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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Carpentry for Boys, by J. S. Zerbe
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Carpentry for Boys
+ In a Simple Language, Including Chapters on Drawing, Laying
+ Out Work, Designing and Architecture With 250 Original
+ Illustrations
+
+Author: J. S. Zerbe
+
+Release Date: March 7, 2007 [EBook #20763]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CARPENTRY FOR BOYS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Ross Wilburn, Curtis Weyant and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+THE "HOW-TO-DO-IT" BOOKS
+
+CARPENTRY FOR BOYS
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 1. A Typical Work Bench._]
+
+
+
+THE "HOW-TO-DO-IT" BOOKS
+
+CARPENTRY FOR BOYS
+
+in simple language, including
+chapters on drawing, laying out
+work, designing and architecture
+
+WITH 250 ORIGINAL ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+BY J. S. ZERBE, M.E.
+
+AUTHOR OF
+
+
+ELECTRICITY FOR BOYS
+PRACTICAL MECHANICS FOR BOYS
+
+
+THE NEW YORK BOOK COMPANY
+
+NEW YORK
+
+COPYRIGHT, 1914, BY
+
+THE NEW YORK BOOK COMPANY
+
+
++----------------------------------------------------------------------+
+|Transcriber's Notes: Italics are marked by underscore(_), Bold text is|
+|marked by $, Small caps have been uppercased. |
++----------------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+INTRODUCTORY
+
+I. TOOLS AND THEIR USES Page 5
+
+Knowledge of Tools. A Full Kit of Tools. The Hatchet. The Claw Hammer.
+About Saws--Cross-cut, Rip Saw, Back Saw. Planes--Jack Plane, Smoothing
+Plane, Pore Plane. Gages. Chisels--Firmer Chisel. Trusses. Saw Clamps.
+The Grindstone. Oilstone. Miter Box. The Work Bench.
+
+II. HOW TO GRIND AND SHARPEN TOOLS Page 16
+
+Care of Tools---First Requisites. Saws--How to Set. Saw-set Errors. Saw
+Setting Block. Filing. The Angle of Filing. Filing Pitch. Saw Clamps.
+Filing Suggestions. The File. Using the File. The Grindstone. In the Use
+of Grindstones. Correct Way of Holding Tool in Grinding. Care of Stone.
+Incorrect Way to Hold Tool. Way to Revolve or Turn Grindstone. The
+Plane. The Gage. Chisels. General Observations.
+
+III. HOW TO HOLD AND HANDLE TOOLS Page 29
+
+On the Holding of Tools. The Saw. How to Start a Saw. Sawing on a Line.
+The First Stroke. The Starting Cut for Cross-cutting. Forcing a Saw. The
+Stroke. The Chinese Saw. Things to Avoid. The Plane. Angle for Holding
+Planes. Errors to be Avoided. The Gage. Holding the Gage. The
+Draw-knife.
+
+IV. HOW TO DESIGN ARTICLES Page 39
+
+Fundamentals of Designing. The Commercial Instinct. First Requirements
+of Designing. Conventional Styles. The Mission Style. Cabinets. Harmony
+of Parts. Harmony of Wood.
+
+V. HOW WORK IS LAID OUT Page 43
+
+Concrete Examples of Work. Dimensions. Laying Out a Table. The Top. The
+Mortises. The Facing Boards. The Tenons. Tools Used. Chamfered Tenons.
+The Frame. The Drawer Support. The Table Frame. The Top. The Drawer. How
+Any Structure is Built Up. Observations About Making a Box. Points.
+Beveling and Mitering. Proper Terms. Picture Frames. Dovetail Points.
+Box Points. First Steps in Dovetailing. Cutting Out the Spaces. Tools
+Used in Laying Out Mortises and Tenons.
+
+VI. THE USES OF THE COMPASS AND THE SQUARE Page 59
+
+The Compass. Determining Angles. Definition of Degrees. Degrees Without
+a Compass. How Degrees are Calculated by the Dividers.
+
+VII. HOW THE DIFFERENT STRUCTURAL PARTS ARE DESIGNATED Page 65
+
+Importance of Proper Designation. How to Explain Mechanical Forms.
+Defining Segment and Sector. Arcade, Arch, Buttress, Flying Buttress,
+Chamfer, Cotter, Crenelated, Crosses, Curb Roof, Cupola, Crown Post,
+Corbels, Dormer, Dowel, Drip, Detent, Extrados, Engrailed, Facet, Fret,
+Fretwork, Frontal, Frustrums, Fylfot, Gambrel Roof, Gargoyle, Gudgeon,
+Guilloche. Half Timbered, Hammer Beam, Header, Hip Roof, Hood Molding,
+Inclave, Interlacing Arch, Inverted, Inverted Arch, Key Stone, King
+Post, Label, Louver, Lintel, Lug, M-Roof, Mansard Roof, Newel,
+Parquetry, Peen, Pendant, Pendastyle, Pedestal, Plinth, Portico, Plate,
+Queen Post, Quirk Molding, Re-entering Angle, Rafter, Scarfing, Scotia
+Molding, Sill, Skewback, Spandrel, Strut, Stud, Stile, Tie Beam, Timber,
+Trammel, Turret, Transom, Valley Roof.
