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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Carpentry for Boys, by J. S. Zerbe
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Carpentry for Boys
+       In a Simple Language, Including Chapters on Drawing, Laying
+       Out Work, Designing and Architecture With 250 Original
+       Illustrations
+
+Author: J. S. Zerbe
+
+Release Date: March 7, 2007 [EBook #20763]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CARPENTRY FOR BOYS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Ross Wilburn, Curtis Weyant and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+THE "HOW-TO-DO-IT" BOOKS
+
+CARPENTRY FOR BOYS
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 1. A Typical Work Bench._]
+
+
+
+THE "HOW-TO-DO-IT" BOOKS
+
+CARPENTRY FOR BOYS
+
+in simple language, including
+chapters on drawing, laying out
+work, designing and architecture
+
+WITH 250 ORIGINAL ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+BY J. S. ZERBE, M.E.
+
+AUTHOR OF
+
+
+ELECTRICITY FOR BOYS
+PRACTICAL MECHANICS FOR BOYS
+
+
+THE NEW YORK BOOK COMPANY
+
+NEW YORK
+
+COPYRIGHT, 1914, BY
+
+THE NEW YORK BOOK COMPANY
+
+
++----------------------------------------------------------------------+
+|Transcriber's Notes: Italics are marked by underscore(_), Bold text is|
+|marked by $, Small caps have been uppercased.                         |
++----------------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+INTRODUCTORY
+
+I. TOOLS AND THEIR USES Page 5
+
+Knowledge of Tools. A Full Kit of Tools. The Hatchet. The Claw Hammer.
+About Saws--Cross-cut, Rip Saw, Back Saw. Planes--Jack Plane, Smoothing
+Plane, Pore Plane. Gages. Chisels--Firmer Chisel. Trusses. Saw Clamps.
+The Grindstone. Oilstone. Miter Box. The Work Bench.
+
+II. HOW TO GRIND AND SHARPEN TOOLS Page 16
+
+Care of Tools---First Requisites. Saws--How to Set. Saw-set Errors. Saw
+Setting Block. Filing. The Angle of Filing. Filing Pitch. Saw Clamps.
+Filing Suggestions. The File. Using the File. The Grindstone. In the Use
+of Grindstones. Correct Way of Holding Tool in Grinding. Care of Stone.
+Incorrect Way to Hold Tool. Way to Revolve or Turn Grindstone. The
+Plane. The Gage. Chisels. General Observations.
+
+III. HOW TO HOLD AND HANDLE TOOLS Page 29
+
+On the Holding of Tools. The Saw. How to Start a Saw. Sawing on a Line.
+The First Stroke. The Starting Cut for Cross-cutting. Forcing a Saw. The
+Stroke. The Chinese Saw. Things to Avoid. The Plane. Angle for Holding
+Planes. Errors to be Avoided. The Gage. Holding the Gage. The
+Draw-knife.
+
+IV. HOW TO DESIGN ARTICLES Page 39
+
+Fundamentals of Designing. The Commercial Instinct. First Requirements
+of Designing. Conventional Styles. The Mission Style. Cabinets. Harmony
+of Parts. Harmony of Wood.
+
+V. HOW WORK IS LAID OUT Page 43
+
+Concrete Examples of Work. Dimensions. Laying Out a Table. The Top. The
+Mortises. The Facing Boards. The Tenons. Tools Used. Chamfered Tenons.
+The Frame. The Drawer Support. The Table Frame. The Top. The Drawer. How
+Any Structure is Built Up. Observations About Making a Box. Points.
+Beveling and Mitering. Proper Terms. Picture Frames. Dovetail Points.
+Box Points. First Steps in Dovetailing. Cutting Out the Spaces. Tools
+Used in Laying Out Mortises and Tenons.
+
+VI. THE USES OF THE COMPASS AND THE SQUARE Page 59
+
+The Compass. Determining Angles. Definition of Degrees. Degrees Without
+a Compass. How Degrees are Calculated by the Dividers.
+
+VII. HOW THE DIFFERENT STRUCTURAL PARTS ARE DESIGNATED Page 65
+
+Importance of Proper Designation. How to Explain Mechanical Forms.
+Defining Segment and Sector. Arcade, Arch, Buttress, Flying Buttress,
+Chamfer, Cotter, Crenelated, Crosses, Curb Roof, Cupola, Crown Post,
+Corbels, Dormer, Dowel, Drip, Detent, Extrados, Engrailed, Facet, Fret,
+Fretwork, Frontal, Frustrums, Fylfot, Gambrel Roof, Gargoyle, Gudgeon,
+Guilloche. Half Timbered, Hammer Beam, Header, Hip Roof, Hood Molding,
+Inclave, Interlacing Arch, Inverted, Inverted Arch, Key Stone, King
+Post, Label, Louver, Lintel, Lug, M-Roof, Mansard Roof, Newel,
+Parquetry, Peen, Pendant, Pendastyle, Pedestal, Plinth, Portico, Plate,
+Queen Post, Quirk Molding, Re-entering Angle, Rafter, Scarfing, Scotia
+Molding, Sill, Skewback, Spandrel, Strut, Stud, Stile, Tie Beam, Timber,
+Trammel, Turret, Transom, Valley Roof.
+
+VIII. DRAWING AND ITS UTILITY Page 73
+
+Fundamentals in Drawing. Representing Objects. Forming Lines and
+Shadows. Analysis of Lines and Shadings. How to Show Plain Surfaces.
+Concave Surfaces. Convex Surfaces. Shadows from a Beam. Flat Effects.
+The Direction of Light. Raised Surfaces. Depressed Surfaces. Full
+Shading. Illustrating Cube Shading. Shading Effect. Heavy Lines.
+Perspectives. True Perspective of a Cube. Isometric Cube. Flattened
+Perspective. Technical Designations. Sector and Segment. Terms of
+Angles. Circles and Curves. Irregular Curves. Ellipses and Ovals. Focal
+Points. Produced Line. Spirals, Perpendicular and Vertical. Signs to
+Indicate Measurement. Definitions. Abscissa. Angle. Apothegm. Apsides or
+Apsis. Chord. Cycloid. Conoid. Conic Section. Ellipsoid. Epicycloid.
+Evolute. Flying Buttress. Focus. Gnomes. Hexagon. Hyperbola.
+Hypothenuse. Incidental. Isosceles. Triangle. Parabola. Parallelogram.
+Pelecoid. Polygons. Pyramid. Rhomb. Sector. Segment. Sinusoid. Tangent.
+Tetrahedron. Vertex.
+
+IX. MOLDINGS, WITH PRACTICAL ILLUSTRATIONS IN EMBELLISHING WORK Page 93
+
+Moldings. The Basis of Moldings. The Simplest Moldings. The Astragal.
+The Cavetto. The Ovolo. The Torus. The Apothegm. The Cymatium. The Ogee.
+Ogee Recta. Ogee Reversa. The Reedy. The Casement. The Roman-Doric
+Column. Lesson from the Doric Column. Applying Molding. Base.
+Embellishments. Straight-faced Molding. Plain Molding. Base. Diversified
+Uses. Shadows Cast by Moldings.
+
+X. AN ANALYSIS OF TENONING, MORTISING, RABBETING AND BEADING Page 104
+
+Where Mortises Should be Used. Depth of Mortises. Rule for Mortises.
+True Mortise Work. Steps in Cutting Mortises. Things to Avoid in
+Mortising. Lap-and-Butt Joints. Scarfing. The Tongue and Groove.
+Beading. Ornamental Bead Finish. The Bead and Rabbet. Shading with Beads
+and Rabbets.
+
+XI. HOUSE BUILDING Page 113
+
+House Building. The Home and Embellishments. Beauty Not Ornamentation.
+Plain Structures. Colonial Type. The Roof the Keynote. Bungalow Types.
+General House Building. Building Plans. The Plain Square-Floor Plan. The
+Rectangular Plan. Room Measurements. Front and Side Lines. The Roof.
+Roof Pitch. The Foundation. The Sills. The Flooring Joist. The Studding.
+Setting Up. The Plate. Intermediate Studding. Wall Headers. Ceiling
+Joist. Braces. The Rafters. The Gutter. Setting Door and Window Frames.
+Plastering and Finish Work.
+
+XII. BRIDGES, TRUSSED WORK AND LIKE STRUCTURES Page 130
+
+Bridges. Self-supporting Roofs. Common Trusses. The Vertical Upright
+Truss. The Warren Girder. The Bowstring Girder. Fundamental Truss
+Forms.
+
+XIII. THE BEST WOODS FOR THE BEGINNER Page 134
+
+The Best Woods. Soft Woods. Hard Woods. The Most Difficult Woods. The
+Hard-ribbed Grain in Wood. The Easiest Working Woods. Differences in the
+Working of Woods. Forcing Saws in Wood.
+
+XIV. WOOD TURNING Page 138
+
+Advantages of Wood Turning. Simple Turning Lathe. The Rails. The Legs.
+Centering Blocks. The Tail-stock. The Tool Rest. Materials. The Mandrel.
+Fly-wheel. The Tools Required.
+
+XV. ON THE USE OF STAINS Page 147
+
+Soft Wood. Use of Stains. Stains as Imitations. Good Taste in Staining.
+Great Contrasts Bad. Staining Contrasting Woods. Hard Wood Imitations.
+Natural Effects. Natural Wood Stains. Polishing Stained Surfaces.
+
+XVI. THE CARPENTER AND THE ARCHITECT Page 152
+
+XVII. USEFUL ARTICLES TO MAKE Page 155
+
+Common Bench. Its Proportions. Square Top Stool. Folding Blacking Box.
+Convenient Easel. Hanging Book-rack. Sad Iron Holder. Bookcase.
+Wood-box. Parallel Bars for Boys' Use. Mission Writing Desk. Screen
+Frame. Mission Chair. Grandfather's Clock. Knockdown and Adjustable
+Bookcase. Coal Scuttle Frame or Case. Mission Arm Chair. Dog-house.
+Settle, With Convenient Shelves. Towel Rack. Sofa Framework.
+
+XVIII. SPECIAL TOOLS AND THEIR USES Page 170
+
+Bit and Level Adjuster. Miter Boxes. Swivel Arm Uprights. Movable Stops.
+Angle Dividers. "Odd Job" Tool. Bit Braces. Ratchet Mechanism.
+Interlocking Jaws. Steel Frame Breast Drills. Horizontal Boring. 3-Jaw
+Chuck. Planes. Rabbeting, Beading and Matching. Cutter Adjustment. Depth
+Gage. Slitting Gage. Dovetail Tongue and Groove Plane. Router Planes.
+Bottom Surfacing. Door Trim Plane.
+
+XIX. ROOFING TRUSSES Page 185
+
+Characteristics of Trusses. Tie Beams. Ornamentation. Objects of Beams,
+Struts and Braces. Utilizing Space. Types of Structures. Gambrel Roof.
+Purlin Roof. The Princess Truss. Arched, or Cambered, Tie Beam Truss.
+The Mansard. Scissors Beam. Braced Collar Beam. Rib and Collar Truss.
+Hammer-beam Truss. Flying Buttress.
+
+XX. ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF JOINTS Page 197
+
+Definition and Uses. Different Types. Bridle Joint. Spur Tenon. Saddle
+Joints. Joggle Joint. Heel Joints. Stub Tenon. Tusk Tenon. Double Tusk
+Tenon. Cogged Joints. Anchor Joints. Deep Anchor Joints.
+
+XXI. SOME MISTAKES AND A LITTLE ADVICE IN CARPENTRY Page 205
+
+Lessons From Mistakes. Planing the Edge of a Board Straight. Planing it
+Square. Planing to Dimensions. Holding the Plane. How it Should be Run
+on the Edge of the Board. Truing With the Weight of the Plane. A Steady
+Grasp. In Smoothing Boards. Correct Sand-papering. Gluing. Removing
+Surplus Glue. Work Edge and Work Side. The Scribing and Marking Line.
+Finishing Surfaces. Sawing a Board Square. The Stroke of the Saw. Sawing
+Out of True.
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+FIG.
+
+1. A typical work bench                                     Frontispiece
+                                                                    PAGE
+2. Hatchet                                                             6
+3. Hammer                                                              7
+4. Common saw                                                          7
+5. Plane                                                               8
+6. Jack plane bit                                                      9
+6a. Fore plane bit                                                    10
+7. Firmer chisel                                                      11
+7a. Mortising chisel                                                  12
+8. Trestle                                                            12
+9. Miter box                                                          13
+10. Incorrect saw setting                                             17
+10a. Correct saw setting                                              17
+11. Saw setting device                                                17
+12. Filing angle                                                      18
+13. Rip saw                                                           19
+14. Cross cut                                                         20
+15. Filing clamp                                                      21
+16. Grindstone                                                        23
+17. Correct manner of holding tool                                    24
+18. Incorrect way of holding tool                                     24
+19. Gage                                                              26
+20. Starting a saw                                                    31
+21. Wrong sawing angle                                                32
+22. Correct sawing angle                                              33
+23. Thrust cut                                                        34
+24. Chinese saw                                                       34
+25. Moving angle for plane                                            35
+26. Holding gage                                                      36
+27. Laying out table leg                                              43
+28. The first marking line                                            44
+29. Scribing mortise line                                             44
+30. The corner mortises                                               44
+31. The side rail                                                     46
+32. Scribing the tenons                                               46
+33. Cross scoring                                                     47
+34. The tenon                                                         47
+35. Finishing the tenon                                               47
+36. The tenon and mortise                                             48
+37. The drawer support                                                48
+38. Drawer cleats                                                     49
+39. Assembled table frame                                             50
+40. The top                                                           51
+41. The drawer                                                        52
+42. Bevel joint                                                       53
+43. Miter joint                                                       53
+44. Picture frame joint                                               54
+45. Initial marks for dovetails                                       55
+46. End marks for dovetails                                           55
+47. Angles for dovetails                                              55
+48. Cutting out recesses for dovetails                                56
+49. Tongues for dovetails                                             56
+50. Recess for dovetails                                              56
+51. Determining angles                                                61
+52. Marking degrees                                                   63
+53. Angles from base lines                                            63
+54. Stepping off spaces                                               63
+55. Arcade                                                            67
+56. Arch                                                              67
+57. Buttress                                                          67
+58. Chamfer                                                           67
+59. Cooter                                                            67
+60. Crenelated                                                        67
+61. Crosses                                                           67
+62. Curb roof                                                         67
+63. Cupola                                                            67
+64. Console                                                           67
+65. Corbels                                                           67
+66. Dormer                                                            67
+67. Dowel                                                             67
+68. Drips                                                             67
+69. Detail                                                            68
+70. Extrados                                                          68
+71. Engrailed                                                         68
+72. Facet                                                             68
+73. Fret                                                              68
+74. Frontal                                                           68
+75. Frustrums                                                         68
+76. Fylfat                                                            68
+77. Gambrel                                                           68
+78. Gargoyle                                                          68
+79. Gudgeon                                                           68
+80. Guilloche                                                         68
+81. Half timbered                                                     68
+82. Hammer beam                                                       68
+83. Haunches                                                          69
+84. Header                                                            69
+85. Hip roof                                                          69
+86. Hood molding                                                      69
+87. Inclave                                                           69
+88. Interlacing arch                                                  69
+89. Invected                                                          69
+90. Inverted arch                                                     69
+91. Keystone                                                          69
+92. King post                                                         69
+93. Label                                                             69
+94. Louver                                                            69
+95. Lintel                                                            70
+96. Lug                                                               70
+97. M-roof                                                            70
+98. Mansard roof                                                      70
+99. Newel post                                                        70
+100. Parquetry                                                        70
+101. Peen, or pein                                                    70
+102. Pendant                                                          70
+103. Pentastyle                                                       70
+104. Pedestal                                                         70
+105. Pintle                                                           70
+106. Portico                                                          70
+107. Plate                                                            70
+108. Queen post                                                       71
+109. Quirk molding                                                    71
+110. Re-entering                                                      71
+111. Rafter                                                           71
+112. Scarfing                                                         71
+113. Scotia molding                                                   71
+114. Sill                                                             71
+115. Skew back                                                        71
+116. Spandrel                                                         71
+117. Strut                                                            71
+118. Stud, studding                                                   71
+119. Stile                                                            72
+120. Trammel                                                          72
+121. Turret                                                           72
+122. Transom                                                          72
+123. Valley roof                                                      72
+125. Plain line                                                       74
+126. Concave shading                                                  74
+127. Convex shading                                                   74
+128. Wave shading                                                     75
+129. Light past concave surface                                       75
+130. Light past convex surface                                        75
+131. Plain surface                                                    75
+132. Outlines                                                         76
+133. Raised surface                                                   77
+134. Depressed surface                                                77
+135. Shading raised surfaces                                          78
+136. Shading depressed surfaces                                       78
+137. Plain cubical outline                                            79
+138. Indicating cube                                                  79
+139. Confused lines                                                   79
+140. Heavy horizontal lines                                           80
+141. Heavy vertical lines                                             80
+142. Isometric cube                                                   81
+143. Cube and circle                                                  81
+144. Flattened perspective                                            82
+145. Angles in isometric cube                                         83
+146. Plain circle                                                     84
+147. Sphere shading                                                   84
+148. Drawing regular ellipse                                          86
+149. Drawing irregular ellipse                                        88
+150. Drawing spiral                                                   89
+151. Abscissa                                                         90
+152. Angle                                                            91
+153. Apothegm                                                         91
+154. Apsides, or apsis                                                91
+155. Chord                                                            91
+156. Convolute                                                        91
+157. Conic sections                                                   91
+158. Conoid                                                           91
+159. Cycloid                                                          91
+160. Ellipsoid                                                        91
+161. Epicycloid                                                       91
+162. Evolute                                                          91
+163. Focus                                                            91
+164. Gnome                                                            91
+165. Hyperbola                                                        91
+167. Hypothenuse                                                      91
+168. Incidence                                                        92
+169. Isosceles triangle                                               92
+170. Parabola                                                         92
+171. Parallelogram                                                    92
+172. Pelecoid                                                         92
+173. Polygons                                                         92
+174. Pyramid                                                          92
+175. Quadrant                                                         92
+176. Quadrilateral                                                    92
+177. Rhomb                                                            92
+178. Sector                                                           92
+179. Segment                                                          92
+180. Sinusoid                                                         92
+181. Tangent                                                          92
+182. Tetrahedron                                                      92
+183. Vertex                                                           92
+184. Volute                                                           92
+185. Band (molding)                                                   94
+186. Astragal (molding)                                               94
+187. Cavetto (molding)                                                94
+188. Ovolo (molding)                                                  94
+189. Torus (molding)                                                  95
+190. Apophyges (molding)                                              95
+191. Cymatium (molding)                                               95
+192. Ogee-recta (molding)                                             95
+193. Ogee-reversa (molding)                                           96
+194. Bead (molding)                                                   96
+195. Casement (molding)                                               97
+196. The Doric column                                                 98
+197. Front of cabinet                                                100
+198. Facia board                                                     100
+199. Molding on facia board                                          100
+200. Ogee-recta on facia                                             101
+201. Trim below facia                                                101
+202. Trim below ogee                                                 101
+203. Trim above base                                                 102
+204. Trim above base molding                                         102
+205. Shadows cast by plain moldings                                  103
+206. Mortise and tenon joint                                         105
+207. Incorrect mortising                                             105
+208. Steps in mortising                                              106
+209. The shoulders of tenons                                         108
+210. Lap-and-butt joint                                              108
+211. Panel joint                                                     109
+212. Scarfing                                                        109
+213. Tongue and groove                                               110
+214. Beading                                                         110
+215. Outside beading finish                                          110
+216. Edge beading                                                    111
+217. Corner beading                                                  111
+218. Point beading                                                   111
+219. Round edge beading                                              111
+220. Beading and molding                                             111
+221. First square house plan                                         117
+222. First rectangular house plan                                    118
+223. Square house to scale                                           119
+224. Rectangular house to scale                                      120
+225. Front elevation of square house                                 121
+226. Elevation of rectangular house                                  121
+227. Illustrating one-third pitch                                    122
+228. Illustrating half pitch                                         122
+229. The sills at the corner                                         123
+230. The joist and sills                                             123
+231. The plate splice                                                124
+232. The rafters                                                     125
+233. The gutter                                                      126
+234. The cornice                                                     127
+234a. The finish without gutter                                      128
+235. Common truss                                                    130
+236. Upright truss                                                   131
+237. Vertical upright truss                                          131
+238. Warren girder                                                   132
+239. Extended Warren girder                                          132
+240. Bowstring girder                                                132
+241. Frame details of wood turning lathe                             139
+242. Tail stock details                                              140
+243. Tool rest details                                               142
+244. Section of mandrel                                              143
+245. View of turning lathe                                           145
+246. Turning tools                                                   146
+247. Bench                                                           155
+248. Stool                                                           156
+249. Blacking box                                                    156
+250. Easel                                                           157
+251. Hanging book rack                                               158
+252. Book shelf                                                      159
+253. Wood box                                                        160
+254. Horizontal bars                                                 161
+255. Mission desk                                                    161
+256. Screen frame                                                    162
+257. Mission chair                                                   162
+258. Grandfather's clock                                             163
+259. Frame for bookcase                                              164
+260. Coal scuttle case                                               165
+261. Mission arm chair                                               165
+262. Dog house                                                       168
+263. Settle                                                          167
+264. Towel rack                                                      168
+265. Mission sofa frame                                              168
+266. Bit and square level                                            170
+267. Metal miter box                                                 171
+268. Parts of metal miter box                                        172
+269. Angle dividers                                                  173
+270. An "odd job" tool                                               174
+271. Universal-jaw brace                                             176
+272. Taper-shank bit brace                                           176
+273. Alligator-jaw brace                                             176
+274. Steel frame breast drill                                        177
+275. Steel frame breast drill                                        177
+276. Steel frame breast drill                                        177
+277. Details of metal plane                                          179
+278. Rabbet, matching and dado plane                                 180
+279. Molding and beading plane                                       181
+280. Dovetail tongue and groove plane                                182
+281. Router planes                                                   183
+282. Router planes                                                   183
+283. Door trim plane                                                 184
+284. Gambrel roof                                                    187
+285. Purlin roof                                                     188
+286. Princess truss                                                  189
+287. Arched, or cambered, tie beam                                   190
+288. The mansard                                                     191
+289. Scissors beam                                                   192
+290. Braced collar beam                                              193
+291. Rib and collar truss                                            194
+291-1/2. Hammer-beam truss                                           195
+292. Bridle joints                                                   197
+293. Spur tenons                                                     198
+294. Saddle joints                                                   198
+295. Joggle joints                                                   199
+296. Framing joints                                                  199
+297. Heel joints                                                     200
+298. Stub tenon                                                      200
+299. Tusk tenon                                                      201
+300. Double tusk tenon                                               202
+301. Cogged joints                                                   203
+302. Anchor joint                                                    203
+303. Deep anchor joint                                               204
+
+
+
+
+CARPENTRY
+
+A PRACTICAL COURSE, WHICH TELLS IN CONCISE AND SIMPLE FORM "HOW TO DO
+IT"
+
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTORY
+
+
+Carpentry is the oldest of the arts, and it has been said that the
+knowledge necessary to make a good carpenter fits one for almost any
+trade or occupation requiring the use of tools. The hatchet, the saw,
+and the plane are the three primal implements of the carpenter. The
+value is in knowing how to use them.
+
+The institution of Manual Training Schools everywhere is but a tardy
+recognition of the value of systematic training in the use of tools.
+There is no branch of industry which needs such diversification, in
+order to become efficient.
+
+The skill of the blacksmith is centered in his ability to forge, to
+weld, and to temper; that of the machinist depends upon the callipered
+dimensions of his product; the painter in his taste for harmony; the
+mason on his ability to cut the stone accurately; and the plasterer to
+produce a uniform surface. But the carpenter must, in order to be an
+expert, combine all these qualifications, in a greater or less degree,
+and his vocation may justly be called the King of Trades. Rightly,
+therefore, it should be cultivated in order to learn the essentials of
+manual training work.
+
+But there is another feature of the utmost importance and value, which
+is generally overlooked, and on which there is placed too little stress,
+even in many of the manual training schools. The training of the mind
+has been systematized so as to bring into operation the energies of all
+the brain cells. Manual training to be efficient should, at the same
+time, be directed into such channels as will most widely stimulate the
+muscular development of the child, while at the same time cultivating
+his mind.
+
+There is no trade which offers such a useful field as carpentry. It may
+be said that the various manual operations bring into play every muscle
+of the body.
+
+The saw, the plane, the hammer, the chisel, each requires its special
+muscular energy. The carpenter, unlike the blacksmith, does not put all
+his brawn into his shoulders, nor develop his torso at the expense of
+his other muscles, like the mason. It may also be said that, unlike most
+other occupations, the carpenter has both out-of-door and indoor
+exercise, so that he is at all times able to follow his occupation,
+summer or winter, rain or shine; and this also further illustrates the
+value of this branch of endeavor as a healthful recreation.
+
+It is the aim of this book to teach boys the primary requirements--not
+to generalize--but to show how to prepare and how to do the work; what
+tools and materials to use; and in what manner the tools used may be
+made most serviceable, and used most advantageously.
+
+It would be of no value to describe and illustrate how a bracket is
+made; or how the framework of a structure is provided with mortises and
+tenons in order to hold it together. The boy must have something as a
+base which will enable him to design his own creations, and not be an
+imitator; his mind must develop with his body. It is the principal aim
+of this book to give the boy something to think about while he is
+learning how to bring each individual part to perfection.
+
+If the boy understands that there is a principle underlying each
+structural device; that there is a reason for making certain things a
+definite way, he is imbued with an incentive which will sooner or later
+develop into an initiative of his own.
+
+It is this phase in the artisan's life which determines whether he will
+be merely a machine or an intelligent organism.
+
+This work puts together in a simple, concise form, not only the
+fundamentals which every mechanic should learn to know, but it defines
+every structural form used in this art, and illustrates all terms it is
+necessary to use in the employment of carpentry. A full chapter is
+devoted to drawings practically applied. All terms are diagrammed and
+defined, so that the mind may readily grasp the ideas involved.
+
+Finally, it will be observed that every illustration has been specially
+drawn for this book. We have not adopted the plan usually followed in
+books of this class, of taking stock illustrations of manufacturers'
+tools and devices, nor have we thought it advisable to take a picture of
+a tool or a machine and then write a description around it. We have
+illustrated the book to explain "_how to do the work_"; also, to teach
+the boy what the trade requires, and to give him the means whereby he
+may readily find the form of every device, tool, and structure used in
+the art.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+TOOLS AND THEIR USES
+
+
+KNOWLEDGE OF TOOLS.--A knowledge of tools and their uses is the first
+and most important requirement. The saw, the plane, the hatchet and the
+hammer are well known to all boys; but how to use them, and where to use
+the different varieties of each kind of tool, must be learned, because
+each tool grew out of some particular requirement in the art. These uses
+will now be explained.
+
+A FULL KIT OF TOOLS.--A kit of tools necessary for doing any plain work
+should embrace the following:
+
+
+1. A Hatchet.
+2. A Claw Hammer--two sizes preferred.
+3. Cross-cut Saw, 20 inches long.
+4. Rip Saw, 24 inches long.
+5. Wooden Mallet.
+ 6. Jack Plane.
+7. Smoothing Plane.
+8. Compass Saw.
+9. Brace.
+10. Bits for Brace, ranging from 1/4 inch to 1 inch diameter.
+11. Several small Gimlets.
+12. Square.
+13. Compass.
+14. Draw-knife.
+15. Rule.
+16. Two Gages.
+17. Set of Firmer Chisels.
+18. Two Mortising Chisels.
+19. Small Back Saw.
+20. Saw Clamps.
+21. Miter Box.
+22. Bevel Square.
+23. Small Hand Square.
+24. Pliers.
+25. Pair of Awls.
+26. Hand Clamps.
+27. Set Files.
+28. Glue Pot.
+29. Oil Stone.
+30. Grindstone.
+31. Trusses.
+32. Work Bench.
+33. Plumb Bob.
+34. Spirit Level.
+
+
+THE HATCHET.--The hatchet should be ground with a bevel on each side,
+and not on one side only, as is customary with a plasterer's lathing
+hatchet, because the blade of the hatchet is used for trimming off the
+edges of boards. Unless ground off with a bevel on both sides it cannot
+be controlled to cut accurately. A light hatchet is preferable to a
+heavy one. It should never be used for nailing purposes, except in
+emergencies. The pole of the hammer--that part which is generally used
+to strike the nail with--is required in order to properly balance the
+hatchet when used for trimming material.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 2._]
+
+THE CLAW HAMMER.--This is the proper tool for driving nails and for
+drawing them out. Habits should be formed with the beginner, which will
+be of great service as the education proceeds.
+
+One of these habits is to persist in using the tool for the purpose for
+which it was made. The expert workman (and he becomes expert because of
+it) makes the hammer do its proper work; and so with every other tool.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 3._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 4._]
+
+ABOUT SAWS.--There are four well-defined kinds. First, a long, flat saw,
+for cross-cutting. Second, a slightly larger saw for ripping purposes.
+Third, a back saw, with a rib on the rear edge to hold the blade rigid,
+used for making tenons; and, fourth, a compass or keyhole saw.
+
+CROSS-CUTS.--The difference between a cross-cut and a rip saw is, that
+in the latter the teeth have less pitch and are usually larger than in
+the cross-cut saw. The illustrations (Figs. 13 and 14) will distinctly
+show the difference in the teeth. When a cross-cut saw is used for
+ripping along the grain of the wood, the teeth, if disposed at an angle,
+will ride over the grain or fiber of the wood, and refuse to take hold
+or bite into the wood. On the other hand, if the rip saw is used for
+cross-cutting purposes, the saw kerf will be rough and jagged.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 5._]
+
+The back saw is used almost exclusively for making tenons, and has
+uniformly fine teeth so as to give a smooth finish to the wood.
+
+PLANES.--The plane may be called the æsthetic tool in the carpenter's
+kit. It is the most difficult tool to handle and the most satisfactory
+when thoroughly mastered. How to care for and handle it will be
+referred to in a subsequent chapter. We are now concerned with its uses
+only. Each complete kit must have three distinct planes, namely, the
+jack plane, which is for taking off the rough saw print surface of the
+board. The short smoothing plane, which is designed to even up the
+inequalities made by the jack plane; and the long finishing plane, or
+fore plane, which is intended to straighten the edges of boards or of
+finished surfaces.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 6. Jack plane bit._]
+
+THE JACK PLANE.--This plane has the cutting edge of its blade ground so
+it is slightly curved (Fig. 6), because, as the bit must be driven out
+so it will take a deep bite into the rough surface of the wood, the
+curved cutting edge prevents the corner edges of the bit from digging
+into the planed surface.
+
+On the other hand, the bits of the smoothing and finishing planes are
+ground straight across their cutting edges. In the foregoing we have not
+enumerated the different special planes, designed to make beads,
+rabbets, tongues and grooves, but each type is fully illustrated, so
+that an idea may be obtained of their characteristics. (Fig. 6_a_).
+
+GAGES.--One of the most valuable tools in the whole set is the gage, but
+it is, in fact, the least known. This is simply a straight bar, with a
+sharpened point projecting out on one side near its end, and having an
+adjustable sliding head or cheekpiece. This tool is indispensable in
+making mortises or tenons, because the sharpened steel point which
+projects from the side of the bar, serves to outline and define the
+edges of the mortises or tenons, so that the cutting line may readily be
+followed.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 6a. Fore-plane bit._]
+
+This is the most difficult tool to hold when in use, but that will be
+fully explained under its proper head. Each kit should have two, as in
+making mortises and tenons one gage is required for each side of the
+mortise or tenon.
+
+CHISELS.--Two kinds are found in every kit--one called the firmer (Fig.
+7) and the mortising chisel. The firmer has a flat body or blade, and a
+full set ranges in width from three-eighths of an inch to two inches.
+The sizes most desirable and useful are the one-half inch, the inch and
+the inch-and-a-half widths. These are used for trimming out cross grains
+or rebates for setting door locks and hinges and for numerous other uses
+where sharp-end tools are required.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 7._]
+
+THE MORTISING CHISEL.--The mortising chisel (Fig. 7_a_), on the other
+hand, is very narrow and thick, with a long taper down to the cutting
+edge. They are usually in such widths as to make them stock sizes for
+mortises. Never, under any circumstances, use a hammer or hatchet for
+driving chisels. The mallet should be used invariably.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 7a._]
+
+TRUSSES.--There should be at least two, each three feet in length and
+twenty inches in height.
+
+SAW CLAMPS.--These are necessary adjuncts, and should be made of hard
+wood, perfectly straight and just wide enough to take in the narrow
+back saw. The illustration shows their shape and form.
+
+THE GRINDSTONES.--It is better to get a first-class stone, which may be
+small and rigged up with a foot treadle. A soft, fine-grained stone is
+most serviceable, and it should have a water tray, and never be used
+excepting with plenty of water.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 8._]
+
+AN OIL STONE is as essential as a grindstone. For giving a good edge to
+tools it is superior to a water stone. It should be provided with a top,
+and covered when not in use, to keep out dust and grit. These are the
+little things that contribute to success and should be carefully
+observed.
+
+THE MITER BOX.--This should be 14 inches long and 3" by 3" inside, made
+of hard wood 3/4" thick. The sides should be nailed to the bottom, as
+shown.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 9._]
+
+THE WORK BENCH.--In its proper place we show in detail the most approved
+form of work bench, fitted with a tool rack to hold all the tools,
+conveniently arranged. In this chapter we are more particularly
+concerned with the uses of tools than their construction; and we impress
+on boys the necessity of having a place for everything, and that every
+tool should be kept in its proper place. A carpenter's shop filled with
+chips, shavings and other refuse is not a desirable place for the
+indiscriminate placing of tools. If correct habits are formed at the
+outset, by carefully putting each tool in its place after using, it will
+save many an hour of useless hunting and annoyance.
+
+One of the most important things in laying off work, for instance, on
+trusses, is the disposition of the saw and square. Our illustration
+shows each truss with side cleats, which will permit the user
+temporarily to deposit the saw or the square so that it will be handy,
+and at the same time be out of the way of the work and prevent either of
+the tools from being thrown to the floor.
+
+In the same way, and for the same purpose, the work bench has temporary
+holding cleats at the end and a shelf in front, which are particularly
+desirable, because either a saw or a square is an encumbrance on a work
+bench while the work is being assembled, and tools of this kind should
+not be laid flat on a working surface, nor should they be stood in a
+leaning position against a truss or work bench.
+
+_Strictly observe these fundamentals_--Never place a tool with the
+cutting edge toward you. Always have the racks or receptacles so made
+that the handle may be seized. Don't put a tool with an exposed cutting
+edge above or below another tool in such a manner that the hand or the
+tool you are handling can come into contact with the edge. Never keep
+the nail or screw boxes above the work bench. They should always be kept
+to one side, to prevent, as much as possible, the bench from becoming a
+depository for nails. Keep the top of the bench free from tools. Always
+keep the planes on a narrow sub-shelf at the rear of the bench.
+
+If order was Heaven's first law, it is a good principle to apply it in a
+workman's shop, and its observance will form a habit that will soon
+become a pleasure to follow.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+HOW TO GRIND AND SHARPEN TOOLS
+
+
+CARE OF TOOLS.--Dull tools indicate the character of the workman. In an
+experience of over forty years, I have never known a good workman to
+keep poorly sharpened tools. While it is true that the capacity to
+sharpen tools can be acquired only by practice, correct habits at the
+start will materially assist. In doing this part of the artisan's work,
+it should be understood that there is a right as well as a wrong way.
+
+There is a principle involved in the sharpening of every tool, which
+should be observed. A skilled artisan knows that there is a particular
+way to grind the bits of each plane; that the manner of setting a saw
+not only contributes to its usefulness, but will materially add to the
+life of the saw; that a chisel cannot be made to do good work unless its
+cutting edge is square and at the right working angle.
+
+FIRST REQUISITE.--A beginner should never attempt a piece of work until
+he learns how the different tools should be sharpened, or at least learn
+the principle involved. Practice will make perfect.
+
+SAWS.--As the saw is such an important part of the kit, I shall devote
+some space to the subject. _First_, as to setting the saw. The object of
+this is to make the teeth cut a wider kerf than the thickness of the
+blade, and thereby cause the saw to travel freely. A great many
+so-called "saw sets" are found in the market, many of them built on
+wrong principles, as will be shown, and these are incapable of setting
+accurately.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 10._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 10a._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 11._]
+
+HOW TO SET.--To set a saw accurately, that is, to drive out each tooth
+the same distance, is the first requirement, and the second is to bend
+out the whole tooth, and not the point only.
+
+In the illustration (Fig. 10), the point is merely bent out. This is
+wrong. The right way is shown in Fig. 10_a_. The whole tooth is bent,
+showing the correct way of setting. The reasons for avoiding one way and
+following the other are: First, that if the point projects to one side,
+each point or tooth will dig into the wood, and produce tooth prints in
+the wood, which make a roughened surface. Second, that if there are
+inequalities in setting the teeth (as is sure to be the case when only
+the points are bent out), the most exposed points will first wear out,
+and thereby cause saw deterioration. Third, a saw with the points
+sticking out causes a heavy, dragging cut, and means additional labor.
+Where the whole body of the tooth is bent, the saw will run smoothly and
+easily through the kerf and produce a smooth-cut surface.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 12._]
+
+Our illustration (Fig. 11) shows a very simple setting block, the
+principal merit of which is that any boy can make it, and in the use of
+which he cannot go wrong in setting a tooth.
+
+SIMPLE SAW SETTER.--Take a block of wood, a 4 by 4 inch studding, four
+inches long. Get a piece of metal one-half inch thick and two inches
+square. Have a blacksmith or machinist bore a quarter-inch hole through
+it in the center and countersink the upper side so it may be securely
+fastened in a mortise in the block, with its upper side flush with the
+upper surface of the block. Now, with a file, finish off one edge, going
+back for a quarter of an inch, the angle at A to be about 12 degrees.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 13. Rip-Saw._]
+
+FILING ANGLES.--In its proper place will be shown how you may easily
+calculate and measure degrees in work of this kind. Fig. 12 shows an
+approximation to the right angle. B, B (Fig. 11) should be a pair of
+wooden pegs, driven into the wooden block on each side of the metal
+piece. The teeth of the saw rest against the pegs so that they serve as
+a guide or a gage, and the teeth of the saw, therefore, project over the
+inclined part (B) of the metal block. Now, with an ordinary punch and a
+hammer, each alternate tooth may be driven down until it rests flat on
+the inclined face (A), so that it is impossible to set the teeth
+wrongly. When you glance down the end of a properly set saw, you will
+see a V-shaped channel, and if you will place a needle in the groove and
+hold the saw at an angle, the needle will travel down without falling
+out.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 14. cross-cut._]
+
+FILING.--The next step is the filing. Two things must be observed: the
+pitch and the angle. By pitch is meant the inclination of the teeth.
+Note the illustration (Fig. 13), which shows the teeth of a rip saw. You
+will see at A that the pitch of the tooth is at right angles to the edge
+of the saw. In Fig. 14, which shows the teeth of a cross-cut saw, the
+pitch (B) is about 10 degrees off. The teeth of the rip saw are also
+larger than those of the cross-cut.
+
+THE ANGLE OF FILING.--By angle is meant the cutting position of the
+file. In Fig. 12, the lines B represent the file disposed at an angle
+of 12 degrees, not more, for a rip saw. For a cross-cut the angle of the
+file may be less.
+
+SAW CLAMPS.--You may easily make a pair of saw clamps as follows:
+
+Take two pieces of hard wood, each three inches wide, seven-eighths of
+an inch thick, and equal in length to the longest saw. Bevel one edge of
+each as shown in A (Fig. 15), so as to leave an edge (B) about
+one-eighth of an inch thick. At one end cut away the corner on the side
+opposite the bevel, as shown at C, so the clamps will fit on the saw
+around the saw handle.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 15._]
+
+When the saw is placed between these clamps and held together by the
+jaws of the vise, you are ready for the filing operation. Observe the
+following _filing suggestions_: Always hold the file horizontal or
+level. In filing, use the whole length of the file. Do the work by a
+slow, firm sweep.
+
+Do not file all of the teeth along the saw at one operation, but only
+the alternate teeth, so as to keep the file at the same angle, and thus
+insure accuracy; then turn the saw and keep the file constantly at one
+angle for the alternate set of teeth.
+
+Give the same number of strokes, and exert the same pressure on the file
+for each tooth, to insure uniformity. Learn also to make a free, easy
+and straight movement back and forth with the file.
+
+THE FILE.--In order to experiment with the filing motion, take two
+blocks of wood, and try surfacing them off with a file. When you place
+the two filed surfaces together after the first trial both will be
+convex, because the hands, in filing, unless you exert the utmost
+vigilance, will assume a crank-like movement. The filing test is so to
+file the two blocks that they will fit tightly together without rolling
+on each other. Before shaping and planing machines were invented,
+machinists were compelled to plane down and accurately finish off
+surfaces with a file.
+
+In using the files on saws, however small the file may be, one hand
+should hold the handle and the other hand the tip of the file.
+
+A file brush should always be kept on hand, as it pays to preserve files
+by cleaning them.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 16._]
+
+THE GRINDSTONE.--As most of the tools require a grindstone for
+sharpening purposes, an illustration is given as a guide, with a diagram
+to show the proper grinding angle. In Fig. 16 the upright (A) of the
+frame serves as a line for the eye, so that if the point of the tool is
+brought to the sight line, and the tool (C) held level, you will always
+be able to maintain the correct angle. There is no objection to
+providing a rest, for instance, like the cross bars (D, D), but the
+artisan disdains such contrivances, and he usually avoids them for two
+reasons: First, because habit enables him to hold the tool horizontally;
+and, second, by holding the tool firmly in the hand he has better
+control of it. There is only one thing which can be said in favor of a
+rest, and that is, the stone may be kept truer circumferentially, as
+all stones have soft spots or sides.
+
+IN THE USE OF GRINDSTONES.--There are certain things to avoid and to
+observe in the use of stones. Never use one spot on the stone, however
+narrow the tool may be. Always move the tool from side to side. Never
+grind a set of narrow tools successively. If you have chisels to grind
+intersperse their grinding with plane bits, hatchet or other broad
+cutting tools, so as to prevent the stone from having grooves therein.
+Never use a tool on a stone unless you have water in the tray.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 17. Correct manner of holding tool._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 18. Incorrect way of holding tool._]
+
+CORRECT WAY TO HOLD TOOL FOR GRINDING.--There is a correct way to hold
+each tool; see illustration (Fig. 17). The left hand should grasp the
+tool firmly, near the sharp edge, as shown, and the right hand should
+loosely hold the tool behind the left hand. There is a reason for this
+which will be apparent after you grind a few tools. The firm grasp of
+the left hand gives you absolute control of the blade, so it cannot
+turn, and when inequalities appear in the grindstone, the rigid hold
+will prevent the blade from turning, and thus enable you to correct the
+inequalities of the stone. Bear in mind, the stone should be taken care
+of just as much as the tools. An experienced workman is known by the
+condition of his tools, and the grindstone is the best friend he has
+among his tools.
+
+INCORRECT WAY TO HOLD TOOL FOR GRINDING.--The incorrect way of holding a
+tool is shown in Fig. 18. This, I presume, is the universal way in which
+the novice takes the tool. It is wrong for the reason that the thumbs of
+both hands are on top of the blade, and they serve as pivots on which
+the tool may turn. The result is that the corners of the tool will dig
+into the stone to a greater or less degree, particularly if it has a
+narrow blade, like a chisel.
+
+Try the experiment of grinding a quarter-inch chisel by holding it the
+incorrect way; and then grasp it firmly with the left hand, and you will
+at once see the difference.
+
+The left hand serves both as a vise and as a fulcrum, whereas the right
+hand controls the angle of the tool.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 19._]
+
+These remarks apply to all chisels, plane bits and tools of that
+character, but it is obvious that a drawknife, which is always held by
+the handles in grinding, and hatchets, axes and the like, cannot be held
+in the same manner.
+
+A too common error is to press the tool too hard on the stone. This is
+wrong. Do not try to force the grinding.
+
+Then, again, it is the practice of some to turn the stone away from the
+tool. The stone should always move toward the tool, so as to prevent
+forming a feather edge.
+
+THE PLANE.--Indiscriminate use of planes should be avoided. Never use
+the fore or smoothing planes on rough surfaces. The jack plane is the
+proper tool for this work. On the other hand, the fore plane should
+invariably be used for straightening the edges of boards, or for fine
+surfacing purposes. As the jack plane has its bit ground with a curved
+edge, it is admirably adapted for taking off the rough saw print
+surface.
+
+THE GAGE.--The illustration (Fig. 19) shows one of the most useful tools
+in the kit. It is used to scribe the thickness of the material which is
+to be dressed down, or for imprinting the edges of tenons and mortises.
+Two should be provided in every kit, for convenience.
+
+The scribing point should be sharpened with a file, the point being
+filed to form a blade, which is at right angles to the bar, or parallel
+with the movable cheekpiece.
+
+CHISELS.--I have already pointed out, in general, how to hold tools for
+grinding purposes, this description applying particularly to chisels,
+but several additional things may be added.
+
+Always be careful to grind the chisel so its cutting edge is square with
+the side edge. This will be difficult at first, but you will see the
+value of this as you use the tool. For instance, in making rebates for
+hinges, or recesses and mortises for locks, the tool will invariably run
+crooked, unless it is ground square.
+
+The chisel should never be struck with a hammer or metal instrument, as
+the metal pole or peon of the hammer will sliver the handle. The wooden
+mallet should invariably be used.
+
+GENERAL OBSERVATIONS.--If the workman will carefully observe the
+foregoing requirements he will have taken the most important steps in
+the knowledge of the art. If he permits himself to commence work without
+having his tools in first-class condition, he is trying to do work under
+circumstances where even a skilled workman is liable to fail.
+
+Avoid making for yourself a lot of unnecessary work. The best artisans
+are those who try to find out and know which is the best tool, or how to
+make a tool for each requirement, but that tool, to be serviceable, must
+be properly made, and that means it must be rightly sharpened.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+HOW TO HOLD AND HANDLE TOOLS
+
+
+Observation may form part of each boy's lesson, but when it comes to the
+handling of tools, practice becomes the only available means of making a
+workman. Fifty years of observation would never make an observer an
+archer or a marksman, nor would it enable him to shoe a horse or to
+build a table.
+
+It sometimes happens that an apprentice will, with little observation,
+seize a saw in the proper way, or hold a plane in the correct manner,
+and, in time, the watchful boy will acquire fairly correct habits. But
+why put in useless time and labor in order to gain that which a few
+well-directed hints and examples will convey?
+
+Tools are made and are used as short cuts toward a desired end. Before
+the saw was invented the knife was used laboriously to sever and shape
+the materials. Before planes were invented a broad, flat sharpened blade
+was used to smooth off surfaces. Holes were dug out by means of small
+chisels requiring infinite patience and time. Each succeeding tool
+proclaimed a shorter and an easier way to do a certain thing. The man
+or boy who can make a new labor-saving tool is worthy of as much praise
+as the man who makes two blades of grass grow where one grew before.
+
+Let us now thoroughly understand how to hold and use each tool. That is
+half the value of the tool itself.
+
+THE SAW.--With such a commonplace article as the saw, it might be
+assumed that the ordinary apprentice would look upon instruction with a
+smile of derision.
+
+HOW TO START A SAW.--If the untried apprentice has such an opinion set
+him to work at the task of cutting off a board accurately on a line. He
+will generally make a failure of the attempt to start the saw true to
+the line, to say nothing of following the line so the kerf is true and
+square with the board.
+
+HOW TO START ON A LINE.--The first mistake he makes is to saw _on the
+line_. This should never be done. The work should be so laid out that
+the saw kerf is on the discarded side of the material. The saw should
+cut alongside the line, and _the line should not_ be obliterated in the
+cutting. Material must be left for trimming and finishing.
+
+THE FIRST STROKE.--Now, to hold the saw in starting is the difficult
+task to the beginner. Once mastered it is simple and easy. The only time
+in which the saw should be firmly held by the hand is during the
+initial cut or two; afterwards always hold the handle loosely. There is
+nothing so tiring as a tightly grasped saw. The saw has but one handle,
+hence it is designed to be used with one hand. Sometimes, with long and
+tiresome jobs, in ripping, two hands may be used, but one hand can
+always control a saw better than two hands.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 20._]
+
+THE STARTING CUT.--In order to make our understanding of the starting
+cut more explicit, we refer to Fig. 20, in which the thumb of the left
+hand is shown in the position of a guide--the end of the thumb being
+held up a sufficient distance to clear the teeth. In this position you
+need not fear that the teeth of the saw (A) will ride up over the thumb
+if you have a firm grasp of the saw handle.
+
+The first stroke should be upwardly, not downwardly. While in the act of
+drawing up the saw you can judge whether the saw blade is held by the
+thumb gage in the proper position to cut along the mark, and when the
+saw moves downwardly for the first cut, you may be assured that the cut
+is accurate, or at the right place, and the thumb should be kept in its
+position until two or three cuts are made, and the work is then fairly
+started.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 21. Wrong sawing angle._]
+
+FOR CROSS-CUTTING.--For ordinary cross-cutting the angle of the saw
+should be at 45 degrees. For ripping, the best results are found at less
+than 45 degrees, but you should avoid flattening down the angle. An
+incorrect as well as a correct angle are shown in Figs. 21 and 22.
+
+FORCING A SAW.--Forcing a saw through the wood means a crooked kerf. The
+more nearly the saw is held at right angles to a board, the greater is
+the force which must be applied to it by the hand to cause it to bite
+into the wood; and, on the other hand, if the saw is laid down too far,
+as shown in the incorrect way, it is a very difficult matter to follow
+the working line. Furthermore, it is a hard matter to control the saw so
+that it will cut squarely along the board, particularly when ripping.
+The eye must be the only guide in the disposition of the saw. Some boys
+make the saw run in one direction, and others cause it to lean the
+opposite way. After you have had some experience and know which way you
+lean, correct your habits by disposing the saw in the opposite
+direction.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 22. Right sawing angle._]
+
+THE STROKE.--Make a long stroke, using the full blade of the saw. Don't
+acquire the "jerky" style of sawing. If the handle is held loosely, and
+the saw is at the proper angle, the weight of the saw, together with the
+placement of the handle on the saw blade, will be found sufficient to
+make the requisite cut at each stroke.
+
+You will notice that the handle of every saw is mounted nearest the back
+edge. (See Fig. 23.) The reason for so mounting it is, that as the
+cutting stroke is downward, the line of thrust is above the tooth line,
+and as this line is at an angle to the line of thrust, the tendency is
+to cause the saw teeth to dig into the wood.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 23._]
+
+[Illustration: CHINESE SAW. _Fig. 24._]
+
+THE CHINESE SAW.--This saw is designed to saw with an upward cut, and
+the illustration (Fig. 24) shows the handle jutting out below the tooth
+line, in order to cause the teeth to dig into the material as the handle
+is drawn upwardly. Reference is made to these features to impress upon
+beginners the value of observation, and to demonstrate the reason for
+making each tool a particular way.
+
+THINGS TO AVOID.--Do not oscillate the saw as you draw it back and
+forth. This is unnecessary work, and shows impatience in the use of the
+tool. There is such an infinite variety of use for the different tools
+that there is no necessity for rendering the work of any particular
+tool, or tools, burdensome. Each in its proper place, handled
+intelligently, will become a pleasure, as well as a source of profit.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 25._]
+
+THE PLANE.--The jack plane and the fore plane are handled with both
+hands, and the smoothing plane with one hand, but only when used for
+dressing the ends of boards. For other uses both hands are required.
+
+ANGLES FOR HOLDING PLANES.--Before commencing to plane a board, always
+observe the direction in which the grain of the wood runs. This
+precaution will save many a piece of material, because if the jack plane
+is set deep it will run into the wood and cause a rough surface, which
+can be cured only by an extra amount of labor in planing down.
+
+Never move the jack plane or the smoothing plane over the work so that
+the body of the tool is in a direct line with the movement of the plane.
+It should be held at an angle of about 12 or 15 degrees (see Fig. 25).
+The fore plane should always be held straight with the movement of the
+plane, because the length of the fore plane body is used as a
+straightener for the surface to be finished.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 26._]
+
+ERRORS TO BE AVOIDED.--Never draw back the plane with the bit resting on
+the board. This simply wears out the tool, and if there should be any
+grit on the board it will be sure to ruin the bit. This applies
+particularly to the jack plane, but is bad practice with the others as
+well.
+
+A work bench is a receptacle for all kinds of dirt. Provide a special
+ledge or shelf for the planes, and be sure to put each plane there
+immediately after using.
+
+THE GAGE.--A man, who professed to be a carpenter, once told me that he
+never used a gage because he could not make it run straight. A few
+moments' practice convinced him that he never knew how to hold it. The
+illustration shows how properly to hold it, and the reason why it should
+so be held follows.
+
+You will observe (Fig. 26) that the hand grasps the stem of the gage
+behind the cheekpiece, so that the thumb is free to press against the
+side of the stem to the front of the cheekpiece.
+
+HOLDING THE GAGE.--The hand serves to keep the cheekpiece against the
+board, while the thumb pushes the gage forward. The hand must not, under
+any circumstances, be used to move the gage along. In fact, it is not
+necessary for the fingers to be clasped around the gage stem, if the
+forefinger presses tightly against the cheekpiece, since the thumb
+performs all the operation of moving it along. Naturally, the hand
+grasps the tool in order to hold it down against the material, and to
+bring it back for a new cut.
+
+THE DRAW-KNIFE.--It is difficult for the apprentice to become accustomed
+to handle this useful tool. It is much more serviceable than a hatchet
+for trimming and paring work. In applying it to the wood always have the
+tool at an angle with the board, so as to make a slicing cut. This is
+specially desirable in working close to a line, otherwise there is a
+liability of cutting over it.
+
+This knife requires a firm grasp--firmness of hold is more important
+than strength in using. The flat side is used wholly for straight edges,
+and the beveled side for concave surfaces. It is the intermediate tool
+between the hatchet and the plane, as it has the characteristics of both
+those tools. It is an ugly, dangerous tool, more to be feared when lying
+around than when in use. Put it religiously on a rack which protects the
+entire cutting edge. _Keep it off the bench._
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+HOW TO DESIGN ARTICLES
+
+
+FUNDAMENTALS OF DESIGNING.--A great deal of the pleasure in making
+articles consists in creative work. This means, not that you shall
+design some entirely new article, but that its general form, or
+arrangement of parts, shall have some new or striking feature.
+
+A new design in any art does not require a change in all its parts. It
+is sufficient that there shall be an improvement, either in some
+particular point, as a matter of utility, or some change in an artistic
+direction. A manufacturer in putting out a new chair, or a plow, or an
+automobile, adds some striking characteristic. This becomes his talking
+point in selling the article.
+
+THE COMMERCIAL INSTINCT.--It is not enough that the boy should learn to
+make things correctly, and as a matter of pastime and pleasure. The
+commercial instinct is, after all, the great incentive, and should be
+given due consideration.
+
+It would be impossible, in a book of this kind, to do more than to give
+the fundamental principles necessary in designing, and to direct the
+mind solely to essentials, leaving the individual to build up for
+himself.
+
+FIRST REQUIREMENTS FOR DESIGNING.--First, then, let us see what is
+necessary to do when you intend to set about making an article. Suppose
+we fix our minds upon a table as the article selected. Three things are
+necessary to know: First, the use to which it is to be put; second, the
+dimensions; and, third, the material required.
+
+Assuming it to be the ordinary table, and the dimensions fixed, we may
+conclude to use soft pine, birch or poplar, because of ease in working.
+There are no regulation dimensions for tables, except as to height,
+which is generally uniform, and usually 30 inches. As to the length and
+width, you will be governed by the place where it is to be used.
+
+If the table top is to have dimensions, say, of 36" × 48", you may lay
+out the framework six inches less each way, thus giving you a top
+overhang of three inches, which is the usual practice.
+
+CONVENTIONAL STYLES.--Now, if you wish to depart from the conventional
+style of making a table you may make variations in the design. For
+instance, the Chippendale style means slender legs and thin top. It
+involves some fanciful designs in the curved outlines of the top, and in
+the crook of the legs. Or if, on the other hand, the Mission type is
+preferred, the overhang of the top is very narrow; the legs are straight
+and heavy, and of even size from top to bottom; and the table top is
+thick and nearly as broad as it is long. Such furniture has the
+appearance of massiveness; it is easily made and most serviceable.
+
+MISSION STYLE.--The Mission style of architecture also lends itself to
+the making of chairs and other articles of furniture. A chair is,
+probably, the most difficult piece of household furniture to make,
+because strength is required. In this type soft wood may be used, as the
+large legs and back pieces are easily provided with mortises and tenons,
+affording great rigidity when completed. In designing, therefore, you
+may see how the material itself becomes an important factor.
+
+CABINETS.--In the making of cabinets, sideboards, dressers and like
+articles, the ingenious boy will find a wonderful field for designing
+ability, because in these articles fancy alone dictates the sizes and
+the dimensions of the parts. Not so with chairs and tables. The
+imagination plays an important part even in the making of drawers, to
+say nothing of placing them with an eye to convenience and artistic
+effect.
+
+HARMONY OF PARTS.--But one thing should be observed in the making of
+furniture, namely, harmony between the parts. For instance, a table
+with thin legs and a thick top gives the appearance of a top-heavy
+structure; or the wrong use of two different styles is bad from an
+artistic standpoint; moreover, it is the height of refined education if,
+in the use of contrasting woods, they are properly blended to form a
+harmonious whole.
+
+HARMONIZING WOOD.--Imagine a chiffonier with the base of dark wood, like
+walnut, and the top of pine or maple, or a like light-colored wood. On
+the other hand, both walnut and maple, for instance, may be used in the
+same article, if they are interspersed throughout the entire article.
+The body may be made of dark wood and trimmed throughout with a light
+wood to produce a fine effect.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+HOW WORK IS LAID OUT
+
+
+CONCRETE EXAMPLES OF WORK.--A concrete example of doing any work is more
+valuable than an abstract statement. For this purpose I shall direct the
+building of a common table with a drawer in it and show how the work is
+done in detail.
+
+For convenience let us adopt the Mission style, with a top 36" × 42" and
+the height 30". The legs should be 2" × 2" and the top 1", dressed. The
+material should be of hard wood with natural finish, or, what is better
+still, a soft wood, like birch, which may be stained a dark brown, as
+the Mission style is more effective in dark than in light woods.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 27._]
+
+FRAMEWORK.--As we now know the sizes, the first thing is to build the
+framework. The legs should be dressed square and smoothed down with the
+fore plane to make them perfectly straight. Now, lay out two mortises at
+the upper end of each leg. Follow the illustrations to see how this is
+done.
+
+LAYING OUT THE LEGS.--Fig. 27 shows a leg with square cross marks (A) at
+each end. These marks indicate the finished length of the leg. You will
+also see crosses on two sides. These indicate what is called the "work
+sides." The work sides are selected because they are the finest surfaces
+on the leg.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 28._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 29._]
+
+THE LENGTH OF THE MORTISES.--Then take a small try square (Fig. 28) and
+add two cross lines (B, C) on each of the inner surfaces, the second
+line (B) one-half inch from the finish line (A), and the other line (C)
+seven inches down from the line (A). The side facing boards, hereafter
+described, are seven inches wide.
+
+When this has been done for all the legs, prepare your gage (Fig. 29) to
+make the mortise scribe, and, for convenience in illustrating, the leg
+is reversed. If the facing boards are 1" thick, and the tenons are
+intended to be 1/2" thick, the first scribe line (E) should be 1/2" from
+the work side, because the shoulder on the facing board projects out
+1/4", and the outer surface of the facing board should not be flush with
+the outer surface of the leg. The second gage line (F) should be 1" from
+the work side.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 30._]
+
+THE MORTISES.--When the mortises have been made they will appear as
+shown in the enlarged cross section of the leg (Fig. 30), the total
+depth of each mortise being 1-1/2". The depth of this mortise determines
+for us the length of the tenons on the facing boards.
+
+THE FACING BOARDS.--These boards are each 1 inch thick and 7 inches
+wide. As the top of the table is 42 inches long, and we must provide an
+overhang, say of 2 inches, we will first take off 4 inches for the
+overhang and 4 inches for the legs, so that the length of two of the
+facing boards, from shoulder to shoulder, must be 34 inches; and the
+other two facing boards 28 inches. Then, as we must add 1-1/2 inches for
+each tenon, two of the boards will be 37 inches long and two of them 31
+inches long.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 31._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 32._]
+
+The illustration (Fig. 31) shows a board marked with the cross lines (B)
+at each end for the end of the tenons, or the extreme ends of the
+boards.
+
+THE TENONS.--Do not neglect first to select the work side and the
+working edge of the board. The outer surface and the upper edges are the
+sides to work from. The cheekpiece (A) of the gage must always rest
+against the working side.
+
+The cross marks (B, C) should be made with the point of a sharp knife,
+and before the small back saw is used on the cross-cuts the lines (B),
+which indicate the shoulders, should be scored with a sharp knife, as
+shown in Fig. 33. This furnishes a guide for the saw, and makes a neat
+finish for the shoulder.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 33._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 34._]
+
+[Illusstration _Fig. 35._]
+
+TOOLS USED.--The back saw is used for cutting the tenon, and the end of
+the board appears as shown in the enlarged Fig. 34. Two things are now
+necessary to complete the tenons. On the upper or work edge of each
+board use the gage to mark off a half-inch slice, and then cut away the
+flat side of the tenon at the end, on its inner surface, so it will
+appear as shown in Fig. 35.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 36._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 37._]
+
+CHAMFERED TENONS.--The object of these chamfered or beveled tenons is to
+permit the ends to approach each other closely within the mortise, as
+shown in the assembled parts (Fig. 36).
+
+THE FRAME ASSEMBLED.--The frame is now ready to assemble, but before
+doing so a drawer opening and supports should be made. The ends of the
+supports may be mortised into the side pieces or secured by means of
+gains.
+
+Mortises and tenons are better.
+
+THE DRAWER SUPPORTS.--Take one of the side-facing boards (Fig. 37) and
+cut a rectangular opening in it. This opening should be 4 inches wide
+and 18 inches long, so placed that there is 1 inch of stock at the upper
+margin and 2 inches of stock at the lower margin of the board. At each
+lower corner make a mortise (A), so that one side of the mortise is on a
+line with the margin of the opening, and so that it extends a half inch
+past the vertical margin of the opening.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 38._]
+
+You can easily cut a gain (B) in a strip, or, as in Fig. 38, you may use
+two strips, one (C) an inch wide and a half inch thick, and on this nail
+a strip (D) along one margin. This forms the guide and rest for the
+drawer.
+
+At the upper margin of the opening is a rebate or gain (E) at each
+corner, extending down to the top line of the drawer opening, into which
+are fitted the ends of the upper cross guides.
+
+THE TABLE FRAME.--When the entire table frame is assembled it will have
+the appearance shown in Fig. 39, and it is now ready for the top.
+
+THE TOP.--The top should be made of three boards, either tongued and
+grooved, or doweled and glued together. In order to give a massive
+appearance, and also to prevent the end grain of the boards from being
+exposed, beveled strips may be used to encase the edges. These marginal
+cleats are 3/4 inch thick and 2 inches wide, and joined by beveled ends
+at the corners, as shown in Fig. 40.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 39._]
+
+THE DRAWER.--The drawer (Fig. 41) shown in cross section, has its front
+(A) provided with an overlapping flange (B).
+
+It is not our object in this chapter to show how each particular article
+is made, but simply to point out the underlying principles, and to
+illustrate how the fastening elements, the tenons and mortises, are
+formed, so that the boy will know the proper steps in their natural
+order.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 40._]
+
+HOW ANY STRUCTURE IS BUILT UP.--It should be observed that each
+structure, however small, is usually built from the base up. Just the
+same as the more pretentious buildings are erected: First, the sill,
+then the floor supports, then the posts and top plates, with their
+connecting girders, and, finally, the roof.
+
+The chapter on House Building will give more detailed illustrations of
+large structures, and how they are framed and braced. At this point we
+are more concerned in knowing how to proceed in order to lay out the
+simple structural details, and if one subject of this kind is fully
+mastered the complicated character of the article will not be difficult
+to master.
+
+OBSERVATIONS ABOUT A BOX.--As simple a little article as a box
+frequently becomes a burden to a beginner. Try it. Simply keep in mind
+one thing; each box has six sides. Now, suppose you want a box with six
+equal sides--that is, a cubical form--it is necessary to make only three
+pairs of sides; two for the ends, two for the sides and two for the top
+and bottom. Each set has dimensions different from the other sets. Both
+pieces of the set, representing the ends, are square; the side pieces
+are of the same width as the end pieces, and slightly longer; and the
+top and bottom are longer and wider than the end pieces.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 41._]
+
+A box equal in all its dimensions may be made out of six boards,
+properly cut. Make an attempt in order to see if you can get the right
+dimensions.
+
+JOINTS.--For joining together boards at right angles to each other, such
+as box corners, drawers and like articles, tenons and mortises should
+never be resorted to. In order to make fine work the joints should be
+made by means of dovetails, rabbets or rebates, or by beveling or
+mitering the ends.
+
+BEVELING AND MITERING.--There is a difference in the terms "beveling"
+and "mitering," as used in the art. In Fig. 42 the joint A is _beveled_,
+and in Fig. 43 the joint B is _mitered_, the difference being that a
+bevel is applied to an angle joint like a box corner, while a miter has
+reference to a joint such as is illustrated in Fig. 43, such as the
+corner of a picture frame.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 42._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 43._]
+
+PROPER TERMS.--It is the application of the correct terms to things that
+lays the foundation for accurate thinking and proper expressions in
+describing work. A wise man once said that the basis of true science
+consists in correct definitions.
+
+PICTURE FRAMES.--In picture frames the mitered corners may have a saw
+kerf (C) cut across the corners, as shown in Fig. 44, and a thin blade
+of hard wood driven in, the whole being glued together.
+
+DOVETAIL JOINTS.--It is in the laying out of the more complicated
+dovetail joints that the highest skill is required, because exactness is
+of more importance in this work than in any other article in joinery. In
+order to do this work accurately follow out the examples given, and you
+will soon be able to make a beautiful dovetail corner, and do it
+quickly.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 44._]
+
+PREPARING A BOX JOINT.--In order to match a box joint for the inner end
+of a table drawer, the first step is to select two work sides. One work
+side will be the edge of the board, and the other the side surface of
+the board, and on those surfaces we will put crosses, as heretofore
+suggested.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 45._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 46._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 47._]
+
+FIRST STEPS.--Now lap together the inner surfaces of these boards (Y,
+Z), so the ends are toward you, as shown in Fig. 45. Then, after
+measuring the thickness of the boards to be joined (the thinnest, if
+they are of different thicknesses), set your compasses, or dividers, for
+1/4 inch, providing the boards are 1/2 inch thick, and, commencing at
+the work edge of the board, step off and point, as at A, the whole width
+of the board, and with a square make the two cross marks (B), using the
+two first compass points (A), then skipping one, using the next two, and
+so on.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 48._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 49._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 50._]
+
+When this is done, turn up the board Z (Fig. 46), so that it is at right
+angles to the board Y, and so the outer surface of the board Z is flush
+with the end of the board X, and with a sharp knife point extend the
+lines B along with the grain of the wood on board Z, up to the cross mark
+C. This cross mark should have been previously made and is located as
+far from the end of the board Z as the thickness of the board Y.
+
+We now have the marks for the outer surface of the board Z, and the end
+marks of board Y. For the purpose of getting the angles of the end of
+the board Z and the outer side of board Y, a cross line (D, Fig. 47) is
+drawn across the board X near the end, this line being as far from the
+end as the thickness of the board Z, and a vertical line (E) is drawn
+midway between the two first cross marks (A).
+
+Now, with your compass, which, in the meantime, has not been changed,
+make a mark (F), and draw down the line (G), which will give you the
+working angle at which you may set the bevel gage. Then draw down an
+angle from each alternate cross line (A), and turn the bevel and draw
+down the lines (H). These lines should all be produced on the opposite
+side of the board, so as to assure accuracy, and to this end the edges
+of the board also should be scribed.
+
+CUTTING OUT THE SPACES.--In cutting out the intervening spaces, which
+should be done with a sharp chisel, care should be observed not to cut
+over the shoulder lines. To prevent mistakes you should put some
+distinctive mark on each part to be cut away. In this instance E, H show
+the parts to be removed, and in Fig. 48 two of the cutaway portions are
+indicated.
+
+When the end of the board Z is turned up (Fig. 49), it has merely the
+longitudinal parallel lines B. The bevel square may now be used in the
+same manner as on the side of the board Y, and the fitting angles will
+then be accurately true.
+
+This is shown in Fig. 50, in which, also, two of the cutaway parts are
+removed.
+
+TOOLS USED IN LAYING OUT TENONS AND MORTISES.--A sharp-pointed knife
+must always be used for making all marks. Never employ an awl for this
+work, as the fiber of the wood will be torn up by it. A small try square
+should always be used (not the large iron square), and this with a
+sharp-pointed compass and bevel square will enable you to turn out a
+satisfactory piece of work.
+
+The foregoing examples, carefully studied, will enable you to gather the
+principles involved in laying off any work. If you can once make a
+presentable box joint, so that all the dovetails will accurately fit
+together, you will have accomplished one of the most difficult phases of
+the work, and it is an exercise which will amply repay you, because you
+will learn to appreciate what accuracy means.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+THE USES OF THE COMPASS AND THE SQUARE
+
+
+THE SQUARE.--The square is, probably, the oldest of all tools, and that,
+together with the compass, or dividers, with which the square is always
+associated, has constituted the craftsman's emblem from the earliest
+historical times. So far as we now know, the plain flat form, which has
+at least one right angle and two or more straight edges, was the only
+form of square used by the workman. But modern uses, and the development
+of joinery and cabinet making, as well as the more advanced forms of
+machinery practice, necessitated new structural forms in the square, so
+that the bevel square, in which there is an adjustable blade set in a
+handle, was found necessary.
+
+THE TRY SQUARE.--In the use of the ordinary large metal square it is
+necessary to lay the short limb of the square on the face of the work,
+and the long limb must, therefore, rest against the work side or edge of
+the timber, so that the scribing edge of the short limb does not rest
+flat against the work. As such a tool is defective in work requiring
+accuracy, it brought into existence what is called the try square,
+which has a rectangular handle, usually of wood, into which is fitted at
+one end a metal blade, which is at right angles to the edge of the
+handle. The handle, therefore, always serves as a guide for the blade in
+scribing work, because it lies flat down on the work.
+
+THE T-SQUARE is another modification of the try square, its principal
+use being for draughting purposes.
+
+THE COMPASS.--The compass is one of the original carpenter's tools. The
+difference between _compass_ and _dividers_ is that compasses have
+adjustable pen or pencil points, whereas dividers are without adjustable
+points. Modern work has brought refinements in the character of the
+compass and dividers, so that we now have the bow-compass, which is,
+usually, a small tool, one leg of which carries a pen or pencil point,
+the two legs being secured together, usually, by a spring bow, or by a
+hinged joint with a spring attachment.
+
+PROPORTIONAL DIVIDERS.--A useful tool is called the proportional
+dividers, the legs of which are hinged together intermediate the ends,
+so that the pivotal joint is adjustable. By means of this tool the scale
+of work may be changed, although its widest field of usefulness is work
+laid off on a scale which you intend to reduce or enlarge
+proportionally.
+
+DETERMINING ANGLES.--Now, in order to lay out work the boy should know
+quickly and accurately how to determine various angles used or required
+in his work. The quickest way in which to learn this is to become
+familiar with the degree in its various relations.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 51._]
+
+DEFINITION OF DEGREE.--A degree is not a measure, as we would designate
+a foot or a pound to determine distance or quantity. It is used to
+denote a division, space, interval or position. To illustrate, look at
+the circle, Fig. 51. The four cardinal points are formed by the cross
+lines (A, B), and in each one of the quadrants thus formed the circle is
+divided into 90 degrees. Look at the radial lines (C, D), and you will
+find that the distance between these lines is different along the
+curved line (E) than along the curved line (F). The degree is,
+therefore, to indicate only the space, division or interval in the
+circle.
+
+THE MOST IMPORTANT ANGLE.--Most important for one to know at a glance is
+that of 45 degrees, because the one can the more readily calculate the
+other degrees, approximately, by having 45 degrees once fixed in the
+mind, and impressed on the visual image. With a square and a compass it
+is a comparatively easy matter accurately to step off 45 degrees, as it
+is the line C, midway between A and B, and the other degrees may be
+calculated from the line C and the cardinal lines A or B.
+
+DEGREES WITHOUT A COMPASS.--But in the absence of a compass and when you
+do not wish to step off a circle, you will in such case lay down the
+square, and mark off at the outer margin of the limbs two equal
+dimensions. Suppose we take 2 inches on each limb of the square. The
+angle thus formed by the angle square blade is 45 degrees. To find 30
+degrees allow the blade of the angle square to run from 2 inches on one
+limb to 3-1/2 inches on the other limb, and it will be found that for 15
+degrees the blade runs from 2 inches on one limb to 7-1/2 inches on the
+other limb. It would be well to fix firmly these three points, at least,
+in your mind, as they will be of the utmost value to you. It is a
+comparatively easy matter now to find 10 degrees or 25 degrees, or any
+intermediate line.
+
+WHAT DEGREES ARE CALCULATED FROM.--The question that now arises is what
+line one may use from which to calculate degrees, or at what point in
+the circle zero is placed. Degrees may be calculated either from the
+horizontal or from the vertical line. Examine Fig. 53. The working
+margin indicated by the cross mark is your base line, and in specifying
+an angle you calculate it from the work edge. Thus, the line A indicates
+an angle of 30 degrees. The dotted line is 45 degrees.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 52._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 53._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 54._]
+
+THE DIVIDERS.--The dividers are used not only for scribing circles, but
+also for stepping and dividing spaces equally. There is a knack in the
+use of the dividers, where accuracy is wanted, and where the surface is
+of wood. Unless the utmost care is observed, the spaces will be unequal,
+for the reason that the point of the dividers will sink more deeply into
+the wood at some places than at others, due to the uneven texture of the
+wood grain. It will be better to make a line lengthwise, and a cross
+line (A) for starting (see Fig. 54). You may then insert one point of
+the dividers at the initial mark (B), and describe a small arc (C). Then
+move the dividers over to the intersection of the arc (C) on the line,
+and make the next mark, and so on.
+
+Some useful hints along this same line will be found under the chapter
+on Drawing, which should be carefully studied.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+HOW THE DIFFERENT STRUCTURAL PARTS ARE DESIGNATED
+
+
+THE RIGHT NAME FOR EVERYTHING.--Always make it a point to apply the
+right term to each article or portion of a structure. Your explanation,
+to those who do know the proper technical terms, will render much easier
+a thorough understanding; and to those who do not know, your language
+will be in the nature of an education.
+
+PROPER DESIGNATIONS.--Every part in mechanism, every point, curve and
+angle has its peculiar designation. A knowledge of terms is an
+indication of thoroughness in education, and, as heretofore stated,
+becomes really the basis of art, as well as of the sciences. When you
+wish to impart information to another you must do it in terms understood
+by both.
+
+Furthermore, and for this very reason, you should study to find out how
+to explain or to define the terms. You may have a mental picture of the
+structure in your mind, but when asked to explain it you are lost.
+
+LEARNING MECHANICAL FORMS.--Suppose, for example, we take the words
+_segment_ and _sector_. Without a thorough understanding in your own
+mind you are likely to confuse these terms by taking one for the other.
+But let us assume you are to be called upon to explain a sector to some
+one who has no idea of terms and their definitions. How would you
+describe it? While it is true it is wedge-shaped, you will see by
+examining the drawing that it is not like a wedge. The sector has two
+sides running from a point like a wedge, but the large end of the sector
+is curved.
+
+If you were called upon to define a segment you might say it had one
+straight line and one curve, but this would not define it very lucidly.
+Therefore, in going over the designations given, not only fix in your
+mind the particular form, but try to remember some particular manner in
+which you can clearly express the form, the shape or the relation of the
+parts.
+
+For your guidance, therefore, I have given, as far as possible, simple
+figures to aid you in becoming acquainted with structures and their
+designations, without repeating the more simple forms which I have used
+in the preceding chapters.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 55.-Fig. 65._]
+
+55. _Arcade._--A series of arches with the columns or piers which
+support them, the spandrels above, and other parts.
+
+56. _Arch._--A curved member made up, usually, of separate wedge-shaped
+solids, A. K, Keystone; S, Springers; C, Chord, or span.
+
+57. _Buttress._--A projecting mass of masonry. A, used for resisting the
+thrust of an arch, or for ornamentation; B, a flying buttress.
+
+58. _Chamfer._--The surface A formed by cutting away the arris or angle
+formed by two faces, B, C, of material.
+
+59. _Cotter or Cotter Pin._--A pin, A, either flat, square or round,
+driven through a projecting tongue to hold it in position.
+
+60. _Crenelated._--A form of molding indented or notched, either
+regularly or irregularly.
+
+61. _Crosses._--1. Latin cross, in the Church of Rome carried before
+Bishops. 2. Double cross, carried before Cardinals and Bishops. 3.
+Triple or Papal cross. 4. St. Andrew's and St. Peter's cross. 5. Maltese
+cross. 6. St. Anthony or Egyptian cross. 7. Cross of Jerusalem. 8. A
+cross patté or fermé (head or first). 9. A cross patonce (that is,
+growing larger at the ends). 10. Greek cross.
+
+62. _Curb Roof._--A roof having a double slope, or composed on each side
+of two parts which have unequal inclinations; a gambrel roof.
+
+63. _Cupola._--So called on account of its resemblance to a cup. A roof
+having a rounded form. When on a large scale it is called a dome.
+
+_Crown Post._--See _King Post_.
+
+64. _Console._--A bracket with a projection not more than half its
+height.
+
+65. _Corbels._--A mass of brackets to support a shelf or structure.
+Largely employed in Gothic architecture.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 66.-Fig. 79._]
+
+66. _Dormer._--A window pierced in a roof and so set as to be vertical,
+while the roof slopes away from it. Also called a _Gablet_.
+
+67. _Dowel._--A pin or stud in one block, or body, designed to engage
+with holes in another body to hold them together in alignment.
+
+68. _Drip._--That part of a cornice or sill course A, or other
+horizontal member which projects beyond the rest, so as to divert water.
+
+69. _Detents._--Recesses to lock or to serve as a stop or holding place.
+
+70. _Extrados._--The exterior curve of an arch, especially the upper
+curved face A. B is the _Intrados_ or _Soffit_.
+
+71. _Engrailed._--Indented with small concave curves, as the edge of a
+bordure, bend, or the like.
+
+72. _Facet._--The narrow plain surface, as A, between the fluting of a
+column.
+
+73. _Fret, Fretwork._--Ornamental work consisting of small fillets, or
+slats, intersecting each other or bent at right angles. Openwork in
+relief, when elaborated and minute in all its parts. Hence any minute
+play of light and shade. A, Japanese fretwork. B, Green fret.
+
+74. _Frontal_, also called _Pediment_.--The triangular space, A, above a
+door or window.
+
+75. _Frustums._--That part of a solid next the base, formed by cutting
+off the top; or the part of any solid, as of a cone, pyramid, etc.,
+between two planes, which may either be parallel or inclined to each
+other.
+
+76. _Fylfat._--A rebated cross used as a secret emblem and worn as an
+ornament. It is also called _Gammadium_, and more commonly known as
+_Swastika_.
+
+77. _Gambrel Roof._--A curb roof having the same section in all its
+parts, with a lower, steeper and longer part. See _Curb Roof_ and
+distinguish difference.
+
+78. _Gargoyle._--A spout projecting from the roof gutter of a building,
+often carved grotesquely.
+
+79. _Gudgeon._--A wooden shaft, A, with a socket, B, into which is
+fitted a casting, C. The casting has a _gudgeon_, D.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 80.-Fig. 93._]
+
+80. _Guilloche._--An ornament in the form of two or more bands or
+strings twisted together or over or through each other.
+
+81. _Half Timbered._--Constructed of a timber frame, having the spaces
+filled in with masonry.
+
+82. _Hammer Beam._--A member of one description of roof truss, called
+hammer-beam truss, which is so framed as not to have a tie beam at the
+top of the wall. A is the _hammer beam_, and C the pendant post.
+
+83. _Haunches._--The parts A, A, on each side of the crown of an arch.
+Each haunch is from one-half to two-thirds of the half arch.
+
+84. _Header._--A piece of timber, A, fitted between two trimmers, B, B,
+to hold the ends of the tail beams, C, C.
+
+85. _Hip Roof._--The external angle formed by the meeting of two sloping
+sides or skirts of a roof which have their wall plates running in
+different directions.
+
+86. _Hood Molding._--A projecting molding over the head of an arch, as
+at A, forming the outer-most member of the archivolt.
+
+87. _Inclave._--The border, or borders, having a series of dovetails.
+One variation of molding or ornamentation.
+
+88. _Interlacing Arch._--Arches, usually circular, so constructed that
+their archivolts, A, intersect and seem to be interlaced.
+
+89. _Invected._--Having a border or outline composed of semicircles or
+arches, with the convexity outward. The opposite of engrailed.
+
+90. _Inverted Arch._--An arch placed with the crown downward; used in
+foundation work.
+
+91. _Keystone._--The central or topmost stone, A, of an arch, sometimes
+decorated with a carving.
+
+92. _King Post._--A member, A, of a common form of truss for roofs. It
+is strictly a tie intended to prevent the sagging of the tie beam, B, in
+the middle. If there are struts, C, supporting the rafters, D, they
+extend down to the foot of the _King Post_.
+
+93. _Label._--The name given to the projecting molding, A, around the
+top of the door opening. A form of mediæval architecture.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 94.-Fig. 104._]
+
+94. _Louver._--The sloping boards, A, set to shed rain water outward in
+an opening of a frame, as in belfry windows.
+
+95. _Lintel._--A horizontal member. A spanning or opening of a frame,
+and designed to carry the wall above it.
+
+96. _Lug._--A. projecting piece, as A, to which anything is attached, or
+against which another part, like B, is held.
+
+97. _M-Roof._--A kind of roof formed by the junction of two common roofs
+with a valley between them, so the section resembles the letter M.
+
+98. _Mansard Roof._--A hipped curb roof, that is, a roof having on all
+sides two slopes, the lower one, A, being steeper than the upper portion
+or deck.
+
+99. _Newel Post._--The upright post at the foot of a stairway, to which
+the railing is attached.
+
+100. _Parquetry._--A species of joinery or cabinet work, consisting of
+an inlay of geometric or other patterns, generally of different colored
+woods, used particularly for floors.
+
+101. _Peen._ also _Pein._--The round, _round_-edged or hemispherical
+end, as at A, of a hammer.
+
+102. _Pendant._--A hanging ornament on roofs, ceilings, etc., and much
+used in the later styles of Gothic architecture where it is of stone.
+Imitated largely in wood and plaster work.
+
+103. _Pentastyle._--A pillar. A portico having five pillars, A, is
+called the _Pentastyle_ in temples of classical construction.
+
+104. _Pedestal._--An upright architectural member, A, right-angled in
+plan, constructionally a pier, but resembling a column, having a
+capital, shaft and base to agree with the columns in the structure.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 105.-Fig. 117._]
+
+105. _Pintle._--An upright pivot pin, or the pin of a hinge; A
+represents the _pintle_ of a rudder.
+
+106. _Portico._--A colonnade or covered structure, especially in
+classical style, of architecture, and usually at the entrance of a
+building.
+
+107. _Plate._--A horizontal timber, A, used as a top or header for
+supporting timbers, roofs and the like.
+
+108. _Queen Post._--One of two suspending posts in a roof truss, or
+other framed truss of simple form. Compare with _King Post._ A, B, tie
+beam; C, C, queen posts; D, straining piece; E, principal rafter; F,
+rafter.
+
+109. _Quirk Molding._--A small channel, deeply recessed, in proportion
+to its width, used to insulate and give relief to a convex rounded
+molding. An excellent corner post for furniture.
+
+110. _Re-entering._--The figure shows an irregular polygon (that is,
+many-sided figure) and is a re-entering polygon. The recess A is a
+re-entering angle.
+
+111. _Rafter._--Originally any rough and heavy piece of timber, but in
+modern carpentry used to designate the main roof support, as at A. See
+_Queen Post_.
+
+112. _Scarfing._--Cutting timber at an angle along its length, as the
+line A. Scarfing joints are variously made. The overlapping joints may
+be straight or recessed and provided with a key block B. When fitted
+together they are securely held by plates and bolts.
+
+113. _Scotia Molding._--A sunken molding in the base of a pillar, so
+called from the dark shadow which it casts.
+
+114. _Sill._--In carpentry the base piece, or pieces, A, on which the
+posts of a structure are set.
+
+115. _Skew-Back._--The course of masonry, such as a stone, A, with an
+inclined face, which forms the abutment for the voussoirs, B, or
+wedge-shaped stones comprising the arch.
+
+116. _Spandrel._--The irregular, triangular space, A, between the curve
+of an arch and the enclosing right angle.
+
+117. _Strut._--In general, any piece of a frame, such as a timber A, or
+a brace B, which resists pressure or thrust in the direction of its
+length.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 118.-Fig. 123._]
+
+118. _Stud, Studding._--The vertical timber or scantling, A, which is
+one of the small uprights of a building to which the boarding or
+plastering lath are nailed.
+
+119. _Stile._--The main uprights of a door, as A, A; B, B, B, rails; C,
+C, mullions; D, D, panels.
+
+_Tie Beam._--See _Queen Post_.
+
+120. _Trammel._--A very useful tool for drawing ellipses. It comprises a
+cross, A, with grooves and a bar, B, with pins, C, attached to sliding
+blocks in the grooves, and a pen or stylus, D, at the projecting end of
+the bar to scribe the ellipse.
+
+121. _Turret._--A little tower, frequently only an ornamental structure
+at one of the angles of a larger structure.
+
+122. _Transom._--A horizontal cross-bar, A, above a door or window or
+between a door and a window above it. Transom is the horizontal member,
+and if there is a vertical, like the dotted line B, it is called a
+_Mullion_. See _Stile_.
+
+123. _Valley Roof._--A place of meeting of two slopes of a roof which
+have their sides running in different directions and formed on the plan
+of a re-entrant angle.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+DRAWING AND ITS UTILITY
+
+
+A knowledge of drawing, at least so far as the fundamentals are
+concerned, is of great service to the beginner. All work, after being
+conceived in the brain, should be transferred to paper. A habit of this
+kind becomes a pleasure, and, if carried out persistently, will prove a
+source of profit. The boy with a bow pen can easily draw circles, and
+with a drawing or ruling pen he can make straight lines.
