Page_128">[128]</a></span>plained it: “The animal is man, who in his +infancy creeps, and so may be said to go on four feet; when he gets into +the noon of life, he walks on two feet; but when he grows old, or +declines into the evening of his days, he uses the support of a staff, +and thus may be said to walk on three feet.” The Sphinx being enraged at +this explanation, cast herself headlong from a rock and died.</p> + +<hr> +<h2 id="chap_2_11">CHAPTER XI.</h2> + +<h3><i>Dii indigĕtes, or Heroes who received divine Honors after Death.</i></h3> + +<p>HERCULES was the son of Jupiter by Alcmena, wife of Amphitryon, king +of Thebes, and is said to have been born in that city about 1280 years +before the Christian era. During his infancy Juno sent two serpents to +kill him in his cradle, but the undaunted child grasping one in either +hand, immediately strangled them both. As he grew up, he discovered an +uncommon degree of vigor both of body and of mind. Nor were his +extraordinary endowments neglected; for his education was intrusted to +the greatest masters. The tasks imposed on him by Eurystheus, on account +of the danger and difficulty which attended their execution, received +the name of the <i>Labors of Hercules</i>, and are commonly reckoned, +(at least the most material of them) to have been twelve.</p> + +<p>The first was his engagement with Cleonæan lion, which furious +animal, it is said, fell from the orb of the moon by Juno's direction, +and was invunerable. It infested the woods between Phlius and Cleōne, +and committed uncommon ravages. The hero attacked it both with his +arrows and club, but in vain, till, perceiving his error, he tore +asunder its jaws with his hands.</p> + +<p>The second labor was his conquest of the Lernæan hydra, a formidable +serpent or monster which harbored in the fens of Lerna, and infected the +region of Argos with his poisonous exhalations. This seems to have been +one of the most difficult tasks in which Hercules was ever engaged. The +number of heads assigned the hydra is various; some give him seven, some +nine, others fifty, and Ovid an hundred; but all authors agree that when +one was cut off, another sprung forth in its place, unless the wound was +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" +id="Page_129">[129]</a></span>immediately cauterized. Hercules, not +discouraged, attacked him, and having ordered Iŏlas, his friend and +companion, to cut down wood sufficient for fire-brands, he no sooner had +cut off a head than he applied these brands to the wounds; by which +means searing them up, he obtained a complete victory.</p> + +<p>The third labor was to bring alive to Eurystheus an enormous wild +boar which ravaged the forest of Erymanthus in Arcadia, and had been +sent to Phocis by Diāna to punish Ænēas, for neglecting her sacrifices. +Hercules brought him bound to Eurystheus. There is nothing descriptive +of this exploit in any of the Roman poets.</p> + +<p>The fourth labor was the capture of the Mænalæan stag. Eurystheus, +after repeated proofs of the strength and valor of Hercules, resolved to +try his agility, and commanded him to take a wild stag that frequented +mount Mænălus, which had brazen feet and golden horns. As this animal +was sacred to Diāna, Hercules durst not wound him; but though it were no +easy matter to run him down, yet this, after pursuing him on foot for a +year, the hero at last effected.</p> + +<p>The fifth labor of Hercules consisted in killing the Stymphalĭdes, +birds so called from frequenting the lake Stymphālis in Arcadia, which +preyed upon human flesh, having wings, beaks, and talons of iron. Some +say Hercules destroyed these birds with his arrows, others that Pallas +sent him brazen rattles, made by Vulcan, the sound of which so terrified +them, that they took shelter in the island of Aretia. There are authors +who suppose these birds called Stymphalĭdes, to have been a gang of +desperate banditti who had their haunts near the lake Stymphālis.</p> + +<p>The sixth labor was his cleansing the stable of Augeas. This Augeas, +king of Elis, had a stable intolerable from the stench occasioned by the +filth it contained, which may be readily imagined from the fact that it +sheltered three thousand oxen, and had not been cleansed for thirty +years. This place Eurystheus ordered Hercules to clear in one day, and +Augeas promised, if he performed the task, to give him a tenth part of +the cattle. Hercules, by turning the course of the river Alphēus through +the stable, executed his design, which Augeas seeing, refused to fulfil +his promise. The hero, to punish his perfidy, slew Augeas with his +arrows, and gave his kingdom to his son Phyleus, who abhorred his +father's treachery.</p> + +<p>The seventh labor was the capture of the Cretan +bull. <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" +id="Page_130">[130]</a></span>Minos, king of Crete, having acquired the +dominion of the Grecian seas, paid no greater honor to Neptune than to +the other gods, wherefore the deity, in resentment of this ingratitude, +sent a bull, which breathed fire from his nostrils, to destroy the +people of Crete. Hercules took this furious animal, and brought him to +Eurystheus, who, because the bull was sacred, let him loose into the +country of Marathon, where he was afterwards slain by Theseus.</p> + +<p>The eighth labor of Hercules, was the killing of Diomēdes and his +horses. That infamous tyrant was king of Thrace, and son of Mars and +Cyrēne. Among other things he is said to have driven in his war-chariot +four furious horses, which, to render the more impetuous, he used to +feed on the flesh and blood of his subjects. Hercules is said to have +freed the world from this barbarous prince, and to have killed both him +and his horses, as is signified in some drawings, and said expressly by +some of the poets. Some report that the tyrant was given by Hercules as +a prey to his own horses.</p> + +<p>The ninth labor of Hercules was his combat with Geryon, king of +Spain. Geryon is generally represented with three bodies agreeable to +the expressions used of him by the poets, and sometimes with three +heads. He had a breed of oxen of a purple color, (which devoured all +strangers cast to them) guarded by a dog with two heads, a dragon with +seven, besides a very watchful and severe keeper. Hercules, however, +killed the monarch and all his guards, and carried the oxen to Gades, +whence he brought them to Eurystheus. Some mythologists explain this +fable by saying that Geryon was king of three islands, now called +Majorca, Minorca, and Ivica, on which account he was fabled to be triple +bodied and headed.</p> + +<p>The tenth labor of Hercules was his conquest of Hippolyte queen of +the Amazons. His eleventh labor consisted in dragging Cerebus from the +infernal regions into day. The twelfth and last was killing the serpent, +and gaining the golden fruit in the gardens of the Hesperides.