+
+VIII. DRAWING AND ITS UTILITY Page 73
+
+Fundamentals in Drawing. Representing Objects. Forming Lines and
+Shadows. Analysis of Lines and Shadings. How to Show Plain Surfaces.
+Concave Surfaces. Convex Surfaces. Shadows from a Beam. Flat Effects.
+The Direction of Light. Raised Surfaces. Depressed Surfaces. Full
+Shading. Illustrating Cube Shading. Shading Effect. Heavy Lines.
+Perspectives. True Perspective of a Cube. Isometric Cube. Flattened
+Perspective. Technical Designations. Sector and Segment. Terms of
+Angles. Circles and Curves. Irregular Curves. Ellipses and Ovals. Focal
+Points. Produced Line. Spirals, Perpendicular and Vertical. Signs to
+Indicate Measurement. Definitions. Abscissa. Angle. Apothegm. Apsides or
+Apsis. Chord. Cycloid. Conoid. Conic Section. Ellipsoid. Epicycloid.
+Evolute. Flying Buttress. Focus. Gnomes. Hexagon. Hyperbola.
+Hypothenuse. Incidental. Isosceles. Triangle. Parabola. Parallelogram.
+Pelecoid. Polygons. Pyramid. Rhomb. Sector. Segment. Sinusoid. Tangent.
+Tetrahedron. Vertex.
+
+IX. MOLDINGS, WITH PRACTICAL ILLUSTRATIONS IN EMBELLISHING WORK Page 93
+
+Moldings. The Basis of Moldings. The Simplest Moldings. The Astragal.
+The Cavetto. The Ovolo. The Torus. The Apothegm. The Cymatium. The Ogee.
+Ogee Recta. Ogee Reversa. The Reedy. The Casement. The Roman-Doric
+Column. Lesson from the Doric Column. Applying Molding. Base.
+Embellishments. Straight-faced Molding. Plain Molding. Base. Diversified
+Uses. Shadows Cast by Moldings.
+
+X. AN ANALYSIS OF TENONING, MORTISING, RABBETING AND BEADING Page 104
+
+Where Mortises Should be Used. Depth of Mortises. Rule for Mortises.
+True Mortise Work. Steps in Cutting Mortises. Things to Avoid in
+Mortising. Lap-and-Butt Joints. Scarfing. The Tongue and Groove.
+Beading. Ornamental Bead Finish. The Bead and Rabbet. Shading with Beads
+and Rabbets.
+
+XI. HOUSE BUILDING Page 113
+
+House Building. The Home and Embellishments. Beauty Not Ornamentation.
+Plain Structures. Colonial Type. The Roof the Keynote. Bungalow Types.
+General House Building. Building Plans. The Plain Square-Floor Plan. The
+Rectangular Plan. Room Measurements. Front and Side Lines. The Roof.
+Roof Pitch. The Foundation. The Sills. The Flooring Joist. The Studding.
+Setting Up. The Plate. Intermediate Studding. Wall Headers. Ceiling
+Joist. Braces. The Rafters. The Gutter. Setting Door and Window Frames.
+Plastering and Finish Work.
+
+XII. BRIDGES, TRUSSED WORK AND LIKE STRUCTURES Page 130
+
+Bridges. Self-supporting Roofs. Common Trusses. The Vertical Upright
+Truss. The Warren Girder. The Bowstring Girder. Fundamental Truss
+Forms.
+
+XIII. THE BEST WOODS FOR THE BEGINNER Page 134
+
+The Best Woods. Soft Woods. Hard Woods. The Most Difficult Woods. The
+Hard-ribbed Grain in Wood. The Easiest Working Woods. Differences in the
+Working of Woods. Forcing Saws in Wood.
+
+XIV. WOOD TURNING Page 138
+
+Advantages of Wood Turning. Simple Turning Lathe. The Rails. The Legs.
+Centering Blocks. The Tail-stock. The Tool Rest. Materials. The Mandrel.
+Fly-wheel. The Tools Required.
+
+XV. ON THE USE OF STAINS Page 147
+
+Soft Wood. Use of Stains. Stains as Imitations. Good Taste in Staining.
+Great Contrasts Bad. Staining Contrasting Woods. Hard Wood Imitations.
+Natural Effects. Natural Wood Stains. Polishing Stained Surfaces.
+
+XVI. THE CARPENTER AND THE ARCHITECT Page 152
+
+XVII. USEFUL ARTICLES TO MAKE Page 155
+
+Common Bench. Its Proportions. Square Top Stool. Folding Blacking Box.
+Convenient Easel. Hanging Book-rack. Sad Iron Holder. Bookcase.
+Wood-box. Parallel Bars for Boys' Use. Mission Writing Desk. Screen
+Frame. Mission Chair. Grandfather's Clock. Knockdown and Adjustable
+Bookcase. Coal Scuttle Frame or Case. Mission Arm Chair. Dog-house.
+Settle, With Convenient Shelves. Towel Rack. Sofa Framework.