+
+REPRESENTING OBJECTS.--But let him try to represent some object, and the
+pens become useless. There is a vast difference in the use of drawing
+tools and free-hand drawing. While the boy who is able to execute
+free-hand sketches may become the better artist, still that art would
+not be of much service to him as a carpenter. First, because the use of
+tools gives precision, and this is necessary to the builder; and,
+second, because the artist deals wholly with perspectives, whereas the
+builder must execute from plane surfaces or elevations.
+
+FORMING LINES AND SHADOWS.--It is not my intention to furnish a complete
+treatise on this subject, but to do two things, one of which will be to
+show, among other features, how simple lines form objects; how shading
+becomes an effective aid; how proportions are formed; and, second, how
+to make irregular forms, and how they may readily be executed so that
+the boy may be able to grasp the ideas for all shapes and structural
+devices.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 125._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 126._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 127._]
+
+ANALYSIS OF LINE SHADING.--In the demonstration of this work I shall
+give an analysis of the simple lines formed, showing the terms used to
+designate the lines, curves, and formations, so that when any work is
+laid out the beginner will be able, with this glossary before him, to
+describe architecturally, as well as mathematically, the angles and
+curves with which he is working.
+
+HOW TO CHARACTERIZE SURFACE.--Suppose we commence simply with straight
+lines. How shall we determine the character of the surface of the
+material between the two straight lines shown in Fig. 125? Is it flat,
+rounded, or concaved? Let us see how we may treat the surface by simple
+lines so as to indicate the configuration.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 128._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 129._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 130._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 131._]
+
+CONCAVE SURFACES.--In Fig. 126 the shading lines commence at the upper
+margin, and are heaviest there, the lines gradually growing thinner and
+farther apart.
+
+CONVEX SURFACES.--In Fig. 127 the shading is very light along the upper
+margin, and heavy at the lower margin. The first shaded figure,
+therefore, represents a concaved surface, and the second figure a
+convex surface. But why? Simply for the reason that in drawings, as well
+as in nature, light is projected downwardly, hence when a beam of light
+moves past the margin of an object, the contrast at the upper part,
+where the light is most intense, is strongest.
+
+The shading of the S-shaped surface (Fig. 128) is a compound of Figs.
+126 and 127.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 132._]
+
+SHADOWS FROM A SOLID BODY.--We can understand this better by examining
+Fig. 129, which shows a vertical board, and a beam of light (A) passing
+downwardly beyond the upper margin of the board. Under these conditions
+the upper margin of the board appears darker to the vision, by contrast,
+than the lower part. It should also be understood that, in general, the
+nearer the object the lighter it is, so that as the upper edge of the
+board is farthest from the eye the heavy shading there will at least
+give the appearance of distance to that edge.
+
+But suppose that instead of having the surface of the board flat, it
+should be concaved, as in Fig. 130, it is obvious that the hollow, or
+the concaved, portion of the board must intensify the shadows or the
+darkness at the upper edge. This explains why the heavy shading in Fig.
+126 is at that upper margin.
+
+FLAT EFFECTS.--If the board is flat it may be shaded, as shown in Fig.
+131, in which the lines are all of the same thickness, and are spaced
+farther and farther apart at regularly increasing intervals.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 133._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 134._]
+
+THE DIRECTION OF LIGHT.--Now, in drawing, we must observe another thing.
+Not only does the light always come from above, but it comes also from
+the left side. I show in Fig. 132 two squares, one within the other. All
+the lines are of the same thickness. Can you determine by means of such
+a drawing what the inner square represents? Is it a block, or raised
+surface, or is it a depression?
+
+RAISED SURFACES.--Fig. 133 shows it in the form of a block, simply by
+thickening the lower and the right-hand lines.
+
+DEPRESSED SURFACES.--If, by chance, you should make the upper and the
+left-hand lines heavy, as in Fig. 134, it would, undoubtedly, appear
+depressed, and would need no further explanation.
+
+FULL SHADING,--But, in order to furnish an additional example of the
+effect of shading, suppose we shade the surface of the large square, as
+shown in Fig. 135, and you will at once see that not only is the effect
+emphasized, but it all the more clearly expresses what you want to show.
+In like manner, in Fig. 136, we shade only the space within the inner
+square, and it is only too obvious how shadows give us surface
+conformation.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 135._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 136._]
+
+ILLUSTRATING CUBE SHADING.--In Fig. 137 I show merely nine lines joined
+together, all lines being of equal thickness.
+
+As thus drawn it may represent, for instance, a cube, or it may show
+simply a square base (A) with two sides (B, B) of equal dimensions.
+
+SHADING EFFECTS.--Now, to examine it properly so as to observe what the
+draughtsman wishes to express, look at Fig. 138, in which the three
+diverging lines (A, B, C) are increased in thickness, and the cube
+appears plainly. On the other hand, in Fig. 139, the thickening of the
+lines (D, E, F) shows an entirely different structure.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 137._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 138._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 139._]
+
+It must be remembered, therefore, that to show raised surfaces the
+general direction is to shade heavily the lower horizontal and the right
+vertical lines. (See Fig. 133.)
+
+HEAVY LINES.--But there is an exception to this rule. See two examples
+(Fig. 140). Here two parallel lines appear close together to form the
+edge nearest the eye. In such cases the second, or upper, line is
+heaviest. On vertical lines, as in Fig. 141, the second line from the
+right is heaviest. These examples show plain geometrical lines, and
+those from Figs. 138 to 141, inclusive, are in perspective.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 140._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 141._]
+
+PERSPECTIVE.--A perspective is a most deceptive figure, and a cube, for
+instance, may be drawn so that the various lines will differ in length,
+and also be equidistant from each other. Or all the lines may be of the
+same length and have the distances between them vary. Supposing we have
+two cubes, one located above the other, separated, say, two feet or more
+from each other. It is obvious that the lines of the two cubes will not
+be the same to a camera, because, if they were photographed, they would
+appear exactly as they are, so far as their positions are concerned, and
+not as they appear. But the cubes do appear to the eye as having six
+equal sides. The camera shows that they do not have six equal sides so
+far as measurement is concerned. You will see, therefore, that the
+position of the eye, relative to the cube, is what determines the angle,
+or $the relative$ angles of all the lines.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 142._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 143._]
+
+A TRUE PERSPECTIVE OF A CUBE.--Fig. 142 shows a true perspective--that
+is, it is true from the measurement standpoint. It is what is called an
+_isometrical_ view, or a figure in which all the lines not only are of
+equal length, but the parallel lines are all spaced apart the same
+distances from each other.
+
+ISOMETRIC CUBE.--I enclose this cube within a circle, as in Fig. 143. To
+form this cube the circle (A) is drawn and bisected with a vertical line
+(B). This forms the starting point for stepping off the six points (C)
+in the circle, using the dividers without resetting, after you have made
+the circle. Then connect each of the points (C) by straight lines (D).
+These lines are called chords. From the center draw two lines (E) at an
+angle and one line (F) vertically. These are the radial lines. You will
+see from the foregoing that the chords (D) form the outline of the
+cube--or the lines farthest from the eye, and the radial lines (E, F)
+are the nearest to the eye. In this position we are looking at the block
+at a true diagonal--that is, from a corner at one side to the extreme
+corner on the opposite side.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 144._]
+
+Let us contrast this, and particularly Fig. 142, with the cube which is
+placed higher up, viewed from the same standpoint.
+
+FLATTENED PERSPECTIVE.--Fig. 144 shows the new perspective, in which the
+three vertical lines (A, A, A) are of equal length, and the six
+angularly disposed lines (B, C) are of equal length, but shorter than
+the lines A. The only change which has been made is to shorten the
+distance across the corner from D to D, but the vertical lines (A) are
+the same in length as the corresponding lines in Fig. 143.
+Notwithstanding this change the cubes in both figures appear to be of
+the same size, as, in fact, they really are.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 145._]
+
+In forming a perspective, therefore, it would be a good idea for the boy
+to have a cube of wood always at hand, which, if laid down on a
+horizontal support, alongside, or within range of the object to be
+drawn, will serve as a guide to the perspective.
+
+TECHNICAL DESIGNATIONS.--As all geometrical lines have designations, I
+have incorporated such figures as will be most serviceable to the boy,
+each figure being accompanied by its proper definition.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 146._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 147._]
+
+Before passing to that subject I can better show some of the simple
+forms by means of suitable diagrams.
+
+Referring to Fig. 145, let us direct our attention to the body (G),
+formed by the line (D) across the circle. This body is called a segment.
+A chord (D) and a curve comprise a segment.
+
+SECTOR AND SEGMENT.--Now examine the shape of the body formed by two of
+the radial lines (E, E) and that part of the circle which extends from
+one radial line to the other. The body thus formed is a sector, and it
+is made by two radiating lines and a curved line. Learn to distinguish
+readily, in your mind, the difference between the two figures.
+
+TERMS OF ANGLES.--The relation of the lines to each other, the manner in
+which they are joined together, and their comparative angles, all have
+special terms and meanings. Thus, referring to the isometric cube, in
+Fig. 145, the angle formed at the center by the lines (B, E) is
+different from the angle formed at the margin by the lines (E, F). The
+angle formed by B, E is called an exterior angle; and that formed by E,
+F is an interior angle. If you will draw a line (G) from the center to
+the circle line, so it intersects it at C, the lines B, D, G form an
+equilateral or isosceles triangle; if you draw a chord (A) from C to C,
+the lines H, E, F will form an obtuse triangle, and B, F, H a
+right-angled triangle.
+
+CIRCLES AND CURVES.--Circles, and, in fact, all forms of curved work,
+are the most difficult for beginners. The simplest figure is the circle,
+which, if it represents a raised surface, is provided with a heavy line
+on the lower right-hand side, as in Fig. 146; but the proper artistic
+expression is shown in Fig. 147, in which the lower right-hand side is
+shaded in rings running only a part of the way around, gradually
+diminishing in length, and spaced farther and farther apart as you
+approach the center, thus giving the appearance of a sphere.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 148._]
+
+IRREGULAR CURVES.--But the irregular curves require the most care to
+form properly. Let us try first the elliptical curve (Fig. 148). The
+proper thing is, first, to draw a line (A), which is called the "major
+axis." On this axis we mark for our guidance two points (B, B). With the
+dividers find a point (C) exactly midway, and draw a cross line (D).
+This is called the "minor axis." If we choose to do so we may indicate
+two points (E, E) on the minor axis, which, in this case, for
+convenience, are so spaced that the distance along the major axis,
+between B, B, is twice the length across the minor axis (D), along E, E.
+Now find one-quarter of the distance from B to C, as at F, and with a
+compass pencil make a half circle (G). If, now, you will set the compass
+point on the center mark (C), and the pencil point of the compass on B,
+and measure along the minor axis (D) on both sides of the major axis,
+you will make two points, as at H. These points are your centers for
+scribing the long sides of the ellipse. Before proceeding to strike the
+curved lines (J), draw a diagonal line (K) from H to each marking point
+(F). Do this on both sides of the major axis, and produce these lines so
+they cross the curved lines (G). When you ink in your ellipse do not
+allow the circle pen to cross the lines (K), and you will have a
+mechanical ellipse.
+
+ELLIPSES AND OVALS.--It is not necessary to measure the centering points
+(F) at certain specified distances from the intersection of the
+horizontal and vertical lines. We may take any point along the major
+axis, as shown, for instance, in Fig. 149. Let B be this point, taken at
+random. Then describe the half circle (C). We may, also, arbitrarily,
+take any point, as, for instance, D on the minor axis E, and by drawing
+the diagonal lines (F) we find marks on the circle (C), which are the
+meeting lines for the large curve (H), with the small curve (C). In this
+case we have formed an ovate or an oval form. Experience will soon make
+perfect in following out these directions.
+
+FOCAL POINTS.--The focal point of a circle is its center, and is called
+the _focus_. But an ellipse has two focal points, called _foci_,
+represented by F, F in Fig. 148, and by B, B in Fig. 149.
+
+A _produced line_ is one which extends out beyond the marking point.
+Thus in Fig. 148 that part of the line K between F and G represents the
+produced portion of line K.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 149._]
+
+SPIRALS.--There is no more difficult figure to make with a bow or a
+circle pen than a spiral. In Fig. 150 a horizontal and a vertical line
+(A, B), respectively, are drawn, and at their intersection a small
+circle (C) is formed. This now provides for four centering points for
+the circle pen, on the two lines (A, B). Intermediate these points
+indicate a second set of marks halfway between the marks on the lines.
+If you will now set the point of the compass at, say, the mark 3, and
+the pencil point of the compass at D, and make a curved mark one-eighth
+of the way around, say, to the radial line (E), then put the point of
+the compass to 4, and extend the pencil point of the compass so it
+coincides with the curved line just drawn, and then again make another
+curve, one-eighth of a complete circle, and so on around the entire
+circle of marking points, successively, you will produce a spiral,
+which, although not absolutely accurate, is the nearest approach with a
+circle pen. To make this neatly requires care and patience.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 150._]
+
+PERPENDICULAR AND VERTICAL.--A few words now as to terms. The boy is
+often confused in determining the difference between _perpendicular_ and
+_vertical_. There is a pronounced difference. Vertical means up and
+down. It is on a line in the direction a ball takes when it falls
+straight toward the center of the earth. The word _perpendicular_, as
+usually employed in astronomy, means the same thing, but in geometry, or
+in drafting, or in its use in the arts it means that a perpendicular
+line is at right angles to some other line. Suppose you put a square
+upon a roof so that one leg of the square extends up and down on the
+roof, and the other leg projects outwardly from the roof. In this case
+the projecting leg is _perpendicular_ to the roof. Never use the word
+_vertical_ in this connection.
+
+SIGNS TO INDICATE MEASUREMENTS.--The small circle (°) is always used to
+designate _degree_. Thus 10° means ten degrees.
+
+Feet are indicated by the single mark '; and two closely allied marks "
+are for inches. Thus five feet ten inches should be written 5' 10". A
+large cross (×) indicates the word "by," and in expressing the term six
+feet by three feet two inches, it should be written 6' × 3'2".
+
+The foregoing figures give some of the fundamentals necessary to be
+acquired, and it may be said that if the boy will learn the principles
+involved in the drawings he will have no difficulty in producing
+intelligible work; but as this is not a treatise on drawing we cannot go
+into the more refined phases of the subject.
+
+DEFINITIONS.--The following figures show the various geometrical forms
+and their definitions:
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 151.-Fig. 165._]
+
+151. _Abscissa._--The point in a curve, A, which is referred to by
+certain lines, such as B, which extend out from an axis, X, or the
+ordinate line Z.
+
+152. _Angle._--The inclosed space near the point where two lines meet.
+
+153. _Apothegm._--The perpendicular line A from the center to one side
+of a regular polygon. It represents the radial line of a polygon the
+same as the radius represents half the diameter of a circle.
+
+154. _Apsides_ or _Apsis_.--One of two points, A, A, of an orbit, oval
+or ellipse farthest from the axis, or the two small dots.
+
+155. _Chord._--A right line, as A, uniting the extremities of the arc of
+a circle or a curve.
+
+156. _Convolute_ (see also _Involute_).--Usually employed to designate a
+wave or folds in opposite directions. A double involute.
+
+157. _Conic Section._--Having the form of or resembling a cone. Formed
+by cutting off a cone at any angle. See line A.
+
+158. _Conoid._--Anything that has a form resembling that of a cone.
+
+159. _Cycloid._--A curve, A, generated by a point, B, in the plane of a
+circle or wheel, C, when the wheel is rolled along a straight line.
+
+160. _Ellipsoid._--A solid, all plane sections of which are ellipses or
+circles.
+
+161. _Epicycloid._--A curve, A, traced by a point, B, in the
+circumference of a wheel, C, which rolls on the convex side of a fixed
+circle, D.
+
+162. _Evolute._--A curve, A, from which another curve, like B, on each
+of the inner ends of the lines C is made. D is a spool, and the lines C
+represent a thread at different positions. The thread has a marker, E,
+so that when the thread is wound on the spool the marker E makes the
+evolute line A.
+
+163. _Focus._--The center, A, of a circle; also one of the two centering
+points, B, of an ellipse or an oval.
+
+164. _Gnome._--The space included between the boundary lines of two
+similar parallelograms, the one within the other, with an angle in
+common.
+
+165. _Hyperbola._--A curve, A, formed by the section of a cone. If the
+cone is cut off vertically on the dotted line, A, the curve is a
+hyperbola. See _Parabola_.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 167.-Fig. 184._]
+
+167. _Hypothenuse._--The side, A, of a right-angled triangle which is
+opposite to the right angle B, C. A, regular triangle; C, irregular
+triangle.
+
+168. _Incidence._--The angle, A, which is the same angle as, for
+instance, a ray of light, B, which falls on a mirror, C. The line D is
+the perpendicular.
+
+169. _Isosceles Triangle._--Having two sides or legs, A, A, that are
+equal.
+
+170. _Parabola._--One of the conic sections formed by cutting of a cone
+so that the cut line, A, is not vertical. See _Hyperbola_ where the cut
+line is vertical.
+
+171. _Parallelogram._--A right-lined quadrilateral figure, whose
+opposite sides, A, A, or B, B, are parallel and consequently equal.
+
+172. _Pelecoid._--A figure, somewhat hatchet-shaped, bounded by a
+semicircle, A, and two inverted quadrants, and equal to a square, C.
+
+173. _Polygons._--Many-sided and many with angles.
+
+174. _Pyramid._--A solid structure generally with a square base and
+having its sides meeting in an apex or peak. The peak is the vertex.
+
+175. _Quadrant._--The quarter of a circle or of the circumference of a
+circle. A horizontal line, A, and a vertical line, B, make the four
+quadrants, like C.
+
+176. _Quadrilateral._--A plane figure having four sides, and
+consequently four angles. Any figure formed by four lines.
+
+177. _Rhomb._--An equilateral parallelogram or a quadrilateral figure
+whose sides are equal and the opposite sides, B, B, parallel.
+
+178. _Sector._--A part, A, of a circle formed by two radial lines, B, B,
+and bounded at the end by a curve.
+
+179. _Segment._--A part, A, cut from a circle by a straight line, B. The
+straight line, B, is the chord or the _segmental line_.
+
+180. _Sinusoid._--A wave-like form. It may be regular or irregular.
+
+181. _Tangent._--A line, A, running out from the curve at right angles
+from a radial line.
+
+182. _Tetrahedron._--A solid figure enclosed or bounded by four
+triangles, like A or B. A plain pyramid is bounded by five triangles.
+
+183. _Vertex._--The meeting point, A, of two or more lines.
+
+184. _Volute._--A spiral scroll, used largely in architecture, which
+forms one of the chief features of the Ionic capital.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+MOLDINGS, WITH PRACTICAL ILLUSTRATIONS IN EMBELLISHING WORK
+
+
+MOLDINGS.--The use of moldings was early resorted to by the nations of
+antiquity, and we marvel to-day at many of the beautiful designs which
+the Ph[oe]necians, the Greeks and the Romans produced. If you analyze
+the lines used you will be surprised to learn how few are the designs
+which go to make up the wonderful columns, spires, minarets and domes
+which are represented in the various types of architecture.
+
+THE BASIS OF MOLDINGS.--Suppose we take the base type of moldings, and
+see how simple they are and then, by using these forms, try to build up
+or ornament some article of furniture, as an example of their utility.
+
+THE SIMPLEST MOLDING.--In Fig. 185 we show a molding of the most
+elementary character known, being simply in the form of a band (A)
+placed below the cap. Such a molding gives to the article on which it is
+placed three distinct lines, C, D and E. If you stop to consider you
+will note that the molding, while it may add to the strength of the
+article, is primarily of service because the lines and surfaces produce
+shadows, and therefore become valuable in an artistic sense.
+
+THE ASTRAGAL.--Fig. 186 shows the ankle-bone molding, technically called
+the _Astragal_. This form is round, and properly placed produces a good
+effect, as it throws the darkest shadow of any form of molding.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 185. Band._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 186. Astragal or Ankle Bone._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 187. Cavetto. Concave._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 188. Ovolo. Quarter round._]
+
+THE CAVETTO.--Fig. 187 is the cavetto, or round type. Its proper use
+gives a delicate outline, but it is principally applied with some other
+form of molding.
+
+THE OVOLO.--Fig. 188, called the ovolo, is a quarter round molding with
+the lobe (A) projecting downwardly. It is distinguished from the
+astragal because it casts less of a shadow above and below.
+
+THE TORUS.--Fig. 189, known as the torus, is a modified form of the
+ovolo, but the lobe (A) projects out horizontally instead of downwardly.
+
+THE APOPHYGES (Pronounced apof-i-ges).--Fig. 190 is also called the
+_scape_, and is a concaved type of molding, being a hollowed curvature
+used on columns where its form causes a merging of the shaft with the
+fillet.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 189. Torus._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 190. Apophyge._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 191. Cymatium._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 192. Ogee-Recta._]
+
+THE CYMATIUM.--Fig. 191 is the cymatium (derived from the word cyme),
+meaning wave-like. This form must be in two curves, one inwardly and one
+outwardly.
+
+THE OGEE.--Fig. 192, called the ogee, is the most useful of all
+moldings, for two reasons: First, it may have the concaved surface
+uppermost, in which form it is called ogee recta--that is, right side
+up; or it may be inverted, as in Fig. 193, with the concaved surface
+below, and is then called ogee reversa. Contrast these two views and you
+will note what a difference the mere inversion of the strip makes in the
+appearance. Second, because the ogee has in it, in a combined form, the
+outlines of nearly all the other types. The only advantage there is in
+using the other types is because you may thereby build up and space your
+work better than by using only one simple form.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 193. Ogee-Reversa._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 194. Bead or Reedy._]
+
+You will notice that the ogee is somewhat like the cymatium, the
+difference being that the concaved part is not so pronounced as in the
+ogee, and the convexed portion bulges much further than in the ogee. It
+is capable of use with other moldings, and may be reversed with just as
+good effect as the ogee.
+
+THE REEDY.--Fig. 194 represents the reedy, or the bead--that is, it is
+made up of reeds. It is a type of molding which should not be used with
+any other pronounced type of molding.
+
+THE CASEMENT (Fig. 195).--In this we have a form of molding used almost
+exclusively at the base of structures, such as columns, porticoes and
+like work.
+
+[Illustration:_ Fig. 195. Casement._]
+
+Now, before proceeding to use these moldings, let us examine a
+Roman-Doric column, one of the most famous types of architecture
+produced. We shall see how the ancients combined moldings to produce
+grace, lights and shadows and artistic effects.
+
+THE ROMAN-DORIC COLUMN.--In Fig. 196 is shown a Roman-Doric column, in
+which the cymatium, the ovolo, cavetto, astragal and the ogee are used,
+together with the fillets, bases and caps, and it is interesting to
+study this because of its beautiful proportions.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 196._]
+
+The pedestal and base are equal in vertical dimensions to the
+entablature and capital. The entablature is but slightly narrower than
+the pedestal; and the length of the column is, approximately, four times
+the height of the pedestal. The base of the shaft, while larger
+diametrically than the capital, is really shorter measured vertically.
+There is a reason for this. The eye must travel a greater distance to
+reach the upper end of the shaft, and is also at a greater angle to that
+part of the shaft, hence it appears shorter, while it is in reality
+longer. For this reason a capital must be longer or taller than the base
+of a shaft, and it is also smaller in diameter.
+
+It will be well to study the column not only on account of the wonderful
+blending of the various forms of moldings, but because it will impress
+you with a sense of proportions, and give you an idea of how simple
+lines may be employed to great advantage in all your work.
+
+LESSONS FROM THE DORIC COLUMN.--As an example, suppose we take a plain
+cabinet, and endeavor to embellish it with the types of molding
+described, and you will see to what elaboration the operation may be
+carried.
+
+APPLYING MOLDING.--Let Fig. 197 represent the front, top and bottom of
+our cabinet; and the first thing we shall do is to add a base (A) and a
+cap (B). Now, commencing at the top, suppose we utilize the simplest
+form of molding, the band.
+
+This we may make of any desired width, as shown in Fig. 198. On this
+band we can apply the ogee type (Fig. 199) right side up.
+
+But for variation we may decide to use the ogee reversed, as in Fig.
+200. This will afford us something else to think about and will call
+upon our powers of initiative in order to finish off the lower margin or
+edge of the ogee reversa.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 197._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 198._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 199._]
+
+If we take the ogee recta, as shown in Fig. 201, we may use the cavetto,
+or the ovolo (Fig. 202); but if we use the ogee reversa we must use a
+convex molding like the cavetto at one base, and a convex molding, like
+the torus or the ovolo, at the other base.
+
+In the latter (Fig. 202) four different moldings are used with the ogee
+as the principal structure.
+
+BASE EMBELLISHMENTS.--In like manner (Fig. 204) the base may have the
+casement type first attached in the corner, and then the ovolo, or the
+astragal added, as in Fig. 203.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 200._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 201._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 202._]
+
+STRAIGHT-FACED MOLDINGS.--Now let us carry the principle still further,
+and, instead of using various type of moldings, we will employ nothing
+but straight strips of wood. This treatment will soon indicate to you
+that the true mechanic or artisan is he who can take advantage of
+whatever he finds at hand.
+
+Let us take the same cabinet front (Fig. 205), and below the cap (A)
+place a narrow strip (B), the lower corner of which has been chamfered
+off, as at C. Below the strip B is a thinner strip (D), vertically
+disposed, and about two-thirds its width. The lower corner of this is
+also chamfered, as at F. To finish, apply a small strip (G) in the
+corner, and you have an embellished top that has the appearance, from a
+short distance, of being made up of molding.
+
+PLAIN MOLDED BASE.--The base may be treated in the same manner. The main
+strip (4) has its upper corner chamfered off, as at I, and on this is
+nailed a thin, narrow finishing strip (J). The upper part or molded top,
+in this case, has eleven distinct lines, and the base has six lines. By
+experimenting you may soon put together the most available kinds of
+molding strips.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 203._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 204._]
+
+DIVERSIFIED USES.--For a great overhang you may use the cavetto, or the
+apophyges, and below that the astragal or the torus; and for the base
+the casement is the most serviceable molding, and it may be finished off
+with the ovolo or the cymatium.
+
+Pages of examples might be cited to show the variety and the
+diversification available with different types.
+
+SHADOWS CAST BY MOLDINGS.--Always bear in mind that a curved surface
+makes a blended shadow. A straight, flat or plain surface does not, and
+it is for that reason the concaved and the convexed surfaces, brought
+out by moldings, become so important.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 205._]
+
+A little study and experimenting will soon teach you how a convex, a
+concave or a flat surface, and a corner or corners should be arranged
+relatively to each other; how much one should project beyond the other;
+and what the proportional widths of the different molding bands should
+be. An entire volume would scarcely exhaust this subject.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+AN ANALYSIS OF TENONING, MORTISING, RABBETING AND BEADING
+
+
+In the chapter on How Work is Laid Out, an example was given of the
+particular manner pursued in laying out mortises and tenons, and also
+dovetailed work. I deem it advisable to add some details to the subject,
+as well as to direct attention to some features which do not properly
+belong to the laying out of work.
+
+WHERE MORTISES SHOULD BE USED.--Most important of all is a general idea
+of places and conditions under which mortises should be resorted to.
+There are four ways in which different members may be secured to each
+other. First, by mortises and tenons; second, by a lap-and-butt; third,
+by scarfing; and, fourth, by tonguing and grooving.
+
+DEPTH OF MORTISES.--When a certain article is to be made, the first
+consideration is, how the joint or joints shall be made. The general
+rule for using the tenon and mortise is where two parts are joined
+wherein the grains of the two members run at right angles to each
+other, as in the following figure.
+
+RULE FOR MORTISES.--Fig. 206 shows such an example. You will notice this
+in doors particularly, as an example of work.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 206._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 207._]
+
+The next consideration is, shall the mortises be cut entirely through
+the piece? This is answered by the query as to whether or not the end of
+the tenon will be exposed; and usually, if a smooth finish is required,
+the mortise should not go through the member. In a door, however, the
+tenons are exposed at the edges of the door, and are, therefore, seen,
+so that we must apply some other rule. The one universally adopted is,
+that where, as in a door stile, it is broad and comparatively thin, or
+where the member having the mortise in its edge is much thinner than
+its width, the mortise should go through from edge to edge.
+
+The reason for this lies in the inability to sink the mortises through
+the stile (A, Fig. 207) perfectly true, and usually the job is turned
+out something like the illustration shows. The side of the rail (B) must
+be straight with the side of the stile. If the work is done by machinery
+it results in accuracy unattainable in hand work.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 208._]
+
+TRUE MORTISE WORK.--The essense of good joining work is the ability to
+sink the chisel true with the side of the member. More uneven work is
+produced by haste than by inability. The tendency of all beginners is
+to strike the chisel too hard, in order the more quickly to get down to
+the bottom of the mortise. Hence, bad work follows.
+
+STEPS IN CUTTING MORTISES.--Examine Fig. 208, which, for convenience,
+gives six successive steps in making the mortise. The marks _a_, _b_
+designate the limits, or the length, of the mortise. The chisel (C) is
+not started at the marking line (A), but at least an eighth of an inch
+from it. The first cut, as at B, gives a starting point for the next cut
+or placement of the chisel. When the second cut (B) has thus been made,
+the chisel should be turned around, as in dotted line _d_, position C,
+thereby making a finish cut down to the bottom of the mortise, line _e_,
+so that when the fourth cut has been made along line _f_, we are ready
+for the fifth cut, position C; then the sixth cut, position D, which
+leaves the mortise as shown at E. Then turn the chisel to the position
+shown at F, and cut down the last end of the mortise square, as shown in
+G, and clean out the mortise well before making the finishing cuts on
+the marking lines (_a_, _b_). The particular reason for cleaning out the
+mortise before making the finish cuts is, that the corners of the
+mortise are used as fulcrums for the chisels, and the eighth of an inch
+stock still remaining protects the corners.
+
+THINGS TO AVOID IN MORTISING.--You must be careful to refrain from
+undercutting as your chisel goes down at the lines _a_, _b_, because if
+you commit this error you will make a bad joint.
+
+As much care should be exercised in producing the tenon, although the
+most common error is apt to occur in making the shoulder. This should be
+a trifle undercut.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 209._]
+
+See the lines (A, Fig. 209), which illustrate this.
+
+LAP-AND-BUTT JOINT.--The lap-and-butt is the form of uniting members
+which is most generally used to splice together timbers, where they join
+each other end to end.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 210._]
+
+Bolts are used to secure the laps.
+
+But the lap-and-butt form is also used in doors and in other cabinet
+work. It is of great service in paneling.
+
+A rabbet is formed to receive the edge of the panel, and a molding is
+then secured to the other side on the panel, to hold the latter in
+place.
+
+SCARFING.--This method of securing members together is the most rigid,
+and when properly performed makes the joint the strongest part of the
+timber. Each member (A, Fig. 212) has a step diagonally cut (B), the two
+steps being on different planes, so they form a hook joint, as at C, and
+as each point or terminal has a blunt end, the members are so
+constructed as to withstand a longitudinal strain in either direction.
+The overlapping plates (D) and the bolts (E) hold the joint rigidly.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 211._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 212._]
+
+THE TONGUE AND GROOVE.--This form of uniting members has only a limited
+application. It is serviceable for floors, table tops, paneling, etc.
+In Fig. 213, a door panel is shown, and the door mullions (B) are also
+so secured to the rail (C). The tongue-and-groove method is never used
+by itself. It must always have some support or reinforcing means.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 213._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 214._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 215._]
+
+BEADING.--This part of the work pertains to surface finishings, and may
+or may not be used in connection with rabbeting.
+
+Figs. 214 and 215 show the simplest and most generally adopted forms in
+which it is made and used in connection with rabbeting, or with the
+tongue and groove. The bead is placed on one or both sides of that
+margin of the board (Fig. 214) which has the tongue, and the adjoining
+board has the usual flooring groove to butt against and receive the
+tongue. It is frequently the case that a blind bead, as in Fig. 215,
+runs through the middle of the board, so as to give the appearance of
+narrow strips when used for wainscoting, or for ceilings. The beads also
+serve to hide the joints of the boards.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 216._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 217._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 218._]
+
+ORNAMENTAL BEAD FINISH.--These figures show how the bead may be used for
+finishing corners, edges and projections. Fig. 216 has a bead at each
+corner of a stile (A), and a finishing strip of half-round material (B)
+is nailed to the flat edge. Fig. 217 has simply the corners themselves
+beaded, and it makes a most serviceable finish for the edges of
+projecting members.
+
+Fig. 218, used for wider members, has the corners beaded and a fancy
+molding (C); or the reduced edge of the stile itself is rounded off.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 219._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 220._]
+
+THE BEAD AND RABBET.--A more amplified form of work is available where
+the rabbet plane is used with the beader. These two planes together
+will, if properly used, offer a strong substitute for molding and
+molding effects.
+
+Fig. 219 has both sides first rabbeted, as at A, and the corners then
+beaded, as at B, with the reduced part of the member rounded off, as at
+C. Or, as in Fig. 220, the reduced edge of the member may have the
+corners beaded, as at D, and the rabbeted corners filled in with a round
+or concaved moulding (E).
+
+SHADING WITH BEADS AND RABBETS.--You will see from the foregoing, that
+these embellishments are serviceable because they provide the article
+with a large number of angles and surfaces to cast lights and shadows;
+and for this reason the boy should strive to produce the effects which
+this class of work requires.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+HOUSE BUILDING
+
+
+House building is the carpenter's craft; cabinet-making the joiner's
+trade, yet both are so intimately associated, that it is difficult to
+draw a line. The same tools, the same methods and the same materials are
+employed.
+
+There is no trade more ennobling than home building. It is a vocation
+which touches every man and woman, and to make it really an art is, or
+should be, the true aspiration of every craftsman.
+
+THE HOUSE AND EMBELLISHMENTS.--The refined arts, such as sculpture and
+painting, merely embellish the home or the castle, so that when we build
+the structure it should be made with an eye not only to comfort and
+convenience, but fitting in an artistic and æsthetic sense. It is just
+as easy to build a beautiful home as an ugly, ungainly, illy
+proportioned structure.
+
+BEAUTY NOT ORNAMENTATION.--The boy, in his early training, should learn
+this fundamental truth, that beauty, architecturally, does not depend
+upon ornamentation. Some of the most beautiful structures in the world
+are very plain. Beauty consists in proportions, in proper correlation
+of parts, and in adaptation for the uses to which the structure is to be
+put.
+
+PLAIN STRUCTURES.--A house with a plain façade, having a roof properly
+pitched and with a simple cornice, if joined to a wing which is not
+ungainly or out of proper proportions, is infinitely more beautiful than
+a rambling structure, in which one part suggests one order of
+architecture and the other part some other type or no type at all, and
+in which the embellishments are out of keeping with the size or
+pretensions of the house.
+
+COLONIAL TYPE.--For real beauty, on a larger scale, there is nothing
+to-day which equals the old Colonial type with the Corinthian columns
+and entablature. The Lee mansion, now the National Cemetery, at
+Washington, is a fine example. Such houses are usually square or
+rectangular in plan, severely plain, with the whole ornamentation
+consisting of the columns and the portico. This type presents an
+appearance of massiveness and grandeur and is an excellent illustration
+of a form wherein the main characteristic of the structure is
+concentrated or massed at one point.
+
+The Church of the Madelaine, Paris, is another striking example of this
+period of architecture.
+
+Of course, it would be out of place with cottages and small houses, but
+it is well to study and to know what forms are most available and
+desirable to adopt, and particularly to know something of the art in
+which you are interested.
+
+THE ROOF THE KEYNOTE.--Now, there is one thing which should, and does,
+distinguish the residence from other types of buildings, excepting
+churches. It is the roof. A house is dominated by its covering. I refer
+to the modern home. It is not true with the Colonial or the Grecian
+types. In those the façade or the columns and cornices predominate over
+everything else.
+
+BUNGALOW TYPES.--If you will take up any book on bungalow work and note
+the outlines of the views you will see that the roof forms the main
+element or theme. In fact, in most buildings of this kind everything is
+submerged but the roof and roof details. They are made exceedingly flat,
+with different pitches with dormers and gables intermingled and
+indiscriminately placed, with cornices illy assorted and of different
+kinds, so that the multiplicity of diversified details gives an
+appearance of great elaboration. Many of those designs are monstrosities
+and should, if possible, be legally prohibited.
+
+I cannot attempt to give even so much as an outline of what constitutes
+art in its relation to building, but my object is to call attention to
+this phase of the question, and as you proceed in your studies and your
+work you will realize the value and truthfulness of the foregoing
+observations.
+
+GENERAL HOUSE BUILDING.--We are to treat, generally, on the subject of
+house building, how the work is laid out, and how built, and in doing so
+I shall take a concrete example of the work. This can be made more
+effectual for the purpose if it is on simple lines.
+
+BUILDING PLANS.--We must first have a plan; and the real carpenter must
+have the ability to plan as well as to do the work. We want a five-room
+house, comprising a parlor, dining room, two bedrooms, a kitchen and a
+bathroom. Just a modest little home, to which we can devote our spare
+hours, and which will be neat and comfortable when finished. It must be
+a one-story house, and that fact at once settles the roof question. We
+can make the house perfectly square in plan, or rectangular, and divide
+up the space into the proper divisions.
+
+THE PLAIN SQUARE FLOOR PLAN will first be taken up, as it is such an
+easy roof to build. Of course, it is severely plain.
+
+Fig. 221 shows our proposed plan, drawn in the rough, without any
+attempts to measure the different apartments, and with the floor plan
+exactly square. Supposing we run a hall (A) through the middle. On one
+side of this let us plan for a dining room and a kitchen, a portion of
+the kitchen space to be given over to a closet and a bathroom.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 221._]
+
+The chimney (B) must be made accessible from both rooms. On the other
+side of the hallway the space is divided into a parlor and two
+bedrooms.
+
+THE RECTANGULAR PLAN.--In the rectangular floor plan (Fig. 222) a
+portion of the floor space is cut out for a porch (A), so that we may
+use the end or the side for the entrance. Supposing we use the end of
+the house for this purpose. The entrance room (B) may be a bedroom, or a
+reception and living room, and to the rear of this room is the dining
+room, connected with the reception room by a hall (C). This hall also
+leads to the kitchen and to the bathroom, as well as to the other
+bedroom. The parlor is connected with the entrance room (B), and also
+with the bedroom. All of this is optional, of course.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 222._]
+
+There are also two chimneys, one chimney (D) having two flues and the
+other chimney (E) having three flues, so that every room is
+accommodated.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 223._]
+
+ROOM MEASUREMENTS.--We must now determine the dimensions of each room,
+and then how we shall build the roof.
+
+In Figs. 223 and 224, we have now drawn out in detail the sizes, the
+locations of the door and windows, the chimneys and the closets, as well
+as the bathroom. All this work may be changed or modified to suit
+conditions and the taste of the designer.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 224._]
+
+FRONT AND SIDE LINES.--From the floor diagram, and the door and window
+spaces, as marked out, we may now proceed to lay out rough front and
+side outlines of the building. The ceilings are to be 9 feet, and if we
+put a rather low-pitched roof on the square structure (Fig. 223) the
+front may look something like Fig. 225, and a greater pitch given to the
+rectangular plan (Fig. 224) will present a view as shown in Fig. 226.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 225._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 226._]
+
+THE ROOF.--The pitch of the roof (Fig. 225) is what is called "third
+pitch," and the roof (Fig. 226) has a half pitch. A "third" pitch is
+determined as follows:
+
+ROOF PITCH.--In Fig. 227 draw a vertical line (A) and join it by a
+horizontal line (B). Then strike a circle (C) and step it off into three
+parts. The line (D), which intersects the first mark (E) and the angle
+of the lines (A, B), is the pitch.
+
+In Fig. 228 the line A is struck at 15 degrees, which is halfway between
+lines B and C, and it is, therefore, termed "half-pitch."
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 227._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 228._]
+
+Thus, we have made the ground plans, the elevations and the roofs as
+simple as possible. Let us proceed next with the details of the
+building.
+
+THE FOUNDATION.--This may be of brick, stone or concrete, and its
+dimensions should be at least 1-1/2 inches further out than the sill.
+
+THE SILLS.--We are going to build what is called a "balloon frame"; and,
+first, we put down the sills, which will be a course of 2" × 6", or 2" ×
+8" joists, as in Fig. 229.
+
+THE FLOORING JOIST.--The flooring joists (A) are then put down (Fig.
+230). These should extend clear across the house from side to side, if
+possible, or, if the plan is too wide, they should be lapped at the
+middle wall and spiked together. The ends should extend out flush with
+the outer margins of the sills, as shown, but in putting down the first
+and last sill, space must be left along the sides of the joist of
+sufficient width to place the studding.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 229._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 230._]
+
+THE STUDDING.--The next step is to put the studding into position. 4" ×
+4" must be used for corners and at the sides of door and window
+openings. 4" × 6" may be used at corners, if preferred. Consult your
+plan and see where the openings are for doors and windows. Measure the
+widths of the door and window frames, and make a measuring stick for
+this purpose. You must leave at least one-half inch clearance for the
+window or door frame, so as to give sufficient room to plumb and set the
+frame.
+
+SETTING UP.--First set up the corner posts, plumbing and bracing them.
+Cut a top plate for each side you are working on.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 231._]
+
+THE PLATE.--As it will be necessary in our job to use two or more
+lengths of 2" × 4" scantling for the plate, it will be necessary to join
+them together. Do this with a lap-and-butt joint (Fig. 231).
+
+Then set up the 4" × 4" posts for the sides of the doors and windows,
+and for the partition walls.
+
+The plate should be laid down on the sill, and marked with a pencil for
+every scantling to correspond with the sill markings. The plate is then
+put on and spiked to the 4" × 4" posts.
+
+INTERMEDIATE STUDDING.--It will then be an easy matter to put in the
+intermediate 2" × 4" studding, placing them as nearly as possible 16
+inches apart to accommodate the 48-inch plastering lath.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 232._]
+
+WALL HEADERS.--When all the studding are in you will need headers above
+and rails below the windows and headers above all the doors, so that you
+will have timbers to nail the siding to, as well as for the lathing.
+
+CEILING JOISTS.--We are now ready for the ceiling joists, which are,
+usually, 2" × 6", unless there is an upper floor. These are laid 16
+inches apart from center to center, preferably parallel with the floor
+joist.
+
+It should be borne in mind that the ceiling joist must always be put on
+with reference to the roof.
+
+Thus, in Fig. 232, the ceiling joists (A) have their ends resting on the
+plate (B), so that the rafters are in line with the joists.
+
+BRACES.--It would also be well, in putting up the studding, to use
+plenty of braces, although for a one-story building this is not so
+essential as in two-story structures, because the weather boarding
+serves as a system of bracing.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 233._]
+
+THE RAFTERS.--These may be made to provide for the gutter or not, as may
+be desired. They should be of 2" × 4" scantling.
+
+THE GUTTER.--In Fig. 233 I show a most serviceable way to provide for
+the gutter. A V-shaped notch is cut out of the upper side of the rafter,
+in which is placed the floor and a side. This floor piece is raised at
+one end to provide an incline for the water.
+
+A face-board is then applied and nailed to the ends of the rafters. This
+face-board is surmounted by a cap, which has an overhang, beneath which
+is a molding of any convenient pattern. The face-board projects down at
+least two inches below the angled cut of the rafter, so that when the
+base-board is applied, the lower margin of the face-board will project
+one inch below the base.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 234._]
+
+This base-board is horizontal, as you will see. The facia-board may be
+of any desired width, and a corner molding should be added. It is
+optional to use the brackets, but if added they should be spaced apart a
+distance not greater than twice the height of the bracket.
+
+A much simpler form of gutter is shown in Fig. 234, in which a V-shaped
+notch is also cut in the rafter, and the channel is made by the pieces.
+The end of the rafter is cut at right angles, so the face-board is at an
+angle. This is also surmounted by an overhanging cap and a molding. The
+base is nailed to the lower edges of the rafters, and the facia is then
+applied.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 234a._]
+
+In Fig. 234_a_ the roof has no gutter, so that the end of the rafter is
+cut off at an angle and a molding applied on the face-board. The base is
+nailed to the rafters. This is the cheapest and simplest form of
+structure for the roof.
+
+SETTING DOOR AND WINDOW FRAMES.--The next step in order is to set the
+door and window frames preparatory to applying the weather boarding. It
+is then ready for the roof, which should be put on before the floor is
+laid.
+
+PLASTERING AND INSIDE FINISH.--Next in order is the plastering, then the
+base-boards and the casing; and, finally, the door and windows should
+be fitted into position.
+
+Enough has been said here merely to give a general outline, with some
+details, how to proceed with the work.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+BRIDGES, TRUSSED WORK AND LIKE STRUCTURES
+
+
+BRIDGES.--Bridge building is not, strictly, a part of the carpenter's
+education at the present day, because most structures of this kind are
+now built of steel; but there are certain principles involved in bridge
+construction which the carpenter should master.
+
+SELF-SUPPORTING ROOFS.--In putting up, for instance, self-supporting
+roofs, or ceilings with wide spans, and steeples or towers, the bridge
+principle of trussed members should be understood.
+
+The most simple bridge or trussed form is the well-known A-shaped arch.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 235._]
+
+COMMON TRUSSES.--One form is shown in Fig. 235, with a vertical king
+post. In Fig. 236 there are two vertical supporting members, called
+queen posts, used in longer structures. Both of these forms are equally
+well adapted for small bridges or for roof supports.
+
+THE VERTICAL UPRIGHT TRUSS.--This form of truss naturally develops into
+a type of wooden bridge known all over the country, as its framing is
+simple, and calculations as to its capacity to sustain loads may readily
+be made. Figs. 237, 238 and 239 illustrate these forms.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 236._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 237._]
+
+THE WARREN GIRDER.--Out of this simple truss grew the Warren girder, a
+type of bridge particularly adapted for iron and steel construction.
+
+This is the simplest form for metal bridge truss, or girder. It is now
+also largely used in steel buildings and for other work requiring
+strength with small weight.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 238._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 239._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 240._]
+
+THE BOWSTRING GIRDER.--Only one other form of bridge truss need be
+mentioned here, and that is the _bowstring_ shown in Fig. 240.
+
+In this type the bow receives the entire compression thrust, and the
+chords act merely as suspending members.
+
+FUNDAMENTAL TRUSS FORM.--In every form of truss, whether for building or
+for bridge work, the principles of the famous A-truss must be employed
+in some form or other; and the boy who is experimentally inclined will
+readily evolve means to determine what degree of strength the upper and
+the lower members must have for a given length of truss to sustain a
+specified weight.
+
+There are rules for all these problems, some of them very intricate, but
+all of them intensely interesting. It will be a valuable addition to
+your knowledge to give this subject earnest study.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+THE BEST WOODS FOR THE BEGINNER
+
+
+In this place consideration will be given to some of the features
+relating to the materials to be employed, particularly with reference to
+the manner in which they can be worked to the best advantage, rather
+than to their uses.
+
+THE BEST WOODS.--The prime wood, and the one with which most boys are
+familiar, is white pine. It has an even texture throughout, is generally
+straight grained, and is soft and easily worked. White pine is a wood
+requiring a very sharp tool. It is, therefore, the best material for the
+beginner, as it will at the outset teach him the important lesson of
+keeping the tools in a good, sharp condition.
+
+SOFT WOODS.--It is also well for the novice to do his initial work with
+a soft wood, because in joining the parts together inaccuracies may be
+easily corrected. If, for instance, in mortising and tenoning, the edge
+of the mortised member is not true, or, rather, is not "square," the
+shoulder of the tenon on one side will abut before the other side does,
+and thus leave a crack, if the wood is hard. If the wood is soft there
+is always enough yield to enable the workman to spring it together.
+Therefore, until you have learned how to make a true joint, use soft
+wood.
+
+Poplar is another good wood for the beginner, as well as redwood, a
+western product.
+
+HARD WOODS.--Of the hard woods, cherry is the most desirable for the
+carpenter's tool. For working purposes it has all the advantages of a
+soft wood, and none of its disadvantages. It is not apt to warp, like
+poplar or birch, and its shrinking unit is less than that of any other
+wood, excepting redwood. There is practically no shrinkage in redwood.
+
+THE MOST DIFFICULT WOODS.--Ash is by far the most difficult wood to
+work. While not as hard as oak, it has the disadvantage that the entire
+board is seamed with growth ribs which are extremely hard, while the
+intervening layers between these ribs are soft, and have open pores, so
+that, for instance, in making a mortise, the chisel is liable to follow
+the hard ribs, if the grain runs at an angle to the course of the
+mortise.
+
+THE HARD-RIBBED GRAIN IN WOOD.--This peculiarity of the grain in ash
+makes it a beautiful wood when finished. Of the light-colored woods, oak
+only excels it, because in this latter wood each year's growth shows a
+wider band, and the interstices between the ribs have stronger
+contrasting colors than ash; so that in filling the surface, before
+finishing it, the grain of the wood is brought out with most effective
+clearness and with a beautifully blended contrast.
+
+THE EASIEST WORKING WOODS.--The same thing may be said, relatively,
+concerning cherry and walnut. While cherry has a beautiful finishing
+surface, the blending contrasts of colors are not so effective as in
+walnut.
+
+Oregon pine is extremely hard to work, owing to the same difficulties
+experienced in handling ash; but the finished Oregon pine surface makes
+it a most desirable material for certain articles of furniture.
+
+Do not attempt to employ this nor ash until you have mastered the trade.
+Confine yourself to pine, poplar, cherry and walnut. These woods are all
+easily obtainable everywhere, and from them you can make a most
+creditable variety of useful articles.
+
+Sugar and maple are two hard woods which may be added to the list.
+Sugar, particularly, is a good-working wood, but maple is more
+difficult. Spruce, on the other hand, is the strongest and toughest
+wood, considering its weight, which is but a little more than that of
+pine.
+
+DIFFERENCES IN THE WORKING OF WOODS.--Different woods are not worked
+with equal facility by all the tools. Oak is an easy wood to handle
+with a saw, but is, probably, aside from ash, the most difficult wood
+known to plane.
+
+Ash is hard for the saw or the plane. On the other hand, there is no
+wood so easy to manipulate with the saw or plane as cherry. Pine is
+easily worked with a plane, but difficult to saw; not on account of
+hardness, but because it is so soft that the saw is liable to tear it.
+
+FORCING SAWS IN WOOD.--One of the reasons why the forcing of saws is
+such a bad practice will be observed in cutting white or yellow pine.
+For cross-cutting, the saw should have fine teeth, not heavily set, and
+evenly filed. To do a good job of cross-cutting, the saw must be held at
+a greater angle, or should lay down flatter than in ripping, as by so
+doing the lower side of the board will not break away as much as if the
+saw should be held more nearly vertical.
+
+These general observations are made in the hope that they will serve as
+a guide to enable you to select your lumber with some degree of
+intelligence before you commence work.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+WOOD TURNING
+
+
+ADVANTAGES OF WOOD TURNING.--This is not, strictly, in the carpenter's
+domain; but a knowledge of its use will be of great service in the
+trade, and particularly in cabinet making. I urge the ingenious youth to
+rig up a wood-turning lathe, for the reason that it is a tool easily
+made and one which may be readily turned by foot, if other power is not
+available.
+
+SIMPLE TURNING LATHE.--A very simple turning lathe may be made by
+following these instructions:
+
+THE RAILS.--Procure two straight 2" × 4" scantling (A), four feet long,
+and planed on all sides. Bore four 3/8-inch holes at each end, as shown,
+and 10 inches from one end four more holes. A plan of these holes is
+shown in B, where the exact spacing is indicated. Then prepare two
+pieces 2" × 4" scantling (C), planed, 42 inches long, one end of each
+being chamfered off, as at 2, and provided with four bolt holes. Ten
+inches down, and on the same side, with the chamfer (2) is a cross gain
+(3), the same angle as the chamfer. Midway between the cross gain (3)
+and the lower end of the leg is a gain (4) in the edge, at right angles
+to the cross gain (3).
+
+THE LEGS.--Now prepare two legs (D) for the tail end of the frame, each
+32 inches long, with a chamfer (5) at one end, and provided with four
+bolt holes. At the lower end bore a bolt hole for the cross base piece.
+This piece (E) is 4" × 4", 21 inches long, and has a bolt hole at each
+end and one near the middle. The next piece (F) is 2" × 4", 14-1/2
+inches long, provided with a rebate (6) at each end, to fit the cross
+gains (4) of the legs (C). Near the middle is a journal block (7).
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 241. Frame details._]
+
+CENTERING BLOCKS.--Next provide a 4" × 4" piece (G), 40 inches long,
+through which bore a 3/4-inch hole (8), 2 inches from the upper end,
+and four bolt holes at right angles to the shaft hole (8). Then, with a
+saw split down this bearing, as shown at 9, to a point 4 inches from the
+end. Ten inches below the upper end prepare two cross gains (10), each
+an inch deep and four inches wide. In these gains are placed the top
+rails (A), so the bolt holes in the gains (10) will coincide with the
+bolt holes (11) in the piece A. Below the gains (10) this post has a
+journal block (12), intended to be in line with the journal block (7) of
+the piece F.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 242. Tail Stock._]
+
+Then make a block (H) 2" × 4", and 6 inches long. This also must have a
+shaft hole (B), and a saw kerf (14), similar to the arrangement on the
+upper end of the post (G); also bore four bolt holes, as shown. This
+block rests between the upper ends of the lugs (C).
+
+Another block (I), 2" × 4", and 6 feet long, with four bolt holes, will
+be required for the tail end of the frame, to keep the rails (A) two
+inches apart at that end.
+
+THE TAIL STOCK.--This part of the structure is made of the following
+described material:
+
+Procure a scantling (J), planed, 4" × 4", 24 inches long, the upper end
+of which is to be provided with four bolt holes, and a centering hole
+(15). At the lower end of the piece is a slot (16) 8 inches long and
+1-1/2 inches wide, and there are also two bolt holes bored transversely
+through the piece to receive bolts for reinforcing the end.
+
+A pair of cheekpieces (K), 2" × 4", and each 12 inches long, are mitered
+at the ends, and each has four bolt holes by means of which the ends may
+be bolted to the upright (J).
+
+Then a step wedge (L) is made of 1-3/8" × 2" material, 10 inches long.
+This has at least four steps (17), each step being 2 inches long. A
+wedge 1-3/8 inches thick, 10 inches long, and tapering from 2 inches to
+1-3/8 inches, completes the tail-stock.
+
+THE TOOL REST.--This is the most difficult part of the whole lathe, as
+it must be rigid, and so constructed that it has a revolvable motion as
+well as being capable of a movement to and from the material in the
+lathe.
+
+Select a good 4" × 4" scantling (M), 14 inches long, as shown in Fig.
+243. Two inches from one end cut a cross gain (I), 1-1/2 inches deep and
+1 inch wide, and round off the upper edge, as at 2.
+
+Then prepare a piece (N), 1 inch thick, 8 inches wide, and 10 inches
+long. Round off the upper edge to form a nose, and midway between its
+ends cut a cross gain 4 inches wide and 1-1/2 inches deep. The lower
+margin may be cut away, at an angle on each side of the gain. All that
+is necessary now is to make a block (O), 8 inches long, rounded on one
+edge, and a wedge (P).
+
+[Illustration: _Fig 243. Tool Rest._]
+
+A leather belt or strap (Q), 1-1/2 inches wide, formed into a loop, as
+shown in the perspective view (R), serves as a means for holding the
+rest rigidly when the wedge is driven in.
+
+MATERIALS.--Then procure the following bolts:
+
+        4-3/8" bolts, 10" long.
+        8-3/8"  ''     6" ''
+       20-3/8"  ''     5" ''
+        5-3/8"  ''     9" ''
+
+THE MANDREL.--A piece of steel tubing (S), No. 10 gage, 3/4 inch in
+diameter, 11-1/2 inches long, will be required for the mandrel. Get a
+blacksmith, if a machine shop is not convenient, to put a fixed center
+(1) in one end, and a removable centering member (2) in the other end.
+
+On this mandrel place a collar (3), held by a set screw, and alongside
+of it a pair of pulleys, each 1-1/2 inches wide, one of them, being,
+say, 2 inches in diameter, and the other 3 inches. This mandrel is held
+in position by means of the posts of the frame which carry the split
+journal bearings. This form of bearing will make a durable lathe, free
+from chattering, as the bolts can be used for tightening the mandrel
+whenever they wear.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 244. Mandrel._]
+
+The center point (1) is designed to rest against a metal plate (4)
+bolted to the wooden post, as shown in the large drawing.
+
+FLY-WHEEL.--It now remains only to provide a fly-wheel and treadle with
+the communicating belt. The fly-wheel may be of any convenient size, or
+it may be some discarded pulley or wheel. Suppose it is two feet in
+diameter; then, as your small pulley is 2 inches in diameter, each
+revolution of the large wheel makes twelve revolutions in the mandrel,
+and you can readily turn the wheel eighty times a minute. In that case
+your mandrel will revolve 960 revolutions per minute, which is ample
+speed for your purposes.
+
+The wheel should be mounted on a piece of 3/4-inch steel tubing, one end
+having a crank 3 inches long. This crank is connected up by a pitman
+rod, with the triangularly shaped treadle frame.
+
+Such a lathe is easily made, as it requires but little metal or machine
+work, and it is here described because it will be a pleasure for a boy
+to make such a useful tool. What he needs is the proper plan and the
+right dimensions to carry out the work, and his own ingenuity will make
+the modifications suitable to his purpose.
+
+The illustration (Fig. 245) shows such a lathe assembled ready for work.
+
+THE TOOLS REQUIRED.--A few simple tools will complete an outfit capable
+of doing a great variety of work. The illustration (Fig. 246) shows five
+chisels, of which all other chisels are modifications.
+
+A and B are both oblique firmer chisels, A being ground with a bevel on
+one side only, and B with a bevel on each side.
+
+C is a broad gage, with a hollow blade, and a curved cutting edge,
+ground with a taper on the rounded side only.
+
+D is a narrow gage similarly ground, and E is a V-shaped gage.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 245._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 246._]
+
+It may be observed that in wood-turning sharp tools are absolutely
+necessary, hence a good oil stone, or several small, round and V-shaped
+stones should be used.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+ON THE USE OF STAINS
+
+
+As this subject properly belongs to the painter and decorator, it is not
+necessary to go into details concerning the methods used to finish off
+your work. As you may not be able to afford the luxury of having your
+productions painted or stained, enough information will be given to
+enable you, if the character of the wood justifies it, to do the work
+yourself to a limited extent.
+
+SOFT WOOD.--As, presumably, most of your first work will be done with
+pine, poplar, or other light-colored material, and, as many people
+prefer the furniture to be dark in color, you should be prepared to
+accommodate them.
+
+USE OF STAINS.--Our subject has nothing to do with the technique of
+staining, but has reference, solely, to the use of stains. I recommend,
+therefore, that, since all kinds of stains are now kept in stock, and
+for sale everywhere, you would better rely upon the manufactured goods
+rather than to endeavor to mix up the paints yourself.
+
+STAINS AS IMITATIONS.--It will be well to remember one thing as to
+stains. Never attempt to stain anything unless that stain is intended
+to produce an imitation of some real wood. There are stains made up
+which, when applied, do not imitate any known wood. This is bad taste
+and should be avoided. Again you should know that the same stain tint
+will not produce like effects on the different light-colored woods. Try
+the cherry stain on pieces of pine, poplar, and birch, and you will
+readily see that while pine gives a brilliant red, comparatively
+speaking, pine or birch will be much darker, and the effect on poplar
+will be that of a muddy color. In fact, poplar does not stain cherry to
+good advantage; and for birch the ordinary stain should have a small
+addition of vermilion.
+
+By making trials of your stains before applying them to the furniture,
+you will readily see the value of this suggestion.
+
+GOOD TASTE IN STAINING.--Oak, mahogany, cherry, black walnut, and like
+imitations are always good in an artistic sense, but imitations of
+unfamiliar woods mean nothing to the average person. The too common
+mistake is to try to imitate oak by staining pine or poplar or birch. It
+may, with good effect, be stained to imitate cherry.
+
+Oregon pine, or some light-colored wood, with a strong contrasting grain
+may be used for staining in imitation of oak.
+
+GREAT CONTRASTS BAD.--Violent contrasts in furniture staining have the
+effect of cheapness, unless the contrasting outlines are artistically
+distributed throughout the article, from base to top finish.
+
+STAINING CONTRASTING WOODS.--Then, again, do not stain a piece of
+furniture so that one part represents a cheap, soft wood, and the other
+part a dark or costly wood. Imagine, for instance, a cabinet with the
+stiles, rails and mullions of mahogany, and the panels of pine or
+poplar, or the reverse, and you can understand how incongruous would be
+the result produced.
+
+On the other hand, it would not be a very artistic job to make the
+panels of cherry and the mullions and stiles of mahogany, because the
+two woods do not harmonize, although frequently wrongly combined.
+
+HARD WOOD IMITATIONS.--It would be better to use, for instance, ash or
+oak for one portion of the work, and a dark wood, like cherry or walnut,
+for the other part; but usually a cherry cabinet should be made of
+cherry throughout; while a curly maple chiffonier could not be improved
+by having the legs of some other material.
+
+These considerations should determine for you whether or not you can
+safely use stains to represent different woods in the same article.
+
+NATURAL EFFECTS.--If effects are wanted, the skilled workman will
+properly rely upon the natural grain of the wood; hence, in staining,
+you should try to imitate nature, because in staining you will depend
+for contrast on the natural grain of the wood to help you out in
+producing pleasing effects.
+
+NATURAL WOOD STAINS.--It should be said, in general, however, that a
+stain is, at best, a poor makeshift. There is nothing so pleasing as the
+natural wood. It always has an appearance of cleanliness and openness.
+To stain the wood shows an attempt to cover up cheapness by a cheap
+contrivance. The exception to this rule is mahogany, which is generally
+enriched by the application of a ruby tint which serves principally to
+emphasize the beautiful markings of the wood.
+
+POLISHING STAINED SURFACES.--If, on the other hand, you wish to go to
+the labor of polishing the furniture to a high degree, staining becomes
+an art, and will add to the beauty and durability of any soft or cheap
+wood, excepting poplar.
+
+When the article is highly polished, so a good, smooth surface is
+provided, staining does not cheapen, but, on the other hand, serves to
+embellish the article.
+
+As a rule, therefore, it is well to inculcate this lesson: Do not stain
+unless you polish; otherwise, it is far better to preserve the natural
+color of the wood. One of the most beautiful sideboards I ever saw was
+made of Oregon pine, and the natural wood, well filled and highly
+polished. That finish gave it an effect which enhanced its value to a
+price which equaled any cherry or mahogany product.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+THE CARPENTER AND THE ARCHITECT
+
+
+A carpenter has a trade; the architect a profession. It is not to be
+assumed that one vocation is more honorable than the other. A
+_profession_ is defined as a calling, or occupation, "if not mechanical,
+agricultural, or the like," to which one devotes himself and his
+energies. A _trade_ is defined as an occupation "which a person has
+learned and engages in, especially mechanical employment, as
+distinguished from the liberal arts," or the learned professions.
+
+_Opportunity_ is the great boon in life. To the ambitious young man the
+carpenter's trade offers a field for venturing into the learned
+professions by a route which cannot be equaled in any other pursuit. In
+his work he daily enters into contact with problems which require
+mathematics of the highest order, geometry, the methods of calculating
+strains and stresses, as well as laying out angles and curves.
+
+This is a trade wherein he must keep in mind many calculations as to
+materials, number, size, and methods of joining; he must remember all
+the small details which go to make up the entire structure. This
+exercise necessitates a mental picture of the finished product. His
+imagination is thus directed to concrete objects. As the mind develops,
+it becomes creative in its character, and the foundation is laid for a
+higher sphere of usefulness in what is called the professional field.
+
+A good carpenter naturally develops into an architect, and the best
+architect is he who knows the trade. It is a profession which requires
+not only the artistic taste, but a technical knowledge of details, of
+how practically to carry out the work, how to superintend construction,
+and what the different methods are for doing things.
+
+The architect must have a scientific education, which gives him a
+knowledge of the strength of materials, and of structural forms; of the
+durability of materials; of the price, quality, and use of everything
+which goes into a structure; of labor conditions; and of the laws
+pertaining to buildings.
+
+Many of these questions will naturally present themselves to the
+carpenter. They are in the sphere of his employment, but it depends upon
+himself to make the proper use of the material thus daily brought to
+him.
+
+It is with a view to instil that desire and ambition in every young man,
+to make the brain do what the hand has heretofore done, that I suggest
+this course. The learned profession is yours if you deserve it, and you
+can deserve it only through study, application, and perseverance.
+
+Do well that which you attempt to do. _Don't_ do it in that manner
+because some one has done it in that way before you. If, in the trade,
+the experience of ages has taught the craftsman that some particular way
+of doing things is correct, there is no law to prevent you from
+combating that method. Your way may be better. But you must remember
+that in every plan for doing a thing there is some particular reason, or
+reasons, why it is carried out in that way. Study and learn to apply
+those reasons.
+
+So in your leisure or in your active moments, if you wish to advance,
+you must be alert. _Know for yourself the reasons for things_, and you
+will thereby form the stepping stones that will lead you upward and
+contribute to your success.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+USEFUL ARTICLES TO MAKE
+
+
+As stated in the Introductory, the purpose of this book is to show _how
+to do the things_, and not to draw a picture in order to write a
+description of it. Merely in the line of suggestion, we give in this
+chapter views and brief descriptions of useful household articles, all
+of which may be made by the boy who has carefully studied the preceding
+pages.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 247._]
+
+This figure shows a common bench wholly made of material 1 inch thick,
+the top being 12 inches wide and 4 feet long. The legs are 14 inches
+high and 13 inches wide; and the side supporting rails are 3 inches
+wide. These proportions may, of course, be varied. You will note that
+the sides of the top or seat have an overhang of 1/2 inch on each
+margin.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 248._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 249._]
+
+This is a common, square-top stool, the seat being 12" × 12", and the
+legs 14 inches high. Two of the pieces forming the legs are 10 inches
+wide and the other two 8 inches wide, so that when the wide pieces are
+nailed to the edges of the narrow pieces the leg body will be 10" × 10"
+and thus give the seat an overhang of 1 inch around the margins.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 250._]
+
+A most useful article is shown in Fig. 249. It is a blacking-box with a
+lid, a folding shoe rest and three compartments. The detached figure
+shows a vertical cross-section of the body of the box, and illustrates
+how the shoe rest is hinged to the sides of the box. The box itself is
+14" × 16" in dimensions; the sides are 6 inches wide and the legs 5
+inches in height. In order to give strength to the legs, the bottom has
+its corners cut out, to permit the upper ends of the legs to rest in
+the recesses thus formed.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 251._]
+
+This is a convenient form of easel, made of four uprights. The main
+front uprights are of strips 5/8" × 1-1/4", and the rear uprights are of
+1/2" × 1" material. A thin broomstick will serve as the pivot bar for
+the upper end. The rest is made of two strips, each 1/2" × 1", nailed
+together to form an L, and nails or wooden pins will serve to hold the
+rest in any desired position. The front uprights should be at least 5
+feet long.
+
+A simple hanging book-rack is illustrated in Fig. 251. The two vertical
+strips are each 4 inches wide, 1 inch thick and 4 feet long. Four
+shelves are provided, each 3/4 inch thick, 9 inches wide and 4 feet
+long. Each shelf is secured to the uprights by hinges on the upper side,
+so as to permit it to be swung upwardly, or folded; and below each hinge
+is a triangular block or bracket, fixed to the shelf, to support it in a
+horizontal position.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 252._]
+
+A sad-iron holder, or bookcase, shown in Fig. 252, is another simple
+form of structure. It may be sufficiently large to serve as a standing
+case by having the uprights at the ends serve as legs, or the uprights
+may have holes at their upper ends, by means of which it can be
+suspended on a wall. As shown, it is 30 inches long from bottom to top,
+and 20 inches wide. The shelves are 8 inches wide. All the material is,
+preferably, 3/4-inch stock.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 253._]
+
+Fig. 253 shows a wood-box, or it may readily be adapted for coal. For
+wood it should be 2 feet long, 1 foot 8 inches wide and 1 foot 10 inches
+high. It will, of course, be made of such dimensions as to suit the wood
+to be stored in it, and both the flat-top as well as the sloping portion
+of the top should be hinged, so that the entire top can be opened for
+filling purposes.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 254._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 255._]
+
+A pair of parallel bars is shown in Fig. 254. The dimensions of this
+will vary, and be dependent on the size of the boy intending to use it;
+but a size best adapted is to make the posts 3 feet high, and the
+distance between the bars 16 inches. This gives ample room for the
+exercises required. The length between the posts along the bars should
+be at least 5 feet. The entire structure can be made of soft wood,
+except the bars, which should be of hard, rigid wood. The posts can be
+made of 2" × 2" material, and the braces 2" × 1". The base pieces, both
+longitudinal and transverse, should also be of 2" × 2" material.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 256._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 257._]
+
+Fig. 255 represents a mission type of writing desk for a boy's use. All
+the posts, braces and horizontal bars are of 2" × 2" material, secured
+to each other by mortises and tenons. The legs are 27 inches high up to
+the table top, and the narrow shelf is 12 inches above the top. The most
+convenient size for the top is 26" × 48". The top boards may be 1 inch
+thick and the shelf the same thickness, or even 3/4 inch. It is well
+braced and light, and its beauty will depend largely on the material of
+which it is made.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 258._]
+
+The screen (Fig. 256) represents simply the framework, showing how
+simple the structure is. The bars are all of 1-1/2" × 1-1/2" material,
+secured together by mortises and tenons.
+
+Fig. 257 represents a mission chair to match the desk (Fig. 255), and
+should be made of the same material. The posts are all of 2" × 2"
+material. The seat of the chair should be 16 inches, and the rear posts
+should extend up above the seat at least 18 inches.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 259._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 260._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 261._]
+
+Fig. 258 is a good example of a grandfather's clock in mission style.
+The framework only is shown. The frame is 12" × 12", and 5 feet high,
+and made up of 2" × 2" material. When neatly framed together, it is a
+most attractive article of furniture. The top may be covered in any
+suitable way, showing a roof effect. The opening for the dial face of
+the clock should be at one of the gable ends.
+
+A more pretentious bookcase is shown in Fig. 259, in which the frame is
+made up wholly of 2" × 2" material. The cross-end bars serve as ledges
+to support the shelves. This may be lined interiorly and backed with
+suitable casing material, such as Lincrusta Walton, or fiber-board, and
+the front provided with doors. Our only object is to show the framework
+for your guidance, and merely to make suggestions as to structural
+forms.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 262._]
+
+Another most serviceable article is a case for a coal scuttle (Fig.
+260). This should be made of 1-inch boards, and the size of the door,
+which carries the scuttle shelf, should be 12" × 16" in size. From this
+you can readily measure the dimensions of the case itself, the exterior
+dimensions of which are 15" × 20", so that when the 1-inch top is placed
+on, it will be 21 inches high. The case from front to rear is 12 inches,
+and the shelf above the top is 11 inches wide, and elevated 10 inches
+above the top of the case. This is a most useful box for culinary
+articles, if not needed for coal, because the ledge, used for the coal
+scuttle, can be used to place utensils on, and when the door is opened
+all the utensils are exposed to view, and are, therefore, much more
+accessible than if stored away in the case itself.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 263._]
+
+A mission armchair. Fig. 261 is more elaborate than the chair shown in
+Fig. 257, but it is the same in general character, and is also made of
+2" × 2" stock. The seat is elevated 16 inches from the floor, and the
+rear posts are 28 inches high. The arms are 8 inches above the seat. A
+chair of this character should have ample seat space, so the seat is 18"
+× 18".
+
+The dog house (Fig. 262), made in imitation of a dwelling, is 24 inches
+square, and 18 inches high to the eaves of the roof. The opening in
+front is 8" × 10", exclusive of the shaped portion of the opening.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 264._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 265._]
+
+Fig. 263 shows a simple and easily constructed settee with an under
+shelf. The seat is 16 inches from the floor and 24 inches wide. The back
+extends up 24 inches from the seat. The lower shelf is midway between
+the floor and seat, and is 19 inches wide. This may or may not be
+upholstered, dependent on the character of the material of which it is
+made. If upholstered, the boards may be of second-class material,
+preferably of pine or other light, soft wood.
+
+A towel rack (Fig. 264) is always a needed article in the kitchen. The
+roller may be an old curtain roller cut down to 18 inches in length. The
+top piece is 2-1/2 inches wide and 21 inches long. The vertical bars are
+each 1-1/2 inches wide and 9 inches long. The brackets are 1-1/2 inches
+wide and made of 3/4-inch material.
+
+Fig. 265 represents the framework of a sofa, the seat of which is 16
+inches high, the front posts up to the arm-rests 24 inches, and the rear
+posts 38 inches. From front to rear the seat is 18 inches. The posts are
+of 3" × 3" material. This makes a very rigid article of furniture, if
+mortised and tenoned and properly glued. The seat is 6 feet long, but it
+may be lengthened or shortened to suit the position in which it is to be
+placed. It is a companion piece to the chair (Fig. 261).
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII
+
+SPECIAL TOOLS AND THEIR USES
+
+
+In the foregoing chapters we have referred the reader to the simple
+tools, but it is thought desirable to add to the information thus given,
+an outline of numerous special tools which have been devised and are now
+on the market.
+
+BIT AND LEVEL ADJUSTER.--It is frequently necessary to bore holes at
+certain angles. This can be done by using a bevel square, and holding it
+so one limb will show the boring angle. But this is difficult to do in
+many cases.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 266. Bit and Square level._]
+
+This tool has three pairs of V slots on its back edges. The shank of the
+bit will lie in these slots, as shown in Fig. 266, either vertically, or
+at an angle of 45 degrees, and boring can be done with the utmost
+accuracy. It may be attached to a Carpenter's square, thus making it an
+accurate plumb or level.
+
+MITER BOXES.--The advantages of metal miter boxes is apparent, when
+accurate work is required.
+
+The illustration, Fig. 267, shows a metal tool of this kind, in which
+the entire frame is in one solid casting. The saw guide uprights are
+clamped in tapered sockets in the swivel arm and can be adjusted to hold
+the saw without play, and this will also counteract a saw that runs out
+of true, due to improper setting or filing.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 267. Metal Miter Box._]
+
+A second socket in the swivel arm permits the use of a short saw or
+allows a much longer stroke with a standard or regular saw.
+
+The swivel arm is provided with a tapering index pin which engages in
+holes placed on the under side of the base. The edge of the base is
+graduated in degrees, as plainly shown, and the swivel arm can be set
+and automatically fastened at any degree desired.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 268. Parts of Metal Miter Box._]
+
+The uprights, front and back are graduated in sixteenths of inches, and
+movable stops can be set, by means of thumb-screw to the depth of the
+cut desired.
+
+Figure 268 shows the parts of the miter box, in which the numbers
+designate the various parts: 101 is the frame; 102 the frame board; 104
+frame leg; 106 guide stock; 107 stock guide clamp; 109 stock guide
+plate; 110 swivel arm; 111 swivel arm bushing; 112 swivel bushing screw;
+113 index clamping lever; 115 index clamping lever catch; 116 index
+clamping lever spring; 122 swivel complete; 123 T-base; 124-1/2
+uprights; 126 saw guide cap; 127 saw guide cap plate; 132 saw guide tie
+bar; 133 left saw guide stop and screw; 134 right side guide stop and
+screw; 135 saw guide stop spring; 136 saw guide cylinder; 137 saw guide
+cylinder plate; 138 trip lever (back); 139 trip lever (front); 141
+leveling screw; 142 trip clamp and screw; 146 T-base clamp screw.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 269. Angle Dividers._]
+
+ANGLE DIVIDERS.--This is another tool, which does not cost much and is
+of great service to the carpenter in fitting moldings where they are
+applied at odd angles.
+
+To lay out the cut with an ordinary bevel necessitates the use of
+dividers and a second handling of the bevel, making three operations.
+
+THE "ODD JOB" TOOL.--A most useful special tool, which combines in its
+make-up a level, plumb try-square, miter-square, bevel, scratch awl,
+depth gage, marking gage, miter gage, beam compass, and a one-foot rule.
+To the boy who wishes to economize in the purchase of tools this is an
+article which should be obtained.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 270. "Odd Job" Tool._]
+
+Figure 270 shows the simplicity of the tool, and how it is applied in
+use.
+
+BIT BRACES.--These tools are now made with so many improved features
+that there is really no excuse for getting poor tools.
+
+The illustrations show merely the heads and the lower operating parts of
+the tools. Fig. 271 shows a metal-clad ball-bearing head, so called, as
+its under side is completely encased in metal securely screwed to the
+wood and revolving against the ball thrust bearing.
+
+D represents a concealed ratchet in which the cam ring governs the
+ratchet, and, being in line with the bit, makes it more convenient in
+handling than when it is at right angles. The ratchet parts are entirely
+enclosed, thus keeping out moisture and dirt, retaining lubrication and
+protecting the users' hands.
+
+The ratchet mechanism is interchangeable, and may be taken apart by
+removing one screw. The two-piece clutch, which is drop forged, is
+backed by a very strong spring, insuring a secure lock. When locked, ten
+teeth are in engagement, while five are employed while working at a
+ratchet. It has universal jaws (G) for both wood and metal workers.
+
+In Fig. 272, B represents a regular ball bearing head, with the wood
+screw on the large spindle and three small screws to prevent its working
+loose. This also has a ball thrust. E is the ratchet box, and this shows
+the gear teeth cut on the extra heavy spindle, and encased, so that the
+user's hands are protected from the teeth.
+
+The interlocking jaws (H), which are best for taper shanks, hold up to
+No. 2 Clark's expansion, and are therefore particularly adapted for
+carpenter's use.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 271. Fig. 272. Fig. 273. Types of Bit Braces._]
+
+In Fig. 273 the plain bearing head (C) has no ball thrust. The head is
+screwed on the spindle and held from turning off by two small screws.
+The open ratchet (F) shows the gear pinned to the spindle and exposed.
+This has alligator jaws (J), and will hold all ordinary size taper shank
+bits, also small and medium round shank bits or drills.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 274. Fig. 275. Fig. 276. Steel Frame Breast Drills._]
+
+STEEL FRAME BREAST DRILL.--These drills are made with both single and
+double speed, each speed having three varieties of jaws. The single
+speed is very high, the ratio being 4-1/2 to 1, which makes it
+desirable to use for small drills, or for use in wood.
+
+A level is firmly set in the frames of these tools to assist the user to
+maintain a horizontal position in boring. Each of the forms shown has a
+ball thrust bearing between the pinion and frame. The breast plate may
+be adjusted to suit and is locked by a set screw. The spindle is kept
+from turning while changing drills, by means of the latch mounted on the
+frame, and readily engaging with the pinion. The crank is pierced in
+three places so that the handle can be set for three different sweeps,
+depending on the character of the work.
+
+Figure 274 has a three jaw chuck, and has only single speed. Figure 275
+has an interlocking jaw, and is provided with double speed gearing.
+Figure 276 has a universal jaw, and double speed.
+
+PLANES.--The most serviceable planes are made in iron, and it might be
+well to show a few of the most important, to bring out the manner
+employed to make the adjustments of the bits.
+
+In order to familiarize the boy with the different terms used in a
+plane, examine Figure 277. The parts are designated as follows: 1A is
+the double plane iron; 1 single plane iron; 2 plane iron cap; 3 cap
+screw; 4 lever cap; 5 lever cap screw; 6 frog complete; 7 Y adjusting
+lever; 8 adjusting nut; 9 lateral adjusting lever; 11 plane handle; 12
+plane knob; 13 handle bolt and nut; 14 knob bolt and nut; 15 plane
+handle screw; 16 plane bottom; 44 frog pin; 45 frog clamping screw; 46
+frog adjusting screw.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 277. Details of Metal Plane._]
+
+RABBETING, MATCHING AND DADO PLANES.--Figure 278 shows a useful form of
+plane for the reason that it is designed to receive a variety of irons,
+adapted to cut rabbets.
+
+The detached sections of Fig. 278 show the various parts, as well as the
+bits which belong to it. 1, 1 represent the single plane irons; 4 the
+lever cap; 16 the plane bottom, 50 the fence; 51 the fence thumb screw;
+61 the short arm; 70 the adjustable depth gage; 71 the depth gage which
+goes through the screw; and 85 the spurs with screws.
+
+MOLDING AND BEADING PLANE.--A plane of the character shown in Fig. 279
+will do an immense variety of work in molding, beading and dado work,
+and is equally well adapted for rabbeting, for filletsters and for match
+planing. The regular equipment with this tool comprises fifty-two
+cutters.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 278. Rabbet, Matching and Dado Plane._]
+
+As shown in Fig. 279, the plane has a main stock (A), which carries the
+cutter adjustment, a handle, a depth gage, a slitting gage, and a steel
+bottom forming a bearing for the other end of the cutter, and slides on
+arms secured to the main stock.
+
+This bottom can be raised or lowered, so that, in addition to allowing
+the use of cutters of different widths, cutters can be used having one
+edge higher or lower than the edge supported in the main stock.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 279. Molding and Beading Plane._]
+
+The auxiliary center bottom (C), which can be adjusted for width or
+depth, fulfils the requirement of preventing the plane from tilting and
+gouging the work. The fence D has a lateral adjustment by means of a
+screw, for extra fine work. The four small cuts in the corners show how
+the bottoms should be set for different forms of cutters, and the great
+importance of having the fences adjusted so that the cutters will not
+run.
+
+The samples of work illustrated show some of the moldings which can be
+turned out with the plane.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 280. Dovetail Tongue and Groove Plane._]
+
+DOVETAIL TONGUE AND GROOVE PLANE.--This is a very novel tool, and has
+many features to recommend it. Figure 280 shows its form, and how it is
+used. It is designed to make the dovetailed tongue as well as the
+groove.
+
+It will cut any size groove and tongues to fit with sides of twenty
+degrees flare, where the width of the neck is more than one-quarter of
+an inch thick, and the depth of the groove not more than three-quarters
+of an inch. The tongue and groove are cut separately, and can be made
+with parallel or tapering sides. The operation of the plane is very
+simple.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 281. Fig. 282. Router Planes._]
+
+ROUTER PLANES.--This is a type of plane used for surfacing the bottom of
+grooves or other depressions parallel with the general surface of the
+work.
+
+The planes are made in two types, one, like Fig. 281, which has a closed
+throat, and the other, Fig. 282, with an open throat. Both are
+serviceable, but the latter is preferable. These planes will level off
+bottoms of depression, very accurately, and the tool is not an expensive
+one.
+
+DOOR TRIM PLANE.--This is a tool for making mortises for butts, face
+plates, strike plates, escutcheons, and the like, up to a depth of 5/16,
+and a width of 3 inches. The principal feature in the plane is the
+method of mounting the cutter, which can be instantly set to work from
+either end of the plane or across it.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 283. Door Trim Plane._]
+
+The cutter, as shown in Fig. 283, is cushioned by a spring which
+prevents taking a heavier chip than can be easily carried. A fence
+regulates the position of the cut and insures the sides of the cut being
+parallel. The depth of the cut is governed by a positive stop. By
+removing the fence and locking the cutter post with the thumb screw,
+instead of using the spring, a very superior router plane is obtained.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX
+
+ROOFING TRUSSES
+
+
+The chapter on Bridge Building gives some suggestions as to form of
+trusses, the particular types there shown being principally for wide
+spans. Such trusses were made for one purpose only, namely, to take
+great weight, and they were, as a consequence, so constructed as to
+provide strength.
+
+But a roofing truss, while designed to hold the accumulated materials,
+such as snow and ice, likely to be deposited there, is of such a design,
+principally, so as to afford means of ornamentation. This remark has
+reference to such types as dispense with the cross, or tie beam, which
+is the distinguishing feature in bridge building.
+
+The tie beam is also an important element in many types of trusses,
+where ornamentation is not required, or in such structures as have the
+roofed portion of the buildings enclosed by ceiling walls, or where the
+space between the roofs is used for storage purposes.
+
+In England, and on the Continent of Europe, are thousands of trusses
+structured to support the roofs, which are marvels of beauty. Some of
+them are bewildering in their formation. The moldings, beaded surfaces,
+and the carved outlines of the soffits, of the arches, and of the
+purlins, are wonderful in detail.
+
+The wooden roof of Westminster Hall, while very simple in structure, as
+compared with many others, looks like an intricate maze of beams, struts
+and braces, but it is, nevertheless, so harmonized that the effect is
+most pleasing to the eye, and its very appearance gives the impression
+of grandeur and strength.
+
+Nearly all of the forms shown herein have come down to us from mediæval
+times, when more stress was laid on wooden structures than at the
+present time, but most of the stone and metal buildings grew out of the
+wooden prototypes.
+
+Now the prime object of nearly all the double-roofed trusses was to
+utilize the space between the rafters so as to give height and majesty
+to the interior.
+
+A large dome is grand, owing to its great simplicity, but the same plain
+outlines, or lack of ornamentation, in the ceiling of a square or
+rectangular building would be painful to view, hence, the braces, beams,
+plates, and various supports of the roofed truss served as ornamental
+parts, and it is in this particular that the art of the designer finds
+his inspiration.
+
+Before proceeding to apply the matter of ornamentation, it might be well
+to develop these roof forms, starting with the old type Barn Roof, where
+the space between the rafters must be utilized for the storage of hay.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 284. Gambrel Roof._]
+
+_The Gambrel Roof_, Fig. 284, requires a tie beam, (A), as shown, but
+the space above the beam is free of all obstructions, and gives a large
+storage space. The roof has two sets of rafters (B, C), and of different
+pitch, the lower rafters (B) having a pitch of about 30 degrees, and the
+upper ones (C), about 45 degrees.
+
+A tie bar (D) joins the middle portion of each of the rafters (B, C) and
+another tie bar (E) joins the middle part of the rafter (B), and the
+supporting post (F). The cross tie beam (G) completes the span, and a
+little study will show the complete interdependence of one piece upon
+the other.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 285. Purlin Roof._]
+
+_The Purlin Roof_ is a type of structure used very largely throughout
+the United States, for wide barns. (A) is the cross beam; (B, B) the
+purlin posts; (C, C) the purlin plates; (D, D) the rafters; and (E, E)
+the supporting braces.
+
+The rafters (D) are in two sections, the distance from the eaves to the
+comb being too great for single length rafters, and the purlin plates
+are not designed to make what is called a "self-supporting" roof, but
+merely to serve as supports for the regular rafters.
+
+_The Princess Truss_, on the other hand, is designed to act as a support
+for the different lengths of rafters (A, B, C), and as a means for
+holding the roof. It is adapted for low pitch and wide spans.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 286. Princess Truss._]
+
+The main truss is made up of the cross beam (D), rafters (E, E) and
+thrust beam (F). Purlin posts (G, G) are placed at an angle intermediate
+the ends of the rafters, and the purlin plates (H, H) support the roof
+rafters (A, B, C); I, I are the vertical tie rods.