</p> + +<p>Hercules, after his conquests in Spain, having made himself famous in +the country of the Celtæ or Gauls, is said to have there founded a large +and populous city, which he called Alesia. His favorite wife was +Dejanira, whose jealousy most fatally occasioned his death. Hercules +having subdued Œchalia and killed Eurytus the king, carried off the fair +Iŏle, his daughter, with whom Dejanira +suspecting <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" +id="Page_131">[131]</a></span>him to be in love, sent him the garment of +Nessus, the Centaur, as a remedy to recover his affections; this +garment, however, having been pierced with an arrow dipped in the blood +of the Lernæan hydra, whilst worn by Nessus, contracted a poison from +his blood incurable by art. No sooner, therefore, was it put on by +Hercules than he was seized with a delirious fever, attended with the +most excruciating torments. Unable to support his pains, he retired to +mount Œta, where, raising a pile, and setting it on fire, he threw +himself upon it, and was consumed in the flames, after having killed in +his phrenzy Lycus his friend. His arrows he bequeathed to Philoctētes, +who interred his remains.</p> + +<p>After his death he was deified by his father Jupiter. Diōdorus +Siculus relates that he was no sooner ranked amongst the gods than Juno, +who had so violently persecuted him whilst on earth, adopted him for her +son, and loved him with the tenderness of a mother. Hercules was +afterwards married to Hebe, goddess of youth, his half sister, with all +the splendor of a celestial wedding; but he refused the honor which +Jupiter designed him, of being ranked with the twelve gods, alleging +there was no vacancy; and that it would be unreasonable to degrade any +other god for the purpose of admitting him.</p> + +<p>Both the Greeks and Romans honored him as a god, and as such erected +to him temples. His victims were bulls and lambs, on account of his +preserving the flocks from wolves; that is, delivering men from tyrants +and robbers. He was worshipped by the ancient Latins under the name of +Dius, or Divus Fidius, that is, the guarantee or protector of faith +promised or sworn. They had a custom of calling this deity to witness by +a sort of oath expressed in these terms, <i>Me Dius Fidius!</i> that is, +so help me the god Fidius! or Hercules.</p> + +<p>PERSEUS was the son of Jupiter and Danăe, daughter of Acrisius king +of Argos. When Perseus was grown up, Polydectes, who was enamored of his +mother, finding him an obstacle to their union, contrived to send him on +an exploit, which he hoped would be fatal to him. This was to bring him +the head of Medūsa, one of the Gorgons. In his expedition Perseus was +favored by the gods; Mercury equipped him with a scymetar, and the wings +from his heels; Pallas lent him a shield which reflected objects like a +mirror; and Pluto granted him his helmet, which rendered him invisible. +In this manner he flew to Tartessus in Spain, +where, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" +id="Page_132">[132]</a></span>directed by the reflection of Medūsa in +his mirror, he cut off her head, and brought it to Pallas. From the +blood arose the winged horse Pegăsus.</p> + +<p>After this the hero passed into Mauritania, where repairing to the +court of Atlas, that monarch ordered him to retire, with menaces, in +case of disobedience; but Perseus, presenting his shield, with the +dreadful head of Medūsa, changed him into the mountain which still bears +his name. In his return to Greece he visited Ethiopia, mounted on +Pegăsus, and delivered Andromĕda, daughter of Cepheus, (who was exposed +on a rock of that coast to be devoured by a monster of the deep) on +condition he might make her his wife: but Phineas, her uncle, sought to +prevent him, by attempting, with a party, to carry off the bride. The +attempt, notwithstanding, was rendered abortive; for the hero, by +showing them the head of the Gorgon, at once turned them to stone.</p> + +<p>Perseus having completed these exploits, was desirous of revisiting +home, and accordingly set off for that purpose with his wife and his +mother. Arriving on the coast of Peloponnesus, and learning that +Teutamias, king of Larissa, was then celebrating games in honor of his +father, Perseus, wishing to exhibit his skill at the quoit, of which he +has been deemed the inventor, resolved to go thither. In this contest, +however, he was so unfortunate as to kill Acrisius, the father of his +mother, who, on the report that Perseus was returning to the place of +his nativity, had fled to the court of Teutamias his friend, to avoid +the denunciation of the oracle, which had induced him to exercise such +cruelty on his offspring. At what time Perseus died is unknown; but all +agree that divine honors were paid him. He had statues at Mycēnæ and in +Seriphos. A temple was erected to him in Athens, and an altar in it +consecrated to Dictys.</p> + +<div id="a8" class="center framed" style="width:100%;"> +<h3>HECTOR'S BODY DRAGGED AT THE CAR OF ACHILLES.</h3> +<p class="ralign"><i>Pl. 8.</i></p> +<a href="images/fig143.png"> +<img src="images/fig143th.png" alt="HECTOR'S BODY DRAGGED AT THE CAR OF ACHILLES"> +</a> +</div> + +<p>ACHILLES was the offspring of a goddess. Thetis bore him to Peleus, +king of Thessaly, and was so fond of him, that she charged herself with +his education. By day she fed him with ambrosia, and by night covered +him with celestial fire, to render him immortal. She also dipped him in +the waters of Styx, by which his whole body became invulnerable, except +that part of his heel by which she held him. He was afterwards committed +to the care of Chiron the Centaur, who fed him with honey, and the +marrow of lions and wild boars; whence he obtained that strength of body +and greatness of soul which qualified him for martial toil.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" +id="Page_133">[133]</a></span>When the Greeks undertook the siege of +Troy, Calchas the diviner, and priest of Apollo, foretold that the city +should not be taken without the help of Achilles. Thetis, his mother, +who knew that Achilles, if he went to the siege of Troy, would never +return, clothed him in female apparel, and concealed him among the +maidens at the court of Lycomēdes, king of the island of Scyros. But +this stratagem proved ineffectual; for Calchas having informed the +Greeks where Achilles lay in disguise, they sent Ulysses to the court of +Lycomēdes, where, under the appearance of a merchant, he was introduced +to the king's daughters, and while they were studiously intent on +viewing his toys, Achilles employed himself in examining an helmet, +which the cunning politician had thrown in his way.