+
+XVIII. SPECIAL TOOLS AND THEIR USES Page 170
+
+Bit and Level Adjuster. Miter Boxes. Swivel Arm Uprights. Movable Stops.
+Angle Dividers. "Odd Job" Tool. Bit Braces. Ratchet Mechanism.
+Interlocking Jaws. Steel Frame Breast Drills. Horizontal Boring. 3-Jaw
+Chuck. Planes. Rabbeting, Beading and Matching. Cutter Adjustment. Depth
+Gage. Slitting Gage. Dovetail Tongue and Groove Plane. Router Planes.
+Bottom Surfacing. Door Trim Plane.
+
+XIX. ROOFING TRUSSES Page 185
+
+Characteristics of Trusses. Tie Beams. Ornamentation. Objects of Beams,
+Struts and Braces. Utilizing Space. Types of Structures. Gambrel Roof.
+Purlin Roof. The Princess Truss. Arched, or Cambered, Tie Beam Truss.
+The Mansard. Scissors Beam. Braced Collar Beam. Rib and Collar Truss.
+Hammer-beam Truss. Flying Buttress.
+
+XX. ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF JOINTS Page 197
+
+Definition and Uses. Different Types. Bridle Joint. Spur Tenon. Saddle
+Joints. Joggle Joint. Heel Joints. Stub Tenon. Tusk Tenon. Double Tusk
+Tenon. Cogged Joints. Anchor Joints. Deep Anchor Joints.
+
+XXI. SOME MISTAKES AND A LITTLE ADVICE IN CARPENTRY Page 205
+
+Lessons From Mistakes. Planing the Edge of a Board Straight. Planing it
+Square. Planing to Dimensions. Holding the Plane. How it Should be Run
+on the Edge of the Board. Truing With the Weight of the Plane. A Steady
+Grasp. In Smoothing Boards. Correct Sand-papering. Gluing. Removing
+Surplus Glue. Work Edge and Work Side. The Scribing and Marking Line.
+Finishing Surfaces. Sawing a Board Square. The Stroke of the Saw. Sawing
+Out of True.
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+FIG.
+
+1. A typical work bench Frontispiece
+ PAGE
+2. Hatchet 6
+3. Hammer 7
+4. Common saw 7
+5. Plane 8
+6. Jack plane bit 9
+6a. Fore plane bit 10
+7. Firmer chisel 11
+7a. Mortising chisel 12
+8. Trestle 12
+9. Miter box 13
+10. Incorrect saw setting 17
+10a. Correct saw setting 17
+11. Saw setting device 17
+12. Filing angle 18
+13. Rip saw 19
+14. Cross cut 20
+15. Filing clamp 21
+16. Grindstone 23
+17. Correct manner of holding tool 24
+18. Incorrect way of holding tool 24
+19. Gage 26
+20. Starting a saw 31
+21. Wrong sawing angle 32
+22. Correct sawing angle 33
+23. Thrust cut 34
+24. Chinese saw 34
+25. Moving angle for plane 35
+26. Holding gage 36
+27. Laying out table leg 43
+28. The first marking line 44
+29. Scribing mortise line 44
+30. The corner mortises 44
+31. The side rail 46
+32. Scribing the tenons 46
+33. Cross scoring 47
+34. The tenon 47
+35. Finishing the tenon 47
+36. The tenon and mortise 48
+37. The drawer support 48
+38. Drawer cleats 49
+39. Assembled table frame 50
+40. The top 51
+41. The drawer 52
+42. Bevel joint 53
+43. Miter joint 53
+44. Picture frame joint 54
+45. Initial marks for dovetails 55
+46. End marks for dovetails 55
+47. Angles for dovetails 55
+48. Cutting out recesses for dovetails 56
+49. Tongues for dovetails 56
+50. Recess for dovetails 56
+51. Determining angles 61
+52. Marking degrees 63
+53. Angles from base lines 63
+54. Stepping off spaces 63
+55. Arcade 67
+56. Arch 67
+57. Buttress 67
+58. Chamfer 67
+59. Cooter 67
+60. Crenelated 67
+61. Crosses 67
+62. Curb roof 67
+63. Cupola 67
+64. Console 67
+65. Corbels 67
+66. Dormer 67
+67. Dowel 67
+68. Drips 67
+69. Detail 68
+70. Extrados 68
+71. Engrailed 68
+72. Facet 68
+73. Fret 68
+74. Frontal 68
+75. Frustrums 68
+76. Fylfat 68
+77. Gambrel 68
+78. Gargoyle 68
+79. Gudgeon 68
+80. Guilloche 68
+81. Half timbered 68
+82. Hammer beam 68
+83. Haunches 69
+84. Header 69
+85. Hip roof 69
+86. Hood molding 69
+87. Inclave 69
+88. Interlacing arch 69
+89. Invected 69
+90. Inverted arch 69
+91. Keystone 69
+92. King post 69
+93. Label 69
+94. Louver 69
+95. Lintel 70
+96. Lug 70
+97. M-roof 70
+98. Mansard roof 70
+99. Newel post 70
+100. Parquetry 70
+101. Peen, or pein 70
+102. Pendant 70
+103. Pentastyle 70
+104. Pedestal 70
+105. Pintle 70
+106. Portico 70
+107. Plate 70
+108. Queen post 71
+109. Quirk molding 71
+110. Re-entering 71
+111. Rafter 71
+112. Scarfing 71
+113. Scotia molding 71
+114. Sill 71
+115. Skew back 71
+116. Spandrel 71
+117. Strut 71
+118. Stud, studding 71
+119. Stile 72
+120. Trammel 72
+121. Turret 72
+122. Transom 72
+123. Valley roof 72
+125. Plain line 74
+126. Concave shading 74
+127. Convex shading 74
+128. Wave shading 75
+129. Light past concave surface 75
+130. Light past convex surface 75
+131. Plain surface 75
+132. Outlines 76
+133. Raised surface 77
+134. Depressed surface 77
+135. Shading raised surfaces 78
+136. Shading depressed surfaces 78
+137. Plain cubical outline 79
+138. Indicating cube 79
+139. Confused lines 79
+140. Heavy horizontal lines 80