+
+This type is probably the oldest form of truss for building purposes,
+and it has been modified in many ways, the most usual modification being
+the substitution of posts for the tie rods (I, I).
+
+Following out the foregoing forms, we may call attention to one more
+type which permitted ornamentation to a considerable degree, although it
+still required the tie beam. In fact the tie beam itself was the feature
+on which the architect depended to make the greatest effect by
+elaborating it.
+
+This is shown in Fig. 287, and is called the _Arched_, or _Cambered, Tie
+Beam Truss_. It is a very old type, samples of which have been found
+which take it back to a very remote age.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 287. Arched, or Cambered, Tie Beam._]
+
+The tie beam A, in wide spans, was made in two sections, properly tied
+together, and sometimes the outer ends were very wide, and to add to the
+effect of the arch, it might also be raised in the middle, something in
+the form shown by the dotted line (B).
+
+_The Mansard_ is what may be called a double-mounted roof, and it will
+be seen how it was evolved from the preceding types. It will be noted
+that the simple truss formed by the members (A, B, C) is merely
+superposed on the leaning posts, the tie beam also being necessary in
+this construction.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 288. The Mansard._]
+
+But the most elaborate formations are those which were intended to
+provide trusses for buildings wherein the tie beams were dispensed with.
+
+The simplest form known is called the _Scissors Beam_, illustrated in
+Fig. 289. This has been utilized for small spaces, and steep pitches.
+Each rafter (A) has an angled beam or brace (B), springing from its
+base, to the opposite rafter (A), to which it is joined, midway between
+its ends, as at C.
+
+Where the two braces (B) cross each other they are secured together, as
+at D. As a result, three trusses are formed, namely, 1, 2, 3, and it
+possesses remarkable strength.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 289. Scissors Beam._]
+
+BRACED COLLAR BEAM.--This is a modification of the last type, but is
+adapted for thick walls only. The tie rod braces (A, A) have to be
+brought down low to give a good bracing action, and this arrangement is
+capable of considerable ornamentation.
+
+The steeper the pitch the higher up would be the inner and lower brace
+posts (B, B) which were supported by the top of the wall. This form is
+not available for wide spans, and is shown to illustrate how the
+development was made into the succeeding types.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 290. Braced Collar Beam._]
+
+THE RIB AND COLLAR TRUSS, Fig. 291, is the first important structural
+arrangement which permitted the architect to give full sway to
+embellishment. The inwardly-projecting members (A, A) are called _Hammer
+Beams_. They were devised as a substitute for the thick walls used in
+the Braced Collar Beam Truss, and small brackets (B, B) were placed
+beneath as supports.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 291. Rib and Collar Truss._]
+
+The short tie beam (C), near the apex, serves as the member to receive
+the thrust and stress of the curved ribs (D, D). It forms a most
+graceful type of roof, and is capable of the most exquisite
+ornamentation, but it is used for the high pitched roofs only.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 290-1/2. Hammer Beam Truss._]
+
+The acme of all constructions, in which strength, beauty, and capacity
+for ornamentation are blended, is the _Hammer Beam Truss_. Here the
+hammer beam projects inwardly farther than in the preceding figure, and
+has a deeper bracket (B), and this also extends down the pendant post
+(C) a greater distance.
+
+The curved supporting arch (D), on each side, is not ribbed, as in the
+Rib and Collar Truss, but instead, is provided with openwork (not shown
+herein), together with beadings and moldings, and other ornamental
+characteristics, and some of the most beautiful architectural forms in
+existence are in this type of roof.
+
+What are called Flying Buttresses (E) are sometimes used in connection
+with the Hammer Beam Truss, which, with heavy roofs and wide spans, is
+found to be absolutely necessary.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XX
+
+ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF JOINTS
+
+
+In uniting two or more elements, some particular type of joint is
+necessary. In framing timbers, in making braces, in roof construction
+and supports, in floor beams, and in numerous other places, where
+strength is required, the workman should have at his command a knowledge
+of the most serviceable methods.
+
+Illustrations can most forcibly convey the different types; but the
+sizes must be determined by the character of the material you are
+working with. Our aim is to give the idea involved, and the name by
+which each is known.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 292. Bridle Joints._]
+
+Reference has been made in Chapter X, to certain forms of scarfing and
+lapping pieces. This chapter has to do with a variety of other
+structural forms, but principally with such as are used in heavy
+building work, and in cases where neither fish plates nor scarfing will
+answer the purpose.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 293. Spur Tenon._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 294. Saddle Joints._]
+
+BRIDLE JOINTS.--This is a form of joint where permanency is not desired,
+and where it is necessary to readily seat or unseat the vertical timber.
+It is also obvious that the socket for the upright is of such a
+character that it will not weaken it to any great extent.
+
+SPUR TENON.--This tenon can be used in many places where the regular one
+is not available. This, like the preceding, is used where the parts are
+desired to be detachable, and the second form is one which is used in
+many structures.
+
+SADDLE JOINT.--This is still another manner in which a quickly
+detachable joint can be constructed. The saddle may be mounted on the
+main base, or cut into the base piece. An infinite variety of forms of
+saddles are made, most of them being used in dock work, and for framing
+of that character where large timbers are used, as in the building of
+coal chutes, and the like.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 295. Joggle Joints._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 296. Framing Joints._]
+
+JOGGLE JOINT.--This joint is used almost exclusively for brace work
+where great weight must be supported. The brace has a tenon, and the
+end must also be so arranged that it will have a direct bearing against
+the upright, which it braces and supports, or it may have two faces, as
+in the second figure, which is an exceedingly strong construction.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 297. Heel Joints._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 298. Stub Tenon._]
+
+FRAMING JOINTS.--These are the simplest form in which two members are
+secured together. They are used almost wholly in rafter work, and have
+very few modifications. The depth of the cut, for the toe of the rafter,
+depends on the load to be carried, and also on the distance the end of
+the rafter is from the end of the horizontal member on which the rafter
+rests.
+
+HEEL JOINTS.--This is by far the most secure of the framing type of
+joints. This, if properly made, is much better than the construction
+shown in the previous illustration, but the difficulty is to make the
+rafter fit into the recesses properly. This is no excuse for failure to
+use, but it is on account of inability to make close fits that is
+accountable for lack of use. It will be seen that in case one of the
+heels rests against the recess, and the others do not, and the pressure
+is great, there is a liability to tear out the entire joint.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 299. Tusk Tenon._]
+
+STUB TENON.--This is another form of tenon which is made and designed to
+be used where it is in close proximity to another tenon, or where the
+mortises, if made full size, will weaken the member. The long tusk can
+be shortened, to suit the place where it projects, and the stub tenon on
+each side of the tusk may be made very short, and one side longer than
+the other if necessary.
+
+TUSK TENON.--Two forms of tusk construction are given. Any number of
+forms have been devised, all for special purposes, and designed for
+different kinds of woods. These shown are particularly adapted for soft
+woods, and the principal feature that is valuable lies in the fact that
+they have a number of shoulders within the mortise, each of which,
+necessarily adds to the strength. It should be observed that in the
+construction of the tusk tenon, the greatest care must be taken to have
+it fit the mortise tightly, and this has reference to the bottom and
+shoulder ends as well.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 300. Double Tusk Tenon._]
+
+DOUBLE TUSK TENONS.--The distinguishing difference between this and the
+preceding is in the tusk, which in this form of construction goes
+through the upright member, and is held by a cross key. The double tusk
+is intended for hard woods, and it is regarded as the finest, as well
+as the strongest, joint known.
+
+COGGED JOINTS.--This differs from the regular tenoning and mortising
+methods, principally because the groove or recess is in the form of an
+open gain. It is used where the member is to be inserted after the main
+structure is put together.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 301. Cogged Joints._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 302. Anchor Joint._]
+
+ANCHOR JOINT.--This form of connection is designed for very large
+timbers, and where great care must be taken in making the parts fit
+together nicely, as everything depends on this. This style is never
+used where the angles are less than 45 degrees, and the depth of the
+gain in the timber receiving the brace is dependent on the thrust of the
+brace.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 303. Deep Anchor Joint._]
+
+The Deep Anchor Joint is an extension of the tongue of the Anchor tenon,
+so that it affords a greater support for the end thrust. To clearly
+distinguish between this and the preceding form, it might be said that
+the Anchor Joint is one designed to protect the member containing the
+gains, while the Deep Anchor Joint favors the brace, by giving it a
+greater power.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXI
+
+SOME MISTAKES, AND A LITTLE ADVICE IN CARPENTRY
+
+
+In the mechanical arts, workers are as likely to learn from the mistakes
+committed as through correct information imparted. Advice, therefore,
+might be considered superfluous. But there are certain things which are
+easily remembered and may be borne in mind while engaged in turning out
+any work.
+
+This chapter is not given for the purpose of calling attention to all
+the errors which are so common, but merely to point out a few which the
+boy will commit as he tries to carry out his work for the first time.
+
+One of the difficult things for any one to learn, in working with wood,
+is to plane the edge of a board straight and square at the same time.
+This is made doubly difficult if it is desired to plane it strictly to
+dimensions.
+
+Usually before the edge is straight it is down to the proper width
+desired, and it is then too late to correct any error, because further
+work will make it too narrow.
+
+The whole difficulty is in the holding of the plane. It matters not how
+rigidly it is held, and how carefully it is guarded to veer it toward
+one side or the other, it will be found a most difficult task.
+
+If the fore, or finishing, plane is used, and which is the proper tool
+for the purpose, the impression seems to be, that to square up the edge
+and make it cut off a thicker shaving on one side than on the other,
+requires that the plane should be pressed down with force, so as to make
+it dig in and cut a thicker shaving.
+
+When this is resorted to the board is liable to get out of true from end
+to end. A much better plan is to put the plane on the edge of the board
+true and straight. If it is too high on the edge nearest you, bring the
+plane over so the inside edge is flush with the inside edge of the
+board.
+
+Then use the fingers of the left hand as a gage to keep the plane from
+running over.
+
+Now, the weight of the plane in such a condition is sufficient to take
+off a thicker shaving at the high edge, and this will be done without
+any effort, and will enable you to concentrate your thoughts on keeping
+the plane straight with the board.
+
+The weight of the plane will make a thicker shaving on one side than on
+the other, and correct inequalities, provided you do not attempt to
+force the plane.
+
+It requires an exceedingly steady hand to hold a plane firmly for
+squaring up a half-inch board. Singular as it may seem, it is almost as
+difficult a job with a two-inch plank. In the case of the thin board the
+plane will move laterally, unless the utmost care is exercised; in the
+truing up the thick plank the constant tendency is to move the plane
+along the surface at a slight diagonal, and this is sure to cause
+trouble.
+
+It only emphasizes the fact most clearly, that to do a good job the
+plane must be firmly held, that it must move along the board with the
+utmost precision, and that it should not be forced into the wood.
+
+In smoothing down a board with the short smoothing plane, preparatory to
+sandpapering it, the better plan is to move the plane slightly across
+the grain. This will enable the bit to take hold better, and when the
+sandpaper is applied the course of the movement should be across the
+grain opposite the direction taken by the smoothing plane.
+
+It is never satisfactory to draw the sandpaper directly along in the
+course of the grain. Such a habit will cause the sandpaper to fill up
+very rapidly, particularly with certain woods.
+
+When gluing together joints or tenons, always wipe off the surplus glue
+with warm water taken from the glue pot. If you do not follow this
+advice the glue will gum up the tools and the sandpaper used to finish
+the work.
+
+Never try to work from opposite sides of a piece of material. Have a
+_work side_ and a work _edge_, and make all measurements therefrom. Mark
+each piece as you go along. Take a note mentally just how each piece is
+to be placed, and what must be done with it.
+
+The carpenter, above all others, must be able to carry a mental picture
+of his product.
+
+Never saw out the scribing or marking line, either in cutting or in
+ripping. The lines should be obliterated by the plane, when it is being
+finished, and not before.
+
+Make it a habit to finish off the surfaces and edges true and smooth
+before the ends are cut, or the mortises or tenons are made. This is one
+of the most frequent mistakes. No job can be a perfect one unless your
+material has been worked down to proper dimensions.
+
+Learn to saw across a board squarely. This may be a hard thing for the
+novice to do. A long, easy stroke of the saw will prevent it from
+running, unless too badly set or filed, and will also enable you to hold
+it more nearly square with the board.
+
+If you find that you invariably saw "out of true," then take some sawing
+lessons for your own benefit, until you can judge whether the saw is
+held true or not.
+
+It is better to saw up a half dozen boards in making the test than
+commit the error while working on a job.
+
+
+
+
+GLOSSARY OF WORDS USED IN TEXT OF THIS VOLUME
+
+
+$Acute.$ Sharp, to the point.
+
+$Adjuster.$ A tool which measures distances and relative spaces.
+
+$Æsthetic.$ The theory of taste; science of the beautiful in nature and
+art.
+
+$Abstract.$ That which exists in the mind only; separate from matter; to
+think of separately as a quality.
+
+$Alligator jaws.$ A term used to designate a pair of serrated bars which
+are held together in a headpiece, and capable of clamping bits between
+them.
+
+$Analyzed.$ Separated into its primitive or original parts.
+
+$Anchor.$ Any device for holding an object in a fixed position.
+
+$Angle dividers.$ A sort of double bevel tool so arranged that an angle
+can be made at the same time on both side of a base line.
+
+$Angularly disposed.$ Forming an angle with reference to some part or
+position.
+
+$Archivolt.$ The architectural member surrounding the curved opening of
+an arch. More commonly the molding or other ornaments with which the
+wall face of an arch is changed.
+
+$Artisan.$ One trained in some mechanic's art or trade.
+
+$Beaded.$ A piece of wood or iron having rounded creases on its
+surface.
+
+$Beam compass.$ A drawing compass in which the points are arranged to
+slide on a rod, instead of being fixed on dividers.
+
+$Belfry.$ A bell-tower, usually attached to a church.
+
+$Bevel square.$ A handle to which is pivotally attached a blade, which
+may be swung and held at any desired angle.
+
+$Bisected.$ To divide, mark, or cut into two portions.
+
+$Bit.$ A small tool, either for drilling, or for cutting, as a plane
+iron.
+
+$Braced collar.$ A form of roofing truss, in which the upper cross
+member is supported by a pair of angled braces.
+
+$Breast drill.$ A tool for holding boring tools, and designed to have
+the head held against the breast for forcing in the boring tool.
+
+$Bridle joint.$ A form for securing elements together which provides a
+shallow depression in one member, and a chamfered member at its end to
+fit therein.
+
+$Bungalow.$ A Bengalese term; originally a thatched or tiled house or
+cottage, single story, usually surrounded by a veranda.
+
+$Bushing.$ A substance of any kind interposed, as, for instance, a
+wearing surface between a mandrel and its bearing.
+
+$Butts.$ A term applied to certain hinges, usually of the large type.
+
+$Callipered.$ A measured portion which has its side or thickness fixed
+by a finely graduated instrument.
+
+$Cambered.$ Slightly rising in the middle portion. An upward bend, or
+projection.
+
+$Capital.$ A small head or top of a column; the head or uppermost member
+of a pilaster.
+
+$Cardinal.$ Pre-eminent, chief, main line; _Cardinal_ line is the
+principal line to make calculations or measurements from.
+
+$Centering point.$ A place for the reception of the point of an
+instrument, like a compass or a dividers, or for the dead center of the
+tail-stock of a lathe.
+
+$Cheekpiece.$ A piece or pieces at right angles to another piece, either
+fixed or movable, which serves as a rest or a guide.
+
+$Chiffonier.$ A movable and ornamental closet or piece of furniture with
+shelves and drawers.
+
+$Chute.$ A channel in any material, or made of any substance, for
+conveying liquids or solids.
+
+$Circumference.$ The distance around an object.
+
+$Circumferentially.$ Surrounding or encircling.
+
+$Classical.$ Relating to the first class or rank, especially in
+literature or art.
+
+$Cogged.$ Having teeth, either at regular or at irregular intervals.
+
+$Concrete.$ Expressing the thing itself specifically; also the quality;
+a specific example.
+
+$Configuration.$ Form, as depending on the relative disposition of the
+parts of a thing; a shape or a figure.
+
+$Coincide.$ To occupy the same place in space; to correspond exactly; to
+agree; to concur.
+
+$Correlation.$ A reference, as from one thing to another; the putting
+together of various parts.
+
+$Conventional.$ Something which grows out of or depends upon custom, or
+is sanctioned by general usage.
+
+$Craftsman.$ One skilled in a craft or trade.
+
+$Curvature.$ The act of curving or being bent.
+
+$Concentrated.$ To bring to a common center; to bring together in one
+mass.
+
+$Dado.$ A plain flat surface between a base and a surbase molding.
+Sometimes a painted or encrusted skirting on interior walls.
+
+$Depth gage.$ A tool by means of which the depths of grooves and
+recesses are measured.
+
+$Degree.$ Measure of advancement; quality; extent; a division or space.
+
+$Discarded.$ Cast off; to reject or put away.
+
+$Deterioration.$ To grow worse; impairing in quality.
+
+$Depressed.$ A sunken surface or part.
+
+$Diagrammatical.$ A drawing made to illustrate the working or the
+scheme, without showing all the parts or giving their relative positions
+or measurements.
+
+$Diametrically.$ A direction toward the center or across the middle of a
+figure or thing.
+
+$Diagonal.$ A direction which is not parallel with or perpendicular to a
+line.
+
+$Dominate.$ To govern; controlling.
+
+$Door trim.$ The hardware which is attached to a door.
+
+$Double-roofed.$ All form of roof structure where there is an inner
+frame to support the rafters.
+
+$Drop forged.$ Metal forms which are struck up by means of heavy
+hammers, in which are the molds or patterns of the article to be formed.
+
+$Elaboration.$ Wrought with labor; finished with great care.
+
+$Elevation.$ The act of raising from a lower to a higher degree; a
+projection of a building or other object on a plane perpendicular to the
+horizon.
+
+$Elliptical.$ Having the form of an ellipse.
+
+$Embellishment.$ The act of adorning; that which adds beauty or
+elegance.
+
+$Entablature.$ The structure which lies horizontally upon the columns.
+
+$Equidistant.$ Being at an equal distance from a point.
+
+$Escutcheon.$ An ornamental plate like that part about a keyhole.
+
+$Evolve.$ To unfold or unroll; to open and expand.
+
+$Façade.$ The front of a building; the principal front having some
+architectural pretensions.
+
+$Facing-boards.$ The finishing of the face of a wall of different
+material than the main part of the wall; the wide board below the
+cornice or beneath the windows.
+
+$Factor.$ One of the elements, circumstances or influences which
+contribute to produce a result.
+
+$Fence.$ A term used to designate a metal barrier or guard on a part of
+a tool.
+
+$Fish plate.$ A pair of plates, usually placed on opposite sides of the
+pieces to be secured together, and held by cross bolts.
+
+$Flare.$ A pitch; an angle; an inclination.
+
+$Flush.$ Unbroken, or even in surface; on a level with the adjacent
+surface.
+
+$Frog clamping screw.$ A screw which is designed to hold or adjust two
+angled pieces.
+
+$Fulcrum.$ That by which a lever is sustained, or on which a lever rests
+in turning or moving a body.
+
+$Fluting.$ The channel or channels in a body; as the grooves in a
+column.
+
+$Gain.$ A square or beveled notch or groove cut out of a girder, beam,
+post or other material, at a corner.
+
+$Gambrel.$ A roof having two different pitches, the upper much greater
+than the lower.
+
+$Geometry.$ Pertaining to that branch of mathematics which investigates
+the relations, properties and measurements of solids, surfaces, lines
+and angles.
+
+$Girder.$ A main beam; a straight horizontal beam to span an opening or
+carry a weight, such as the ends of floor beams.
+
+$Glossary.$ A collection or explanation of words and passages of the
+works of an author; a partial dictionary.
+
+$Graduated.$ Cut up into steps; divided into equal parts.
+
+$Guide stock.$ A member which is the main portion of the tool, and from
+which all measurements are taken.
+
+$Hammer beam.$ A member in a truss roof structure, at the base of the
+roof proper, which consists of an inwardly projecting part, on which the
+roof rests, and from which it is braced.
+
+$Hammer-pole.$ The peon, or round end of a hammer which is used for
+driving nails.
+
+$Hemispherical.$ Pertaining to a half globe or sphere.
+
+$Horizontal.$ On the level; at right angles to a line which points to
+the center of the earth.
+
+$Incorporated.$ United in one body.
+
+$Index pin.$ A small movable member which is designed to limit the
+movement of the operative part of a machine.
+
+$Initial.$ To make a beginning with; the first of a series of acts or
+things.
+
+$Insulate.$ To place in a detached position; to separate from.
+
+$Interchangeable.$ One for the other.
+
+$Interval.$ A space between things; a void space; between two objects.
+
+$Interest.$ To engage the attention of; to awaken or attract attention.
+
+$Interlocking jaw.$ Two or more parts of a piece of mechanism in which
+the said parts pass each other in their motions.
+
+$Intersection.$ The point or line in which one line or surface cuts
+another.
+
+$Intervening.$ The portion between.
+
+$Inverted.$ Turned over; to put upside down.
+
+$Joggle-joint.$ A form of connection which has struts attached to a
+pendant post.
+
+$Joinery.$ The art or trade of joining wood.
+
+$Kerf.$ A notch, channel or slit made in any material by cutting or
+sawing.
+
+$Kit.$ A working outfit; a collection of tools or implements.
+
+$Level.$ A tool designed to indicate horizontal or vertical surfaces.
+
+$Liberal.$ Not narrow or contracted.
+
+$Lobe.$ Any projection, especially of a rounded form; the projecting
+part of a cam-wheel.
+
+$Longitudinal.$ In the direction of the length; running lengthwise.
+
+$Lubrication.$ The system of affording oiling means to a machine or to
+any article.
+
+$Mandrel.$ The live spindle of a lathe; the revolving arbor of a
+circular saw.
+
+$Mansard.$ A type of roof structure with two pitches, one, the lower,
+being very steep, and the other very flat pitch.
+
+$Manual.$ Of or pertaining to the hand; done or made by hand.
+
+$Marginal.$ The border or edge of an object.
+
+$Marking gage.$ A bar on which is placed a series of points, usually
+equidistant from each other.
+
+$Matching.$ Placing tongue in one member and a corresponding groove in
+another member, so that they will join each other perfectly.
+
+$Mediæval.$ Of or relating to the Middle Ages.
+
+$Miter-box.$ A tool for the purpose of holding a saw true at any desired
+adjustable angle.
+
+$Miter-square.$ A tool which provides adjustment at any desired angle.
+
+$Mullion.$ A slender bar or pier which forms the vertical division
+between the lights of windows, screens, etc.; also, indoors, the main
+uprights are _stiles_, and the intermediate uprights are _mullions_.
+
+$Obliterated.$ Erased or blotted out.
+
+$Obtuse.$ Not pointed; bent.
+
+$Orbit.$ The path made by a heavenly body in its travel around another
+body.
+
+$Ordinate.$ The distance of any point in a curve or a straight line,
+measured on a line called the _axis of ordinates,_ or on a line parallel
+to it from another line, at right angles thereto, called the _axis of
+abscissas_.
+
+$Ornamentation.$ To embellish; to improve in appearance.
+
+$Oscillate.$ To swing like a pendulum.
+
+$Overhang.$ In a general sense that which projects out.
+
+$Paneling.$ A sunken compartment or portion with raised margins, molded
+or otherwise, as indoors, ceilings wainscoting, etc.
+
+$Parallelogram.$ A right-lined quadrilateral figure, whose opposite
+sides are parallel and, consequently, equal.
+
+$Parallel.$ Extended in the same direction, and in all parts equally
+distant.
+
+$Perspective.$ A view; a vista; the effect of distance upon the
+appearance of objects, by means of which the eye recognizes them as
+being at a more or less measurable distance.
+
+$Pivot.$ A fixed pin, or short axis, on the end of which a wheel or
+other body turns.
+
+$Pitch.$ Slope; descent; declivity, like the slope of a roof.
+
+$Placement.$ The act of placing; in the state of being placed.
+
+$Predominate.$ To be superior in number, strength, influence or
+authority; controlling.
+
+$Produced.$ To lengthen out; to extend.
+
+$Prototype.$ The original; that from which later forms sprang.
+
+$Purlin.$ A longitudinal piece of timber, under a roof, midway between
+the eaves and comb, to hold the rafters.
+
+$Rabbeting.$ The manner of cutting grooves or recesses.
+
+$Ratchet.$ A wheel, bar, or other form of member, having teeth or
+recesses.
+
+Rebate. A rectangular, longitudinal recess or groove, cut in the corner
+or edge of a body.
+
+$Rail.$ A horizontal piece in a frame or paneling.
+
+$Rectangular.$ Right-angled; having one or more angles of ninety
+degrees; a four-sided figure having only right angles.
+
+$Rib and collar.$ A form of roof truss in which the collar between
+rafters is used as the thrust bearing for the ribs which project up from
+the hammer beam.
+
+$Router.$ A tool for cutting grooves or recesses.
+
+$Saddle joint.$ A form of connection in which one part has a portion cut
+away, resembling a saddle, and in which the part to be attached has its
+end cut so as to fit the saddle thus formed.
+
+$Scarfing.$ The cutting away of the ends of timbers to be joined, so the
+two parts on lapping will unite evenly.
+
+$Scissors beam.$ A form of truss, in which there is a pair of interior
+braces formed like shears, and secured to the main rafters themselves.
+
+$Score, Scored.$ Shear; cut; divide; also notching or marking.
+
+$Scratch awl.$ A sharp-pointed tool, with a handle.
+
+$Scribe.$ To cut, indent or mark with a tool, such as a knife, awl or
+compass, so as to form a cutting line for the workman.
+
+$Self-supporting.$ Held by itself; not depending upon outside aid.
+
+$Shank.$ Usually the handle, or portion to which the handle is attached.
+
+$Slitting gage.$ A tool which is designed to cut along a certain line
+guided by an adjustable fence.
+
+$Soffit.$ The under side of an arch.
+
+$Solid.$ Not hollow; full of matter; having a fixed form; hard; opposed
+to liquid or fluid.
+
+$Spindle.$ A small mandrel; an arbor; a turning shaft.
+
+$Springer.$ The post or point at which an arch rests upon its support,
+and from which it seems to spring.
+
+$Sphere.$ A body or space continued under a single surface which, in
+every part, is equally distant from a point within called its center.
+
+$Spur.$ A small part jutting from another.
+
+$Strike plate.$ A plate serving as a keeper for a beveled latch bolt and
+against which the latter strikes in closing.
+
+$Steel Tubing.$ Pipes made from steel; tubing is measured across from
+outside to outside; piping is measured on the inside.
+
+$Step-wedge.$ A wedge having one straight edge, and the other edge
+provided with a succession of steps, by means of which the piece
+gradually grows wider.
+
+$Strain, Stresses.$ To act upon in any way so as to cause change of form
+or volume; as forces on a beam to bend it.
+
+$Strut.$ Any piece of timber which runs from one timber to another, and
+is used to support a part.
+
+$Stub.$ A projecting part, usually of some defined form, and usually
+designed to enter or engage with a corresponding recess in another
+member.
+
+$Submerged.$ To be buried or covered, as with a fluid; to put under.
+
+$Swivel.$ A pivoted member, used in many forms of tools, in which one
+part turns on the other.
+
+$Tail-stock.$ The sliding support or block in a lathe, which carries the
+dead spindle, or adjustable center.
+
+$Technical.$ Of or pertaining to the useful in mechanical arts, or to
+any science, business, or the like.
+
+$Texture.$ The disposition of the several parts of any body in
+connection with each other; or the manner in which the parts are united.
+
+$Tool rest.$ That part of a lathe, or other mechanism, which supports a
+tool, or holds the tool support.
+
+$Torso.$ The human body as distinguished from the head and limbs.
+
+$Transverse.$ In a crosswise direction; lying across; at right angles to
+the longitudinal.
+
+$Trimmer.$ A beam, into which are framed the ends of headers in floor
+framing, as when a hole is left for stairs, chimneys, and the like.
+
+$Truss.$ An assemblage of members of wood or iron, supported at two
+points, and arranged to transmit pressure vertically to those points
+with the least possible strain, across the length of any member.
+
+$Tusk.$ In mechanism, a long projecting part, longer than a tenon, and
+usually applied to the long or projecting part of a tenon.
+
+$Universal joint.$ A joint wherein one member is made to turn with
+another, although the two turning members are not in a line with each
+other.
+
+$Vocation.$ Employment; trade; profession; business.
+
+$Voissoir.$ One of the wedgelike stones of which an arch is composed.
+
+
+
+
+THE "HOW-TO-DO-IT" BOOKS
+
+
+CARPENTRY FOR BOYS
+
+A book which treats, in a most practical and fascinating manner, all
+subjects pertaining to the "King of Trades"; showing the care and use of
+tools; drawing; designing, and the laying out of work; the principles
+involved in the building of various kinds of structures, and the
+rudiments of architecture. It contains over two hundred and fifty
+illustrations made especially for this work, and includes also a
+complete glossary of the technical terms used in the art. The most
+comprehensive volume on this subject ever published for boys.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
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+
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+principles in each phase of the science, and practically applying the
+work in the successive stages. It shows how the knowledge has been
+developed, and the reasons for the various phenomena, without using
+technical words so as to bring it within the compass of every boy. It
+has a complete glossary of terms, and is illustrated with two hundred
+original drawings.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+PRACTICAL MECHANICS FOR BOYS
+
+This book takes the beginner through a comprehensive series of practical
+shop work, in which the uses of tools, and the structure and handling of
+shop machinery are set forth; how they are utilized to perform the work,
+and the manner in which all dimensional work is carried out. Every
+subject is illustrated, and model building explained. It contains a
+glossary which comprises a new system of cross references, a feature
+that will prove a welcome departure in explaining subjects. Fully
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+
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+
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+
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+
+
+THE WONDER ISLAND BOYS
+
+BY ROGER T. FINLAY
+
+Thrilling adventures by sea and land of two boys and an aged Professor
+who are cast away on an island with absolutely nothing but their
+clothing. By gradual and natural stages they succeed in constructing all
+forms of devices used in the mechanical arts and learn the scientific
+theories involved in every walk of life. These subjects are all treated
+in an incidental and natural way in the progress of events, from the
+most fundamental standpoint without technicalities, and include every
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+
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+
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+
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+
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+
+THE WONDER ISLAND BOYS The Mysteries of the Caverns
+
+THE WONDER ISLAND BOYS The Tribesmen
+
+THE WONDER ISLAND BOYS The Capture and Pursuit
+
+THE WONDER ISLAND BOYS The Conquest of the Savages
+
+
+PUBLISHED BY THE NEW YORK BOOK COMPANY 147 FOURTH AVENUE NEW YORK
+
+
+THE HICKORY RIDGE BOY SCOUTS
+
+A SERIES OF BOOKS FOR BOYS
+
+Which, in addition to the interesting boy scout stories by CAPTAIN ALAN
+DOUGLAS, Scoutmaster, contain articles on nature lore, native animals
+and a fund of other information pertaining to out-of-door life, that
+will appeal to the boy's love of the open.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+I. The Campfires of the Wolf Patrol
+
+Their first camping experience affords the scouts splendid opportunities
+to use their recently acquired knowledge in a practical way. Elmer
+Chenoweth, a lad from the northwest woods, astonishes everyone by his
+familiarity with camp life. A clean, wholesome story every boy should
+read.
+
+II. Woodcraft; or, How a Patrol Leader Made Good
+
+This tale presents many stirring situations in which some of the boys
+are called upon to exercise all their ingenuity and unselfishness. A
+story filled with healthful excitement.
+
+III. Pathfinder; or, The Missing Tenderfoot
+
+Some mysteries are cleared up in a most unexpected way, greatly to the
+credit of our young friends. A variety of incidents follow fast, one
+after the other.
+
+IV. Fast Nine; or, a Challenge From Fairfield
+
+They show the same team-work here as when in camp. The description of
+the final game with the team of a rival town, and the outcome thereof,
+form a stirring narrative. One of the best baseball stories of recent
+years.
+
+V. Great Hike; or, The Pride of The Khaki Troop
+
+After weeks of preparation the scouts start out on their greatest
+undertaking. Their march takes them far from home, and the good-natured
+rivalry of the different patrols furnishes many interesting and amusing
+situations.
+
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+
+Few stories "get" us more than illustrations of pluck in the face of
+apparent failure. Our heroes show the stuff they are made of and
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+Douglas has written.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+$Boy Scout Nature Lore to be Found in The Hickory Ridge Boy Scout
+Series$
+
+Wild Animals of the United States--Tracking--in Number I.
+Trees and Wild Flowers of the United States in Number II.
+Reptiles of the United States in Number III.
+Fishes of the United States in Number IV.
+Insects of the United States in Number V.
+Birds of the United States in Number VI.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
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+
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+147 FOURTH AVENUE (near 14th St.) NEW YORK
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+ ___________________________________
+|                                  |
+|               THE                |
+|                                  |
+|   Campfire and Trail Series      |
+|__________________________________|
+
+
+1. In Camp on the Big Sunflower.
+2. The Rivals of the Trail.
+3. The Strange Cabin on Catamount Island.
+4. Lost in the Great Dismal Swamp.
+5. With Trapper Jim in the North Woods.
+6. Caught in a Forest Fire.
+
+BY LAWRENCE J. LESLIE
+
+A series of wholesome stories for boys told in an interesting way and
+appealing to their love of the open.
+
+_Each, 12mo.     Cloth.     40 cents per volume_
+
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+147 FOURTH AVENUE
+NEW YORK
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+
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+
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+
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+published.
+
+The narrative deals with the students of a large university and their
+baseball team, the members of which have names which enable the reader
+to recognize them as some of the foremost baseball stars of the day
+before their entrance into the major leagues.
+
+One gains a very clear idea of "inside baseball" stripped of wearisome
+technicalities. The book is profusely illustrated throughout and
+contains also a number of plates showing the manner in which Mathewson
+throws his deceptive curves, together with brief description of each.
+
+_Cloth bound 5-1/2 x 7-5/8       Price 60c. per volume_
+
+THE NEW YORK BOOK COMPANY
+147 FOURTH AVENUE       NEW YORK
+
+
+
+
+
+ECONOMICAL COOKING
+_Primrose Edition_
+
+_Planned for Two or More Persons_
+
+By
+MISS WINIFRED S. GIBBS
+
+Dietitian and Teacher of Cooking of the New York Association for
+Improving the Condition of the Poor
+
+_Printed on Fine Quality Book Paper. Cover Design in Colors_
+
+Many Cook Books have been published, from time to time, to meet various
+requirements, or to elucidate certain theories, but very few have been
+written to meet the needs of the large proportion of our population who
+are acutely affected by the constantly increasing cost of food products.
+Notwithstanding that by its valuable suggestions this book helps to
+reduce the expense of supplying the table, the recipes are so planned
+that the economies effected thereby are not offset by any lessening in
+the attractiveness, variety or palatability of the dishes.
+
+Of equal importance are the sections of this work which deal with food
+values, the treatment of infants and invalids and the proper service of
+various dishes.
+
+The recipes are planned for two persons, but may readily be adapted for
+a larger number. The book is replete with illustrations and tables of
+food compositions--the latter taken from the latest Government
+statistics.
+
+_Cloth Binding     Illustrated     40c. per volume, postpaid_
+
+THE NEW YORK BOOK COMPANY
+147 FOURTH AVENUE (near 14th St.) NEW YORK
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+make a strong appeal not only to the little ones but even to those of
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+
+Post Cards                 _Painting Book_
+Dolls of all Nations       _Scissors Book_
+Our Army                   _Scissors Book_
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+
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+
+$Price 15c. per copy$
+
+Send for sample and trade discount
+
+THE NEW YORK BOOK COMPANY
+147 FOURTH AVENUE       NEW YORK
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Carpentry for Boys, by J. S. Zerbe
+
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+<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN"
+    "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd">
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+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+   <head>
+     <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1" />
+
+<title>
+The Project Gutenberg eBook of Carpentry for Boys by J. S. Zerbe
+</title>
+<style type="text/css">
+
+<!--
+    p {  margin-top: .75em;
+         text-align: justify;
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+     table {margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;}
+    .pagenum  { /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */
+               /* visibility: hidden;*/
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+<body>
+
+
+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Carpentry for Boys, by J. S. Zerbe
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Carpentry for Boys
+       In a Simple Language, Including Chapters on Drawing, Laying
+              Out Work, Designing and Architecture With 250 Original
+              Illustrations
+
+Author: J. S. Zerbe
+
+Release Date: March 7, 2007 [EBook #20763]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CARPENTRY FOR BOYS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Ross Wilburn, Curtis Weyant and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The "How-to-do-it" Books</span></h3>
+
+<h2>CARPENTRY FOR BOYS</h2>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig1" id="fig1"></a>
+<img src="images/fig1.jpg" width="400" height="323" alt="Fig. 1. A Typical Work Bench." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 1. A Typical Work Bench.</span>
+</div>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h4>THE "HOW-TO-DO-IT" BOOKS</h4>
+
+<h2>CARPENTRY FOR BOYS</h2>
+
+<h4>in simple language, including<br />
+chapters on drawing, laying out<br />
+work, designing and architecture</h4>
+
+<h4>WITH 250 ORIGINAL ILLUSTRATIONS</h4>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">By</span> J. S. ZERBE, M.E.</h4>
+
+<h5>AUTHOR OF</h5>
+
+<h5>
+ELECTRICITY FOR BOYS<br />
+PRACTICAL MECHANICS FOR BOYS
+</h5>
+
+
+<h5>THE NEW YORK BOOK COMPANY</h5>
+
+<h5><span class="smcap">New York</span></h5>
+
+<h5><span class="smcap">Copyright, 1914, by</span></h5>
+
+<h4>THE NEW YORK BOOK COMPANY</h4>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[Pg i]</span></p>
+<h3><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"></a>CONTENTS</h3>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td align='left'><a href="#LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS">LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</a>
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href="#INTRODUCTORY">INTRODUCTORY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href="#CHAPTER_I">I. <span class="smcap">Tools and Their Uses</span></a></td>
+<td align='right'><b>Page 5</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><blockquote><p>Knowledge of Tools. A Full Kit of Tools. The Hatchet.
+The Claw Hammer. About Saws&mdash;Cross-cut, Rip Saw,
+Back Saw. Planes&mdash;Jack Plane, Smoothing Plane, Pore
+Plane. Gages. Chisels&mdash;Firmer Chisel. Trusses. Saw
+Clamps. The Grindstone. Oilstone. Miter Box. The
+Work Bench.</p></blockquote></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'><a href="#CHAPTER_II">II. <span class="smcap">How to Grind and Sharpen Tools</span></a></td>
+<td align='right'><b>Page 16</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><blockquote><p>Care of Tools&mdash;-First Requisites. Saws&mdash;How to Set.
+Saw-set Errors. Saw Setting Block. Filing. The Angle
+of Filing. Filing Pitch. Saw Clamps. Filing Suggestions.
+The File. Using the File. The Grindstone.
+In the Use of Grindstones. Correct Way of Holding
+Tool in Grinding. Care of Stone. Incorrect Way to
+Hold Tool. Way to Revolve or Turn Grindstone. The
+Plane. The Gage. Chisels. General Observations.</p></blockquote></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'><a href="#CHAPTER_III">III. <span class="smcap">How to Hold and Handle Tools</span></a></td><td align='right'><b>Page 29</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'><blockquote><p>On the Holding of Tools. The Saw. How to Start a
+Saw. Sawing on a Line. The First Stroke. The Starting
+Cut for Cross-cutting. Forcing a Saw. The Stroke.
+The Chinese Saw. Things to Avoid. The Plane. Angle
+for Holding Planes. Errors to be Avoided. The Gage.
+Holding the Gage. The Draw-knife.</p></blockquote></td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td align='left'><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">IV. <span class="smcap">How to
+Design Articles</span></a></td>
+<td align='right'><b>Page 39</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><blockquote><p>Fundamentals of Designing. The Commercial Instinct.
+First Requirements of Designing. Conventional Styles.
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg ii]</span>
+The Mission Style. Cabinets. Harmony of Parts. Harmony
+of Wood.</p></blockquote></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'><a href="#CHAPTER_V">V. <span class="smcap">How work is Laid Out</span></a></td>
+<td align='right'><b>Page 43</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><blockquote><p>Concrete Examples of Work. Dimensions. Laying Out
+a Table. The Top. The Mortises. The Facing Boards.
+The Tenons. Tools Used. Chamfered Tenons. The
+Frame. The Drawer Support. The Table Frame. The
+Top. The Drawer. How Any Structure is Built Up.
+Observations About Making a Box. Points. Beveling
+and Mitering. Proper Terms. Picture Frames. Dovetail
+Points. Box Points. First Steps in Dovetailing. Cutting
+Out the Spaces. Tools Used in Laying Out Mortises
+and Tenons.</p></blockquote></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">VI. <span class="smcap">The Uses of the Compass and the Square</span></a></td>
+<td align='right'><b>Page 59</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><blockquote><p>The Compass. Determining Angles. Definition of Degrees.
+Degrees Without a Compass. How Degrees are
+Calculated by the Dividers.</p></blockquote></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">VII. <span class="smcap">How the Different Structural Parts are Designated</span></a></td>
+<td align='right'><b>Page 65</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><blockquote><p>Importance of Proper Designation. How to Explain
+Mechanical Forms. Defining Segment and Sector. Arcade,
+Arch, Buttress, Flying Buttress, Chamfer, Cotter,
+Crenelated, Crosses, Curb Roof, Cupola, Crown Post,
+Corbels, Dormer, Dowel, Drip, Detent, Extrados, Engrailed,
+Facet, Fret, Fretwork, Frontal, Frustrums, Fylfot,
+Gambrel Roof, Gargoyle, Gudgeon, Guilloche. Half
+Timbered, Hammer Beam, Header, Hip Roof, Hood
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg iii]</span>
+Molding, Inclave, Interlacing Arch, Inverted, Inverted
+Arch, Key Stone, King Post, Label, Louver, Lintel, Lug,
+M-Roof, Mansard Roof, Newel, Parquetry, Peen, Pendant,
+Pendastyle, Pedestal, Plinth, Portico, Plate, Queen
+Post, Quirk Molding, Re-entering Angle, Rafter, Scarfing,
+Scotia Molding, Sill, Skewback, Spandrel, Strut,
+Stud, Stile, Tie Beam, Timber, Trammel, Turret, Transom,
+Valley Roof.</p></blockquote></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">VIII. <span class="smcap">Drawing and Its Utility</span></a></td>
+<td align='right'><b>Page 73</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><blockquote><p>Fundamentals in Drawing. Representing Objects.
+Forming Lines and Shadows. Analysis of Lines and
+Shadings. How to Show Plain Surfaces. Concave Surfaces.
+Convex Surfaces. Shadows from a Beam. Flat
+Effects. The Direction of Light. Raised Surfaces. Depressed
+Surfaces. Full Shading. Illustrating Cube
+Shading. Shading Effect. Heavy Lines. Perspectives.
+True Perspective of a Cube. Isometric Cube. Flattened
+Perspective. Technical Designations. Sector and
+Segment. Terms of Angles. Circles and Curves. Irregular
+Curves. Ellipses and Ovals. Focal Points. Produced
+Line. Spirals, Perpendicular and Vertical. Signs
+to Indicate Measurement. Definitions. Abscissa. Angle.
+Apothegm. Apsides or Apsis. Chord. Cycloid. Conoid.
+Conic Section. Ellipsoid. Epicycloid. Evolute. Flying
+Buttress. Focus. Gnomes. Hexagon. Hyperbola. Hypothenuse.
+Incidental. Isosceles. Triangle. Parabola.
+Parallelogram. Pelecoid. Polygons. Pyramid. Rhomb.
+Sector. Segment. Sinusoid. Tangent. Tetrahedron.
+Vertex.</p></blockquote></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'><a href="#CHAPTER_IX">IX.
+<span class="smcap">Moldings, with Practical Illustrations in
+Embellishing Work</span></a></td>
+<td align='right'><b>Page 93</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'><blockquote><p>Moldings. The Basis of Moldings.
+The Simplest Moldings.<span class='pagenum'>[Pg iv]</span>
+The Astragal. The Cavetto. The Ovolo. The
+Torus. The Apothegm. The Cymatium. The Ogee.
+Ogee Recta. Ogee Reversa. The Reedy. The Casement.
+The Roman-Doric Column. Lesson from the Doric
+Column. Applying Molding. Base. Embellishments. Straight-faced
+Molding. Plain Molding. Base. Diversified
+Uses. Shadows Cast by Moldings.</p></blockquote></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'><a href="#CHAPTER_X">X. <span class="smcap">An Analysis of Tenoning, Mortising, Rabbeting and Beading</span></a></td>
+<td align='right'><b>Page 104</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><blockquote><p>Where Mortises Should be Used. Depth of Mortises.
+Rule for Mortises. True Mortise Work. Steps in Cutting
+Mortises. Things to Avoid in Mortising. Lap-and-Butt
+Joints. Scarfing. The Tongue and Groove. Beading.
+Ornamental Bead Finish. The Bead and Rabbet.
+Shading with Beads and Rabbets.</p></blockquote></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'><a href="#CHAPTER_XI">XI. <span class="smcap">House Building</span></a></td>
+<td align='right'><b>Page 113</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><blockquote><p>House Building. The Home and Embellishments. Beauty
+Not Ornamentation. Plain Structures. Colonial
+Type. The Roof the Keynote. Bungalow Types. General
+House Building. Building Plans. The Plain
+Square-Floor Plan. The Rectangular Plan. Room Measurements.
+Front and Side Lines. The Roof. Roof Pitch.
+The Foundation. The Sills. The Flooring Joist. The
+Studding. Setting Up. The Plate. Intermediate Studding.
+Wall Headers. Ceiling Joist. Braces. The Rafters.
+The Gutter. Setting Door and Window Frames.
+Plastering and Finish Work.</p></blockquote></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'><a href="#CHAPTER_XII">XII. <span class="smcap">Bridges, Trussed Work and Like Structures</span></a></td>
+<td align='right'><b>Page 130</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><blockquote><p>Bridges. Self-supporting Roofs. Common Trusses. The
+Vertical Upright Truss. The Warren Girder. The Bowstring
+Girder. Fundamental Truss Forms.</p></blockquote></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'><a href="#CHAPTER_XIII">XIII. <span class="smcap">The Best Woods for the Beginner</span></a></td>
+<td align='right'><b>Page 134</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><blockquote><p>The Best Woods.
+Soft Woods. Hard Woods. The Most<span class='pagenum'>[Pg v]</span>
+Difficult Woods. The Hard-ribbed Grain in Wood. The
+Easiest Working Woods. Differences in the Working of
+Woods. Forcing Saws in Wood.</p></blockquote></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'><a href="#CHAPTER_XIV">XIV. <span class="smcap">Wood Turning</span></a></td>
+<td align='right'><b>Page 138</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><blockquote><p>Advantages of Wood Turning. Simple Turning Lathe.
+The Rails. The Legs. Centering Blocks. The Tail-stock.
+The Tool Rest. Materials. The Mandrel. Fly-wheel.
+The Tools Required.</p></blockquote></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'><a href="#CHAPTER_XV">XV. <span class="smcap">On the Use of Stains</span></a></td>
+<td align='right'><b>Page 147</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><blockquote><p>Soft Wood. Use of Stains. Stains as Imitations.
+Good Taste in Staining. Great Contrasts Bad. Staining
+Contrasting Woods. Hard Wood Imitations. Natural
+Effects. Natural Wood Stains. Polishing Stained Surfaces.</p></blockquote></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'><a href="#CHAPTER_XVI">XVI. <span class="smcap">The Carpenter and the Architect</span></a></td>
+<td align='right'><b>Page 152</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'><a href="#CHAPTER_XVII">XVII. <span class="smcap">Useful Articles to Make</span></a></td>
+<td align='right'><b>Page 155</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><blockquote><p>Common Bench. Its Proportions. Square Top Stool.
+Folding Blacking Box. Convenient Easel. Hanging
+Book-rack. Sad Iron Holder. Bookcase. Wood-box.
+Parallel Bars for Boys' Use. Mission Writing Desk.
+Screen Frame. Mission Chair. Grandfather's Clock.
+Knockdown and Adjustable Bookcase. Coal Scuttle
+Frame or Case. Mission Arm Chair. Dog-house.
+Settle, With Convenient Shelves. Towel Rack. Sofa
+Framework.</p></blockquote></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'><a href="#CHAPTER_XVIII">XVIII. <span class="smcap">Special Tools and Their Uses</span></a></td>
+<td align='right'><b>Page 170</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><blockquote><p>Bit and Level Adjuster. Miter Boxes. Swivel Arm Uprights.
+Movable Stops. Angle Dividers. "Odd Job"
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg vi]</span>
+Tool. Bit Braces. Ratchet Mechanism. Interlocking
+Jaws. Steel Frame Breast Drills. Horizontal Boring.
+3-Jaw Chuck. Planes. Rabbeting, Beading and Matching.
+Cutter Adjustment. Depth Gage. Slitting Gage.
+Dovetail Tongue and Groove Plane. Router Planes.
+Bottom Surfacing. Door Trim Plane.</p></blockquote></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'><a href="#CHAPTER_XIX">XIX. <span class="smcap">Roofing Trusses</span></a></td>
+<td align='right'><b>Page 185</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><blockquote><p>Characteristics of Trusses. Tie Beams. Ornamentation.
+Objects of Beams, Struts and Braces. Utilizing
+Space. Types of Structures. Gambrel Roof. Purlin
+Roof. The Princess Truss. Arched, or Cambered, Tie
+Beam Truss. The Mansard. Scissors Beam. Braced
+Collar Beam. Rib and Collar Truss. Hammer-beam
+Truss. Flying Buttress.</p></blockquote></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'><a href="#CHAPTER_XX">XX. <span class="smcap">On the Construction of Joints</span></a></td>
+<td align='right'><b>Page 197</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><blockquote><p>Definition and Uses. Different Types. Bridle Joint.
+Spur Tenon. Saddle Joints. Joggle Joint. Heel
+Joints. Stub Tenon. Tusk Tenon. Double Tusk Tenon.
+Cogged Joints. Anchor Joints. Deep Anchor Joints.</p></blockquote></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'><a href="#CHAPTER_XXI">XXI. <span class="smcap">Some Mistakes and a Little Advice in Carpentry</span></a></td>
+<td align='right'><b>Page 205</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><blockquote><p>Lessons From Mistakes. Planing the Edge of a Board
+Straight. Planing it Square. Planing to Dimensions.
+Holding the Plane. How it Should be Run on the Edge
+of the Board. Truing With the Weight of the Plane.
+A Steady Grasp. In Smoothing Boards. Correct Sand-papering.
+Gluing. Removing Surplus Glue. Work
+Edge and Work Side. The Scribing and Marking Line.
+Finishing Surfaces. Sawing a Board Square. The
+Stroke of the Saw. Sawing Out of True.</p></blockquote></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'><a href="#GLOSSARY_OF_WORDS">GLOSSARY OF WORDS</a>
+</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'><a href="#THE_HOW-TO-DO-IT_BOOKS">THE "HOW-TO-DO-IT" BOOKS</a>
+</td></tr>
+
+</table></div>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<h3><a name="LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS"
+id="LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS"></a>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</h3>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="LOI">
+
+<tr><td align='left'>FIG.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>1. A typical work bench<span class='pagenum'>[Pg vii]</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig1">Frontispiece</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='right'>PAGE</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>2. Hatchet</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig2">6</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>3. Hammer</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig3">7</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>4. Common saw </td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig4">7</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>5. Plane</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig5">8</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>6. Jack plane bit</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig6">9</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>6a. Fore plane bit</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig6a">10</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>7a. Firmer chisel</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig7">11</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>Mortising chisel</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig7a">12</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>8. Trestle</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig7a">12</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>9. Miter box </td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig9">13</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>10. Incorrect saw setting</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig10">17</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>10a. Correct saw setting</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig10a">17</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>11. Saw setting device</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig11">17</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>12. Filing angle</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig12">18</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>13. Rip saw</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig13">19</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>14. Cross cut</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig14">20</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>15. Filing clamp</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig15">21</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>16. Grindstone</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig16">23</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>17. Correct manner of holding tool</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig17">24</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>18. Incorrect way of holding tool</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig17">24</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>19. Gage</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig19">26</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>20. Starting a saw</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig20">31</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>21. Wrong sawing angle</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig21">32</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>22. Correct sawing angle</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig22">33</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>23. Thrust cut</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig23">34</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>24. Chinese saw</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig24">34</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>25. Moving angle for plane</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig25">35</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>26. Holding gage</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig26">36</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>27. Laying out table leg</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig27">43</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>28. The first marking line</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig28">44</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>29. Scribing mortise line</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig29">44</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>30. The corner<span class='pagenum'>[Pg viii]</span> mortises</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig30">44</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>31. The side rail</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig31">46</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>32. Scribing the tenons</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig32">46</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>33. Cross scoring</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig33">47</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>34. The tenon</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig34">47</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>35. Finishing the tenon</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig35">47</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>36. The tenon and mortise</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig36">48</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>37. The drawer support</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig37">48</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>38. Drawer cleats</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig38">49</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>39. Assembled table frame</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig39">50</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>40. The top</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig40">51</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>41. The drawer</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig41">52</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>42. Bevel joint</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig42">53</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>43. Miter joint</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig43">53</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>44. Picture frame joint</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig44">54</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>45. Initial marks for dovetails</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig45">55</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>46. End marks for dovetails</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig46">55</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>47. Angles for dovetails</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig47">55</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>48. Cutting out recesses for dovetails</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig48">56</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>49. Tongues for dovetails</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig49">56</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>50. Recess for dovetails</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig50">56</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>51. Determining angles</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig51">61</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>52. Marking degrees</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig52">63</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>53. Angles from base lines</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig53">63</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>54. Stepping off spaces</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig54">63</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>55. Arcade</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig55">67</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>56. Arch</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig55">67</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>57. Buttress</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig55">67</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>58. Chamfer</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig55">67</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>59. Cooter</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig55">67</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>60. Crenelated</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig55">67</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>61. Crosses</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig55">67</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>62. Curb roof</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig55">67</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>63. Cupola</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig55">67</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>64. Console</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig55">67</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>65. Corbels</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig55">67</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>66. Dormer</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig66">67</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>67. Dowel</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig66">67</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>68. Drips</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig66">67</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>69. Detail<span class='pagenum'>[Pg ix]</span></td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig66">68</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>70. Extrados</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig66">68</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>71. Engrailed</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig66">68</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>72. Facet</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig66">68</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>73. Fret</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig66">68</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>74. Frontal</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig66">68</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>75. Frustrums</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig66">68</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>76. Fylfat</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig66">68</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>77. Gambrel</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig66">68</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>78. Gargoyle</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig66">68</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>79. Gudgeon</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig66">68</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>80. Guilloche</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig80">68</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>81. Half timbered</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig80">68</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>82. Hammer beam</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig80">68</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>83. Haunches</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig80">69</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>84. Header</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig80">69</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>85. Hip roof</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig80">69</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>86. Hood molding</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig80">69</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>87. Inclave</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig80">69</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>88. Interlacing arch</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig80">69</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>89. Invected</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig80">69</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>90. Inverted arch</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig80">69</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>91. Keystone</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig80">69</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>92. King post</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig80">69</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>93. Label</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig80">69</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>94. Louver</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig94">69</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>95. Lintel</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig94">70</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>96. Lug</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig94">70</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>97. M-roof</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig94">70</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>98. Mansard roof</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig94">70</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>99. Newel post</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig94">70</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>100. Parquetry</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig94">70</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>101. Peen, or pein</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig94">70</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>102. Pendant</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig94">70</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>103. Pentastyle</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig94">70</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>104. Pedestal</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig94">70</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>105. Pintle</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig105">70</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>106. Portico</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig105">70</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>107. Plate</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig105">70</a>
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg x]</span></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>108. Queen post</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig105">71</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>109. Quirk molding</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig105">71</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>110. Re-entering</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig105">71</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>111. Rafter</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig105">71</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>112. Scarfing</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig105">71</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>113. Scotia molding</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig105">71</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>114. Sill</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig105">71</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>115. Skew back</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig105">71</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>116. Spandrel</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig105">71</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>117. Strut</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig105">71</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>118. Stud, studding</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig118">71</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>119. Stile</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig118">72</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>120. Trammel</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig118">72</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>121. Turret</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig118">72</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>122. Transom</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig118">72</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>123. Valley roof</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig118">72</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>125. Plain line</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig125">74</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>126. Concave shading</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig126">74</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>127. Convex shading</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig127">74</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>128. Wave shading</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig128">75</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>129. Light past concave surface</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig129">75</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>130. Light past convex surface</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig130">75</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>131. Plain surface</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig131">75</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>132. Outlines</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig132">76</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>133. Raised surface</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig133">77</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>134. Depressed surface</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig134">77</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>135. Shading raised surfaces</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig135">78</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>136. Shading depressed surfaces</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig136">78</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>137. Plain cubical outline</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig137">79</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>138. Indicating cube</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig138">79</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>139. Confused lines</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig139">79</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>140. Heavy horizontal lines</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig140">80</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>141. Heavy vertical lines</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig141">80</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>142. Isometric cube</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig142">81</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>143. Cube and circle</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig143">81</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>144. Flattened perspective</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig144">82</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>145. Angles in isometric cube</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig145">83</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>146. Plain circle</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig146">84</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>147. Sphere shading</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig147">84</a>
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg xi]</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>148. Drawing regular ellipse</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig148">86</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>149. Drawing irregular ellipse</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig149">88</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>150. Drawing spiral</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig150">89</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>151. Abscissa</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig151">90</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>152. Angle</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig151">91</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>153. Apothegm</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig151">91</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>154. Apsides, or apsis</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig151">91</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>155. Chord</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig151">91</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>156. Convolute</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig151">91</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>157. Conic sections</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig151">91</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>158. Conoid</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig151">91</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>159. Cycloid</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig151">91</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>160. Ellipsoid</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig151">91</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>161. Epicycloid</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig151">91</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>162. Evolute</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig151">91</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>163. Focus</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig151">91</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>164. Gnome</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig151">91</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>165. Hyperbola</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig151">91</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>167. Hypothenuse</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig167">91</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>168. Incidence</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig167">92</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>169. Isosceles triangle</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig167">92</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>170. Parabola</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig167">92</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>171. Parallelogram</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig167">92</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>172. Pelecoid</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig167">92</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>173. Polygons</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig167">92</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>174. Pyramid</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig167">92</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>175. Quadrant</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig167">92</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>176. Quadrilaterale</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig167">92</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>177. Rhomb</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig167">92</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>178. Sector</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig167">92</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>179. Segment</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig167">92</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>180. Sinusoid</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig167">92</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>181. Tangent</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig167">92</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>182. Tetrahedron</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig167">92</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>183. Vertex</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig167">92</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>184. Volute</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig167">92</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>185. Band (molding)e</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig185">94</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>186. Astragal (molding)</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig186">94</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>187. Cavetto (molding)</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig187">94</a>
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg xii]</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>188. Ovolo (molding)</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig188">94</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>189. Torus (molding)</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig189">95</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>190. Apophyges (molding)</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig190">95</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>191. Cymatium (molding)</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig191">95</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>192. Ogee-recta (molding)</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig192">95</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>193. Ogee-reversa (molding)</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig193">96</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>194. Bead (molding)</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig194">96</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>195. Casement (molding)</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig195">97</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>196. The Doric column</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig196">98</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>197. Front of cabinet</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig197">100</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>198. Facia board</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig198">100</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>199. Molding on facia board</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig199">100</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>200. Ogee-recta on facia</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig200">101</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>201. Trim below facia</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig200">101</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>202. Trim below ogee</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig200">101</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>203. Trim above base</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig203">102</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>204. Trim above base molding</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig204">102</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>205. Shadows cast by plain moldings</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig205">103</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>206. Mortise and tenon joint</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig206">105</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>207. Incorrect mortising</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig207">105</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>208. Steps in mortising</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig208">106</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>209. The shoulders of tenons</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig209">108</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>210. Lap-and-butt joint</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig210">108</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>211. Panel joint</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig211">109</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>212. Scarfing</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig212">109</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>213. Tongue and groove</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig213">110</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>214. Beading</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig214">110</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>215. Outside beading finish</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig215">110</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>216. Edge beading</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig216">111</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>217. Corner beading</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig217">111</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>218. Point beading</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig218">111</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>219. Round edge beading</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig219">111</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>220. Beading and molding</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig220">111</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>221. First square house plan</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig221">117</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>222. First rectangular house plan</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig222">118</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>223. Square house to scale</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig223">119</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>224. Rectangular house to scale</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig224">120</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>225. Front elevation of square house</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig225">121</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>226. Elevation of rectangular house</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig226">121</a>
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg xiii]</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>227. Illustrating one-third pitch</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig227">122</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>228. Illustrating half pitch</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig227">122</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>229. The sills at the corner</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig229">123</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>230. The joist and sills</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig230">123</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>231. The plate splice</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig231">124</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>232. The rafters</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig232">124</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>233. The gutter</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig233">126</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>234. The cornice</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig234">127</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>234a. The finish without gutter</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig234a">128</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>235. Common truss</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig235">130</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>236. Upright truss</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig236">131</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>237. Vertical upright truss</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig236">131</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>238. Warren girder</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig238">132</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>239. Extended Warren girder</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig238">132</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>240. Bowstring girder</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig238">132</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>241. Frame details of wood turning lathe</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig241">139</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>242. Tail stock details</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig242">133</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>243. Tool rest details</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig243">142</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>244. Section of mandrel</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig244">143</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>245. View of turning lathe</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig245">145</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>246. Turning tools</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig246">146</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>247. Bench</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig247">155</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>248. Stool</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig248">156</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>249. Blacking box</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig248">156</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>250. Easel</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig250">157</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>251. Hanging book rack</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig251">158</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>252. Book shelf</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig252">159</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>253. Wood box</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig253">160</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>254. Horizontal bars</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig254">161</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>255. Mission desk</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig255">161</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>256. Screen frame</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig256">162</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>257. Mission chair</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig257">162</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>258. Grandfather's clock</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig258">163</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>259. Frame for bookcase</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig259">164</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>260. Coal scuttle case</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig260">165</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>261. Mission arm chair</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig261">165</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>262. Dog house</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig262">166</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>263. Settle</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig263">167</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>264. Towel rack</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig264">168</a>
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg xiv]</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>265. Mission sofa frame</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig265">168</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>266. Bit and square level</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig266">170</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>267. Metal miter box</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig267">171</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>268. Parts of metal miter box</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig268">172</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>269. Angle dividers</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig269">173</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>270. An "odd job" tool</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig270">174</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>271. Universal-jaw brace</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig271">176</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>272. Taper-shank bit brace</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig271">176</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>273. Alligator-jaw brace</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig271">176</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>274. Steel frame breast drill</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig274">177</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>275. Steel frame breast drill</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig274">177</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>276. Steel frame breast drill</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig274">177</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>277. Details of metal plane</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig277">179</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>278. Rabbet, matching and dado plane</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig278">180</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>279. Molding and beading plane</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig279">181</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>280. Dovetail tongue and groove plane</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig280">182</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>281. Router planes</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig281">183</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>282. Router planes</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig282">183</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>283. Door trim plane</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig283">184</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>284. Gambrel roof</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig284">187</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>285. Purlin roof</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig285">188</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>286. Princess truss</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig286">189</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>287. Arched, or cambered, tie beam</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig287">190</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>288. The mansard</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig288">191</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>289. Scissors beam</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig289">192</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>290. Braced collar beam</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig290">193</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>291. Rib and collar truss</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig291">194</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>291&frac12;. Hammer-beam truss</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig291a">195</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>292. Bridle joints</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig292">197</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>293. Spur tenons</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig293">198</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>294. Saddle joints</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig293">198</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>295. Joggle joints</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig295">199</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>296. Framing joints</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig295">199</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>297. Heel joints</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig297">200</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>298. Stub tenon</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig297">200</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>299. Tusk tenon</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig299">201</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>300. Double tusk tenon</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig300">202</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>301. Cogged joints</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig301">203</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>302. Anchor joint</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig302">203</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>303. Deep anchor joint</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#fig303">204</a></td></tr>
+
+</table></div>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[Pg 1]</span></p>
+<h2><a name="CARPENTRY" id="CARPENTRY"></a>CARPENTRY</h2>
+
+<h3>A PRACTICAL COURSE, WHICH TELLS IN CONCISE AND
+SIMPLE FORM "HOW TO DO IT"</h3>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="INTRODUCTORY" id="INTRODUCTORY"></a>INTRODUCTORY</h2>
+
+
+<p>Carpentry is the oldest of the arts, and it has
+been said that the knowledge necessary to make a
+good carpenter fits one for almost any trade or
+occupation requiring the use of tools. The
+hatchet, the saw, and the plane are the three
+primal implements of the carpenter. The value
+is in knowing how to use them.</p>
+
+<p>The institution of Manual Training Schools
+everywhere is but a tardy recognition of the value
+of systematic training in the use of tools. There
+is no branch of industry which needs such diversification,
+in order to become efficient.</p>
+
+<p>The skill of the blacksmith is centered in his
+ability to forge, to weld, and to temper; that of the
+machinist depends upon the callipered dimensions
+of his product; the painter in his taste for harmony;
+the mason on his ability to cut the stone
+accurately; and the plasterer to produce a uniform
+surface. But the carpenter must, in order
+to be an expert, combine all these qualifications,
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 2]</span>
+in a greater or less degree, and his vocation may
+justly be called the King of Trades. Rightly,
+therefore, it should be cultivated in order to learn
+the essentials of manual training work.</p>
+
+<p>But there is another feature of the utmost importance
+and value, which is generally overlooked,
+and on which there is placed too little stress, even
+in many of the manual training schools. The
+training of the mind has been systematized so as
+to bring into operation the energies of all the
+brain cells. Manual training to be efficient should,
+at the same time, be directed into such channels
+as will most widely stimulate the muscular development
+of the child, while at the same time cultivating
+his mind.</p>
+
+<p>There is no trade which offers such a useful
+field as carpentry. It may be said that the various
+manual operations bring into play every
+muscle of the body.</p>
+
+<p>The saw, the plane, the hammer, the chisel, each
+requires its special muscular energy. The carpenter,
+unlike the blacksmith, does not put all
+his brawn into his shoulders, nor develop his
+torso at the expense of his other muscles, like
+the mason. It may also be said that, unlike most
+other occupations, the carpenter has both out-of-door
+and indoor exercise, so that he is at all
+times able to follow his occupation, summer or
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 3]</span>
+winter, rain or shine; and this also further illustrates
+the value of this branch of endeavor as a
+healthful recreation.</p>
+
+<p>It is the aim of this book to teach boys the
+primary requirements&mdash;not to generalize&mdash;but to
+show how to prepare and how to do the work;
+what tools and materials to use; and in what manner
+the tools used may be made most serviceable,
+and used most advantageously.</p>
+
+<p>It would be of no value to describe and illustrate
+how a bracket is made; or how the framework
+of a structure is provided with mortises and tenons
+in order to hold it together. The boy must have
+something as a base which will enable him to
+design his own creations, and not be an imitator;
+his mind must develop with his body. It is the
+principal aim of this book to give the boy something
+to think about while he is learning how to
+bring each individual part to perfection.</p>
+
+<p>If the boy understands that there is a principle
+underlying each structural device; that there is a
+reason for making certain things a definite way,
+he is imbued with an incentive which will sooner
+or later develop into an initiative of his own.</p>
+
+<p>It is this phase in the artisan's life which determines
+whether he will be merely a machine or an
+intelligent organism.</p>
+
+<p>This work puts together in a simple, concise
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 4]</span>
+form, not only the fundamentals which every
+mechanic should learn to know, but it defines every
+structural form used in this art, and illustrates all
+terms it is necessary to use in the employment of
+carpentry. A full chapter is devoted to drawings
+practically applied. All terms are diagrammed
+and defined, so that the mind may readily grasp
+the ideas involved.</p>
+
+<p>Finally, it will be observed that every illustration
+has been specially drawn for this book. We
+have not adopted the plan usually followed in
+books of this class, of taking stock illustrations
+of manufacturers' tools and devices, nor have we
+thought it advisable to take a picture of a tool
+or a machine and then write a description around
+it. We have illustrated the book to explain "<i>how
+to do the work</i>"; also, to teach the boy what the
+trade requires, and to give him the means whereby
+he may readily find the form of every device, tool,
+and structure used in the art.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[Pg 5]</span></p>
+
+<h3>CARPENTRY FOR BOYS</h3>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I"></a>CHAPTER I</h2>
+
+<h4>TOOLS AND THEIR USES</h4>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Knowledge of Tools.</span>&mdash;A knowledge of tools and
+their uses is the first and most important requirement.
+The saw, the plane, the hatchet and the
+hammer are well known to all boys; but how to
+use them, and where to use the different varieties
+of each kind of tool, must be learned, because
+each tool grew out of some particular requirement
+in the art. These uses will now be explained.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">A Full Kit of Tools.</span>&mdash;A kit of tools necessary
+for doing any plain work should embrace the following:</p>
+
+
+<blockquote><p>1. A Hatchet.<br />
+2. A Claw Hammer&mdash;two sizes preferred.<br />
+3. Cross-cut Saw, 20 inches long.<br />
+4. Rip Saw, 24 inches long.<br />
+5. Wooden Mallet.<br />
+6. Jack Plane.<br />
+7. Smoothing Plane.<br />
+8. Compass Saw.<br />
+9. Brace.<br />
+10. Bits for Brace, ranging from &frac14; inch to 1 inch diameter.<br />
+11. Several small Gimlets.<br />
+12. Square.<br />
+13. Compass.<br />
+14. Draw-knife.<br />
+15. Rule.<br />
+16. Two Gages.<br />
+17. Set of Firmer Chisels.<br />
+18. Two Mortising Chisels.<br />
+19. Small Back Saw.<br />
+20. Saw Clamps.<br />
+21. Miter Box.<br />
+22. Bevel Square.<br />
+23. Small Hand Square.<br />
+24. Pliers.<br />
+25. Pair of Awls.<br />
+26. Hand Clamps.<br />
+27. Set Files.<br />
+28. Glue Pot.<br />
+29. Oil Stone.<br />
+30. Grindstone.<br />
+31. Trusses.<br />
+32. Work Bench.<br />
+33. Plumb Bob.<br />
+34. Spirit Level.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[Pg 6]</span></p>
+<p><span class="smcap">The Hatchet.</span>&mdash;The hatchet should be ground
+with a bevel on each side, and not on one side
+only, as is customary with a plasterer's lathing
+hatchet, because the blade of the hatchet is used
+for trimming off the edges of boards. Unless
+ground off with a bevel on both sides it cannot be
+controlled to cut accurately. A light hatchet is
+preferable to a heavy one. It should never be
+used for nailing purposes, except in emergencies.
+The pole of the hammer&mdash;that part which is generally
+used to strike the nail with&mdash;is required in
+order to properly balance the hatchet when used
+for trimming material.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig2" id="fig2"></a>
+<img src="images/fig2.jpg" width="400" height="204" alt="Fig. 2." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 2.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Claw Hammer.</span>&mdash;This is the proper tool
+for driving nails and for drawing them out.
+Habits should be formed with the beginner, which
+will be of great service as the education proceeds.
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 7]</span>
+One of these habits is to persist in using the
+tool for the purpose for which it was made. The
+expert workman (and he becomes expert because
+of it) makes the hammer do its proper work; and
+so with every other tool.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig3" id="fig3"></a>
+<img src="images/fig3.jpg" width="400" height="188" alt="Fig. 3." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 3.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig4" id="fig4"></a>
+<img src="images/fig4.jpg" width="400" height="91" alt="Fig. 4." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 4.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">About Saws.</span>&mdash;There are four well-defined
+kinds. First, a long, flat saw, for cross-cutting.
+Second, a slightly larger saw for ripping purposes.
+Third, a back saw, with a rib on the rear
+edge to hold the blade rigid, used for making
+tenons; and, fourth, a compass or keyhole saw.</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'>>[Pg 8]</span></p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Cross-cuts.</span>&mdash;The difference between a cross-cut
+and a rip saw is, that in the latter the teeth
+have less pitch and are usually larger than in
+the cross-cut saw. The illustrations (Figs. 13
+and 14) will distinctly show the difference in the
+teeth. When a cross-cut saw is used for ripping
+along the grain of the wood, the teeth, if disposed
+at an angle, will ride over the grain or fiber of the
+wood, and refuse to take hold or bite into the
+wood. On the other hand, if the rip saw is used
+for cross-cutting purposes, the saw kerf will be
+rough and jagged.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig5" id="fig5"></a>
+<img src="images/fig5.jpg" width="400" height="125" alt="Fig. 5." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 5.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The back saw is used almost exclusively for
+making tenons, and has uniformly fine teeth so
+as to give a smooth finish to the wood.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Planes.</span>&mdash;The plane may be called the &aelig;sthetic
+tool in the carpenter's kit. It is the most difficult
+tool to handle and the most satisfactory when
+thoroughly mastered. How to care for and
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 9]</span>
+handle it will be referred to in a subsequent chapter.
+We are now concerned with its uses only.
+Each complete kit must have three distinct planes,
+namely, the jack plane, which is for taking off the
+rough saw print surface of the board. The short
+smoothing plane, which is designed to even up the
+inequalities made by the jack plane; and the
+long finishing plane, or fore plane, which is intended
+to straighten the edges of boards or of
+finished surfaces.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig6" id="fig6"></a>
+<img src="images/fig6.jpg" width="400" height="122" alt="Fig. 6. Jack plane bit" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 6. Jack plane bit</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Jack Plane</span>.&mdash;This plane has the cutting
+edge of its blade ground so it is slightly curved
+(Fig. 6), because, as the bit must be driven out
+so it will take a deep bite into the rough surface
+of the wood, the curved cutting edge prevents the
+corner edges of the bit from digging into the
+planed surface.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand, the bits of the smoothing
+and finishing planes are ground straight across
+their cutting edges. In the foregoing we have not
+enumerated the different special planes, designed
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 10]</span>
+to make beads, rabbets, tongues and grooves, but
+each type is fully illustrated, so that an idea may
+be obtained of their characteristics. (Fig. 6<i>a</i>).</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Gages.</span>&mdash;One of the most valuable tools in the
+whole set is the gage, but it is, in fact, the least
+known. This is simply a straight bar, with a
+sharpened point projecting out on one side near
+its end, and having an adjustable sliding head or
+cheekpiece. This tool is indispensable in making
+mortises or tenons, because the sharpened steel
+point which projects from the side of the bar,
+serves to outline and define the edges of the mortises
+or tenons, so that the cutting line may readily
+be followed.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig6a" id="fig6a"></a>
+<img src="images/fig6a.jpg" width="400" height="123" alt="Fig. 6a. Fore-plane bit" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 6a. Fore-plane bit</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>This is the most difficult tool to hold when in
+use, but that will be fully explained under its
+proper head. Each kit should have two, as in
+making mortises and tenons one gage is required
+for each side of the mortise or tenon.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Chisels.</span>&mdash;Two kinds are found in every kit&mdash;one
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 11]</span>
+called the firmer (Fig. 7) and the mortising
+chisel. The firmer has a flat body or blade, and
+a full set ranges in width from three-eighths of
+an inch to two inches. The sizes most desirable
+and useful are the one-half inch, the inch and the
+inch-and-a-half widths. These are used for trimming
+out cross grains or rebates for setting door
+locks and hinges and for numerous other uses
+where sharp-end tools are required.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig7" id="fig7"></a>
+<img src="images/fig7.jpg" width="400" height="90" alt="Fig. 7." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 7.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Mortising Chisel.</span>&mdash;The mortising chisel
+(Fig. 7<i>a</i>), on the other hand, is very narrow and
+thick, with a long taper down to the cutting edge.
+They are usually in such widths as to make them
+stock sizes for mortises. Never, under any circumstances,
+use a hammer or hatchet for driving
+chisels. The mallet should be used invariably.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig7a" id="fig7a"></a>
+<img src="images/fig7a.jpg" width="400" height="59" alt="Fig. 7a." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 7a. </span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig8" id="fig8"></a>
+<img src="images/fig8.jpg" width="400" height="213" alt="Fig. 8." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 8.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Trusses.</span>&mdash;There should be at least two, each
+three feet in length and twenty inches in height.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Saw Clamps.</span>&mdash;These are necessary adjuncts,
+and should be made of hard wood, perfectly
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 12]</span>
+straight and just wide enough to take in the narrow
+back saw. The illustration shows their shape
+and form.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Grindstones.</span>&mdash;It is better to get a first-class
+stone, which may be small and rigged up
+with a foot treadle. A soft, fine-grained stone is
+most serviceable, and it should have a water tray,
+and never be used excepting with plenty of water.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">An Oil Stone</span> is as essential as a grindstone.
+For giving a good edge to tools it is superior to
+a water stone. It should be provided with a top,
+and covered when not in use, to keep out dust
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 13]</span>
+and grit. These are the little things that contribute
+to success and should be carefully observed.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Miter Box.</span>&mdash;This should be 14 inches long
+and 3" by 3" inside, made of hard wood &frac34;" thick.
+The sides should be nailed to the bottom, as shown.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig9" id="fig9"></a>
+<img src="images/fig9.jpg" width="400" height="141" alt="Fig. 9." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 9.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Work Bench.</span>&mdash;In its proper place we show
+in detail the most approved form of work bench,
+fitted with a tool rack to hold all the tools, conveniently
+arranged. In this chapter we are more
+particularly concerned with the uses of tools than
+their construction; and we impress on boys the
+necessity of having a place for everything, and
+that every tool should be kept in its proper place.
+A carpenter's shop filled with chips, shavings and
+other refuse is not a desirable place for the indiscriminate
+placing of tools. If correct habits
+are formed at the outset, by carefully putting each
+tool in its place after using, it will save many
+an hour of useless hunting and annoyance.</p>
+
+<p>One of the most important things in laying off
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 14]</span>
+work, for instance, on trusses, is the disposition of
+the saw and square. Our illustration shows each
+truss with side cleats, which will permit the user
+temporarily to deposit the saw or the square so
+that it will be handy, and at the same time be
+out of the way of the work and prevent either of
+the tools from being thrown to the floor.</p>
+
+<p>In the same way, and for the same purpose, the
+work bench has temporary holding cleats at the
+end and a shelf in front, which are particularly
+desirable, because either a saw or a square is
+an encumbrance on a work bench while the work
+is being assembled, and tools of this kind should
+not be laid flat on a working surface, nor should
+they be stood in a leaning position against a truss
+or work bench.</p>
+
+<p><i>Strictly observe these fundamentals</i>&mdash;Never
+place a tool with the cutting edge toward you.
+Always have the racks or receptacles so made
+that the handle may be seized. Don't put a tool
+with an exposed cutting edge above or below another
+tool in such a manner that the hand or the
+tool you are handling can come into contact with
+the edge. Never keep the nail or screw boxes
+above the work bench. They should always be
+kept to one side, to prevent, as much as possible,
+the bench from becoming a depository for nails.
+Keep the top of the bench free from tools. Always
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 15]</span>
+keep the planes on a narrow sub-shelf at the
+rear of the bench.</p>
+
+<p>If order was Heaven's first law, it is a good
+principle to apply it in a workman's shop, and
+its observance will form a habit that will soon become
+a pleasure to follow.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[Pg 16]</span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a>CHAPTER II</h2>
+
+<h4>HOW TO GRIND AND SHARPEN TOOLS</h4>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Care of Tools.</span>&mdash;Dull tools indicate the character
+of the workman. In an experience of over
+forty years, I have never known a good workman
+to keep poorly sharpened tools. While it is
+true that the capacity to sharpen tools can be
+acquired only by practice, correct habits at the
+start will materially assist. In doing this part of
+the artisan's work, it should be understood that
+there is a right as well as a wrong way.</p>
+
+<p>There is a principle involved in the sharpening
+of every tool, which should be observed. A skilled
+artisan knows that there is a particular way to
+grind the bits of each plane; that the manner of
+setting a saw not only contributes to its usefulness,
+but will materially add to the life of the saw;
+that a chisel cannot be made to do good work unless
+its cutting edge is square and at the right
+working angle.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">First Requisite.</span>&mdash;A beginner should never attempt
+a piece of work until he learns how the different
+tools should be sharpened, or at least learn
+the principle involved. Practice will make perfect.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[Pg 17]</span>
+<span class="smcap">Saws.</span>&mdash;As the saw is such an important part
+of the kit, I shall devote some space to the subject.
+<i>First</i>, as to setting the saw. The object of
+this is to make the teeth cut a wider kerf than the
+thickness of the blade, and thereby cause the saw
+to travel freely. A great many so-called "saw
+sets" are found in the market, many of them built
+on wrong principles, as will be shown, and these
+are incapable of setting accurately.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 129px;"><a name="fig10" id="fig10"></a><a name="fig10a" id="fig10a"></a>
+<img src="images/fig10.jpg" width="129" height="200" alt="Fig. 10. Fig. 10a" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 10. Fig.10a.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">How to Set.</span>&mdash;To set a saw accurately, that is,
+to drive out each tooth the same distance, is the
+first requirement, and the second is to bend out
+the whole tooth, and not the point only.</p>
+
+<p>In the illustration (Fig. 10), the point is merely
+bent out. This is wrong. The right way is shown
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 18]</span>
+in Fig. 10<i>a</i>. The whole tooth is bent, showing
+the correct way of setting. The reasons for
+avoiding one way and following the other are:
+First, that if the point projects to one side, each
+point or tooth will dig into the wood, and produce
+tooth prints in the wood, which make a roughened
+surface. Second, that if there are inequalities in
+setting the teeth (as is sure to be the case when
+only the points are bent out), the most exposed
+points will first wear out, and thereby cause
+saw deterioration. Third, a saw with the points
+sticking out causes a heavy, dragging cut, and
+means additional labor. Where the whole body
+of the tooth is bent, the saw will run smoothly and
+easily through the kerf and produce a smooth-cut
+surface.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 214px;"><a name="fig11" id="fig11"></a>
+<img src="images/fig11.jpg" width="214" height="236" alt="Fig. 11." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 11.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig12" id="fig12"></a>
+<img src="images/fig12.jpg" width="400" height="134" alt="Fig. 12." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 12.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Our illustration (Fig. 11) shows a very simple
+setting block, the principal merit of which is that
+any boy can make it, and in the use of which he
+cannot go wrong in setting a tooth.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Simple Saw Setter.</span>&mdash;Take a block of wood, a
+4 by 4 inch studding, four inches long. Get a
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 19]</span>
+piece of metal one-half inch thick and two inches
+square. Have a blacksmith or machinist bore a
+quarter-inch hole through it in the center and
+countersink the upper side so it may be securely
+fastened in a mortise in the block, with its upper
+side flush with the upper surface of the block.
+Now, with a file, finish off one edge, going back
+for a quarter of an inch, the angle at A to be about
+12 degrees.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig13" id="fig13"></a>
+<img src="images/fig13.jpg" width="400" height="251" alt="Fig. 13. Rip-Saw" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 13. Rip-Saw</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Filing Angles.</span>&mdash;In its proper place will be
+shown how you may easily calculate and measure
+degrees in work of this kind. Fig. 12 shows an
+approximation to the right angle. B, B (Fig. 11)
+should be a pair of wooden pegs, driven into the
+wooden block on each side of the metal piece.
+The teeth of the saw rest against the pegs
+so that they serve as a guide or a gage, and the
+teeth of the saw, therefore, project over the inclined
+part (B) of the metal block. Now, with
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 20]</span>
+an ordinary punch and a hammer, each alternate
+tooth may be driven down until it rests
+flat on the inclined face (A), so that it is impossible
+to set the teeth wrongly. When you glance
+down the end of a properly set saw, you will see
+a V-shaped channel, and if you will place a needle
+in the groove and hold the saw at an angle, the
+needle will travel down without falling out.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig14" id="fig14"></a>
+<img src="images/fig14.jpg" width="400" height="241" alt="Fig. 14. cross-cut" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 14. cross-cut</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Filing.</span>&mdash;The next step is the filing. Two
+things must be observed: the pitch and the angle.
+By pitch is meant the inclination of the teeth.