</p> + +<p>Achilles thus detected, was prevailed on to go to Troy, after Thetis +had furnished him with impenetrable armor made by Vulcan. Thither he led +the troops of Thessaly, in fifty ships, and distinguished himself by a +number of heroic actions; but being disgusted with Agamemnon for the +loss of Briseis, he retired from the camp, and resolved to have no +further concern in the war. In this resolution he continued inexorable, +till news was brought him that Hector had killed his friend Patrōclus; +to avenge his death he not only slew Hector, but fastened the corpse to +his chariot, dragged it round the walls of Troy, offered many +indignities to it, and sold it at last to Priam his father.</p> + +<p>Authors are much divided on the manner of Achilles' death; some +relate that he was slain by Apollo, or that this god enabled Paris to +kill him, by directing the arrow to his heel, the only part in which he +was vulnerable. Others again say, that Paris murdered him treacherously, +in the temple of Apollo, whilst treating about his marriage with +Polyxĕna, daughter to king Priam.</p> + +<p>Though this tradition concerning his death be commonly received, yet +Homer plainly enough insinuates that Achilles died fighting for his +country, and represents the Greeks as maintaining a bloody battle about +his body, which lasted a whole day. Achilles having been lamented by +Thetis, the Nereids, and the Muses, was buried on the promontory of +Sigæum; and after Troy was captured, the Greeks endeavored to appease +his manes by sacrificing Polyxĕna, on his tomb, as his ghost had +requested.</p> + +<p>The oracle at Dodōna decreed him divine honors, and ordered annual +victims to be offered at the place of his +sep<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" +id="Page_134">[134]</a></span>ulture. In pursuance of this, the +Thessalians brought hither yearly two bulls, one black, the other white, +crowned with wreaths of flowers, and water from the river Sperchius. It +is said that Alexander, seeing his tomb, honored it by placing a crown +upon it, at the same time crying out “that Achilles was happy in having, +during his life, such a friend as Patrōclus, and after his death, a poet +like Homer.”</p> + +<p>ATLAS was son of Japĕtus and Clymĕne, and brother of Prometheus, +according to most authors; or, as others relate, son of Japĕtus by Asia, +daughter of Oceănus. He had many children. Of his sons, the most famous +were Hespĕrus (whom some call his brother) and Hyas. By his wife Pleione +he had seven daughters, who went by the general names of Atlantĭdes, or +Pleiădes; and by his wife Æthra he had also seven other daughters, who +bore the common appellation of the Hyădes.</p> + +<p>According to Hygīnus, Atlas having assisted the giants in their war +against Jupiter, was doomed by the victorious god, as a punishment, to +sustain the weight of the heavens. Ovid, however, represents him as a +powerful and wealthy monarch, proprietor of the gardens of the +Hesperĭdes, which bore golden fruit; but that being warned by the oracle +of Themis that he should suffer some great injury from a son of Jupiter, +he strictly forbade all foreigners access to his presence. Perseus, +however, having the courage to appear before him, was ordered to retire, +with strong menaces in case of disobedience; but the hero presenting his +shield, with the dreadful head of Medūsa, turned him into the mountain +which still bears his name.</p> + +<p>The Abbé la Pluche has given a very clear and ingenious explication +of this fable. Of all nations the Egyptians had, with the greatest +assiduity, cultivated astronomy. To point out the difficulties attending +the study of this science, they represented it by an image bearing a +globe or sphere on its back, which they called <i>Atlas</i>, a word +signifying <i>great toil or labor</i>; but the word also signifying +<i>support</i>, the Phœnicians, led by the representation, took it in this +sense, and in their voyages to Mauritania, seeing the high mountains of +that country covered with snow, and losing their tops in the clouds, +gave them the name of <i>Atlas</i>, and thus produced the fable by which the +symbol of astronomy used among the Egyptians became a Mauritanian king, +transformed into a mountain, whose head supports the heavens.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" +id="Page_135">[135]</a></span>The rest of the fable is equally obvious +to explanation. The annual inundations of the Nile obliged the Egyptians +to be very exact in observing the motions of the heavenly bodies. The +Hyades, or Huades, took their name from the figure V, which they form in +the head of Taurus. The Pleiades were a remarkable constellation and of +great use to the Egyptians in regulating the seasons: hence they became +the daughters of Atlas; and Orion, who arose just as they set, was +called their lover.</p> + +<p>By the golden apples that grew in the gardens of the Hesperides, the +Phœnicians expressed the rich and beneficial commerce they had in the +Mediterranean, which being carried on during three months only of the +year, gave rise to the fable of the Hesperian sisters. The most usual +way of representing Atlas, among the ancient artists, was as supporting +a globe; for the old poets commonly refer to this attitude in speaking +of him.</p> + +<p>PROMETHEUS was son of Japĕtus, but it is doubtful whether his mother +were Asia, or Themis. Having incurred the displeasure of Jupiter, either +for stealing some of the celestial fire, or for forming a man of clay, +Jupiter, in resentment, commanded Vulcan to make a woman of clay, which, +when finished, was introduced into the assembly of the gods, each of +whom bestowed on her some additional charm or perfection. Venus gave her +beauty, Pallas wisdom, Juno riches, Mercury taught her eloquence, and +Apollo music. From all these accomplishments she was styled Pandōra, +that is, loaded with gifts and accomplishments, and was the first of her +sex.</p> + +<p>Jupiter, to complete his designs, presented her a box, in which he +had enclosed age, disease, war, famine, pestilence, discord, envy, +calumny, and, in short, all the evils and vices with which he intended +to afflict the world. Thus equipped, Pandōra was sent to Prometheus, +who, being on his guard against the mischief designed him, declined +accepting the box; but Epimetheus, his brother, though forewarned of the +danger, had less resolution; for, being enamored of the beauty of +Pandōra, he married her, and opened the fatal treasure, when immediately +flew abroad the contents, which soon overspread the world, hope only +remaining at the bottom.