+141. Heavy vertical lines 80
+142. Isometric cube 81
+143. Cube and circle 81
+144. Flattened perspective 82
+145. Angles in isometric cube 83
+146. Plain circle 84
+147. Sphere shading 84
+148. Drawing regular ellipse 86
+149. Drawing irregular ellipse 88
+150. Drawing spiral 89
+151. Abscissa 90
+152. Angle 91
+153. Apothegm 91
+154. Apsides, or apsis 91
+155. Chord 91
+156. Convolute 91
+157. Conic sections 91
+158. Conoid 91
+159. Cycloid 91
+160. Ellipsoid 91
+161. Epicycloid 91
+162. Evolute 91
+163. Focus 91
+164. Gnome 91
+165. Hyperbola 91
+167. Hypothenuse 91
+168. Incidence 92
+169. Isosceles triangle 92
+170. Parabola 92
+171. Parallelogram 92
+172. Pelecoid 92
+173. Polygons 92
+174. Pyramid 92
+175. Quadrant 92
+176. Quadrilateral 92
+177. Rhomb 92
+178. Sector 92
+179. Segment 92
+180. Sinusoid 92
+181. Tangent 92
+182. Tetrahedron 92
+183. Vertex 92
+184. Volute 92
+185. Band (molding) 94
+186. Astragal (molding) 94
+187. Cavetto (molding) 94
+188. Ovolo (molding) 94
+189. Torus (molding) 95
+190. Apophyges (molding) 95
+191. Cymatium (molding) 95
+192. Ogee-recta (molding) 95
+193. Ogee-reversa (molding) 96
+194. Bead (molding) 96
+195. Casement (molding) 97
+196. The Doric column 98
+197. Front of cabinet 100
+198. Facia board 100
+199. Molding on facia board 100
+200. Ogee-recta on facia 101
+201. Trim below facia 101
+202. Trim below ogee 101
+203. Trim above base 102
+204. Trim above base molding 102
+205. Shadows cast by plain moldings 103
+206. Mortise and tenon joint 105
+207. Incorrect mortising 105
+208. Steps in mortising 106
+209. The shoulders of tenons 108
+210. Lap-and-butt joint 108
+211. Panel joint 109
+212. Scarfing 109
+213. Tongue and groove 110
+214. Beading 110
+215. Outside beading finish 110
+216. Edge beading 111
+217. Corner beading 111
+218. Point beading 111
+219. Round edge beading 111
+220. Beading and molding 111
+221. First square house plan 117
+222. First rectangular house plan 118
+223. Square house to scale 119
+224. Rectangular house to scale 120
+225. Front elevation of square house 121
+226. Elevation of rectangular house 121
+227. Illustrating one-third pitch 122
+228. Illustrating half pitch 122
+229. The sills at the corner 123
+230. The joist and sills 123
+231. The plate splice 124
+232. The rafters 125
+233. The gutter 126
+234. The cornice 127
+234a. The finish without gutter 128
+235. Common truss 130
+236. Upright truss 131
+237. Vertical upright truss 131
+238. Warren girder 132
+239. Extended Warren girder 132
+240. Bowstring girder 132
+241. Frame details of wood turning lathe 139
+242. Tail stock details 140
+243. Tool rest details 142
+244. Section of mandrel 143
+245. View of turning lathe 145
+246. Turning tools 146
+247. Bench 155
+248. Stool 156
+249. Blacking box 156
+250. Easel 157
+251. Hanging book rack 158
+252. Book shelf 159
+253. Wood box 160
+254. Horizontal bars 161
+255. Mission desk 161
+256. Screen frame 162
+257. Mission chair 162
+258. Grandfather's clock 163
+259. Frame for bookcase 164
+260. Coal scuttle case 165
+261. Mission arm chair 165
+262. Dog house 168
+263. Settle 167
+264. Towel rack 168
+265. Mission sofa frame 168
+266. Bit and square level 170
+267. Metal miter box 171
+268. Parts of metal miter box 172
+269. Angle dividers 173
+270. An "odd job" tool 174
+271. Universal-jaw brace 176
+272. Taper-shank bit brace 176
+273. Alligator-jaw brace 176
+274. Steel frame breast drill 177
+275. Steel frame breast drill 177
+276. Steel frame breast drill 177
+277. Details of metal plane 179
+278. Rabbet, matching and dado plane 180
+279. Molding and beading plane 181
+280. Dovetail tongue and groove plane 182
+281. Router planes 183
+282. Router planes 183
+283. Door trim plane 184
+284. Gambrel roof 187
+285. Purlin roof 188
+286. Princess truss 189
+287. Arched, or cambered, tie beam 190
+288. The mansard 191
+289. Scissors beam 192
+290. Braced collar beam 193
+291. Rib and collar truss 194
+291-1/2. Hammer-beam truss 195
+292. Bridle joints 197
+293. Spur tenons 198
+294. Saddle joints 198
+295. Joggle joints 199
+296. Framing joints 199
+297. Heel joints 200
+298. Stub tenon 200
+299. Tusk tenon 201
+300. Double tusk tenon 202
+301. Cogged joints 203
+302. Anchor joint 203
+303. Deep anchor joint 204
+
+
+
+
+CARPENTRY
+
+A PRACTICAL COURSE, WHICH TELLS IN CONCISE AND SIMPLE FORM "HOW TO DO
+IT"
+
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTORY
+
+
+Carpentry is the oldest of the arts, and it has been said that the
+knowledge necessary to make a good carpenter fits one for almost any
+trade or occupation requiring the use of tools. The hatchet, the saw,
+and the plane are the three primal implements of the carpenter. The