+Note the illustration (Fig. 13), which shows the
+teeth of a rip saw. You will see at A that the
+pitch of the tooth is at right angles to the edge
+of the saw. In Fig. 14, which shows the teeth of a
+cross-cut saw, the pitch (B) is about 10 degrees
+off. The teeth of the rip saw are also larger
+than those of the cross-cut.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Angle of Filing.</span>&mdash;By angle is meant the
+cutting position of the file. In Fig. 12, the lines
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 21]</span>
+B represent the file disposed at an angle of 12
+degrees, not more, for a rip saw. For a cross-cut
+the angle of the file may be less.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Saw Clamps.</span>&mdash;You may easily make a pair of
+saw clamps as follows:</p>
+
+<p>Take two pieces of hard wood, each three inches
+wide, seven-eighths of an inch thick, and equal
+in length to the longest saw. Bevel one edge of
+each as shown in A (Fig. 15), so as to leave an
+edge (B) about one-eighth of an inch thick. At
+one end cut away the corner on the side opposite
+the bevel, as shown at C, so the clamps will fit
+on the saw around the saw handle.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig15" id="fig15"></a>
+<img src="images/fig15.jpg" width="400" height="86" alt="Fig. 15." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 15.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>When the saw is placed between these clamps
+and held together by the jaws of the vise, you
+are ready for the filing operation. Observe the
+following <i>filing suggestions</i>: Always hold the file
+horizontal or level. In filing, use the whole length
+of the file. Do the work by a slow, firm sweep.</p>
+
+<p>Do not file all of the teeth along the saw at one
+operation, but only the alternate teeth, so as to
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 22]</span>
+keep the file at the same angle, and thus insure
+accuracy; then turn the saw and keep the file constantly
+at one angle for the alternate set of teeth.</p>
+
+<p>Give the same number of strokes, and exert the
+same pressure on the file for each tooth, to insure
+uniformity. Learn also to make a free, easy and
+straight movement back and forth with the file.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The File.</span>&mdash;In order to experiment with the filing
+motion, take two blocks of wood, and try surfacing
+them off with a file. When you place the
+two filed surfaces together after the first trial
+both will be convex, because the hands, in filing,
+unless you exert the utmost vigilance, will assume
+a crank-like movement. The filing test is so to file
+the two blocks that they will fit tightly together
+without rolling on each other. Before shaping
+and planing machines were invented, machinists
+were compelled to plane down and accurately finish
+off surfaces with a file.</p>
+
+<p>In using the files on saws, however small the
+file may be, one hand should hold the handle and
+the other hand the tip of the file.</p>
+
+<p>A file brush should always be kept on hand, as
+it pays to preserve files by cleaning them.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig16" id="fig16"></a>
+<img src="images/fig16.jpg" width="400" height="337" alt="Fig. 16." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 16.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Grindstone.</span>&mdash;As most of the tools require
+a grindstone for sharpening purposes, an illustration
+is given as a guide, with a diagram to show
+the proper grinding angle. In Fig. 16 the upright
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 23]</span>
+(A) of the frame serves as a line for the
+eye, so that if the point of the tool is brought
+to the sight line, and the tool (C) held level,
+you will always be able to maintain the correct
+angle. There is no objection to providing a rest,
+for instance, like the cross bars (D, D), but the
+artisan disdains such contrivances, and he usually
+avoids them for two reasons: First, because
+habit enables him to hold the tool horizontally;
+and, second, by holding the tool firmly in the hand
+he has better control of it. There is only one
+thing which can be said in favor of a rest, and
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 24]</span>
+that is, the stone may be kept truer circumferentially,
+as all stones have soft spots or sides.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">In the Use of Grindstones.</span>&mdash;There are certain
+things to avoid and to observe in the use of stones.
+Never use one spot on the stone, however narrow
+the tool may be. Always move the tool from side
+to side. Never grind a set of narrow tools successively.
+If you have chisels to grind intersperse
+their grinding with plane bits, hatchet or other
+broad cutting tools, so as to prevent the stone
+from having grooves therein. Never use a tool
+on a stone unless you have water in the tray.</p>
+
+<div class='centered'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" width="60%" cellspacing="0" summary="Fig 17/18">
+<tr>
+<td valign="top"><a name="fig17" id="fig17"></a>
+<img src="images/fig17.jpg" width="191" height="234"
+             alt="Fig. 17." /></td>
+<td><a name="fig18" id="fig18"></a>
+<img src="images/fig18.jpg" width="207" height="231"
+             alt="Fig. 18." /></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td><p class='center'><b>Fig. 17. Correct.</b></p></td>
+<td><p class='center'><b>Fig. 18. Incorrect.</b></p></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Correct Way to Hold Tool for Grinding.</span>&mdash;There
+is a correct way to hold each tool; see illustration
+(Fig. 17). The left hand should grasp
+the tool firmly, near the sharp edge, as shown, and
+the right hand should loosely hold the tool behind
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 25]</span>
+the left hand. There is a reason for this which
+will be apparent after you grind a few tools. The
+firm grasp of the left hand gives you absolute
+control of the blade, so it cannot turn, and when
+inequalities appear in the grindstone, the rigid
+hold will prevent the blade from turning, and
+thus enable you to correct the inequalities of the
+stone. Bear in mind, the stone should be taken
+care of just as much as the tools. An experienced
+workman is known by the condition of his tools,
+and the grindstone is the best friend he has among
+his tools.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Incorrect Way to Hold Tool for Grinding.</span>&mdash;The
+incorrect way of holding a tool is shown in
+Fig. 18. This, I presume, is the universal way
+in which the novice takes the tool. It is wrong for
+the reason that the thumbs of both hands are on
+top of the blade, and they serve as pivots on which
+the tool may turn. The result is that the corners
+of the tool will dig into the stone to a greater or
+less degree, particularly if it has a narrow blade,
+like a chisel.</p>
+
+<p>Try the experiment of grinding a quarter-inch
+chisel by holding it the incorrect way; and then
+grasp it firmly with the left hand, and you will at
+once see the difference.</p>
+
+<p>The left hand serves both as a vise and as a
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 26]</span>
+fulcrum, whereas the right hand controls the angle
+of the tool.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 159px;"><a name="fig19" id="fig19"></a>
+<img src="images/fig19.jpg" width="159" height="320" alt="Fig. 19." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 19.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>These remarks apply to all chisels, plane bits
+and tools of that character, but it is obvious that
+a drawknife, which is always held by the handles
+in grinding, and hatchets, axes and the like, cannot
+be held in the same manner.</p>
+
+<p>A too common error is to press the tool too hard
+on the stone. This is wrong. Do not try to force
+the grinding.</p>
+
+<p>Then, again, it is the practice of some to turn
+the stone away from the tool. The stone should
+always move toward the tool, so as to prevent
+forming a feather edge.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[Pg 27]</span>
+<span class="smcap">The Plane.</span>&mdash;Indiscriminate use of planes
+should be avoided. Never use the fore or smoothing
+planes on rough surfaces. The jack plane is
+the proper tool for this work. On the other hand,
+the fore plane should invariably be used for
+straightening the edges of boards, or for fine
+surfacing purposes. As the jack plane has its
+bit ground with a curved edge, it is admirably
+adapted for taking off the rough saw print surface.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Gage.</span>&mdash;The illustration (Fig. 19) shows
+one of the most useful tools in the kit. It is used
+to scribe the thickness of the material which is
+to be dressed down, or for imprinting the edges
+of tenons and mortises. Two should be provided
+in every kit, for convenience.</p>
+
+<p>The scribing point should be sharpened with a
+file, the point being filed to form a blade, which
+is at right angles to the bar, or parallel with the
+movable cheekpiece.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Chisels.</span>&mdash;I have already pointed out, in general,
+how to hold tools for grinding purposes, this
+description applying particularly to chisels, but
+several additional things may be added.</p>
+
+<p>Always be careful to grind the chisel so its cutting
+edge is square with the side edge. This will
+be difficult at first, but you will see the value of
+this as you use the tool. For instance, in making
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 28]</span>
+rebates for hinges, or recesses and mortises
+for locks, the tool will invariably run crooked,
+unless it is ground square.</p>
+
+<p>The chisel should never be struck with a hammer
+or metal instrument, as the metal pole or
+peon of the hammer will sliver the handle. The
+wooden mallet should invariably be used.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">General Observations.</span>&mdash;If the workman will
+carefully observe the foregoing requirements he
+will have taken the most important steps in the
+knowledge of the art. If he permits himself to
+commence work without having his tools in first-class
+condition, he is trying to do work under circumstances
+where even a skilled workman is liable
+to fail.</p>
+
+<p>Avoid making for yourself a lot of unnecessary
+work. The best artisans are those who try to
+find out and know which is the best tool, or how
+to make a tool for each requirement, but that tool,
+to be serviceable, must be properly made, and that
+means it must be rightly sharpened.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[Pg 29]</span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER III</h2>
+
+<h4>HOW TO HOLD AND HANDLE TOOLS</h4>
+
+<p>Observation may form part of each boy's lesson,
+but when it comes to the handling of tools, practice
+becomes the only available means of making
+a workman. Fifty years of observation would
+never make an observer an archer or a marksman,
+nor would it enable him to shoe a horse or to
+build a table.</p>
+
+<p>It sometimes happens that an apprentice will,
+with little observation, seize a saw in the proper
+way, or hold a plane in the correct manner, and,
+in time, the watchful boy will acquire fairly correct
+habits. But why put in useless time and
+labor in order to gain that which a few well-directed
+hints and examples will convey?</p>
+
+<p>Tools are made and are used as short cuts toward
+a desired end. Before the saw was invented
+the knife was used laboriously to sever
+and shape the materials. Before planes were invented
+a broad, flat sharpened blade was used to
+smooth off surfaces. Holes were dug out by
+means of small chisels requiring infinite patience
+and time. Each succeeding tool proclaimed a
+shorter and an easier way to do a certain thing.
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 30]</span>
+The man or boy who can make a new labor-saving
+tool is worthy of as much praise as the man who
+makes two blades of grass grow where one grew
+before.</p>
+
+<p>Let us now thoroughly understand how to hold
+and use each tool. That is half the value of the
+tool itself.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Saw.</span>&mdash;With such a commonplace article
+as the saw, it might be assumed that the ordinary
+apprentice would look upon instruction with a
+smile of derision.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">How to Start a Saw.</span>&mdash;If the untried apprentice
+has such an opinion set him to work at the task
+of cutting off a board accurately on a line. He
+will generally make a failure of the attempt to
+start the saw true to the line, to say nothing of
+following the line so the kerf is true and square
+with the board.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">How to Start on a Line.</span>&mdash;The first mistake he
+makes is to saw <i>on the line</i>. This should never be
+done. The work should be so laid out that the
+saw kerf is on the discarded side of the material.
+The saw should cut alongside the line, and <i>the line
+should not</i> be obliterated in the cutting. Material
+must be left for trimming and finishing.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The First Stroke.</span>&mdash;Now, to hold the saw in
+starting is the difficult task to the beginner. Once
+mastered it is simple and easy. The only time in
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 31]</span>
+which the saw should be firmly held by the hand
+is during the initial cut or two; afterwards always
+hold the handle loosely. There is nothing so tiring
+as a tightly grasped saw. The saw has but
+one handle, hence it is designed to be used with
+one hand. Sometimes, with long and tiresome
+jobs, in ripping, two hands may be used, but one
+hand can always control a saw better than two
+hands.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig20" id="fig20"></a>
+<img src="images/fig20.jpg" width="400" height="273" alt="Fig. 20." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 20.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Starting Cut.</span>&mdash;In order to make our understanding
+of the starting cut more explicit, we
+refer to Fig. 20, in which the thumb of the left
+hand is shown in the position of a guide&mdash;the end
+of the thumb being held up a sufficient distance to
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 32]</span>
+clear the teeth. In this position you need not
+fear that the teeth of the saw (A) will ride up
+over the thumb if you have a firm grasp of the
+saw handle.</p>
+
+<p>The first stroke should be upwardly, not downwardly.
+While in the act of drawing up the saw
+you can judge whether the saw blade is held by the
+thumb gage in the proper position to cut along the
+mark, and when the saw moves downwardly for
+the first cut, you may be assured that the cut is
+accurate, or at the right place, and the thumb
+should be kept in its position until two or three
+cuts are made, and the work is then fairly started.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 383px;"><a name="fig21" id="fig21"></a>
+<img src="images/fig21.jpg" width="383" height="200" alt="Fig. 21. Wrong sawing angle." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 21. Wrong sawing angle.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">For Cross-cutting.</span>&mdash;For ordinary cross-cutting
+the angle of the saw should be at 45 degrees. For
+ripping, the best results are found at less than
+45 degrees, but you should avoid flattening down
+the angle. An incorrect as well as a correct angle
+are shown in Figs. 21 and 22.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Forcing a Saw.</span>&mdash;Forcing a saw through the
+wood means a crooked kerf. The more nearly the
+saw is held at right angles to a board, the greater
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 33]</span>
+is the force which must be applied to it by the
+hand to cause it to bite into the wood; and, on the
+other hand, if the saw is laid down too far, as
+shown in the incorrect way, it is a very difficult
+matter to follow the working line. Furthermore, it
+is a hard matter to control the saw so that it will
+cut squarely along the board, particularly when
+ripping. The eye must be the only guide in the
+disposition of the saw. Some boys make the saw
+run in one direction, and others cause it to lean
+the opposite way. After you have had some experience
+and know which way you lean, correct
+your habits by disposing the saw in the opposite
+direction.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig22" id="fig22"></a>
+<img src="images/fig22.jpg" width="400" height="213" alt="Fig. 22. Right sawing angle." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 22. Right sawing angle.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Stroke.</span>&mdash;Make a long stroke, using the
+full blade of the saw. Don't acquire the "jerky"
+style of sawing. If the handle is held loosely,
+and the saw is at the proper angle, the weight of
+the saw, together with the placement of the handle
+on the saw blade, will be found sufficient to make
+the requisite cut at each stroke.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[Pg 34]</span>
+You will notice that the handle of every saw is
+mounted nearest the back edge. (See Fig. 23.)
+The reason for so mounting it is, that as the cutting
+stroke is downward, the line of thrust is
+above the tooth line, and as this line is at an
+angle to the line of thrust, the tendency is to cause
+the saw teeth to dig into the wood.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 387px;"><a name="fig23" id="fig23"></a>
+<img src="images/fig23.jpg" width="387" height="78" alt="Fig. 23." title="" />
+<span class="caption"><i>Fig. 23.</i></span></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 361px;"><a name="fig24" id="fig24"></a>
+<img src="images/fig24.jpg" width="361" height="106" alt="Fig. 24." title="" />
+<span class="caption">CHINESE SAW. <i>Fig. 24.</i></span></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Chinese Saw.</span>&mdash;This saw is designed to
+saw with an upward cut, and the illustration (Fig.
+24) shows the handle jutting out below the tooth
+line, in order to cause the teeth to dig into the
+material as the handle is drawn upwardly. Reference
+is made to these features to impress upon
+beginners the value of observation, and to demonstrate
+the reason for making each tool a particular
+way.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[Pg 35]</span>
+<span class="smcap">Things to Avoid.</span>&mdash;Do not oscillate the saw as
+you draw it back and forth. This is unnecessary
+work, and shows impatience in the use of the tool.
+There is such an infinite variety of use for the
+different tools that there is no necessity for rendering
+the work of any particular tool, or tools,
+burdensome. Each in its proper place, handled
+intelligently, will become a pleasure, as well as
+a source of profit.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig25" id="fig25"></a>
+<img src="images/fig25.jpg" width="400" height="166" alt="Fig. 25." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 25.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Plane</span>.&mdash;The jack plane and the fore plane
+are handled with both hands, and the smoothing
+plane with one hand, but only when used for
+dressing the ends of boards. For other uses both
+hands are required.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Angles for Holding Planes.</span>&mdash;Before commencing
+to plane a board, always observe the direction
+in which the grain of the wood runs. This
+precaution will save many a piece of material, because
+if the jack plane is set deep it will run into
+the wood and cause a rough surface, which can
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 36]</span>
+be cured only by an extra amount of labor in
+planing down.</p>
+
+<p>Never move the jack plane or the smoothing
+plane over the work so that the body of the tool
+is in a direct line with the movement of the plane.
+It should be held at an angle of about 12
+or 15 degrees (see Fig. 25). The fore plane
+should always be held straight with the movement
+of the plane, because the length of the fore
+plane body is used as a straightener for the surface
+to be finished.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 320px;"><a name="fig26" id="fig26"></a>
+<img src="images/fig26.jpg" width="320" height="254" alt="Fig. 26." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 26.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Errors to Be Avoided.</span>&mdash;Never draw back the
+plane with the bit resting on the board. This
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 37]</span>
+simply wears out the tool, and if there should be
+any grit on the board it will be sure to ruin the
+bit. This applies particularly to the jack plane,
+but is bad practice with the others as well.</p>
+
+<p>A work bench is a receptacle for all kinds of
+dirt. Provide a special ledge or shelf for the
+planes, and be sure to put each plane there immediately
+after using.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Gage.</span>&mdash;A man, who professed to be a carpenter,
+once told me that he never used a gage
+because he could not make it run straight. A
+few moments' practice convinced him that he never
+knew how to hold it. The illustration shows how
+properly to hold it, and the reason why it should
+so be held follows.</p>
+
+<p>You will observe (Fig. 26) that the hand grasps
+the stem of the gage behind the cheekpiece, so
+that the thumb is free to press against the side
+of the stem to the front of the cheekpiece.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Holding the Gage.</span>&mdash;The hand serves to keep the
+cheekpiece against the board, while the thumb
+pushes the gage forward. The hand must not, under
+any circumstances, be used to move the gage
+along. In fact, it is not necessary for the fingers
+to be clasped around the gage stem, if the forefinger
+presses tightly against the cheekpiece, since
+the thumb performs all the operation of moving
+it along. Naturally, the hand grasps the tool in
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 38]</span>
+order to hold it down against the material, and to
+bring it back for a new cut.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Draw-knife.</span>&mdash;It is difficult for the apprentice
+to become accustomed to handle this useful
+tool. It is much more serviceable than a hatchet
+for trimming and paring work. In applying it
+to the wood always have the tool at an angle with
+the board, so as to make a slicing cut. This is
+specially desirable in working close to a line, otherwise
+there is a liability of cutting over it.</p>
+
+<p>This knife requires a firm grasp&mdash;firmness of
+hold is more important than strength in using.
+The flat side is used wholly for straight edges, and
+the beveled side for concave surfaces. It is the
+intermediate tool between the hatchet and the
+plane, as it has the characteristics of both those
+tools. It is an ugly, dangerous tool, more to be
+feared when lying around than when in use. Put
+it religiously on a rack which protects the entire
+cutting edge. <i>Keep it off the bench.</i></p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[Pg 39]</span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>CHAPTER IV</h2>
+
+<h4>HOW TO DESIGN ARTICLES</h4>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Fundamentals of Designing.</span>&mdash;A great deal
+of the pleasure in making articles consists in
+creative work. This means, not that you shall
+design some entirely new article, but that its general
+form, or arrangement of parts, shall have
+some new or striking feature.</p>
+
+<p>A new design in any art does not require a
+change in all its parts. It is sufficient that there
+shall be an improvement, either in some particular
+point, as a matter of utility, or some change
+in an artistic direction. A manufacturer in putting
+out a new chair, or a plow, or an automobile,
+adds some striking characteristic. This becomes
+his talking point in selling the article.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Commercial Instinct.</span>&mdash;It is not enough
+that the boy should learn to make things correctly,
+and as a matter of pastime and pleasure. The
+commercial instinct is, after all, the great incentive,
+and should be given due consideration.</p>
+
+<p>It would be impossible, in a book of this kind,
+to do more than to give the fundamental principles
+necessary in designing, and to direct the mind
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 40]</span>
+solely to essentials, leaving the individual to build
+tip for himself.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">First Requirements for Designing.</span>&mdash;First,
+then, let us see what is necessary to do when you
+intend to set about making an article. Suppose we
+fix our minds upon a table as the article selected.
+Three things are necessary to know: First, the
+use to which it is to be put; second, the dimensions;
+and, third, the material required.</p>
+
+<p>Assuming it to be the ordinary table, and the
+dimensions fixed, we may conclude to use soft
+pine, birch or poplar, because of ease in working.
+There are no regulation dimensions for tables, except
+as to height, which is generally uniform, and
+usually 30 inches. As to the length and width,
+you will be governed by the place where it is to be
+used.</p>
+
+<p>If the table top is to have dimensions, say, of
+36" &times; 48", you may lay out the framework six
+inches less each way, thus giving you a top overhang
+of three inches, which is the usual practice.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Conventional Styles.</span>&mdash;Now, if you wish to depart
+from the conventional style of making a table
+you may make variations in the design. For instance,
+the Chippendale style means slender legs
+and thin top. It involves some fanciful designs
+in the curved outlines of the top, and in the crook
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 41]</span>
+of the legs. Or if, on the other hand, the Mission
+type is preferred, the overhang of the top is very
+narrow; the legs are straight and heavy, and of
+even size from top to bottom; and the table top
+is thick and nearly as broad as it is long. Such
+furniture has the appearance of massiveness; it is
+easily made and most serviceable.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Mission Style.</span>&mdash;The Mission style of architecture
+also lends itself to the making of chairs and
+other articles of furniture. A chair is, probably,
+the most difficult piece of household furniture to
+make, because strength is required. In this type
+soft wood may be used, as the large legs and back
+pieces are easily provided with mortises and
+tenons, affording great rigidity when completed.
+In designing, therefore, you may see how the
+material itself becomes an important factor.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Cabinets.</span>&mdash;In the making of cabinets, sideboards,
+dressers and like articles, the ingenious
+boy will find a wonderful field for designing ability,
+because in these articles fancy alone dictates
+the sizes and the dimensions of the parts. Not
+so with chairs and tables. The imagination plays
+an important part even in the making of drawers,
+to say nothing of placing them with an eye to
+convenience and artistic effect.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Harmony of Parts.</span>&mdash;But one thing should be
+observed in the making of furniture, namely, harmony
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 42]</span>
+between the parts. For instance, a table
+with thin legs and a thick top gives the appearance
+of a top-heavy structure; or the wrong use
+of two different styles is bad from an artistic
+standpoint; moreover, it is the height of refined
+education if, in the use of contrasting woods, they
+are properly blended to form a harmonious whole.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Harmonizing Wood</span>.&mdash;Imagine a chiffonier with
+the base of dark wood, like walnut, and the top of
+pine or maple, or a like light-colored wood. On
+the other hand, both walnut and maple, for instance,
+may be used in the same article, if they are
+interspersed throughout the entire article. The
+body may be made of dark wood and trimmed
+throughout with a light wood to produce a fine
+effect.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[Pg 43]</span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a>CHAPTER V</h2>
+
+<h4>HOW WORK IS LAID OUT</h4>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Concrete Examples of Work.</span>&mdash;A concrete example
+of doing any work is more valuable than an
+abstract statement. For this purpose I shall direct
+the building of a common table with a drawer
+in it and show how the work is done in detail.</p>
+
+<p>For convenience let us adopt the Mission style,
+with a top 36" &times; 42" and the height 30". The legs
+should be 2" &times; 2" and the top 1", dressed. The
+material should be of hard wood with natural
+finish, or, what is better still, a soft wood, like
+birch, which may be stained a dark brown, as the
+Mission style is more effective in dark than in
+light woods.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig27" id="fig27"></a>
+<img src="images/fig27.jpg" width="400" height="84" alt="Fig. 27." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 27.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Framework.</span>&mdash;As we now know the sizes, the
+first thing is to build the framework. The legs
+should be dressed square and smoothed down with
+the fore plane to make them perfectly straight.
+Now, lay out two mortises at the upper end of each
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 44]</span>
+leg. Follow the illustrations to see how this is
+done.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Laying Out the Legs.</span>&mdash;Fig. 27 shows a leg with
+square cross marks (A) at each end. These marks
+indicate the finished length of the leg. You will
+also see crosses on two sides. These indicate what
+is called the "work sides." The work sides are
+selected because they are the finest surfaces on
+the leg.</p>
+
+<div class='centered'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" width="60%" cellspacing="0" summary="Fig 28/29">
+<tr>
+<td valign="top"><a name="fig28" id="fig28"></a>
+<img src="images/fig28.jpg" width="299" height="60"
+             alt="Fig. 28." /></td>
+<td><a name="fig29" id="fig29"></a>
+<img src="images/fig29.jpg" width="299" height="61"
+             alt="Fig. 29." /></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td><p class='center'><b>Fig. 28.</b></p></td>
+<td><p class='center'><b>Fig. 29.</b></p></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Length of the Mortises.</span>&mdash;Then take a
+small try square (Fig. 28) and add two cross lines
+(B, C) on each of the inner surfaces, the second
+line (B) one-half inch from the finish line (A),
+and the other line (C) seven inches down from
+the line (A). The side facing boards, hereafter
+described, are seven inches wide.</p>
+
+<p>When this has been done for all the legs, prepare
+your gage (Fig. 29) to make the mortise
+scribe, and, for convenience in illustrating, the leg
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 45]</span>
+is reversed. If the facing boards are 1" thick, and
+the tenons are intended to be &frac12;" thick, the first
+scribe line (E) should be &frac12;" from the work side,
+because the shoulder on the facing board projects
+out &frac14;", and the outer surface of the facing
+board should not be flush with the outer surface
+of the leg. The second gage line (F) should be 1"
+from the work side.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 325px;"><a name="fig30" id="fig30"></a>
+<img src="images/fig30.jpg" width="325" height="324" alt="Fig. 30." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 30.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Mortises.</span>&mdash;When the mortises have been
+made they will appear as shown in the enlarged
+cross section of the leg (Fig. 30), the total depth
+of each mortise being 1&frac12;". The depth of this mortise
+determines for us the length of the tenons on
+the facing boards.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Facing Boards.</span>&mdash;These boards are each 1
+inch thick and 7 inches wide. As the top of the
+table is 42 inches long, and we must provide an
+overhang, say of 2 inches, we will first take off
+4 inches for the overhang and 4 inches for the
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 46]</span>
+legs, so that the length of two of the facing boards,
+from shoulder to shoulder, must be 34 inches; and
+the other two facing boards 28 inches. Then, as
+we must add 1&frac12; inches for each tenon, two of the
+boards will be 37 inches long and two of them 31
+inches long.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 335px;"><a name="fig31" id="fig31"></a>
+<img src="images/fig31.jpg" width="335" height="109" alt="Fig. 31." title="" />
+<span class="caption"><i>Fig. 31.</i></span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 397px;"><a name="fig32" id="fig32"></a>
+<img src="images/fig32.jpg" width="397" height="99" alt="Fig. 32." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 32.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>The illustration (Fig. 31) shows a board marked
+with the cross lines (B) at each end for the end
+of the tenons, or the extreme ends of the boards.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Tenons.</span>&mdash;Do not neglect first to select the
+work side and the working edge of the board.
+The outer surface and the upper edges are the
+sides to work from. The cheekpiece (A) of the
+gage must always rest against the working side.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[Pg 47]</span>
+The cross marks (B, C) should be made with the
+point of a sharp knife, and before the small back
+saw is used on the cross-cuts the lines (B), which
+indicate the shoulders, should be scored with a
+sharp knife, as shown in Fig. 33. This furnishes
+a guide for the saw, and makes a neat finish for
+the shoulder.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 156px;"><a name="fig33" id="fig33"></a>
+<img src="images/fig33.jpg" width="156" height="137" alt="Fig. 33." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 33.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class='centered'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" width="60%" cellspacing="0" summary="Fig 28/29">
+<tr>
+<td valign="top"><a name="fig34" id="fig34"></a>
+<img src="images/fig34.jpg" width="189" height="166"
+             alt="Fig. 34." /></td>
+<td><a name="fig35" id="fig35"></a>
+<img src="images/fig35.jpg" width="190" height="176"
+             alt="Fig. 35." /></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td><p class='center'><b>Fig. 34.</b></p></td>
+<td><p class='center'><b>Fig. 35.</b></p></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Tools Used.</span>&mdash;The back saw is used for cutting
+the tenon, and the end of the board appears as
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 48]</span>
+shown in the enlarged Fig. 34. Two things are
+now necessary to complete the tenons. On the upper
+or work edge of each board use the gage to
+mark off a half-inch slice, and then cut away the
+flat side of the tenon at the end, on its inner surface,
+so it will appear as shown in Fig. 35.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 180px;"><a name="fig36" id="fig36"></a>
+<img src="images/fig36.jpg" width="180" height="154" alt="Fig. 36." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 36.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 395px;"><a name="fig37" id="fig37"></a>
+<img src="images/fig37.jpg" width="395" height="92" alt="Fig. 37." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 37.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Chamfered Tenons.</span>&mdash;The object of these chamfered
+or beveled tenons is to permit the ends to
+approach each other closely within the mortise,
+as shown in the assembled parts (Fig. 36).</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Frame Assembled.</span>&mdash;The frame is now
+ready to assemble, but before doing so a drawer
+opening and supports should be made. The ends
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 49]</span>
+of the supports may be mortised into the side
+pieces or secured by means of gains.</p>
+
+<p>Mortises and tenons are better.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Drawer Supports.</span>&mdash;Take one of the side-facing
+boards (Fig. 37) and cut a rectangular
+opening in it. This opening should be 4 inches
+wide and 18 inches long, so placed that there is 1
+inch of stock at the upper margin and 2 inches of
+stock at the lower margin of the board. At each
+lower corner make a mortise (A), so that one side
+of the mortise is on a line with the margin of the
+opening, and so that it extends a half inch past the
+vertical margin of the opening.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig38" id="fig38"></a>
+<img src="images/fig38.jpg" width="400" height="126" alt="Fig. 38." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 38.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>You can easily cut a gain (B) in a strip, or, as
+in Fig. 38, you may use two strips, one (C) an
+inch wide and a half inch thick, and on this nail
+a strip (D) along one margin. This forms the
+guide and rest for the drawer.</p>
+
+<p>At the upper margin of the opening is a rebate
+or gain (E) at each corner, extending down to
+the top line of the drawer opening, into which are
+fitted the ends of the upper cross guides.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[Pg 50]</span>
+<span class="smcap">The Table Frame.</span>&mdash;When the entire table
+frame is assembled it will have the appearance
+shown in Fig. 39, and it is now ready for the top.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Top.</span>&mdash;The top should be made of three
+boards, either tongued and grooved, or doweled
+and glued together. In order to give a massive
+appearance, and also to prevent the end grain of
+the boards from being exposed, beveled strips
+may be used to encase the edges. These marginal
+cleats are &frac34; inch thick and 2 inches wide, and
+joined by beveled ends at the corners, as shown in
+Fig. 40.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig39" id="fig39"></a>
+<img src="images/fig39.jpg" width="400" height="273" alt="Fig. 39." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 39.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Drawer.</span>&mdash;The drawer (Fig. 41) shown in
+cross section, has its front (A) provided with an
+overlapping flange (B).</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[Pg 51]</span>
+It is not our object in this chapter to show
+how each particular article is made, but simply
+to point out the underlying principles, and to illustrate
+how the fastening elements, the tenons
+and mortises, are formed, so that the boy will
+know the proper steps in their natural order.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig40" id="fig40"></a>
+<img src="images/fig40.jpg" width="400" height="146" alt="Fig. 40." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 40.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">How Any Structure Is Built Up.</span>&mdash;It should
+be observed that each structure, however small, is
+usually built from the base up. Just the same
+as the more pretentious buildings are erected:
+First, the sill, then the floor supports, then the
+posts and top plates, with their connecting girders,
+and, finally, the roof.</p>
+
+<p>The chapter on House Building will give more
+detailed illustrations of large structures, and how
+they are framed and braced. At this point we are
+more concerned in knowing how to proceed in order
+to lay out the simple structural details, and if
+one subject of this kind is fully mastered the complicated
+character of the article will not be difficult
+to master.
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 52]</span></p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Observations About a Box.</span>&mdash;As simple a little
+article as a box frequently becomes a burden to a
+beginner. Try it. Simply keep in mind one thing;
+each box has six sides. Now, suppose you want a
+box with six equal sides&mdash;that is, a cubical form&mdash;it
+is necessary to make only three pairs of sides;
+two for the ends, two for the sides and two for
+the top and bottom. Each set has dimensions different
+from the other sets. Both pieces of the
+set, representing the ends, are square; the side
+pieces are of the same width as the end pieces,
+and slightly longer; and the top and bottom are
+longer and wider than the end pieces.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig41" id="fig41"></a>
+<img src="images/fig41.jpg" width="400" height="117" alt="Fig. 41." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 41.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>A box equal in all its dimensions may be made
+out of six boards, properly cut. Make an attempt
+in order to see if you can get the right dimensions.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Joints.</span>&mdash;For joining together boards at right
+angles to each other, such as box corners, drawers
+and like articles, tenons and mortises should never
+be resorted to. In order to make fine work the
+joints should be made by means of dovetails, rabbets
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 53]</span>
+or rebates, or by beveling or mitering the ends.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Beveling and Mitering.</span>&mdash;There is a difference
+in the terms "beveling" and "mitering," as used
+in the art. In Fig. 42 the joint A is <i>beveled</i>,
+and in Fig. 43 the joint B is <i>mitered</i>, the difference
+being that a bevel is applied to an angle
+joint like a box corner, while a miter has reference
+to a joint such as is illustrated in Fig. 43,
+such as the corner of a picture frame.</p>
+
+<div class='centered'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" width="60%" cellspacing="0" summary="Fig 42/43">
+<tr>
+<td valign="top"><a name="fig42" id="fig42"></a>
+<img src="images/fig42.jpg" width="167" height="150"
+             alt="Fig. 42." /></td>
+<td><a name="fig43" id="fig43"></a>
+<img src="images/fig43.jpg" width="164" height="151"
+             alt="Fig. 43." /></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td><p class='center'><b>Fig. 42.</b></p></td>
+<td><p class='center'><b>Fig. 43.</b></p></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Proper Terms.</span>&mdash;It is the application of the correct
+terms to things that lays the foundation for
+accurate thinking and proper expressions in describing
+work. A wise man once said that the
+basis of true science consists in correct definitions.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Picture Frames.</span>&mdash;In picture frames the mitered
+corners may have a saw kerf (C) cut across
+the corners, as shown in Fig. 44, and a thin blade
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 54]</span>
+of hard wood driven in, the whole being glued together.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Dovetail Joints.</span>&mdash;It is in the laying out of the
+more complicated dovetail joints that the highest
+skill is required, because exactness is of more
+importance in this work than in any other article
+in joinery. In order to do this work accurately
+follow out the examples given, and you will soon
+be able to make a beautiful dovetail corner, and do
+it quickly.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 397px;"><a name="fig44" id="fig44"></a>
+<img src="images/fig44.jpg" width="397" height="438" alt="Fig. 44." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 44.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Preparing a Box Joint.</span>&mdash;In order to match a
+box joint for the inner end of a table drawer, the
+first step is to select two work sides. One work
+side will be the edge of the board, and the other
+the side surface of the board, and on those surfaces
+we will put crosses, as heretofore suggested.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 371px;"><a name="fig45" id="fig45"></a>
+<img src="images/fig45.jpg" width="371" height="107" alt="Fig. 45." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 45.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 349px;"><a name="fig46" id="fig46"></a>
+<img src="images/fig46.jpg" width="349" height="120" alt="Fig. 46." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 46.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 366px;"><a name="fig47" id="fig47"></a>
+<img src="images/fig47.jpg" width="366" height="112" alt="Fig. 47." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 47.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">First Steps.</span>&mdash;Now lap together the inner surfaces
+of these boards (Y, Z), so the ends are toward
+you, as shown in Fig. 45. Then, after measuring
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 55]</span>
+the thickness of the boards to be joined
+(the thinnest, if they are of different thicknesses),
+set your compasses, or dividers, for &frac14; inch, providing
+the boards are &frac12; inch thick, and, commencing
+at the work edge of the board, step off and point,
+as at A, the whole width of the board, and with
+a square make the two cross marks (B), using
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 56]</span>
+the two first compass points (A), then skipping
+one, using the next two, and so on.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 371px;"><a name="fig48" id="fig48"></a>
+<img src="images/fig48.jpg" width="371" height="97" alt="Fig. 48." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 48.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 374px;"><a name="fig49" id="fig49"></a>
+<img src="images/fig49.jpg" width="374" height="94" alt="Fig. 49." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 49.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 366px;"><a name="fig50" id="fig50"></a>
+<img src="images/fig50.jpg" width="366" height="90" alt="Fig. 50." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 50.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>When this is done, turn up the board Z (Fig. 46),
+so that it is at right angles to the board Y, and
+so the outer surface of the board Z is flush with
+the end of the board X, and with a sharp knife
+point extend the lines B along with the grain
+of the wood on board Z,up to the cross mark C.
+This cross mark should have been previously made
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 57]</span>
+and is located as far from the end of the board Z
+as the thickness of the board Y.</p>
+
+<p>We now have the marks for the outer surface
+of the board Z, and the end marks of board Y.
+For the purpose of getting the angles of the end
+of the board Z and the outer side of board Y, a
+cross line (D, Fig. 47) is drawn across the board
+X near the end, this line being as far from the
+end as the thickness of the board Z, and a vertical
+line (E) is drawn midway between the two first
+cross marks (A).</p>
+
+<p>Now, with your compass, which, in the meantime,
+has not been changed, make a mark (F), and draw
+down the line (G), which will give you the working
+angle at which you may set the bevel gage. Then
+draw down an angle from each alternate cross line
+(A), and turn the bevel and draw down the lines
+(H). These lines should all be produced on the
+opposite side of the board, so as to assure accuracy,
+and to this end the edges of the board also
+should be scribed.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Cutting Out the Spaces.</span>&mdash;In cutting out the
+intervening spaces, which should be done with a
+sharp chisel, care should be observed not to cut
+over the shoulder lines. To prevent mistakes you
+should put some distinctive mark on each part to
+be cut away. In this instance E, H show the parts
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 58]</span>
+to be removed, and in Fig. 48 two of the cutaway
+portions are indicated.</p>
+
+<p>When the end of the board Z is turned up (Fig.
+49), it has merely the longitudinal parallel lines
+B. The bevel square may now be used in the
+same manner as on the side of the board Y, and
+the fitting angles will then be accurately true.</p>
+
+<p>This is shown in Fig. 50, in which, also, two of
+the cutaway parts are removed.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Tools Used in Laying Out Tenons and Mortises.</span>&mdash;A
+sharp-pointed knife must always be used
+for making all marks. Never employ an awl for
+this work, as the fiber of the wood will be torn up
+by it. A small try square should always be used
+(not the large iron square), and this with a sharp-pointed
+compass and bevel square will enable you
+to turn out a satisfactory piece of work.</p>
+
+<p>The foregoing examples, carefully studied, will
+enable you to gather the principles involved in laying
+off any work. If you can once make a presentable
+box joint, so that all the dovetails will
+accurately fit together, you will have accomplished
+one of the most difficult phases of the work, and it
+is an exercise which will amply repay you, because
+you will learn to appreciate what accuracy
+means.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[Pg 59]</span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI"></a>CHAPTER VI</h2>
+
+<h4>THE USES OF THE COMPASS AND THE SQUARE</h4>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Square.</span>&mdash;The square is, probably, the oldest
+of all tools, and that, together with the compass,
+or dividers, with which the square is always
+associated, has constituted the craftsman's emblem
+from the earliest historical times. So far as
+we now know, the plain flat form, which has at
+least one right angle and two or more straight
+edges, was the only form of square used by the
+workman. But modern uses, and the development
+of joinery and cabinet making, as well as the more
+advanced forms of machinery practice, necessitated
+new structural forms in the square, so that
+the bevel square, in which there is an adjustable
+blade set in a handle, was found necessary.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Try Square.</span>&mdash;In the use of the ordinary
+large metal square it is necessary to lay the short
+limb of the square on the face of the work, and
+the long limb must, therefore, rest against the
+work side or edge of the timber, so that the scribing
+edge of the short limb does not rest flat
+against the work. As such a tool is defective in
+work requiring accuracy, it brought into existence
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 60]</span>
+what is called the try square, which has a rectangular
+handle, usually of wood, into which is fitted
+at one end a metal blade, which is at right angles
+to the edge of the handle. The handle, therefore,
+always serves as a guide for the blade in scribing
+work, because it lies flat down on the work.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The T-Square</span> is another modification of the
+try square, its principal use being for draughting
+purposes.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Compass.</span>&mdash;The compass is one of the original
+carpenter's tools. The difference between
+<i>compass</i> and <i>dividers</i> is that compasses have adjustable
+pen or pencil points, whereas dividers are
+without adjustable points. Modern work has
+brought refinements in the character of the compass
+and dividers, so that we now have the bow-compass,
+which is, usually, a small tool, one leg
+of which carries a pen or pencil point, the two
+legs being secured together, usually, by a spring
+bow, or by a hinged joint with a spring attachment.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Proportional Dividers.</span>&mdash;A useful tool is called
+the proportional dividers, the legs of which are
+hinged together intermediate the ends, so that the
+pivotal joint is adjustable. By means of this tool
+the scale of work may be changed, although its
+widest field of usefulness is work laid off on a
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 61]</span>
+scale which you intend to reduce or enlarge proportionally.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Determining Angles.</span>&mdash;Now, in order to lay
+out work the boy should know quickly and accurately
+how to determine various angles used or
+required in his work. The quickest way in which
+to learn this is to become familiar with the degree
+in its various relations.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig51" id="fig51"></a>
+<img src="images/fig51.jpg" width="400" height="337" alt="Fig. 51." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 51.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Definition of Degree.</span>&mdash;A degree is not a measure,
+as we would designate a foot or a pound to
+determine distance or quantity. It is used to
+denote a division, space, interval or position. To
+illustrate, look at the circle, Fig. 51. The four cardinal
+points are formed by the cross lines (A, B),
+and in each one of the quadrants thus formed the
+circle is divided into 90 degrees. Look at the
+radial lines (C, D), and you will find that the distance
+between these lines is different along the
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 62]</span>
+curved line (E) than along the curved line (F).
+The degree is, therefore, to indicate only the space,
+division or interval in the circle.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Most Important Angle.</span>&mdash;Most important
+for one to know at a glance is that of 45 degrees,
+because the one can the more readily calculate the
+other degrees, approximately, by having 45 degrees
+once fixed in the mind, and impressed on the
+visual image. With a square and a compass it
+is a comparatively easy matter accurately to step
+off 45 degrees, as it is the line C, midway between
+A and B, and the other degrees may be calculated
+from the line C and the cardinal lines A or B.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Degrees Without a Compass.</span>&mdash;But in the absence
+of a compass and when you do not wish to
+step off a circle, you will in such case lay down
+the square, and mark off at the outer margin of
+the limbs two equal dimensions. Suppose we
+take 2 inches on each limb of the square. The
+angle thus formed by the angle square blade is 45
+degrees. To find 30 degrees allow the blade of the
+angle square to run from 2 inches on one limb to
+3&frac12; inches on the other limb, and it will be found
+that for 15 degrees the blade runs from 2 inches on
+one limb to 7&frac12; inches on the other limb. It would
+be well to fix firmly these three points, at least, in
+your mind, as they will be of the utmost value to
+you. It is a comparatively easy matter now to
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 63]</span>
+find 10 degrees or 25 degrees, or any intermediate
+line.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">What Degrees Are Calculated From.</span>&mdash;The
+question that now arises is what line one may use
+from which to calculate degrees, or at what point
+in the circle zero is placed. Degrees may be calculated
+either from the horizontal or from the
+vertical line. Examine Fig. 53. The working
+margin indicated by the cross mark is your base
+line, and in specifying an angle you calculate
+it from the work edge. Thus, the line A indicates
+an angle of 30 degrees. The dotted line is 45
+degrees.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 335px;"><a name="fig52" id="fig52"></a>
+<img src="images/fig52.jpg" width="335" height="194" alt="Fig. 52." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 52.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class='centered'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" width="60%" cellspacing="0" summary="Fig 53/54">
+<tr>
+<td valign="top"><a name="fig53" id="fig53"></a>
+<img src="images/fig53.jpg" width="144" height="83"
+             alt="Fig. 53." /></td>
+<td><a name="fig54" id="fig54"></a>
+<img src="images/fig54.jpg" width="232" height="74"
+             alt="Fig. 54." /></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td><p class='center'><b>Fig. 53.</b></p></td>
+<td><p class='center'><b>Fig. 54.</b></p></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[Pg 64]</span>
+<span class="smcap">The Dividers.</span>&mdash;The dividers are used not only
+for scribing circles, but also for stepping and dividing
+spaces equally. There is a knack in the
+use of the dividers, where accuracy is wanted, and
+where the surface is of wood. Unless the utmost
+care is observed, the spaces will be unequal, for
+the reason that the point of the dividers will sink
+more deeply into the wood at some places than
+at others, due to the uneven texture of the wood
+grain. It will be better to make a line lengthwise,
+and a cross line (A) for starting (see Fig. 54).
+You may then insert one point of the dividers at
+the initial mark (B), and describe a small arc (C).
+Then move the dividers over to the intersection of
+the arc (C) on the line, and make the next mark,
+and so on.</p>
+
+<p>Some useful hints along this same line will be
+found under the chapter on Drawing, which should
+be carefully studied.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[Pg 65]</span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII"></a>CHAPTER VII</h2>
+
+<h4>HOW THE DIFFERENT STRUCTURAL PARTS ARE DESIGNATED</h4>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Right Name for Everything.</span>&mdash;Always
+make it a point to apply the right term to each
+article or portion of a structure. Your explanation,
+to those who do know the proper technical
+terms, will render much easier a thorough understanding;
+and to those who do not know, your language
+will be in the nature of an education.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Proper Designations.</span>&mdash;Every part in mechanism,
+every point, curve and angle has its peculiar
+designation. A knowledge of terms is an indication
+of thoroughness in education, and, as heretofore
+stated, becomes really the basis of art, as well
+as of the sciences. When you wish to impart information
+to another you must do it in terms understood
+by both.</p>
+
+<p>Furthermore, and for this very reason, you
+should study to find out how to explain or to define
+the terms. You may have a mental picture
+of the structure in your mind, but when asked to
+explain it you are lost.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Learning Mechanical Forms.</span>&mdash;Suppose, for
+example, we take the words <i>segment</i> and <i>sector</i>.
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 66]</span>
+Without a thorough understanding in your own
+mind you are likely to confuse these terms by
+taking one for the other. But let us assume you
+are to be called upon to explain a sector to some
+one who has no idea of terms and their definitions.
+How would you describe it? While it is true it is
+wedge-shaped, you will see by examining the drawing
+that it is not like a wedge. The sector has two
+sides running from a point like a wedge, but the
+large end of the sector is curved.</p>
+
+<p>If you were called upon to define a segment you
+might say it had one straight line and one curve,
+but this would not define it very lucidly. Therefore,
+in going over the designations given, not
+only fix in your mind the particular form, but try
+to remember some particular manner in which
+you can clearly express the form, the shape or the
+relation of the parts.</p>
+
+<p>For your guidance, therefore, I have given, as
+far as possible, simple figures to aid you in becoming
+acquainted with structures and their designations,
+without repeating the more simple forms
+which I have used in the preceding chapters.</p>
+
+<div class="floatl" style="width: 112px;"><a name="fig55" id="fig55"></a>
+<img src="images/fig55_65.jpg" width="112" height="640" alt="Fig. 55.-Fig. 65." title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>55. <i>Arcade.</i>&mdash;A series of arches with the columns
+or piers which support them, the spandrels
+above, and other parts.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[Pg 67]</span>
+56. <i>Arch.</i>&mdash;A curved member made up, usually,
+of separate wedge-shaped solids, A. K, Keystone;
+S, Springers; C, Chord, or span.</p>
+
+<p>57. <i>Buttress.</i>&mdash;A projecting mass of masonry.
+A, used for resisting the thrust of an arch, or
+for ornamentation; B, a flying buttress.</p>
+
+<p>58. <i>Chamfer.</i>&mdash;The surface A formed by cutting
+away the arris or angle formed by two faces, B,
+C, of material.</p>
+
+<p>59. <i>Cotter or Cotter Pin.</i>&mdash;A pin, A, either flat,
+square or round, driven through a projecting
+tongue to hold it in position.</p>
+
+<p>60. <i>Crenelated.</i>&mdash;A form of molding indented
+or notched, either regularly or irregularly.</p>
+
+<p>61. <i>Crosses.</i>&mdash;1. Latin cross, in the Church of
+Rome carried before Bishops. 2. Double cross,
+carried before Cardinals and Bishops. 3. Triple
+or Papal cross. 4. St. Andrew's and St. Peter's
+cross. 5. Maltese cross. 6. St. Anthony or
+Egyptian cross. 7. Cross of Jerusalem. 8. A
+cross patt&eacute; or ferm&eacute; (head or first). 9. A cross
+patonce (that is, growing larger at the ends).
+10. Greek cross.</p>
+
+<p>62. <i>Curb Roof.</i>&mdash;A roof having a double slope,
+or composed on each side of two parts which
+have unequal inclinations; a gambrel roof.</p>
+
+<p>63. <i>Cupola.</i>&mdash;So called on account of its resemblance
+to a cup. A roof having a rounded
+form. When on a large scale it is called a dome.</p>
+
+<p><i>Crown Post.</i>&mdash;See <i>King Post.</i></p>
+
+<p>64. <i>Console.</i>&mdash;A bracket with a projection not
+more than half its height.</p>
+
+<p>65. <i>Corbels.</i>&mdash;A mass of brackets to support a
+shelf or structure. Largely employed in Gothic
+architecture.</p>
+
+<div class="floatl" style="width: 117px;"><a name="fig66" id="fig66"></a>
+<img src="images/fig66_79.jpg" width="117" height="640" alt="Fig. 66.-Fig. 79." title=""/>
+</div>
+
+<p>66. Dormer.&mdash;A window pierced in a roof and
+so set as to be vertical, while the roof slopes
+away from it. Also called a Gablet.</p>
+
+<p>67. Dowel.&mdash;A pin or stud in one block, or
+body, designed to engage with holes in another
+body to hold them together in alignment.</p>
+
+<p>68. Drip.&mdash;That part of a cornice or sill course
+A, or other horizontal member which projects
+beyond the rest, so as to divert water.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[Pg 68]</span>
+69. Detents.&mdash;Recesses to lock or to serve as
+a stop or holding place.</p>
+
+<p>70. Extrados.&mdash;The exterior curve of an arch,
+especially the upper curved face A. B is the
+Intrados or Soffit.</p>
+
+<p>71. Engrailed.&mdash;Indented with small concave
+curves, as the edge of a bordure, bend, or the like.</p>
+
+<p>72. Facet.&mdash;The narrow plain surface, as A,
+between the fluting of a column.</p>
+
+<p>73. Fret, Fretwork.&mdash;Ornamental work consisting
+of small fillets, or slats, intersecting each
+other or bent at right angles. Openwork in relief,
+when elaborated and minute in all its parts.
+Hence any minute play of light and shade. A,
+Japanese fretwork. B, Green fret.</p>
+
+<p>74. Frontal, also called Pediment.&mdash;The triangular
+space, A, above a door or window.</p>
+
+<p>75. Frustums.&mdash;That part of a solid next the
+base, formed by cutting off the top; or the part
+of any solid, as of a cone, pyramid, etc., between
+two planes, which may either be parallel or inclined
+to each other.</p>
+
+<p>76. Fylfat.&mdash;A rebated cross used as a secret
+emblem and worn as an ornament. It is also
+called Gammadium, and more commonly known
+as Swastika.</p>
+
+<p>77. Gambrel Roof.&mdash;A curb roof having the
+same section in all its parts, with a lower, steeper
+and longer part. See Curb Roof and distinguish
+difference.</p>
+
+<p>78. Gargoyle.&mdash;A spout projecting from the
+roof gutter of a building, often carved grotesquely.</p>
+
+<p>79. Gudgeon.&mdash;A wooden shaft, A, with a
+socket, B, into which is fitted a casting, C. The
+casting has a gudgeon, D.</p>
+
+<div class="floatr" style="width: 112px;"><a name="fig80" id="fig80"></a>
+<img src="images/fig80_93.jpg" width="112" height="640" alt="Fig. 80.-Fig. 93."/>
+</div>
+
+<p>80. Guilloche.&mdash;An ornament in the form of
+two or more bands or strings twisted together or
+over or through each other.</p>
+
+<p>81. Half Timbered.&mdash;Constructed of a timber
+frame, having the spaces filled in with masonry.</p>
+
+<p>82. Hammer Beam.&mdash;A member of one description
+of roof truss, called hammer-beam truss,
+which is so framed as not to have a tie beam
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 69]</span>
+at the top of the wall. A is the hammer beam,
+and C the pendant post.</p>
+
+<p>83. Haunches.&mdash;The parts A, A, on each side
+of the crown of an arch. Each haunch is from
+one-half to two-thirds of the half arch.</p>
+
+<p>84. Header.&mdash;A piece of timber, A, fitted between
+two trimmers, B, B, to hold the ends of
+the tail beams, C, C.</p>
+
+<p>85. Hip Roof.&mdash;The external angle formed by
+the meeting of two sloping sides or skirts of
+a roof which have their wall plates running in
+different directions.</p>
+
+<p>86. Hood Molding.&mdash;A projecting molding over
+the head of an arch, as at A, forming the outer-most
+member of the archivolt.</p>
+
+<p>87. Inclave.&mdash;The border, or borders, having a
+series of dovetails. One variation of molding or
+ornamentation.</p>
+
+<p>88. Interlacing Arch.&mdash;Arches, usually circular,
+so constructed that their archivolts, A, intersect
+and seem to be interlaced.</p>
+
+<p>89. Invected.&mdash;Having a border or outline composed
+of semicircles or arches, with the convexity
+outward. The opposite of engrailed.</p>
+
+<p>90. Inverted Arch.&mdash;An arch placed with the
+crown downward; used in foundation work.</p>
+
+<p>91. Keystone.&mdash;The central or topmost stone,
+A, of an arch, sometimes decorated with a carving.</p>
+
+<p>92. King Post.&mdash;A member, A, of a common
+form of truss for roofs. It is strictly a tie intended
+to prevent the sagging of the tie beam, B,
+in the middle. If there are struts, C, supporting
+the rafters, D, they extend down to the foot of
+the King Post.</p>
+
+<p>93. Label.&mdash;The name given to the projecting
+molding, A, around the top of the door opening.
+A form of medi&aelig;val architecture.</p>
+
+<div class="floatl" style="width: 109px;"><a name="fig94" id="fig94"></a>
+<img src="images/fig94_104.jpg" width="109" height="640" alt="Fig. 94.-Fig. 104." title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>94. Louver.&mdash;The sloping boards, A, set to shed
+rain water outward in an opening of a frame, as
+in belfry windows.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[Pg 70]</span>
+95. Lintel.&mdash;A horizontal member. A spanning
+or opening of a frame, and designed to carry the
+wall above it.</p>
+
+<p>96. Lug.&mdash;A. projecting piece, as A, to which
+anything is attached, or against which another
+part, like B, is held.</p>
+
+<p>97. M-Roof.&mdash;A kind of roof formed by the
+junction of two common roofs with a valley between
+them, so the section resembles the letter
+M.</p>
+
+<p>98. Mansard Roof.&mdash;A hipped curb roof, that
+is, a roof having on all sides two slopes, the
+lower one, A, being steeper than the upper
+portion or deck.</p>
+
+<p>99. Newel Post.&mdash;The upright post at the foot
+of a stairway, to which the railing is attached.</p>
+
+<p>100. Parquetry.&mdash;A species of joinery or cabinet
+work, consisting of an inlay of geometric or
+other patterns, generally of different colored
+woods, used particularly for floors.</p>
+
+<p>101. Peen. also Pein.&mdash;The round, round-edged
+or hemispherical end, as at A, of a hammer.</p>
+
+<p>102. Pendant.&mdash;A hanging ornament on roofs,
+ceilings, etc., and much used in the later styles
+of Gothic architecture where it is of stone. Imitated
+largely in wood and plaster work.</p>
+
+<p>103. Pentastyle.&mdash;A pillar. A portico having
+five pillars, A, is called the Pentastyle in temples
+of classical construction.</p>
+
+<p>104. Pedestal.&mdash;An upright architectural member,
+A, right-angled in plan, constructionally a
+pier, but resembling a column, having a capital,
+shaft and base to agree with the columns in the
+structure.</p>
+
+<div class="floatr" style="width: 109px;"><a name="fig105" id="fig105"></a>
+<img src="images/fig105_117.jpg" width="109" height="640" alt="Fig. 105.-Fig. 117." title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>105. Pintle.&mdash;An upright pivot pin, or the pin
+of a hinge; A represents the pintle of a rudder.</p>
+
+<p>106. Portico.&mdash;A colonnade or covered structure,
+especially in classical style, of architecture,
+and usually at the entrance of a building.</p>
+
+<p>107. Plate.&mdash;A horizontal timber, A, used as
+a top or header for supporting timbers, roofs and
+the like.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[Pg 71]</span>
+108. Queen Post.&mdash;One of two suspending posts
+in a roof truss, or other framed truss of simple
+form. Compare with King Post. A, B, tie beam;
+C, C, queen posts; D, straining piece; E, principal
+rafter; F, rafter.</p>
+
+<p>109. Quirk Molding.&mdash;A small channel, deeply
+recessed, in proportion to its width, used to insulate
+and give relief to a convex rounded molding.
+An excellent corner post for furniture.</p>
+
+<p>110. Re-entering.&mdash;The figure shows an irregular
+polygon (that is, many-sided figure) and is
+a re-entering polygon. The recess A is a re-entering
+angle.</p>
+
+<p>111. Rafter.&mdash;Originally any rough and heavy
+piece of timber, but in modern carpentry used
+to designate the main roof support, as at A.
+See Queen Post.</p>
+
+<p>112. Scarfing.&mdash;Cutting timber at an angle
+along its length, as the line A. Scarfing joints
+are variously made. The overlapping joints may
+be straight or recessed and provided with a key
+block B. When fitted together they are securely
+held by plates and bolts.</p>
+
+<p>113. Scotia Molding.&mdash;A sunken molding in
+the base of a pillar, so called from the dark
+shadow which it casts.</p>
+
+<p>114. Sill.&mdash;In carpentry the base piece, or
+pieces, A, on which the posts of a structure are
+set.</p>
+
+<p>115. Skew-Back.&mdash;The course of masonry, such
+as a stone, A, with an inclined face, which forms
+the abutment for the voussoirs, B, or wedge-shaped
+stones comprising the arch.</p>
+
+<p>116. Spandrel.&mdash;The irregular, triangular
+space, A, between the curve of an arch and the
+enclosing right angle.</p>
+
+<p>117. Strut.&mdash;In general, any piece of a frame,
+such as a timber A, or a brace B, which resists
+pressure or thrust in the direction of its length.</p>
+
+<div class="floatl" style="width:108px;"><a name="fig118" id="fig118"></a>
+<img src="images/fig118_123.jpg" width="108" height="319" alt="Fig. 118.-Fig. 123." title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>118. Stud, Studding.&mdash;The vertical timber or
+scantling, A, which is one of the small uprights
+of a building to which the boarding or plastering
+lath are nailed.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[Pg 72]</span>
+119. Stile.&mdash;The main uprights of a door, as
+A, A; B, B, B, rails; C, C, mullions; D, D, panels.</p>
+
+<p>Tie Beam.&mdash;See Queen Post.</p>
+
+<p>120. Trammel.&mdash;A very useful tool for drawing
+ellipses. It comprises a cross, A, with grooves
+and a bar, B, with pins, C, attached to sliding
+blocks in the grooves, and a pen or stylus, D,
+at the projecting end of the bar to scribe the
+ellipse.</p>
+
+<p>121. Turret.&mdash;A little tower, frequently only
+an ornamental structure at one of the angles of
+a larger structure.</p>
+
+<p>122. Transom.&mdash;A horizontal cross-bar, A,
+above a door or window or between a door and
+a window above it. Transom is the horizontal
+member, and if there is a vertical, like the dotted
+line B, it is called a Mullion. See Stile.</p>
+
+<p>123. Valley Roof.&mdash;A place of meeting of two
+slopes of a roof which have their sides running
+in different directions and formed on the plan
+of a re-entrant angle.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[Pg 73]</span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII"></a>CHAPTER VIII</h2>
+<h4>DRAWING AND ITS UTILITY</h4>
+
+<p>A knowledge of drawing, at least so far as the
+fundamentals are concerned, is of great service
+to the beginner. All work, after being conceived
+in the brain, should be transferred to paper. A
+habit of this kind becomes a pleasure, and, if carried
+out persistently, will prove a source of profit.
+The boy with a bow pen can easily draw circles,
+and with a drawing or ruling pen he can make
+straight lines.</p>
+
+<p>Representing Objects.&mdash;But let him try to represent
+some object, and the pens become useless.
+There is a vast difference in the use of drawing
+tools and free-hand drawing. While the boy who
+is able to execute free-hand sketches may become
+the better artist, still that art would not be of much
+service to him as a carpenter. First, because the
+use of tools gives precision, and this is necessary
+to the builder; and, second, because the artist
+deals wholly with perspectives, whereas the builder
+must execute from plane surfaces or elevations.</p>
+
+<p>Forming Lines and Shadows.&mdash;It is not my intention
+to furnish a complete treatise on this subject,
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 74]</span>
+but to do two things, one of which will be to
+show, among other features, how simple lines form
+objects; how shading becomes an effective aid;
+how proportions are formed; and, second, how to
+make irregular forms, and how they may readily
+be executed so that the boy may be able to grasp
+the ideas for all shapes and structural devices.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 146px;"><a name="fig125" id="fig125"></a>
+<img src="images/fig125.jpg" width="146" height="71" alt="Fig. 125." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 125.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class='centered'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" width="60%" cellspacing="0" summary="Fig 126/127">
+<tr>
+<td valign="top"><a name="fig126" id="fig126"></a>
+<img src="images/fig126.jpg" width="161" height="79"
+             alt="Fig. 126." /></td>
+<td><a name="fig127" id="fig127"></a>
+<img src="images/fig127.jpg" width="153" height="82"
+             alt="Fig. 127." /></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td><p class='center'><b>Fig. 126.</b></p></td>
+<td><p class='center'><b>Fig. 127.</b></p></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>Analysis of Line Shading.&mdash;In the demonstration
+of this work I shall give an analysis of the
+simple lines formed, showing the terms used to
+designate the lines, curves, and formations, so that
+when any work is laid out the beginner will be
+able, with this glossary before him, to describe
+architecturally, as well as mathematically, the angles
+and curves with which he is working.</p>
+
+<p>How to Characterize Surface.&mdash;Suppose we
+commence simply with straight lines. How shall
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 75]</span>
+we determine the character of the surface of the
+material between the two straight lines shown in
+Fig. 125? Is it flat, rounded, or concaved? Let us
+see how we may treat the surface by simple lines
+so as to indicate the configuration.</p>
+
+<div class='centered'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" width="60%" cellspacing="0" summary="Fig 128/134">
+<tr>
+<td valign="top"><a name="fig128" id="fig128"></a>
+<img src="images/fig128.jpg" width="158" height="79"
+             alt="Fig. 128." /></td>
+<td><a name="fig129" id="fig129"></a>
+<img src="images/fig129.jpg" width="140" height="129"
+             alt="Fig. 129." /></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td><p class='center'><b>Fig. 128.</b></p></td>
+<td><p class='center'><b>Fig. 129.</b></p></td></tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top"><a name="fig130" id="fig130"></a>
+<img src="images/fig130.jpg" width="129" height="135"
+             alt="Fig. 130." /></td>
+<td><a name="fig131" id="fig131"></a>
+<img src="images/fig131.jpg" width="164" height="83"
+             alt="Fig. 131." /></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td><p class='center'><b>Fig. 130.</b></p></td>
+<td><p class='center'><b>Fig. 131.</b></p></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>Concave Surfaces.&mdash;In Fig. 126 the shading
+lines commence at the upper margin, and are
+heaviest there, the lines gradually growing thinner
+and farther apart.</p>
+
+<p>Convex Surfaces.&mdash;In Fig. 127 the shading is
+very light along the upper margin, and heavy at
+the lower margin. The first shaded figure, therefore,
+represents a concaved surface, and the second
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 76]</span>
+figure a convex surface. But why? Simply
+for the reason that in drawings, as well as in nature,
+light is projected downwardly, hence when a
+beam of light moves past the margin of an object,
+the contrast at the upper part, where the light is
+most intense, is strongest.</p>
+
+<p>The shading of the S-shaped surface (Fig. 128)
+is a compound of Figs. 126 and 127.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 343px;"><a name="fig132" id="fig132"></a>
+<img src="images/fig132.jpg" width="343" height="293" alt="Fig. 132." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 132.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Shadows From a Solid Body.</span>&mdash;We can understand
+this better by examining Fig. 129, which
+shows a vertical board, and a beam of light (A)
+passing downwardly beyond the upper margin of
+the board. Under these conditions the upper margin
+of the board appears darker to the vision, by
+contrast, than the lower part. It should also be
+understood that, in general, the nearer the object
+the lighter it is, so that as the upper edge of the
+board is farthest from the eye the heavy shading
+there will at least give the appearance of distance
+to that edge.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[Pg 77]</span>
+But suppose that instead of having the surface
+of the board flat, it should be concaved, as in Fig.
+130, it is obvious that the hollow, or the concaved,
+portion of the board must intensify the shadows
+or the darkness at the upper edge. This explains
+why the heavy shading in Fig. 126 is at that upper
+margin.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Flat Effects.</span>&mdash;If the board is flat it may be
+shaded, as shown in Fig. 131, in which the lines
+are all of the same thickness, and are spaced farther
+and farther apart at regularly increasing intervals.</p>
+
+<div class='centered'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" width="60%" cellspacing="0" summary="Fig 133/134">
+<tr>
+<td valign="top"><a name="fig133" id="fig133"></a>
+<img src="images/fig133.jpg" width="142" height="135"
+             alt="Fig. 133." /></td>
+<td><a name="fig134" id="fig134"></a>
+<img src="images/fig134.jpg" width="140" height="134"
+             alt="Fig. 134." /></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td><p class='center'><b>Fig. 133.</b></p></td>
+<td><p class='center'><b>Fig. 134.</b></p></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Direction of Light.</span>&mdash;Now, in drawing, we
+must observe another thing. Not only does the
+light always come from above, but it comes also
+from the left side. I show in Fig. 132 two squares,
+one within the other. All the lines are of the same
+thickness. Can you determine by means of such a
+drawing what the inner square represents? Is it
+a block, or raised surface, or is it a depression?</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[Pg 78]</span>
+<span class="smcap">Raised Surfaces.</span>&mdash;Fig. 133 shows it in the form
+of a block, simply by thickening the lower and the
+right-hand lines.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Depressed Surfaces.</span>&mdash;If, by chance, you should
+make the upper and the left-hand lines heavy, as
+in Fig. 134, it would, undoubtedly, appear depressed,
+and would need no further explanation.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Full Shading,</span>&mdash;But, in order to furnish an additional
+example of the effect of shading, suppose
+we shade the surface of the large square, as shown
+in Fig. 135, and you will at once see that not only
+is the effect emphasized, but it all the more clearly
+expresses what you want to show. In like manner,
+in Fig. 136, we shade only the space within the
+inner square, and it is only too obvious how shadows
+give us surface conformation.</p>
+
+<div class='centered'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" width="60%" cellspacing="0" summary="Fig 135/136">
+<tr>
+<td valign="top"><a name="fig135" id="fig135"></a>
+<img src="images/fig135.jpg" width="140" height="142"
+             alt="Fig. 135." /></td>
+<td><a name="fig136" id="fig136"></a>
+<img src="images/fig136.jpg" width="147" height="148"
+             alt="Fig. 136." /></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td><p class='center'><b>Fig. 135.</b></p></td>
+<td><p class='center'><b>Fig. 136.</b></p></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Illustrating Cube Shading.</span>&mdash;In Fig. 137 I show
+merely nine lines joined together, all lines being
+of equal thickness.</p>
+
+<p>As thus drawn it may represent, for instance,
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 79]</span>
+a cube, or it may show simply a square base (A)
+with two sides (B, B) of equal dimensions.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Shading Effects.</span>&mdash;Now, to examine it properly
+so as to observe what the draughtsman wishes to
+express, look at Fig. 138, in which the three diverging
+lines (A, B, C) are increased in thickness,
+and the cube appears plainly. On the other hand,
+in Fig. 139, the thickening of the lines (D, E, F)
+shows an entirely different structure.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 144px;"><a name="fig137" id="fig137"></a>
+<img src="images/fig137.jpg" width="144" height="123" alt="Fig. 137." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 137.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class='centered'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" width="60%" cellspacing="0" summary="Fig 138/139">
+<tr>
+<td valign="top"><a name="fig138" id="fig138"></a>
+<img src="images/fig138.jpg" width="140" height="133"
+             alt="Fig. 138." /></td>
+<td><a name="fig139" id="fig139"></a>
+<img src="images/fig139.jpg" width="141" height="124"
+             alt="Fig. 139." /></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td><p class='center'><b>Fig. 138.</b></p></td>
+<td><p class='center'><b>Fig. 139.</b></p></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>It must be remembered, therefore, that to show
+raised surfaces the general direction is to shade
+heavily the lower horizontal and the right vertical
+lines. (See Fig. 133.)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Heavy Lines.</span>&mdash;But there is an exception to this
+rule. See two examples (Fig. 140). Here two parallel
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 80]</span>
+lines appear close together to form the edge
+nearest the eye. In such cases the second, or upper,
+line is heaviest. On vertical lines, as in Fig. 141,
+the second line from the right is heaviest. These
+examples show plain geometrical lines, and those
+from Figs. 138 to 141, inclusive, are in perspective.</p>
+
+<div class='centered'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" width="60%" cellspacing="0" summary="Fig 140/141">
+<tr>
+<td valign="top"><a name="fig140" id="fig140"></a>
+<img src="images/fig140.jpg" width="162" height="141"
+             alt="Fig. 140." /></td>
+<td><a name="fig141" id="fig141"></a>
+<img src="images/fig141.jpg" width="182" height="127"
+             alt="Fig. 141." /></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td><p class='center'><b>Fig. 140.</b></p></td>
+<td><p class='center'><b>Fig. 141.</b></p></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Perspective.</span>&mdash;A perspective is a most deceptive
+figure, and a cube, for instance, may be drawn so
+that the various lines will differ in length, and
+also be equidistant from each other. Or all the
+lines may be of the same length and have the distances
+between them vary. Supposing we have
+two cubes, one located above the other, separated,
+say, two feet or more from each other. It is obvious
+that the lines of the two cubes will not be the
+same to a camera, because, if they were photographed,
+they would appear exactly as they are,
+so far as their positions are concerned, and not as
+they appear. But the cubes do appear to the eye
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 81]</span>
+as having six equal sides. The camera shows
+that they do not have six equal sides so far as
+measurement is concerned. You will see, therefore,
+that the position of the eye, relative to the
+cube, is what determines the angle, or <b>the relative</b>
+angles of all the lines.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 305px;"><a name="fig142" id="fig142"></a>
+<img src="images/fig142.jpg" width="305" height="259" alt="Fig. 142." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 142.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 338px;"><a name="fig143" id="fig143"></a>
+<img src="images/fig143.jpg" width="338" height="331" alt="Fig. 143." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 143.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">A True Perspective of a Cube.</span>&mdash;Fig. 142 shows
+a true perspective&mdash;that is, it is true from the measurement
+standpoint. It is what is called an <i>isometrical</i>
+view, or a figure in which all the lines not
+only are of equal length, but the parallel lines are
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 82]</span>
+all spaced apart the same distances from each
+other.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Isometric Cube.</span>&mdash;I enclose this cube within a
+circle, as in Fig. 143. To form this cube the circle
+(A) is drawn and bisected with a vertical line (B).
+This forms the starting point for stepping off the
+six points (C) in the circle, using the dividers without
+resetting, after you have made the circle.
+Then connect each of the points (C) by straight
+lines (D). These lines are called chords. From
+the center draw two lines (E) at an angle and one
+line (F) vertically. These are the radial lines.
+You will see from the foregoing that the chords
+(D) form the outline of the cube&mdash;or the lines farthest
+from the eye, and the radial lines (E, F)
+are the nearest to the eye. In this position we are
+looking at the block at a true diagonal&mdash;that is,
+from a corner at one side to the extreme corner
+on the opposite side.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 240px;"><a name="fig144" id="fig144"></a>
+<img src="images/fig144.jpg" width="240" height="178" alt="Fig. 144." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 144.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Let us contrast this, and particularly Fig. 142,
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 83]</span>
+with the cube which is placed higher up, viewed
+from the same standpoint.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Flattened Perspective.</span>&mdash;Fig. 144 shows the
+new perspective, in which the three vertical lines
+(A, A, A) are of equal length, and the six angularly
+disposed lines (B, C) are of equal length, but
+shorter than the lines A. The only change which
+has been made is to shorten the distance across
+the corner from D to D, but the vertical lines (A)
+are the same in length as the corresponding lines
+in Fig. 143. Notwithstanding this change the
+cubes in both figures appear to be of the same size,
+as, in fact, they really are.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 240px;"><a name="fig145" id="fig145"></a>
+<img src="images/fig145.jpg" width="240" height="265" alt="Fig. 145." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 145.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>In forming a perspective, therefore, it would
+be a good idea for the boy to have a cube of wood
+always at hand, which, if laid down on a horizontal
+support, alongside, or within range of the object to
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 84]</span>
+be drawn, will serve as a guide to the perspective.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Technical Designations.</span>&mdash;As all geometrical
+lines have designations, I have incorporated such
+figures as will be most serviceable to the boy, each
+figure being accompanied by its proper definition.</p>
+
+<div class='centered'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" width="60%" cellspacing="0" summary="Fig 146/147">
+<tr>
+<td valign="top"><a name="fig146" id="fig146"></a>
+<img src="images/fig146.jpg" width="156" height="149"
+             alt="Fig. 146." /></td>
+<td><a name="fig147" id="fig147"></a>
+<img src="images/fig147.jpg" width="155" height="141"
+             alt="Fig. 147." /></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td><p class='center'><b>Fig. 146.</b></p></td>
+<td><p class='center'><b>Fig. 147.</b></p></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>Before passing to that subject I can better show
+some of the simple forms by means of suitable diagrams.</p>
+
+<p>Referring to Fig. 145, let us direct our attention
+to the body (G), formed by the line (D) across
+the circle. This body is called a segment. A chord
+(D) and a curve comprise a segment.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Sector and Segment.</span>&mdash;Now examine the shape
+of the body formed by two of the radial lines (E,
+E) and that part of the circle which extends from
+one radial line to the other. The body thus formed
+is a sector, and it is made by two radiating lines
+and a curved line. Learn to distinguish readily, in
+your mind, the difference between the two figures.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[Pg 85]</span>
+<span class="smcap">Terms of Angles.</span>&mdash;The relation of the lines to
+each other, the manner in which they are joined
+together, and their comparative angles, all have
+special terms and meanings. Thus, referring to
+the isometric cube, in Fig. 145, the angle formed
+at the center by the lines (B, E) is different from
+the angle formed at the margin by the lines (E, F).
+The angle formed by B, E is called an exterior
+angle; and that formed by E, F is an interior angle.
+If you will draw a line (G) from the center to the
+circle line, so it intersects it at C, the lines B, D, G
+form an equilateral or isosceles triangle; if you
+draw a chord (A) from C to C, the lines H, E, F
+will form an obtuse triangle, and B, F, H a right-angled
+triangle.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Circles and Curves.</span>&mdash;Circles, and, in fact, all
+forms of curved work, are the most difficult for
+beginners. The simplest figure is the circle, which,
+if it represents a raised surface, is provided with
+a heavy line on the lower right-hand side, as in
+Fig. 146; but the proper artistic expression is
+shown in Fig. 147, in which the lower right-hand
+side is shaded in rings running only a part of the
+way around, gradually diminishing in length, and
+spaced farther and farther apart as you approach
+the center, thus giving the appearance of a sphere.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig148" id="fig148"></a>
+<img src="images/fig148.jpg" width="400" height="309" alt="Fig. 148." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 148.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Irregular Curves.</span>&mdash;But the irregular curves require
+the most care to form properly. Let us try
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 86]</span>
+first the elliptical curve (Fig. 148). The proper
+thing is, first, to draw a line (A), which is called
+the "major axis." On this axis we mark for our
+guidance two points (B, B). With the dividers
+find a point (C) exactly midway, and draw a cross
+line (D). This is called the "minor axis." If we
+choose to do so we may indicate two points (E, E)
+on the minor axis, which, in this case, for convenience,
+are so spaced that the distance along
+the major axis, between B, B, is twice the length
+across the minor axis (D), along E, E. Now find
+one-quarter of the distance from B to C, as at F,
+and with a compass pencil make a half circle (G).
+If, now, you will set the compass point on the center
+mark (C), and the pencil point of the compass on
+B, and measure along the minor axis (D) on both
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 87]</span>
+sides of the major axis, you will make two points,
+as at H. These points are your centers for scribing
+the long sides of the ellipse. Before proceeding
+to strike the curved lines (J), draw a diagonal
+line (K) from H to each marking point (F).
+Do this on both sides of the major axis, and produce
+these lines so they cross the curved lines (G).
+When you ink in your ellipse do not allow the circle
+pen to cross the lines (K), and you will have a
+mechanical ellipse.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Ellipses and Ovals.</span>&mdash;It is not necessary to
+measure the centering points (F) at certain specified
+distances from the intersection of the horizontal
+and vertical lines. We may take any point
+along the major axis, as shown, for instance, in
+Fig. 149. Let B be this point, taken at random.
+Then describe the half circle (C). We may, also,
+arbitrarily, take any point, as, for instance, D on
+the minor axis E, and by drawing the diagonal
+lines (F) we find marks on the circle (C), which
+are the meeting lines for the large curve (H), with
+the small curve (C). In this case we have formed
+an ovate or an oval form. Experience will soon
+make perfect in following out these directions.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Focal Points.</span>&mdash;The focal point of a circle is its
+center, and is called the <i>focus</i>. But an ellipse has
+two focal points, called <i>foci</i>, represented by F, F in
+Fig. 148, and by B, B in Fig. 149.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[Pg 88]</span>
+A <i>produced line</i> is one which extends out beyond
+the marking point. Thus in Fig. 148 that
+part of the line K between F and G represents
+the produced portion of line K.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig149" id="fig149"></a>
+<img src="images/fig149.jpg" width="400" height="297" alt="Fig. 149." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 149.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Spirals.</span>&mdash;There is no more difficult figure to
+make with a bow or a circle pen than a spiral. In
+Fig. 150 a horizontal and a vertical line (A, B),
+respectively, are drawn, and at their intersection
+a small circle (C) is formed. This now provides
+for four centering points for the circle pen, on
+the two lines (A, B). Intermediate these points
+indicate a second set of marks halfway between
+the marks on the lines. If you will now set the
+point of the compass at, say, the mark 3, and the
+pencil point of the compass at D, and make a
+curved mark one-eighth of the way around, say,
+to the radial line (E), then put the point of the
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 89]</span>
+compass to 4, and extend the pencil point of the
+compass so it coincides with the curved line just
+drawn, and then again make another curve, one-eighth
+of a complete circle, and so on around the
+entire circle of marking points, successively, you
+will produce a spiral, which, although not absolutely
+accurate, is the nearest approach with a circle
+pen. To make this neatly requires care and
+patience.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig150" id="fig150"></a>
+<img src="images/fig150.jpg" width="400" height="343" alt="Fig. 150." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 150.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Perpendicular and Vertical.</span>&mdash;A few words
+now as to terms. The boy is often confused in determining
+the difference between <i>perpendicular</i>
+and <i>vertical</i>. There is a pronounced difference.
+Vertical means up and down. It is on a line in
+the direction a ball takes when it falls straight
+toward the center of the earth. The word <i>perpendicular</i>,
+as usually employed in astronomy, means
+the same thing, but in geometry, or in drafting, or
+in its use in the arts it means that a perpendicular
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 90]</span>
+line is at right angles to some other line. Suppose
+you put a square upon a roof so that one leg of the
+square extends up and down on the roof, and the
+other leg projects outwardly from the roof. In
+this case the projecting leg is <i>perpendicular</i> to the
+roof. Never use the word <i>vertical</i> in this connection.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Signs to Indicate Measurements.</span>&mdash;The small
+circle (&deg;) is always used to designate <i>degree</i>.
+Thus 10&deg; means ten degrees.</p>
+
+<p>Feet are indicated by the single mark '; and two
+closely allied marks " are for inches. Thus five
+feet ten inches should be written 5' 10". A large
+cross (&times;) indicates the word "by," and in expressing
+the term six feet by three feet two inches, it
+should be written 6' &times; 3'2".</p>
+
+<p>The foregoing figures give some of the fundamentals
+necessary to be acquired, and it may be
+said that if the boy will learn the principles involved
+in the drawings he will have no difficulty
+in producing intelligible work; but as this is not
+a treatise on drawing we cannot go into the more
+refined phases of the subject.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Definitions.</span>&mdash;The following figures show the
+various geometrical forms and their definitions:</p>
+
+<div class="floatr" style="width: 104px;"><a name="fig151" id="fig151"></a>
+<img src="images/fig151_165.jpg" width="104" height="640" alt="Fig. 151.-Fig. 165." title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>151. <i>Abscissa.</i>&mdash;The point in a curve, A, which
+is referred to by certain lines, such as B, which
+extend out from an axis, X, or the ordinate line Z.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[Pg 91]</span>
+152. <i>Angle.</i>&mdash;The inclosed space near the point
+where two lines meet.</p>
+
+<p>153. <i>Apothegm.</i>&mdash;The perpendicular line A from
+the center to one side of a regular polygon. It
+represents the radial line of a polygon the same
+as the radius represents half the diameter of a
+circle.</p>
+
+<p>154. <i>Apsides</i> or <i>Apsis</i>.&mdash;One of two points, A,
+A, of an orbit, oval or ellipse farthest from the
+axis, or the two small dots.</p>
+
+<p>155. <i>Chord.</i>&mdash;A right line, as A, uniting the
+extremities of the arc of a circle or a curve.</p>
+
+<p>156. <i>Convolute</i> (see also <i>Involute</i>).&mdash;Usually
+employed to designate a wave or folds in opposite
+directions. A double involute.</p>
+
+<p>157. <i>Conic Section.</i>&mdash;Having the form of or resembling
+a cone. Formed by cutting off a cone
+at any angle. See line A.</p>
+
+<p>158. <i>Conoid.</i>&mdash;Anything that has a form resembling
+that of a cone.</p>
+
+<p>159. <i>Cycloid.</i>&mdash;A curve, A, generated by a point,
+B, in the plane of a circle or wheel, C, when
+the wheel is rolled along a straight line.</p>
+
+<p>160. <i>Ellipsoid.</i>&mdash;A solid, all plane sections of
+which are ellipses or circles.</p>
+
+<p>161. <i>Epicycloid.</i>&mdash;A curve, A, traced by a point,
+B, in the circumference of a wheel, C, which rolls
+on the convex side of a fixed circle, D.</p>
+
+<p>162. <i>Evolute.</i>&mdash;A curve, A, from which another
+curve, like B, on each of the inner ends of the
+lines C is made. D is a spool, and the lines C
+represent a thread at different positions. The
+thread has a marker, E, so that when the thread
+is wound on the spool the marker E makes the
+evolute line A.</p>
+
+<p>163. <i>Focus.</i>&mdash;The center, A, of a circle; also
+one of the two centering points, B, of an ellipse
+or an oval.</p>
+
+<p>164. <i>Gnome.</i>&mdash;The space included between the
+boundary lines of two similar parallelograms, the
+one within the other, with an angle in common.</p>
+
+<p>165. <i>Hyperbola.</i>&mdash;A curve, A, formed by the section
+of a cone. If the cone is cut off vertically
+on the dotted line, A, the curve is a hyperbola.
+See <i>Parabola</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="floatl" style="width: 99px;"><a name="fig167" id="fig167"></a>
+<img src="images/fig167_184.jpg" width="99" height="640" alt="Fig. 167.-Fig. 184." title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>167. <i>Hypothenuse.</i>&mdash;The side, A, of a right-angled
+triangle which is opposite to the right
+angle B, C. A, regular triangle; C, irregular triangle.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[Pg 92]</span>
+168. <i>Incidence.</i>&mdash;The angle, A, which is the
+same angle as, for instance, a ray of light, B,
+which falls on a mirror, C. The line D is the
+perpendicular.</p>
+
+<p>169. <i>Isosceles Triangle.</i>&mdash;Having two sides or
+legs, A, A, that are equal.</p>
+
+<p>170. <i>Parabola.</i>&mdash;One of the conic sections formed
+by cutting of a cone so that the cut line, A, is
+not vertical. See <i>Hyperbola</i> where the cut line
+is vertical.</p>
+
+<p>171. <i>Parallelogram.</i>&mdash;A right-lined quadrilateral
+figure, whose opposite sides, A, A, or B, B, are
+parallel and consequently equal.</p>
+
+<p>172. <i>Pelecoid.</i>&mdash;A figure, somewhat hatchet-shaped,
+bounded by a semicircle, A, and two inverted
+quadrants, and equal to a square, C.</p>
+
+<p>173. <i>Polygons.</i>&mdash;Many-sided and many with
+angles.</p>
+
+<p>174. <i>Pyramid.</i>&mdash;A solid structure generally with
+a square base and having its sides meeting in an
+apex or peak. The peak is the vertex.</p>
+
+<p>175. <i>Quadrant.</i>&mdash;The quarter of a circle or of
+the circumference of a circle. A horizontal line,
+A, and a vertical line, B, make the four quadrants,
+like C.</p>
+
+<p>176. <i>Quadrilateral.</i>&mdash;A plane figure having four
+sides, and consequently four angles. Any figure
+formed by four lines.</p>
+
+<p>177. <i>Rhomb.</i>&mdash;An equilateral parallelogram or a
+quadrilateral figure whose sides are equal and the
+opposite sides, B, B, parallel.</p>
+
+<p>178. <i>Sector.</i>&mdash;A part, A, of a circle formed by
+two radial lines, B, B, and bounded at the end
+by a curve.</p>
+
+<p>179. <i>Segment.</i>&mdash;A part, A, cut from a circle by
+a straight line, B. The straight line, B, is the
+chord or the <i>segmental line</i>.</p>
+
+<p>180. <i>Sinusoid.</i>&mdash;A wave-like form. It may be
+regular or irregular.</p>
+
+<p>181. <i>Tangent.</i>&mdash;A line, A, running out from the
+curve at right angles from a radial line.</p>
+
+<p>182. <i>Tetrahedron.</i>&mdash;A solid figure enclosed or
+bounded by four triangles, like A or B. A plain
+pyramid is bounded by five triangles.</p>
+
+<p>183. <i>Vertex.</i>&mdash;The meeting point, A, of two or
+more lines.</p>
+
+<p>184. <i>Volute.</i>&mdash;A spiral scroll, used largely in
+architecture, which forms one of the chief features
+of the Ionic capital.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[Pg 93]</span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX"></a>CHAPTER IX</h2>
+
+<h4>MOLDINGS, WITH PRACTICAL ILLUSTRATIONS IN EMBELLISHING
+WORK</h4>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Moldings.</span>&mdash;The use of moldings was early resorted
+to by the nations of antiquity, and we marvel
+to-day at many of the beautiful designs which
+the Ph&oelig;necians, the Greeks and the Romans produced.