</p> + +<p>Prometheus escaping the evil which the god designed him, and Jupiter +not being appeased, Mercury and Vulcan were despatched by him to seize +Prometheus, and chain him on <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" +id="Page_136">[136]</a></span>Mount Caucasus, where a vulture, the +offspring of Typhon and Echidna, was commissioned to prey upon his +liver, which, that his torment might be endless, was constantly renewed +by night in proportion to its increase by day; but the vulture being +soon destroyed by Hercules, Prometheus was released. Others say, that +Jupiter restored Prometheus to freedom, for discovering the conspiracy +of Saturn, his father, and dissuading his intended marriage with +Thetis.</p> + +<p>Nicander, to this fable, offers an additional one. He tells us, that +when mankind had received the fire from Prometheus, some ungrateful men +discovered the theft to Jupiter, who rewarded them with the gift of +<i>perpetual youth</i>. This present they put on the back of an ass, which +stopping at a fountain to quench his thirst, was prevented by a +water-snake which would not suffer him to drink till he gave him his +burden; hence the serpent renews his youth upon changing his skin.</p> + +<p>Prometheus was esteemed the inventor of many useful arts. He made man +of the mixture and temperament of all the elements, gave him strength of +body, vigor of mind, and the peculiar qualities of all creatures, as the +craft of the fox, the courage of the lion, &c. He had an altar in the +academy of Athens in common with Vulcan and Pallas. In his statues he +holds a sceptre in the right hand.</p> + +<p>Several explanations have been given of this fable. Prometheus, whose +name is derived from a Greek word, signifying foresight and providence, +was conspicuous for that quality; and because he reduced mankind, before +rude and savage, to a state of culture and improvement, he was feigned +to have made them from clay: being a diligent observer of the motions of +the heavenly bodies from Mount Caucasus, it was fabled that he was +chained there: having discovered the method of striking fire from the +flint, or perhaps, the nature of lightning, it was pretended that he +stole fire from the gods: and, because he applied himself to study with +intenseness, they imagined that a vulture preyed continually on his +liver.</p> + +<p>There is another solution of this fable, analogous to the preceding. +According to Pliny, Prometheus was the first who instituted sacrifices. +Being expelled his dominions by Jupiter, he fled to Scythia, where he +retired to Mount Caucasus, either to make astronomical calculations or +to indulge his melancholy for the loss of his dominions, which +occasioned the fable of the vulture or eagle feeding +on <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" +id="Page_137">[137]</a></span>his liver. As he was the first inventor of +forging metals by fire, he was said to have stolen that element from +heaven; and, as the first introduction of agriculture and navigation had +been ascribed to him, he was celebrated as forming a living man from an +inanimate substance.</p> + +<p>AMPHION, king of Thebes, son of Jupiter and Antiŏpe, was instructed +in the use of the lyre by Mercury, and became so great a proficient, +that he is reported to have built the walls of Thebes by the power of +his harmony, which caused the listening stones to ascend voluntarily. He +married Niŏbe, daughter of Tantălus, whose insult to Diāna occasioned +the loss of their children by the arrows of Apollo and Diāna. The +unhappy father, attempting to revenge himself by the destruction of the +temple of Apollo, was punished with the loss of his sight and skill, and +thrown into the infernal regions.</p> + +<p>ORPHEUS, son of Apollo by the Muse Calliŏpe, was born in Thrace, and +resided near Mount Rhodŏpe, where he married Eurydice, a princess of +that country. Aristæus, a neighboring prince, fell desperately in love +with her, but she flying from his violence, was killed by the bite of a +serpent. Her disconsolate husband was so affected at his loss, that he +descended by the way of Tænărus to hell, in order to recover his beloved +wife. As music and poetry were to Orpheus hereditary talents, he exerted +them so powerfully in the infernal regions, that Pluto and Proserpine, +touched with compassion, restored to him his consort on condition that +he should not look back upon her till they came to the light of the +world. His impatience, however, prevailing, he broke the condition, and +lost Eurydice forever.</p> + +<p>Whilst Orpheus was among the shades, he sang the praises of all the +gods but Bacchus, whom he accidentally omitted; to revenge this affront, +Bacchus inspired the Mænădes, his priestesses, with such fury, that they +tore Orpheus to pieces, and scattered his limbs about the fields. His +head was cast into the river Hebrus, and (together with his harp) was +carried by the tide to Lesbos, where it afterwards delivered oracles. +The harp, with seven strings, representing the seven planets, which had +been given him by Apollo, was taken up into heaven, and graced with nine +stars by the nine Muses. Orpheus himself was changed into a swan. He +left a son called Methon, who founded in Thrace a city of his own +name.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" +id="Page_138">[138]</a></span>It is certain that Orpheus may be placed +as the earliest poet of Greece, where he first introduced astronomy, +divinity, music and poetry; all which he had learned in Egypt. He +introduced also the rites of Bacchus, which from him were called +Orphica. He was a person of most consummate knowledge, and the wisest, +as well as the most diligent scholar of Linus.</p> + +<p>If we search for the origin of this fable, we must again have +recourse to Egypt, the mother-country of fiction. In July, when the sun +entered Leo, the Nile overflowed all the plains. To denote the public +joy at seeing the inundation rise to its due height, the Egyptians +exhibited a youth playing on the lyre, or the sistrum, and sitting by a +tame lion. When the waters did not increase as they should, the Horus +was represented stretched on the back of a lion, as dead. This symbol +they called Oreph, or Orpheus, (from <i>oreph</i>, the back part of the +head) to signify that agriculture was then quite unseasonable and +dormant.</p> + +<p>The songs with which the people amused themselves during this period +of inactivity, for want of exercise, were called the hymns of Orpheus; +and as husbandry revived immediately after, it gave rise to the fable of +Orpheus's returning from hell. The Isis placed near this Horus, they +called Eurydice, (from <i>eri</i>, a <i>lion</i>, +and <i>daca</i>, <i>tamed</i>, is formed +<i>Eridica</i>, <i>Eurydice</i>, or the lion tamed, <i>i.e.</i> the +violence of the inundation overcome), and as the Greeks took all these +figures in the literal, not in the emblematical sense, they made +Eurydice the wife of Orpheus.