+value is in knowing how to use them.
+
+The institution of Manual Training Schools everywhere is but a tardy
+recognition of the value of systematic training in the use of tools.
+There is no branch of industry which needs such diversification, in
+order to become efficient.
+
+The skill of the blacksmith is centered in his ability to forge, to
+weld, and to temper; that of the machinist depends upon the callipered
+dimensions of his product; the painter in his taste for harmony; the
+mason on his ability to cut the stone accurately; and the plasterer to
+produce a uniform surface. But the carpenter must, in order to be an
+expert, combine all these qualifications, in a greater or less degree,
+and his vocation may justly be called the King of Trades. Rightly,
+therefore, it should be cultivated in order to learn the essentials of
+manual training work.
+
+But there is another feature of the utmost importance and value, which
+is generally overlooked, and on which there is placed too little stress,
+even in many of the manual training schools. The training of the mind
+has been systematized so as to bring into operation the energies of all
+the brain cells. Manual training to be efficient should, at the same
+time, be directed into such channels as will most widely stimulate the
+muscular development of the child, while at the same time cultivating
+his mind.
+
+There is no trade which offers such a useful field as carpentry. It may
+be said that the various manual operations bring into play every muscle
+of the body.
+
+The saw, the plane, the hammer, the chisel, each requires its special
+muscular energy. The carpenter, unlike the blacksmith, does not put all
+his brawn into his shoulders, nor develop his torso at the expense of
+his other muscles, like the mason. It may also be said that, unlike most
+other occupations, the carpenter has both out-of-door and indoor
+exercise, so that he is at all times able to follow his occupation,
+summer or winter, rain or shine; and this also further illustrates the
+value of this branch of endeavor as a healthful recreation.
+
+It is the aim of this book to teach boys the primary requirements--not
+to generalize--but to show how to prepare and how to do the work; what
+tools and materials to use; and in what manner the tools used may be
+made most serviceable, and used most advantageously.
+
+It would be of no value to describe and illustrate how a bracket is
+made; or how the framework of a structure is provided with mortises and
+tenons in order to hold it together. The boy must have something as a
+base which will enable him to design his own creations, and not be an
+imitator; his mind must develop with his body. It is the principal aim
+of this book to give the boy something to think about while he is
+learning how to bring each individual part to perfection.
+
+If the boy understands that there is a principle underlying each
+structural device; that there is a reason for making certain things a
+definite way, he is imbued with an incentive which will sooner or later
+develop into an initiative of his own.
+
+It is this phase in the artisan's life which determines whether he will
+be merely a machine or an intelligent organism.
+
+This work puts together in a simple, concise form, not only the
+fundamentals which every mechanic should learn to know, but it defines
+every structural form used in this art, and illustrates all terms it is
+necessary to use in the employment of carpentry. A full chapter is
+devoted to drawings practically applied. All terms are diagrammed and
+defined, so that the mind may readily grasp the ideas involved.
+
+Finally, it will be observed that every illustration has been specially
+drawn for this book. We have not adopted the plan usually followed in
+books of this class, of taking stock illustrations of manufacturers'
+tools and devices, nor have we thought it advisable to take a picture of
+a tool or a machine and then write a description around it. We have
+illustrated the book to explain "_how to do the work_"; also, to teach
+the boy what the trade requires, and to give him the means whereby he
+may readily find the form of every device, tool, and structure used in
+the art.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+TOOLS AND THEIR USES
+
+
+KNOWLEDGE OF TOOLS.--A knowledge of tools and their uses is the first
+and most important requirement. The saw, the plane, the hatchet and the
+hammer are well known to all boys; but how to use them, and where to use
+the different varieties of each kind of tool, must be learned, because
+each tool grew out of some particular requirement in the art. These uses
+will now be explained.