+If you analyze the lines used you will be
+surprised to learn how few are the designs which
+go to make up the wonderful columns, spires, minarets
+and domes which are represented in the various
+types of architecture.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Basis of Moldings.</span>&mdash;Suppose we take the
+base type of moldings, and see how simple they
+are and then, by using these forms, try to build
+up or ornament some article of furniture, as an
+example of their utility.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Simplest Molding.</span>&mdash;In Fig. 185 we show
+a molding of the most elementary character
+known, being simply in the form of a band (A)
+placed below the cap. Such a molding gives to
+the article on which it is placed three distinct
+lines, C, D and E, If you stop to consider you
+will note that the molding, while it may add to
+the strength of the article, is primarily of service
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 94]</span>
+because the lines and surfaces produce shadows,
+and therefore become valuable in an artistic sense.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Astragal.</span>&mdash;Fig. 186 shows the ankle-bone
+molding, technically called the <i>Astragal</i>. This
+form is round, and properly placed produces a
+good effect, as it throws the darkest shadow of
+any form of molding.</p>
+
+<div class='centered'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" width="60%" cellspacing="0" summary="Fig 187/188">
+<tr valign="top">
+<td ><a name="fig185" id="fig185"></a>
+<img src="images/fig185.jpg" width="145" height="126"
+             alt="Fig. 185." /></td>
+<td><a name="fig186" id="fig186"></a>
+<img src="images/fig186.jpg" width="127" height="80"
+             alt="Fig. 188." /></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td><p class='center'><b>Fig. 185.</b></p></td>
+<td><p class='center'><b>Fig. 186.</b></p></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+
+<div class='centered'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" width="60%" cellspacing="0" summary="Fig 187/188">
+<tr>
+<td valign="top"><a name="fig187" id="fig187"></a>
+<img src="images/fig187.jpg" width="127" height="80"
+             alt="Fig. 187." /></td>
+<td><a name="fig188" id="fig188"></a>
+<img src="images/fig188.jpg" width="127" height="80"
+             alt="Fig. 188." /></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td><p class='center'><b>Fig. 187.</b></p></td>
+<td><p class='center'><b>Fig. 188.</b></p></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Cavetto.</span>&mdash;Fig. 187 is the cavetto, or round
+type. Its proper use gives a delicate outline, but
+it is principally applied with some other form
+of molding.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Ovolo.</span>&mdash;Fig. 188, called the ovolo, is a
+quarter round molding with the lobe (A) projecting
+downwardly. It is distinguished from
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 95]</span>
+the astragal because it casts less of a shadow
+above and below.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Torus.</span>&mdash;Fig. 189, known as the torus, is
+a modified form of the ovolo, but the lobe (A) projects
+out horizontally instead of downwardly.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Apophyges</span> (Pronounced apof-i-ges).&mdash;Fig.
+190 is also called the <i>scape</i>, and is a concaved type
+of molding, being a hollowed curvature used on
+columns where its form causes a merging of the
+shaft with the fillet.</p>
+
+<div class='centered'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" width="60%" cellspacing="0" summary="Fig 189/192">
+<tr>
+<td valign="top"><a name="fig189" id="fig189"></a>
+<img src="images/fig189.jpg" width="116" height="62"
+             alt="Fig. 189." /></td>
+<td><a name="fig190" id="fig190"></a>
+<img src="images/fig190.jpg" width="117" height="73"
+             alt="Fig. 190." /></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td><p class='center'><b>Fig. 189. Torus.</b></p></td>
+<td><p class='center'><b>Fig. 190. Apophyge.</b></p></td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top"><a name="fig191" id="fig191"></a>
+<img src="images/fig191.jpg" width="102" height="76"
+             alt="Fig. 28." /></td>
+<td><a name="fig192" id="fig192"></a>
+<img src="images/fig192.jpg" width="169" height="99"
+             alt="Fig. 192." /></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td><p class='center'><b>Fig. 191. Cymatium.</b></p></td>
+<td><p class='center'><b>Fig. 192. Ogee-Recta.</b></p></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Cymatium.</span>&mdash;Fig. 191 is the cymatium (derived
+from the word cyme), meaning wave-like.
+This form must be in two curves, one inwardly
+and one outwardly.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Ogee.</span>&mdash;Fig. 192, called the ogee, is the most
+useful of all moldings, for two reasons: First,
+it may have the concaved surface uppermost, in
+which form it is called ogee recta&mdash;that is, right
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 96]</span>
+side up; or it may be inverted, as in Fig. 193, with
+the concaved surface below, and is then called
+ogee reversa. Contrast these two views and you
+will note what a difference the mere inversion of
+the strip makes in the appearance. Second, because
+the ogee has in it, in a combined form, the
+outlines of nearly all the other types. The only
+advantage there is in using the other types is
+because you may thereby build up and space your
+work better than by using only one simple form.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 238px;"><a name="fig193" id="fig193"></a>
+<img src="images/fig193.jpg" width="238" height="223" alt="Fig. 193. Ogee-Reversa." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 193. Ogee-Reversa.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 183px;"><a name="fig194" id="fig194"></a>
+<img src="images/fig194.jpg" width="183" height="166" alt="Fig. 194. Bead
+or Reedy." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 194. Bead or Reedy.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>You will notice that the ogee is somewhat like
+the cymatium, the difference being that the concaved
+part is not so pronounced as in the ogee,
+and the convexed portion bulges much further than
+in the ogee. It is capable of use with other moldings,
+and may be reversed with just as good effect
+as the ogee.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[Pg 97]</span>
+<span class="smcap">The Reedy.</span>&mdash;Fig. 194 represents the reedy, or
+the bead&mdash;that is, it is made up of reeds. It is a
+type of molding which should not be used with any
+other pronounced type of molding.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Casement</span> (Fig. 195).&mdash;In this we have a
+form of molding used almost exclusively at the
+base of structures, such as columns, porticoes and
+like work.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 187px;"><a name="fig195" id="fig195"></a>
+<img src="images/fig195.jpg" width="187" height="170" alt="Fig. 195. Casement." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 195. Casement.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Now, before proceeding to use these moldings,
+let us examine a Roman-Doric column, one of the
+most famous types of architecture produced. We
+shall see how the ancients combined moldings to
+produce grace, lights and shadows and artistic
+effects.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Roman-Doric Column.</span>&mdash;In Fig. 196 is
+shown a Roman-Doric column, in which the cymatium,
+the ovolo, cavetto, astragal and the ogee are
+used, together with the fillets, bases and caps,
+and it is interesting to study this because of its
+beautiful proportions.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[Pg 98]</span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 394px;"><a name="fig196" id="fig196"></a>
+<img src="images/fig196.jpg" width="394" height="538" alt="Fig. 196." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 196.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The pedestal and base are equal in vertical
+dimensions to the entablature and capital. The entablature
+is but slightly narrower than the pedestal;
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 99]</span>
+and the length of the column is, approximately,
+four times the height of the pedestal.
+The base of the shaft, while larger diametrically
+than the capital, is really shorter measured vertically.
+There is a reason for this. The eye must
+travel a greater distance to reach the upper end
+of the shaft, and is also at a greater angle to that
+part of the shaft, hence it appears shorter, while
+it is in reality longer. For this reason a capital
+must be longer or taller than the base of a shaft,
+and it is also smaller in diameter.</p>
+
+<p>It will be well to study the column not only on
+account of the wonderful blending of the various
+forms of moldings, but because it will impress you
+with a sense of proportions, and give you an idea
+of how simple lines may be employed to great advantage
+in all your work.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Lessons from the Doric Column.</span>&mdash;As an example,
+suppose we take a plain cabinet, and endeavor
+to embellish it with the types of molding
+described, and you will see to what elaboration
+the operation may be carried.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Applying Molding.</span>&mdash;Let Fig. 197 represent the
+front, top and bottom of our cabinet; and the first
+thing we shall do is to add a base (A) and a cap
+(B). Now, commencing at the top, suppose we
+utilize the simplest form of molding, the band.</p>
+
+<p>This we may make of any desired width, as
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 100]</span>
+shown in Fig. 198. On this band we can apply the
+ogee type (Fig. 199) right side up.</p>
+
+<p>But for variation we may decide to use the
+ogee reversed, as in Fig. 200. This will afford
+us something else to think about and will call upon
+our powers of initiative in order to finish off the
+lower margin or edge of the ogee reversa.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 160px;"><a name="fig197" id="fig197"></a>
+<img src="images/fig197.jpg" width="160" height="439" alt="Fig. 197." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 197.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class='centered'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" width="60%" cellspacing="0" summary="Fig 198/199">
+<tr>
+<td valign="top"><a name="fig198" id="fig198"></a>
+<img src="images/fig198.jpg" width="111" height="104"
+             alt="Fig. 198." /></td>
+<td><a name="fig199" id="fig199"></a>
+<img src="images/fig199.jpg" width="117" height="109"
+             alt="Fig. 199." /></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td><p class='center'><b>Fig. 198.</b></p></td>
+<td><p class='center'><b>Fig. 199.</b></p></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>If we take the ogee recta, as shown in Fig. 201,
+we may use the cavetto, or the ovolo (Fig. 202);
+but if we use the ogee reversa we must use a convex
+molding like the cavetto at one base, and
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 101]</span>
+a convex molding, like the torus or the ovolo,
+at the other base.</p>
+
+<p>In the latter (Fig. 202) four different moldings
+are used with the ogee as the principal
+structure.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Base Embellishments.</span>&mdash;In like manner (Fig.
+204) the base may have the casement type first attached
+in the corner, and then the ovolo, or the
+astragal added, as in Fig. 203.</p>
+
+<div class='centered'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" width="60%" cellspacing="0" summary="Fig 200/202">
+<tr>
+<td valign="top"><a name="fig200" id="fig200"></a>
+<img src="images/fig200.jpg" width="86" height="77"
+             alt="Fig. 200." /></td>
+<td><a name="fig201" id="fig201"></a>
+<img src="images/fig201.jpg" width="89" height="77"
+             alt="Fig. 201." /></td>
+<td><a name="fig202" id="fig202"></a>
+<img src="images/fig202.jpg" width="73" height="77"
+             alt="Fig. 202." /></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td><p class='center'><b>Fig. 200.</b></p></td>
+<td><p class='center'><b>Fig. 201.</b></p></td>
+<td><p class='center'><b>Fig. 202.</b></p></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Straight-faced Moldings.</span>&mdash;Now let us carry
+the principle still further, and, instead of using
+various type of moldings, we will employ nothing
+but straight strips of wood. This treatment will
+soon indicate to you that the true mechanic or
+artisan is he who can take advantage of whatever
+he finds at hand.</p>
+
+<p>Let us take the same cabinet front (Fig. 205),
+and below the cap (A) place a narrow strip (B),
+the lower corner of which has been chamfered off,
+as at C. Below the strip B is a thinner strip (D),
+vertically disposed, and about two-thirds its width.
+The lower corner of this is also chamfered, as at
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 102]</span>
+F. To finish, apply a small strip (G) in the corner,
+and you have an embellished top that has
+the appearance, from a short distance, of being
+made up of molding.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Plain Molded Base.</span>&mdash;The base may be treated
+in the same manner. The main strip (4) has its
+upper corner chamfered off, as at I, and on this
+is nailed a thin, narrow finishing strip (J). The
+upper part or molded top, in this case, has eleven
+distinct lines, and the base has six lines. By experimenting
+you may soon put together the most
+available kinds of molding strips.</p>
+
+<div class='centered'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" width="60%" cellspacing="0" summary="Fig 203/204">
+<tr>
+<td valign="top"><a name="fig203" id="fig203"></a>
+<img src="images/fig203.jpg" width="93" height="131"
+             alt="Fig. 203." /></td>
+<td><a name="fig204" id="fig204"></a>
+<img src="images/fig204.jpg" width="99" height="126"
+             alt="Fig. 204." /></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td><p class='center'><b>Fig. 203.</b></p></td>
+<td><p class='center'><b>Fig. 204.</b></p></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Diversified Uses.</span>&mdash;For a great overhang you
+may use the cavetto, or the apophyges, and below
+that the astragal or the torus; and for the base
+the casement is the most serviceable molding, and
+it may be finished off with the ovolo or the cymatium.</p>
+
+<p>Pages of examples might be cited to show the
+variety and the diversification available with different
+types.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[Pg 103]</span>
+<span class="smcap">Shadows Cast by Moldings.</span>&mdash;Always bear in
+mind that a curved surface makes a blended
+shadow. A straight, flat or plain surface does
+not, and it is for that reason the concaved and
+the convexed surfaces, brought out by moldings,
+become so important.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 211px;"><a name="fig205" id="fig205"></a>
+<img src="images/fig205.jpg" width="211" height="630" alt="Fig. 205." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 205.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>A little study and experimenting will soon
+teach you how a convex, a concave or a flat surface,
+and a corner or corners should be arranged relatively
+to each other; how much one should project
+beyond the other; and what the proportional
+widths of the different molding bands should be.
+An entire volume would scarcely exhaust this subject.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[Pg 104]</span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_X" id="CHAPTER_X"></a>CHAPTER X</h2>
+
+<h4>AN ANALYSIS OF TENONING, MORTISING, RABBETING
+AND BEADING</h4>
+
+
+<p>In the chapter on How Work is Laid Out, an
+example was given of the particular manner pursued
+in laying out mortises and tenons, and also
+dovetailed work. I deem it advisable to add some
+details to the subject, as well as to direct attention
+to some features which do not properly belong
+to the laying out of work.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Where Mortises Should Be Used.</span>&mdash;Most important
+of all is a general idea of places and conditions
+under which mortises should be resorted
+to. There are four ways in which different members
+may be secured to each other. First, by
+mortises and tenons; second, by a lap-and-butt;
+third, by scarfing; and, fourth, by tonguing and
+grooving.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Depth of Mortises.</span>&mdash;When a certain article is
+to be made, the first consideration is, how the
+joint or joints shall be made. The general rule
+for using the tenon and mortise is where two
+parts are joined wherein the grains of the two
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 105]</span>
+members run at right angles to each other, as in
+the following figure.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Rule for Mortises.</span>&mdash;Fig. 206 shows such an
+example. You will notice this in doors particularly,
+as an example of work.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 156px;"><a name="fig206" id="fig206"></a>
+<img src="images/fig206.jpg" width="156" height="89" alt="Fig. 206." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 206.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 397px;"><a name="fig207" id="fig207"></a>
+<img src="images/fig207.jpg" width="397" height="84" alt="Fig. 207." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 207.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The next consideration is, shall the mortises be
+cut entirely through the piece? This is answered
+by the query as to whether or not the end of the
+tenon will be exposed; and usually, if a smooth
+finish is required, the mortise should not go
+through the member. In a door, however, the
+tenons are exposed at the edges of the door, and
+are, therefore, seen, so that we must apply some
+other rule. The one universally adopted is, that
+where, as in a door stile, it is broad and comparatively
+thin, or where the member having the mortise
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 106]</span>
+in its edge is much thinner than its width, the
+mortise should go through from edge to edge.</p>
+
+<p>The reason for this lies in the inability to sink
+the mortises through the stile (A, Fig. 207) perfectly
+true, and usually the job is turned out
+something like the illustration shows. The side
+of the rail (B) must be straight with the side of
+the stile. If the work is done by machinery it
+results in accuracy unattainable in hand work.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig208" id="fig208"></a>
+<img src="images/fig208.jpg" width="400" height="326" alt="Fig. 208." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 208.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">True Mortise Work.</span>&mdash;The essense of good joining
+work is the ability to sink the chisel true with
+the side of the member. More uneven work is
+produced by haste than by inability. The tendency
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 107]</span>
+of all beginners is to strike the chisel too
+hard, in order the more quickly to get down to
+the bottom of the mortise. Hence, bad work
+follows.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Steps in Cutting Mortises.</span>&mdash;Examine Fig. 208,
+which, for convenience, gives six successive steps
+in making the mortise. The marks <i>a</i>, <i>b</i> designate
+the limits, or the length, of the mortise. The
+chisel (C) is not started at the marking line (A),
+but at least an eighth of an inch from it. The
+first cut, as at B, gives a starting point for the
+next cut or placement of the chisel. When the second
+cut (B) has thus been made, the chisel should
+be turned around, as in dotted line <i>d</i>, position
+C, thereby making a finish cut down to the bottom
+of the mortise, line <i>e</i>, so that when the fourth cut
+has been made along line <i>f</i>, we are ready for the
+fifth cut, position C; then the sixth cut, position
+D, which leaves the mortise as shown at E. Then
+turn the chisel to the position shown at F, and
+cut down the last end of the mortise square, as
+shown in G, and clean out the mortise well before
+making the finishing cuts on the marking lines
+(<i>a</i>, <i>b</i>). The particular reason for cleaning out
+the mortise before making the finish cuts is, that
+the corners of the mortise are used as fulcrums
+for the chisels, and the eighth of an inch stock
+still remaining protects the corners.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[Pg 108]</span>
+<span class="smcap">Things to Avoid in Mortising.</span>&mdash;You must be
+careful to refrain from undercutting as your chisel
+goes down at the lines <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, because if you commit
+this error you will make a bad joint.</p>
+
+<p>As much care should be exercised in producing
+the tenon, although the most common error is apt
+to occur in making the shoulder. This should be
+a trifle undercut.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 321px;"><a name="fig209" id="fig209"></a>
+<img src="images/fig209.jpg" width="321" height="138" alt="Fig. 209." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 209.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>See the lines (A, Fig. 209), which illustrate this.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Lap-and-Butt Joint.</span>&mdash;The lap-and-butt is the
+form of uniting members which is most generally
+used to splice together timbers, where they join
+each other end to end.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig210" id="fig210"></a>
+<img src="images/fig210.jpg" width="400" height="140" alt="Fig. 210." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 210.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Bolts are used to secure the laps.</p>
+
+<p>But the lap-and-butt form is also used in doors
+and in other cabinet work. It is of great service
+in paneling.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[Pg 109]</span>
+A rabbet is formed to receive the edge of the
+panel, and a molding is then secured to the other
+side on the panel, to hold the latter in place.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Scarfing.</span>&mdash;This method of securing members
+together is the most rigid, and when properly performed
+makes the joint the strongest part of the
+timber. Each member (A, Fig. 212) has a step
+diagonally cut (B), the two steps being on different
+planes, so they form a hook joint, as at C,
+and as each point or terminal has a blunt end,
+the members are so constructed as to withstand
+a longitudinal strain in either direction. The
+overlapping plates (D) and the bolts (E) hold
+the joint rigidly.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 393px;"><a name="fig211" id="fig211"></a>
+<img src="images/fig211.jpg" width="393" height="51" alt="Fig. 211." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 211.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 335px;"><a name="fig212" id="fig212"></a>
+<img src="images/fig212.jpg" width="335" height="109" alt="Fig. 212." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 212.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Tongue and Groove.</span>&mdash;This form of uniting
+members has only a limited application. It is
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 110]</span>
+serviceable for floors, table tops, paneling, etc. In
+Fig. 213, a door panel is shown, and the door
+mullions (B) are also so secured to the rail (C).
+The tongue-and-groove method is never used by
+itself. It must always have some support or reinforcing
+means.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig213" id="fig213"></a>
+<img src="images/fig213.jpg" width="400" height="81" alt="Fig. 213." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 213.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class='centered'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" width="60%" cellspacing="0" summary="Fig 28/29">
+<tr>
+<td valign="top"><a name="fig214" id="fig214"></a>
+<img src="images/fig214.jpg" width="105" height="51"
+             alt="Fig. 214." /></td>
+<td><a name="fig215" id="fig215"></a>
+<img src="images/fig215.jpg" width="278" height="54"
+             alt="Fig. 215." /></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td><p class='center'><b>Fig. 214.</b></p></td>
+<td><p class='center'><b>Fig. 215.</b></p></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Beading.</span>&mdash;This part of the work pertains to
+surface finishings, and may or may not be used in
+connection with rabbeting.</p>
+
+<p>Figs. 214 and 215 show the simplest and most
+generally adopted forms in which it is made and
+used in connection with rabbeting, or with the
+tongue and groove. The bead is placed on one
+or both sides of that margin of the board (Fig.
+214) which has the tongue, and the adjoining
+board has the usual flooring groove to butt against
+and receive the tongue. It is frequently the case
+that a blind bead, as in Fig. 215, runs through
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 111]</span>
+the middle of the board, so as to give the appearance
+of narrow strips when used for wainscoting,
+or for ceilings. The beads also serve to hide the
+joints of the boards.</p>
+
+<div class='centered'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" width="60%" cellspacing="0" summary="Fig 216/218">
+<tr>
+<td valign="top"><a name="fig216" id="fig216"></a>
+<img src="images/fig216.jpg" width="125" height="71"
+             alt="Fig. 216." /></td>
+<td><a name="fig217" id="fig217"></a>
+<img src="images/fig217.jpg" width="105" height="54"
+             alt="Fig. 217." /></td>
+<td><a name="fig218" id="fig218"></a>
+<img src="images/fig218.jpg" width="125" height="71"
+             alt="Fig. 218." /></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td><p class='center'><b>Fig. 216.</b></p></td>
+<td><p class='center'><b>Fig. 217.</b></p></td>
+<td><p class='center'><b>Fig. 218.</b></p></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Ornamental Bead Finish.</span>&mdash;These figures show
+how the bead may be used for finishing corners,
+edges and projections. Fig. 216 has a bead at
+each corner of a stile (A), and a finishing strip
+of half-round material (B) is nailed to the flat
+edge. Fig. 217 has simply the corners themselves
+beaded, and it makes a most serviceable finish for
+the edges of projecting members.</p>
+
+<p>Fig. 218, used for wider members, has the corners
+beaded and a fancy molding (C); or the reduced
+edge of the stile itself is rounded off.</p>
+
+<div class='centered'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" width="60%" cellspacing="0" summary="Fig 219/220">
+<tr>
+<td valign="top"><a name="fig219" id="fig219"></a>
+<img src="images/fig219.jpg" width="200" height="139"
+             alt="Fig. 219." /></td>
+<td><a name="fig220" id="fig220"></a>
+<img src="images/fig220.jpg" width="212" height="139"
+             alt="Fig. 220." /></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td><p class='center'><b>Fig. 219.</b></p></td>
+<td><p class='center'><b>Fig. 220.</b></p></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Bead and Rabbet.</span>&mdash;A more amplified form
+of work is available where the rabbet plane is
+used with the beader. These two planes together
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 112]</span>
+will, if properly used, offer a strong substitute for
+molding and molding effects.</p>
+
+<p>Fig. 219 has both sides first rabbeted, as at A,
+and the corners then beaded, as at B, with the
+reduced part of the member rounded off, as at C.
+Or, as in Fig. 220, the reduced edge of the member
+may have the corners beaded, as at D, and the
+rabbeted corners filled in with a round or concaved
+moulding (E).</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Shading with Beads and Rabbets.</span>&mdash;You will
+see from the foregoing, that these embellishments
+are serviceable because they provide the article
+with a large number of angles and surfaces to
+cast lights and shadows; and for this reason the
+boy should strive to produce the effects which this
+class of work requires.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[Pg 113]</span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XI" id="CHAPTER_XI"></a>CHAPTER XI</h2>
+
+<h4>HOUSE BUILDING</h4>
+
+<p>House building is the carpenter's craft; cabinet-making
+the joiner's trade, yet both are so intimately
+associated, that it is difficult to draw a
+line. The same tools, the same methods and the
+same materials are employed.</p>
+
+<p>There is no trade more ennobling than home
+building. It is a vocation which touches every
+man and woman, and to make it really an art is,
+or should be, the true aspiration of every craftsman.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The House and Embellishments.</span>&mdash;The refined
+arts, such as sculpture and painting, merely embellish
+the home or the castle, so that when we
+build the structure it should be made with an eye
+not only to comfort and convenience, but fitting in
+an artistic and &aelig;sthetic sense. It is just as easy
+to build a beautiful home as an ugly, ungainly, illy
+proportioned structure.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Beauty Not Ornamentation.</span>&mdash;The boy, in his
+early training, should learn this fundamental
+truth, that beauty, architecturally, does not depend
+upon ornamentation. Some of the most
+beautiful structures in the world are very plain.
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 114]</span>
+Beauty consists in proportions, in proper correlation
+of parts, and in adaptation for the uses to
+which the structure is to be put.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Plain Structures.</span>&mdash;A house with a plain
+fa&ccedil;ade, having a roof properly pitched and with
+a simple cornice, if joined to a wing which is not
+ungainly or out of proper proportions, is infinitely
+more beautiful than a rambling structure, in which
+one part suggests one order of architecture and
+the other part some other type or no type at all,
+and in which the embellishments are out of keeping
+with the size or pretensions of the house.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Colonial Type.</span>&mdash;For real beauty, on a larger
+scale, there is nothing to-day which equals the
+old Colonial type with the Corinthian columns and
+entablature. The Lee mansion, now the National
+Cemetery, at Washington, is a fine example.
+Such houses are usually square or rectangular in
+plan, severely plain, with the whole ornamentation
+consisting of the columns and the portico. This
+type presents an appearance of massiveness and
+grandeur and is an excellent illustration of a
+form wherein the main characteristic of the structure
+is concentrated or massed at one point.</p>
+
+<p>The Church of the Madelaine, Paris, is another
+striking example of this period of architecture.</p>
+
+<p>Of course, it would be out of place with cottages
+and small houses, but it is well to study and to
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 115]</span>
+know what forms are most available and desirable
+to adopt, and particularly to know something of
+the art in which you are interested.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Roof the Keynote.</span>&mdash;Now, there is one
+thing which should, and does, distinguish the residence
+from other types of buildings, excepting
+churches. It is the roof. A house is dominated
+by its covering. I refer to the modern home. It
+is not true with the Colonial or the Grecian types.
+In those the fa&ccedil;ade or the columns and cornices
+predominate over everything else.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bungalow Types.</span>&mdash;If you will take up any book
+on bungalow work and note the outlines of the
+views you will see that the roof forms the main
+element or theme. In fact, in most buildings of
+this kind everything is submerged but the roof
+and roof details. They are made exceedingly flat,
+with different pitches with dormers and gables intermingled
+and indiscriminately placed, with cornices
+illy assorted and of different kinds, so that
+the multiplicity of diversified details gives an appearance
+of great elaboration. Many of those
+designs are monstrosities and should, if possible,
+be legally prohibited.</p>
+
+<p>I cannot attempt to give even so much as an
+outline of what constitutes art in its relation to
+building, but my object is to call attention to
+this phase of the question, and as you proceed in
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 116]</span>
+your studies and your work you will realize the
+value and truthfulness of the foregoing observations.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">General House Building.</span>&mdash;We are to treat,
+generally, on the subject of house building, how
+the work is laid out, and how built, and in doing
+so I shall take a concrete example of the work.
+This can be made more effectual for the purpose
+if it is on simple lines.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Building Plans.</span>&mdash;We must first have a plan;
+and the real carpenter must have the ability to
+plan as well as to do the work. We want a five-room
+house, comprising a parlor, dining room, two
+bedrooms, a kitchen and a bathroom. Just a modest
+little home, to which we can devote our spare
+hours, and which will be neat and comfortable
+when finished. It must be a one-story house, and
+that fact at once settles the roof question. We
+can make the house perfectly square in plan, or
+rectangular, and divide up the space into the
+proper divisions.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Plain Square Floor Plan</span> will first be
+taken up, as it is such an easy roof to build. Of
+course, it is severely plain.</p>
+
+<p>Fig. 221 shows our proposed plan, drawn in the
+rough, without any attempts to measure the different
+apartments, and with the floor plan exactly
+square. Supposing we run a hall (A) through
+the middle. On one side of this let us plan for
+a dining room and a kitchen, a portion of the
+kitchen space to be given over to a closet and a
+bathroom.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[Pg 117]</span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig221" id="fig221"></a>
+<img src="images/fig221.jpg" width="400" height="442" alt="Fig. 221." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 221.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The chimney (B) must be made accessible from
+both rooms. On the other side of the hallway the
+space is divided into a parlor and two bedrooms.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[Pg 118]</span>
+<span class="smcap">The Rectangular Plan.</span>&mdash;In the rectangular
+floor plan (Fig. 222) a portion of the floor space is
+cut out for a porch (A), so that we may use the
+end or the side for the entrance. Supposing we
+use the end of the house for this purpose. The
+entrance room (B) may be a bedroom, or a reception
+and living room, and to the rear of this
+room is the dining room, connected with the reception
+room by a hall (C). This hall also leads to
+the kitchen and to the bathroom, as well as to the
+other bedroom. The parlor is connected with the
+entrance room (B), and also with the bedroom.
+All of this is optional, of course.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig222" id="fig222"></a>
+<img src="images/fig222.jpg" width="400" height="282" alt="Fig. 222." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 222.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>There are also two chimneys, one chimney (D)
+having two flues and the other chimney (E) having
+three flues, so that every room is accommodated.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[Pg 119]</span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig223" id="fig223"></a>
+<img src="images/fig223.jpg" width="400" height="448" alt="Fig. 223." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 223.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Room Measurements.</span>&mdash;We must now determine
+the dimensions of each room, and then how we
+shall build the roof.</p>
+
+<p>In Figs. 223 and 224, we have now drawn out
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 120]</span>
+in detail the sizes, the locations of the door and
+windows, the chimneys and the closets, as well
+as the bathroom. All this work may be changed
+or modified to suit conditions and the taste of the
+designer.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig224" id="fig224"></a>
+<img src="images/fig224.jpg" width="400" height="281" alt="Fig. 224." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 224.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Front and Side Lines.</span>&mdash;From the floor diagram,
+and the door and window spaces, as marked out,
+we may now proceed to lay out rough front and
+side outlines of the building. The ceilings are to
+be 9 feet, and if we put a rather low-pitched
+roof on the square structure (Fig. 223) the front
+may look something like Fig. 225, and a greater
+pitch given to the rectangular plan (Fig. 224) will
+present a view as shown in Fig. 226.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[Pg 121]</span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig225" id="fig225"></a>
+<img src="images/fig225.jpg" width="400" height="239" alt="Fig. 225." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 225.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig226" id="fig226"></a>
+<img src="images/fig226.jpg" width="400" height="212" alt="Fig. 226." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 226.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Roof.</span>&mdash;The pitch of the roof (Fig. 225) is
+what is called "third pitch," and the roof (Fig.
+226) has a half pitch. A "third" pitch is determined
+as follows:</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[Pg 122]</span>
+<span class="smcap">Roof Pitch.</span>&mdash;In Fig. 227 draw a vertical line
+(A) and join it by a horizontal line (B). Then
+strike a circle (C) and step it off into three parts.
+The line (D), which intersects the first mark (E)
+and the angle of the lines (A, B), is the pitch.</p>
+
+<p>In Fig. 228 the line A is struck at 15 degrees,
+which is halfway between lines B and C, and it is,
+therefore, termed "half-pitch."</p>
+
+<div class='centered'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" width="60%" cellspacing="0" summary="Fig 227/228">
+<tr>
+<td valign="top"><a name="fig227" id="fig227"></a>
+<img src="images/fig227.jpg" width="153" height="140"
+             alt="Fig. 227." /></td>
+<td><a name="fig228" id="fig228"></a>
+<img src="images/fig228.jpg" width="143" height="142"
+             alt="Fig. 228." /></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td><p class='center'><b>Fig. 227.</b></p></td>
+<td><p class='center'><b>Fig. 228.</b></p></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>Thus, we have made the ground plans, the elevations
+and the roofs as simple as possible. Let
+us proceed next with the details of the building.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Foundation.</span>&mdash;This may be of brick, stone
+or concrete, and its dimensions should be at least
+1&frac12; inches further out than the sill.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Sills.</span>&mdash;We are going to build what is called
+a "balloon frame"; and, first, we put down the
+sills, which will be a course of 2" &times; 6", or 2" &times; 8"
+joists, as in Fig. 229.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Flooring Joist.</span>&mdash;The flooring joists (A)
+are then put down (Fig. 230). These should extend
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 123]</span>
+clear across the house from side to side, if
+possible, or, if the plan is too wide, they should
+be lapped at the middle wall and spiked together.
+The ends should extend out flush with the outer
+margins of the sills, as shown, but in putting down
+the first and last sill, space must be left along
+the sides of the joist of sufficient width to place
+the studding.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 380px;"><a name="fig229" id="fig229"></a>
+<img src="images/fig229.jpg" width="380" height="178" alt="Fig. 229." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 229.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 378px;"><a name="fig230" id="fig230"></a>
+<img src="images/fig230.jpg" width="378" height="216" alt="Fig. 230." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 230.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Studding.</span>&mdash;The next step is to put the
+studding into position. 4" &times; 4" must be used for
+corners and at the sides of door and window openings.
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 124]</span>
+4" &times; 6" may be used at corners, if preferred.
+Consult your plan and see where the
+openings are for doors and windows. Measure
+the widths of the door and window frames, and
+make a measuring stick for this purpose. You
+must leave at least one-half inch clearance for
+the window or door frame, so as to give sufficient
+room to plumb and set the frame.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Setting Up.</span>&mdash;First set up the corner posts,
+plumbing and bracing them. Cut a top plate for
+each side you are working on.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig231" id="fig231"></a>
+<img src="images/fig231.jpg" width="400" height="64" alt="Fig. 231." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 231.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Plate.</span>&mdash;As it will be necessary in our job
+to use two or more lengths of 2" &times; 4" scantling for
+the plate, it will be necessary to join them together.
+Do this with a lap-and-butt joint (Fig.
+231).</p>
+
+<p>Then set up the 4" &times; 4" posts for the sides of the
+doors and windows, and for the partition walls.</p>
+
+<p>The plate should be laid down on the sill, and
+marked with a pencil for every scantling to correspond
+with the sill markings. The plate is then
+put on and spiked to the 4" &times; 4" posts.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Intermediate Studding.</span>&mdash;It will then be an
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 125]</span>
+easy matter to put in the intermediate 2" &times; 4"
+studding, placing them as nearly as possible 16
+inches apart to accommodate the 48-inch plastering
+lath.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig232" id="fig232"></a>
+<img src="images/fig232.jpg" width="400" height="332" alt="Fig. 232." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 232.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Wall Headers.</span>&mdash;When all the studding are in
+you will need headers above and rails below the
+windows and headers above all the doors, so that
+you will have timbers to nail the siding to, as
+well as for the lathing.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Ceiling Joists.</span>&mdash;We are now ready for the ceiling
+joists, which are, usually, 2" &times; 6", unless there
+is an upper floor. These are laid 16 inches apart
+from center to center, preferably parallel with
+the floor joist.</p>
+
+<p>It should be borne in mind that the ceiling
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 126]</span>
+joist must always be put on with reference
+to the roof.</p>
+
+<p>Thus, in Fig. 232, the ceiling joists (A) have
+their ends resting on the plate (B), so that the
+rafters are in line with the joists.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Braces.</span>&mdash;It would also be well, in putting up the
+studding, to use plenty of braces, although for a
+one-story building this is not so essential as in
+two-story structures, because the weather boarding
+serves as a system of bracing.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig233" id="fig233"></a>
+<img src="images/fig233.jpg" width="400" height="407" alt="Fig. 233." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 233.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Rafters.</span>&mdash;These may be made to provide
+for the gutter or not, as may be desired. They
+should be of 2" &times; 4" scantling.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Gutter.</span>&mdash;In Fig. 233 I show a most serviceable
+way to provide for the gutter. A V-shaped
+notch is cut out of the upper side of the rafter,
+in which is placed the floor and a side. This
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 127]</span>
+floor piece is raised at one end to provide an incline
+for the water.</p>
+
+<p>A face-board is then applied and nailed to
+the ends of the rafters. This face-board is surmounted
+by a cap, which has an overhang, beneath
+which is a molding of any convenient pattern.
+The face-board projects down at least two
+inches below the angled cut of the rafter, so that
+when the base-board is applied, the lower margin
+of the face-board will project one inch below the
+base.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig234" id="fig234"></a>
+<img src="images/fig234.jpg" width="400" height="326" alt="Fig. 234." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 234.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>This base-board is horizontal, as you will see.
+The facia-board may be of any desired width,
+and a corner molding should be added. It is
+optional to use the brackets, but if added they
+should be spaced apart a distance not greater
+than twice the height of the bracket.</p>
+
+<p>A much simpler form of gutter is shown in Fig.
+234, in which a V-shaped notch is also cut in the
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 128]</span>
+rafter, and the channel is made by the pieces.
+The end of the rafter is cut at right angles,
+so the face-board is at an angle. This is also surmounted
+by an overhanging cap and a molding.
+The base is nailed to the lower edges of the rafters,
+and the facia is then applied.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 389px;"><a name="fig234a" id="fig234a"></a>
+<img src="images/fig234a.jpg" width="389" height="399" alt="Fig. 234a." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 234a.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>In Fig. 234<i>a</i> the roof has no gutter, so that the
+end of the rafter is cut off at an angle and a molding
+applied on the face-board. The base is nailed
+to the rafters. This is the cheapest and simplest
+form of structure for the roof.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Setting Door and Window Frames.</span>&mdash;The next
+step in order is to set the door and window frames
+preparatory to applying the weather boarding.
+It is then ready for the roof, which should be put
+on before the floor is laid.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Plastering and Inside Finish.</span>&mdash;Next in order
+is the plastering, then the base-boards and the
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 129]</span>
+casing; and, finally, the door and windows should
+be fitted into position.</p>
+
+<p>Enough has been said here merely to give a
+general outline, with some details, how to proceed
+with the work.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[Pg 130]</span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XII" id="CHAPTER_XII"></a>CHAPTER XII</h2>
+
+<h4>BRIDGES, TRUSSED WORK AND LIKE STRUCTURES</h4>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bridges.</span>&mdash;Bridge building is not, strictly, a part
+of the carpenter's education at the present day,
+because most structures of this kind are now built
+of steel; but there are certain principles involved
+in bridge construction which the carpenter should
+master.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Self-supporting Roofs.</span>&mdash;In putting up, for instance,
+self-supporting roofs, or ceilings with wide
+spans, and steeples or towers, the bridge principle
+of trussed members should be understood.</p>
+
+<p>The most simple bridge or trussed form is the
+well-known A-shaped arch.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig235" id="fig235"></a>
+<img src="images/fig235.jpg" width="400" height="125" alt="Fig. 235." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 235.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Common Trusses.</span>&mdash;One form is shown in Fig.
+235, with a vertical king post. In Fig. 236 there
+are two vertical supporting members, called queen
+posts, used in longer structures. Both of these
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 131]</span>
+forms are equally well adapted for small bridges
+or for roof supports.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Vertical Upright Truss.</span>&mdash;This form of
+truss naturally develops into a type of wooden
+bridge known all over the country, as its framing
+is simple, and calculations as to its capacity to
+sustain loads may readily be made. Figs. 237,
+238 and 239 illustrate these forms.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 312px;"><a name="fig236" id="fig236"></a>
+<img src="images/fig236.jpg" width="312" height="69" alt="Fig. 236." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 236.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 393px;"><a name="fig237" id="fig237"></a>
+<img src="images/fig237.jpg" width="397" height="78" alt="Fig. 237." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 237.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Warren Girder.</span>&mdash;Out of this simple truss
+grew the Warren girder, a type of bridge particularly
+adapted for iron and steel construction.</p>
+
+<p>This is the simplest form for metal bridge
+truss, or girder. It is now also largely used in
+steel buildings and for other work requiring
+strength with small weight.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[Pg 132]</span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 384px;"><a name="fig238" id="fig238"></a>
+<img src="images/fig238.jpg" width="384" height="55" alt="Fig. 238." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 238.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 393px;"><a name="fig239" id="fig239"></a>
+<img src="images/fig239.jpg" width="393" height="52" alt="Fig. 239." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 239.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 343px;"><a name="fig240" id="fig240"></a>
+<img src="images/fig240.jpg" width="343" height="71" alt="Fig. 240." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 240.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Bowstring Girder.</span>&mdash;Only one other form of
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 133]</span>
+bridge truss need be mentioned here, and that is
+the <i>bowstring</i> shown in Fig. 240.</p>
+
+<p>In this type the bow receives the entire compression
+thrust, and the chords act merely as suspending
+members.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Fundamental Truss Form.</span>&mdash;In every form of
+truss, whether for building or for bridge work, the
+principles of the famous A-truss must be employed
+in some form or other; and the boy who is
+experimentally inclined will readily evolve means
+to determine what degree of strength the upper
+and the lower members must have for a given
+length of truss to sustain a specified weight.</p>
+
+<p>There are rules for all these problems, some of
+them very intricate, but all of them intensely interesting.
+It will be a valuable addition to your
+knowledge to give this subject earnest study.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[Pg 134]</span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIII" id="CHAPTER_XIII"></a>CHAPTER XIII</h2>
+<h4>THE BEST WOODS FOR THE BEGINNER</h4>
+
+
+<p>In this place consideration will be given to some
+of the features relating to the materials to be employed,
+particularly with reference to the manner
+in which they can be worked to the best advantage,
+rather than to their uses.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Best Woods.</span>&mdash;The prime wood, and the
+one with which most boys are familiar, is white
+pine. It has an even texture throughout, is generally
+straight grained, and is soft and easily
+worked. White pine is a wood requiring a very
+sharp tool. It is, therefore, the best material for
+the beginner, as it will at the outset teach him the
+important lesson of keeping the tools in a good,
+sharp condition.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Soft Woods.</span>&mdash;It is also well for the novice to do
+his initial work with a soft wood, because in joining
+the parts together inaccuracies may be easily
+corrected. If, for instance, in mortising and tenoning,
+the edge of the mortised member is not true,
+or, rather, is not "square," the shoulder of the
+tenon on one side will abut before the other side
+does, and thus leave a crack, if the wood is hard.
+If the wood is soft there is always enough yield to
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 135]</span>
+enable the workman to spring it together. Therefore,
+until you have learned how to make a true
+joint, use soft wood.</p>
+
+<p>Poplar is another good wood for the beginner, as
+well as redwood, a western product.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Hard Woods.</span>&mdash;Of the hard woods, cherry is the
+most desirable for the carpenter's tool. For working
+purposes it has all the advantages of a soft
+wood, and none of its disadvantages. It is not apt
+to warp, like poplar or birch, and its shrinking
+unit is less than that of any other wood, excepting
+redwood. There is practically no shrinkage in redwood.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Most Difficult Woods.</span>&mdash;Ash is by far the
+most difficult wood to work. While not as hard as
+oak, it has the disadvantage that the entire board
+is seamed with growth ribs which are extremely
+hard, while the intervening layers between these
+ribs are soft, and have open pores, so that, for
+instance, in making a mortise, the chisel is liable
+to follow the hard ribs, if the grain runs at an
+angle to the course of the mortise.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Hard-ribbed Grain in Wood.</span>&mdash;This peculiarity
+of the grain in ash makes it a beautiful wood
+when finished. Of the light-colored woods, oak
+only excels it, because in this latter wood each
+year's growth shows a wider band, and the interstices
+between the ribs have stronger contrasting
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 136]</span>
+colors than ash; so that in filling the surface, before
+finishing it, the grain of the wood is brought
+out with most effective clearness and with a beautifully
+blended contrast.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Easiest Working Woods.</span>&mdash;The same thing
+may be said, relatively, concerning cherry and
+walnut. While cherry has a beautiful finishing
+surface, the blending contrasts of colors are not so
+effective as in walnut.</p>
+
+<p>Oregon pine is extremely hard to work, owing to
+the same difficulties experienced in handling ash;
+but the finished Oregon pine surface makes it a
+most desirable material for certain articles of furniture.</p>
+
+<p>Do not attempt to employ this nor ash until you
+have mastered the trade. Confine yourself to pine,
+poplar, cherry and walnut. These woods are all
+easily obtainable everywhere, and from them you
+can make a most creditable variety of useful articles.</p>
+
+<p>Sugar and maple are two hard woods which may
+be added to the list. Sugar, particularly, is a
+good-working wood, but maple is more difficult.
+Spruce, on the other hand, is the strongest and
+toughest wood, considering its weight, which is
+but a little more than that of pine.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Differences in the Working of Woods.</span>&mdash;Different
+woods are not worked with equal facility by
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 137]</span>
+all the tools. Oak is an easy wood to handle with
+a saw, but is, probably, aside from ash, the most
+difficult wood known to plane.</p>
+
+<p>Ash is hard for the saw or the plane. On the
+other hand, there is no wood so easy to manipulate
+with the saw or plane as cherry. Pine is easily
+worked with a plane, but difficult to saw; not on
+account of hardness, but because it is so soft that
+the saw is liable to tear it.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Forcing Saws in Wood.</span>&mdash;One of the reasons
+why the forcing of saws is such a bad practice will
+be observed in cutting white or yellow pine. For
+cross-cutting, the saw should have fine teeth, not
+heavily set, and evenly filed. To do a good job
+of cross-cutting, the saw must be held at a greater
+angle, or should lay down flatter than in ripping,
+as by so doing the lower side of the board will not
+break away as much as if the saw should be held
+more nearly vertical.</p>
+
+<p>These general observations are made in the hope
+that they will serve as a guide to enable you to
+select your lumber with some degree of intelligence
+before you commence work.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[Pg 138]</span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIV" id="CHAPTER_XIV"></a>CHAPTER XIV</h2>
+<h4>WOOD TURNING</h4>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Advantages of Wood Turning.</span>&mdash;This is not,
+strictly, in the carpenter's domain; but a knowledge
+of its use will be of great service in the
+trade, and particularly in cabinet making. I urge
+the ingenious youth to rig up a wood-turning lathe,
+for the reason that it is a tool easily made and
+one which may be readily turned by foot, if other
+power is not available.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Simple Turning Lathe.</span>&mdash;A very simple turning
+lathe may be made by following these instructions:</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Rails.</span>&mdash;Procure two straight 2" &times; 4" scantling
+(A), four feet long, and planed on all sides.
+Bore four &#8540;-inch holes at each end, as shown, and
+10 inches from one end four more holes. A plan
+of these holes is shown in B, where the exact spacing
+is indicated. Then prepare two pieces 2" &times; 4"
+scantling (C), planed, 42 inches long, one end of
+each being chamfered off, as at 2, and provided
+with four bolt holes. Ten inches down, and on the
+same side, with the chamfer (2) is a cross gain (3),
+the same angle as the chamfer. Midway between
+the cross gain (3) and the lower end of the leg is
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 139]</span>
+a gain (4) in the edge, at right angles to the cross
+gain (3).</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Legs.</span>&mdash;Now prepare two legs (D) for the
+tail end of the frame, each 32 inches long, with a
+chamfer (5) at one end, and provided with four
+bolt holes. At the lower end bore a bolt hole for
+the cross base piece. This piece (E) is 4" &times; 4", 21
+inches long, and has a bolt hole at each end and
+one near the middle. The next piece (F) is 2" &times; 4",
+14&frac12; inches long, provided with a rebate (6) at
+each end, to fit the cross gains (4) of the legs (C).
+Near the middle is a journal block (7).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig241" id="fig241"></a>
+<img src="images/fig241.jpg" width="400" height="238" alt="Fig. 241. Frame details." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 241. Frame details.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Centering Blocks.</span>&mdash;Next provide a 4" &times; 4"
+piece (G), 40 inches long, through which bore a
+&frac34;-inch hole (8), 2 inches from the upper end, and
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 140]</span>
+four bolt holes at right angles to the shaft hole (8).
+Then, with a saw split down this bearing, as shown
+at 9, to a point 4 inches from the end. Ten inches
+below the upper end prepare two cross gains (10),
+each an inch deep and four inches wide. In these
+gains are placed the top rails (A), so the bolt
+holes in the gains (10) will coincide with the bolt
+holes (11) in the piece A. Below the gains (10)
+this post has a journal block (12), intended to be
+in line with the journal block (7) of the piece F.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig242" id="fig242"></a>
+<img src="images/fig242.jpg" width="400" height="105" alt="Fig. 242. Tail Stock." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 242. Tail Stock.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Then make a block (H) 2" &times; 4", and 6 inches
+long. This also must have a shaft hole (B), and a
+saw kerf (14), similar to the arrangement on the
+upper end of the post (G); also bore four bolt
+holes, as shown. This block rests between the
+upper ends of the lugs (C).</p>
+
+<p>Another block (I), 2" &times; 4", and 6 feet long,
+with four bolt holes, will be required for the tail
+end of the frame, to keep the rails (A) two inches
+apart at that end.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Tail Stock.</span>&mdash;This part of the structure is
+made of the following described material:</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[Pg 141]</span>
+Procure a scantling (J), planed, 4" &times; 4", 24
+inches long, the upper end of which is to be provided
+with four bolt holes, and a centering hole
+(15). At the lower end of the piece is a slot (16)
+8 inches long and 1&frac12; inches wide, and there are
+also two bolt holes bored transversely through the
+piece to receive bolts for reinforcing the end.</p>
+
+<p>A pair of cheekpieces (K), 2" &times; 4", and each
+12 inches long, are mitered at the ends, and each
+has four bolt holes by means of which the ends
+may be bolted to the upright (J).</p>
+
+<p>Then a step wedge (L) is made of 1&#8540;" &times; 2" material,
+10 inches long. This has at least four steps
+(17), each step being 2 inches long. A wedge 1&#8540;
+inches thick, 10 inches long, and tapering from 2
+inches to 1&#8540; inches, completes the tail-stock.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Tool Rest.</span>&mdash;This is the most difficult part
+of the whole lathe, as it must be rigid, and so constructed
+that it has a revolvable motion as well as
+being capable of a movement to and from the material
+in the lathe.</p>
+
+<p>Select a good 4" &times; 4" scantling (M), 14 inches
+long, as shown in Fig. 243. Two inches from one
+end cut a cross gain (I), 1&frac12; inches deep and 1 inch
+wide, and round off the upper edge, as at 2.</p>
+
+<p>Then prepare a piece (N), 1 inch thick, 8 inches
+wide, and 10 inches long. Round off the upper
+edge to form a nose, and midway between its ends
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 142]</span>
+cut a cross gain 4 inches wide and 1&frac12; inches deep.
+The lower margin may be cut away, at an angle
+on each side of the gain. All that is necessary
+now is to make a block (O), 8 inches long, rounded
+on one edge, and a wedge (P).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig243" id="fig243"></a>
+<img src="images/fig243.jpg" width="400" height="118" alt="Fig 243. Tool Rest." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig 243. Tool Rest.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>A leather belt or strap (Q), 1&frac12; inches wide,
+formed into a loop, as shown in the perspective
+view (R), serves as a means for holding the rest
+rigidly when the wedge is driven in.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Tool Rest.</span>&mdash;This is the most difficult part
+of the whole lathe, as it must be rigid, and so constructed
+that it has a revolvable motion as well as
+being capable of a movement to and from the material
+in the lathe.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Materials.</span>&mdash;Then procure the following
+bolts:</p>
+
+
+<div class='centered'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" width="40%" cellspacing="0" summary="Materials.">
+<tr><td align='left'>4&#8540;"</td><td align='left'>bolts,</td><td align='left'>10"</td><td align='left'>long.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>8&#8540;"</td><td align='left'>bolts,</td><td align='left'>6"</td><td align='left'>long.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>20&#8540;"</td><td align='left'>bolts,</td><td align='left'>5"</td><td align='left'>long.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>5&#8540;"</td><td align='left'>bolts,</td><td align='left'>9"&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>long.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Mandrel.</span>&mdash;A piece of steel tubing (S), No.
+10 gage, &frac34; inch in diameter, 11&frac12; inches long, will
+be required for the mandrel. Get a blacksmith, if
+a machine shop is not convenient, to put a fixed
+center (1) in one end, and a removable centering
+member (2) in the other end.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[Pg 143]</span>
+On this mandrel place a collar (3), held by a set
+screw, and alongside of it a pair of pulleys, each
+1&frac12; inches wide, one of them, being, say, 2 inches in
+diameter, and the other 3 inches. This mandrel is
+held in position by means of the posts of the frame
+which carry the split journal bearings. This form
+of bearing will make a durable lathe, free from
+chattering, as the bolts can be used for tightening
+the mandrel whenever they wear.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig244" id="fig244"></a>
+<img src="images/fig244.jpg" width="400" height="136" alt="Fig. 244. Mandrel." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 244. Mandrel.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The center point (1) is designed to rest against
+a metal plate (4) bolted to the wooden post, as
+shown in the large drawing.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Fly-wheel.</span>&mdash;It now remains only to provide a
+fly-wheel and treadle with the communicating belt.
+The fly-wheel may be of any convenient size, or it
+may be some discarded pulley or wheel. Suppose
+it is two feet in diameter; then, as your small pulley
+is 2 inches in diameter, each revolution of the
+large wheel makes twelve revolutions in the mandrel,
+and you can readily turn the wheel eighty
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 144]</span>
+times a minute. In that case your mandrel will
+revolve 960 revolutions per minute, which is ample
+speed for your purposes.</p>
+
+<p>The wheel should be mounted on a piece of &frac34;-inch
+steel tubing, one end having a crank 3 inches
+long. This crank is connected up by a pitman rod,
+with the triangularly shaped treadle frame.</p>
+
+<p>Such a lathe is easily made, as it requires but
+little metal or machine work, and it is here described
+because it will be a pleasure for a boy to
+make such a useful tool. What he needs is the
+proper plan and the right dimensions to carry out
+the work, and his own ingenuity will make the
+modifications suitable to his purpose.</p>
+
+<p>The illustration (Fig. 245) shows such a lathe
+assembled ready for work.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Tools Required.</span>&mdash;A few simple tools will
+complete an outfit capable of doing a great variety
+of work. The illustration (Fig. 246) shows five
+chisels, of which all other chisels are modifications.</p>
+
+<p>A and B are both oblique firmer chisels, A being
+ground with a bevel on one side only, and B
+with a bevel on each side.</p>
+
+<p>C is a broad gage, with a hollow blade, and a
+curved cutting edge, ground with a taper on the
+rounded side only.</p>
+
+<p>D is a narrow gage similarly ground, and E is a
+V-shaped gage.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[Pg 145]</span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig245" id="fig245"></a>
+<img src="images/fig245.jpg" width="400" height="289" alt="Fig. 245." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 245.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[Pg 146]</span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig246" id="fig246"></a>
+<img src="images/fig246.jpg" width="400" height="292" alt="Fig. 246." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 246.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>It may be observed that in wood-turning sharp
+tools are absolutely necessary, hence a good oil
+stone, or several small, round and V-shaped stones
+should be used.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[Pg 147]</span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XV" id="CHAPTER_XV"></a>CHAPTER XV</h2>
+<h4>ON THE USE OF STAINS</h4>
+
+<p>As this subject properly belongs to the painter
+and decorator, it is not necessary to go into details
+concerning the methods used to finish off your
+work. As you may not be able to afford the luxury
+of having your productions painted or stained,
+enough information will be given to enable you, if
+the character of the wood justifies it, to do the
+work yourself to a limited extent.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Soft Wood.</span>&mdash;As, presumably, most of your first
+work will be done with pine, poplar, or other light-colored
+material, and, as many people prefer the
+furniture to be dark in color, you should be prepared
+to accommodate them.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Use of Stains.</span>&mdash;Our subject has nothing to do
+with the technique of staining, but has reference,
+solely, to the use of stains. I recommend, therefore,
+that, since all kinds of stains are now kept in stock,
+and for sale everywhere, you would better rely
+upon the manufactured goods rather than to endeavor
+to mix up the paints yourself.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Stains as Imitations.</span>&mdash;It will be well to remember
+one thing as to stains. Never attempt
+to stain anything unless that stain is intended to
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 148]</span>
+produce an imitation of some real wood. There
+are stains made up which, when applied, do not
+imitate any known wood. This is bad taste and
+should be avoided. Again you should know that
+the same stain tint will not produce like effects
+on the different light-colored woods. Try the
+cherry stain on pieces of pine, poplar, and birch,
+and you will readily see that while pine gives a
+brilliant red, comparatively speaking, pine or birch
+will be much darker, and the effect on poplar will
+be that of a muddy color. In fact, poplar does
+not stain cherry to good advantage; and for birch
+the ordinary stain should have a small addition
+of vermilion.</p>
+
+<p>By making trials of your stains before applying
+them to the furniture, you will readily see the
+value of this suggestion.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Good Taste in Staining.</span>&mdash;Oak, mahogany,
+cherry, black walnut, and like imitations are always
+good in an artistic sense, but imitations of
+unfamiliar woods mean nothing to the average
+person. The too common mistake is to try to imitate
+oak by staining pine or poplar or birch. It
+may, with good effect, be stained to imitate cherry.</p>
+
+<p>Oregon pine, or some light-colored wood, with
+a strong contrasting grain may be used for staining
+in imitation of oak.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Great Contrasts Bad.</span>&mdash;Violent contrasts in furniture
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 149]</span>
+staining have the effect of cheapness, unless
+the contrasting outlines are artistically distributed
+throughout the article, from base to top finish.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Staining Contrasting Woods.</span>&mdash;Then, again, do
+not stain a piece of furniture so that one part represents
+a cheap, soft wood, and the other part
+a dark or costly wood. Imagine, for instance, a
+cabinet with the stiles, rails and mullions of mahogany,
+and the panels of pine or poplar, or the
+reverse, and you can understand how incongruous
+would be the result produced.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand, it would not be a very artistic
+job to make the panels of cherry and the mullions
+and stiles of mahogany, because the two
+woods do not harmonize, although frequently
+wrongly combined.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Hard Wood Imitations.</span>&mdash;It would be better to
+use, for instance, ash or oak for one portion of the
+work, and a dark wood, like cherry or walnut, for
+the other part; but usually a cherry cabinet should
+be made of cherry throughout; while a curly maple
+chiffonier could not be improved by having the legs
+of some other material.</p>
+
+<p>These considerations should determine for you
+whether or not you can safely use stains to represent
+different woods in the same article.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Natural Effects.</span>&mdash;If effects are wanted, the
+skilled workman will properly rely upon the natural
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 150]</span>
+grain of the wood; hence, in staining, you
+should try to imitate nature, because in staining
+you will depend for contrast on the natural grain
+of the wood to help you out in producing pleasing
+effects.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Natural Wood Stains.</span>&mdash;It should be said, in
+general, however, that a stain is, at best, a poor
+makeshift. There is nothing so pleasing as the
+natural wood. It always has an appearance of
+cleanliness and openness. To stain the wood
+shows an attempt to cover up cheapness by a cheap
+contrivance. The exception to this rule is mahogany,
+which is generally enriched by the application
+of a ruby tint which serves principally to
+emphasize the beautiful markings of the wood.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Polishing Stained Surfaces.</span>&mdash;If, on the other
+hand, you wish to go to the labor of polishing the
+furniture to a high degree, staining becomes an
+art, and will add to the beauty and durability of
+any soft or cheap wood, excepting poplar.</p>
+
+<p>When the article is highly polished, so a good,
+smooth surface is provided, staining does not
+cheapen, but, on the other hand, serves to embellish
+the article.</p>
+
+<p>As a rule, therefore, it is well to inculcate this
+lesson: Do not stain unless you polish; otherwise,
+it is far better to preserve the natural color of the
+wood. One of the most beautiful sideboards I ever
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 151]</span>
+saw was made of Oregon pine, and the natural
+wood, well filled and highly polished. That finish
+gave it an effect which enhanced its value to a
+price which equaled any cherry or mahogany product.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[Pg 152]</span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVI" id="CHAPTER_XVI"></a>CHAPTER XVI</h2>
+<h4>THE CARPENTER AND THE ARCHITECT</h4>
+
+<p>A carpenter has a trade; the architect a profession.
+It is not to be assumed that one vocation is
+more honorable than the other. A <i>profession</i> is
+defined as a calling, or occupation, "if not mechanical,
+agricultural, or the like," to which one devotes
+himself and his energies. A <i>trade</i> is defined as
+an occupation "which a person has learned and engages
+in, especially mechanical employment, as
+distinguished from the liberal arts," or the learned
+professions.</p>
+
+<p><i>Opportunity</i> is the great boon in life. To the
+ambitious young man the carpenter's trade offers
+a field for venturing into the learned professions
+by a route which cannot be equaled in any other
+pursuit. In his work he daily enters into contact
+with problems which require mathematics of the
+highest order, geometry, the methods of calculating
+strains and stresses, as well as laying out
+angles and curves.</p>
+
+<p>This is a trade wherein he must keep in mind
+many calculations as to materials, number, size,
+and methods of joining; he must remember all the
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 153]</span>
+small details which go to make up the entire
+structure. This exercise necessitates a mental picture
+of the finished product. His imagination is
+thus directed to concrete objects. As the mind
+develops, it becomes creative in its character, and
+the foundation is laid for a higher sphere of usefulness
+in what is called the professional field.</p>
+
+<p>A good carpenter naturally develops into an
+architect, and the best architect is he who knows
+the trade. It is a profession which requires not
+only the artistic taste, but a technical knowledge of
+details, of how practically to carry out the work,
+how to superintend construction, and what the
+different methods are for doing things.</p>
+
+<p>The architect must have a scientific education,
+which gives him a knowledge of the strength of
+materials, and of structural forms; of the durability
+of materials; of the price, quality, and use of
+everything which goes into a structure; of labor
+conditions; and of the laws pertaining to buildings.</p>
+
+<p>Many of these questions will naturally present
+themselves to the carpenter. They are in the
+sphere of his employment, but it depends upon
+himself to make the proper use of the material
+thus daily brought to him.</p>
+
+<p>It is with a view to instil that desire and ambition
+in every young man, to make the brain do
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 154]</span>
+what the hand has heretofore done, that I suggest
+this course. The learned profession is yours if
+you deserve it, and you can deserve it only through
+study, application, and perseverance.</p>
+
+<p>Do well that which you attempt to do. <i>Don't</i> do
+it in that manner because some one has done it in
+that way before you. If, in the trade, the experience
+of ages has taught the craftsman that some
+particular way of doing things is correct, there
+is no law to prevent you from combating that
+method. Your way may be better. But you must
+remember that in every plan for doing a thing
+there is some particular reason, or reasons, why it
+is carried out in that way. Study and learn to
+apply those reasons.</p>
+
+<p>So in your leisure or in your active moments, if
+you wish to advance, you must be alert. <i>Know for
+yourself the reasons for things</i>, and you will thereby
+form the stepping stones that will lead you upward
+and contribute to your success.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[Pg 155]</span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVII" id="CHAPTER_XVII"></a>CHAPTER XVII</h2>
+<h4>USEFUL ARTICLES TO MAKE</h4>
+
+<p>As stated in the Introductory, the purpose of
+this book is to show <i>how to do the things</i>, and not
+to draw a picture in order to write a description
+of it. Merely in the line of suggestion, we give
+in this chapter views and brief descriptions of
+useful household articles, all of which may be
+made by the boy who has carefully studied the preceding
+pages.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig247" id="fig247"></a>
+<img src="images/fig247.jpg" width="400" height="196" alt="Fig. 247." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 247.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>This figure shows a common bench wholly made
+of material 1 inch thick, the top being 12 inches
+wide and 4 feet long. The legs are 14 inches high
+and 13 inches wide; and the side supporting rails
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 156]</span>
+are 3 inches wide. These proportions may, of
+course, be varied. You will note that the sides of
+the top or seat have an overhang of &frac12; inch on
+each margin.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 204px;"><a name="fig248" id="fig248"></a>
+<img src="images/fig248.jpg" width="204" height="191" alt="Fig. 248." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 248.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 391px;"><a name="fig249" id="fig249"></a>
+<img src="images/fig249.jpg" width="391" height="243" alt="Fig. 249." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 249.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>This is a common, square-top stool, the seat being
+12" &times; 12", and the legs 14 inches high. Two of
+the pieces forming the legs are 10 inches wide
+and the other two 8 inches wide, so that when the
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 157]</span>
+wide pieces are nailed to the edges of the narrow
+pieces the leg body will be 10" &times; 10" and thus give
+the seat an overhang of 1 inch around the margins.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 272px;"><a name="fig250" id="fig250"></a>
+<img src="images/fig250.jpg" width="272" height="480" alt="Fig. 250." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 250.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>A most useful article is shown in Fig. 249. It
+is a blacking-box with a lid, a folding shoe rest
+and three compartments. The detached figure
+shows a vertical cross-section of the body of the
+box, and illustrates how the shoe rest is hinged
+to the sides of the box. The box itself is 14" &times; 16"
+in dimensions; the sides are 6 inches wide and the
+legs 5 inches in height. In order to give strength
+to the legs, the bottom has its corners cut out, to
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 158]</span>
+permit the upper ends of the legs to rest in the
+recesses thus formed.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig251" id="fig251"></a>
+<img src="images/fig251.jpg" width="400" height="333" alt="Fig. 251." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 251.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>This is a convenient form of easel, made of
+four uprights. The main front uprights are of
+strips 5/8" &times; 1&frac14;", and the rear uprights are of &frac12;" &times; 1"
+material. A thin broomstick will serve as the
+pivot bar for the upper end. The rest is made
+of two strips, each &frac12;" &times; 1", nailed together to form
+an L, and nails or wooden pins will serve to hold
+the rest in any desired position. The front uprights
+should be at least 5 feet long.</p>
+
+<p>A simple hanging book-rack is illustrated in
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 159]</span>
+Fig. 251. The two vertical strips are each 4 inches
+wide, 1 inch thick and 4 feet long. Four shelves
+are provided, each &frac34; inch thick, 9 inches wide and
+4 feet long. Each shelf is secured to the uprights
+by hinges on the upper side, so as to permit it
+to be swung upwardly, or folded; and below each
+hinge is a triangular block or bracket, fixed to
+the shelf, to support it in a horizontal position.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig252" id="fig252"></a>
+<img src="images/fig252.jpg" width="400" height="605" alt="Fig. 252." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 252.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>A sad-iron holder, or bookcase, shown in Fig.
+252, is another simple form of structure. It may
+be sufficiently large to serve as a standing case
+by having the uprights at the ends serve as legs,
+or the uprights may have holes at their upper
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 160]</span>
+ends, by means of which it can be suspended on a
+wall. As shown, it is 30 inches long from bottom
+to top, and 20 inches wide. The shelves are 8
+inches wide. All the material is, preferably, &frac34;-inch
+stock.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig253" id="fig253"></a>
+<img src="images/fig253.jpg" width="400" height="316" alt="Fig. 253." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 253.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Fig. 253 shows a wood-box, or it may readily be
+adapted for coal. For wood it should be 2 feet
+long, 1 foot 8 inches wide and 1 foot 10 inches high.
+It will, of course, be made of such dimensions as to
+suit the wood to be stored in it, and both the flat-top
+as well as the sloping portion of the top
+should be hinged, so that the entire top can be
+opened for filling purposes.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 395px;"><a name="fig254" id="fig254"></a>
+<img src="images/fig254.jpg" width="395" height="189" alt="Fig. 254." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 254.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 376px;"><a name="fig255" id="fig255"></a>
+<img src="images/fig255.jpg" width="376" height="248" alt="Fig. 255." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 255.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>A pair of parallel bars is shown in Fig. 254.
+The dimensions of this will vary, and be dependent
+on the size of the boy intending to use it; but a
+size best adapted is to make the posts 3 feet high,
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 161]</span>
+and the distance between the bars 16 inches. This
+gives ample room for the exercises required. The
+length between the posts along the bars should be
+at least 5 feet. The entire structure can be made
+of soft wood, except the bars, which should be
+of hard, rigid wood. The posts can be made of
+2" &times; 2" material, and the braces 2" &times; 1". The base
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 162]</span>
+pieces, both longitudinal and transverse, should
+also be of 2" &times; 2" material.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 393px;"><a name="fig256" id="fig256"></a>
+<img src="images/fig256.jpg" width="393" height="344" alt="Fig. 256." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 256.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 192px;"><a name="fig257" id="fig257"></a>
+<img src="images/fig257.jpg" width="192" height="213" alt="Fig. 257." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 257.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Fig. 255 represents a mission type of writing
+desk for a boy's use. All the posts, braces and
+horizontal bars are of 2" &times; 2" material, secured
+to each other by mortises and tenons. The legs
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 163]</span>
+are 27 inches high up to the table top, and the
+narrow shelf is 12 inches above the top. The
+most convenient size for the top is 26" &times; 48". The
+top boards may be 1 inch thick and the shelf the
+same thickness, or even &frac34; inch. It is well braced
+and light, and its beauty will depend largely on
+the material of which it is made.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 242px;"><a name="fig258" id="fig258"></a>
+<img src="images/fig258.jpg" width="242" height="640" alt="Fig. 258." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 258.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The screen (Fig. 256) represents simply the
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 164]</span>
+framework, showing how simple the structure is.
+The bars are all of 1&frac12;" &times; 1&frac12;" material, secured
+together by mortises and tenons.</p>
+
+<p>Fig. 257 represents a mission chair to match
+the desk (Fig. 255), and should be made of the
+same material. The posts are all of 2" &times; 2" material.
+The seat of the chair should be 16 inches,
+and the rear posts should extend up above the
+seat at least 18 inches.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig259" id="fig259"></a>
+<img src="images/fig259.jpg" width="400" height="481" alt="Fig. 259." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 259.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[Pg 165]</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 387px;"><a name="fig260" id="fig260"></a>
+<img src="images/fig260.jpg" width="387" height="330" alt="Fig. 260." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 260.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 263px;"><a name="fig261" id="fig261"></a>
+<img src="images/fig261.jpg" width="263" height="255" alt="Fig. 261." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 261.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Fig. 258 is a good example of a grandfather's
+clock in mission style. The framework only is
+shown. The frame is 12" &times; 12", and 5 feet high,
+and made up of 2" &times; 2" material. When neatly
+framed together, it is a most attractive article of
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 166]</span>
+furniture. The top may be covered in any suitable
+way, showing a roof effect. The opening
+for the dial face of the clock should be at one of
+the gable ends.</p>
+
+<p>A more pretentious bookcase is shown in Fig.
+259, in which the frame is made up wholly of
+2" &times; 2" material. The cross-end bars serve as
+ledges to support the shelves. This may be lined
+interiorly and backed with suitable casing material,
+such as Lincrusta Walton, or fiber-board, and
+the front provided with doors. Our only object
+is to show the framework for your guidance, and
+merely to make suggestions as to structural forms.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig262" id="fig262"></a>
+<img src="images/fig262.jpg" width="400" height="289" alt="Fig. 262." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 262.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Another most serviceable article is a case for
+a coal scuttle (Fig. 260). This should be made of
+1-inch boards, and the size of the door, which
+carries the scuttle shelf, should be 12" &times; 16" in
+size. From this you can readily measure the dimensions
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 167]</span>
+of the case itself, the exterior dimensions
+of which are 15" &times; 20", so that when the 1-inch
+top is placed on, it will be 21 inches high. The
+case from front to rear is 12 inches, and the
+shelf above the top is 11 inches wide, and elevated
+10 inches above the top of the case. This is a
+most useful box for culinary articles, if not needed
+for coal, because the ledge, used for the coal scuttle,
+can be used to place utensils on, and when
+the door is opened all the utensils are exposed to
+view, and are, therefore, much more accessible
+than if stored away in the case itself.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig263" id="fig263"></a>
+<img src="images/fig263.jpg" width="400" height="349" alt="Fig. 263." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 263.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>A mission armchair. Fig. 261 is more elaborate
+than the chair shown in Fig. 257, but it is the
+same in general character, and is also made of
+2" &times; 2" stock. The seat is elevated 16 inches from
+the floor, and the rear posts are 28 inches high.
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 168]</span>
+The arms are 8 inches above the seat. A chair
+of this character should have ample seat space, so
+the seat is 18" &times; 18".</p>
+
+<p>The dog house (Fig. 262), made in imitation of a
+dwelling, is 24 inches square, and 18 inches high
+to the eaves of the roof. The opening in front
+is 8" &times; 10", exclusive of the shaped portion of the
+opening.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 214px;"><a name="fig264" id="fig264"></a>
+<img src="images/fig264.jpg" width="214" height="105" alt="Fig. 264." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 264.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 394px;"><a name="fig265" id="fig265"></a>
+<img src="images/fig265.jpg" width="394" height="186" alt="Fig. 265." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 265.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Fig. 263 shows a simple and easily constructed
+settee with an under shelf. The seat is 16 inches
+from the floor and 24 inches wide. The back extends
+up 24 inches from the seat. The lower
+shelf is midway between the floor and seat, and
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 169]</span>
+is 19 inches wide. This may or may not be upholstered,
+dependent on the character of the material
+of which it is made. If upholstered, the
+boards may be of second-class material, preferably
+of pine or other light, soft wood.</p>
+
+<p>A towel rack (Fig. 264) is always a needed article
+in the kitchen. The roller may be an old curtain
+roller cut down to 18 inches in length. The
+top piece is 2&frac12; inches wide and 21 inches long.
+The vertical bars are each 1&frac12; inches wide and 9
+inches long. The brackets are 1&frac12; inches wide
+and made of &frac34;-inch material.</p>
+
+<p>Fig. 265 represents the framework of a sofa,
+the seat of which is 16 inches high, the front
+posts up to the arm-rests 24 inches, and the rear
+posts 38 inches. From front to rear the seat is
+18 inches. The posts are of 3" &times; 3" material. This
+makes a very rigid article of furniture, if mortised
+and tenoned and properly glued. The seat
+is 6 feet long, but it may be lengthened or shortened
+to suit the position in which it is to be placed.
+It is a companion piece to the chair (Fig. 261).</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[Pg 170]</span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVIII" id="CHAPTER_XVIII"></a>CHAPTER XVIII</h2>
+<h4>SPECIAL TOOLS AND THEIR USES</h4>
+
+<p>In the foregoing chapters we have referred the
+reader to the simple tools, but it is thought desirable
+to add to the information thus given, an outline
+of numerous special tools which have been
+devised and are now on the market.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bit and Level Adjuster.</span>&mdash;It is frequently necessary
+to bore holes at certain angles. This can
+be done by using a bevel square, and holding it
+so one limb will show the boring angle. But this
+is difficult to do in many cases.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig266" id="fig266"></a>
+<img src="images/fig266.jpg" width="400" height="98" alt="Fig. 266. Bit and Square level." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 266. Bit and Square level.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>This tool has three pairs of V slots on its back
+edges. The shank of the bit will lie in these slots,
+as shown in Fig. 266, either vertically, or at an
+angle of 45 degrees, and boring can be done with
+the utmost accuracy. It may be attached to a
+Carpenter's square, thus making it an accurate
+plumb or level.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[Pg 171]</span>
+<span class="smcap">Miter Boxes.</span>&mdash;The advantages of metal miter
+boxes is apparent, when accurate work is required.</p>
+
+<p>The illustration, Fig. 267, shows a metal tool
+of this kind, in which the entire frame is in one
+solid casting. The saw guide uprights are
+clamped in tapered sockets in the swivel arm and
+can be adjusted to hold the saw without play, and
+this will also counteract a saw that runs out of
+true, due to improper setting or filing.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig267" id="fig267"></a>
+<img src="images/fig267.jpg" width="400" height="268" alt="Fig. 267. Metal Miter Box." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 267. Metal Miter Box.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>A second socket in the swivel arm permits the
+use of a short saw or allows a much longer stroke
+with a standard or regular saw.</p>
+
+<p>The swivel arm is provided with a tapering index
+pin which engages in holes placed on the under
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 172]</span>
+side of the base. The edge of the base is graduated
+in degrees, as plainly shown, and the swivel
+arm can be set and automatically fastened at any
+degree desired.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig268" id="fig268"></a>
+<img src="images/fig268.jpg" width="400" height="315" alt="Fig. 268. Parts of Metal Miter Box." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 268. Parts of Metal Miter Box.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The uprights, front and back are graduated in
+sixteenths of inches, and movable stops can be set,
+by means of thumb-screw to the depth of the cut
+desired.</p>
+
+<p>Figure 268 shows the parts of the miter box,
+in which the numbers designate the various parts:
+101 is the frame; 102 the frame board; 104 frame
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 173]</span>
+leg; 106 guide stock; 107 stock guide clamp; 109
+stock guide plate; 110 swivel arm; 111 swivel arm
+bushing; 112 swivel bushing screw; 113 index
+clamping lever; 115 index clamping lever catch;
+116 index clamping lever spring; 122 swivel complete;
+123 T-base; 124&frac12; uprights; 126 saw guide
+cap; 127 saw guide cap plate; 132 saw guide tie
+bar; 133 left saw guide stop and screw; 134 right
+side guide stop and screw; 135 saw guide stop
+spring; 136 saw guide cylinder; 137 saw guide cylinder
+plate; 138 trip lever (back); 139 trip lever
+(front); 141 leveling screw; 142 trip clamp and
+screw; 146 T-base clamp screw.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig269" id="fig269"></a>
+<img src="images/fig269.jpg" width="400" height="374" alt="Fig. 269. Angle Dividers." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 269. Angle Dividers.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Angle Dividers.</span>&mdash;This is another tool, which
+does not cost much and is of great service to the
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 174]</span>
+carpenter in fitting moldings where they are applied
+at odd angles.</p>
+
+<p>To lay out the cut with an ordinary bevel necessitates
+the use of dividers and a second handling
+of the bevel, making three operations.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The "Odd Job" Tool</span>.&mdash;A most useful special
+tool, which combines in its make-up a level, plumb
+try-square, miter-square, bevel, scratch awl, depth
+gage, marking gage, miter gage, beam compass,
+and a one-foot rule. To the boy who wishes to
+economize in the purchase of tools this is an article
+which should be obtained.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig270" id="fig270"></a>
+<img src="images/fig270.jpg" width="400" height="197" alt="Fig. 270. &quot;Odd Job&quot; Tool." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 270. &quot;Odd Job&quot; Tool.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Figure 270 shows the simplicity of the tool, and
+how it is applied in use.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bit Braces.</span>&mdash;These tools are now made with so
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 175]</span>
+many improved features that there is really no
+excuse for getting poor tools.</p>
+
+<p>The illustrations show merely the heads and
+the lower operating parts of the tools. Fig. 271
+shows a metal-clad ball-bearing head, so called,
+as its under side is completely encased in metal
+securely screwed to the wood and revolving
+against the ball thrust bearing.</p>
+
+<p>D represents a concealed ratchet in which the
+cam ring governs the ratchet, and, being in line
+with the bit, makes it more convenient in handling
+than when it is at right angles. The ratchet parts
+are entirely enclosed, thus keeping out moisture
+and dirt, retaining lubrication and protecting the
+users' hands.</p>
+
+<p>The ratchet mechanism is interchangeable, and
+may be taken apart by removing one screw. The
+two-piece clutch, which is drop forged, is backed
+by a very strong spring, insuring a secure lock.
+When locked, ten teeth are in engagement, while
+five are employed while working at a ratchet. It
+has universal jaws (G) for both wood and metal
+workers.</p>
+
+<p>In Fig. 272, B represents a regular ball bearing
+head, with the wood screw on the large spindle and
+three small screws to prevent its working loose.
+This also has a ball thrust. E is the ratchet box,
+and this shows the gear teeth cut on the extra
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 176]</span>
+heavy spindle, and encased, so that the user's
+hands are protected from the teeth.</p>
+
+<p>The interlocking jaws (H), which are best for
+taper shanks, hold up to No. 2 Clark's expansion,
+and are therefore particularly adapted for carpenter's
+use.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig271" id="fig271"></a>
+<img src="images/fig271_273.jpg" width="400" height="329" alt="Fig. 271. Types of Bit Braces.
+Fig. 272. Types of Bit Braces.
+Fig. 273. Types of Bit Braces." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 271. Fig. 272. Fig. 273. <br />
+Types of Bit Braces.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>In Fig. 273 the plain bearing head (C) has no
+ball thrust. The head is screwed on the spindle and
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 177]</span>
+held from turning off by two small screws. The
+open ratchet (F) shows the gear pinned to the
+spindle and exposed. This has alligator jaws (J),
+and will hold all ordinary size taper shank bits,
+also small and medium round shank bits or drills.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig274" id="fig274"></a>
+<img src="images/fig274_276.jpg" width="400" height="310" alt="Fig. 274.
+Fig. 275. Fig. 276." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 274. Fig. 275. Fig. 276. <br />
+Steel Frame Breast Drills.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Steel Frame Breast Drill.</span>&mdash;These drills are
+made with both single and double speed, each speed
+having three varieties of jaws. The single speed
+is very high, the ratio being 4&frac12; to 1, which makes
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 178]</span>
+it desirable to use for small drills, or for use in
+wood.</p>
+
+<p>A level is firmly set in the frames of these tools
+to assist the user to maintain a horizontal position
+in boring. Each of the forms shown has a ball
+thrust bearing between the pinion and frame. The
+breast plate may be adjusted to suit and is locked
+by a set screw. The spindle is kept from turning
+while changing drills, by means of the latch
+mounted on the frame, and readily engaging with
+the pinion. The crank is pierced in three places
+so that the handle can be set for three different
+sweeps, depending on the character of the work.</p>
+
+<p>Figure 274 has a three jaw chuck, and has only
+single speed. Figure 275 has an interlocking jaw,
+and is provided with double speed gearing. Figure
+276 has a universal jaw, and double speed.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Planes.</span>&mdash;The most serviceable planes are made
+in iron, and it might be well to show a few of the
+most important, to bring out the manner employed
+to make the adjustments of the bits.</p>
+
+<p>In order to familiarize the boy with the different
+terms used in a plane, examine Figure 277.
+The parts are designated as follows: 1A is the
+double plane iron; 1 single plane iron; 2 plane iron
+cap; 3 cap screw; 4 lever cap; 5 lever cap screw;
+6 frog complete; 7 Y adjusting lever; 8 adjusting
+nut; 9 lateral adjusting lever; 11 plane handle;
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 179]</span>
+12 plane knob; 13 handle bolt and nut; 14 knob
+bolt and nut; 15 plane handle screw; 16 plane bottom;
+44 frog pin; 45 frog clamping screw; 46 frog
+adjusting screw.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig277" id="fig277"></a>
+<img src="images/fig277.jpg" width="400" height="220" alt="Fig. 277. Details of Metal Plane." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 277. Details of Metal Plane.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Rabbeting, Matching and Dado Planes.</span>&mdash;Figure
+278 shows a useful form of plane for the reason
+that it is designed to receive a variety of irons,
+adapted to cut rabbets.</p>
+
+<p>The detached sections of Fig. 278 show the
+various parts, as well as the bits which belong to it.
+1, 1 represent the single plane irons; 4 the lever
+cap; 16 the plane bottom, 50 the fence; 51 the
+fence thumb screw; 61 the short arm; 70 the adjustable
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 180]</span>
+depth gage; 71 the depth gage which goes
+through the screw; and 85 the spurs with screws.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Molding and Beading Plane.</span>&mdash;A plane of the
+character shown in Fig. 279 will do an immense
+variety of work in molding, beading and dado
+work, and is equally well adapted for rabbeting,
+for filletsters and for match planing. The regular
+equipment with this tool comprises fifty-two
+cutters.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig278" id="fig278"></a>
+<img src="images/fig278.jpg" width="400" height="157" alt="Fig. 278. Rabbet, Matching and Dado Plane." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 278. Rabbet, Matching and Dado Plane.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>As shown in Fig. 279, the plane has a main stock
+(A), which carries the cutter adjustment, a handle,
+a depth gage, a slitting gage, and a steel bottom
+forming a bearing for the other end of the cutter,
+and slides on arms secured to the main stock.</p>
+
+<p>This bottom can be raised or lowered, so that,
+in addition to allowing the use of cutters of different
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 181]</span>
+widths, cutters can be used having one edge
+higher or lower than the edge supported in the
+main stock.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig279" id="fig279"></a>
+<img src="images/fig279.jpg" width="400" height="306" alt="Fig. 279. Molding and Beading Plane." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 279. Molding and Beading Plane.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The auxiliary center bottom (C), which can be
+adjusted for width or depth, fulfils the requirement
+of preventing the plane from tilting and
+gouging the work. The fence D has a lateral adjustment
+by means of a screw, for extra fine work.
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 182]</span>
+The four small cuts in the corners show how the
+bottoms should be set for different forms of cutters,
+and the great importance of having the
+fences adjusted so that the cutters will not run.</p>
+
+<p>The samples of work illustrated show some of
+the moldings which can be turned out with the
+plane.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig280" id="fig280"></a>
+<img src="images/fig280.jpg" width="400" height="216" alt="Fig. 280. Dovetail Tongue and Groove Plane." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 280. Dovetail Tongue and Groove Plane.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Dovetail Tongue and Groove Plane.</span>&mdash;This is
+a very novel tool, and has many features to recommend
+it. Figure 280 shows its form, and how it
+is used. It is designed to make the dovetailed
+tongue as well as the groove.</p>
+
+<p>It will cut any size groove and tongues to fit
+with sides of twenty degrees flare, where the width
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 183]</span>
+of the neck is more than one-quarter of an inch
+thick, and the depth of the groove not more than
+three-quarters of an inch. The tongue and groove
+are cut separately, and can be made with parallel
+or tapering sides. The operation of the plane is
+very simple.</p>
+
+<div class='centered'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" width="60%" cellspacing="0" summary="Fig 281/282">
+<tr>
+<td valign="top"><a name="fig281" id="fig281"></a>
+<img src="images/fig281.jpg" width="158" height="196"
+             alt="Fig. 281." /></td>
+<td><a name="fig282" id="fig282"></a>
+<img src="images/fig282.jpg" width="187" height="158"
+             alt="Fig. 282." /></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td><p class='center'><b>Fig. 281.</b></p></td>
+<td><p class='center'><b>Fig. 282.</b></p></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+<p class='center'><b>Router Planes.</b></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Router Planes.</span>&mdash;This is a type of plane used
+for surfacing the bottom of grooves or other depressions
+parallel with the general surface of the
+work.</p>
+
+<p>The planes are made in two types, one, like Fig.
+281, which has a closed throat, and the other, Fig.
+282, with an open throat. Both are serviceable,
+but the latter is preferable. These planes will
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 184]</span>
+level off bottoms of depression, very accurately,
+and the tool is not an expensive one.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Door Trim Plane.</span>&mdash;This is a tool for making
+mortises for butts, face plates, strike plates,
+escutcheons, and the like, up to a depth of 5/16,
+and a width of 3 inches. The principal feature in
+the plane is the method of mounting the cutter,
+which can be instantly set to work from either end
+of the plane or across it.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig283" id="fig283"></a>
+<img src="images/fig283.jpg" width="400" height="169" alt="Fig. 283. Door Trim Plane." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 283. Door Trim Plane.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The cutter, as shown in Fig. 283, is cushioned
+by a spring which prevents taking a heavier chip
+than can be easily carried. A fence regulates the
+position of the cut and insures the sides of the cut
+being parallel. The depth of the cut is governed
+by a positive stop. By removing the fence and
+locking the cutter post with the thumb screw, instead
+of using the spring, a very superior router
+plane is obtained.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[Pg 185]</span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIX" id="CHAPTER_XIX"></a>CHAPTER XIX</h2>
+<h4>ROOFING TRUSSES</h4>
+
+<p>The chapter on Bridge Building gives some
+suggestions as to form of trusses, the particular
+types there shown being principally for wide
+spans. Such trusses were made for one purpose
+only, namely, to take great weight, and they were,
+as a consequence, so constructed as to provide
+strength.</p>
+
+<p>But a roofing truss, while designed to hold the
+accumulated materials, such as snow and ice, likely
+to be deposited there, is of such a design, principally,
+so as to afford means of ornamentation.