</p> + +<p>OSIRIS, son of Jupiter and Niŏbe, was king of the Argives many years; +but, being instigated by the desire of glory, he left his kingdom to his +brother Ægiălus, and went into Egypt, in search of a new name and +kingdom there. The Egyptians were not so much overcome by the valor of +Osīris, as obliged to him for his kindness towards them. Having +conferred the greatest benefits on his subjects, by civilizing their +manners, and instructing them in husbandry and other useful arts, he +made the necessary disposition of his affairs, committed the regency to +Isis, and set out with a body of forces in order to civilize the rest of +mankind. This he performed more by the power of persuasion, and the +soothing arts of music and poetry, than by the terror of his arms.</p> + +<p>In his absence, Typhœus, the giant, whom historians call the brother +of Osīris, formed a conspiracy to dethrone +him; <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" +id="Page_139">[139]</a></span>for which end, at the return of Osīris +into Egypt, he invited him to a feast, at the conclusion of which a +chest of exquisite workmanship was brought in, and offered to him who, +when laid down in it, should be found to fit it the best. Osīris, not +suspecting a trick to be played him, got into the chest, and the cover +being immediately shut upon him, this good but unfortunate prince was +thus thrown into the Nile.</p> + +<p>When the news of this transaction reached Coptus, where Isis his wife +then was, she cut her hair, and in deep mourning went every where in +search of the dead body. This was at length discovered, and concealed by +her at Butus; but Typhœus, while hunting by moonlight, having found it +there, tore it into many pieces, which he scattered abroad. Isis then +traversed the lakes and watery places in a boat made of +the <i>papyrus</i>, seeking the mangled parts of Osīris, and where she +found any, there she buried them; hence the many tombs ascribed to +Osīris.</p> + +<p>Plutarch seems evidently to prove that the Egyptians worshipped the +Sun under the name of Osīris. His reasons are: 1. Because the images of +Osīris were always clothed in a shining garment, to represent the rays +and light of the sun. 2. In their hymns, composed in honor of Osīris, +they prayed to him who reposes himself in the bosom of the sun. 3. After +the autumnal equinox, they celebrated a feast called, <i>The +disappearing of Osīris</i>, by which is plainly meant the absence and +distance of the sun. 4. In the month of November they led a cow seven +times round the temple of Osīris, intimating thereby, that in seven +months the sun would return to the summer solstice.</p> + +<p>He is represented sitting upon a throne, crowned with a mitre full of +small orbs, to intimate his superiority over all the globe. The gourd +upon the mitre implies his action and influence upon moisture, which, +and the Nile particularly, was termed by the Egyptians, the efflux of +Osīris. The lower part of his habit is made up of descending rays, and +his body is surrounded with orbs. His right hand is extended in a +commanding attitude, and his left holds a <i>thyrsus</i> or staff of the +<i>papyrus</i>, pointing out the principle of humidity, and the fertility +thence flowing, under his direction.</p> + +<p>ÆSCULAPIUS. The name of Æsculapius, whom the Greeks called Ασκληπιος, +appears to have been foreign, and derived from the oriental languages. +Being honored as a god in Phœnicia and Egypt, his worship passed into +Greece, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" +id="Page_140">[140]</a></span>and was established, first at Epidaurus, a +city of Peloponnesus, bordering on the sea, where, probably, some +colonies first settled; a circumstance sufficient for the Greeks to give +out that this god was a native of Greece.</p> + +<p>Not to mention all we are told of his parents, it will be enough to +observe, that the opinion generally received in Greece, made him the son +of Apollo by Corōnis, daughter of Phlegyas; and indeed the Messenians, +who consulted the oracle of Delphi to know where Æsculapius was born, +and of what parents, were told by the oracle, or more properly Apollo, +that he himself was his father; that Corōnis was his mother, and that +their son was born at Epidaurus.</p> + +<p>Phlegyas, the most warlike man of his age, having gone into +Peloponnesus under pretence of travelling, but, in truth, to spy into +the condition of the country, carried his daughter Corōnis thither, who, +to conceal her situation from her father, went to Epidaurus: there she +was delivered of a son, whom she exposed upon a mountain, called to this +day Mount Titthion, or <i>of the breast</i>; but before this adventure, +Myrthion, from the myrtles that grew upon it.</p> + +<p>The reason of this change of name was, that the child, having been +here abandoned, was suckled by one of those goats of the mountain, which +the dog of Aristhĕnes the goat-herd guarded. When Aristhĕnes came to +review his flock, he found a she-goat and his dog missing, and going in +search of them discovered the child. Upon approaching to lift him from +the earth, he perceived his head encircled with fiery rays, which made +him believe the child to be of divine origin.</p> + +<p>As Κορωνη in the Greek language signifies a crow, hence another fable +arose importing, as we see in Lucian, that Æsculapius had sprung from an +egg of a bird, under the figure of a serpent. Whatever these fictions +may mean, Æsculapius being removed from the mount on which he was +exposed, was nursed by Trigo or Trigone, who was probably the wife of +the goat-herd that found him; and when he was capable of improving by +Chiron, Phlegyas (to whom he had doubtless been returned) put him under +the Centaur's tuition.</p> + +<p>Being of a quick and lively genius, he made such progress as soon to +become not only a great physician, but at length to be reckoned the god +and inventor of medicine; though the Greeks, not very consistent in the +history of those early ages, gave to Apis, son of Phoroneus, the glory +of having discovered the healing art. Æsculapius +accompa<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" +id="Page_141">[141]</a></span>nied Jason in his expedition to Colchis, +and in his medical capacity was of great service to the Argonauts. +Within a short time after his death he was deified, and received divine +honors: some add, that he formed the celestial sign, Serpentarius.</p> + +<p>As the Greeks always carried the encomiums of their great men beyond +the truth, they feigned that Æsculapius was so expert in medicine, as +not only to cure the sick, but even to raise the dead. Ovid says he did +this by Hippolĭtus, and Julian says the same of Tyndărus: that Pluto +cited him before the tribunal of Jupiter, and complained that his empire +was considerably diminished and in danger of becoming desolate, from the +cures Æsculapius performed; so that Jupiter in wrath slew Æsculapius +with a thunder-bolt; to which they added that Apollo, enraged at the +death of his son, killed the Cyclops who forged Jupiter's thunder-bolts: +a fiction which obviously signifies only, that Æsculapius had carried +his art very far, and that he cured diseases believed to be +desperate.