+
+A FULL KIT OF TOOLS.--A kit of tools necessary for doing any plain work
+should embrace the following:
+
+
+1. A Hatchet.
+2. A Claw Hammer--two sizes preferred.
+3. Cross-cut Saw, 20 inches long.
+4. Rip Saw, 24 inches long.
+5. Wooden Mallet.
+ 6. Jack Plane.
+7. Smoothing Plane.
+8. Compass Saw.
+9. Brace.
+10. Bits for Brace, ranging from 1/4 inch to 1 inch diameter.
+11. Several small Gimlets.
+12. Square.
+13. Compass.
+14. Draw-knife.
+15. Rule.
+16. Two Gages.
+17. Set of Firmer Chisels.
+18. Two Mortising Chisels.
+19. Small Back Saw.
+20. Saw Clamps.
+21. Miter Box.
+22. Bevel Square.
+23. Small Hand Square.
+24. Pliers.
+25. Pair of Awls.
+26. Hand Clamps.
+27. Set Files.
+28. Glue Pot.
+29. Oil Stone.
+30. Grindstone.
+31. Trusses.
+32. Work Bench.
+33. Plumb Bob.
+34. Spirit Level.
+
+
+THE HATCHET.--The hatchet should be ground with a bevel on each side,
+and not on one side only, as is customary with a plasterer's lathing
+hatchet, because the blade of the hatchet is used for trimming off the
+edges of boards. Unless ground off with a bevel on both sides it cannot
+be controlled to cut accurately. A light hatchet is preferable to a
+heavy one. It should never be used for nailing purposes, except in
+emergencies. The pole of the hammer--that part which is generally used
+to strike the nail with--is required in order to properly balance the
+hatchet when used for trimming material.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 2._]
+
+THE CLAW HAMMER.--This is the proper tool for driving nails and for
+drawing them out. Habits should be formed with the beginner, which will
+be of great service as the education proceeds.
+
+One of these habits is to persist in using the tool for the purpose for
+which it was made. The expert workman (and he becomes expert because of
+it) makes the hammer do its proper work; and so with every other tool.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 3._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 4._]
+
+ABOUT SAWS.--There are four well-defined kinds. First, a long, flat saw,
+for cross-cutting. Second, a slightly larger saw for ripping purposes.
+Third, a back saw, with a rib on the rear edge to hold the blade rigid,
+used for making tenons; and, fourth, a compass or keyhole saw.
+
+CROSS-CUTS.--The difference between a cross-cut and a rip saw is, that
+in the latter the teeth have less pitch and are usually larger than in
+the cross-cut saw. The illustrations (Figs. 13 and 14) will distinctly
+show the difference in the teeth. When a cross-cut saw is used for
+ripping along the grain of the wood, the teeth, if disposed at an angle,
+will ride over the grain or fiber of the wood, and refuse to take hold
+or bite into the wood. On the other hand, if the rip saw is used for
+cross-cutting purposes, the saw kerf will be rough and jagged.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 5._]
+
+The back saw is used almost exclusively for making tenons, and has
+uniformly fine teeth so as to give a smooth finish to the wood.
+
+PLANES.--The plane may be called the aesthetic tool in the carpenter's
+kit. It is the most difficult tool to handle and the most satisfactory
+when thoroughly mastered. How to care for and handle it will be
+referred to in a subsequent chapter. We are now concerned with its uses
+only. Each complete kit must have three distinct planes, namely, the
+jack plane, which is for taking off the rough saw print surface of the
+board. The short smoothing plane, which is designed to even up the
+inequalities made by the jack plane; and the long finishing plane, or
+fore plane, which is intended to straighten the edges of boards or of
+finished surfaces.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 6. Jack plane bit._]
+
+THE JACK PLANE.--This plane has the cutting edge of its blade ground so
+it is slightly curved (Fig. 6), because, as the bit must be driven out
+so it will take a deep bite into the rough surface of the wood, the
+curved cutting edge prevents the corner edges of the bit from digging
+into the planed surface.
+
+On the other hand, the bits of the smoothing and finishing planes are
+ground straight across their cutting edges. In the foregoing we have not
+enumerated the different special planes, designed to make beads,
+rabbets, tongues and grooves, but each type is fully illustrated, so
+that an idea may be obtained of their characteristics. (Fig. 6_a_).
+
+GAGES.--One of the most valuable tools in the whole set is the gage, but
+it is, in fact, the least known. This is simply a straight bar, with a
+sharpened point projecting out on one side near its end, and having an
+adjustable sliding head or cheekpiece. This tool is indispensable in
+making mortises or tenons, because the sharpened steel point which
+projects from the side of the bar, serves to outline and define the
+edges of the mortises or tenons, so that the cutting line may readily be
+followed.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 6a. Fore-plane bit._]
+
+This is the most difficult tool to hold when in use, but that will be
+fully explained under its proper head. Each kit should have two, as in
+making mortises and tenons one gage is required for each side of the
+mortise or tenon.