+This remark has reference to such types as dispense
+with the cross, or tie beam, which is the distinguishing
+feature in bridge building.</p>
+
+<p>The tie beam is also an important element in
+many types of trusses, where ornamentation is not
+required, or in such structures as have the roofed
+portion of the buildings enclosed by ceiling walls,
+or where the space between the roofs is used
+for storage purposes.</p>
+
+<p>In England, and on the Continent of Europe,
+are thousands of trusses structured to support the
+roofs, which are marvels of beauty. Some of them
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 186]</span>
+are bewildering in their formation. The moldings,
+beaded surfaces, and the carved outlines of the
+soffits, of the arches, and of the purlins, are wonderful
+in detail.</p>
+
+<p>The wooden roof of Westminster Hall, while
+very simple in structure, as compared with many
+others, looks like an intricate maze of beams,
+struts and braces, but it is, nevertheless, so harmonized
+that the effect is most pleasing to the
+eye, and its very appearance gives the impression
+of grandeur and strength.</p>
+
+<p>Nearly all of the forms shown herein have come
+down to us from medi&aelig;val times, when more
+stress was laid on wooden structures than at the
+present time, but most of the stone and metal buildings
+grew out of the wooden prototypes.</p>
+
+<p>Now the prime object of nearly all the double-roofed
+trusses was to utilize the space between the
+rafters so as to give height and majesty to the
+interior.</p>
+
+<p>A large dome is grand, owing to its great simplicity,
+but the same plain outlines, or lack of ornamentation,
+in the ceiling of a square or rectangular
+building would be painful to view, hence, the
+braces, beams, plates, and various supports of the
+roofed truss served as ornamental parts, and it
+is in this particular that the art of the designer
+finds his inspiration.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[Pg 187]</span>
+Before proceeding to apply the matter of ornamentation,
+it might be well to develop these roof
+forms, starting with the old type Barn Roof, where
+the space between the rafters must be utilized for
+the storage of hay.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig284" id="fig284"></a>
+<img src="images/fig284.jpg" width="400" height="324" alt="Fig. 284. Gambrel Roof." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 284. Gambrel Roof.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>The Gambrel Roof</i>, Fig. 284, requires a tie beam,
+(A), as shown, but the space above the beam is
+free of all obstructions, and gives a large storage
+space. The roof has two sets of rafters (B, C),
+and of different pitch, the lower rafters (B) having
+a pitch of about 30 degrees, and the upper ones
+(C), about 45 degrees.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[Pg 188]</span>
+A tie bar (D) joins the middle portion of each
+of the rafters (B, C) and another tie bar (E) joins
+the middle part of the rafter (B), and the supporting
+post (F). The cross tie beam (G) completes
+the span, and a little study will show the complete
+interdependence of one piece upon the other.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig285" id="fig285"></a>
+<img src="images/fig285.jpg" width="400" height="195" alt="Fig. 285. Purlin Roof." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 285. Purlin Roof.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>The Purlin Roof</i> is a type of structure used very
+largely throughout the United States, for wide
+barns. (A) is the cross beam; (B, B) the purlin
+posts; (C, C) the purlin plates; (D, D) the rafters;
+and (E, E) the supporting braces.</p>
+
+<p>The rafters (D) are in two sections, the distance
+from the eaves to the comb being too great for
+single length rafters, and the purlin plates are not
+designed to make what is called a "self-supporting"
+roof, but merely to serve as supports for the
+regular rafters.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[Pg 189]</span>
+<i>The Princess Truss</i>, on the other hand, is designed
+to act as a support for the different lengths
+of rafters (A, B, C), and as a means for holding
+the roof. It is adapted for low pitch and wide
+spans.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig286" id="fig286"></a>
+<img src="images/fig286.jpg" width="400" height="220" alt="Fig. 286. Princess Truss." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 286. Princess Truss.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The main truss is made up of the cross beam
+(D), rafters (E, E) and thrust beam (F). Purlin
+posts (G, G) are placed at an angle intermediate
+the ends of the rafters, and the purlin plates
+(H, H) support the roof rafters (A, B, C); I, I
+are the vertical tie rods.</p>
+
+<p>This type is probably the oldest form of truss
+for building purposes, and it has been modified in
+many ways, the most usual modification being the
+substitution of posts for the tie rods (I, I).</p>
+
+<p>Following out the foregoing forms, we may
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 190]</span>
+call attention to one more type which permitted
+ornamentation to a considerable degree, although
+it still required the tie beam. In fact the tie beam
+itself was the feature on which the architect depended
+to make the greatest effect by elaborating
+it.</p>
+
+<p>This is shown in Fig. 287, and is called the
+<i>Arched</i>, or <i>Cambered, Tie Beam Truss</i>. It is a
+very old type, samples of which have been found
+which take it back to a very remote age.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig287" id="fig287"></a>
+<img src="images/fig287.jpg" width="400" height="179" alt="Fig. 287. Arched, or Cambered, Tie Beam." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 287. Arched, or Cambered, Tie Beam.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The tie beam A, in wide spans, was made in
+two sections, properly tied together, and sometimes
+the outer ends were very wide, and to add to the
+effect of the arch, it might also be raised in the
+middle, something in the form shown by the dotted
+line (B).</p>
+
+<p><i>The Mansard</i> is what may be called a double-mounted
+roof, and it will be seen how it was
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 191]</span>
+evolved from the preceding types. It will be
+noted that the simple truss formed by the members
+(A, B, C) is merely superposed on the leaning
+posts, the tie beam also being necessary in this
+construction.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig288" id="fig288"></a>
+<img src="images/fig288.jpg" width="400" height="296" alt="Fig. 288. The Mansard." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 288. The Mansard.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>But the most elaborate formations are those
+which were intended to provide trusses for buildings
+wherein the tie beams were dispensed with.</p>
+
+<p>The simplest form known is called the <i>Scissors
+Beam</i>, illustrated in Fig. 289. This has been utilized
+for small spaces, and steep pitches. Each
+rafter (A) has an angled beam or brace (B),
+springing from its base, to the opposite rafter (A),
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 192]</span>
+to which it is joined, midway between its ends, as
+at C.</p>
+
+<p>Where the two braces (B) cross each other they
+are secured together, as at D. As a result,
+three trusses are formed, namely, 1, 2, 3, and it
+possesses remarkable strength.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig289" id="fig289"></a>
+<img src="images/fig289.jpg" width="400" height="374" alt="Fig. 289. Scissors Beam." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 289. Scissors Beam.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Braced Collar Beam.</span>&mdash;This is a modification
+of the last type, but is adapted for thick walls
+only. The tie rod braces (A, A) have to be brought
+down low to give a good bracing action, and this
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 193]</span>
+arrangement is capable of considerable ornamentation.</p>
+
+<p>The steeper the pitch the higher up would be the
+inner and lower brace posts (B, B) which were
+supported by the top of the wall. This form is
+not available for wide spans, and is shown to illustrate
+how the development was made into the
+succeeding types.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig290" id="fig290"></a>
+<img src="images/fig290.jpg" width="400" height="393" alt="Fig. 290. Braced Collar Beam." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 290. Braced Collar Beam.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The Rib and Collar Truss</span>, Fig. 291, is the first
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 194]</span>
+important structural arrangement which permitted
+the architect to give full sway to embellishment.
+The inwardly-projecting members (A, A) are
+called <i>Hammer Beams</i>. They were devised as a
+substitute for the thick walls used in the Braced
+Collar Beam Truss, and small brackets (B, B)
+were placed beneath as supports.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig291" id="fig291"></a>
+<img src="images/fig291.jpg" width="400" height="377" alt="Fig. 291. Rib and Collar Truss." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 291. Rib and Collar Truss.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The short tie beam (C), near the apex, serves as
+the member to receive the thrust and stress of the
+curved ribs (D, D). It forms a most graceful type
+of roof, and is capable of the most exquisite ornamentation,
+but it is used for the high pitched roofs
+only.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[Pg 195]</span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig291a" id="fig291a"></a>
+<img src="images/fig291a.jpg" width="400" height="369" alt="Fig. 291&frac12;. Hammer Beam Truss." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 291&frac12;. Hammer Beam Truss.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The acme of all constructions, in which strength,
+beauty, and capacity for ornamentation are
+blended, is the <i>Hammer Beam Truss</i>. Here the
+hammer beam projects inwardly farther than in
+the preceding figure, and has a deeper bracket (B),
+and this also extends down the pendant post (C) a
+greater distance.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[Pg 196]</span>
+The curved supporting arch (D), on each side,
+is not ribbed, as in the Rib and Collar Truss, but
+instead, is provided with openwork (not shown
+herein), together with beadings and moldings, and
+other ornamental characteristics, and some of the
+most beautiful architectural forms in existence
+are in this type of roof.</p>
+
+<p>What are called Flying Buttresses (E) are sometimes
+used in connection with the Hammer Beam
+Truss, which, with heavy roofs and wide spans,
+is found to be absolutely necessary.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[Pg 197]</span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XX" id="CHAPTER_XX"></a>CHAPTER XX</h2>
+<h4>ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF JOINTS</h4>
+
+<p>In uniting two or more elements, some particular
+type of joint is necessary. In framing timbers,
+in making braces, in roof construction and
+supports, in floor beams, and in numerous other
+places, where strength is required, the workman
+should have at his command a knowledge of the
+most serviceable methods.</p>
+
+<p>Illustrations can most forcibly convey the different
+types; but the sizes must be determined by
+the character of the material you are working with.
+Our aim is to give the idea involved, and the
+name by which each is known.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig292" id="fig292"></a>
+<img src="images/fig292.jpg" width="400" height="141" alt="Fig. 292. Bridle Joints." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 292. Bridle Joints.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Reference has been made in Chapter X, to certain
+forms of scarfing and lapping pieces. This
+chapter has to do with a variety of other structural
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 198]</span>
+forms, but principally with such as are used in
+heavy building work, and in cases where neither
+fish plates nor scarfing will answer the purpose.</p>
+
+<div class='centered'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" width="60%" cellspacing="0" summary="Fig 293/294">
+<tr>
+<td valign="top"><a name="fig293" id="fig293"></a>
+<img src="images/fig293.jpg" width="395" height="180"
+             alt="Fig. 293." /></td></tr>
+<tr><td><p class='center'><b>Fig. 293. Spur Tenon.</b></p></td></tr>
+<tr><td><a name="fig294" id="fig294"></a>
+<img src="images/fig294.jpg" width="387" height="123"
+             alt="Fig. 294." /></td></tr>
+<tr><td><p class='center'><b>Fig. 294. Saddle Joints.</b></p></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bridle Joints.</span>&mdash;This is a form of joint where
+permanency is not desired, and where it is necessary
+to readily seat or unseat the vertical timber.
+It is also obvious that the socket for the upright is
+of such a character that it will not weaken it to
+any great extent.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Spur Tenon.</span>&mdash;This tenon can be used in many
+places where the regular one is not available.
+This, like the preceding, is used where the parts
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 199]</span>
+are desired to be detachable, and the second form
+is one which is used in many structures.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Saddle Joint</span>.&mdash;This is still another manner in
+which a quickly detachable joint can be constructed.
+The saddle may be mounted on the main
+base, or cut into the base piece. An infinite variety
+of forms of saddles are made, most of them
+being used in dock work, and for framing of that
+character where large timbers are used, as in the
+building of coal chutes, and the like.</p>
+
+<div class='centered'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" width="60%" cellspacing="0" summary="Fig 295/296">
+<tr>
+<td valign="top"><a name="fig295" id="fig295"></a>
+<img src="images/fig295.jpg" width="388" height="113"
+             alt="Fig. 295." /></td></tr>
+<tr><td><p class='center'><b>Fig. 295. Joggle Joints.</b></p></td></tr>
+<tr><td><a name="fig296" id="fig296"></a>
+<img src="images/fig296.jpg" width="396" height="158"
+             alt="Fig. 296." /></td></tr>
+<tr><td><p class='center'><b>Fig. 296. Framing Joints.</b></p></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Joggle Joint.</span>&mdash;This joint is used almost exclusively
+for brace work where great weight must
+be supported. The brace has a tenon, and the end
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 200]</span>
+must also be so arranged that it will have a direct
+bearing against the upright, which it braces and
+supports, or it may have two faces, as in the second
+figure, which is an exceedingly strong construction.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 384px;"><a name="fig297" id="fig297"></a>
+<img src="images/fig297.jpg" width="384" height="125" alt="Fig. 297. Heel Joints." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 297. Heel Joints.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 391px;"><a name="fig298" id="fig298"></a>
+<img src="images/fig298.jpg" width="391" height="148" alt="Fig. 298. Stub Tenon." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 298. Stub Tenon.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Framing Joints.</span>&mdash;These are the simplest form
+in which two members are secured together. They
+are used almost wholly in rafter work, and have
+very few modifications. The depth of the cut, for
+the toe of the rafter, depends on the load to be
+carried, and also on the distance the end of the
+rafter is from the end of the horizontal member on
+which the rafter rests.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[Pg 201]</span>
+<span class="smcap">Heel Joints.</span>&mdash;This is by far the most secure of
+the framing type of joints. This, if properly
+made, is much better than the construction shown
+in the previous illustration, but the difficulty is
+to make the rafter fit into the recesses properly.
+This is no excuse for failure to use, but it is on
+account of inability to make close fits that is
+accountable for lack of use. It will be seen that
+in case one of the heels rests against the recess,
+and the others do not, and the pressure is great,
+there is a liability to tear out the entire joint.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig299" id="fig299"></a>
+<img src="images/fig299.jpg" width="400" height="176" alt="Fig. 299. Tusk Tenon." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 299. Tusk Tenon.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Stub Tenon.</span>&mdash;This is another form of tenon
+which is made and designed to be used where it is
+in close proximity to another tenon, or where the
+mortises, if made full size, will weaken the member.
+The long tusk can be shortened, to suit the place
+where it projects, and the stub tenon on each side
+of the tusk may be made very short, and one side
+longer than the other if necessary.</p>
+
+<p>
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 202]</span>
+<span class="smcap">Tusk Tenon.</span>&mdash;Two forms of tusk construction
+are given. Any number of forms have been devised,
+all for special purposes, and designed for
+different kinds of woods. These shown are particularly
+adapted for soft woods, and the principal
+feature that is valuable lies in the fact that
+they have a number of shoulders within the mortise,
+each of which, necessarily adds to the
+strength. It should be observed that in the construction
+of the tusk tenon, the greatest care must
+be taken to have it fit the mortise tightly, and this
+has reference to the bottom and shoulder ends as
+well.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig300" id="fig300"></a>
+<img src="images/fig300.jpg" width="400" height="179"
+alt="Fig. 300. Double Tusk Tenon." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 300. Double Tusk Tenon.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Double Tusk Tenons.</span>&mdash;The distinguishing difference
+between this and the preceding is in the
+tusk, which in this form of construction goes
+through the upright member, and is held by a cross
+key. The double tusk is intended for hard woods,
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 203]</span>
+and it is regarded as the finest, as well as the
+strongest, joint known.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Cogged Joints.</span>&mdash;This differs from the regular
+tenoning and mortising methods, principally because
+the groove or recess is in the form of an
+open gain. It is used where the member is to be
+inserted after the main structure is put together.</p>
+
+<div class='centered'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" width="60%" cellspacing="0" summary="Fig 301/302">
+<tr>
+<td valign="top"><a name="fig301" id="fig301"></a>
+<img src="images/fig301.jpg" width="386" height="106"
+             alt="Fig. 301." /></td></tr>
+<tr><td><p class='center'><b>Fig. 301. Cogged Joints.</b></p></td></tr>
+<tr><td><a name="fig302" id="fig302"></a>
+<img src="images/fig302.jpg" width="388" height="102"
+             alt="Fig. 302." /></td></tr>
+<tr><td><p class='center'><b>Fig. 302. Anchor Joint.</b></p></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Anchor Joint.</span>&mdash;This form of connection is designed
+for very large timbers, and where great
+care must be taken in making the parts fit together
+nicely, as everything depends on this. This style
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 204]</span>
+is never used where the angles are less than 45
+degrees, and the depth of the gain in the timber
+receiving the brace is dependent on the thrust of
+the brace.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig303" id="fig303"></a>
+<img src="images/fig303.jpg" width="400" height="183" alt="Fig. 303. Deep Anchor Joint." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 303. Deep Anchor Joint.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Deep Anchor Joint is an extension of the
+tongue of the Anchor tenon, so that it affords a
+greater support for the end thrust. To clearly distinguish
+between this and the preceding form, it
+might be said that the Anchor Joint is one designed
+to protect the member containing the gains,
+while the Deep Anchor Joint favors the brace, by
+giving it a greater power.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[Pg 205]</span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXI" id="CHAPTER_XXI"></a>CHAPTER XXI</h2>
+<h4>SOME MISTAKES, AND A LITTLE ADVICE IN CARPENTRY</h4>
+
+<p>In the mechanical arts, workers are as likely
+to learn from the mistakes committed as through
+correct information imparted. Advice, therefore,
+might be considered superfluous. But there are
+certain things which are easily remembered and
+may be borne in mind while engaged in turning out
+any work.</p>
+
+<p>This chapter is not given for the purpose of calling
+attention to all the errors which are so common,
+but merely to point out a few which the boy
+will commit as he tries to carry out his work for
+the first time.</p>
+
+<p>One of the difficult things for any one to learn,
+in working with wood, is to plane the edge of a
+board straight and square at the same time. This
+is made doubly difficult if it is desired to plane
+it strictly to dimensions.</p>
+
+<p>Usually before the edge is straight it is down to
+the proper width desired, and it is then too late
+to correct any error, because further work will
+make it too narrow.</p>
+
+<p>The whole difficulty is in the holding of the
+plane. It matters not how rigidly it is held, and
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 206]</span>
+how carefully it is guarded to veer it toward one
+side or the other, it will be found a most difficult
+task.</p>
+
+<p>If the fore, or finishing, plane is used, and
+which is the proper tool for the purpose, the impression
+seems to be, that to square up the edge
+and make it cut off a thicker shaving on one side
+than on the other, requires that the plane should
+be pressed down with force, so as to make it dig
+in and cut a thicker shaving.</p>
+
+<p>When this is resorted to the board is liable to
+get out of true from end to end. A much better
+plan is to put the plane on the edge of the board
+true and straight. If it is too high on the edge
+nearest you, bring the plane over so the inside
+edge is flush with the inside edge of the board.</p>
+
+<p>Then use the fingers of the left hand as a gage
+to keep the plane from running over.</p>
+
+<p>Now, the weight of the plane in such a condition
+is sufficient to take off a thicker shaving at the
+high edge, and this will be done without any effort,
+and will enable you to concentrate your thoughts
+on keeping the plane straight with the board.</p>
+
+<p>The weight of the plane will make a thicker
+shaving on one side than on the other, and correct
+inequalities, provided you do not attempt to force
+the plane.</p>
+
+<p>It requires an exceedingly steady hand to hold
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 207]</span>
+a plane firmly for squaring up a half-inch board.
+Singular as it may seem, it is almost as difficult a
+job with a two-inch plank. In the case of the thin
+board the plane will move laterally, unless the utmost
+care is exercised; in the truing up the thick
+plank the constant tendency is to move the plane
+along the surface at a slight diagonal, and this is
+sure to cause trouble.</p>
+
+<p>It only emphasizes the fact most clearly, that to
+do a good job the plane must be firmly held, that
+it must move along the board with the utmost precision,
+and that it should not be forced into the
+wood.</p>
+
+<p>In smoothing down a board with the short
+smoothing plane, preparatory to sandpapering it,
+the better plan is to move the plane slightly across
+the grain. This will enable the bit to take hold
+better, and when the sandpaper is applied the
+course of the movement should be across the grain
+opposite the direction taken by the smoothing
+plane.</p>
+
+<p>It is never satisfactory to draw the sandpaper
+directly along in the course of the grain. Such a
+habit will cause the sandpaper to fill up very
+rapidly, particularly with certain woods.</p>
+
+<p>When gluing together joints or tenons, always
+wipe off the surplus glue with warm water taken
+from the glue pot. If you do not follow this advice
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 208]</span>
+the glue will gum up the tools and the sandpaper
+used to finish the work.</p>
+
+<p>Never try to work from opposite sides of a piece
+of material. Have a <i>work side</i> and a work <i>edge</i>,
+and make all measurements therefrom. Mark
+each piece as you go along. Take a note mentally
+just how each piece is to be placed, and what must
+be done with it.</p>
+
+<p>The carpenter, above all others, must be able to
+carry a mental picture of his product.</p>
+
+<p>Never saw out the scribing or marking line,
+either in cutting or in ripping. The lines should
+be obliterated by the plane, when it is being finished,
+and not before.</p>
+
+<p>Make it a habit to finish off the surfaces and
+edges true and smooth before the ends are cut, or
+the mortises or tenons are made. This is one of
+the most frequent mistakes. No job can be a perfect
+one unless your material has been worked
+down to proper dimensions.</p>
+
+<p>Learn to saw across a board squarely. This
+may be a hard thing for the novice to do. A long,
+easy stroke of the saw will prevent it from running,
+unless too badly set or filed, and will also
+enable you to hold it more nearly square with the
+board.</p>
+
+<p>If you find that you invariably saw "out of
+true," then take some sawing lessons for your own
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 209]</span>
+benefit, until you can judge whether the saw is
+held true or not.</p>
+
+<p>It is better to saw up a half dozen boards in
+making the test than commit the error while working
+on a job.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[Pg 211]</span></p>
+<h2><a name="GLOSSARY_OF_WORDS" id="GLOSSARY_OF_WORDS"></a>GLOSSARY OF WORDS</h2>
+<h3>USED IN TEXT OF THIS VOLUME</h3>
+
+<p><b>Acute.</b> Sharp, to the point.</p>
+
+<p><b>Adjuster.</b> A tool which measures distances and relative
+spaces.</p>
+
+<p><b>&AElig;sthetic.</b> The theory of taste; science of the beautiful in
+nature and art.</p>
+
+<p><b>Abstract.</b> That which exists in the mind only; separate from
+matter; to think of separately as a quality.</p>
+
+<p><b>Alligator jaws.</b> A term used to designate a pair of serrated bars
+which are held together in a headpiece, and capable
+of clamping bits between them.</p>
+
+<p><b>Analyzed.</b> Separated into its primitive or original parts.</p>
+
+<p><b>Anchor.</b> Any device for holding an object in a fixed position.</p>
+
+<p><b>Angle dividers.</b> A sort of double bevel tool so arranged that an
+angle can be made at the same time on both side
+of a base line.</p>
+
+<p><b>Angularly disposed.</b> Forming an angle with reference to some part or
+position.</p>
+
+<p><b>Archivolt.</b> The architectural member surrounding the curved
+opening of an arch. More commonly the molding
+or other ornaments with which the wall face of
+an arch is changed.</p>
+
+<p><b>Artisan.</b> One trained in some mechanic's art or trade.</p>
+
+<p><b>Beaded.</b> A piece of wood or iron having rounded creases
+on its surface.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[Pg 212]</span>
+<b>Beam compass.</b> A drawing compass in which the points are arranged
+to slide on a rod, instead of being fixed on dividers.</p>
+
+<p><b>Belfry.</b> A bell-tower, usually attached to a church.</p>
+
+<p><b>Bevel square.</b> A handle to which is pivotally attached a blade,
+which may be swung and held at any desired
+angle.</p>
+
+<p><b>Bisected.</b> To divide, mark, or cut into two portions.</p>
+
+<p><b>Bit.</b> A small tool, either for drilling, or for cutting, as a
+plane iron.</p>
+
+<p><b>Braced collar.</b> A form of roofing truss, in which the upper cross
+member is supported by a pair of angled braces.</p>
+
+<p><b>Breast drill.</b> A tool for holding boring tools, and designed to have
+the head held against the breast for forcing in the
+boring tool.</p>
+
+<p><b>Bridle joint.</b> A form for securing elements together which provides
+a shallow depression in one member, and a
+chamfered member at its end to fit therein.</p>
+
+<p><b>Bungalow.</b> A Bengalese term; originally a thatched or tiled
+house or cottage, single story, usually surrounded
+by a veranda.</p>
+
+<p><b>Bushing.</b> A substance of any kind interposed, as, for instance,
+a wearing surface between a mandrel and
+its bearing.</p>
+
+<p><b>Butts.</b> A term applied to certain hinges, usually of the
+large type.</p>
+
+<p><b>Callipered.</b> A measured portion which has its side or thickness
+fixed by a finely graduated instrument.</p>
+
+<p><b>Cambered.</b> Slightly rising in the middle portion. An upward
+bend, or projection.</p>
+
+<p><b>Capital.</b> A small head or top of a column; the head or uppermost
+member of a pilaster.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[Pg 213]</span>
+<b>Cardinal.</b> Pre-eminent, chief, main line; <i>Cardinal</i> line is the
+principal line to make calculations or measurements
+from.</p>
+
+<p><b>Centering point.</b> A place for the reception of the point of an instrument,
+like a compass or a dividers, or for the dead
+center of the tail-stock of a lathe.</p>
+
+<p><b>Cheekpiece.</b> A piece or pieces at right angles to another piece,
+either fixed or movable, which serves as a rest or
+a guide.</p>
+
+<p><b>Chiffonier.</b> A movable and ornamental closet or piece of furniture
+with shelves and drawers.</p>
+
+<p><b>Chute.</b> A channel in any material, or made of any substance,
+for conveying liquids or solids.</p>
+
+<p><b>Circumference.</b> The distance around an object.</p>
+
+<p><b>Circumferentially.</b> Surrounding or encircling.</p>
+
+<p><b>Classical.</b> Relating to the first class or rank, especially in
+literature or art.</p>
+
+<p><b>Cogged.</b> Having teeth, either at regular or at irregular intervals.</p>
+
+<p><b>Concrete.</b> Expressing the thing itself specifically; also the quality;
+a specific example.</p>
+
+<p><b>Configuration.</b> Form, as depending on the relative disposition of the
+parts of a thing; a shape or a figure.</p>
+
+<p><b>Coincide.</b> To occupy the same place in space; to correspond exactly;
+to agree; to concur.</p>
+
+<p><b>Correlation.</b> A reference, as from one thing to another; the putting
+together of various parts.</p>
+
+<p><b>Conventional.</b> Something which grows out of or depends upon custom,
+or is sanctioned by general usage.</p>
+
+<p><b>Craftsman.</b> One skilled in a craft or trade.</p>
+
+<p><b>Curvature.</b> The act of curving or being bent.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[Pg 214]</span>
+<b>Concentrated.</b> To bring to a common center; to bring together in
+one mass.</p>
+
+<p><b>Dado.</b> A plain flat surface between a base and a surbase
+molding. Sometimes a painted or encrusted skirting
+on interior walls.</p>
+
+<p><b>Depth gage.</b> A tool by means of which the depths of grooves
+and recesses are measured.</p>
+
+<p><b>Degree.</b> Measure of advancement; quality; extent; a division
+or space.</p>
+
+<p><b>Discarded.</b> Cast off; to reject or put away.</p>
+
+<p><b>Deterioration.</b> To grow worse; impairing in quality.</p>
+
+<p><b>Depressed.</b> A sunken surface or part.</p>
+
+<p><b>Diagrammatical.</b> A drawing made to illustrate the working or the
+scheme, without showing all the parts or giving
+their relative positions or measurements.</p>
+
+<p><b>Diametrically.</b> A direction toward the center or across the middle
+of a figure or thing.</p>
+
+<p><b>Diagonal.</b> A direction which is not parallel with or perpendicular
+to a line.</p>
+
+<p><b>Dominate.</b> To govern; controlling.</p>
+
+<p><b>Door trim.</b> The hardware which is attached to a door.</p>
+
+<p><b>Double-roofed.</b> All form of roof structure where there is an inner
+frame to support the rafters.</p>
+
+<p><b>Drop forged.</b> Metal forms which are struck up by means of
+heavy hammers, in which are the molds or patterns
+of the article to be formed.</p>
+
+<p><b>Elaboration.</b> Wrought with labor; finished with great care.</p>
+
+<p><b>Elevation.</b> The act of raising from a lower to a higher degree;
+a projection of a building or other object on a
+plane perpendicular to the horizon.</p>
+
+<p><b>Elliptical.</b> Having the form of an ellipse.</p>
+
+<p><b>Embellishment.</b> The act of adorning; that which adds beauty or
+elegance.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[Pg 215]</span>
+<b>Entablature.</b> The structure which lies horizontally upon the columns.</p>
+
+<p><b>Equidistant.</b> Being at an equal distance from a point.</p>
+
+<p><b>Escutcheon.</b> An ornamental plate like that part about a keyhole.</p>
+
+<p><b>Evolve.</b> To unfold or unroll; to open and expand.</p>
+
+<p><b>Fa&ccedil;ade.</b> The front of a building; the principal front having
+some architectural pretensions.</p>
+
+<p><b>Facing-boards.</b> The finishing of the face of a wall of different material
+than the main part of the wall; the wide
+board below the cornice or beneath the windows.</p>
+
+<p><b>Factor.</b> One of the elements, circumstances or influences
+which contribute to produce a result.</p>
+
+<p><b>Fence.</b> A term used to designate a metal barrier or guard
+on a part of a tool.</p>
+
+<p><b>Fish plate.</b> A pair of plates, usually placed on opposite sides
+of the pieces to be secured together, and held by
+cross bolts.</p>
+
+<p><b>Flare.</b> A pitch; an angle; an inclination.</p>
+
+<p><b>Flush.</b> Unbroken, or even in surface; on a level with the
+adjacent surface.</p>
+
+<p><b>Frog clamping screw.</b> A screw which is designed to hold or adjust two
+angled pieces.</p>
+
+<p><b>Fulcrum.</b> That by which a lever is sustained, or on which a
+lever rests in turning or moving a body.</p>
+
+<p><b>Fluting.</b> The channel or channels in a body; as the grooves
+in a column.</p>
+
+<p><b>Gain.</b> A square or beveled notch or groove cut out of a
+girder, beam, post or other material, at a corner.</p>
+
+<p><b>Gambrel.</b> A roof having two different pitches, the upper much
+greater than the lower.</p>
+
+<p><b>Geometry.</b> Pertaining to that branch of mathematics which investigates
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 216]</span>
+the relations, properties and measurements
+of solids, surfaces, lines and angles.</p>
+
+<p><b>Girder.</b> A main beam; a straight horizontal beam to span an
+opening or carry a weight, such as the ends of
+floor beams.</p>
+
+<p><b>Glossary.</b> A collection or explanation of words and passages
+of the works of an author; a partial dictionary.</p>
+
+<p><b>Graduated.</b> Cut up into steps; divided into equal parts.</p>
+
+<p><b>Guide stock.</b> A member which is the main portion of the tool,
+and from which all measurements are taken.</p>
+
+<p><b>Hammer beam.</b> A member in a truss roof structure, at the base
+of the roof proper, which consists of an inwardly
+projecting part, on which the roof rests, and from
+which it is braced.</p>
+
+<p><b>Hammer-pole.</b> The peon, or round end of a hammer which is used
+for driving nails.</p>
+
+<p><b>Hemispherical.</b> Pertaining to a half globe or sphere.</p>
+
+<p><b>Horizontal.</b> On the level; at right angles to a line which points
+to the center of the earth.</p>
+
+<p><b>Incorporated.</b> United in one body.</p>
+
+<p><b>Index pin.</b> A small movable member which is designed to limit
+the movement of the operative part of a machine.</p>
+
+<p><b>Initial.</b> To make a beginning with; the first of a series of
+acts or things.</p>
+
+<p><b>Insulate.</b> To place in a detached position; to separate from.</p>
+
+<p><b>Interchangeable.</b> One for the other.</p>
+
+<p><b>Interval.</b> A space between things; a void space; between two
+objects.</p>
+
+<p><b>Interest.</b> To engage the attention of; to awaken or attract attention.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[Pg 217]</span>
+<b>Interlocking jaw.</b> Two or more parts of a piece of mechanism in
+which the said parts pass each other in their
+motions.</p>
+
+<p><b>Intersection.</b> The point or line in which one line or surface cuts
+another.</p>
+
+<p><b>Intervening.</b> The portion between.</p>
+
+<p><b>Inverted.</b> Turned over; to put upside down.</p>
+
+<p><b>Joggle-joint.</b> A form of connection which has struts attached to
+a pendant post.</p>
+
+<p><b>Joinery.</b> The art or trade of joining wood.</p>
+
+<p><b>Kerf.</b> A notch, channel or slit made in any material by
+cutting or sawing.</p>
+
+<p><b>Kit.</b> A working outfit; a collection of tools or implements.</p>
+
+<p><b>Level.</b> A tool designed to indicate horizontal or vertical
+surfaces.</p>
+
+<p><b>Liberal.</b> Not narrow or contracted.</p>
+
+<p><b>Lobe.</b> Any projection, especially of a rounded form; the
+projecting part of a cam-wheel.</p>
+
+<p><b>Longitudinal.</b> In the direction of the length; running lengthwise.</p>
+
+<p><b>Lubrication.</b> The system of affording oiling means to a machine
+or to any article.</p>
+
+<p><b>Mandrel.</b> The live spindle of a lathe; the revolving arbor of
+a circular saw.</p>
+
+<p><b>Mansard.</b> A type of roof structure with two pitches, one, the
+lower, being very steep, and the other very flat
+pitch.</p>
+
+<p><b>Manual.</b> Of or pertaining to the hand; done or made by
+hand.</p>
+
+<p><b>Marginal.</b> The border or edge of an object.</p>
+
+<p><b>Marking gage.</b> A bar on which is placed a series of points, usually
+equidistant from each other.</p>
+
+<p>
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 218]</span><b>Matching.</b>
+Placing tongue in one member and a corresponding
+groove in another member, so that they will join
+each other perfectly.</p>
+
+<p><b>Medi&aelig;val.</b> Of or relating to the Middle Ages.</p>
+
+<p><b>Miter-box.</b> A tool for the purpose of holding a saw true at any
+desired adjustable angle.</p>
+
+<p><b>Miter-square.</b> A tool which provides adjustment at any desired
+angle.</p>
+
+<p><b>Mullion.</b> A slender bar or pier which forms the vertical division
+between the lights of windows, screens, etc.;
+also, indoors, the main uprights are <i>stiles</i>, and the
+intermediate uprights are <i>mullions</i>.</p>
+
+<p><b>Obliterated.</b> Erased or blotted out.</p>
+
+<p><b>Obtuse.</b> Not pointed; bent.</p>
+
+<p><b>Orbit.</b> The path made by a heavenly body in its travel
+around another body.</p>
+
+<p><b>Ordinate.</b> The distance of any point in a curve or a straight
+line, measured on a line called the <i>axis of ordinates,</i>
+or on a line parallel to it from another line,
+at right angles thereto, called the <i>axis of abscissas</i>.</p>
+
+<p><b>Ornamentation.</b> To embellish; to improve in appearance.</p>
+
+<p><b>Oscillate.</b> To swing like a pendulum.</p>
+
+<p><b>Overhang.</b> In a general sense that which projects out.</p>
+
+<p><b>Paneling.</b> A sunken compartment or portion with raised margins,
+molded or otherwise, as indoors, ceilings
+wainscoting, etc.</p>
+
+<p><b>Parallelogram.</b> A right-lined quadrilateral figure, whose opposite
+sides are parallel and, consequently, equal.</p>
+
+<p><b>Parallel.</b> Extended in the same direction, and in all parts
+equally distant.</p>
+
+<p><b>Perspective.</b> A view; a vista; the effect of distance upon the appearance
+of objects, by means of which the eye
+recognizes them as being at a more or less measurable
+distance.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[Pg 219]</span>
+<b>Pivot.</b> A fixed pin, or short axis, on the end of which a
+wheel or other body turns.</p>
+
+<p><b>Pitch.</b> Slope; descent; declivity, like the slope of a roof.</p>
+
+<p><b>Placement.</b> The act of placing; in the state of being placed.</p>
+
+<p><b>Predominate.</b> To be superior in number, strength, influence or authority;
+controlling.</p>
+
+<p><b>Produced.</b> To lengthen out; to extend.</p>
+
+<p><b>Prototype.</b> The original; that from which later forms sprang.</p>
+
+<p><b>Purlin.</b> A longitudinal piece of timber, under a roof, mid-*way
+between the eaves and comb, to hold the rafters.</p>
+
+<p><b>Rabbeting.</b> The manner of cutting grooves or recesses.</p>
+
+<p><b>Ratchet.</b> A wheel, bar, or other form of member, having teeth
+or recesses.</p>
+
+<p>Rebate. A rectangular, longitudinal recess or groove, cut in
+the corner or edge of a body.</p>
+
+<p><b>Rail.</b> A horizontal piece in a frame or paneling.</p>
+
+<p><b>Rectangular.</b> Right-angled; having one or more angles of ninety
+degrees; a four-sided figure having only right
+angles.</p>
+
+<p><b>Rib and collar.</b> A form of roof truss in which the collar between
+rafters is used as the thrust bearing for the ribs
+which project up from the hammer beam.</p>
+
+<p><b>Router.</b> A tool for cutting grooves or recesses.</p>
+
+<p><b>Saddle joint.</b> A form of connection in which one part has a portion
+cut away, resembling a saddle, and in which
+the part to be attached has its end cut so as to
+fit the saddle thus formed.</p>
+
+<p><b>Scarfing.</b> The cutting away of the ends of timbers to be
+joined, so the two parts on lapping will unite
+evenly.</p>
+
+<p><b>Scissors beam.</b> A form of truss, in which there is a pair of interior
+braces formed like shears, and secured to the
+main rafters themselves.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[Pg 220]</span>
+<b>Score, Scored.</b> Shear; cut; divide; also notching or marking.</p>
+
+<p><b>Scratch awl.</b> A sharp-pointed tool, with a handle.</p>
+
+<p><b>Scribe.</b> To cut, indent or mark with a tool, such as a knife,
+awl or compass, so as to form a cutting line for
+the workman.</p>
+
+<p><b>Self-supporting.</b> Held by itself; not depending upon outside aid.</p>
+
+<p><b>Shank.</b> Usually the handle, or portion to which the handle
+is attached.</p>
+
+<p><b>Slitting gage.</b> A tool which is designed to cut along a certain line
+guided by an adjustable fence.</p>
+
+<p><b>Soffit.</b> The under side of an arch.</p>
+
+<p><b>Solid.</b> Not hollow; full of matter; having a fixed form;
+hard; opposed to liquid or fluid.</p>
+
+<p><b>Spindle.</b> A small mandrel; an arbor; a turning shaft.</p>
+
+<p><b>Springer.</b> The post or point at which an arch rests upon its
+support, and from which it seems to spring.</p>
+
+<p><b>Sphere.</b> A body or space continued under a single surface
+which, in every part, is equally distant from a
+point within called its center.</p>
+
+<p><b>Spur.</b> A small part jutting from another.</p>
+
+<p><b>Strike plate.</b> A plate serving as a keeper for a beveled latch bolt
+and against which the latter strikes in closing.</p>
+
+<p><b>Steel Tubing.</b> Pipes made from steel; tubing is measured across
+from outside to outside; piping is measured on the
+inside.</p>
+
+<p><b>Step-wedge.</b> A wedge having one straight edge, and the other
+edge provided with a succession of steps, by means
+of which the piece gradually grows wider.</p>
+
+<p><b>Strain, Stresses.</b> To act upon in any way so as to cause change of
+form or volume; as forces on a beam to bend it.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[Pg 221]</span>
+<b>Strut.</b> Any piece of timber which runs from one timber to
+another, and is used to support a part.</p>
+
+<p><b>Stub.</b> A projecting part, usually of some defined form, and
+usually designed to enter or engage with a corresponding
+recess in another member.</p>
+
+<p><b>Submerged.</b> To be buried or covered, as with a fluid; to put
+under.</p>
+
+<p><b>Swivel.</b> A pivoted member, used in many forms of tools, in
+which one part turns on the other.</p>
+
+<p><b>Tail-stock.</b> The sliding support or block in a lathe, which carries
+the dead spindle, or adjustable center.</p>
+
+<p><b>Technical.</b> Of or pertaining to the useful in mechanical arts,
+or to any science, business, or the like.</p>
+
+<p><b>Texture.</b> The disposition of the several parts of any body in
+connection with each other; or the manner in which
+the parts are united.</p>
+
+<p><b>Tool rest.</b> That part of a lathe, or other mechanism, which supports
+a tool, or holds the tool support.</p>
+
+<p><b>Torso.</b> The human body as distinguished from the head and
+limbs.</p>
+
+<p><b>Transverse.</b> In a crosswise direction; lying across; at right angles
+to the longitudinal.</p>
+
+<p><b>Trimmer.</b> A beam, into which are framed the ends of headers
+in floor framing, as when a hole is left for stairs,
+chimneys, and the like.</p>
+
+<p><b>Truss.</b> An assemblage of members of wood or iron, supported
+at two points, and arranged to transmit pressure
+vertically to those points with the least possible
+strain, across the length of any member.</p>
+
+<p><b>Tusk.</b> In mechanism, a long projecting part, longer than
+a tenon, and usually applied to the long or projecting
+part of a tenon.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[Pg 222]</span>
+<b>Universal joint.</b> A joint wherein one member is made to turn with
+another, although the two turning members are
+not in a line with each other.</p>
+
+<p><b>Vocation.</b> Employment; trade; profession; business.</p>
+
+<p><b>Voissoir.</b> One of the wedgelike stones of which an arch is
+composed.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h4><a name="THE_HOW-TO-DO-IT_BOOKS" id="THE_HOW-TO-DO-IT_BOOKS"></a>THE "HOW-TO-DO-IT" BOOKS</h4>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Carpentry for Boys</span></h3>
+
+<p>A book which treats, in a most practical and fascinating manner
+all subjects pertaining to the "King of Trades"; showing the care
+and use of tools; drawing; designing, and the laying out of work;
+the principles involved in the building of various kinds of structures,
+and the rudiments of architecture. It contains over two
+hundred and fifty illustrations made especially for this work, and
+includes also a complete glossary of the technical terms used in the
+art. The most comprehensive volume on this subject ever published
+for boys.</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Electricity for Boys</span></h3>
+
+<p>The author has adopted the unique plan of setting forth the fundamental
+principles in each phase of the science, and practically
+applying the work in the successive stages. It shows how the
+knowledge has been developed, and the reasons for the various
+phenomena, without using technical words so as to bring it within
+the compass of every boy. It has a complete glossary of terms, and
+is illustrated with two hundred original drawings.</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Practical Mechanics for Boys</span></h3>
+
+<p>This book takes the beginner through a comprehensive series of
+practical shop work, in which the uses of tools, and the structure
+and handling of shop machinery are set forth; how they are utilized
+to perform the work, and the manner in which all dimensional work
+is carried out. Every subject is illustrated, and model building
+explained. It contains a glossary which comprises a new system of
+cross references, a feature that will prove a welcome departure in
+explaining subjects. Fully illustrated.</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<h5><i>Price 60 cents per volume</i></h5>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<h3>THE NEW YORK BOOK COMPANY</h3>
+<h4><span class="smcap">147 Fourth Avenue&nbsp;&nbsp;New York</span></h4>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+<h3>THE WONDER ISLAND BOYS</h3>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">By ROGER T. FINLAY</span></h4>
+
+<p>Thrilling adventures by sea and land of two boys and
+an aged Professor who are cast away on an island with
+absolutely nothing but their clothing. By gradual and
+natural stages they succeed in constructing all forms of
+devices used in the mechanical arts and learn the
+scientific theories involved in every walk of life. These
+subjects are all treated in an incidental and natural way
+in the progress of events, from the most fundamental
+standpoint without technicalities, and include every
+department of knowledge. Numerous illustrations
+accompany the text.</p>
+
+<p>Two Thousand things every boy ought to know. Every page
+a romance. Every line a fact.</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<h4><i>Six titles&mdash;60 cents per volume</i></h4>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<h4>
+THE WONDER ISLAND BOYS<br />
+The Castaways<br />
+<br />
+THE WONDER ISLAND BOYS<br />
+Exploring the Island<br />
+<br />
+THE WONDER ISLAND BOYS<br />
+The Mysteries of the Caverns<br />
+<br />
+THE WONDER ISLAND BOYS<br />
+The Tribesmen<br />
+<br />
+THE WONDER ISLAND BOYS<br />
+The Capture and Pursuit<br />
+<br />
+THE WONDER ISLAND BOYS<br />
+The Conquest of the Savages<br /><br /></h4>
+
+<h5>PUBLISHED BY</h5>
+<h4>THE NEW YORK BOOK COMPANY</h4>
+<h5><span class="smcap">147 Fourth Avenue&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;New York</span>
+</h5>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+<h3><span class="smcap">The Hickory Ridge Boy Scouts</span></h3>
+
+<h4>A SERIES OF BOOKS FOR BOYS</h4>
+
+<h5>Which, in addition to the interesting boy scout stories by CAPTAIN ALAN
+DOUGLAS, Scoutmaster, contain articles on nature lore, native animals
+and a fund of other information pertaining to out-of-door life,
+that will appeal to the boy's love of the open.</h5>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<blockquote><p>I. The Campfires of the Wolf Patrol</p>
+
+<p>Their first camping experience affords the scouts splendid opportunities to use
+their recently acquired knowledge in a practical way. Elmer Chenoweth, a lad
+from the northwest woods, astonishes everyone by his familiarity with camp
+life. A clean, wholesome story every boy should read.</p>
+
+<p>II. Woodcraft; or, How a Patrol Leader Made Good</p>
+
+<p>This tale presents many stirring situations in which some of the boys are called
+upon to exercise all their ingenuity and unselfishness. A story filled with
+healthful excitement.</p>
+
+<p>III. Pathfinder; or, The Missing Tenderfoot</p>
+
+<p>Some mysteries are cleared up in a most unexpected way, greatly to the credit
+of our young friends. A variety of incidents follow fast, one after the other.</p>
+
+<p>IV. Fast Nine; or, a Challenge From Fairfield</p>
+
+<p>They show the same team-work here as when in camp. The description of the
+final game with the team of a rival town, and the outcome thereof, form a
+stirring narrative. One of the best baseball stories of recent years.</p>
+
+<p>V. Great Hike; or, The Pride of The Khaki Troop</p>
+
+<p>After weeks of preparation the scouts start out on their greatest undertaking.
+Their march takes them far from home, and the good-natured rivalry of the
+different patrols furnishes many interesting and amusing situations.</p>
+
+<p>VI. Endurance Test; or, How Clear Grit Won the Day</p>
+
+<p>Few stories "get" us more than illustrations of pluck in the face of apparent
+failure. Our heroes show the stuff they are made of and surprise their most
+ardent admirers. One of the best stories Captain Douglas has written.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<h4>Boy Scout Nature Lore to be Found in The Hickory Ridge
+Boy Scout Series</h4>
+
+<blockquote><p>
+Wild Animals of the United States&mdash;Tracking&mdash;in Number I.<br />
+Trees and Wild Flowers of the United States in Number II.<br />
+Reptiles of the United States in Number III.<br />
+Fishes of the United States in Number IV.<br />
+Insects of the United States in Number V.<br />
+Birds of the United States in Number VI.<br />
+</p></blockquote>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<p>
+<i>Cloth Binding&nbsp;Cover Illustrations in Four Colors&nbsp;40c. Per Volume</i>
+<br /></p>
+
+<h3>THE NEW YORK BOOK COMPANY</h3>
+<h3>147 FOURTH AVENUE (near 14th St.) NEW YORK</h3>
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+<div class="bbox"><h3>THE</h3>
+<h2>Campfire and Trail Series<br /></h2></div>
+
+<blockquote><p>
+1. In Camp on the Big Sunflower.<br />
+2. The Rivals of the Trail.<br />
+3. The Strange Cabin on Catamount Island.<br />
+4. Lost in the Great Dismal Swamp.<br />
+5. With Trapper Jim in the North Woods.<br />
+6. Caught in a Forest Fire.<br />
+</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">By LAWRENCE J. LESLIE</span></p>
+
+<p>A series of wholesome stories for boys told
+in an interesting way and appealing to their
+love of the open.</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Each, 12mo.     Cloth.     40 cents per volume</i></p>
+
+<h4>THE NEW YORK BOOK COMPANY</h4>
+<h3>147 FOURTH AVENUE<br />NEW YORK</h3>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h3>Christy Mathewson's Book</h3>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig304" id="fig304"></a>
+<img src="images/fig304.jpg" width="400" height="606" alt="WON IN
+THE NINTH
+CHRISTY MATHEWSON" title="" />
+<span class="caption">WON IN
+THE NINTH
+CHRISTY MATHEWSON</span>
+</div>
+
+<blockquote><p><i>A Ripping Good
+Baseball Story
+by One Who
+Knows the Game</i></p>
+
+<p>This book has attained a
+larger sale than any baseball
+story ever published.</p>
+
+<p>The narrative deals with the
+students of a large university
+and their baseball team, the members of which
+have names which enable the reader to recognize them
+as some of the foremost baseball stars of the day before
+their entrance into the major leagues.</p>
+
+<p>One gains a very clear idea of "inside baseball"
+stripped of wearisome technicalities. The book is profusely
+illustrated throughout and contains also a number
+of plates showing the manner in which Mathewson
+throws his deceptive curves, together with brief description
+of each.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>
+<i>Cloth bound 5&frac12; x 7&#8541;       Price 60c. per volume</i></p>
+
+<h4>THE NEW YORK BOOK COMPANY</h4>
+<h3>147 FOURTH AVENUE &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;NEW YORK</h3>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h3>ECONOMICAL COOKING</h3>
+<h5><i>Primrose Edition</i></h5>
+
+<h4><i>Planned for Two or More Persons</i></h4>
+
+<h5>By</h5>
+<h4>MISS WINIFRED S. GIBBS</h4>
+
+
+<h5>Dietitian and Teacher of Cooking of the New York
+Association for Improving the Condition of the Poor</h5>
+
+<blockquote><p><i>Printed on Fine Quality Book Paper. Cover Design in Colors</i></p>
+
+<p>Many Cook Books have been published, from time
+to time, to meet various requirements, or to elucidate
+certain theories, but very few have been written to
+meet the needs of the large proportion of our population
+who are acutely affected by the constantly increasing
+cost of food products. Notwithstanding that by its
+valuable suggestions this book helps to reduce the expense
+of supplying the table, the recipes are so planned that
+the economies effected thereby are not offset by any
+lessening in the attractiveness, variety or palatability of
+the dishes.</p>
+
+<p>Of equal importance are the sections of this work
+which deal with food values, the treatment of infants and
+invalids and the proper service of various dishes.</p>
+
+<p>The recipes are planned for two persons, but may
+readily be adapted for a larger number. The book is
+replete with illustrations and tables of food compositions&mdash;the
+latter taken from the latest Government statistics.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>
+<i>Cloth Binding&nbsp;Illustrated&nbsp;40c. per volume, postpaid</i></p>
+
+<h4>THE NEW YORK BOOK COMPANY</h4>
+<h3>147 FOURTH AVENUE (near 14th St.) NEW YORK</h3>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h3><span class="smcap">CUT-OUT and PAINT BOOKS</span></h3>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="fig305" id="fig305"></a>
+<img src="images/fig305.jpg" width="400" height="467" alt="SCISSORS BOOK
+Dolls of All Nations" title="" />
+<span class="caption">SCISSORS BOOK
+Dolls of All Nations</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>An original line of art
+studies printed in full rich
+colors on high grade paper.
+This series introduces many
+novel features of interest, and
+as the subject matters have
+been selected with unusual
+care, the books make a strong
+appeal not only to the little ones but even to those of
+riper years.</p>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align='left'>Post Cards</td><td align='left'><i>Painting Book</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Dolls of all Nations</td><td align='left'><i>Scissors Book</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Our Army</td><td align='left'><i>Scissors Book</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Children's Pets</td><td align='left'><i>Puzzle Book</i></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<h5><i>Size 8&frac14; x 10&frac14; inches</i></h5>
+
+<h5><b>Price 15c. per copy</b></h5>
+
+<h5>Send for sample and trade discount</h5>
+
+<h4>
+THE NEW YORK BOOK COMPANY</h4>
+<h3>147 FOURTH AVENUE &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;NEW YORK</h3>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Carpentry for Boys, by J. S. Zerbe
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+</pre>
+
+</body>
+</html>
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Carpentry for Boys, by J. S. Zerbe
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Carpentry for Boys
+       In a Simple Language, Including Chapters on Drawing, Laying
+       Out Work, Designing and Architecture With 250 Original
+       Illustrations
+
+Author: J. S. Zerbe
+
+Release Date: March 7, 2007 [EBook #20763]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CARPENTRY FOR BOYS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Ross Wilburn, Curtis Weyant and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+THE "HOW-TO-DO-IT" BOOKS
+
+CARPENTRY FOR BOYS
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 1. A Typical Work Bench._]
+
+
+
+THE "HOW-TO-DO-IT" BOOKS
+
+CARPENTRY FOR BOYS
+
+in simple language, including
+chapters on drawing, laying out
+work, designing and architecture
+
+WITH 250 ORIGINAL ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+BY J. S. ZERBE, M.E.
+
+AUTHOR OF
+
+
+ELECTRICITY FOR BOYS
+PRACTICAL MECHANICS FOR BOYS
+
+
+THE NEW YORK BOOK COMPANY
+
+NEW YORK
+
+COPYRIGHT, 1914, BY
+
+THE NEW YORK BOOK COMPANY
+
+
++----------------------------------------------------------------------+
+|Transcriber's Notes: Italics are marked by underscore(_), Bold text is|
+|marked by $, Small caps have been uppercased.                         |
++----------------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+INTRODUCTORY
+
+I. TOOLS AND THEIR USES Page 5
+
+Knowledge of Tools. A Full Kit of Tools. The Hatchet. The Claw Hammer.
+About Saws--Cross-cut, Rip Saw, Back Saw. Planes--Jack Plane, Smoothing
+Plane, Pore Plane. Gages. Chisels--Firmer Chisel. Trusses. Saw Clamps.
+The Grindstone. Oilstone. Miter Box. The Work Bench.
+
+II. HOW TO GRIND AND SHARPEN TOOLS Page 16
+
+Care of Tools---First Requisites. Saws--How to Set. Saw-set Errors. Saw
+Setting Block. Filing. The Angle of Filing. Filing Pitch. Saw Clamps.
+Filing Suggestions. The File. Using the File. The Grindstone. In the Use
+of Grindstones. Correct Way of Holding Tool in Grinding. Care of Stone.
+Incorrect Way to Hold Tool. Way to Revolve or Turn Grindstone. The
+Plane. The Gage. Chisels. General Observations.
+
+III. HOW TO HOLD AND HANDLE TOOLS Page 29
+
+On the Holding of Tools. The Saw. How to Start a Saw. Sawing on a Line.
+The First Stroke. The Starting Cut for Cross-cutting. Forcing a Saw. The
+Stroke. The Chinese Saw. Things to Avoid. The Plane. Angle for Holding
+Planes. Errors to be Avoided. The Gage. Holding the Gage. The
+Draw-knife.
+
+IV. HOW TO DESIGN ARTICLES Page 39
+
+Fundamentals of Designing. The Commercial Instinct. First Requirements
+of Designing. Conventional Styles. The Mission Style. Cabinets. Harmony
+of Parts. Harmony of Wood.
+
+V. HOW WORK IS LAID OUT Page 43
+
+Concrete Examples of Work. Dimensions. Laying Out a Table. The Top. The
+Mortises. The Facing Boards. The Tenons. Tools Used. Chamfered Tenons.
+The Frame. The Drawer Support. The Table Frame. The Top. The Drawer. How
+Any Structure is Built Up. Observations About Making a Box. Points.
+Beveling and Mitering. Proper Terms. Picture Frames. Dovetail Points.
+Box Points. First Steps in Dovetailing. Cutting Out the Spaces. Tools
+Used in Laying Out Mortises and Tenons.
+
+VI. THE USES OF THE COMPASS AND THE SQUARE Page 59
+
+The Compass. Determining Angles. Definition of Degrees. Degrees Without
+a Compass. How Degrees are Calculated by the Dividers.
+
+VII. HOW THE DIFFERENT STRUCTURAL PARTS ARE DESIGNATED Page 65
+
+Importance of Proper Designation. How to Explain Mechanical Forms.
+Defining Segment and Sector. Arcade, Arch, Buttress, Flying Buttress,
+Chamfer, Cotter, Crenelated, Crosses, Curb Roof, Cupola, Crown Post,
+Corbels, Dormer, Dowel, Drip, Detent, Extrados, Engrailed, Facet, Fret,
+Fretwork, Frontal, Frustrums, Fylfot, Gambrel Roof, Gargoyle, Gudgeon,
+Guilloche. Half Timbered, Hammer Beam, Header, Hip Roof, Hood Molding,
+Inclave, Interlacing Arch, Inverted, Inverted Arch, Key Stone, King
+Post, Label, Louver, Lintel, Lug, M-Roof, Mansard Roof, Newel,
+Parquetry, Peen, Pendant, Pendastyle, Pedestal, Plinth, Portico, Plate,
+Queen Post, Quirk Molding, Re-entering Angle, Rafter, Scarfing, Scotia
+Molding, Sill, Skewback, Spandrel, Strut, Stud, Stile, Tie Beam, Timber,
+Trammel, Turret, Transom, Valley Roof.
+
+VIII. DRAWING AND ITS UTILITY Page 73
+
+Fundamentals in Drawing. Representing Objects. Forming Lines and
+Shadows. Analysis of Lines and Shadings. How to Show Plain Surfaces.
+Concave Surfaces. Convex Surfaces. Shadows from a Beam. Flat Effects.
+The Direction of Light. Raised Surfaces. Depressed Surfaces. Full
+Shading. Illustrating Cube Shading. Shading Effect. Heavy Lines.
+Perspectives. True Perspective of a Cube. Isometric Cube. Flattened
+Perspective. Technical Designations. Sector and Segment. Terms of
+Angles. Circles and Curves. Irregular Curves. Ellipses and Ovals. Focal
+Points. Produced Line. Spirals, Perpendicular and Vertical. Signs to
+Indicate Measurement. Definitions. Abscissa. Angle. Apothegm. Apsides or
+Apsis. Chord. Cycloid. Conoid. Conic Section. Ellipsoid. Epicycloid.
+Evolute. Flying Buttress. Focus. Gnomes. Hexagon. Hyperbola.
+Hypothenuse. Incidental. Isosceles. Triangle. Parabola. Parallelogram.
+Pelecoid. Polygons. Pyramid. Rhomb. Sector. Segment. Sinusoid. Tangent.
+Tetrahedron. Vertex.
+
+IX. MOLDINGS, WITH PRACTICAL ILLUSTRATIONS IN EMBELLISHING WORK Page 93
+
+Moldings. The Basis of Moldings. The Simplest Moldings. The Astragal.
+The Cavetto. The Ovolo. The Torus. The Apothegm. The Cymatium. The Ogee.
+Ogee Recta. Ogee Reversa. The Reedy. The Casement. The Roman-Doric
+Column. Lesson from the Doric Column. Applying Molding. Base.
+Embellishments. Straight-faced Molding. Plain Molding. Base. Diversified
+Uses. Shadows Cast by Moldings.
+
+X. AN ANALYSIS OF TENONING, MORTISING, RABBETING AND BEADING Page 104
+
+Where Mortises Should be Used. Depth of Mortises. Rule for Mortises.
+True Mortise Work. Steps in Cutting Mortises. Things to Avoid in
+Mortising. Lap-and-Butt Joints. Scarfing. The Tongue and Groove.
+Beading. Ornamental Bead Finish. The Bead and Rabbet. Shading with Beads
+and Rabbets.
+
+XI. HOUSE BUILDING Page 113
+
+House Building. The Home and Embellishments. Beauty Not Ornamentation.
+Plain Structures. Colonial Type. The Roof the Keynote. Bungalow Types.
+General House Building. Building Plans. The Plain Square-Floor Plan. The
+Rectangular Plan. Room Measurements. Front and Side Lines. The Roof.
+Roof Pitch. The Foundation. The Sills. The Flooring Joist. The Studding.
+Setting Up. The Plate. Intermediate Studding. Wall Headers. Ceiling
+Joist. Braces. The Rafters. The Gutter. Setting Door and Window Frames.
+Plastering and Finish Work.
+
+XII. BRIDGES, TRUSSED WORK AND LIKE STRUCTURES Page 130
+
+Bridges. Self-supporting Roofs. Common Trusses. The Vertical Upright
+Truss. The Warren Girder. The Bowstring Girder. Fundamental Truss
+Forms.
+
+XIII. THE BEST WOODS FOR THE BEGINNER Page 134
+
+The Best Woods. Soft Woods. Hard Woods. The Most Difficult Woods. The
+Hard-ribbed Grain in Wood. The Easiest Working Woods. Differences in the
+Working of Woods. Forcing Saws in Wood.
+
+XIV. WOOD TURNING Page 138
+
+Advantages of Wood Turning. Simple Turning Lathe. The Rails. The Legs.
+Centering Blocks. The Tail-stock. The Tool Rest. Materials. The Mandrel.
+Fly-wheel. The Tools Required.
+
+XV. ON THE USE OF STAINS Page 147
+
+Soft Wood. Use of Stains. Stains as Imitations. Good Taste in Staining.
+Great Contrasts Bad. Staining Contrasting Woods. Hard Wood Imitations.
+Natural Effects. Natural Wood Stains. Polishing Stained Surfaces.
+
+XVI. THE CARPENTER AND THE ARCHITECT Page 152
+
+XVII. USEFUL ARTICLES TO MAKE Page 155
+
+Common Bench. Its Proportions. Square Top Stool. Folding Blacking Box.
+Convenient Easel. Hanging Book-rack. Sad Iron Holder. Bookcase.
+Wood-box. Parallel Bars for Boys' Use. Mission Writing Desk. Screen
+Frame. Mission Chair. Grandfather's Clock. Knockdown and Adjustable
+Bookcase. Coal Scuttle Frame or Case. Mission Arm Chair. Dog-house.
+Settle, With Convenient Shelves. Towel Rack. Sofa Framework.
+
+XVIII. SPECIAL TOOLS AND THEIR USES Page 170
+
+Bit and Level Adjuster. Miter Boxes. Swivel Arm Uprights. Movable Stops.
+Angle Dividers. "Odd Job" Tool. Bit Braces. Ratchet Mechanism.
+Interlocking Jaws. Steel Frame Breast Drills. Horizontal Boring. 3-Jaw
+Chuck. Planes. Rabbeting, Beading and Matching. Cutter Adjustment. Depth
+Gage. Slitting Gage. Dovetail Tongue and Groove Plane. Router Planes.
+Bottom Surfacing. Door Trim Plane.
+
+XIX. ROOFING TRUSSES Page 185
+
+Characteristics of Trusses. Tie Beams. Ornamentation. Objects of Beams,
+Struts and Braces. Utilizing Space. Types of Structures. Gambrel Roof.
+Purlin Roof. The Princess Truss. Arched, or Cambered, Tie Beam Truss.
+The Mansard. Scissors Beam. Braced Collar Beam. Rib and Collar Truss.
+Hammer-beam Truss. Flying Buttress.
+
+XX. ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF JOINTS Page 197
+
+Definition and Uses. Different Types. Bridle Joint. Spur Tenon. Saddle
+Joints. Joggle Joint. Heel Joints. Stub Tenon. Tusk Tenon. Double Tusk
+Tenon. Cogged Joints. Anchor Joints. Deep Anchor Joints.
+
+XXI. SOME MISTAKES AND A LITTLE ADVICE IN CARPENTRY Page 205
+
+Lessons From Mistakes. Planing the Edge of a Board Straight. Planing it
+Square. Planing to Dimensions. Holding the Plane. How it Should be Run
+on the Edge of the Board. Truing With the Weight of the Plane. A Steady
+Grasp. In Smoothing Boards. Correct Sand-papering. Gluing. Removing
+Surplus Glue. Work Edge and Work Side. The Scribing and Marking Line.
+Finishing Surfaces. Sawing a Board Square. The Stroke of the Saw. Sawing
+Out of True.
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+FIG.
+
+1. A typical work bench                                     Frontispiece
+                                                                    PAGE
+2. Hatchet                                                             6
+3. Hammer                                                              7
+4. Common saw                                                          7
+5. Plane                                                               8
+6. Jack plane bit                                                      9
+6a. Fore plane bit                                                    10
+7. Firmer chisel                                                      11
+7a. Mortising chisel                                                  12
+8. Trestle                                                            12
+9. Miter box                                                          13
+10. Incorrect saw setting                                             17
+10a. Correct saw setting                                              17
+11. Saw setting device                                                17
+12. Filing angle                                                      18
+13. Rip saw                                                           19
+14. Cross cut                                                         20
+15. Filing clamp                                                      21
+16. Grindstone                                                        23
+17. Correct manner of holding tool                                    24
+18. Incorrect way of holding tool                                     24
+19. Gage                                                              26
+20. Starting a saw                                                    31
+21. Wrong sawing angle                                                32
+22. Correct sawing angle                                              33
+23. Thrust cut                                                        34
+24. Chinese saw                                                       34
+25. Moving angle for plane                                            35
+26. Holding gage                                                      36
+27. Laying out table leg                                              43
+28. The first marking line                                            44
+29. Scribing mortise line                                             44
+30. The corner mortises                                               44
+31. The side rail                                                     46
+32. Scribing the tenons                                               46
+33. Cross scoring                                                     47
+34. The tenon                                                         47
+35. Finishing the tenon                                               47
+36. The tenon and mortise                                             48
+37. The drawer support                                                48
+38. Drawer cleats                                                     49
+39. Assembled table frame                                             50
+40. The top                                                           51
+41. The drawer                                                        52
+42. Bevel joint                                                       53
+43. Miter joint                                                       53
+44. Picture frame joint                                               54
+45. Initial marks for dovetails                                       55
+46. End marks for dovetails                                           55
+47. Angles for dovetails                                              55
+48. Cutting out recesses for dovetails                                56
+49. Tongues for dovetails                                             56
+50. Recess for dovetails                                              56
+51. Determining angles                                                61
+52. Marking degrees                                                   63
+53. Angles from base lines                                            63
+54. Stepping off spaces                                               63
+55. Arcade                                                            67
+56. Arch                                                              67
+57. Buttress                                                          67
+58. Chamfer                                                           67
+59. Cooter                                                            67
+60. Crenelated                                                        67
+61. Crosses                                                           67
+62. Curb roof                                                         67
+63. Cupola                                                            67
+64. Console                                                           67
+65. Corbels                                                           67
+66. Dormer                                                            67
+67. Dowel                                                             67
+68. Drips                                                             67
+69. Detail                                                            68
+70. Extrados                                                          68
+71. Engrailed                                                         68
+72. Facet                                                             68
+73. Fret                                                              68
+74. Frontal                                                           68
+75. Frustrums                                                         68
+76. Fylfat                                                            68
+77. Gambrel                                                           68
+78. Gargoyle                                                          68
+79. Gudgeon                                                           68
+80. Guilloche                                                         68
+81. Half timbered                                                     68
+82. Hammer beam                                                       68
+83. Haunches                                                          69
+84. Header                                                            69
+85. Hip roof                                                          69
+86. Hood molding                                                      69
+87. Inclave                                                           69
+88. Interlacing arch                                                  69
+89. Invected                                                          69
+90. Inverted arch                                                     69
+91. Keystone                                                          69
+92. King post                                                         69
+93. Label                                                             69
+94. Louver                                                            69
+95. Lintel                                                            70
+96. Lug                                                               70
+97. M-roof                                                            70
+98. Mansard roof                                                      70
+99. Newel post                                                        70
+100. Parquetry                                                        70
+101. Peen, or pein                                                    70
+102. Pendant                                                          70
+103. Pentastyle                                                       70
+104. Pedestal                                                         70
+105. Pintle                                                           70
+106. Portico                                                          70
+107. Plate                                                            70
+108. Queen post                                                       71
+109. Quirk molding                                                    71
+110. Re-entering                                                      71
+111. Rafter                                                           71
+112. Scarfing                                                         71
+113. Scotia molding                                                   71
+114. Sill                                                             71
+115. Skew back                                                        71
+116. Spandrel                                                         71
+117. Strut                                                            71
+118. Stud, studding                                                   71
+119. Stile                                                            72
+120. Trammel                                                          72
+121. Turret                                                           72
+122. Transom                                                          72
+123. Valley roof                                                      72
+125. Plain line                                                       74
+126. Concave shading                                                  74
+127. Convex shading                                                   74
+128. Wave shading                                                     75
+129. Light past concave surface                                       75
+130. Light past convex surface                                        75
+131. Plain surface                                                    75
+132. Outlines                                                         76
+133. Raised surface                                                   77
+134. Depressed surface                                                77
+135. Shading raised surfaces                                          78
+136. Shading depressed surfaces                                       78
+137. Plain cubical outline                                            79
+138. Indicating cube                                                  79
+139. Confused lines                                                   79
+140. Heavy horizontal lines                                           80
+141. Heavy vertical lines                                             80
+142. Isometric cube                                                   81
+143. Cube and circle                                                  81
+144. Flattened perspective                                            82
+145. Angles in isometric cube                                         83
+146. Plain circle                                                     84
+147. Sphere shading                                                   84
+148. Drawing regular ellipse                                          86
+149. Drawing irregular ellipse                                        88
+150. Drawing spiral                                                   89
+151. Abscissa                                                         90
+152. Angle                                                            91
+153. Apothegm                                                         91
+154. Apsides, or apsis                                                91
+155. Chord                                                            91
+156. Convolute                                                        91
+157. Conic sections                                                   91
+158. Conoid                                                           91
+159. Cycloid                                                          91
+160. Ellipsoid                                                        91
+161. Epicycloid                                                       91
+162. Evolute                                                          91
+163. Focus                                                            91
+164. Gnome                                                            91
+165. Hyperbola                                                        91
+167. Hypothenuse                                                      91
+168. Incidence                                                        92
+169. Isosceles triangle                                               92
+170. Parabola                                                         92
+171. Parallelogram                                                    92
+172. Pelecoid                                                         92
+173. Polygons                                                         92
+174. Pyramid                                                          92
+175. Quadrant                                                         92
+176. Quadrilateral                                                    92
+177. Rhomb                                                            92
+178. Sector                                                           92
+179. Segment                                                          92
+180. Sinusoid                                                         92
+181. Tangent                                                          92
+182. Tetrahedron                                                      92
+183. Vertex                                                           92
+184. Volute                                                           92
+185. Band (molding)                                                   94
+186. Astragal (molding)                                               94
+187. Cavetto (molding)                                                94
+188. Ovolo (molding)                                                  94
+189. Torus (molding)                                                  95
+190. Apophyges (molding)                                              95
+191. Cymatium (molding)                                               95
+192. Ogee-recta (molding)                                             95
+193. Ogee-reversa (molding)                                           96
+194. Bead (molding)                                                   96
+195. Casement (molding)                                               97
+196. The Doric column                                                 98
+197. Front of cabinet                                                100
+198. Facia board                                                     100
+199. Molding on facia board                                          100
+200. Ogee-recta on facia                                             101
+201. Trim below facia                                                101
+202. Trim below ogee                                                 101
+203. Trim above base                                                 102
+204. Trim above base molding                                         102
+205. Shadows cast by plain moldings                                  103
+206. Mortise and tenon joint                                         105
+207. Incorrect mortising                                             105
+208. Steps in mortising                                              106
+209. The shoulders of tenons                                         108
+210. Lap-and-butt joint                                              108
+211. Panel joint                                                     109
+212. Scarfing                                                        109
+213. Tongue and groove                                               110
+214. Beading                                                         110
+215. Outside beading finish                                          110
+216. Edge beading                                                    111
+217. Corner beading                                                  111
+218. Point beading                                                   111
+219. Round edge beading                                              111
+220. Beading and molding                                             111
+221. First square house plan                                         117
+222. First rectangular house plan                                    118
+223. Square house to scale                                           119
+224. Rectangular house to scale                                      120
+225. Front elevation of square house                                 121
+226. Elevation of rectangular house                                  121
+227. Illustrating one-third pitch                                    122
+228. Illustrating half pitch                                         122
+229. The sills at the corner                                         123
+230. The joist and sills                                             123
+231. The plate splice                                                124
+232. The rafters                                                     125
+233. The gutter                                                      126
+234. The cornice                                                     127
+234a. The finish without gutter                                      128
+235. Common truss                                                    130
+236. Upright truss                                                   131
+237. Vertical upright truss                                          131
+238. Warren girder                                                   132
+239. Extended Warren girder                                          132
+240. Bowstring girder                                                132
+241. Frame details of wood turning lathe                             139
+242. Tail stock details                                              140
+243. Tool rest details                                               142
+244. Section of mandrel                                              143
+245. View of turning lathe                                           145
+246. Turning tools                                                   146
+247. Bench                                                           155
+248. Stool                                                           156
+249. Blacking box                                                    156
+250. Easel                                                           157
+251. Hanging book rack                                               158
+252. Book shelf                                                      159
+253. Wood box                                                        160
+254. Horizontal bars                                                 161
+255. Mission desk                                                    161
+256. Screen frame                                                    162
+257. Mission chair                                                   162
+258. Grandfather's clock                                             163
+259. Frame for bookcase                                              164
+260. Coal scuttle case                                               165
+261. Mission arm chair                                               165
+262. Dog house                                                       168
+263. Settle                                                          167
+264. Towel rack                                                      168
+265. Mission sofa frame                                              168
+266. Bit and square level                                            170
+267. Metal miter box                                                 171
+268. Parts of metal miter box                                        172
+269. Angle dividers                                                  173
+270. An "odd job" tool                                               174
+271. Universal-jaw brace                                             176
+272. Taper-shank bit brace                                           176
+273. Alligator-jaw brace                                             176
+274. Steel frame breast drill                                        177
+275. Steel frame breast drill                                        177
+276. Steel frame breast drill                                        177
+277. Details of metal plane                                          179
+278. Rabbet, matching and dado plane                                 180
+279. Molding and beading plane                                       181
+280. Dovetail tongue and groove plane                                182
+281. Router planes                                                   183
+282. Router planes                                                   183
+283. Door trim plane                                                 184
+284. Gambrel roof                                                    187
+285. Purlin roof                                                     188
+286. Princess truss                                                  189
+287. Arched, or cambered, tie beam                                   190
+288. The mansard                                                     191
+289. Scissors beam                                                   192
+290. Braced collar beam                                              193
+291. Rib and collar truss                                            194
+291-1/2. Hammer-beam truss                                           195
+292. Bridle joints                                                   197
+293. Spur tenons                                                     198
+294. Saddle joints                                                   198
+295. Joggle joints                                                   199
+296. Framing joints                                                  199
+297. Heel joints                                                     200
+298. Stub tenon                                                      200
+299. Tusk tenon                                                      201
+300. Double tusk tenon                                               202
+301. Cogged joints                                                   203
+302. Anchor joint                                                    203
+303. Deep anchor joint                                               204
+
+
+
+
+CARPENTRY
+
+A PRACTICAL COURSE, WHICH TELLS IN CONCISE AND SIMPLE FORM "HOW TO DO
+IT"
+
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTORY
+
+
+Carpentry is the oldest of the arts, and it has been said that the
+knowledge necessary to make a good carpenter fits one for almost any
+trade or occupation requiring the use of tools. The hatchet, the saw,
+and the plane are the three primal implements of the carpenter. The
+value is in knowing how to use them.
+
+The institution of Manual Training Schools everywhere is but a tardy
+recognition of the value of systematic training in the use of tools.
+There is no branch of industry which needs such diversification, in
+order to become efficient.
+
+The skill of the blacksmith is centered in his ability to forge, to
+weld, and to temper; that of the machinist depends upon the callipered
+dimensions of his product; the painter in his taste for harmony; the
+mason on his ability to cut the stone accurately; and the plasterer to
+produce a uniform surface. But the carpenter must, in order to be an
+expert, combine all these qualifications, in a greater or less degree,
+and his vocation may justly be called the King of Trades. Rightly,
+therefore, it should be cultivated in order to learn the essentials of
+manual training work.
+
+But there is another feature of the utmost importance and value, which
+is generally overlooked, and on which there is placed too little stress,
+even in many of the manual training schools. The training of the mind
+has been systematized so as to bring into operation the energies of all
+the brain cells. Manual training to be efficient should, at the same
+time, be directed into such channels as will most widely stimulate the
+muscular development of the child, while at the same time cultivating
+his mind.
+
+There is no trade which offers such a useful field as carpentry. It may
+be said that the various manual operations bring into play every muscle
+of the body.
+
+The saw, the plane, the hammer, the chisel, each requires its special
+muscular energy. The carpenter, unlike the blacksmith, does not put all
+his brawn into his shoulders, nor develop his torso at the expense of
+his other muscles, like the mason. It may also be said that, unlike most
+other occupations, the carpenter has both out-of-door and indoor
+exercise, so that he is at all times able to follow his occupation,
+summer or winter, rain or shine; and this also further illustrates the
+value of this branch of endeavor as a healthful recreation.
+
+It is the aim of this book to teach boys the primary requirements--not
+to generalize--but to show how to prepare and how to do the work; what
+tools and materials to use; and in what manner the tools used may be
+made most serviceable, and used most advantageously.
+
+It would be of no value to describe and illustrate how a bracket is
+made; or how the framework of a structure is provided with mortises and
+tenons in order to hold it together. The boy must have something as a
+base which will enable him to design his own creations, and not be an
+imitator; his mind must develop with his body. It is the principal aim
+of this book to give the boy something to think about while he is
+learning how to bring each individual part to perfection.
+
+If the boy understands that there is a principle underlying each
+structural device; that there is a reason for making certain things a
+definite way, he is imbued with an incentive which will sooner or later
+develop into an initiative of his own.
+
+It is this phase in the artisan's life which determines whether he will
+be merely a machine or an intelligent organism.
+
+This work puts together in a simple, concise form, not only the
+fundamentals which every mechanic should learn to know, but it defines
+every structural form used in this art, and illustrates all terms it is
+necessary to use in the employment of carpentry. A full chapter is
+devoted to drawings practically applied. All terms are diagrammed and
+defined, so that the mind may readily grasp the ideas involved.
+
+Finally, it will be observed that every illustration has been specially
+drawn for this book. We have not adopted the plan usually followed in
+books of this class, of taking stock illustrations of manufacturers'
+tools and devices, nor have we thought it advisable to take a picture of
+a tool or a machine and then write a description around it. We have
+illustrated the book to explain "_how to do the work_"; also, to teach
+the boy what the trade requires, and to give him the means whereby he
+may readily find the form of every device, tool, and structure used in
+the art.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+TOOLS AND THEIR USES
+
+
+KNOWLEDGE OF TOOLS.--A knowledge of tools and their uses is the first
+and most important requirement. The saw, the plane, the hatchet and the
+hammer are well known to all boys; but how to use them, and where to use
+the different varieties of each kind of tool, must be learned, because
+each tool grew out of some particular requirement in the art. These uses
+will now be explained.
+
+A FULL KIT OF TOOLS.--A kit of tools necessary for doing any plain work
+should embrace the following:
+
+
+1. A Hatchet.
+2. A Claw Hammer--two sizes preferred.
+3. Cross-cut Saw, 20 inches long.
+4. Rip Saw, 24 inches long.
+5. Wooden Mallet.
+ 6. Jack Plane.
+7. Smoothing Plane.
+8. Compass Saw.
+9. Brace.
+10. Bits for Brace, ranging from 1/4 inch to 1 inch diameter.
+11. Several small Gimlets.
+12. Square.
+13. Compass.
+14. Draw-knife.
+15. Rule.
+16. Two Gages.
+17. Set of Firmer Chisels.
+18. Two Mortising Chisels.
+19. Small Back Saw.
+20. Saw Clamps.
+21. Miter Box.
+22. Bevel Square.
+23. Small Hand Square.
+24. Pliers.
+25. Pair of Awls.
+26. Hand Clamps.
+27. Set Files.
+28. Glue Pot.
+29. Oil Stone.
+30. Grindstone.
+31. Trusses.
+32. Work Bench.
+33. Plumb Bob.
+34. Spirit Level.
+
+
+THE HATCHET.--The hatchet should be ground with a bevel on each side,
+and not on one side only, as is customary with a plasterer's lathing
+hatchet, because the blade of the hatchet is used for trimming off the
+edges of boards. Unless ground off with a bevel on both sides it cannot
+be controlled to cut accurately. A light hatchet is preferable to a
+heavy one. It should never be used for nailing purposes, except in
+emergencies. The pole of the hammer--that part which is generally used
+to strike the nail with--is required in order to properly balance the
+hatchet when used for trimming material.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 2._]
+
+THE CLAW HAMMER.--This is the proper tool for driving nails and for
+drawing them out. Habits should be formed with the beginner, which will
+be of great service as the education proceeds.
+
+One of these habits is to persist in using the tool for the purpose for
+which it was made. The expert workman (and he becomes expert because of
+it) makes the hammer do its proper work; and so with every other tool.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 3._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 4._]
+
+ABOUT SAWS.--There are four well-defined kinds. First, a long, flat saw,
+for cross-cutting. Second, a slightly larger saw for ripping purposes.
+Third, a back saw, with a rib on the rear edge to hold the blade rigid,
+used for making tenons; and, fourth, a compass or keyhole saw.
+
+CROSS-CUTS.--The difference between a cross-cut and a rip saw is, that
+in the latter the teeth have less pitch and are usually larger than in
+the cross-cut saw. The illustrations (Figs. 13 and 14) will distinctly
+show the difference in the teeth. When a cross-cut saw is used for
+ripping along the grain of the wood, the teeth, if disposed at an angle,
+will ride over the grain or fiber of the wood, and refuse to take hold
+or bite into the wood. On the other hand, if the rip saw is used for
+cross-cutting purposes, the saw kerf will be rough and jagged.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 5._]
+
+The back saw is used almost exclusively for making tenons, and has
+uniformly fine teeth so as to give a smooth finish to the wood.
+
+PLANES.--The plane may be called the aesthetic tool in the carpenter's
+kit. It is the most difficult tool to handle and the most satisfactory
+when thoroughly mastered. How to care for and handle it will be
+referred to in a subsequent chapter. We are now concerned with its uses
+only. Each complete kit must have three distinct planes, namely, the
+jack plane, which is for taking off the rough saw print surface of the
+board. The short smoothing plane, which is designed to even up the
+inequalities made by the jack plane; and the long finishing plane, or
+fore plane, which is intended to straighten the edges of boards or of
+finished surfaces.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 6. Jack plane bit._]
+
+THE JACK PLANE.--This plane has the cutting edge of its blade ground so
+it is slightly curved (Fig. 6), because, as the bit must be driven out
+so it will take a deep bite into the rough surface of the wood, the
+curved cutting edge prevents the corner edges of the bit from digging
+into the planed surface.
+
+On the other hand, the bits of the smoothing and finishing planes are
+ground straight across their cutting edges. In the foregoing we have not
+enumerated the different special planes, designed to make beads,
+rabbets, tongues and grooves, but each type is fully illustrated, so
+that an idea may be obtained of their characteristics. (Fig. 6_a_).
+
+GAGES.--One of the most valuable tools in the whole set is the gage, but
+it is, in fact, the least known. This is simply a straight bar, with a
+sharpened point projecting out on one side near its end, and having an
+adjustable sliding head or cheekpiece. This tool is indispensable in
+making mortises or tenons, because the sharpened steel point which
+projects from the side of the bar, serves to outline and define the
+edges of the mortises or tenons, so that the cutting line may readily be
+followed.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 6a. Fore-plane bit._]
+
+This is the most difficult tool to hold when in use, but that will be
+fully explained under its proper head. Each kit should have two, as in
+making mortises and tenons one gage is required for each side of the
+mortise or tenon.
+
+CHISELS.--Two kinds are found in every kit--one called the firmer (Fig.
+7) and the mortising chisel. The firmer has a flat body or blade, and a
+full set ranges in width from three-eighths of an inch to two inches.
+The sizes most desirable and useful are the one-half inch, the inch and
+the inch-and-a-half widths. These are used for trimming out cross grains
+or rebates for setting door locks and hinges and for numerous other uses
+where sharp-end tools are required.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 7._]
+
+THE MORTISING CHISEL.--The mortising chisel (Fig. 7_a_), on the other
+hand, is very narrow and thick, with a long taper down to the cutting
+edge. They are usually in such widths as to make them stock sizes for
+mortises. Never, under any circumstances, use a hammer or hatchet for
+driving chisels. The mallet should be used invariably.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 7a._]
+
+TRUSSES.--There should be at least two, each three feet in length and
+twenty inches in height.
+
+SAW CLAMPS.--These are necessary adjuncts, and should be made of hard
+wood, perfectly straight and just wide enough to take in the narrow
+back saw. The illustration shows their shape and form.
+
+THE GRINDSTONES.--It is better to get a first-class stone, which may be
+small and rigged up with a foot treadle. A soft, fine-grained stone is
+most serviceable, and it should have a water tray, and never be used
+excepting with plenty of water.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 8._]
+
+AN OIL STONE is as essential as a grindstone. For giving a good edge to
+tools it is superior to a water stone. It should be provided with a top,
+and covered when not in use, to keep out dust and grit. These are the
+little things that contribute to success and should be carefully
+observed.
+
+THE MITER BOX.--This should be 14 inches long and 3" by 3" inside, made
+of hard wood 3/4" thick. The sides should be nailed to the bottom, as
+shown.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 9._]
+
+THE WORK BENCH.--In its proper place we show in detail the most approved
+form of work bench, fitted with a tool rack to hold all the tools,
+conveniently arranged. In this chapter we are more particularly
+concerned with the uses of tools than their construction; and we impress
+on boys the necessity of having a place for everything, and that every
+tool should be kept in its proper place. A carpenter's shop filled with
+chips, shavings and other refuse is not a desirable place for the
+indiscriminate placing of tools. If correct habits are formed at the
+outset, by carefully putting each tool in its place after using, it will
+save many an hour of useless hunting and annoyance.
+
+One of the most important things in laying off work, for instance, on
+trusses, is the disposition of the saw and square. Our illustration
+shows each truss with side cleats, which will permit the user
+temporarily to deposit the saw or the square so that it will be handy,
+and at the same time be out of the way of the work and prevent either of
+the tools from being thrown to the floor.
+
+In the same way, and for the same purpose, the work bench has temporary
+holding cleats at the end and a shelf in front, which are particularly
+desirable, because either a saw or a square is an encumbrance on a work
+bench while the work is being assembled, and tools of this kind should
+not be laid flat on a working surface, nor should they be stood in a
+leaning position against a truss or work bench.
+
+_Strictly observe these fundamentals_--Never place a tool with the
+cutting edge toward you. Always have the racks or receptacles so made
+that the handle may be seized. Don't put a tool with an exposed cutting
+edge above or below another tool in such a manner that the hand or the
+tool you are handling can come into contact with the edge. Never keep
+the nail or screw boxes above the work bench. They should always be kept
+to one side, to prevent, as much as possible, the bench from becoming a
+depository for nails. Keep the top of the bench free from tools. Always
+keep the planes on a narrow sub-shelf at the rear of the bench.
+
+If order was Heaven's first law, it is a good principle to apply it in a
+workman's shop, and its observance will form a habit that will soon
+become a pleasure to follow.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+HOW TO GRIND AND SHARPEN TOOLS
+
+
+CARE OF TOOLS.--Dull tools indicate the character of the workman. In an
+experience of over forty years, I have never known a good workman to
+keep poorly sharpened tools. While it is true that the capacity to
+sharpen tools can be acquired only by practice, correct habits at the
+start will materially assist. In doing this part of the artisan's work,
+it should be understood that there is a right as well as a wrong way.