</p> + +<p>Æsculapius is always represented under the figure of a grave old man +wrapped up in a cloak, having sometimes upon his head +the <i>calăthus</i> of Serāpis, with a staff in his hand, which is +commonly wreathed about with a serpent; sometimes again with a serpent +in one hand, and a <i>patĕra</i> in the other; sometimes leaning upon a +pillar, round which a serpent also twines. The cock, a bird consecrated +to this god, whose vigilance represents that quality which physicians +ought to have, is sometimes at the feet of his statues. Socrates, we +know, when dying, said to those who stood around him in his last +moments, “We owe a cock to Æsculapius; give it without delay.”</p> + +<p>ULYSSES, king of Ithăca, was the son of Laertes, or Laertius and +Anticlēa. His wife Penelŏpe, daughter of Icarius brother of Tyndărus +king of Sparta, was highly famed for her prudence and virtue; and being +unwilling that the Trojan war should part them, Ulysses to avoid the +expedition, pretended to be mad, and not only joined different beasts to +the same plough, but sowed also the furrows with salt.</p> + +<p>Palamēdes, however, suspecting the frenzy to be assumed, threw +Telemachus, then an infant, in the way of the plough, to try if his +father would alter its course. This stratagem succeeded; for when +Ulysses came to the child he turned off from the spot, in consequence of +which Palamēdes compelled him to take part in the war. He +accord<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" +id="Page_142">[142]</a></span>ingly sailed with twelve ships, and was +signally serviceable to the Greeks.</p> + +<p>To him the capture of Troy is chiefly to be ascribed, since by him +the obstacles were removed, which had so long prevented it. For as +Ulysses himself was detected by Palamēdes, so he in his turn detected +Achilles, who, to avoid engaging in the same war, had concealed himself +in the habits of a woman, at the court of Lycomēdes, king of Scyros. +Ulysses there discovered him, and as it had been foretold that without +Achilles Troy could not be taken, thence drew him to the siege.</p> + +<p>He also obtained the arrows of Hercules, from Philoctētes, and +carried off that hero from the scene of his retreat. He brought away +also the ashes of Laomĕdon, which were preserved in Troy on the Scœan +gate. By him the Palladium was stolen from the same city; Rhesus, king +of Thrace, killed, and his horses taken before they had drank of the +Xanthus. These exploits involved in them the destiny of Troy; for had +the Trojans preserved them, their city could never have been +conquered.</p> + +<p>Ulysses contended afterwards with Telamonian Ajax, the stoutest of +all the Grecians, except Achilles, for the arms of that hero, which were +awarded to him by the judges, who were won by the charms of his +eloquence. His other enterprises before Troy were numerous and +brilliant, and are particularly related in the Iliad. When Ulysses +departed for Greece, he sailed backwards and forwards for twenty years, +contrary winds and severe weather opposing his return to Ithăca.</p> + +<p>During this period, he extinguished, with a firebrand, the eye of +Polyphēmus; then sailing to Æolia, he obtained from Æŏlus all the winds +which were contrary to him, and put them into leathern bags; his +companions, however, believing these bags to be full of money, entered +into a plot to rob him, and accordingly, when they came on the coast of +Ithăca, untied the bags, upon which the wind rushing out, he was again +blown back to Æolia.</p> + +<p>When Circe had turned his companions into swine and other brutes, he +first fortified himself against her charms with the herb Moly, an +antidote Mercury had given him; and then rushing into her cave with his +drawn sword, compelled her to restore his associates to their original +shape.</p> + +<p>He is said to have gone down into hell, to know his future fortune, +from the prophet Tiresias. When he +sailed <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" +id="Page_143">[143]</a></span>to the islands of the Sirens, he stopped +the ears of his companions, and bound himself with strong ropes to the +ship's mast, that he might secure himself against the snares into which, +by their charming voices, passengers were habitually allured. Lastly, +after his ship was wrecked, he escaped by swimming, and came naked and +alone, to the port of Phæacia, in the island of Corcyra, where Nausicăa, +daughter of king Alcinŏus, found him in a profound sleep, into which he +was thrown by the indulgence of Minerva.</p> + +<p>When his companions were found, and his ship refitted, he bent his +course toward Ithăca, where arriving, and having put on the habit of a +beggar, he went to his neatherds, with whom he found his son Telemachus, +and with them went home in disguise. After having received several +affronts from the suitors of Penelŏpe, with the assistance of his son +Telemachus and the neatherds, to whom he had discovered himself, he +killed Antinŏus, and the other princes who were competitors for her +favor. After reigning some time, he resigned the government of his +kingdom to Telemachus.</p> + +<p>CASTOR and POLLUX were the twin sons of Jupiter and Leda. These +brothers entered into an inviolable friendship, and when they grew up, +cleared the Archipelago of pirates, on which account they were esteemed +deities of the sea, and accordingly were invoked by mariners in +tempests. They went with the other noble youths of Greece in the +expedition to Colchis, in search of the golden fleece, and on all +occasions signalized themselves by their courage.</p> + +<p>In this expedition Pollux slew Amycus, son of Neptune, and king of +Bebrycia, who had challenged all the Argonauts to box with him. This +victory, and that which he gained afterwards at the Olympic games which +Hercules celebrated in Elis, caused him to be considered the hero and +patron of wrestlers, while his brother Castor distinguished himself in +the race, and in the management of horses.</p> + +<p>Cicero relates a wonderful judgment which happened to one Scopas, who +had spoken disrespectfully of these divinities: he was crushed to death +by the fall of a chamber, whilst Simonĭdes, who was in the same room, +was rescued from the danger, being called out a little before, by two +persons unknown, supposed to be Castor and Pollux.