+
+CHISELS.--Two kinds are found in every kit--one called the firmer (Fig.
+7) and the mortising chisel. The firmer has a flat body or blade, and a
+full set ranges in width from three-eighths of an inch to two inches.
+The sizes most desirable and useful are the one-half inch, the inch and
+the inch-and-a-half widths. These are used for trimming out cross grains
+or rebates for setting door locks and hinges and for numerous other uses
+where sharp-end tools are required.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 7._]
+
+THE MORTISING CHISEL.--The mortising chisel (Fig. 7_a_), on the other
+hand, is very narrow and thick, with a long taper down to the cutting
+edge. They are usually in such widths as to make them stock sizes for
+mortises. Never, under any circumstances, use a hammer or hatchet for
+driving chisels. The mallet should be used invariably.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 7a._]
+
+TRUSSES.--There should be at least two, each three feet in length and
+twenty inches in height.
+
+SAW CLAMPS.--These are necessary adjuncts, and should be made of hard
+wood, perfectly straight and just wide enough to take in the narrow
+back saw. The illustration shows their shape and form.
+
+THE GRINDSTONES.--It is better to get a first-class stone, which may be
+small and rigged up with a foot treadle. A soft, fine-grained stone is
+most serviceable, and it should have a water tray, and never be used
+excepting with plenty of water.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 8._]
+
+AN OIL STONE is as essential as a grindstone. For giving a good edge to
+tools it is superior to a water stone. It should be provided with a top,
+and covered when not in use, to keep out dust and grit. These are the
+little things that contribute to success and should be carefully
+observed.
+
+THE MITER BOX.--This should be 14 inches long and 3" by 3" inside, made
+of hard wood 3/4" thick. The sides should be nailed to the bottom, as
+shown.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 9._]
+
+THE WORK BENCH.--In its proper place we show in detail the most approved
+form of work bench, fitted with a tool rack to hold all the tools,
+conveniently arranged. In this chapter we are more particularly
+concerned with the uses of tools than their construction; and we impress
+on boys the necessity of having a place for everything, and that every
+tool should be kept in its proper place. A carpenter's shop filled with
+chips, shavings and other refuse is not a desirable place for the
+indiscriminate placing of tools. If correct habits are formed at the
+outset, by carefully putting each tool in its place after using, it will
+save many an hour of useless hunting and annoyance.
+
+One of the most important things in laying off work, for instance, on
+trusses, is the disposition of the saw and square. Our illustration
+shows each truss with side cleats, which will permit the user
+temporarily to deposit the saw or the square so that it will be handy,
+and at the same time be out of the way of the work and prevent either of
+the tools from being thrown to the floor.
+
+In the same way, and for the same purpose, the work bench has temporary
+holding cleats at the end and a shelf in front, which are particularly
+desirable, because either a saw or a square is an encumbrance on a work
+bench while the work is being assembled, and tools of this kind should
+not be laid flat on a working surface, nor should they be stood in a
+leaning position against a truss or work bench.
+
+_Strictly observe these fundamentals_--Never place a tool with the
+cutting edge toward you. Always have the racks or receptacles so made
+that the handle may be seized. Don't put a tool with an exposed cutting
+edge above or below another tool in such a manner that the hand or the
+tool you are handling can come into contact with the edge. Never keep
+the nail or screw boxes above the work bench. They should always be kept
+to one side, to prevent, as much as possible, the bench from becoming a
+depository for nails. Keep the top of the bench free from tools. Always
+keep the planes on a narrow sub-shelf at the rear of the bench.
+
+If order was Heaven's first law, it is a good principle to apply it in a
+workman's shop, and its observance will form a habit that will soon
+become a pleasure to follow.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+HOW TO GRIND AND SHARPEN TOOLS
+
+
+CARE OF TOOLS.--Dull tools indicate the character of the workman. In an
+experience of over forty years, I have never known a good workman to
+keep poorly sharpened tools. While it is true that the capacity to
+sharpen tools can be acquired only by practice, correct habits at the
+start will materially assist. In doing this part of the artisan's work,
+it should be understood that there is a right as well as a wrong way.
+
+There is a principle involved in the sharpening of every tool, which
+should be observed. A skilled artisan knows that there is a particular
+way to grind the bits of each plane; that the manner of setting a saw
+not only contributes to its usefulness, but will materially add to the
+life of the saw; that a chisel cannot be made to do good work unless its
+cutting edge is square and at the right working angle.
+
+FIRST REQUISITE.--A beginner should never attempt a piece of work until
+he learns how the different tools should be sharpened, or at least learn
+the principle involved. Practice will make perfect.
+
+SAWS.--As the saw is such an important part of the kit, I shall devote
+some space to the subject. _First_, as to setting the saw. The object of
+this is to make the teeth cut a wider kerf than the thickness of the
+blade, and thereby cause the saw to travel freely. A great many
+so-called "saw sets" are found in the market, many of them built on
+wrong principles, as will be shown, and these are incapable of setting
+accurately.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 10._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 10a._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 11._]
+
+HOW TO SET.--To set a saw accurately, that is, to drive out each tooth
+the same distance, is the first requirement, and the second is to bend
+out the whole tooth, and not the point only.