+
+There is a principle involved in the sharpening of every tool, which
+should be observed. A skilled artisan knows that there is a particular
+way to grind the bits of each plane; that the manner of setting a saw
+not only contributes to its usefulness, but will materially add to the
+life of the saw; that a chisel cannot be made to do good work unless its
+cutting edge is square and at the right working angle.
+
+FIRST REQUISITE.--A beginner should never attempt a piece of work until
+he learns how the different tools should be sharpened, or at least learn
+the principle involved. Practice will make perfect.
+
+SAWS.--As the saw is such an important part of the kit, I shall devote
+some space to the subject. _First_, as to setting the saw. The object of
+this is to make the teeth cut a wider kerf than the thickness of the
+blade, and thereby cause the saw to travel freely. A great many
+so-called "saw sets" are found in the market, many of them built on
+wrong principles, as will be shown, and these are incapable of setting
+accurately.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 10._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 10a._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 11._]
+
+HOW TO SET.--To set a saw accurately, that is, to drive out each tooth
+the same distance, is the first requirement, and the second is to bend
+out the whole tooth, and not the point only.
+
+In the illustration (Fig. 10), the point is merely bent out. This is
+wrong. The right way is shown in Fig. 10_a_. The whole tooth is bent,
+showing the correct way of setting. The reasons for avoiding one way and
+following the other are: First, that if the point projects to one side,
+each point or tooth will dig into the wood, and produce tooth prints in
+the wood, which make a roughened surface. Second, that if there are
+inequalities in setting the teeth (as is sure to be the case when only
+the points are bent out), the most exposed points will first wear out,
+and thereby cause saw deterioration. Third, a saw with the points
+sticking out causes a heavy, dragging cut, and means additional labor.
+Where the whole body of the tooth is bent, the saw will run smoothly and
+easily through the kerf and produce a smooth-cut surface.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 12._]
+
+Our illustration (Fig. 11) shows a very simple setting block, the
+principal merit of which is that any boy can make it, and in the use of
+which he cannot go wrong in setting a tooth.
+
+SIMPLE SAW SETTER.--Take a block of wood, a 4 by 4 inch studding, four
+inches long. Get a piece of metal one-half inch thick and two inches
+square. Have a blacksmith or machinist bore a quarter-inch hole through
+it in the center and countersink the upper side so it may be securely
+fastened in a mortise in the block, with its upper side flush with the
+upper surface of the block. Now, with a file, finish off one edge, going
+back for a quarter of an inch, the angle at A to be about 12 degrees.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 13. Rip-Saw._]
+
+FILING ANGLES.--In its proper place will be shown how you may easily
+calculate and measure degrees in work of this kind. Fig. 12 shows an
+approximation to the right angle. B, B (Fig. 11) should be a pair of
+wooden pegs, driven into the wooden block on each side of the metal
+piece. The teeth of the saw rest against the pegs so that they serve as
+a guide or a gage, and the teeth of the saw, therefore, project over the
+inclined part (B) of the metal block. Now, with an ordinary punch and a
+hammer, each alternate tooth may be driven down until it rests flat on
+the inclined face (A), so that it is impossible to set the teeth
+wrongly. When you glance down the end of a properly set saw, you will
+see a V-shaped channel, and if you will place a needle in the groove and
+hold the saw at an angle, the needle will travel down without falling
+out.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 14. cross-cut._]
+
+FILING.--The next step is the filing. Two things must be observed: the
+pitch and the angle. By pitch is meant the inclination of the teeth.
+Note the illustration (Fig. 13), which shows the teeth of a rip saw. You
+will see at A that the pitch of the tooth is at right angles to the edge
+of the saw. In Fig. 14, which shows the teeth of a cross-cut saw, the
+pitch (B) is about 10 degrees off. The teeth of the rip saw are also
+larger than those of the cross-cut.
+
+THE ANGLE OF FILING.--By angle is meant the cutting position of the
+file. In Fig. 12, the lines B represent the file disposed at an angle
+of 12 degrees, not more, for a rip saw. For a cross-cut the angle of the
+file may be less.
+
+SAW CLAMPS.--You may easily make a pair of saw clamps as follows:
+
+Take two pieces of hard wood, each three inches wide, seven-eighths of
+an inch thick, and equal in length to the longest saw. Bevel one edge of
+each as shown in A (Fig. 15), so as to leave an edge (B) about
+one-eighth of an inch thick. At one end cut away the corner on the side
+opposite the bevel, as shown at C, so the clamps will fit on the saw
+around the saw handle.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 15._]
+
+When the saw is placed between these clamps and held together by the
+jaws of the vise, you are ready for the filing operation. Observe the
+following _filing suggestions_: Always hold the file horizontal or
+level. In filing, use the whole length of the file. Do the work by a
+slow, firm sweep.
+
+Do not file all of the teeth along the saw at one operation, but only
+the alternate teeth, so as to keep the file at the same angle, and thus
+insure accuracy; then turn the saw and keep the file constantly at one
+angle for the alternate set of teeth.
+
+Give the same number of strokes, and exert the same pressure on the file
+for each tooth, to insure uniformity. Learn also to make a free, easy
+and straight movement back and forth with the file.
+
+THE FILE.--In order to experiment with the filing motion, take two
+blocks of wood, and try surfacing them off with a file. When you place
+the two filed surfaces together after the first trial both will be
+convex, because the hands, in filing, unless you exert the utmost
+vigilance, will assume a crank-like movement. The filing test is so to
+file the two blocks that they will fit tightly together without rolling
+on each other. Before shaping and planing machines were invented,
+machinists were compelled to plane down and accurately finish off
+surfaces with a file.
+
+In using the files on saws, however small the file may be, one hand
+should hold the handle and the other hand the tip of the file.
+
+A file brush should always be kept on hand, as it pays to preserve files
+by cleaning them.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 16._]
+
+THE GRINDSTONE.--As most of the tools require a grindstone for
+sharpening purposes, an illustration is given as a guide, with a diagram
+to show the proper grinding angle. In Fig. 16 the upright (A) of the
+frame serves as a line for the eye, so that if the point of the tool is
+brought to the sight line, and the tool (C) held level, you will always
+be able to maintain the correct angle. There is no objection to
+providing a rest, for instance, like the cross bars (D, D), but the
+artisan disdains such contrivances, and he usually avoids them for two
+reasons: First, because habit enables him to hold the tool horizontally;
+and, second, by holding the tool firmly in the hand he has better
+control of it. There is only one thing which can be said in favor of a
+rest, and that is, the stone may be kept truer circumferentially, as
+all stones have soft spots or sides.
+
+IN THE USE OF GRINDSTONES.--There are certain things to avoid and to
+observe in the use of stones. Never use one spot on the stone, however
+narrow the tool may be. Always move the tool from side to side. Never
+grind a set of narrow tools successively. If you have chisels to grind
+intersperse their grinding with plane bits, hatchet or other broad
+cutting tools, so as to prevent the stone from having grooves therein.
+Never use a tool on a stone unless you have water in the tray.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 17. Correct manner of holding tool._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 18. Incorrect way of holding tool._]
+
+CORRECT WAY TO HOLD TOOL FOR GRINDING.--There is a correct way to hold
+each tool; see illustration (Fig. 17). The left hand should grasp the
+tool firmly, near the sharp edge, as shown, and the right hand should
+loosely hold the tool behind the left hand. There is a reason for this
+which will be apparent after you grind a few tools. The firm grasp of
+the left hand gives you absolute control of the blade, so it cannot
+turn, and when inequalities appear in the grindstone, the rigid hold
+will prevent the blade from turning, and thus enable you to correct the
+inequalities of the stone. Bear in mind, the stone should be taken care
+of just as much as the tools. An experienced workman is known by the
+condition of his tools, and the grindstone is the best friend he has
+among his tools.
+
+INCORRECT WAY TO HOLD TOOL FOR GRINDING.--The incorrect way of holding a
+tool is shown in Fig. 18. This, I presume, is the universal way in which
+the novice takes the tool. It is wrong for the reason that the thumbs of
+both hands are on top of the blade, and they serve as pivots on which
+the tool may turn. The result is that the corners of the tool will dig
+into the stone to a greater or less degree, particularly if it has a
+narrow blade, like a chisel.
+
+Try the experiment of grinding a quarter-inch chisel by holding it the
+incorrect way; and then grasp it firmly with the left hand, and you will
+at once see the difference.
+
+The left hand serves both as a vise and as a fulcrum, whereas the right
+hand controls the angle of the tool.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 19._]
+
+These remarks apply to all chisels, plane bits and tools of that
+character, but it is obvious that a drawknife, which is always held by
+the handles in grinding, and hatchets, axes and the like, cannot be held
+in the same manner.
+
+A too common error is to press the tool too hard on the stone. This is
+wrong. Do not try to force the grinding.
+
+Then, again, it is the practice of some to turn the stone away from the
+tool. The stone should always move toward the tool, so as to prevent
+forming a feather edge.
+
+THE PLANE.--Indiscriminate use of planes should be avoided. Never use
+the fore or smoothing planes on rough surfaces. The jack plane is the
+proper tool for this work. On the other hand, the fore plane should
+invariably be used for straightening the edges of boards, or for fine
+surfacing purposes. As the jack plane has its bit ground with a curved
+edge, it is admirably adapted for taking off the rough saw print
+surface.
+
+THE GAGE.--The illustration (Fig. 19) shows one of the most useful tools
+in the kit. It is used to scribe the thickness of the material which is
+to be dressed down, or for imprinting the edges of tenons and mortises.
+Two should be provided in every kit, for convenience.
+
+The scribing point should be sharpened with a file, the point being
+filed to form a blade, which is at right angles to the bar, or parallel
+with the movable cheekpiece.
+
+CHISELS.--I have already pointed out, in general, how to hold tools for
+grinding purposes, this description applying particularly to chisels,
+but several additional things may be added.
+
+Always be careful to grind the chisel so its cutting edge is square with
+the side edge. This will be difficult at first, but you will see the
+value of this as you use the tool. For instance, in making rebates for
+hinges, or recesses and mortises for locks, the tool will invariably run
+crooked, unless it is ground square.
+
+The chisel should never be struck with a hammer or metal instrument, as
+the metal pole or peon of the hammer will sliver the handle. The wooden
+mallet should invariably be used.
+
+GENERAL OBSERVATIONS.--If the workman will carefully observe the
+foregoing requirements he will have taken the most important steps in
+the knowledge of the art. If he permits himself to commence work without
+having his tools in first-class condition, he is trying to do work under
+circumstances where even a skilled workman is liable to fail.
+
+Avoid making for yourself a lot of unnecessary work. The best artisans
+are those who try to find out and know which is the best tool, or how to
+make a tool for each requirement, but that tool, to be serviceable, must
+be properly made, and that means it must be rightly sharpened.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+HOW TO HOLD AND HANDLE TOOLS
+
+
+Observation may form part of each boy's lesson, but when it comes to the
+handling of tools, practice becomes the only available means of making a
+workman. Fifty years of observation would never make an observer an
+archer or a marksman, nor would it enable him to shoe a horse or to
+build a table.
+
+It sometimes happens that an apprentice will, with little observation,
+seize a saw in the proper way, or hold a plane in the correct manner,
+and, in time, the watchful boy will acquire fairly correct habits. But
+why put in useless time and labor in order to gain that which a few
+well-directed hints and examples will convey?
+
+Tools are made and are used as short cuts toward a desired end. Before
+the saw was invented the knife was used laboriously to sever and shape
+the materials. Before planes were invented a broad, flat sharpened blade
+was used to smooth off surfaces. Holes were dug out by means of small
+chisels requiring infinite patience and time. Each succeeding tool
+proclaimed a shorter and an easier way to do a certain thing. The man
+or boy who can make a new labor-saving tool is worthy of as much praise
+as the man who makes two blades of grass grow where one grew before.
+
+Let us now thoroughly understand how to hold and use each tool. That is
+half the value of the tool itself.
+
+THE SAW.--With such a commonplace article as the saw, it might be
+assumed that the ordinary apprentice would look upon instruction with a
+smile of derision.
+
+HOW TO START A SAW.--If the untried apprentice has such an opinion set
+him to work at the task of cutting off a board accurately on a line. He
+will generally make a failure of the attempt to start the saw true to
+the line, to say nothing of following the line so the kerf is true and
+square with the board.
+
+HOW TO START ON A LINE.--The first mistake he makes is to saw _on the
+line_. This should never be done. The work should be so laid out that
+the saw kerf is on the discarded side of the material. The saw should
+cut alongside the line, and _the line should not_ be obliterated in the
+cutting. Material must be left for trimming and finishing.
+
+THE FIRST STROKE.--Now, to hold the saw in starting is the difficult
+task to the beginner. Once mastered it is simple and easy. The only time
+in which the saw should be firmly held by the hand is during the
+initial cut or two; afterwards always hold the handle loosely. There is
+nothing so tiring as a tightly grasped saw. The saw has but one handle,
+hence it is designed to be used with one hand. Sometimes, with long and
+tiresome jobs, in ripping, two hands may be used, but one hand can
+always control a saw better than two hands.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 20._]
+
+THE STARTING CUT.--In order to make our understanding of the starting
+cut more explicit, we refer to Fig. 20, in which the thumb of the left
+hand is shown in the position of a guide--the end of the thumb being
+held up a sufficient distance to clear the teeth. In this position you
+need not fear that the teeth of the saw (A) will ride up over the thumb
+if you have a firm grasp of the saw handle.
+
+The first stroke should be upwardly, not downwardly. While in the act of
+drawing up the saw you can judge whether the saw blade is held by the
+thumb gage in the proper position to cut along the mark, and when the
+saw moves downwardly for the first cut, you may be assured that the cut
+is accurate, or at the right place, and the thumb should be kept in its
+position until two or three cuts are made, and the work is then fairly
+started.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 21. Wrong sawing angle._]
+
+FOR CROSS-CUTTING.--For ordinary cross-cutting the angle of the saw
+should be at 45 degrees. For ripping, the best results are found at less
+than 45 degrees, but you should avoid flattening down the angle. An
+incorrect as well as a correct angle are shown in Figs. 21 and 22.
+
+FORCING A SAW.--Forcing a saw through the wood means a crooked kerf. The
+more nearly the saw is held at right angles to a board, the greater is
+the force which must be applied to it by the hand to cause it to bite
+into the wood; and, on the other hand, if the saw is laid down too far,
+as shown in the incorrect way, it is a very difficult matter to follow
+the working line. Furthermore, it is a hard matter to control the saw so
+that it will cut squarely along the board, particularly when ripping.
+The eye must be the only guide in the disposition of the saw. Some boys
+make the saw run in one direction, and others cause it to lean the
+opposite way. After you have had some experience and know which way you
+lean, correct your habits by disposing the saw in the opposite
+direction.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 22. Right sawing angle._]
+
+THE STROKE.--Make a long stroke, using the full blade of the saw. Don't
+acquire the "jerky" style of sawing. If the handle is held loosely, and
+the saw is at the proper angle, the weight of the saw, together with the
+placement of the handle on the saw blade, will be found sufficient to
+make the requisite cut at each stroke.
+
+You will notice that the handle of every saw is mounted nearest the back
+edge. (See Fig. 23.) The reason for so mounting it is, that as the
+cutting stroke is downward, the line of thrust is above the tooth line,
+and as this line is at an angle to the line of thrust, the tendency is
+to cause the saw teeth to dig into the wood.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 23._]
+
+[Illustration: CHINESE SAW. _Fig. 24._]
+
+THE CHINESE SAW.--This saw is designed to saw with an upward cut, and
+the illustration (Fig. 24) shows the handle jutting out below the tooth
+line, in order to cause the teeth to dig into the material as the handle
+is drawn upwardly. Reference is made to these features to impress upon
+beginners the value of observation, and to demonstrate the reason for
+making each tool a particular way.
+
+THINGS TO AVOID.--Do not oscillate the saw as you draw it back and
+forth. This is unnecessary work, and shows impatience in the use of the
+tool. There is such an infinite variety of use for the different tools
+that there is no necessity for rendering the work of any particular
+tool, or tools, burdensome. Each in its proper place, handled
+intelligently, will become a pleasure, as well as a source of profit.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 25._]
+
+THE PLANE.--The jack plane and the fore plane are handled with both
+hands, and the smoothing plane with one hand, but only when used for
+dressing the ends of boards. For other uses both hands are required.
+
+ANGLES FOR HOLDING PLANES.--Before commencing to plane a board, always
+observe the direction in which the grain of the wood runs. This
+precaution will save many a piece of material, because if the jack plane
+is set deep it will run into the wood and cause a rough surface, which
+can be cured only by an extra amount of labor in planing down.
+
+Never move the jack plane or the smoothing plane over the work so that
+the body of the tool is in a direct line with the movement of the plane.
+It should be held at an angle of about 12 or 15 degrees (see Fig. 25).
+The fore plane should always be held straight with the movement of the
+plane, because the length of the fore plane body is used as a
+straightener for the surface to be finished.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 26._]
+
+ERRORS TO BE AVOIDED.--Never draw back the plane with the bit resting on
+the board. This simply wears out the tool, and if there should be any
+grit on the board it will be sure to ruin the bit. This applies
+particularly to the jack plane, but is bad practice with the others as
+well.
+
+A work bench is a receptacle for all kinds of dirt. Provide a special
+ledge or shelf for the planes, and be sure to put each plane there
+immediately after using.
+
+THE GAGE.--A man, who professed to be a carpenter, once told me that he
+never used a gage because he could not make it run straight. A few
+moments' practice convinced him that he never knew how to hold it. The
+illustration shows how properly to hold it, and the reason why it should
+so be held follows.
+
+You will observe (Fig. 26) that the hand grasps the stem of the gage
+behind the cheekpiece, so that the thumb is free to press against the
+side of the stem to the front of the cheekpiece.
+
+HOLDING THE GAGE.--The hand serves to keep the cheekpiece against the
+board, while the thumb pushes the gage forward. The hand must not, under
+any circumstances, be used to move the gage along. In fact, it is not
+necessary for the fingers to be clasped around the gage stem, if the
+forefinger presses tightly against the cheekpiece, since the thumb
+performs all the operation of moving it along. Naturally, the hand
+grasps the tool in order to hold it down against the material, and to
+bring it back for a new cut.
+
+THE DRAW-KNIFE.--It is difficult for the apprentice to become accustomed
+to handle this useful tool. It is much more serviceable than a hatchet
+for trimming and paring work. In applying it to the wood always have the
+tool at an angle with the board, so as to make a slicing cut. This is
+specially desirable in working close to a line, otherwise there is a
+liability of cutting over it.
+
+This knife requires a firm grasp--firmness of hold is more important
+than strength in using. The flat side is used wholly for straight edges,
+and the beveled side for concave surfaces. It is the intermediate tool
+between the hatchet and the plane, as it has the characteristics of both
+those tools. It is an ugly, dangerous tool, more to be feared when lying
+around than when in use. Put it religiously on a rack which protects the
+entire cutting edge. _Keep it off the bench._
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+HOW TO DESIGN ARTICLES
+
+
+FUNDAMENTALS OF DESIGNING.--A great deal of the pleasure in making
+articles consists in creative work. This means, not that you shall
+design some entirely new article, but that its general form, or
+arrangement of parts, shall have some new or striking feature.
+
+A new design in any art does not require a change in all its parts. It
+is sufficient that there shall be an improvement, either in some
+particular point, as a matter of utility, or some change in an artistic
+direction. A manufacturer in putting out a new chair, or a plow, or an
+automobile, adds some striking characteristic. This becomes his talking
+point in selling the article.
+
+THE COMMERCIAL INSTINCT.--It is not enough that the boy should learn to
+make things correctly, and as a matter of pastime and pleasure. The
+commercial instinct is, after all, the great incentive, and should be
+given due consideration.
+
+It would be impossible, in a book of this kind, to do more than to give
+the fundamental principles necessary in designing, and to direct the
+mind solely to essentials, leaving the individual to build up for
+himself.
+
+FIRST REQUIREMENTS FOR DESIGNING.--First, then, let us see what is
+necessary to do when you intend to set about making an article. Suppose
+we fix our minds upon a table as the article selected. Three things are
+necessary to know: First, the use to which it is to be put; second, the
+dimensions; and, third, the material required.
+
+Assuming it to be the ordinary table, and the dimensions fixed, we may
+conclude to use soft pine, birch or poplar, because of ease in working.
+There are no regulation dimensions for tables, except as to height,
+which is generally uniform, and usually 30 inches. As to the length and
+width, you will be governed by the place where it is to be used.
+
+If the table top is to have dimensions, say, of 36" x 48", you may lay
+out the framework six inches less each way, thus giving you a top
+overhang of three inches, which is the usual practice.
+
+CONVENTIONAL STYLES.--Now, if you wish to depart from the conventional
+style of making a table you may make variations in the design. For
+instance, the Chippendale style means slender legs and thin top. It
+involves some fanciful designs in the curved outlines of the top, and in
+the crook of the legs. Or if, on the other hand, the Mission type is
+preferred, the overhang of the top is very narrow; the legs are straight
+and heavy, and of even size from top to bottom; and the table top is
+thick and nearly as broad as it is long. Such furniture has the
+appearance of massiveness; it is easily made and most serviceable.
+
+MISSION STYLE.--The Mission style of architecture also lends itself to
+the making of chairs and other articles of furniture. A chair is,
+probably, the most difficult piece of household furniture to make,
+because strength is required. In this type soft wood may be used, as the
+large legs and back pieces are easily provided with mortises and tenons,
+affording great rigidity when completed. In designing, therefore, you
+may see how the material itself becomes an important factor.
+
+CABINETS.--In the making of cabinets, sideboards, dressers and like
+articles, the ingenious boy will find a wonderful field for designing
+ability, because in these articles fancy alone dictates the sizes and
+the dimensions of the parts. Not so with chairs and tables. The
+imagination plays an important part even in the making of drawers, to
+say nothing of placing them with an eye to convenience and artistic
+effect.
+
+HARMONY OF PARTS.--But one thing should be observed in the making of
+furniture, namely, harmony between the parts. For instance, a table
+with thin legs and a thick top gives the appearance of a top-heavy
+structure; or the wrong use of two different styles is bad from an
+artistic standpoint; moreover, it is the height of refined education if,
+in the use of contrasting woods, they are properly blended to form a
+harmonious whole.
+
+HARMONIZING WOOD.--Imagine a chiffonier with the base of dark wood, like
+walnut, and the top of pine or maple, or a like light-colored wood. On
+the other hand, both walnut and maple, for instance, may be used in the
+same article, if they are interspersed throughout the entire article.
+The body may be made of dark wood and trimmed throughout with a light
+wood to produce a fine effect.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+HOW WORK IS LAID OUT
+
+
+CONCRETE EXAMPLES OF WORK.--A concrete example of doing any work is more
+valuable than an abstract statement. For this purpose I shall direct the
+building of a common table with a drawer in it and show how the work is
+done in detail.
+
+For convenience let us adopt the Mission style, with a top 36" x 42" and
+the height 30". The legs should be 2" x 2" and the top 1", dressed. The
+material should be of hard wood with natural finish, or, what is better
+still, a soft wood, like birch, which may be stained a dark brown, as
+the Mission style is more effective in dark than in light woods.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 27._]
+
+FRAMEWORK.--As we now know the sizes, the first thing is to build the
+framework. The legs should be dressed square and smoothed down with the
+fore plane to make them perfectly straight. Now, lay out two mortises at
+the upper end of each leg. Follow the illustrations to see how this is
+done.
+
+LAYING OUT THE LEGS.--Fig. 27 shows a leg with square cross marks (A) at
+each end. These marks indicate the finished length of the leg. You will
+also see crosses on two sides. These indicate what is called the "work
+sides." The work sides are selected because they are the finest surfaces
+on the leg.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 28._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 29._]
+
+THE LENGTH OF THE MORTISES.--Then take a small try square (Fig. 28) and
+add two cross lines (B, C) on each of the inner surfaces, the second
+line (B) one-half inch from the finish line (A), and the other line (C)
+seven inches down from the line (A). The side facing boards, hereafter
+described, are seven inches wide.
+
+When this has been done for all the legs, prepare your gage (Fig. 29) to
+make the mortise scribe, and, for convenience in illustrating, the leg
+is reversed. If the facing boards are 1" thick, and the tenons are
+intended to be 1/2" thick, the first scribe line (E) should be 1/2" from
+the work side, because the shoulder on the facing board projects out
+1/4", and the outer surface of the facing board should not be flush with
+the outer surface of the leg. The second gage line (F) should be 1" from
+the work side.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 30._]
+
+THE MORTISES.--When the mortises have been made they will appear as
+shown in the enlarged cross section of the leg (Fig. 30), the total
+depth of each mortise being 1-1/2". The depth of this mortise determines
+for us the length of the tenons on the facing boards.
+
+THE FACING BOARDS.--These boards are each 1 inch thick and 7 inches
+wide. As the top of the table is 42 inches long, and we must provide an
+overhang, say of 2 inches, we will first take off 4 inches for the
+overhang and 4 inches for the legs, so that the length of two of the
+facing boards, from shoulder to shoulder, must be 34 inches; and the
+other two facing boards 28 inches. Then, as we must add 1-1/2 inches for
+each tenon, two of the boards will be 37 inches long and two of them 31
+inches long.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 31._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 32._]
+
+The illustration (Fig. 31) shows a board marked with the cross lines (B)
+at each end for the end of the tenons, or the extreme ends of the
+boards.
+
+THE TENONS.--Do not neglect first to select the work side and the
+working edge of the board. The outer surface and the upper edges are the
+sides to work from. The cheekpiece (A) of the gage must always rest
+against the working side.
+
+The cross marks (B, C) should be made with the point of a sharp knife,
+and before the small back saw is used on the cross-cuts the lines (B),
+which indicate the shoulders, should be scored with a sharp knife, as
+shown in Fig. 33. This furnishes a guide for the saw, and makes a neat
+finish for the shoulder.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 33._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 34._]
+
+[Illusstration _Fig. 35._]
+
+TOOLS USED.--The back saw is used for cutting the tenon, and the end of
+the board appears as shown in the enlarged Fig. 34. Two things are now
+necessary to complete the tenons. On the upper or work edge of each
+board use the gage to mark off a half-inch slice, and then cut away the
+flat side of the tenon at the end, on its inner surface, so it will
+appear as shown in Fig. 35.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 36._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 37._]
+
+CHAMFERED TENONS.--The object of these chamfered or beveled tenons is to
+permit the ends to approach each other closely within the mortise, as
+shown in the assembled parts (Fig. 36).
+
+THE FRAME ASSEMBLED.--The frame is now ready to assemble, but before
+doing so a drawer opening and supports should be made. The ends of the
+supports may be mortised into the side pieces or secured by means of
+gains.
+
+Mortises and tenons are better.
+
+THE DRAWER SUPPORTS.--Take one of the side-facing boards (Fig. 37) and
+cut a rectangular opening in it. This opening should be 4 inches wide
+and 18 inches long, so placed that there is 1 inch of stock at the upper
+margin and 2 inches of stock at the lower margin of the board. At each
+lower corner make a mortise (A), so that one side of the mortise is on a
+line with the margin of the opening, and so that it extends a half inch
+past the vertical margin of the opening.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 38._]
+
+You can easily cut a gain (B) in a strip, or, as in Fig. 38, you may use
+two strips, one (C) an inch wide and a half inch thick, and on this nail
+a strip (D) along one margin. This forms the guide and rest for the
+drawer.
+
+At the upper margin of the opening is a rebate or gain (E) at each
+corner, extending down to the top line of the drawer opening, into which
+are fitted the ends of the upper cross guides.
+
+THE TABLE FRAME.--When the entire table frame is assembled it will have
+the appearance shown in Fig. 39, and it is now ready for the top.
+
+THE TOP.--The top should be made of three boards, either tongued and
+grooved, or doweled and glued together. In order to give a massive
+appearance, and also to prevent the end grain of the boards from being
+exposed, beveled strips may be used to encase the edges. These marginal
+cleats are 3/4 inch thick and 2 inches wide, and joined by beveled ends
+at the corners, as shown in Fig. 40.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 39._]
+
+THE DRAWER.--The drawer (Fig. 41) shown in cross section, has its front
+(A) provided with an overlapping flange (B).
+
+It is not our object in this chapter to show how each particular article
+is made, but simply to point out the underlying principles, and to
+illustrate how the fastening elements, the tenons and mortises, are
+formed, so that the boy will know the proper steps in their natural
+order.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 40._]
+
+HOW ANY STRUCTURE IS BUILT UP.--It should be observed that each
+structure, however small, is usually built from the base up. Just the
+same as the more pretentious buildings are erected: First, the sill,
+then the floor supports, then the posts and top plates, with their
+connecting girders, and, finally, the roof.
+
+The chapter on House Building will give more detailed illustrations of
+large structures, and how they are framed and braced. At this point we
+are more concerned in knowing how to proceed in order to lay out the
+simple structural details, and if one subject of this kind is fully
+mastered the complicated character of the article will not be difficult
+to master.
+
+OBSERVATIONS ABOUT A BOX.--As simple a little article as a box
+frequently becomes a burden to a beginner. Try it. Simply keep in mind
+one thing; each box has six sides. Now, suppose you want a box with six
+equal sides--that is, a cubical form--it is necessary to make only three
+pairs of sides; two for the ends, two for the sides and two for the top
+and bottom. Each set has dimensions different from the other sets. Both
+pieces of the set, representing the ends, are square; the side pieces
+are of the same width as the end pieces, and slightly longer; and the
+top and bottom are longer and wider than the end pieces.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 41._]
+
+A box equal in all its dimensions may be made out of six boards,
+properly cut. Make an attempt in order to see if you can get the right
+dimensions.
+
+JOINTS.--For joining together boards at right angles to each other, such
+as box corners, drawers and like articles, tenons and mortises should
+never be resorted to. In order to make fine work the joints should be
+made by means of dovetails, rabbets or rebates, or by beveling or
+mitering the ends.
+
+BEVELING AND MITERING.--There is a difference in the terms "beveling"
+and "mitering," as used in the art. In Fig. 42 the joint A is _beveled_,
+and in Fig. 43 the joint B is _mitered_, the difference being that a
+bevel is applied to an angle joint like a box corner, while a miter has
+reference to a joint such as is illustrated in Fig. 43, such as the
+corner of a picture frame.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 42._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 43._]
+
+PROPER TERMS.--It is the application of the correct terms to things that
+lays the foundation for accurate thinking and proper expressions in
+describing work. A wise man once said that the basis of true science
+consists in correct definitions.
+
+PICTURE FRAMES.--In picture frames the mitered corners may have a saw
+kerf (C) cut across the corners, as shown in Fig. 44, and a thin blade
+of hard wood driven in, the whole being glued together.
+
+DOVETAIL JOINTS.--It is in the laying out of the more complicated
+dovetail joints that the highest skill is required, because exactness is
+of more importance in this work than in any other article in joinery. In
+order to do this work accurately follow out the examples given, and you
+will soon be able to make a beautiful dovetail corner, and do it
+quickly.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 44._]
+
+PREPARING A BOX JOINT.--In order to match a box joint for the inner end
+of a table drawer, the first step is to select two work sides. One work
+side will be the edge of the board, and the other the side surface of
+the board, and on those surfaces we will put crosses, as heretofore
+suggested.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 45._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 46._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 47._]
+
+FIRST STEPS.--Now lap together the inner surfaces of these boards (Y,
+Z), so the ends are toward you, as shown in Fig. 45. Then, after
+measuring the thickness of the boards to be joined (the thinnest, if
+they are of different thicknesses), set your compasses, or dividers, for
+1/4 inch, providing the boards are 1/2 inch thick, and, commencing at
+the work edge of the board, step off and point, as at A, the whole width
+of the board, and with a square make the two cross marks (B), using the
+two first compass points (A), then skipping one, using the next two, and
+so on.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 48._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 49._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 50._]
+
+When this is done, turn up the board Z (Fig. 46), so that it is at right
+angles to the board Y, and so the outer surface of the board Z is flush
+with the end of the board X, and with a sharp knife point extend the
+lines B along with the grain of the wood on board Z, up to the cross mark
+C. This cross mark should have been previously made and is located as
+far from the end of the board Z as the thickness of the board Y.
+
+We now have the marks for the outer surface of the board Z, and the end
+marks of board Y. For the purpose of getting the angles of the end of
+the board Z and the outer side of board Y, a cross line (D, Fig. 47) is
+drawn across the board X near the end, this line being as far from the
+end as the thickness of the board Z, and a vertical line (E) is drawn
+midway between the two first cross marks (A).
+
+Now, with your compass, which, in the meantime, has not been changed,
+make a mark (F), and draw down the line (G), which will give you the
+working angle at which you may set the bevel gage. Then draw down an
+angle from each alternate cross line (A), and turn the bevel and draw
+down the lines (H). These lines should all be produced on the opposite
+side of the board, so as to assure accuracy, and to this end the edges
+of the board also should be scribed.
+
+CUTTING OUT THE SPACES.--In cutting out the intervening spaces, which
+should be done with a sharp chisel, care should be observed not to cut
+over the shoulder lines. To prevent mistakes you should put some
+distinctive mark on each part to be cut away. In this instance E, H show
+the parts to be removed, and in Fig. 48 two of the cutaway portions are
+indicated.
+
+When the end of the board Z is turned up (Fig. 49), it has merely the
+longitudinal parallel lines B. The bevel square may now be used in the
+same manner as on the side of the board Y, and the fitting angles will
+then be accurately true.
+
+This is shown in Fig. 50, in which, also, two of the cutaway parts are
+removed.
+
+TOOLS USED IN LAYING OUT TENONS AND MORTISES.--A sharp-pointed knife
+must always be used for making all marks. Never employ an awl for this
+work, as the fiber of the wood will be torn up by it. A small try square
+should always be used (not the large iron square), and this with a
+sharp-pointed compass and bevel square will enable you to turn out a
+satisfactory piece of work.
+
+The foregoing examples, carefully studied, will enable you to gather the
+principles involved in laying off any work. If you can once make a
+presentable box joint, so that all the dovetails will accurately fit
+together, you will have accomplished one of the most difficult phases of
+the work, and it is an exercise which will amply repay you, because you
+will learn to appreciate what accuracy means.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+THE USES OF THE COMPASS AND THE SQUARE
+
+
+THE SQUARE.--The square is, probably, the oldest of all tools, and that,
+together with the compass, or dividers, with which the square is always
+associated, has constituted the craftsman's emblem from the earliest
+historical times. So far as we now know, the plain flat form, which has
+at least one right angle and two or more straight edges, was the only
+form of square used by the workman. But modern uses, and the development
+of joinery and cabinet making, as well as the more advanced forms of
+machinery practice, necessitated new structural forms in the square, so
+that the bevel square, in which there is an adjustable blade set in a
+handle, was found necessary.
+
+THE TRY SQUARE.--In the use of the ordinary large metal square it is
+necessary to lay the short limb of the square on the face of the work,
+and the long limb must, therefore, rest against the work side or edge of
+the timber, so that the scribing edge of the short limb does not rest
+flat against the work. As such a tool is defective in work requiring
+accuracy, it brought into existence what is called the try square,
+which has a rectangular handle, usually of wood, into which is fitted at
+one end a metal blade, which is at right angles to the edge of the
+handle. The handle, therefore, always serves as a guide for the blade in
+scribing work, because it lies flat down on the work.
+
+THE T-SQUARE is another modification of the try square, its principal
+use being for draughting purposes.
+
+THE COMPASS.--The compass is one of the original carpenter's tools. The
+difference between _compass_ and _dividers_ is that compasses have
+adjustable pen or pencil points, whereas dividers are without adjustable
+points. Modern work has brought refinements in the character of the
+compass and dividers, so that we now have the bow-compass, which is,
+usually, a small tool, one leg of which carries a pen or pencil point,
+the two legs being secured together, usually, by a spring bow, or by a
+hinged joint with a spring attachment.
+
+PROPORTIONAL DIVIDERS.--A useful tool is called the proportional
+dividers, the legs of which are hinged together intermediate the ends,
+so that the pivotal joint is adjustable. By means of this tool the scale
+of work may be changed, although its widest field of usefulness is work
+laid off on a scale which you intend to reduce or enlarge
+proportionally.
+
+DETERMINING ANGLES.--Now, in order to lay out work the boy should know
+quickly and accurately how to determine various angles used or required
+in his work. The quickest way in which to learn this is to become
+familiar with the degree in its various relations.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 51._]
+
+DEFINITION OF DEGREE.--A degree is not a measure, as we would designate
+a foot or a pound to determine distance or quantity. It is used to
+denote a division, space, interval or position. To illustrate, look at
+the circle, Fig. 51. The four cardinal points are formed by the cross
+lines (A, B), and in each one of the quadrants thus formed the circle is
+divided into 90 degrees. Look at the radial lines (C, D), and you will
+find that the distance between these lines is different along the
+curved line (E) than along the curved line (F). The degree is,
+therefore, to indicate only the space, division or interval in the
+circle.
+
+THE MOST IMPORTANT ANGLE.--Most important for one to know at a glance is
+that of 45 degrees, because the one can the more readily calculate the
+other degrees, approximately, by having 45 degrees once fixed in the
+mind, and impressed on the visual image. With a square and a compass it
+is a comparatively easy matter accurately to step off 45 degrees, as it
+is the line C, midway between A and B, and the other degrees may be
+calculated from the line C and the cardinal lines A or B.
+
+DEGREES WITHOUT A COMPASS.--But in the absence of a compass and when you
+do not wish to step off a circle, you will in such case lay down the
+square, and mark off at the outer margin of the limbs two equal
+dimensions. Suppose we take 2 inches on each limb of the square. The
+angle thus formed by the angle square blade is 45 degrees. To find 30
+degrees allow the blade of the angle square to run from 2 inches on one
+limb to 3-1/2 inches on the other limb, and it will be found that for 15
+degrees the blade runs from 2 inches on one limb to 7-1/2 inches on the
+other limb. It would be well to fix firmly these three points, at least,
+in your mind, as they will be of the utmost value to you. It is a
+comparatively easy matter now to find 10 degrees or 25 degrees, or any
+intermediate line.
+
+WHAT DEGREES ARE CALCULATED FROM.--The question that now arises is what
+line one may use from which to calculate degrees, or at what point in
+the circle zero is placed. Degrees may be calculated either from the
+horizontal or from the vertical line. Examine Fig. 53. The working
+margin indicated by the cross mark is your base line, and in specifying
+an angle you calculate it from the work edge. Thus, the line A indicates
+an angle of 30 degrees. The dotted line is 45 degrees.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 52._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 53._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 54._]
+
+THE DIVIDERS.--The dividers are used not only for scribing circles, but
+also for stepping and dividing spaces equally. There is a knack in the
+use of the dividers, where accuracy is wanted, and where the surface is
+of wood. Unless the utmost care is observed, the spaces will be unequal,
+for the reason that the point of the dividers will sink more deeply into
+the wood at some places than at others, due to the uneven texture of the
+wood grain. It will be better to make a line lengthwise, and a cross
+line (A) for starting (see Fig. 54). You may then insert one point of
+the dividers at the initial mark (B), and describe a small arc (C). Then
+move the dividers over to the intersection of the arc (C) on the line,
+and make the next mark, and so on.
+
+Some useful hints along this same line will be found under the chapter
+on Drawing, which should be carefully studied.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+HOW THE DIFFERENT STRUCTURAL PARTS ARE DESIGNATED
+
+
+THE RIGHT NAME FOR EVERYTHING.--Always make it a point to apply the
+right term to each article or portion of a structure. Your explanation,
+to those who do know the proper technical terms, will render much easier
+a thorough understanding; and to those who do not know, your language
+will be in the nature of an education.
+
+PROPER DESIGNATIONS.--Every part in mechanism, every point, curve and
+angle has its peculiar designation. A knowledge of terms is an
+indication of thoroughness in education, and, as heretofore stated,
+becomes really the basis of art, as well as of the sciences. When you
+wish to impart information to another you must do it in terms understood
+by both.
+
+Furthermore, and for this very reason, you should study to find out how
+to explain or to define the terms. You may have a mental picture of the
+structure in your mind, but when asked to explain it you are lost.
+
+LEARNING MECHANICAL FORMS.--Suppose, for example, we take the words
+_segment_ and _sector_. Without a thorough understanding in your own
+mind you are likely to confuse these terms by taking one for the other.
+But let us assume you are to be called upon to explain a sector to some
+one who has no idea of terms and their definitions. How would you
+describe it? While it is true it is wedge-shaped, you will see by
+examining the drawing that it is not like a wedge. The sector has two
+sides running from a point like a wedge, but the large end of the sector
+is curved.
+
+If you were called upon to define a segment you might say it had one
+straight line and one curve, but this would not define it very lucidly.
+Therefore, in going over the designations given, not only fix in your
+mind the particular form, but try to remember some particular manner in
+which you can clearly express the form, the shape or the relation of the
+parts.
+
+For your guidance, therefore, I have given, as far as possible, simple
+figures to aid you in becoming acquainted with structures and their
+designations, without repeating the more simple forms which I have used
+in the preceding chapters.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 55.-Fig. 65._]
+
+55. _Arcade._--A series of arches with the columns or piers which
+support them, the spandrels above, and other parts.
+
+56. _Arch._--A curved member made up, usually, of separate wedge-shaped
+solids, A. K, Keystone; S, Springers; C, Chord, or span.
+
+57. _Buttress._--A projecting mass of masonry. A, used for resisting the
+thrust of an arch, or for ornamentation; B, a flying buttress.
+
+58. _Chamfer._--The surface A formed by cutting away the arris or angle
+formed by two faces, B, C, of material.
+
+59. _Cotter or Cotter Pin._--A pin, A, either flat, square or round,
+driven through a projecting tongue to hold it in position.
+
+60. _Crenelated._--A form of molding indented or notched, either
+regularly or irregularly.
+
+61. _Crosses._--1. Latin cross, in the Church of Rome carried before
+Bishops. 2. Double cross, carried before Cardinals and Bishops. 3.
+Triple or Papal cross. 4. St. Andrew's and St. Peter's cross. 5. Maltese
+cross. 6. St. Anthony or Egyptian cross. 7. Cross of Jerusalem. 8. A
+cross patte or ferme (head or first). 9. A cross patonce (that is,
+growing larger at the ends). 10. Greek cross.
+
+62. _Curb Roof._--A roof having a double slope, or composed on each side
+of two parts which have unequal inclinations; a gambrel roof.
+
+63. _Cupola._--So called on account of its resemblance to a cup. A roof
+having a rounded form. When on a large scale it is called a dome.
+
+_Crown Post._--See _King Post_.
+
+64. _Console._--A bracket with a projection not more than half its
+height.
+
+65. _Corbels._--A mass of brackets to support a shelf or structure.
+Largely employed in Gothic architecture.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 66.-Fig. 79._]
+
+66. _Dormer._--A window pierced in a roof and so set as to be vertical,
+while the roof slopes away from it. Also called a _Gablet_.
+
+67. _Dowel._--A pin or stud in one block, or body, designed to engage
+with holes in another body to hold them together in alignment.
+
+68. _Drip._--That part of a cornice or sill course A, or other
+horizontal member which projects beyond the rest, so as to divert water.
+
+69. _Detents._--Recesses to lock or to serve as a stop or holding place.
+
+70. _Extrados._--The exterior curve of an arch, especially the upper
+curved face A. B is the _Intrados_ or _Soffit_.
+
+71. _Engrailed._--Indented with small concave curves, as the edge of a
+bordure, bend, or the like.
+
+72. _Facet._--The narrow plain surface, as A, between the fluting of a
+column.
+
+73. _Fret, Fretwork._--Ornamental work consisting of small fillets, or
+slats, intersecting each other or bent at right angles. Openwork in
+relief, when elaborated and minute in all its parts. Hence any minute
+play of light and shade. A, Japanese fretwork. B, Green fret.
+
+74. _Frontal_, also called _Pediment_.--The triangular space, A, above a
+door or window.
+
+75. _Frustums._--That part of a solid next the base, formed by cutting
+off the top; or the part of any solid, as of a cone, pyramid, etc.,
+between two planes, which may either be parallel or inclined to each
+other.
+
+76. _Fylfat._--A rebated cross used as a secret emblem and worn as an
+ornament. It is also called _Gammadium_, and more commonly known as
+_Swastika_.
+
+77. _Gambrel Roof._--A curb roof having the same section in all its
+parts, with a lower, steeper and longer part. See _Curb Roof_ and
+distinguish difference.
+
+78. _Gargoyle._--A spout projecting from the roof gutter of a building,
+often carved grotesquely.
+
+79. _Gudgeon._--A wooden shaft, A, with a socket, B, into which is
+fitted a casting, C. The casting has a _gudgeon_, D.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 80.-Fig. 93._]
+
+80. _Guilloche._--An ornament in the form of two or more bands or
+strings twisted together or over or through each other.
+
+81. _Half Timbered._--Constructed of a timber frame, having the spaces
+filled in with masonry.
+
+82. _Hammer Beam._--A member of one description of roof truss, called
+hammer-beam truss, which is so framed as not to have a tie beam at the
+top of the wall. A is the _hammer beam_, and C the pendant post.
+
+83. _Haunches._--The parts A, A, on each side of the crown of an arch.
+Each haunch is from one-half to two-thirds of the half arch.
+
+84. _Header._--A piece of timber, A, fitted between two trimmers, B, B,
+to hold the ends of the tail beams, C, C.
+
+85. _Hip Roof._--The external angle formed by the meeting of two sloping
+sides or skirts of a roof which have their wall plates running in
+different directions.
+
+86. _Hood Molding._--A projecting molding over the head of an arch, as
+at A, forming the outer-most member of the archivolt.
+
+87. _Inclave._--The border, or borders, having a series of dovetails.
+One variation of molding or ornamentation.
+
+88. _Interlacing Arch._--Arches, usually circular, so constructed that
+their archivolts, A, intersect and seem to be interlaced.
+
+89. _Invected._--Having a border or outline composed of semicircles or
+arches, with the convexity outward. The opposite of engrailed.
+
+90. _Inverted Arch._--An arch placed with the crown downward; used in
+foundation work.
+
+91. _Keystone._--The central or topmost stone, A, of an arch, sometimes
+decorated with a carving.
+
+92. _King Post._--A member, A, of a common form of truss for roofs. It
+is strictly a tie intended to prevent the sagging of the tie beam, B, in
+the middle. If there are struts, C, supporting the rafters, D, they
+extend down to the foot of the _King Post_.
+
+93. _Label._--The name given to the projecting molding, A, around the
+top of the door opening. A form of mediaeval architecture.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 94.-Fig. 104._]
+
+94. _Louver._--The sloping boards, A, set to shed rain water outward in
+an opening of a frame, as in belfry windows.
+
+95. _Lintel._--A horizontal member. A spanning or opening of a frame,
+and designed to carry the wall above it.
+
+96. _Lug._--A. projecting piece, as A, to which anything is attached, or
+against which another part, like B, is held.
+
+97. _M-Roof._--A kind of roof formed by the junction of two common roofs
+with a valley between them, so the section resembles the letter M.
+
+98. _Mansard Roof._--A hipped curb roof, that is, a roof having on all
+sides two slopes, the lower one, A, being steeper than the upper portion
+or deck.
+
+99. _Newel Post._--The upright post at the foot of a stairway, to which
+the railing is attached.
+
+100. _Parquetry._--A species of joinery or cabinet work, consisting of
+an inlay of geometric or other patterns, generally of different colored
+woods, used particularly for floors.
+
+101. _Peen._ also _Pein._--The round, _round_-edged or hemispherical
+end, as at A, of a hammer.
+
+102. _Pendant._--A hanging ornament on roofs, ceilings, etc., and much
+used in the later styles of Gothic architecture where it is of stone.
+Imitated largely in wood and plaster work.
+
+103. _Pentastyle._--A pillar. A portico having five pillars, A, is
+called the _Pentastyle_ in temples of classical construction.
+
+104. _Pedestal._--An upright architectural member, A, right-angled in
+plan, constructionally a pier, but resembling a column, having a
+capital, shaft and base to agree with the columns in the structure.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 105.-Fig. 117._]
+
+105. _Pintle._--An upright pivot pin, or the pin of a hinge; A
+represents the _pintle_ of a rudder.
+
+106. _Portico._--A colonnade or covered structure, especially in
+classical style, of architecture, and usually at the entrance of a
+building.
+
+107. _Plate._--A horizontal timber, A, used as a top or header for
+supporting timbers, roofs and the like.
+
+108. _Queen Post._--One of two suspending posts in a roof truss, or
+other framed truss of simple form. Compare with _King Post._ A, B, tie
+beam; C, C, queen posts; D, straining piece; E, principal rafter; F,
+rafter.
+
+109. _Quirk Molding._--A small channel, deeply recessed, in proportion
+to its width, used to insulate and give relief to a convex rounded
+molding. An excellent corner post for furniture.
+
+110. _Re-entering._--The figure shows an irregular polygon (that is,
+many-sided figure) and is a re-entering polygon. The recess A is a
+re-entering angle.
+
+111. _Rafter._--Originally any rough and heavy piece of timber, but in
+modern carpentry used to designate the main roof support, as at A. See
+_Queen Post_.
+
+112. _Scarfing._--Cutting timber at an angle along its length, as the
+line A. Scarfing joints are variously made. The overlapping joints may
+be straight or recessed and provided with a key block B. When fitted
+together they are securely held by plates and bolts.
+
+113. _Scotia Molding._--A sunken molding in the base of a pillar, so
+called from the dark shadow which it casts.
+
+114. _Sill._--In carpentry the base piece, or pieces, A, on which the
+posts of a structure are set.
+
+115. _Skew-Back._--The course of masonry, such as a stone, A, with an
+inclined face, which forms the abutment for the voussoirs, B, or
+wedge-shaped stones comprising the arch.
+
+116. _Spandrel._--The irregular, triangular space, A, between the curve
+of an arch and the enclosing right angle.
+
+117. _Strut._--In general, any piece of a frame, such as a timber A, or
+a brace B, which resists pressure or thrust in the direction of its
+length.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 118.-Fig. 123._]
+
+118. _Stud, Studding._--The vertical timber or scantling, A, which is
+one of the small uprights of a building to which the boarding or
+plastering lath are nailed.
+
+119. _Stile._--The main uprights of a door, as A, A; B, B, B, rails; C,
+C, mullions; D, D, panels.
+
+_Tie Beam._--See _Queen Post_.
+
+120. _Trammel._--A very useful tool for drawing ellipses. It comprises a
+cross, A, with grooves and a bar, B, with pins, C, attached to sliding
+blocks in the grooves, and a pen or stylus, D, at the projecting end of
+the bar to scribe the ellipse.
+
+121. _Turret._--A little tower, frequently only an ornamental structure
+at one of the angles of a larger structure.
+
+122. _Transom._--A horizontal cross-bar, A, above a door or window or
+between a door and a window above it. Transom is the horizontal member,
+and if there is a vertical, like the dotted line B, it is called a
+_Mullion_. See _Stile_.
+
+123. _Valley Roof._--A place of meeting of two slopes of a roof which
+have their sides running in different directions and formed on the plan
+of a re-entrant angle.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+DRAWING AND ITS UTILITY
+
+
+A knowledge of drawing, at least so far as the fundamentals are
+concerned, is of great service to the beginner. All work, after being
+conceived in the brain, should be transferred to paper. A habit of this
+kind becomes a pleasure, and, if carried out persistently, will prove a
+source of profit. The boy with a bow pen can easily draw circles, and
+with a drawing or ruling pen he can make straight lines.
+
+REPRESENTING OBJECTS.--But let him try to represent some object, and the
+pens become useless. There is a vast difference in the use of drawing
+tools and free-hand drawing. While the boy who is able to execute
+free-hand sketches may become the better artist, still that art would
+not be of much service to him as a carpenter. First, because the use of
+tools gives precision, and this is necessary to the builder; and,
+second, because the artist deals wholly with perspectives, whereas the
+builder must execute from plane surfaces or elevations.
+
+FORMING LINES AND SHADOWS.--It is not my intention to furnish a complete
+treatise on this subject, but to do two things, one of which will be to
+show, among other features, how simple lines form objects; how shading
+becomes an effective aid; how proportions are formed; and, second, how
+to make irregular forms, and how they may readily be executed so that
+the boy may be able to grasp the ideas for all shapes and structural
+devices.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 125._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 126._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 127._]
+
+ANALYSIS OF LINE SHADING.--In the demonstration of this work I shall
+give an analysis of the simple lines formed, showing the terms used to
+designate the lines, curves, and formations, so that when any work is
+laid out the beginner will be able, with this glossary before him, to
+describe architecturally, as well as mathematically, the angles and
+curves with which he is working.
+
+HOW TO CHARACTERIZE SURFACE.--Suppose we commence simply with straight
+lines. How shall we determine the character of the surface of the
+material between the two straight lines shown in Fig. 125? Is it flat,
+rounded, or concaved? Let us see how we may treat the surface by simple
+lines so as to indicate the configuration.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 128._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 129._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 130._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 131._]
+
+CONCAVE SURFACES.--In Fig. 126 the shading lines commence at the upper
+margin, and are heaviest there, the lines gradually growing thinner and
+farther apart.
+
+CONVEX SURFACES.--In Fig. 127 the shading is very light along the upper
+margin, and heavy at the lower margin. The first shaded figure,
+therefore, represents a concaved surface, and the second figure a
+convex surface. But why? Simply for the reason that in drawings, as well
+as in nature, light is projected downwardly, hence when a beam of light
+moves past the margin of an object, the contrast at the upper part,
+where the light is most intense, is strongest.
+
+The shading of the S-shaped surface (Fig. 128) is a compound of Figs.
+126 and 127.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 132._]
+
+SHADOWS FROM A SOLID BODY.--We can understand this better by examining
+Fig. 129, which shows a vertical board, and a beam of light (A) passing
+downwardly beyond the upper margin of the board. Under these conditions
+the upper margin of the board appears darker to the vision, by contrast,
+than the lower part. It should also be understood that, in general, the
+nearer the object the lighter it is, so that as the upper edge of the
+board is farthest from the eye the heavy shading there will at least
+give the appearance of distance to that edge.
+
+But suppose that instead of having the surface of the board flat, it
+should be concaved, as in Fig. 130, it is obvious that the hollow, or
+the concaved, portion of the board must intensify the shadows or the
+darkness at the upper edge. This explains why the heavy shading in Fig.
+126 is at that upper margin.
+
+FLAT EFFECTS.--If the board is flat it may be shaded, as shown in Fig.
+131, in which the lines are all of the same thickness, and are spaced
+farther and farther apart at regularly increasing intervals.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 133._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 134._]
+
+THE DIRECTION OF LIGHT.--Now, in drawing, we must observe another thing.
+Not only does the light always come from above, but it comes also from
+the left side. I show in Fig. 132 two squares, one within the other. All
+the lines are of the same thickness. Can you determine by means of such
+a drawing what the inner square represents? Is it a block, or raised
+surface, or is it a depression?
+
+RAISED SURFACES.--Fig. 133 shows it in the form of a block, simply by
+thickening the lower and the right-hand lines.
+
+DEPRESSED SURFACES.--If, by chance, you should make the upper and the
+left-hand lines heavy, as in Fig. 134, it would, undoubtedly, appear
+depressed, and would need no further explanation.
+
+FULL SHADING,--But, in order to furnish an additional example of the
+effect of shading, suppose we shade the surface of the large square, as
+shown in Fig. 135, and you will at once see that not only is the effect
+emphasized, but it all the more clearly expresses what you want to show.
+In like manner, in Fig. 136, we shade only the space within the inner
+square, and it is only too obvious how shadows give us surface
+conformation.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 135._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 136._]
+
+ILLUSTRATING CUBE SHADING.--In Fig. 137 I show merely nine lines joined
+together, all lines being of equal thickness.
+
+As thus drawn it may represent, for instance, a cube, or it may show
+simply a square base (A) with two sides (B, B) of equal dimensions.
+
+SHADING EFFECTS.--Now, to examine it properly so as to observe what the
+draughtsman wishes to express, look at Fig. 138, in which the three
+diverging lines (A, B, C) are increased in thickness, and the cube
+appears plainly. On the other hand, in Fig. 139, the thickening of the
+lines (D, E, F) shows an entirely different structure.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 137._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 138._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 139._]
+
+It must be remembered, therefore, that to show raised surfaces the
+general direction is to shade heavily the lower horizontal and the right
+vertical lines. (See Fig. 133.)
+
+HEAVY LINES.--But there is an exception to this rule. See two examples
+(Fig. 140). Here two parallel lines appear close together to form the
+edge nearest the eye. In such cases the second, or upper, line is
+heaviest. On vertical lines, as in Fig. 141, the second line from the
+right is heaviest. These examples show plain geometrical lines, and
+those from Figs. 138 to 141, inclusive, are in perspective.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 140._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 141._]
+
+PERSPECTIVE.--A perspective is a most deceptive figure, and a cube, for
+instance, may be drawn so that the various lines will differ in length,
+and also be equidistant from each other. Or all the lines may be of the
+same length and have the distances between them vary. Supposing we have
+two cubes, one located above the other, separated, say, two feet or more
+from each other. It is obvious that the lines of the two cubes will not
+be the same to a camera, because, if they were photographed, they would
+appear exactly as they are, so far as their positions are concerned, and
+not as they appear. But the cubes do appear to the eye as having six
+equal sides. The camera shows that they do not have six equal sides so
+far as measurement is concerned. You will see, therefore, that the
+position of the eye, relative to the cube, is what determines the angle,
+or $the relative$ angles of all the lines.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 142._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 143._]
+
+A TRUE PERSPECTIVE OF A CUBE.--Fig. 142 shows a true perspective--that
+is, it is true from the measurement standpoint. It is what is called an
+_isometrical_ view, or a figure in which all the lines not only are of
+equal length, but the parallel lines are all spaced apart the same
+distances from each other.
+
+ISOMETRIC CUBE.--I enclose this cube within a circle, as in Fig. 143. To
+form this cube the circle (A) is drawn and bisected with a vertical line
+(B). This forms the starting point for stepping off the six points (C)
+in the circle, using the dividers without resetting, after you have made
+the circle. Then connect each of the points (C) by straight lines (D).
+These lines are called chords. From the center draw two lines (E) at an
+angle and one line (F) vertically. These are the radial lines. You will
+see from the foregoing that the chords (D) form the outline of the
+cube--or the lines farthest from the eye, and the radial lines (E, F)
+are the nearest to the eye. In this position we are looking at the block
+at a true diagonal--that is, from a corner at one side to the extreme
+corner on the opposite side.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 144._]
+
+Let us contrast this, and particularly Fig. 142, with the cube which is
+placed higher up, viewed from the same standpoint.
+
+FLATTENED PERSPECTIVE.--Fig. 144 shows the new perspective, in which the
+three vertical lines (A, A, A) are of equal length, and the six
+angularly disposed lines (B, C) are of equal length, but shorter than
+the lines A. The only change which has been made is to shorten the
+distance across the corner from D to D, but the vertical lines (A) are
+the same in length as the corresponding lines in Fig. 143.
+Notwithstanding this change the cubes in both figures appear to be of
+the same size, as, in fact, they really are.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 145._]
+
+In forming a perspective, therefore, it would be a good idea for the boy
+to have a cube of wood always at hand, which, if laid down on a
+horizontal support, alongside, or within range of the object to be
+drawn, will serve as a guide to the perspective.
+
+TECHNICAL DESIGNATIONS.--As all geometrical lines have designations, I
+have incorporated such figures as will be most serviceable to the boy,
+each figure being accompanied by its proper definition.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 146._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 147._]
+
+Before passing to that subject I can better show some of the simple
+forms by means of suitable diagrams.
+
+Referring to Fig. 145, let us direct our attention to the body (G),
+formed by the line (D) across the circle. This body is called a segment.
+A chord (D) and a curve comprise a segment.
+
+SECTOR AND SEGMENT.--Now examine the shape of the body formed by two of
+the radial lines (E, E) and that part of the circle which extends from
+one radial line to the other. The body thus formed is a sector, and it
+is made by two radiating lines and a curved line. Learn to distinguish
+readily, in your mind, the difference between the two figures.
+
+TERMS OF ANGLES.--The relation of the lines to each other, the manner in
+which they are joined together, and their comparative angles, all have
+special terms and meanings. Thus, referring to the isometric cube, in
+Fig. 145, the angle formed at the center by the lines (B, E) is
+different from the angle formed at the margin by the lines (E, F). The
+angle formed by B, E is called an exterior angle; and that formed by E,
+F is an interior angle. If you will draw a line (G) from the center to
+the circle line, so it intersects it at C, the lines B, D, G form an
+equilateral or isosceles triangle; if you draw a chord (A) from C to C,
+the lines H, E, F will form an obtuse triangle, and B, F, H a
+right-angled triangle.
+
+CIRCLES AND CURVES.--Circles, and, in fact, all forms of curved work,
+are the most difficult for beginners. The simplest figure is the circle,
+which, if it represents a raised surface, is provided with a heavy line
+on the lower right-hand side, as in Fig. 146; but the proper artistic
+expression is shown in Fig. 147, in which the lower right-hand side is
+shaded in rings running only a part of the way around, gradually
+diminishing in length, and spaced farther and farther apart as you
+approach the center, thus giving the appearance of a sphere.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 148._]
+
+IRREGULAR CURVES.--But the irregular curves require the most care to
+form properly. Let us try first the elliptical curve (Fig. 148). The
+proper thing is, first, to draw a line (A), which is called the "major
+axis." On this axis we mark for our guidance two points (B, B). With the
+dividers find a point (C) exactly midway, and draw a cross line (D).
+This is called the "minor axis." If we choose to do so we may indicate
+two points (E, E) on the minor axis, which, in this case, for
+convenience, are so spaced that the distance along the major axis,
+between B, B, is twice the length across the minor axis (D), along E, E.
+Now find one-quarter of the distance from B to C, as at F, and with a
+compass pencil make a half circle (G). If, now, you will set the compass
+point on the center mark (C), and the pencil point of the compass on B,
+and measure along the minor axis (D) on both sides of the major axis,
+you will make two points, as at H. These points are your centers for
+scribing the long sides of the ellipse. Before proceeding to strike the
+curved lines (J), draw a diagonal line (K) from H to each marking point
+(F). Do this on both sides of the major axis, and produce these lines so
+they cross the curved lines (G). When you ink in your ellipse do not
+allow the circle pen to cross the lines (K), and you will have a
+mechanical ellipse.
+
+ELLIPSES AND OVALS.--It is not necessary to measure the centering points
+(F) at certain specified distances from the intersection of the
+horizontal and vertical lines. We may take any point along the major
+axis, as shown, for instance, in Fig. 149. Let B be this point, taken at
+random. Then describe the half circle (C). We may, also, arbitrarily,
+take any point, as, for instance, D on the minor axis E, and by drawing
+the diagonal lines (F) we find marks on the circle (C), which are the
+meeting lines for the large curve (H), with the small curve (C). In this
+case we have formed an ovate or an oval form. Experience will soon make
+perfect in following out these directions.
+
+FOCAL POINTS.--The focal point of a circle is its center, and is called
+the _focus_. But an ellipse has two focal points, called _foci_,
+represented by F, F in Fig. 148, and by B, B in Fig. 149.
+
+A _produced line_ is one which extends out beyond the marking point.
+Thus in Fig. 148 that part of the line K between F and G represents the
+produced portion of line K.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 149._]
+
+SPIRALS.--There is no more difficult figure to make with a bow or a
+circle pen than a spiral. In Fig. 150 a horizontal and a vertical line
+(A, B), respectively, are drawn, and at their intersection a small
+circle (C) is formed. This now provides for four centering points for
+the circle pen, on the two lines (A, B). Intermediate these points
+indicate a second set of marks halfway between the marks on the lines.
+If you will now set the point of the compass at, say, the mark 3, and
+the pencil point of the compass at D, and make a curved mark one-eighth
+of the way around, say, to the radial line (E), then put the point of
+the compass to 4, and extend the pencil point of the compass so it
+coincides with the curved line just drawn, and then again make another
+curve, one-eighth of a complete circle, and so on around the entire
+circle of marking points, successively, you will produce a spiral,
+which, although not absolutely accurate, is the nearest approach with a
+circle pen. To make this neatly requires care and patience.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 150._]
+
+PERPENDICULAR AND VERTICAL.--A few words now as to terms. The boy is
+often confused in determining the difference between _perpendicular_ and
+_vertical_. There is a pronounced difference. Vertical means up and
+down. It is on a line in the direction a ball takes when it falls
+straight toward the center of the earth. The word _perpendicular_, as
+usually employed in astronomy, means the same thing, but in geometry, or
+in drafting, or in its use in the arts it means that a perpendicular
+line is at right angles to some other line. Suppose you put a square
+upon a roof so that one leg of the square extends up and down on the
+roof, and the other leg projects outwardly from the roof. In this case
+the projecting leg is _perpendicular_ to the roof. Never use the word
+_vertical_ in this connection.
+
+SIGNS TO INDICATE MEASUREMENTS.--The small circle ( deg.) is always used to
+designate _degree_. Thus 10 deg. means ten degrees.
+
+Feet are indicated by the single mark '; and two closely allied marks "
+are for inches. Thus five feet ten inches should be written 5' 10". A
+large cross (x) indicates the word "by," and in expressing the term six
+feet by three feet two inches, it should be written 6' x 3'2".
+
+The foregoing figures give some of the fundamentals necessary to be
+acquired, and it may be said that if the boy will learn the principles
+involved in the drawings he will have no difficulty in producing
+intelligible work; but as this is not a treatise on drawing we cannot go
+into the more refined phases of the subject.
+
+DEFINITIONS.--The following figures show the various geometrical forms
+and their definitions:
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 151.-Fig. 165._]
+
+151. _Abscissa._--The point in a curve, A, which is referred to by
+certain lines, such as B, which extend out from an axis, X, or the
+ordinate line Z.
+
+152. _Angle._--The inclosed space near the point where two lines meet.
+
+153. _Apothegm._--The perpendicular line A from the center to one side
+of a regular polygon. It represents the radial line of a polygon the
+same as the radius represents half the diameter of a circle.
+
+154. _Apsides_ or _Apsis_.--One of two points, A, A, of an orbit, oval
+or ellipse farthest from the axis, or the two small dots.
+
+155. _Chord._--A right line, as A, uniting the extremities of the arc of
+a circle or a curve.
+
+156. _Convolute_ (see also _Involute_).--Usually employed to designate a
+wave or folds in opposite directions. A double involute.
+
+157. _Conic Section._--Having the form of or resembling a cone. Formed
+by cutting off a cone at any angle. See line A.
+
+158. _Conoid._--Anything that has a form resembling that of a cone.
+
+159. _Cycloid._--A curve, A, generated by a point, B, in the plane of a
+circle or wheel, C, when the wheel is rolled along a straight line.
+
+160. _Ellipsoid._--A solid, all plane sections of which are ellipses or
+circles.
+
+161. _Epicycloid._--A curve, A, traced by a point, B, in the
+circumference of a wheel, C, which rolls on the convex side of a fixed
+circle, D.
+
+162. _Evolute._--A curve, A, from which another curve, like B, on each
+of the inner ends of the lines C is made. D is a spool, and the lines C
+represent a thread at different positions. The thread has a marker, E,
+so that when the thread is wound on the spool the marker E makes the
+evolute line A.
+
+163. _Focus._--The center, A, of a circle; also one of the two centering
+points, B, of an ellipse or an oval.
+
+164. _Gnome._--The space included between the boundary lines of two
+similar parallelograms, the one within the other, with an angle in
+common.
+
+165. _Hyperbola._--A curve, A, formed by the section of a cone. If the
+cone is cut off vertically on the dotted line, A, the curve is a
+hyperbola. See _Parabola_.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 167.-Fig. 184._]
+
+167. _Hypothenuse._--The side, A, of a right-angled triangle which is
+opposite to the right angle B, C. A, regular triangle; C, irregular
+triangle.
+
+168. _Incidence._--The angle, A, which is the same angle as, for
+instance, a ray of light, B, which falls on a mirror, C. The line D is
+the perpendicular.
+
+169. _Isosceles Triangle._--Having two sides or legs, A, A, that are
+equal.
+
+170. _Parabola._--One of the conic sections formed by cutting of a cone
+so that the cut line, A, is not vertical. See _Hyperbola_ where the cut
+line is vertical.
+
+171. _Parallelogram._--A right-lined quadrilateral figure, whose
+opposite sides, A, A, or B, B, are parallel and consequently equal.
+
+172. _Pelecoid._--A figure, somewhat hatchet-shaped, bounded by a
+semicircle, A, and two inverted quadrants, and equal to a square, C.
+
+173. _Polygons._--Many-sided and many with angles.
+
+174. _Pyramid._--A solid structure generally with a square base and
+having its sides meeting in an apex or peak. The peak is the vertex.
+
+175. _Quadrant._--The quarter of a circle or of the circumference of a
+circle. A horizontal line, A, and a vertical line, B, make the four
+quadrants, like C.
+
+176. _Quadrilateral._--A plane figure having four sides, and
+consequently four angles. Any figure formed by four lines.
+
+177. _Rhomb._--An equilateral parallelogram or a quadrilateral figure
+whose sides are equal and the opposite sides, B, B, parallel.
+
+178. _Sector._--A part, A, of a circle formed by two radial lines, B, B,
+and bounded at the end by a curve.
+
+179. _Segment._--A part, A, cut from a circle by a straight line, B. The
+straight line, B, is the chord or the _segmental line_.
+
+180. _Sinusoid._--A wave-like form. It may be regular or irregular.
+
+181. _Tangent._--A line, A, running out from the curve at right angles
+from a radial line.
+
+182. _Tetrahedron._--A solid figure enclosed or bounded by four
+triangles, like A or B. A plain pyramid is bounded by five triangles.
+
+183. _Vertex._--The meeting point, A, of two or more lines.
+
+184. _Volute._--A spiral scroll, used largely in architecture, which
+forms one of the chief features of the Ionic capital.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+MOLDINGS, WITH PRACTICAL ILLUSTRATIONS IN EMBELLISHING WORK
+
+
+MOLDINGS.--The use of moldings was early resorted to by the nations of
+antiquity, and we marvel to-day at many of the beautiful designs which
+the Ph[oe]necians, the Greeks and the Romans produced. If you analyze
+the lines used you will be surprised to learn how few are the designs
+which go to make up the wonderful columns, spires, minarets and domes
+which are represented in the various types of architecture.
+
+THE BASIS OF MOLDINGS.--Suppose we take the base type of moldings, and
+see how simple they are and then, by using these forms, try to build up
+or ornament some article of furniture, as an example of their utility.
+
+THE SIMPLEST MOLDING.--In Fig. 185 we show a molding of the most
+elementary character known, being simply in the form of a band (A)
+placed below the cap. Such a molding gives to the article on which it is
+placed three distinct lines, C, D and E. If you stop to consider you
+will note that the molding, while it may add to the strength of the
+article, is primarily of service because the lines and surfaces produce
+shadows, and therefore become valuable in an artistic sense.
+
+THE ASTRAGAL.--Fig. 186 shows the ankle-bone molding, technically called
+the _Astragal_. This form is round, and properly placed produces a good
+effect, as it throws the darkest shadow of any form of molding.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 185. Band._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 186. Astragal or Ankle Bone._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 187. Cavetto. Concave._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 188. Ovolo. Quarter round._]
+
+THE CAVETTO.--Fig. 187 is the cavetto, or round type. Its proper use
+gives a delicate outline, but it is principally applied with some other
+form of molding.
+
+THE OVOLO.--Fig. 188, called the ovolo, is a quarter round molding with
+the lobe (A) projecting downwardly. It is distinguished from the
+astragal because it casts less of a shadow above and below.
+
+THE TORUS.--Fig. 189, known as the torus, is a modified form of the
+ovolo, but the lobe (A) projects out horizontally instead of downwardly.
+
+THE APOPHYGES (Pronounced apof-i-ges).--Fig. 190 is also called the
+_scape_, and is a concaved type of molding, being a hollowed curvature
+used on columns where its form causes a merging of the shaft with the
+fillet.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 189. Torus._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 190. Apophyge._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 191. Cymatium._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 192. Ogee-Recta._]
+
+THE CYMATIUM.--Fig. 191 is the cymatium (derived from the word cyme),
+meaning wave-like. This form must be in two curves, one inwardly and one
+outwardly.
+
+THE OGEE.--Fig. 192, called the ogee, is the most useful of all
+moldings, for two reasons: First, it may have the concaved surface
+uppermost, in which form it is called ogee recta--that is, right side
+up; or it may be inverted, as in Fig. 193, with the concaved surface
+below, and is then called ogee reversa. Contrast these two views and you
+will note what a difference the mere inversion of the strip makes in the
+appearance. Second, because the ogee has in it, in a combined form, the
+outlines of nearly all the other types. The only advantage there is in
+using the other types is because you may thereby build up and space your
+work better than by using only one simple form.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 193. Ogee-Reversa._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 194. Bead or Reedy._]
+
+You will notice that the ogee is somewhat like the cymatium, the
+difference being that the concaved part is not so pronounced as in the
+ogee, and the convexed portion bulges much further than in the ogee. It
+is capable of use with other moldings, and may be reversed with just as
+good effect as the ogee.
+
+THE REEDY.--Fig. 194 represents the reedy, or the bead--that is, it is
+made up of reeds. It is a type of molding which should not be used with
+any other pronounced type of molding.
+
+THE CASEMENT (Fig. 195).--In this we have a form of molding used almost
+exclusively at the base of structures, such as columns, porticoes and
+like work.
+
+[Illustration:_ Fig. 195. Casement._]
+
+Now, before proceeding to use these moldings, let us examine a
+Roman-Doric column, one of the most famous types of architecture
+produced. We shall see how the ancients combined moldings to produce
+grace, lights and shadows and artistic effects.
+
+THE ROMAN-DORIC COLUMN.--In Fig. 196 is shown a Roman-Doric column, in
+which the cymatium, the ovolo, cavetto, astragal and the ogee are used,
+together with the fillets, bases and caps, and it is interesting to
+study this because of its beautiful proportions.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 196._]
+
+The pedestal and base are equal in vertical dimensions to the
+entablature and capital. The entablature is but slightly narrower than
+the pedestal; and the length of the column is, approximately, four times
+the height of the pedestal. The base of the shaft, while larger
+diametrically than the capital, is really shorter measured vertically.
+There is a reason for this. The eye must travel a greater distance to
+reach the upper end of the shaft, and is also at a greater angle to that
+part of the shaft, hence it appears shorter, while it is in reality
+longer. For this reason a capital must be longer or taller than the base
+of a shaft, and it is also smaller in diameter.
+
+It will be well to study the column not only on account of the wonderful
+blending of the various forms of moldings, but because it will impress
+you with a sense of proportions, and give you an idea of how simple
+lines may be employed to great advantage in all your work.
+
+LESSONS FROM THE DORIC COLUMN.--As an example, suppose we take a plain
+cabinet, and endeavor to embellish it with the types of molding
+described, and you will see to what elaboration the operation may be
+carried.
+
+APPLYING MOLDING.--Let Fig. 197 represent the front, top and bottom of
+our cabinet; and the first thing we shall do is to add a base (A) and a
+cap (B). Now, commencing at the top, suppose we utilize the simplest
+form of molding, the band.
+
+This we may make of any desired width, as shown in Fig. 198. On this
+band we can apply the ogee type (Fig. 199) right side up.
+
+But for variation we may decide to use the ogee reversed, as in Fig.
+200. This will afford us something else to think about and will call
+upon our powers of initiative in order to finish off the lower margin or
+edge of the ogee reversa.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 197._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 198._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 199._]
+
+If we take the ogee recta, as shown in Fig. 201, we may use the cavetto,
+or the ovolo (Fig. 202); but if we use the ogee reversa we must use a
+convex molding like the cavetto at one base, and a convex molding, like
+the torus or the ovolo, at the other base.
+
+In the latter (Fig. 202) four different moldings are used with the ogee
+as the principal structure.
+
+BASE EMBELLISHMENTS.--In like manner (Fig. 204) the base may have the
+casement type first attached in the corner, and then the ovolo, or the
+astragal added, as in Fig. 203.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 200._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 201._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 202._]
+
+STRAIGHT-FACED MOLDINGS.--Now let us carry the principle still further,
+and, instead of using various type of moldings, we will employ nothing
+but straight strips of wood. This treatment will soon indicate to you
+that the true mechanic or artisan is he who can take advantage of
+whatever he finds at hand.
+
+Let us take the same cabinet front (Fig. 205), and below the cap (A)
+place a narrow strip (B), the lower corner of which has been chamfered
+off, as at C. Below the strip B is a thinner strip (D), vertically
+disposed, and about two-thirds its width. The lower corner of this is
+also chamfered, as at F. To finish, apply a small strip (G) in the
+corner, and you have an embellished top that has the appearance, from a
+short distance, of being made up of molding.
+
+PLAIN MOLDED BASE.--The base may be treated in the same manner. The main
+strip (4) has its upper corner chamfered off, as at I, and on this is
+nailed a thin, narrow finishing strip (J). The upper part or molded top,
+in this case, has eleven distinct lines, and the base has six lines. By
+experimenting you may soon put together the most available kinds of
+molding strips.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 203._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 204._]
+
+DIVERSIFIED USES.--For a great overhang you may use the cavetto, or the
+apophyges, and below that the astragal or the torus; and for the base
+the casement is the most serviceable molding, and it may be finished off
+with the ovolo or the cymatium.
+
+Pages of examples might be cited to show the variety and the
+diversification available with different types.
+
+SHADOWS CAST BY MOLDINGS.--Always bear in mind that a curved surface
+makes a blended shadow. A straight, flat or plain surface does not, and
+it is for that reason the concaved and the convexed surfaces, brought
+out by moldings, become so important.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 205._]
+
+A little study and experimenting will soon teach you how a convex, a
+concave or a flat surface, and a corner or corners should be arranged
+relatively to each other; how much one should project beyond the other;
+and what the proportional widths of the different molding bands should
+be. An entire volume would scarcely exhaust this subject.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+AN ANALYSIS OF TENONING, MORTISING, RABBETING AND BEADING
+
+
+In the chapter on How Work is Laid Out, an example was given of the
+particular manner pursued in laying out mortises and tenons, and also
+dovetailed work. I deem it advisable to add some details to the subject,
+as well as to direct attention to some features which do not properly
+belong to the laying out of work.
+
+WHERE MORTISES SHOULD BE USED.--Most important of all is a general idea
+of places and conditions under which mortises should be resorted to.
+There are four ways in which different members may be secured to each
+other. First, by mortises and tenons; second, by a lap-and-butt; third,
+by scarfing; and, fourth, by tonguing and grooving.
+
+DEPTH OF MORTISES.--When a certain article is to be made, the first
+consideration is, how the joint or joints shall be made. The general
+rule for using the tenon and mortise is where two parts are joined
+wherein the grains of the two members run at right angles to each
+other, as in the following figure.
+
+RULE FOR MORTISES.--Fig. 206 shows such an example. You will notice this
+in doors particularly, as an example of work.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 206._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 207._]
+
+The next consideration is, shall the mortises be cut entirely through
+the piece? This is answered by the query as to whether or not the end of
+the tenon will be exposed; and usually, if a smooth finish is required,
+the mortise should not go through the member. In a door, however, the
+tenons are exposed at the edges of the door, and are, therefore, seen,
+so that we must apply some other rule. The one universally adopted is,
+that where, as in a door stile, it is broad and comparatively thin, or
+where the member having the mortise in its edge is much thinner than
+its width, the mortise should go through from edge to edge.
+
+The reason for this lies in the inability to sink the mortises through
+the stile (A, Fig. 207) perfectly true, and usually the job is turned
+out something like the illustration shows. The side of the rail (B) must
+be straight with the side of the stile. If the work is done by machinery
+it results in accuracy unattainable in hand work.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 208._]
+
+TRUE MORTISE WORK.--The essense of good joining work is the ability to
+sink the chisel true with the side of the member. More uneven work is
+produced by haste than by inability. The tendency of all beginners is
+to strike the chisel too hard, in order the more quickly to get down to
+the bottom of the mortise. Hence, bad work follows.
+
+STEPS IN CUTTING MORTISES.--Examine Fig. 208, which, for convenience,
+gives six successive steps in making the mortise. The marks _a_, _b_
+designate the limits, or the length, of the mortise. The chisel (C) is
+not started at the marking line (A), but at least an eighth of an inch
+from it. The first cut, as at B, gives a starting point for the next cut
+or placement of the chisel. When the second cut (B) has thus been made,
+the chisel should be turned around, as in dotted line _d_, position C,
+thereby making a finish cut down to the bottom of the mortise, line _e_,
+so that when the fourth cut has been made along line _f_, we are ready
+for the fifth cut, position C; then the sixth cut, position D, which
+leaves the mortise as shown at E. Then turn the chisel to the position
+shown at F, and cut down the last end of the mortise square, as shown in
+G, and clean out the mortise well before making the finishing cuts on
+the marking lines (_a_, _b_). The particular reason for cleaning out the
+mortise before making the finish cuts is, that the corners of the
+mortise are used as fulcrums for the chisels, and the eighth of an inch
+stock still remaining protects the corners.
+
+THINGS TO AVOID IN MORTISING.--You must be careful to refrain from
+undercutting as your chisel goes down at the lines _a_, _b_, because if
+you commit this error you will make a bad joint.
+
+As much care should be exercised in producing the tenon, although the
+most common error is apt to occur in making the shoulder. This should be
+a trifle undercut.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 209._]
+
+See the lines (A, Fig. 209), which illustrate this.
+
+LAP-AND-BUTT JOINT.--The lap-and-butt is the form of uniting members
+which is most generally used to splice together timbers, where they join
+each other end to end.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 210._]
+
+Bolts are used to secure the laps.
+
+But the lap-and-butt form is also used in doors and in other cabinet
+work. It is of great service in paneling.
+
+A rabbet is formed to receive the edge of the panel, and a molding is
+then secured to the other side on the panel, to hold the latter in
+place.
+
+SCARFING.--This method of securing members together is the most rigid,
+and when properly performed makes the joint the strongest part of the
+timber. Each member (A, Fig. 212) has a step diagonally cut (B), the two
+steps being on different planes, so they form a hook joint, as at C, and
+as each point or terminal has a blunt end, the members are so
+constructed as to withstand a longitudinal strain in either direction.
+The overlapping plates (D) and the bolts (E) hold the joint rigidly.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 211._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 212._]
+
+THE TONGUE AND GROOVE.--This form of uniting members has only a limited
+application. It is serviceable for floors, table tops, paneling, etc.
+In Fig. 213, a door panel is shown, and the door mullions (B) are also
+so secured to the rail (C). The tongue-and-groove method is never used
+by itself. It must always have some support or reinforcing means.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 213._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 214._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 215._]
+
+BEADING.--This part of the work pertains to surface finishings, and may
+or may not be used in connection with rabbeting.
+
+Figs. 214 and 215 show the simplest and most generally adopted forms in
+which it is made and used in connection with rabbeting, or with the
+tongue and groove. The bead is placed on one or both sides of that
+margin of the board (Fig. 214) which has the tongue, and the adjoining
+board has the usual flooring groove to butt against and receive the
+tongue. It is frequently the case that a blind bead, as in Fig. 215,
+runs through the middle of the board, so as to give the appearance of
+narrow strips when used for wainscoting, or for ceilings. The beads also
+serve to hide the joints of the boards.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 216._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 217._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 218._]
+
+ORNAMENTAL BEAD FINISH.--These figures show how the bead may be used for
+finishing corners, edges and projections. Fig. 216 has a bead at each
+corner of a stile (A), and a finishing strip of half-round material (B)
+is nailed to the flat edge. Fig. 217 has simply the corners themselves
+beaded, and it makes a most serviceable finish for the edges of
+projecting members.
+
+Fig. 218, used for wider members, has the corners beaded and a fancy
+molding (C); or the reduced edge of the stile itself is rounded off.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 219._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 220._]
+
+THE BEAD AND RABBET.--A more amplified form of work is available where
+the rabbet plane is used with the beader. These two planes together
+will, if properly used, offer a strong substitute for molding and
+molding effects.
+
+Fig. 219 has both sides first rabbeted, as at A, and the corners then
+beaded, as at B, with the reduced part of the member rounded off, as at
+C. Or, as in Fig. 220, the reduced edge of the member may have the
+corners beaded, as at D, and the rabbeted corners filled in with a round
+or concaved moulding (E).
+
+SHADING WITH BEADS AND RABBETS.--You will see from the foregoing, that
+these embellishments are serviceable because they provide the article
+with a large number of angles and surfaces to cast lights and shadows;
+and for this reason the boy should strive to produce the effects which
+this class of work requires.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+HOUSE BUILDING
+
+
+House building is the carpenter's craft; cabinet-making the joiner's
+trade, yet both are so intimately associated, that it is difficult to
+draw a line. The same tools, the same methods and the same materials are
+employed.
+
+There is no trade more ennobling than home building. It is a vocation
+which touches every man and woman, and to make it really an art is, or
+should be, the true aspiration of every craftsman.
+
+THE HOUSE AND EMBELLISHMENTS.--The refined arts, such as sculpture and
+painting, merely embellish the home or the castle, so that when we build
+the structure it should be made with an eye not only to comfort and
+convenience, but fitting in an artistic and aesthetic sense. It is just
+as easy to build a beautiful home as an ugly, ungainly, illy
+proportioned structure.
+
+BEAUTY NOT ORNAMENTATION.--The boy, in his early training, should learn
+this fundamental truth, that beauty, architecturally, does not depend
+upon ornamentation. Some of the most beautiful structures in the world
+are very plain. Beauty consists in proportions, in proper correlation
+of parts, and in adaptation for the uses to which the structure is to be
+put.
+
+PLAIN STRUCTURES.--A house with a plain facade, having a roof properly
+pitched and with a simple cornice, if joined to a wing which is not
+ungainly or out of proper proportions, is infinitely more beautiful than
+a rambling structure, in which one part suggests one order of
+architecture and the other part some other type or no type at all, and
+in which the embellishments are out of keeping with the size or
+pretensions of the house.
+
+COLONIAL TYPE.--For real beauty, on a larger scale, there is nothing
+to-day which equals the old Colonial type with the Corinthian columns
+and entablature. The Lee mansion, now the National Cemetery, at
+Washington, is a fine example. Such houses are usually square or
+rectangular in plan, severely plain, with the whole ornamentation
+consisting of the columns and the portico. This type presents an
+appearance of massiveness and grandeur and is an excellent illustration
+of a form wherein the main characteristic of the structure is
+concentrated or massed at one point.
+
+The Church of the Madelaine, Paris, is another striking example of this
+period of architecture.