</p> + +<p>The Greek and Roman histories are full of the miraculous appearance +of these brethren; particularly we are told they were seen fighting upon +two white horses, at the head <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" +id="Page_144">[144]</a></span>of the Roman army, in the battle between +the Romans and Latins, near the lake Regillus, and brought the news of +the decisive victory of Paulus Æmilius to Rome, the very day it was +obtained.</p> + +<p>Frequent representations of these deities occur on ancient monuments, +and particularly on consular medals. They are exhibited together, each +having a helmet, out of which issues a flame, and each a pike in one +hand, and in the other a horse held by the bridle: sometimes they are +represented as two beautiful youths, completely armed, and riding on +white horses, with stars over their helmets.</p> + +<p>AJAX, son of Telămon, king of Salămis, by Beribœa, was, next to +Achilles, the most valiant among the Greeks at the seige of Troy. He +commanded the troops of Salămis in that expedition, and performed the +various heroic actions mentioned by Homer, and Ovid, in the speech of +Ajax contending for the armor of Achilles. This armor, however, being +adjudged to his competitor Ulysses, his disappointment so enraged him, +that he immediately became mad, and rushed furiously upon a flock of +sheep, imagining he was killing those who had offended him: but at +length perceiving his mistake, he became still more furious, and stabbed +himself with the fatal sword he had received from Hector, with whom he +had fought. Ajax resembled Achilles in several respects; like him he was +violent, and impatient of contradiction; and, like him, invulnerable in +every part of the body except one.</p> + +<p>He has been charged with impiety; not that he denied the gods a very +extensive power, but he imagined that, as the greatest cowards might +conquer through their assistance, there was no glory in conquering by +such aids; and scorned to owe his victory to aught but his own prowess. +Accordingly, we are told that when he was setting out for Troy, his +father recommended him always to join the assistance of the gods to his +own valor; to which Ajax replied, that cowards themselves were often +victorious by such helps, but for his own part he would make no reliance +of the kind, being assured he should be able to conquer without.</p> + +<p>It is further added, upon the head of his irreligion, that to +Minerva, who once offered him her advice, he replied with indignation: +“Trouble not yourself about my conduct; of that I shall give a good +account; you have nothing to do but reserve your favor and assistance +for the other Greeks.” Another time she offered to guide +his <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" +id="Page_145">[145]</a></span>chariot in the battle, but he would not +suffer her. Nay, he even defaced the owl, her favorite bird, which was +engraven on his shield, lest that figure should be considered as an act +of reverence to Minerva, and hence as indicating distrust in +himself.</p> + +<p>Homer, however, does not represent him in this light, for though he +does not pray to Jupiter himself when he prepares to engage the valiant +Hector, yet he desires others to pray for him, either in a low voice, +lest the Trojans should hear, or louder if they pleased; for, says he, I +fear no person in the world.</p> + +<p>The poets give to Ajax the same commendation that the holy scripture +gives to king Saul, with regard to his stature. He has been the subject +of several tragedies, as well in Greek as Latin; and it is related that +the famous comedian, Æsop, refused to act that part. The Greeks paid +great honor to him after his death, and erected to him a noble monument +upon the promontory of Rhœteum, which was one of those Alexander desired +to see and honor.</p> + +<p>JASON was son of Æson, king of Thessaly, and Alcimĕde. He was an +infant when Pelias, his uncle, who was left his guardian, sought to +destroy him; but being, to avoid the danger, conveyed by his relations +to a cave, he was there instructed by Chiron in the art of physic; +whence he took the name of Jason, or the healer, his former name being +Diomēdes. Arriving at years of maturity, he returned to his uncle, who, +probably with no favorable intention to Jason, inspired him with the +notion of the Colchian expedition and agreeably flattered his ambition +with the hopes of acquiring the golden fleece.</p> + +<p>Jason having resolved on the voyage, built a vessel at Iolchos in +Thessaly, for the expedition, under the inspection, of Argos, a famous +workman, which, from him, was called Argo: it was said to have been +executed by the advice of Pallas, who pointed out a tree in the Dodonæan +forest for a mast, which was vocal, and had the gift of prophecy.</p> + +<p>The fame of the vessel, the largest that had ever been heard of, but +particularly the design itself, soon induced the bravest and most +distinguished youths of Greece to become adventurers in it, and brought +together about fifty of the most accomplished young persons of the age +to accompany Jason in this expedition; authors, however, are not agreed +on the precise names or numbers of the Argonauts; some state them to +have been forty-nine; others more, and amongst them several were of +divine origin.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" +id="Page_146">[146]</a></span>On his arrival at Colchis he repaired to +the court of Æētes, from whom he demanded the golden fleece. The monarch +acceded to his request, provided he could overcome the difficulties +which lay in his way, and which appeared not easily surmountable; these +were bulls with brazen feet, whose nostrils breathed fire, and a dragon +which guarded the fleece. The teeth of the latter, when killed, Jason +was enjoined to sow, and, after they had sprung up into armed men, to +destroy them.</p> + +<p>Though success attended the enterprise, it was less owing to valor, +than to the assistance of Medēa, daughter of Æētes, who, by her +enchantments, laid asleep the dragon, taught Jason to subdue the bulls, +and when he had obtained the prize, accompanied him in the night time, +unknown to her brother.</p> + +<p>The return of the Argonauts is variously related; some contend it was +by the track in which they came, and say that the brother of Medēa +pursued them as far as the Adriatic, and was overcome by Jason; which +occasioned the story that his sister had cut him in pieces, and strewed +his limbs in the way, that her father, from solicitude to collect them, +might be delayed in the pursuit.</p> + +<hr> +<h2 id="chap_2_12">CHAPTER XII.</h2> + +<h3><i>Other fabulous personages.</i></h3> + +<p>GRACES <i>or</i> CHARITES. Among the multitude of ancient divinities, +none had more votaries that the Graces. Particular nations and countries +had appropriate and local deities, but their empire was universal. To +their influence was ascribed all that could please in nature and in art; +and to them every rank and profession concurred in offering their +vows.</p> + +<p>Their number was generally limited, by the ancient poets, to three: +<i>Euphrosyne</i>, <i>Thalīa</i>, and <i>Aglaia</i>; but they differed concerning their +origin. Some suppose them to have been the offspring of Jupiter and +Eunomia, daughter of Oceănus; but the most prevalent opinion is, that +they were descended from Bacchus and Venus. According to Homer, Aglaia, +the youngest, was married to Vulcan, and another of them to the god of +Sleep. The Graces were companions of <i>Mercury</i>, <i>Venus</i>, and the +<i>Muses</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" +id="Page_147">[147]</a></span>Festivals were celebrated in honor of them +throughout the whole year. They were esteemed the dispensers of +liberality, eloquence, and wisdom; and from them were derived simplicity +of manners, a graceful deportment, and gaiety of disposition. From their +inspiring acts of gratitude and mutual kindness they were described as +uniting hand in hand with each other. The ancients partook of but few +repasts without invoking them, as well as the Muses.</p> + +<p>SIRENS were a kind of fabulous beings represented by some as +sea-monsters, with the faces of women and the tails of fishes, answering +the description of mermaids; and by others said to have the upper parts +of a woman, and the under parts of a bird. Their number is not +determined; Homer reckons only two; others five, namely, Leucosia, +Ligeia, Parthenŏpe, Aglaŏphon, and Molpe; others admit only the three +first.</p> + +<p>The poets represent them as beautiful women inhabiting the rocks on +the sea-shore, whither having allured passengers by the sweetness of +their voices, they put them to death. Virgil places them on rocks where +vessels are in danger of shipwreck; Pliny makes them inhabit the +promontory of Minerva, near the island Capreæ; others fix them in +Sicily, near cape Pelōrus.</p> + +<p>Claudian says they inhabited harmonious rocks, that they were +charming monsters, and that sailors were wrecked on their coasts without +regret, and even expired in rapture. This description is doubtless +founded on a literal explication of the fable, that the Sirens were +women who inhabited the shores of Sicily, and who, by the allurements of +pleasure, stopped passengers, and made them forget their course.</p> + +<p>Ovid says they accompanied Proserpine when she was carried off, and +that the gods granted them wings to go in quest of that goddess. Homer +places the Sirens in the midst of a meadow drenched in blood, and tells +us that fate had permitted them to reign till some person should +over-reach them; that the wise Ulysses accomplished their destiny, +having escaped their snares, by stopping the ears of his companions with +wax, and causing himself to be fastened to the mast of his ship, which, +he adds, plunged them into so deep despair, that they drowned themselves +in the sea, where they were transformed into fishes from the waist +downwards.</p> + +<p>Others, who do not look for so much mystery in this fable, maintain +that the Sirens were nothing but +certain <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" +id="Page_148">[148]</a></span>straits in the sea, where the waves +whirling furiously around seized and swallowed up vessels that +approached them. Lastly, some hold the Sirens to have been certain +shores and promontories, where the winds, by various reverberations and +echoes, cause a kind of harmony that surprises and stops passengers. +This probably might be the origin of the Sirens' song, and the occasion +of giving the name of Sirens to those rocks.</p> + +<p>Some interpreters of the ancient fables contend, that the number and +names of the three Sirens were taken from the triple pleasure of the +senses, wine, love, and music, which are the three most powerful means +of seducing mankind; and hence so many exhortations to avoid the Sirens' +fatal song; and probably it was hence that the Greeks obtained their +etymology of Siren from a Greek word signifying a <i>chain</i>, as if +there were no getting free from their enticement.</p> + +<p>But if in tracing this fable to its source, we take Servius as our +guide, he tells us that it derived its origin from certain princesses +who reigned of old upon the coasts of the Tuscan sea, near Pelōrus and +Caprea, or in three small islands of Sicily which Aristotle calls the +isles of the Sirens. These women were very debauched, and by their +charms allured strangers, who were ruined in their court, by pleasure +and prodigality.</p> + +<p>This seems evidently the foundation of all that Homer says of the +Sirens, in the twelfth book of the Odyssey; that they bewitched those +who unfortunately listened to their songs; that they detained them in +capacious meadows, where nothing was to be seen but bones and carcasses +withering in the sun; that none who visit them ever again enjoy the +embraces and congratulations of their wives and children; and that all +who dote upon their charms are doomed to perish. What Solomon says in +the ninth chapter of Proverbs, of the miseries to which those are +exposed who abandon themselves to sensual pleasures, well justifies the +idea given us of the Sirens by the Greek poets, and by Virgil's +commentator.</p> +</div><!-- end .bookcontent --> + +<div id="tn" class="TN" style="width:70%; margin:0 auto;"> +<p>[Transcriber's Note:</p> + +<p>Certain non-ASCII characters have been marked per the following list. +The HTML and UTF-8 text files properly display these characters.</p> + +<ul> +<li>{)a} a breve</li> +<li>{)e} e breve</li> +<li>{)i} i breve</li> +<li>{)o} o breve</li> +<li>{=a} a macron</li> +<li>{=e} e macron </li> +<li>{=i} i macron </li> +<li>{=o} o macron </li> +<li>{=u} u macron </li> +<li>{=y} y macron</li> +</ul> + +<p>oe|OE are recorded as oe in the Latin-1 and ASCII texts. ae|AE +ligatures have been unpacked as ae for ASCII. Greek words have been +transliterated and are marked with {word} form.</p> + +<p style="margin:1% 0;">Corrected typographical errors. The typographic +error and its corresponding line are listed.</p> + +<dl> + <dt>honoraable</dt> + <dd>The office of the legati was very dignified and honorable</dd> + + <dt>desposited</dt> + <dd>collected and deposited in an urn, to be kept in the mausoleum</dd> + + <dt>feats</dt> + <dd>Trimalchio, in his ridiculous feasts described by Petronius,</dd> +</dl> + + <p>End of Notes.]</p> + +</div><!-- end TN --> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Roman Antiquities, and Ancient +Mythology, by Charles K. Dillaway + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ROMAN ANTIQUITIES *** + +***** This file should be named 20734-h.htm or 20734-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/2/0/7/3/20734/ + +Produced by Barbara Tozier, V. L. 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