+
+Of course, it would be out of place with cottages and small houses, but
+it is well to study and to know what forms are most available and
+desirable to adopt, and particularly to know something of the art in
+which you are interested.
+
+THE ROOF THE KEYNOTE.--Now, there is one thing which should, and does,
+distinguish the residence from other types of buildings, excepting
+churches. It is the roof. A house is dominated by its covering. I refer
+to the modern home. It is not true with the Colonial or the Grecian
+types. In those the facade or the columns and cornices predominate over
+everything else.
+
+BUNGALOW TYPES.--If you will take up any book on bungalow work and note
+the outlines of the views you will see that the roof forms the main
+element or theme. In fact, in most buildings of this kind everything is
+submerged but the roof and roof details. They are made exceedingly flat,
+with different pitches with dormers and gables intermingled and
+indiscriminately placed, with cornices illy assorted and of different
+kinds, so that the multiplicity of diversified details gives an
+appearance of great elaboration. Many of those designs are monstrosities
+and should, if possible, be legally prohibited.
+
+I cannot attempt to give even so much as an outline of what constitutes
+art in its relation to building, but my object is to call attention to
+this phase of the question, and as you proceed in your studies and your
+work you will realize the value and truthfulness of the foregoing
+observations.
+
+GENERAL HOUSE BUILDING.--We are to treat, generally, on the subject of
+house building, how the work is laid out, and how built, and in doing so
+I shall take a concrete example of the work. This can be made more
+effectual for the purpose if it is on simple lines.
+
+BUILDING PLANS.--We must first have a plan; and the real carpenter must
+have the ability to plan as well as to do the work. We want a five-room
+house, comprising a parlor, dining room, two bedrooms, a kitchen and a
+bathroom. Just a modest little home, to which we can devote our spare
+hours, and which will be neat and comfortable when finished. It must be
+a one-story house, and that fact at once settles the roof question. We
+can make the house perfectly square in plan, or rectangular, and divide
+up the space into the proper divisions.
+
+THE PLAIN SQUARE FLOOR PLAN will first be taken up, as it is such an
+easy roof to build. Of course, it is severely plain.
+
+Fig. 221 shows our proposed plan, drawn in the rough, without any
+attempts to measure the different apartments, and with the floor plan
+exactly square. Supposing we run a hall (A) through the middle. On one
+side of this let us plan for a dining room and a kitchen, a portion of
+the kitchen space to be given over to a closet and a bathroom.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 221._]
+
+The chimney (B) must be made accessible from both rooms. On the other
+side of the hallway the space is divided into a parlor and two
+bedrooms.
+
+THE RECTANGULAR PLAN.--In the rectangular floor plan (Fig. 222) a
+portion of the floor space is cut out for a porch (A), so that we may
+use the end or the side for the entrance. Supposing we use the end of
+the house for this purpose. The entrance room (B) may be a bedroom, or a
+reception and living room, and to the rear of this room is the dining
+room, connected with the reception room by a hall (C). This hall also
+leads to the kitchen and to the bathroom, as well as to the other
+bedroom. The parlor is connected with the entrance room (B), and also
+with the bedroom. All of this is optional, of course.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 222._]
+
+There are also two chimneys, one chimney (D) having two flues and the
+other chimney (E) having three flues, so that every room is
+accommodated.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 223._]
+
+ROOM MEASUREMENTS.--We must now determine the dimensions of each room,
+and then how we shall build the roof.
+
+In Figs. 223 and 224, we have now drawn out in detail the sizes, the
+locations of the door and windows, the chimneys and the closets, as well
+as the bathroom. All this work may be changed or modified to suit
+conditions and the taste of the designer.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 224._]
+
+FRONT AND SIDE LINES.--From the floor diagram, and the door and window
+spaces, as marked out, we may now proceed to lay out rough front and
+side outlines of the building. The ceilings are to be 9 feet, and if we
+put a rather low-pitched roof on the square structure (Fig. 223) the
+front may look something like Fig. 225, and a greater pitch given to the
+rectangular plan (Fig. 224) will present a view as shown in Fig. 226.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 225._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 226._]
+
+THE ROOF.--The pitch of the roof (Fig. 225) is what is called "third
+pitch," and the roof (Fig. 226) has a half pitch. A "third" pitch is
+determined as follows:
+
+ROOF PITCH.--In Fig. 227 draw a vertical line (A) and join it by a
+horizontal line (B). Then strike a circle (C) and step it off into three
+parts. The line (D), which intersects the first mark (E) and the angle
+of the lines (A, B), is the pitch.
+
+In Fig. 228 the line A is struck at 15 degrees, which is halfway between
+lines B and C, and it is, therefore, termed "half-pitch."
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 227._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 228._]
+
+Thus, we have made the ground plans, the elevations and the roofs as
+simple as possible. Let us proceed next with the details of the
+building.
+
+THE FOUNDATION.--This may be of brick, stone or concrete, and its
+dimensions should be at least 1-1/2 inches further out than the sill.
+
+THE SILLS.--We are going to build what is called a "balloon frame"; and,
+first, we put down the sills, which will be a course of 2" x 6", or 2" x
+8" joists, as in Fig. 229.
+
+THE FLOORING JOIST.--The flooring joists (A) are then put down (Fig.
+230). These should extend clear across the house from side to side, if
+possible, or, if the plan is too wide, they should be lapped at the
+middle wall and spiked together. The ends should extend out flush with
+the outer margins of the sills, as shown, but in putting down the first
+and last sill, space must be left along the sides of the joist of
+sufficient width to place the studding.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 229._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 230._]
+
+THE STUDDING.--The next step is to put the studding into position. 4" x
+4" must be used for corners and at the sides of door and window
+openings. 4" x 6" may be used at corners, if preferred. Consult your
+plan and see where the openings are for doors and windows. Measure the
+widths of the door and window frames, and make a measuring stick for
+this purpose. You must leave at least one-half inch clearance for the
+window or door frame, so as to give sufficient room to plumb and set the
+frame.
+
+SETTING UP.--First set up the corner posts, plumbing and bracing them.
+Cut a top plate for each side you are working on.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 231._]
+
+THE PLATE.--As it will be necessary in our job to use two or more
+lengths of 2" x 4" scantling for the plate, it will be necessary to join
+them together. Do this with a lap-and-butt joint (Fig. 231).
+
+Then set up the 4" x 4" posts for the sides of the doors and windows,
+and for the partition walls.
+
+The plate should be laid down on the sill, and marked with a pencil for
+every scantling to correspond with the sill markings. The plate is then
+put on and spiked to the 4" x 4" posts.
+
+INTERMEDIATE STUDDING.--It will then be an easy matter to put in the
+intermediate 2" x 4" studding, placing them as nearly as possible 16
+inches apart to accommodate the 48-inch plastering lath.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 232._]
+
+WALL HEADERS.--When all the studding are in you will need headers above
+and rails below the windows and headers above all the doors, so that you
+will have timbers to nail the siding to, as well as for the lathing.
+
+CEILING JOISTS.--We are now ready for the ceiling joists, which are,
+usually, 2" x 6", unless there is an upper floor. These are laid 16
+inches apart from center to center, preferably parallel with the floor
+joist.
+
+It should be borne in mind that the ceiling joist must always be put on
+with reference to the roof.
+
+Thus, in Fig. 232, the ceiling joists (A) have their ends resting on the
+plate (B), so that the rafters are in line with the joists.
+
+BRACES.--It would also be well, in putting up the studding, to use
+plenty of braces, although for a one-story building this is not so
+essential as in two-story structures, because the weather boarding
+serves as a system of bracing.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 233._]
+
+THE RAFTERS.--These may be made to provide for the gutter or not, as may
+be desired. They should be of 2" x 4" scantling.
+
+THE GUTTER.--In Fig. 233 I show a most serviceable way to provide for
+the gutter. A V-shaped notch is cut out of the upper side of the rafter,
+in which is placed the floor and a side. This floor piece is raised at
+one end to provide an incline for the water.
+
+A face-board is then applied and nailed to the ends of the rafters. This
+face-board is surmounted by a cap, which has an overhang, beneath which
+is a molding of any convenient pattern. The face-board projects down at
+least two inches below the angled cut of the rafter, so that when the
+base-board is applied, the lower margin of the face-board will project
+one inch below the base.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 234._]
+
+This base-board is horizontal, as you will see. The facia-board may be
+of any desired width, and a corner molding should be added. It is
+optional to use the brackets, but if added they should be spaced apart a
+distance not greater than twice the height of the bracket.
+
+A much simpler form of gutter is shown in Fig. 234, in which a V-shaped
+notch is also cut in the rafter, and the channel is made by the pieces.
+The end of the rafter is cut at right angles, so the face-board is at an
+angle. This is also surmounted by an overhanging cap and a molding. The
+base is nailed to the lower edges of the rafters, and the facia is then
+applied.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 234a._]
+
+In Fig. 234_a_ the roof has no gutter, so that the end of the rafter is
+cut off at an angle and a molding applied on the face-board. The base is
+nailed to the rafters. This is the cheapest and simplest form of
+structure for the roof.
+
+SETTING DOOR AND WINDOW FRAMES.--The next step in order is to set the
+door and window frames preparatory to applying the weather boarding. It
+is then ready for the roof, which should be put on before the floor is
+laid.
+
+PLASTERING AND INSIDE FINISH.--Next in order is the plastering, then the
+base-boards and the casing; and, finally, the door and windows should
+be fitted into position.
+
+Enough has been said here merely to give a general outline, with some
+details, how to proceed with the work.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+BRIDGES, TRUSSED WORK AND LIKE STRUCTURES
+
+
+BRIDGES.--Bridge building is not, strictly, a part of the carpenter's
+education at the present day, because most structures of this kind are
+now built of steel; but there are certain principles involved in bridge
+construction which the carpenter should master.
+
+SELF-SUPPORTING ROOFS.--In putting up, for instance, self-supporting
+roofs, or ceilings with wide spans, and steeples or towers, the bridge
+principle of trussed members should be understood.
+
+The most simple bridge or trussed form is the well-known A-shaped arch.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 235._]
+
+COMMON TRUSSES.--One form is shown in Fig. 235, with a vertical king
+post. In Fig. 236 there are two vertical supporting members, called
+queen posts, used in longer structures. Both of these forms are equally
+well adapted for small bridges or for roof supports.
+
+THE VERTICAL UPRIGHT TRUSS.--This form of truss naturally develops into
+a type of wooden bridge known all over the country, as its framing is
+simple, and calculations as to its capacity to sustain loads may readily
+be made. Figs. 237, 238 and 239 illustrate these forms.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 236._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 237._]
+
+THE WARREN GIRDER.--Out of this simple truss grew the Warren girder, a
+type of bridge particularly adapted for iron and steel construction.
+
+This is the simplest form for metal bridge truss, or girder. It is now
+also largely used in steel buildings and for other work requiring
+strength with small weight.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 238._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 239._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 240._]
+
+THE BOWSTRING GIRDER.--Only one other form of bridge truss need be
+mentioned here, and that is the _bowstring_ shown in Fig. 240.
+
+In this type the bow receives the entire compression thrust, and the
+chords act merely as suspending members.
+
+FUNDAMENTAL TRUSS FORM.--In every form of truss, whether for building or
+for bridge work, the principles of the famous A-truss must be employed
+in some form or other; and the boy who is experimentally inclined will
+readily evolve means to determine what degree of strength the upper and
+the lower members must have for a given length of truss to sustain a
+specified weight.
+
+There are rules for all these problems, some of them very intricate, but
+all of them intensely interesting. It will be a valuable addition to
+your knowledge to give this subject earnest study.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+THE BEST WOODS FOR THE BEGINNER
+
+
+In this place consideration will be given to some of the features
+relating to the materials to be employed, particularly with reference to
+the manner in which they can be worked to the best advantage, rather
+than to their uses.
+
+THE BEST WOODS.--The prime wood, and the one with which most boys are
+familiar, is white pine. It has an even texture throughout, is generally
+straight grained, and is soft and easily worked. White pine is a wood
+requiring a very sharp tool. It is, therefore, the best material for the
+beginner, as it will at the outset teach him the important lesson of
+keeping the tools in a good, sharp condition.
+
+SOFT WOODS.--It is also well for the novice to do his initial work with
+a soft wood, because in joining the parts together inaccuracies may be
+easily corrected. If, for instance, in mortising and tenoning, the edge
+of the mortised member is not true, or, rather, is not "square," the
+shoulder of the tenon on one side will abut before the other side does,
+and thus leave a crack, if the wood is hard. If the wood is soft there
+is always enough yield to enable the workman to spring it together.
+Therefore, until you have learned how to make a true joint, use soft
+wood.
+
+Poplar is another good wood for the beginner, as well as redwood, a
+western product.
+
+HARD WOODS.--Of the hard woods, cherry is the most desirable for the
+carpenter's tool. For working purposes it has all the advantages of a
+soft wood, and none of its disadvantages. It is not apt to warp, like
+poplar or birch, and its shrinking unit is less than that of any other
+wood, excepting redwood. There is practically no shrinkage in redwood.
+
+THE MOST DIFFICULT WOODS.--Ash is by far the most difficult wood to
+work. While not as hard as oak, it has the disadvantage that the entire
+board is seamed with growth ribs which are extremely hard, while the
+intervening layers between these ribs are soft, and have open pores, so
+that, for instance, in making a mortise, the chisel is liable to follow
+the hard ribs, if the grain runs at an angle to the course of the
+mortise.
+
+THE HARD-RIBBED GRAIN IN WOOD.--This peculiarity of the grain in ash
+makes it a beautiful wood when finished. Of the light-colored woods, oak
+only excels it, because in this latter wood each year's growth shows a
+wider band, and the interstices between the ribs have stronger
+contrasting colors than ash; so that in filling the surface, before
+finishing it, the grain of the wood is brought out with most effective
+clearness and with a beautifully blended contrast.
+
+THE EASIEST WORKING WOODS.--The same thing may be said, relatively,
+concerning cherry and walnut. While cherry has a beautiful finishing
+surface, the blending contrasts of colors are not so effective as in
+walnut.
+
+Oregon pine is extremely hard to work, owing to the same difficulties
+experienced in handling ash; but the finished Oregon pine surface makes
+it a most desirable material for certain articles of furniture.
+
+Do not attempt to employ this nor ash until you have mastered the trade.
+Confine yourself to pine, poplar, cherry and walnut. These woods are all
+easily obtainable everywhere, and from them you can make a most
+creditable variety of useful articles.
+
+Sugar and maple are two hard woods which may be added to the list.
+Sugar, particularly, is a good-working wood, but maple is more
+difficult. Spruce, on the other hand, is the strongest and toughest
+wood, considering its weight, which is but a little more than that of
+pine.
+
+DIFFERENCES IN THE WORKING OF WOODS.--Different woods are not worked
+with equal facility by all the tools. Oak is an easy wood to handle
+with a saw, but is, probably, aside from ash, the most difficult wood
+known to plane.
+
+Ash is hard for the saw or the plane. On the other hand, there is no
+wood so easy to manipulate with the saw or plane as cherry. Pine is
+easily worked with a plane, but difficult to saw; not on account of
+hardness, but because it is so soft that the saw is liable to tear it.
+
+FORCING SAWS IN WOOD.--One of the reasons why the forcing of saws is
+such a bad practice will be observed in cutting white or yellow pine.
+For cross-cutting, the saw should have fine teeth, not heavily set, and
+evenly filed. To do a good job of cross-cutting, the saw must be held at
+a greater angle, or should lay down flatter than in ripping, as by so
+doing the lower side of the board will not break away as much as if the
+saw should be held more nearly vertical.
+
+These general observations are made in the hope that they will serve as
+a guide to enable you to select your lumber with some degree of
+intelligence before you commence work.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+WOOD TURNING
+
+
+ADVANTAGES OF WOOD TURNING.--This is not, strictly, in the carpenter's
+domain; but a knowledge of its use will be of great service in the
+trade, and particularly in cabinet making. I urge the ingenious youth to
+rig up a wood-turning lathe, for the reason that it is a tool easily
+made and one which may be readily turned by foot, if other power is not
+available.
+
+SIMPLE TURNING LATHE.--A very simple turning lathe may be made by
+following these instructions:
+
+THE RAILS.--Procure two straight 2" x 4" scantling (A), four feet long,
+and planed on all sides. Bore four 3/8-inch holes at each end, as shown,
+and 10 inches from one end four more holes. A plan of these holes is
+shown in B, where the exact spacing is indicated. Then prepare two
+pieces 2" x 4" scantling (C), planed, 42 inches long, one end of each
+being chamfered off, as at 2, and provided with four bolt holes. Ten
+inches down, and on the same side, with the chamfer (2) is a cross gain
+(3), the same angle as the chamfer. Midway between the cross gain (3)
+and the lower end of the leg is a gain (4) in the edge, at right angles
+to the cross gain (3).
+
+THE LEGS.--Now prepare two legs (D) for the tail end of the frame, each
+32 inches long, with a chamfer (5) at one end, and provided with four
+bolt holes. At the lower end bore a bolt hole for the cross base piece.
+This piece (E) is 4" x 4", 21 inches long, and has a bolt hole at each
+end and one near the middle. The next piece (F) is 2" x 4", 14-1/2
+inches long, provided with a rebate (6) at each end, to fit the cross
+gains (4) of the legs (C). Near the middle is a journal block (7).
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 241. Frame details._]
+
+CENTERING BLOCKS.--Next provide a 4" x 4" piece (G), 40 inches long,
+through which bore a 3/4-inch hole (8), 2 inches from the upper end,
+and four bolt holes at right angles to the shaft hole (8). Then, with a
+saw split down this bearing, as shown at 9, to a point 4 inches from the
+end. Ten inches below the upper end prepare two cross gains (10), each
+an inch deep and four inches wide. In these gains are placed the top
+rails (A), so the bolt holes in the gains (10) will coincide with the
+bolt holes (11) in the piece A. Below the gains (10) this post has a
+journal block (12), intended to be in line with the journal block (7) of
+the piece F.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 242. Tail Stock._]
+
+Then make a block (H) 2" x 4", and 6 inches long. This also must have a
+shaft hole (B), and a saw kerf (14), similar to the arrangement on the
+upper end of the post (G); also bore four bolt holes, as shown. This
+block rests between the upper ends of the lugs (C).
+
+Another block (I), 2" x 4", and 6 feet long, with four bolt holes, will
+be required for the tail end of the frame, to keep the rails (A) two
+inches apart at that end.
+
+THE TAIL STOCK.--This part of the structure is made of the following
+described material:
+
+Procure a scantling (J), planed, 4" x 4", 24 inches long, the upper end
+of which is to be provided with four bolt holes, and a centering hole
+(15). At the lower end of the piece is a slot (16) 8 inches long and
+1-1/2 inches wide, and there are also two bolt holes bored transversely
+through the piece to receive bolts for reinforcing the end.
+
+A pair of cheekpieces (K), 2" x 4", and each 12 inches long, are mitered
+at the ends, and each has four bolt holes by means of which the ends may
+be bolted to the upright (J).
+
+Then a step wedge (L) is made of 1-3/8" x 2" material, 10 inches long.
+This has at least four steps (17), each step being 2 inches long. A
+wedge 1-3/8 inches thick, 10 inches long, and tapering from 2 inches to
+1-3/8 inches, completes the tail-stock.
+
+THE TOOL REST.--This is the most difficult part of the whole lathe, as
+it must be rigid, and so constructed that it has a revolvable motion as
+well as being capable of a movement to and from the material in the
+lathe.
+
+Select a good 4" x 4" scantling (M), 14 inches long, as shown in Fig.
+243. Two inches from one end cut a cross gain (I), 1-1/2 inches deep and
+1 inch wide, and round off the upper edge, as at 2.
+
+Then prepare a piece (N), 1 inch thick, 8 inches wide, and 10 inches
+long. Round off the upper edge to form a nose, and midway between its
+ends cut a cross gain 4 inches wide and 1-1/2 inches deep. The lower
+margin may be cut away, at an angle on each side of the gain. All that
+is necessary now is to make a block (O), 8 inches long, rounded on one
+edge, and a wedge (P).
+
+[Illustration: _Fig 243. Tool Rest._]
+
+A leather belt or strap (Q), 1-1/2 inches wide, formed into a loop, as
+shown in the perspective view (R), serves as a means for holding the
+rest rigidly when the wedge is driven in.
+
+MATERIALS.--Then procure the following bolts:
+
+        4-3/8" bolts, 10" long.
+        8-3/8"  ''     6" ''
+       20-3/8"  ''     5" ''
+        5-3/8"  ''     9" ''
+
+THE MANDREL.--A piece of steel tubing (S), No. 10 gage, 3/4 inch in
+diameter, 11-1/2 inches long, will be required for the mandrel. Get a
+blacksmith, if a machine shop is not convenient, to put a fixed center
+(1) in one end, and a removable centering member (2) in the other end.
+
+On this mandrel place a collar (3), held by a set screw, and alongside
+of it a pair of pulleys, each 1-1/2 inches wide, one of them, being,
+say, 2 inches in diameter, and the other 3 inches. This mandrel is held
+in position by means of the posts of the frame which carry the split
+journal bearings. This form of bearing will make a durable lathe, free
+from chattering, as the bolts can be used for tightening the mandrel
+whenever they wear.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 244. Mandrel._]
+
+The center point (1) is designed to rest against a metal plate (4)
+bolted to the wooden post, as shown in the large drawing.
+
+FLY-WHEEL.--It now remains only to provide a fly-wheel and treadle with
+the communicating belt. The fly-wheel may be of any convenient size, or
+it may be some discarded pulley or wheel. Suppose it is two feet in
+diameter; then, as your small pulley is 2 inches in diameter, each
+revolution of the large wheel makes twelve revolutions in the mandrel,
+and you can readily turn the wheel eighty times a minute. In that case
+your mandrel will revolve 960 revolutions per minute, which is ample
+speed for your purposes.
+
+The wheel should be mounted on a piece of 3/4-inch steel tubing, one end
+having a crank 3 inches long. This crank is connected up by a pitman
+rod, with the triangularly shaped treadle frame.
+
+Such a lathe is easily made, as it requires but little metal or machine
+work, and it is here described because it will be a pleasure for a boy
+to make such a useful tool. What he needs is the proper plan and the
+right dimensions to carry out the work, and his own ingenuity will make
+the modifications suitable to his purpose.
+
+The illustration (Fig. 245) shows such a lathe assembled ready for work.
+
+THE TOOLS REQUIRED.--A few simple tools will complete an outfit capable
+of doing a great variety of work. The illustration (Fig. 246) shows five
+chisels, of which all other chisels are modifications.
+
+A and B are both oblique firmer chisels, A being ground with a bevel on
+one side only, and B with a bevel on each side.
+
+C is a broad gage, with a hollow blade, and a curved cutting edge,
+ground with a taper on the rounded side only.
+
+D is a narrow gage similarly ground, and E is a V-shaped gage.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 245._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 246._]
+
+It may be observed that in wood-turning sharp tools are absolutely
+necessary, hence a good oil stone, or several small, round and V-shaped
+stones should be used.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+ON THE USE OF STAINS
+
+
+As this subject properly belongs to the painter and decorator, it is not
+necessary to go into details concerning the methods used to finish off
+your work. As you may not be able to afford the luxury of having your
+productions painted or stained, enough information will be given to
+enable you, if the character of the wood justifies it, to do the work
+yourself to a limited extent.
+
+SOFT WOOD.--As, presumably, most of your first work will be done with
+pine, poplar, or other light-colored material, and, as many people
+prefer the furniture to be dark in color, you should be prepared to
+accommodate them.
+
+USE OF STAINS.--Our subject has nothing to do with the technique of
+staining, but has reference, solely, to the use of stains. I recommend,
+therefore, that, since all kinds of stains are now kept in stock, and
+for sale everywhere, you would better rely upon the manufactured goods
+rather than to endeavor to mix up the paints yourself.
+
+STAINS AS IMITATIONS.--It will be well to remember one thing as to
+stains. Never attempt to stain anything unless that stain is intended
+to produce an imitation of some real wood. There are stains made up
+which, when applied, do not imitate any known wood. This is bad taste
+and should be avoided. Again you should know that the same stain tint
+will not produce like effects on the different light-colored woods. Try
+the cherry stain on pieces of pine, poplar, and birch, and you will
+readily see that while pine gives a brilliant red, comparatively
+speaking, pine or birch will be much darker, and the effect on poplar
+will be that of a muddy color. In fact, poplar does not stain cherry to
+good advantage; and for birch the ordinary stain should have a small
+addition of vermilion.
+
+By making trials of your stains before applying them to the furniture,
+you will readily see the value of this suggestion.
+
+GOOD TASTE IN STAINING.--Oak, mahogany, cherry, black walnut, and like
+imitations are always good in an artistic sense, but imitations of
+unfamiliar woods mean nothing to the average person. The too common
+mistake is to try to imitate oak by staining pine or poplar or birch. It
+may, with good effect, be stained to imitate cherry.
+
+Oregon pine, or some light-colored wood, with a strong contrasting grain
+may be used for staining in imitation of oak.
+
+GREAT CONTRASTS BAD.--Violent contrasts in furniture staining have the
+effect of cheapness, unless the contrasting outlines are artistically
+distributed throughout the article, from base to top finish.
+
+STAINING CONTRASTING WOODS.--Then, again, do not stain a piece of
+furniture so that one part represents a cheap, soft wood, and the other
+part a dark or costly wood. Imagine, for instance, a cabinet with the
+stiles, rails and mullions of mahogany, and the panels of pine or
+poplar, or the reverse, and you can understand how incongruous would be
+the result produced.
+
+On the other hand, it would not be a very artistic job to make the
+panels of cherry and the mullions and stiles of mahogany, because the
+two woods do not harmonize, although frequently wrongly combined.
+
+HARD WOOD IMITATIONS.--It would be better to use, for instance, ash or
+oak for one portion of the work, and a dark wood, like cherry or walnut,
+for the other part; but usually a cherry cabinet should be made of
+cherry throughout; while a curly maple chiffonier could not be improved
+by having the legs of some other material.
+
+These considerations should determine for you whether or not you can
+safely use stains to represent different woods in the same article.
+
+NATURAL EFFECTS.--If effects are wanted, the skilled workman will
+properly rely upon the natural grain of the wood; hence, in staining,
+you should try to imitate nature, because in staining you will depend
+for contrast on the natural grain of the wood to help you out in
+producing pleasing effects.
+
+NATURAL WOOD STAINS.--It should be said, in general, however, that a
+stain is, at best, a poor makeshift. There is nothing so pleasing as the
+natural wood. It always has an appearance of cleanliness and openness.
+To stain the wood shows an attempt to cover up cheapness by a cheap
+contrivance. The exception to this rule is mahogany, which is generally
+enriched by the application of a ruby tint which serves principally to
+emphasize the beautiful markings of the wood.
+
+POLISHING STAINED SURFACES.--If, on the other hand, you wish to go to
+the labor of polishing the furniture to a high degree, staining becomes
+an art, and will add to the beauty and durability of any soft or cheap
+wood, excepting poplar.
+
+When the article is highly polished, so a good, smooth surface is
+provided, staining does not cheapen, but, on the other hand, serves to
+embellish the article.
+
+As a rule, therefore, it is well to inculcate this lesson: Do not stain
+unless you polish; otherwise, it is far better to preserve the natural
+color of the wood. One of the most beautiful sideboards I ever saw was
+made of Oregon pine, and the natural wood, well filled and highly
+polished. That finish gave it an effect which enhanced its value to a
+price which equaled any cherry or mahogany product.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+THE CARPENTER AND THE ARCHITECT
+
+
+A carpenter has a trade; the architect a profession. It is not to be
+assumed that one vocation is more honorable than the other. A
+_profession_ is defined as a calling, or occupation, "if not mechanical,
+agricultural, or the like," to which one devotes himself and his
+energies. A _trade_ is defined as an occupation "which a person has
+learned and engages in, especially mechanical employment, as
+distinguished from the liberal arts," or the learned professions.
+
+_Opportunity_ is the great boon in life. To the ambitious young man the
+carpenter's trade offers a field for venturing into the learned
+professions by a route which cannot be equaled in any other pursuit. In
+his work he daily enters into contact with problems which require
+mathematics of the highest order, geometry, the methods of calculating
+strains and stresses, as well as laying out angles and curves.
+
+This is a trade wherein he must keep in mind many calculations as to
+materials, number, size, and methods of joining; he must remember all
+the small details which go to make up the entire structure. This
+exercise necessitates a mental picture of the finished product. His
+imagination is thus directed to concrete objects. As the mind develops,
+it becomes creative in its character, and the foundation is laid for a
+higher sphere of usefulness in what is called the professional field.
+
+A good carpenter naturally develops into an architect, and the best
+architect is he who knows the trade. It is a profession which requires
+not only the artistic taste, but a technical knowledge of details, of
+how practically to carry out the work, how to superintend construction,
+and what the different methods are for doing things.
+
+The architect must have a scientific education, which gives him a
+knowledge of the strength of materials, and of structural forms; of the
+durability of materials; of the price, quality, and use of everything
+which goes into a structure; of labor conditions; and of the laws
+pertaining to buildings.
+
+Many of these questions will naturally present themselves to the
+carpenter. They are in the sphere of his employment, but it depends upon
+himself to make the proper use of the material thus daily brought to
+him.
+
+It is with a view to instil that desire and ambition in every young man,
+to make the brain do what the hand has heretofore done, that I suggest
+this course. The learned profession is yours if you deserve it, and you
+can deserve it only through study, application, and perseverance.
+
+Do well that which you attempt to do. _Don't_ do it in that manner
+because some one has done it in that way before you. If, in the trade,
+the experience of ages has taught the craftsman that some particular way
+of doing things is correct, there is no law to prevent you from
+combating that method. Your way may be better. But you must remember
+that in every plan for doing a thing there is some particular reason, or
+reasons, why it is carried out in that way. Study and learn to apply
+those reasons.
+
+So in your leisure or in your active moments, if you wish to advance,
+you must be alert. _Know for yourself the reasons for things_, and you
+will thereby form the stepping stones that will lead you upward and
+contribute to your success.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+USEFUL ARTICLES TO MAKE
+
+
+As stated in the Introductory, the purpose of this book is to show _how
+to do the things_, and not to draw a picture in order to write a
+description of it. Merely in the line of suggestion, we give in this
+chapter views and brief descriptions of useful household articles, all
+of which may be made by the boy who has carefully studied the preceding
+pages.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 247._]
+
+This figure shows a common bench wholly made of material 1 inch thick,
+the top being 12 inches wide and 4 feet long. The legs are 14 inches
+high and 13 inches wide; and the side supporting rails are 3 inches
+wide. These proportions may, of course, be varied. You will note that
+the sides of the top or seat have an overhang of 1/2 inch on each
+margin.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 248._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 249._]
+
+This is a common, square-top stool, the seat being 12" x 12", and the
+legs 14 inches high. Two of the pieces forming the legs are 10 inches
+wide and the other two 8 inches wide, so that when the wide pieces are
+nailed to the edges of the narrow pieces the leg body will be 10" x 10"
+and thus give the seat an overhang of 1 inch around the margins.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 250._]
+
+A most useful article is shown in Fig. 249. It is a blacking-box with a
+lid, a folding shoe rest and three compartments. The detached figure
+shows a vertical cross-section of the body of the box, and illustrates
+how the shoe rest is hinged to the sides of the box. The box itself is
+14" x 16" in dimensions; the sides are 6 inches wide and the legs 5
+inches in height. In order to give strength to the legs, the bottom has
+its corners cut out, to permit the upper ends of the legs to rest in
+the recesses thus formed.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 251._]
+
+This is a convenient form of easel, made of four uprights. The main
+front uprights are of strips 5/8" x 1-1/4", and the rear uprights are of
+1/2" x 1" material. A thin broomstick will serve as the pivot bar for
+the upper end. The rest is made of two strips, each 1/2" x 1", nailed
+together to form an L, and nails or wooden pins will serve to hold the
+rest in any desired position. The front uprights should be at least 5
+feet long.
+
+A simple hanging book-rack is illustrated in Fig. 251. The two vertical
+strips are each 4 inches wide, 1 inch thick and 4 feet long. Four
+shelves are provided, each 3/4 inch thick, 9 inches wide and 4 feet
+long. Each shelf is secured to the uprights by hinges on the upper side,
+so as to permit it to be swung upwardly, or folded; and below each hinge
+is a triangular block or bracket, fixed to the shelf, to support it in a
+horizontal position.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 252._]
+
+A sad-iron holder, or bookcase, shown in Fig. 252, is another simple
+form of structure. It may be sufficiently large to serve as a standing
+case by having the uprights at the ends serve as legs, or the uprights
+may have holes at their upper ends, by means of which it can be
+suspended on a wall. As shown, it is 30 inches long from bottom to top,
+and 20 inches wide. The shelves are 8 inches wide. All the material is,
+preferably, 3/4-inch stock.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 253._]
+
+Fig. 253 shows a wood-box, or it may readily be adapted for coal. For
+wood it should be 2 feet long, 1 foot 8 inches wide and 1 foot 10 inches
+high. It will, of course, be made of such dimensions as to suit the wood
+to be stored in it, and both the flat-top as well as the sloping portion
+of the top should be hinged, so that the entire top can be opened for
+filling purposes.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 254._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 255._]
+
+A pair of parallel bars is shown in Fig. 254. The dimensions of this
+will vary, and be dependent on the size of the boy intending to use it;
+but a size best adapted is to make the posts 3 feet high, and the
+distance between the bars 16 inches. This gives ample room for the
+exercises required. The length between the posts along the bars should
+be at least 5 feet. The entire structure can be made of soft wood,
+except the bars, which should be of hard, rigid wood. The posts can be
+made of 2" x 2" material, and the braces 2" x 1". The base pieces, both
+longitudinal and transverse, should also be of 2" x 2" material.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 256._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 257._]
+
+Fig. 255 represents a mission type of writing desk for a boy's use. All
+the posts, braces and horizontal bars are of 2" x 2" material, secured
+to each other by mortises and tenons. The legs are 27 inches high up to
+the table top, and the narrow shelf is 12 inches above the top. The most
+convenient size for the top is 26" x 48". The top boards may be 1 inch
+thick and the shelf the same thickness, or even 3/4 inch. It is well
+braced and light, and its beauty will depend largely on the material of
+which it is made.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 258._]
+
+The screen (Fig. 256) represents simply the framework, showing how
+simple the structure is. The bars are all of 1-1/2" x 1-1/2" material,
+secured together by mortises and tenons.
+
+Fig. 257 represents a mission chair to match the desk (Fig. 255), and
+should be made of the same material. The posts are all of 2" x 2"
+material. The seat of the chair should be 16 inches, and the rear posts
+should extend up above the seat at least 18 inches.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 259._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 260._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 261._]
+
+Fig. 258 is a good example of a grandfather's clock in mission style.
+The framework only is shown. The frame is 12" x 12", and 5 feet high,
+and made up of 2" x 2" material. When neatly framed together, it is a
+most attractive article of furniture. The top may be covered in any
+suitable way, showing a roof effect. The opening for the dial face of
+the clock should be at one of the gable ends.
+
+A more pretentious bookcase is shown in Fig. 259, in which the frame is
+made up wholly of 2" x 2" material. The cross-end bars serve as ledges
+to support the shelves. This may be lined interiorly and backed with
+suitable casing material, such as Lincrusta Walton, or fiber-board, and
+the front provided with doors. Our only object is to show the framework
+for your guidance, and merely to make suggestions as to structural
+forms.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 262._]
+
+Another most serviceable article is a case for a coal scuttle (Fig.
+260). This should be made of 1-inch boards, and the size of the door,
+which carries the scuttle shelf, should be 12" x 16" in size. From this
+you can readily measure the dimensions of the case itself, the exterior
+dimensions of which are 15" x 20", so that when the 1-inch top is placed
+on, it will be 21 inches high. The case from front to rear is 12 inches,
+and the shelf above the top is 11 inches wide, and elevated 10 inches
+above the top of the case. This is a most useful box for culinary
+articles, if not needed for coal, because the ledge, used for the coal
+scuttle, can be used to place utensils on, and when the door is opened
+all the utensils are exposed to view, and are, therefore, much more
+accessible than if stored away in the case itself.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 263._]
+
+A mission armchair. Fig. 261 is more elaborate than the chair shown in
+Fig. 257, but it is the same in general character, and is also made of
+2" x 2" stock. The seat is elevated 16 inches from the floor, and the
+rear posts are 28 inches high. The arms are 8 inches above the seat. A
+chair of this character should have ample seat space, so the seat is 18"
+x 18".
+
+The dog house (Fig. 262), made in imitation of a dwelling, is 24 inches
+square, and 18 inches high to the eaves of the roof. The opening in
+front is 8" x 10", exclusive of the shaped portion of the opening.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 264._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 265._]
+
+Fig. 263 shows a simple and easily constructed settee with an under
+shelf. The seat is 16 inches from the floor and 24 inches wide. The back
+extends up 24 inches from the seat. The lower shelf is midway between
+the floor and seat, and is 19 inches wide. This may or may not be
+upholstered, dependent on the character of the material of which it is
+made. If upholstered, the boards may be of second-class material,
+preferably of pine or other light, soft wood.
+
+A towel rack (Fig. 264) is always a needed article in the kitchen. The
+roller may be an old curtain roller cut down to 18 inches in length. The
+top piece is 2-1/2 inches wide and 21 inches long. The vertical bars are
+each 1-1/2 inches wide and 9 inches long. The brackets are 1-1/2 inches
+wide and made of 3/4-inch material.
+
+Fig. 265 represents the framework of a sofa, the seat of which is 16
+inches high, the front posts up to the arm-rests 24 inches, and the rear
+posts 38 inches. From front to rear the seat is 18 inches. The posts are
+of 3" x 3" material. This makes a very rigid article of furniture, if
+mortised and tenoned and properly glued. The seat is 6 feet long, but it
+may be lengthened or shortened to suit the position in which it is to be
+placed. It is a companion piece to the chair (Fig. 261).
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII
+
+SPECIAL TOOLS AND THEIR USES
+
+
+In the foregoing chapters we have referred the reader to the simple
+tools, but it is thought desirable to add to the information thus given,
+an outline of numerous special tools which have been devised and are now
+on the market.
+
+BIT AND LEVEL ADJUSTER.--It is frequently necessary to bore holes at
+certain angles. This can be done by using a bevel square, and holding it
+so one limb will show the boring angle. But this is difficult to do in
+many cases.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 266. Bit and Square level._]
+
+This tool has three pairs of V slots on its back edges. The shank of the
+bit will lie in these slots, as shown in Fig. 266, either vertically, or
+at an angle of 45 degrees, and boring can be done with the utmost
+accuracy. It may be attached to a Carpenter's square, thus making it an
+accurate plumb or level.
+
+MITER BOXES.--The advantages of metal miter boxes is apparent, when
+accurate work is required.
+
+The illustration, Fig. 267, shows a metal tool of this kind, in which
+the entire frame is in one solid casting. The saw guide uprights are
+clamped in tapered sockets in the swivel arm and can be adjusted to hold
+the saw without play, and this will also counteract a saw that runs out
+of true, due to improper setting or filing.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 267. Metal Miter Box._]
+
+A second socket in the swivel arm permits the use of a short saw or
+allows a much longer stroke with a standard or regular saw.
+
+The swivel arm is provided with a tapering index pin which engages in
+holes placed on the under side of the base. The edge of the base is
+graduated in degrees, as plainly shown, and the swivel arm can be set
+and automatically fastened at any degree desired.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 268. Parts of Metal Miter Box._]
+
+The uprights, front and back are graduated in sixteenths of inches, and
+movable stops can be set, by means of thumb-screw to the depth of the
+cut desired.
+
+Figure 268 shows the parts of the miter box, in which the numbers
+designate the various parts: 101 is the frame; 102 the frame board; 104
+frame leg; 106 guide stock; 107 stock guide clamp; 109 stock guide
+plate; 110 swivel arm; 111 swivel arm bushing; 112 swivel bushing screw;
+113 index clamping lever; 115 index clamping lever catch; 116 index
+clamping lever spring; 122 swivel complete; 123 T-base; 124-1/2
+uprights; 126 saw guide cap; 127 saw guide cap plate; 132 saw guide tie
+bar; 133 left saw guide stop and screw; 134 right side guide stop and
+screw; 135 saw guide stop spring; 136 saw guide cylinder; 137 saw guide
+cylinder plate; 138 trip lever (back); 139 trip lever (front); 141
+leveling screw; 142 trip clamp and screw; 146 T-base clamp screw.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 269. Angle Dividers._]
+
+ANGLE DIVIDERS.--This is another tool, which does not cost much and is
+of great service to the carpenter in fitting moldings where they are
+applied at odd angles.
+
+To lay out the cut with an ordinary bevel necessitates the use of
+dividers and a second handling of the bevel, making three operations.
+
+THE "ODD JOB" TOOL.--A most useful special tool, which combines in its
+make-up a level, plumb try-square, miter-square, bevel, scratch awl,
+depth gage, marking gage, miter gage, beam compass, and a one-foot rule.
+To the boy who wishes to economize in the purchase of tools this is an
+article which should be obtained.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 270. "Odd Job" Tool._]
+
+Figure 270 shows the simplicity of the tool, and how it is applied in
+use.
+
+BIT BRACES.--These tools are now made with so many improved features
+that there is really no excuse for getting poor tools.
+
+The illustrations show merely the heads and the lower operating parts of
+the tools. Fig. 271 shows a metal-clad ball-bearing head, so called, as
+its under side is completely encased in metal securely screwed to the
+wood and revolving against the ball thrust bearing.
+
+D represents a concealed ratchet in which the cam ring governs the
+ratchet, and, being in line with the bit, makes it more convenient in
+handling than when it is at right angles. The ratchet parts are entirely
+enclosed, thus keeping out moisture and dirt, retaining lubrication and
+protecting the users' hands.
+
+The ratchet mechanism is interchangeable, and may be taken apart by
+removing one screw. The two-piece clutch, which is drop forged, is
+backed by a very strong spring, insuring a secure lock. When locked, ten
+teeth are in engagement, while five are employed while working at a
+ratchet. It has universal jaws (G) for both wood and metal workers.
+
+In Fig. 272, B represents a regular ball bearing head, with the wood
+screw on the large spindle and three small screws to prevent its working
+loose. This also has a ball thrust. E is the ratchet box, and this shows
+the gear teeth cut on the extra heavy spindle, and encased, so that the
+user's hands are protected from the teeth.
+
+The interlocking jaws (H), which are best for taper shanks, hold up to
+No. 2 Clark's expansion, and are therefore particularly adapted for
+carpenter's use.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 271. Fig. 272. Fig. 273. Types of Bit Braces._]
+
+In Fig. 273 the plain bearing head (C) has no ball thrust. The head is
+screwed on the spindle and held from turning off by two small screws.
+The open ratchet (F) shows the gear pinned to the spindle and exposed.
+This has alligator jaws (J), and will hold all ordinary size taper shank
+bits, also small and medium round shank bits or drills.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 274. Fig. 275. Fig. 276. Steel Frame Breast Drills._]
+
+STEEL FRAME BREAST DRILL.--These drills are made with both single and
+double speed, each speed having three varieties of jaws. The single
+speed is very high, the ratio being 4-1/2 to 1, which makes it
+desirable to use for small drills, or for use in wood.
+
+A level is firmly set in the frames of these tools to assist the user to
+maintain a horizontal position in boring. Each of the forms shown has a
+ball thrust bearing between the pinion and frame. The breast plate may
+be adjusted to suit and is locked by a set screw. The spindle is kept
+from turning while changing drills, by means of the latch mounted on the
+frame, and readily engaging with the pinion. The crank is pierced in
+three places so that the handle can be set for three different sweeps,
+depending on the character of the work.
+
+Figure 274 has a three jaw chuck, and has only single speed. Figure 275
+has an interlocking jaw, and is provided with double speed gearing.
+Figure 276 has a universal jaw, and double speed.
+
+PLANES.--The most serviceable planes are made in iron, and it might be
+well to show a few of the most important, to bring out the manner
+employed to make the adjustments of the bits.
+
+In order to familiarize the boy with the different terms used in a
+plane, examine Figure 277. The parts are designated as follows: 1A is
+the double plane iron; 1 single plane iron; 2 plane iron cap; 3 cap
+screw; 4 lever cap; 5 lever cap screw; 6 frog complete; 7 Y adjusting
+lever; 8 adjusting nut; 9 lateral adjusting lever; 11 plane handle; 12
+plane knob; 13 handle bolt and nut; 14 knob bolt and nut; 15 plane
+handle screw; 16 plane bottom; 44 frog pin; 45 frog clamping screw; 46
+frog adjusting screw.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 277. Details of Metal Plane._]
+
+RABBETING, MATCHING AND DADO PLANES.--Figure 278 shows a useful form of
+plane for the reason that it is designed to receive a variety of irons,
+adapted to cut rabbets.
+
+The detached sections of Fig. 278 show the various parts, as well as the
+bits which belong to it. 1, 1 represent the single plane irons; 4 the
+lever cap; 16 the plane bottom, 50 the fence; 51 the fence thumb screw;
+61 the short arm; 70 the adjustable depth gage; 71 the depth gage which
+goes through the screw; and 85 the spurs with screws.
+
+MOLDING AND BEADING PLANE.--A plane of the character shown in Fig. 279
+will do an immense variety of work in molding, beading and dado work,
+and is equally well adapted for rabbeting, for filletsters and for match
+planing. The regular equipment with this tool comprises fifty-two
+cutters.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 278. Rabbet, Matching and Dado Plane._]
+
+As shown in Fig. 279, the plane has a main stock (A), which carries the
+cutter adjustment, a handle, a depth gage, a slitting gage, and a steel
+bottom forming a bearing for the other end of the cutter, and slides on
+arms secured to the main stock.
+
+This bottom can be raised or lowered, so that, in addition to allowing
+the use of cutters of different widths, cutters can be used having one
+edge higher or lower than the edge supported in the main stock.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 279. Molding and Beading Plane._]
+
+The auxiliary center bottom (C), which can be adjusted for width or
+depth, fulfils the requirement of preventing the plane from tilting and
+gouging the work. The fence D has a lateral adjustment by means of a
+screw, for extra fine work. The four small cuts in the corners show how
+the bottoms should be set for different forms of cutters, and the great
+importance of having the fences adjusted so that the cutters will not
+run.
+
+The samples of work illustrated show some of the moldings which can be
+turned out with the plane.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 280. Dovetail Tongue and Groove Plane._]
+
+DOVETAIL TONGUE AND GROOVE PLANE.--This is a very novel tool, and has
+many features to recommend it. Figure 280 shows its form, and how it is
+used. It is designed to make the dovetailed tongue as well as the
+groove.
+
+It will cut any size groove and tongues to fit with sides of twenty
+degrees flare, where the width of the neck is more than one-quarter of
+an inch thick, and the depth of the groove not more than three-quarters
+of an inch. The tongue and groove are cut separately, and can be made
+with parallel or tapering sides. The operation of the plane is very
+simple.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 281. Fig. 282. Router Planes._]
+
+ROUTER PLANES.--This is a type of plane used for surfacing the bottom of
+grooves or other depressions parallel with the general surface of the
+work.
+
+The planes are made in two types, one, like Fig. 281, which has a closed
+throat, and the other, Fig. 282, with an open throat. Both are
+serviceable, but the latter is preferable. These planes will level off
+bottoms of depression, very accurately, and the tool is not an expensive
+one.
+
+DOOR TRIM PLANE.--This is a tool for making mortises for butts, face
+plates, strike plates, escutcheons, and the like, up to a depth of 5/16,
+and a width of 3 inches. The principal feature in the plane is the
+method of mounting the cutter, which can be instantly set to work from
+either end of the plane or across it.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 283. Door Trim Plane._]
+
+The cutter, as shown in Fig. 283, is cushioned by a spring which
+prevents taking a heavier chip than can be easily carried. A fence
+regulates the position of the cut and insures the sides of the cut being
+parallel. The depth of the cut is governed by a positive stop. By
+removing the fence and locking the cutter post with the thumb screw,
+instead of using the spring, a very superior router plane is obtained.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX
+
+ROOFING TRUSSES
+
+
+The chapter on Bridge Building gives some suggestions as to form of
+trusses, the particular types there shown being principally for wide
+spans. Such trusses were made for one purpose only, namely, to take
+great weight, and they were, as a consequence, so constructed as to
+provide strength.
+
+But a roofing truss, while designed to hold the accumulated materials,
+such as snow and ice, likely to be deposited there, is of such a design,
+principally, so as to afford means of ornamentation. This remark has
+reference to such types as dispense with the cross, or tie beam, which
+is the distinguishing feature in bridge building.
+
+The tie beam is also an important element in many types of trusses,
+where ornamentation is not required, or in such structures as have the
+roofed portion of the buildings enclosed by ceiling walls, or where the
+space between the roofs is used for storage purposes.
+
+In England, and on the Continent of Europe, are thousands of trusses
+structured to support the roofs, which are marvels of beauty. Some of
+them are bewildering in their formation. The moldings, beaded surfaces,
+and the carved outlines of the soffits, of the arches, and of the
+purlins, are wonderful in detail.
+
+The wooden roof of Westminster Hall, while very simple in structure, as
+compared with many others, looks like an intricate maze of beams, struts
+and braces, but it is, nevertheless, so harmonized that the effect is
+most pleasing to the eye, and its very appearance gives the impression
+of grandeur and strength.
+
+Nearly all of the forms shown herein have come down to us from mediaeval
+times, when more stress was laid on wooden structures than at the
+present time, but most of the stone and metal buildings grew out of the
+wooden prototypes.
+
+Now the prime object of nearly all the double-roofed trusses was to
+utilize the space between the rafters so as to give height and majesty
+to the interior.
+
+A large dome is grand, owing to its great simplicity, but the same plain
+outlines, or lack of ornamentation, in the ceiling of a square or
+rectangular building would be painful to view, hence, the braces, beams,
+plates, and various supports of the roofed truss served as ornamental
+parts, and it is in this particular that the art of the designer finds
+his inspiration.
+
+Before proceeding to apply the matter of ornamentation, it might be well
+to develop these roof forms, starting with the old type Barn Roof, where
+the space between the rafters must be utilized for the storage of hay.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 284. Gambrel Roof._]
+
+_The Gambrel Roof_, Fig. 284, requires a tie beam, (A), as shown, but
+the space above the beam is free of all obstructions, and gives a large
+storage space. The roof has two sets of rafters (B, C), and of different
+pitch, the lower rafters (B) having a pitch of about 30 degrees, and the
+upper ones (C), about 45 degrees.
+
+A tie bar (D) joins the middle portion of each of the rafters (B, C) and
+another tie bar (E) joins the middle part of the rafter (B), and the
+supporting post (F). The cross tie beam (G) completes the span, and a
+little study will show the complete interdependence of one piece upon
+the other.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 285. Purlin Roof._]
+
+_The Purlin Roof_ is a type of structure used very largely throughout
+the United States, for wide barns. (A) is the cross beam; (B, B) the
+purlin posts; (C, C) the purlin plates; (D, D) the rafters; and (E, E)
+the supporting braces.
+
+The rafters (D) are in two sections, the distance from the eaves to the
+comb being too great for single length rafters, and the purlin plates
+are not designed to make what is called a "self-supporting" roof, but
+merely to serve as supports for the regular rafters.
+
+_The Princess Truss_, on the other hand, is designed to act as a support
+for the different lengths of rafters (A, B, C), and as a means for
+holding the roof. It is adapted for low pitch and wide spans.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 286. Princess Truss._]
+
+The main truss is made up of the cross beam (D), rafters (E, E) and
+thrust beam (F). Purlin posts (G, G) are placed at an angle intermediate
+the ends of the rafters, and the purlin plates (H, H) support the roof
+rafters (A, B, C); I, I are the vertical tie rods.
+
+This type is probably the oldest form of truss for building purposes,
+and it has been modified in many ways, the most usual modification being
+the substitution of posts for the tie rods (I, I).
+
+Following out the foregoing forms, we may call attention to one more
+type which permitted ornamentation to a considerable degree, although it
+still required the tie beam. In fact the tie beam itself was the feature
+on which the architect depended to make the greatest effect by
+elaborating it.
+
+This is shown in Fig. 287, and is called the _Arched_, or _Cambered, Tie
+Beam Truss_. It is a very old type, samples of which have been found
+which take it back to a very remote age.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 287. Arched, or Cambered, Tie Beam._]
+
+The tie beam A, in wide spans, was made in two sections, properly tied
+together, and sometimes the outer ends were very wide, and to add to the
+effect of the arch, it might also be raised in the middle, something in
+the form shown by the dotted line (B).
+
+_The Mansard_ is what may be called a double-mounted roof, and it will
+be seen how it was evolved from the preceding types. It will be noted
+that the simple truss formed by the members (A, B, C) is merely
+superposed on the leaning posts, the tie beam also being necessary in
+this construction.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 288. The Mansard._]
+
+But the most elaborate formations are those which were intended to
+provide trusses for buildings wherein the tie beams were dispensed with.
+
+The simplest form known is called the _Scissors Beam_, illustrated in
+Fig. 289. This has been utilized for small spaces, and steep pitches.
+Each rafter (A) has an angled beam or brace (B), springing from its
+base, to the opposite rafter (A), to which it is joined, midway between
+its ends, as at C.
+
+Where the two braces (B) cross each other they are secured together, as
+at D. As a result, three trusses are formed, namely, 1, 2, 3, and it
+possesses remarkable strength.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 289. Scissors Beam._]
+
+BRACED COLLAR BEAM.--This is a modification of the last type, but is
+adapted for thick walls only. The tie rod braces (A, A) have to be
+brought down low to give a good bracing action, and this arrangement is
+capable of considerable ornamentation.
+
+The steeper the pitch the higher up would be the inner and lower brace
+posts (B, B) which were supported by the top of the wall. This form is
+not available for wide spans, and is shown to illustrate how the
+development was made into the succeeding types.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 290. Braced Collar Beam._]
+
+THE RIB AND COLLAR TRUSS, Fig. 291, is the first important structural
+arrangement which permitted the architect to give full sway to
+embellishment. The inwardly-projecting members (A, A) are called _Hammer
+Beams_. They were devised as a substitute for the thick walls used in
+the Braced Collar Beam Truss, and small brackets (B, B) were placed
+beneath as supports.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 291. Rib and Collar Truss._]
+
+The short tie beam (C), near the apex, serves as the member to receive
+the thrust and stress of the curved ribs (D, D). It forms a most
+graceful type of roof, and is capable of the most exquisite
+ornamentation, but it is used for the high pitched roofs only.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 290-1/2. Hammer Beam Truss._]
+
+The acme of all constructions, in which strength, beauty, and capacity
+for ornamentation are blended, is the _Hammer Beam Truss_. Here the
+hammer beam projects inwardly farther than in the preceding figure, and
+has a deeper bracket (B), and this also extends down the pendant post
+(C) a greater distance.
+
+The curved supporting arch (D), on each side, is not ribbed, as in the
+Rib and Collar Truss, but instead, is provided with openwork (not shown
+herein), together with beadings and moldings, and other ornamental
+characteristics, and some of the most beautiful architectural forms in
+existence are in this type of roof.
+
+What are called Flying Buttresses (E) are sometimes used in connection
+with the Hammer Beam Truss, which, with heavy roofs and wide spans, is
+found to be absolutely necessary.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XX
+
+ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF JOINTS
+
+
+In uniting two or more elements, some particular type of joint is
+necessary. In framing timbers, in making braces, in roof construction
+and supports, in floor beams, and in numerous other places, where
+strength is required, the workman should have at his command a knowledge
+of the most serviceable methods.
+
+Illustrations can most forcibly convey the different types; but the
+sizes must be determined by the character of the material you are
+working with. Our aim is to give the idea involved, and the name by
+which each is known.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 292. Bridle Joints._]
+
+Reference has been made in Chapter X, to certain forms of scarfing and
+lapping pieces. This chapter has to do with a variety of other
+structural forms, but principally with such as are used in heavy
+building work, and in cases where neither fish plates nor scarfing will
+answer the purpose.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 293. Spur Tenon._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 294. Saddle Joints._]
+
+BRIDLE JOINTS.--This is a form of joint where permanency is not desired,
+and where it is necessary to readily seat or unseat the vertical timber.
+It is also obvious that the socket for the upright is of such a
+character that it will not weaken it to any great extent.
+
+SPUR TENON.--This tenon can be used in many places where the regular one
+is not available. This, like the preceding, is used where the parts are
+desired to be detachable, and the second form is one which is used in
+many structures.
+
+SADDLE JOINT.--This is still another manner in which a quickly
+detachable joint can be constructed. The saddle may be mounted on the
+main base, or cut into the base piece. An infinite variety of forms of
+saddles are made, most of them being used in dock work, and for framing
+of that character where large timbers are used, as in the building of
+coal chutes, and the like.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 295. Joggle Joints._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 296. Framing Joints._]
+
+JOGGLE JOINT.--This joint is used almost exclusively for brace work
+where great weight must be supported. The brace has a tenon, and the
+end must also be so arranged that it will have a direct bearing against
+the upright, which it braces and supports, or it may have two faces, as
+in the second figure, which is an exceedingly strong construction.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 297. Heel Joints._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 298. Stub Tenon._]
+
+FRAMING JOINTS.--These are the simplest form in which two members are
+secured together. They are used almost wholly in rafter work, and have
+very few modifications. The depth of the cut, for the toe of the rafter,
+depends on the load to be carried, and also on the distance the end of
+the rafter is from the end of the horizontal member on which the rafter
+rests.
+
+HEEL JOINTS.--This is by far the most secure of the framing type of
+joints. This, if properly made, is much better than the construction
+shown in the previous illustration, but the difficulty is to make the
+rafter fit into the recesses properly. This is no excuse for failure to
+use, but it is on account of inability to make close fits that is
+accountable for lack of use. It will be seen that in case one of the
+heels rests against the recess, and the others do not, and the pressure
+is great, there is a liability to tear out the entire joint.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 299. Tusk Tenon._]
+
+STUB TENON.--This is another form of tenon which is made and designed to
+be used where it is in close proximity to another tenon, or where the
+mortises, if made full size, will weaken the member. The long tusk can
+be shortened, to suit the place where it projects, and the stub tenon on
+each side of the tusk may be made very short, and one side longer than
+the other if necessary.
+
+TUSK TENON.--Two forms of tusk construction are given. Any number of
+forms have been devised, all for special purposes, and designed for
+different kinds of woods. These shown are particularly adapted for soft
+woods, and the principal feature that is valuable lies in the fact that
+they have a number of shoulders within the mortise, each of which,
+necessarily adds to the strength. It should be observed that in the
+construction of the tusk tenon, the greatest care must be taken to have
+it fit the mortise tightly, and this has reference to the bottom and
+shoulder ends as well.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 300. Double Tusk Tenon._]
+
+DOUBLE TUSK TENONS.--The distinguishing difference between this and the
+preceding is in the tusk, which in this form of construction goes
+through the upright member, and is held by a cross key. The double tusk
+is intended for hard woods, and it is regarded as the finest, as well
+as the strongest, joint known.
+
+COGGED JOINTS.--This differs from the regular tenoning and mortising
+methods, principally because the groove or recess is in the form of an
+open gain. It is used where the member is to be inserted after the main
+structure is put together.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 301. Cogged Joints._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 302. Anchor Joint._]
+
+ANCHOR JOINT.--This form of connection is designed for very large
+timbers, and where great care must be taken in making the parts fit
+together nicely, as everything depends on this. This style is never
+used where the angles are less than 45 degrees, and the depth of the
+gain in the timber receiving the brace is dependent on the thrust of the
+brace.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 303. Deep Anchor Joint._]
+
+The Deep Anchor Joint is an extension of the tongue of the Anchor tenon,
+so that it affords a greater support for the end thrust. To clearly
+distinguish between this and the preceding form, it might be said that
+the Anchor Joint is one designed to protect the member containing the
+gains, while the Deep Anchor Joint favors the brace, by giving it a
+greater power.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXI
+
+SOME MISTAKES, AND A LITTLE ADVICE IN CARPENTRY
+
+
+In the mechanical arts, workers are as likely to learn from the mistakes
+committed as through correct information imparted. Advice, therefore,
+might be considered superfluous. But there are certain things which are
+easily remembered and may be borne in mind while engaged in turning out
+any work.
+
+This chapter is not given for the purpose of calling attention to all
+the errors which are so common, but merely to point out a few which the
+boy will commit as he tries to carry out his work for the first time.
+
+One of the difficult things for any one to learn, in working with wood,
+is to plane the edge of a board straight and square at the same time.
+This is made doubly difficult if it is desired to plane it strictly to
+dimensions.
+
+Usually before the edge is straight it is down to the proper width
+desired, and it is then too late to correct any error, because further
+work will make it too narrow.
+
+The whole difficulty is in the holding of the plane. It matters not how
+rigidly it is held, and how carefully it is guarded to veer it toward
+one side or the other, it will be found a most difficult task.
+
+If the fore, or finishing, plane is used, and which is the proper tool
+for the purpose, the impression seems to be, that to square up the edge
+and make it cut off a thicker shaving on one side than on the other,
+requires that the plane should be pressed down with force, so as to make
+it dig in and cut a thicker shaving.
+
+When this is resorted to the board is liable to get out of true from end
+to end. A much better plan is to put the plane on the edge of the board
+true and straight. If it is too high on the edge nearest you, bring the
+plane over so the inside edge is flush with the inside edge of the
+board.
+
+Then use the fingers of the left hand as a gage to keep the plane from
+running over.
+
+Now, the weight of the plane in such a condition is sufficient to take
+off a thicker shaving at the high edge, and this will be done without
+any effort, and will enable you to concentrate your thoughts on keeping
+the plane straight with the board.
+
+The weight of the plane will make a thicker shaving on one side than on
+the other, and correct inequalities, provided you do not attempt to
+force the plane.
+
+It requires an exceedingly steady hand to hold a plane firmly for
+squaring up a half-inch board. Singular as it may seem, it is almost as
+difficult a job with a two-inch plank. In the case of the thin board the
+plane will move laterally, unless the utmost care is exercised; in the
+truing up the thick plank the constant tendency is to move the plane
+along the surface at a slight diagonal, and this is sure to cause
+trouble.
+
+It only emphasizes the fact most clearly, that to do a good job the
+plane must be firmly held, that it must move along the board with the
+utmost precision, and that it should not be forced into the wood.
+
+In smoothing down a board with the short smoothing plane, preparatory to
+sandpapering it, the better plan is to move the plane slightly across
+the grain. This will enable the bit to take hold better, and when the
+sandpaper is applied the course of the movement should be across the
+grain opposite the direction taken by the smoothing plane.
+
+It is never satisfactory to draw the sandpaper directly along in the
+course of the grain. Such a habit will cause the sandpaper to fill up
+very rapidly, particularly with certain woods.
+
+When gluing together joints or tenons, always wipe off the surplus glue
+with warm water taken from the glue pot. If you do not follow this
+advice the glue will gum up the tools and the sandpaper used to finish
+the work.
+
+Never try to work from opposite sides of a piece of material. Have a
+_work side_ and a work _edge_, and make all measurements therefrom. Mark
+each piece as you go along. Take a note mentally just how each piece is
+to be placed, and what must be done with it.
+
+The carpenter, above all others, must be able to carry a mental picture
+of his product.
+
+Never saw out the scribing or marking line, either in cutting or in
+ripping. The lines should be obliterated by the plane, when it is being
+finished, and not before.
+
+Make it a habit to finish off the surfaces and edges true and smooth
+before the ends are cut, or the mortises or tenons are made. This is one
+of the most frequent mistakes. No job can be a perfect one unless your
+material has been worked down to proper dimensions.
+
+Learn to saw across a board squarely. This may be a hard thing for the
+novice to do. A long, easy stroke of the saw will prevent it from
+running, unless too badly set or filed, and will also enable you to hold
+it more nearly square with the board.
+
+If you find that you invariably saw "out of true," then take some sawing
+lessons for your own benefit, until you can judge whether the saw is
+held true or not.
+
+It is better to saw up a half dozen boards in making the test than
+commit the error while working on a job.
+
+
+
+
+GLOSSARY OF WORDS USED IN TEXT OF THIS VOLUME
+
+
+$Acute.$ Sharp, to the point.
+
+$Adjuster.$ A tool which measures distances and relative spaces.
+
+$AEsthetic.$ The theory of taste; science of the beautiful in nature and
+art.
+
+$Abstract.$ That which exists in the mind only; separate from matter; to
+think of separately as a quality.
+
+$Alligator jaws.$ A term used to designate a pair of serrated bars which
+are held together in a headpiece, and capable of clamping bits between
+them.
+
+$Analyzed.$ Separated into its primitive or original parts.
+
+$Anchor.$ Any device for holding an object in a fixed position.
+
+$Angle dividers.$ A sort of double bevel tool so arranged that an angle
+can be made at the same time on both side of a base line.
+
+$Angularly disposed.$ Forming an angle with reference to some part or
+position.
+
+$Archivolt.$ The architectural member surrounding the curved opening of
+an arch. More commonly the molding or other ornaments with which the
+wall face of an arch is changed.
+
+$Artisan.$ One trained in some mechanic's art or trade.
+
+$Beaded.$ A piece of wood or iron having rounded creases on its
+surface.
+
+$Beam compass.$ A drawing compass in which the points are arranged to
+slide on a rod, instead of being fixed on dividers.
+
+$Belfry.$ A bell-tower, usually attached to a church.
+
+$Bevel square.$ A handle to which is pivotally attached a blade, which
+may be swung and held at any desired angle.
+
+$Bisected.$ To divide, mark, or cut into two portions.
+
+$Bit.$ A small tool, either for drilling, or for cutting, as a plane
+iron.
+
+$Braced collar.$ A form of roofing truss, in which the upper cross
+member is supported by a pair of angled braces.
+
+$Breast drill.$ A tool for holding boring tools, and designed to have
+the head held against the breast for forcing in the boring tool.
+
+$Bridle joint.$ A form for securing elements together which provides a
+shallow depression in one member, and a chamfered member at its end to
+fit therein.
+
+$Bungalow.$ A Bengalese term; originally a thatched or tiled house or
+cottage, single story, usually surrounded by a veranda.
+
+$Bushing.$ A substance of any kind interposed, as, for instance, a
+wearing surface between a mandrel and its bearing.
+
+$Butts.$ A term applied to certain hinges, usually of the large type.
+
+$Callipered.$ A measured portion which has its side or thickness fixed
+by a finely graduated instrument.
+
+$Cambered.$ Slightly rising in the middle portion. An upward bend, or
+projection.
+
+$Capital.$ A small head or top of a column; the head or uppermost member
+of a pilaster.
+
+$Cardinal.$ Pre-eminent, chief, main line; _Cardinal_ line is the
+principal line to make calculations or measurements from.
+
+$Centering point.$ A place for the reception of the point of an
+instrument, like a compass or a dividers, or for the dead center of the
+tail-stock of a lathe.
+
+$Cheekpiece.$ A piece or pieces at right angles to another piece, either
+fixed or movable, which serves as a rest or a guide.
+
+$Chiffonier.$ A movable and ornamental closet or piece of furniture with
+shelves and drawers.
+
+$Chute.$ A channel in any material, or made of any substance, for
+conveying liquids or solids.
+
+$Circumference.$ The distance around an object.
+
+$Circumferentially.$ Surrounding or encircling.
+
+$Classical.$ Relating to the first class or rank, especially in
+literature or art.
+
+$Cogged.$ Having teeth, either at regular or at irregular intervals.
+
+$Concrete.$ Expressing the thing itself specifically; also the quality;
+a specific example.
+
+$Configuration.$ Form, as depending on the relative disposition of the
+parts of a thing; a shape or a figure.
+
+$Coincide.$ To occupy the same place in space; to correspond exactly; to
+agree; to concur.
+
+$Correlation.$ A reference, as from one thing to another; the putting
+together of various parts.
+
+$Conventional.$ Something which grows out of or depends upon custom, or
+is sanctioned by general usage.
+
+$Craftsman.$ One skilled in a craft or trade.
+
+$Curvature.$ The act of curving or being bent.
+
+$Concentrated.$ To bring to a common center; to bring together in one
+mass.
+
+$Dado.$ A plain flat surface between a base and a surbase molding.
+Sometimes a painted or encrusted skirting on interior walls.
+
+$Depth gage.$ A tool by means of which the depths of grooves and
+recesses are measured.
+
+$Degree.$ Measure of advancement; quality; extent; a division or space.
+
+$Discarded.$ Cast off; to reject or put away.
+
+$Deterioration.$ To grow worse; impairing in quality.
+
+$Depressed.$ A sunken surface or part.
+
+$Diagrammatical.$ A drawing made to illustrate the working or the
+scheme, without showing all the parts or giving their relative positions
+or measurements.
+
+$Diametrically.$ A direction toward the center or across the middle of a
+figure or thing.
+
+$Diagonal.$ A direction which is not parallel with or perpendicular to a
+line.
+
+$Dominate.$ To govern; controlling.
+
+$Door trim.$ The hardware which is attached to a door.
+
+$Double-roofed.$ All form of roof structure where there is an inner
+frame to support the rafters.
+
+$Drop forged.$ Metal forms which are struck up by means of heavy
+hammers, in which are the molds or patterns of the article to be formed.
+
+$Elaboration.$ Wrought with labor; finished with great care.
+
+$Elevation.$ The act of raising from a lower to a higher degree; a
+projection of a building or other object on a plane perpendicular to the
+horizon.
+
+$Elliptical.$ Having the form of an ellipse.
+
+$Embellishment.$ The act of adorning; that which adds beauty or
+elegance.
+
+$Entablature.$ The structure which lies horizontally upon the columns.
+
+$Equidistant.$ Being at an equal distance from a point.
+
+$Escutcheon.$ An ornamental plate like that part about a keyhole.
+
+$Evolve.$ To unfold or unroll; to open and expand.
+
+$Facade.$ The front of a building; the principal front having some
+architectural pretensions.
+
+$Facing-boards.$ The finishing of the face of a wall of different
+material than the main part of the wall; the wide board below the
+cornice or beneath the windows.
+
+$Factor.$ One of the elements, circumstances or influences which
+contribute to produce a result.
+
+$Fence.$ A term used to designate a metal barrier or guard on a part of
+a tool.
+
+$Fish plate.$ A pair of plates, usually placed on opposite sides of the
+pieces to be secured together, and held by cross bolts.
+
+$Flare.$ A pitch; an angle; an inclination.
+
+$Flush.$ Unbroken, or even in surface; on a level with the adjacent
+surface.
+
+$Frog clamping screw.$ A screw which is designed to hold or adjust two
+angled pieces.
+
+$Fulcrum.$ That by which a lever is sustained, or on which a lever rests
+in turning or moving a body.
+
+$Fluting.$ The channel or channels in a body; as the grooves in a
+column.
+
+$Gain.$ A square or beveled notch or groove cut out of a girder, beam,
+post or other material, at a corner.
+
+$Gambrel.$ A roof having two different pitches, the upper much greater
+than the lower.
+
+$Geometry.$ Pertaining to that branch of mathematics which investigates
+the relations, properties and measurements of solids, surfaces, lines
+and angles.
+
+$Girder.$ A main beam; a straight horizontal beam to span an opening or
+carry a weight, such as the ends of floor beams.
+
+$Glossary.$ A collection or explanation of words and passages of the
+works of an author; a partial dictionary.
+
+$Graduated.$ Cut up into steps; divided into equal parts.
+
+$Guide stock.$ A member which is the main portion of the tool, and from
+which all measurements are taken.
+
+$Hammer beam.$ A member in a truss roof structure, at the base of the
+roof proper, which consists of an inwardly projecting part, on which the
+roof rests, and from which it is braced.
+
+$Hammer-pole.$ The peon, or round end of a hammer which is used for
+driving nails.
+
+$Hemispherical.$ Pertaining to a half globe or sphere.
+
+$Horizontal.$ On the level; at right angles to a line which points to
+the center of the earth.
+
+$Incorporated.$ United in one body.
+
+$Index pin.$ A small movable member which is designed to limit the
+movement of the operative part of a machine.
+
+$Initial.$ To make a beginning with; the first of a series of acts or
+things.
+
+$Insulate.$ To place in a detached position; to separate from.
+
+$Interchangeable.$ One for the other.
+
+$Interval.$ A space between things; a void space; between two objects.
+
+$Interest.$ To engage the attention of; to awaken or attract attention.
+
+$Interlocking jaw.$ Two or more parts of a piece of mechanism in which
+the said parts pass each other in their motions.
+
+$Intersection.$ The point or line in which one line or surface cuts
+another.
+
+$Intervening.$ The portion between.
+
+$Inverted.$ Turned over; to put upside down.
+
+$Joggle-joint.$ A form of connection which has struts attached to a
+pendant post.
+
+$Joinery.$ The art or trade of joining wood.
+
+$Kerf.$ A notch, channel or slit made in any material by cutting or
+sawing.
+
+$Kit.$ A working outfit; a collection of tools or implements.
+
+$Level.$ A tool designed to indicate horizontal or vertical surfaces.
+
+$Liberal.$ Not narrow or contracted.
+
+$Lobe.$ Any projection, especially of a rounded form; the projecting
+part of a cam-wheel.
+
+$Longitudinal.$ In the direction of the length; running lengthwise.
+
+$Lubrication.$ The system of affording oiling means to a machine or to
+any article.
+
+$Mandrel.$ The live spindle of a lathe; the revolving arbor of a
+circular saw.
+
+$Mansard.$ A type of roof structure with two pitches, one, the lower,
+being very steep, and the other very flat pitch.
+
+$Manual.$ Of or pertaining to the hand; done or made by hand.
+
+$Marginal.$ The border or edge of an object.
+
+$Marking gage.$ A bar on which is placed a series of points, usually
+equidistant from each other.
+
+$Matching.$ Placing tongue in one member and a corresponding groove in
+another member, so that they will join each other perfectly.
+
+$Mediaeval.$ Of or relating to the Middle Ages.
+
+$Miter-box.$ A tool for the purpose of holding a saw true at any desired
+adjustable angle.
+
+$Miter-square.$ A tool which provides adjustment at any desired angle.
+
+$Mullion.$ A slender bar or pier which forms the vertical division
+between the lights of windows, screens, etc.; also, indoors, the main
+uprights are _stiles_, and the intermediate uprights are _mullions_.
+
+$Obliterated.$ Erased or blotted out.
+
+$Obtuse.$ Not pointed; bent.
+
+$Orbit.$ The path made by a heavenly body in its travel around another
+body.
+
+$Ordinate.$ The distance of any point in a curve or a straight line,
+measured on a line called the _axis of ordinates,_ or on a line parallel
+to it from another line, at right angles thereto, called the _axis of
+abscissas_.
+
+$Ornamentation.$ To embellish; to improve in appearance.
+
+$Oscillate.$ To swing like a pendulum.
+
+$Overhang.$ In a general sense that which projects out.
+
+$Paneling.$ A sunken compartment or portion with raised margins, molded
+or otherwise, as indoors, ceilings wainscoting, etc.
+
+$Parallelogram.$ A right-lined quadrilateral figure, whose opposite
+sides are parallel and, consequently, equal.
+
+$Parallel.$ Extended in the same direction, and in all parts equally
+distant.
+
+$Perspective.$ A view; a vista; the effect of distance upon the
+appearance of objects, by means of which the eye recognizes them as
+being at a more or less measurable distance.
+
+$Pivot.$ A fixed pin, or short axis, on the end of which a wheel or
+other body turns.
+
+$Pitch.$ Slope; descent; declivity, like the slope of a roof.
+
+$Placement.$ The act of placing; in the state of being placed.
+
+$Predominate.$ To be superior in number, strength, influence or
+authority; controlling.
+
+$Produced.$ To lengthen out; to extend.
+
+$Prototype.$ The original; that from which later forms sprang.
+
+$Purlin.$ A longitudinal piece of timber, under a roof, midway between
+the eaves and comb, to hold the rafters.
+
+$Rabbeting.$ The manner of cutting grooves or recesses.
+
+$Ratchet.$ A wheel, bar, or other form of member, having teeth or
+recesses.
+
+Rebate. A rectangular, longitudinal recess or groove, cut in the corner
+or edge of a body.
+
+$Rail.$ A horizontal piece in a frame or paneling.
+
+$Rectangular.$ Right-angled; having one or more angles of ninety
+degrees; a four-sided figure having only right angles.
+
+$Rib and collar.$ A form of roof truss in which the collar between
+rafters is used as the thrust bearing for the ribs which project up from
+the hammer beam.
+
+$Router.$ A tool for cutting grooves or recesses.
+
+$Saddle joint.$ A form of connection in which one part has a portion cut
+away, resembling a saddle, and in which the part to be attached has its
+end cut so as to fit the saddle thus formed.
+
+$Scarfing.$ The cutting away of the ends of timbers to be joined, so the
+two parts on lapping will unite evenly.
+
+$Scissors beam.$ A form of truss, in which there is a pair of interior
+braces formed like shears, and secured to the main rafters themselves.
+
+$Score, Scored.$ Shear; cut; divide; also notching or marking.
+
+$Scratch awl.$ A sharp-pointed tool, with a handle.
+
+$Scribe.$ To cut, indent or mark with a tool, such as a knife, awl or
+compass, so as to form a cutting line for the workman.
+
+$Self-supporting.$ Held by itself; not depending upon outside aid.
+
+$Shank.$ Usually the handle, or portion to which the handle is attached.
+
+$Slitting gage.$ A tool which is designed to cut along a certain line
+guided by an adjustable fence.
+
+$Soffit.$ The under side of an arch.
+
+$Solid.$ Not hollow; full of matter; having a fixed form; hard; opposed
+to liquid or fluid.
+
+$Spindle.$ A small mandrel; an arbor; a turning shaft.
+
+$Springer.$ The post or point at which an arch rests upon its support,
+and from which it seems to spring.
+
+$Sphere.$ A body or space continued under a single surface which, in
+every part, is equally distant from a point within called its center.
+
+$Spur.$ A small part jutting from another.
+
+$Strike plate.$ A plate serving as a keeper for a beveled latch bolt and
+against which the latter strikes in closing.
+
+$Steel Tubing.$ Pipes made from steel; tubing is measured across from
+outside to outside; piping is measured on the inside.
+
+$Step-wedge.$ A wedge having one straight edge, and the other edge
+provided with a succession of steps, by means of which the piece
+gradually grows wider.
+
+$Strain, Stresses.$ To act upon in any way so as to cause change of form
+or volume; as forces on a beam to bend it.
+
+$Strut.$ Any piece of timber which runs from one timber to another, and
+is used to support a part.
+
+$Stub.$ A projecting part, usually of some defined form, and usually
+designed to enter or engage with a corresponding recess in another
+member.
+
+$Submerged.$ To be buried or covered, as with a fluid; to put under.
+
+$Swivel.$ A pivoted member, used in many forms of tools, in which one
+part turns on the other.
+
+$Tail-stock.$ The sliding support or block in a lathe, which carries the
+dead spindle, or adjustable center.
+
+$Technical.$ Of or pertaining to the useful in mechanical arts, or to
+any science, business, or the like.
+
+$Texture.$ The disposition of the several parts of any body in
+connection with each other; or the manner in which the parts are united.
+
+$Tool rest.$ That part of a lathe, or other mechanism, which supports a
+tool, or holds the tool support.
+
+$Torso.$ The human body as distinguished from the head and limbs.
+
+$Transverse.$ In a crosswise direction; lying across; at right angles to
+the longitudinal.
+
+$Trimmer.$ A beam, into which are framed the ends of headers in floor
+framing, as when a hole is left for stairs, chimneys, and the like.
+
+$Truss.$ An assemblage of members of wood or iron, supported at two
+points, and arranged to transmit pressure vertically to those points
+with the least possible strain, across the length of any member.
+
+$Tusk.$ In mechanism, a long projecting part, longer than a tenon, and
+usually applied to the long or projecting part of a tenon.
+
+$Universal joint.$ A joint wherein one member is made to turn with
+another, although the two turning members are not in a line with each
+other.
+
+$Vocation.$ Employment; trade; profession; business.
+
+$Voissoir.$ One of the wedgelike stones of which an arch is composed.
+
+
+
+
+THE "HOW-TO-DO-IT" BOOKS
+
+
+CARPENTRY FOR BOYS
+
+A book which treats, in a most practical and fascinating manner, all
+subjects pertaining to the "King of Trades"; showing the care and use of
+tools; drawing; designing, and the laying out of work; the principles
+involved in the building of various kinds of structures, and the
+rudiments of architecture. It contains over two hundred and fifty
+illustrations made especially for this work, and includes also a
+complete glossary of the technical terms used in the art. The most
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+
+       *       *       *       *       *
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+ELECTRICITY FOR BOYS
+
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+principles in each phase of the science, and practically applying the
+work in the successive stages. It shows how the knowledge has been
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+technical words so as to bring it within the compass of every boy. It
+has a complete glossary of terms, and is illustrated with two hundred
+original drawings.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+PRACTICAL MECHANICS FOR BOYS
+
+This book takes the beginner through a comprehensive series of practical
+shop work, in which the uses of tools, and the structure and handling of
+shop machinery are set forth; how they are utilized to perform the work,
+and the manner in which all dimensional work is carried out. Every
+subject is illustrated, and model building explained. It contains a
+glossary which comprises a new system of cross references, a feature
+that will prove a welcome departure in explaining subjects. Fully
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+
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+
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+
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+
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+THE WONDER ISLAND BOYS
+
+BY ROGER T. FINLAY
+
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+who are cast away on an island with absolutely nothing but their
+clothing. By gradual and natural stages they succeed in constructing all
+forms of devices used in the mechanical arts and learn the scientific
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+in an incidental and natural way in the progress of events, from the
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+
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+line a fact.
+
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+
+       *       *       *       *       *
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+THE WONDER ISLAND BOYS The Castaways
+
+THE WONDER ISLAND BOYS Exploring the Island
+
+THE WONDER ISLAND BOYS The Mysteries of the Caverns
+
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+
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+
+THE WONDER ISLAND BOYS The Conquest of the Savages
+
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+
+
+THE HICKORY RIDGE BOY SCOUTS
+
+A SERIES OF BOOKS FOR BOYS
+
+Which, in addition to the interesting boy scout stories by CAPTAIN ALAN
+DOUGLAS, Scoutmaster, contain articles on nature lore, native animals
+and a fund of other information pertaining to out-of-door life, that
+will appeal to the boy's love of the open.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+I. The Campfires of the Wolf Patrol
+
+Their first camping experience affords the scouts splendid opportunities
+to use their recently acquired knowledge in a practical way. Elmer
+Chenoweth, a lad from the northwest woods, astonishes everyone by his
+familiarity with camp life. A clean, wholesome story every boy should
+read.
+
+II. Woodcraft; or, How a Patrol Leader Made Good
+
+This tale presents many stirring situations in which some of the boys
+are called upon to exercise all their ingenuity and unselfishness. A
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+
+III. Pathfinder; or, The Missing Tenderfoot
+
+Some mysteries are cleared up in a most unexpected way, greatly to the
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+after the other.
+
+IV. Fast Nine; or, a Challenge From Fairfield
+
+They show the same team-work here as when in camp. The description of
+the final game with the team of a rival town, and the outcome thereof,
+form a stirring narrative. One of the best baseball stories of recent
+years.
+
+V. Great Hike; or, The Pride of The Khaki Troop
+
+After weeks of preparation the scouts start out on their greatest
+undertaking. Their march takes them far from home, and the good-natured
+rivalry of the different patrols furnishes many interesting and amusing
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+
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+
+Few stories "get" us more than illustrations of pluck in the face of
+apparent failure. Our heroes show the stuff they are made of and
+surprise their most ardent admirers. One of the best stories Captain
+Douglas has written.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+$Boy Scout Nature Lore to be Found in The Hickory Ridge Boy Scout
+Series$
+
+Wild Animals of the United States--Tracking--in Number I.
+Trees and Wild Flowers of the United States in Number II.
+Reptiles of the United States in Number III.
+Fishes of the United States in Number IV.
+Insects of the United States in Number V.
+Birds of the United States in Number VI.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
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+
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+|                                  |
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+|                                  |
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+
+
+1. In Camp on the Big Sunflower.
+2. The Rivals of the Trail.
+3. The Strange Cabin on Catamount Island.
+4. Lost in the Great Dismal Swamp.
+5. With Trapper Jim in the North Woods.
+6. Caught in a Forest Fire.
+
+BY LAWRENCE J. LESLIE
+
+A series of wholesome stories for boys told in an interesting way and
+appealing to their love of the open.
+
+_Each, 12mo.     Cloth.     40 cents per volume_
+
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+147 FOURTH AVENUE
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+
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+
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+
+This book has attained a larger sale than any baseball story ever
+published.
+
+The narrative deals with the students of a large university and their
+baseball team, the members of which have names which enable the reader
+to recognize them as some of the foremost baseball stars of the day
+before their entrance into the major leagues.
+
+One gains a very clear idea of "inside baseball" stripped of wearisome
+technicalities. The book is profusely illustrated throughout and
+contains also a number of plates showing the manner in which Mathewson
+throws his deceptive curves, together with brief description of each.
+
+_Cloth bound 5-1/2 x 7-5/8       Price 60c. per volume_
+
+THE NEW YORK BOOK COMPANY
+147 FOURTH AVENUE       NEW YORK
+
+
+
+
+
+ECONOMICAL COOKING
+_Primrose Edition_
+
+_Planned for Two or More Persons_
+
+By
+MISS WINIFRED S. GIBBS
+
+Dietitian and Teacher of Cooking of the New York Association for
+Improving the Condition of the Poor
+
+_Printed on Fine Quality Book Paper. Cover Design in Colors_
+
+Many Cook Books have been published, from time to time, to meet various
+requirements, or to elucidate certain theories, but very few have been
+written to meet the needs of the large proportion of our population who
+are acutely affected by the constantly increasing cost of food products.
+Notwithstanding that by its valuable suggestions this book helps to
+reduce the expense of supplying the table, the recipes are so planned
+that the economies effected thereby are not offset by any lessening in
+the attractiveness, variety or palatability of the dishes.
+
+Of equal importance are the sections of this work which deal with food
+values, the treatment of infants and invalids and the proper service of
+various dishes.
+
+The recipes are planned for two persons, but may readily be adapted for
+a larger number. The book is replete with illustrations and tables of
+food compositions--the latter taken from the latest Government
+statistics.
+
+_Cloth Binding     Illustrated     40c. per volume, postpaid_
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+grade paper. This series introduces many novel features of interest, and
+as the subject matters have been selected with unusual care, the books
+make a strong appeal not only to the little ones but even to those of
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+
+Post Cards                 _Painting Book_
+Dolls of all Nations       _Scissors Book_
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+
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+
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+147 FOURTH AVENUE       NEW YORK
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+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Carpentry for Boys, by J. S. Zerbe
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