+
+In the illustration (Fig. 10), the point is merely bent out. This is
+wrong. The right way is shown in Fig. 10_a_. The whole tooth is bent,
+showing the correct way of setting. The reasons for avoiding one way and
+following the other are: First, that if the point projects to one side,
+each point or tooth will dig into the wood, and produce tooth prints in
+the wood, which make a roughened surface. Second, that if there are
+inequalities in setting the teeth (as is sure to be the case when only
+the points are bent out), the most exposed points will first wear out,
+and thereby cause saw deterioration. Third, a saw with the points
+sticking out causes a heavy, dragging cut, and means additional labor.
+Where the whole body of the tooth is bent, the saw will run smoothly and
+easily through the kerf and produce a smooth-cut surface.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 12._]
+
+Our illustration (Fig. 11) shows a very simple setting block, the
+principal merit of which is that any boy can make it, and in the use of
+which he cannot go wrong in setting a tooth.
+
+SIMPLE SAW SETTER.--Take a block of wood, a 4 by 4 inch studding, four
+inches long. Get a piece of metal one-half inch thick and two inches
+square. Have a blacksmith or machinist bore a quarter-inch hole through
+it in the center and countersink the upper side so it may be securely
+fastened in a mortise in the block, with its upper side flush with the
+upper surface of the block. Now, with a file, finish off one edge, going
+back for a quarter of an inch, the angle at A to be about 12 degrees.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 13. Rip-Saw._]
+
+FILING ANGLES.--In its proper place will be shown how you may easily
+calculate and measure degrees in work of this kind. Fig. 12 shows an
+approximation to the right angle. B, B (Fig. 11) should be a pair of
+wooden pegs, driven into the wooden block on each side of the metal
+piece. The teeth of the saw rest against the pegs so that they serve as
+a guide or a gage, and the teeth of the saw, therefore, project over the
+inclined part (B) of the metal block. Now, with an ordinary punch and a
+hammer, each alternate tooth may be driven down until it rests flat on
+the inclined face (A), so that it is impossible to set the teeth
+wrongly. When you glance down the end of a properly set saw, you will
+see a V-shaped channel, and if you will place a needle in the groove and
+hold the saw at an angle, the needle will travel down without falling
+out.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 14. cross-cut._]
+
+FILING.--The next step is the filing. Two things must be observed: the
+pitch and the angle. By pitch is meant the inclination of the teeth.
+Note the illustration (Fig. 13), which shows the teeth of a rip saw. You
+will see at A that the pitch of the tooth is at right angles to the edge
+of the saw. In Fig. 14, which shows the teeth of a cross-cut saw, the
+pitch (B) is about 10 degrees off. The teeth of the rip saw are also
+larger than those of the cross-cut.
+
+THE ANGLE OF FILING.--By angle is meant the cutting position of the
+file. In Fig. 12, the lines B represent the file disposed at an angle
+of 12 degrees, not more, for a rip saw. For a cross-cut the angle of the
+file may be less.
+
+SAW CLAMPS.--You may easily make a pair of saw clamps as follows:
+
+Take two pieces of hard wood, each three inches wide, seven-eighths of
+an inch thick, and equal in length to the longest saw. Bevel one edge of
+each as shown in A (Fig. 15), so as to leave an edge (B) about
+one-eighth of an inch thick. At one end cut away the corner on the side
+opposite the bevel, as shown at C, so the clamps will fit on the saw
+around the saw handle.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 15._]
+
+When the saw is placed between these clamps and held together by the
+jaws of the vise, you are ready for the filing operation. Observe the
+following _filing suggestions_: Always hold the file horizontal or
+level. In filing, use the whole length of the file. Do the work by a
+slow, firm sweep.
+
+Do not file all of the teeth along the saw at one operation, but only
+the alternate teeth, so as to keep the file at the same angle, and thus
+insure accuracy; then turn the saw and keep the file constantly at one
+angle for the alternate set of teeth.
+
+Give the same number of strokes, and exert the same pressure on the file
+for each tooth, to insure uniformity. Learn also to make a free, easy
+and straight movement back and forth with the file.
+
+THE FILE.--In order to experiment with the filing motion, take two
+blocks of wood, and try surfacing them off with a file. When you place
+the two filed surfaces together after the first trial both will be
+convex, because the hands, in filing, unless you exert the utmost
+vigilance, will assume a crank-like movement. The filing test is so to
+file the two blocks that they will fit tightly together without rolling
+on each other. Before shaping and planing machines were invented,
+machinists were compelled to plane down and accurately finish off
+surfaces with a file.
+
+In using the files on saws, however small the file may be, one hand
+should hold the handle and the other hand the tip of the file.
+
+A file brush should always be kept on hand, as it pays to preserve files
+by cleaning them.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 16._]
+
+THE GRINDSTONE.--As most of the tools require a grindstone for
+sharpening purposes, an illustration is given as a guide, with a diagram
+to show the proper grinding angle. In Fig. 16 the upright (A) of the
+frame serves as a line for the eye, so that if the point of the tool is
+brought to the sight line, and the tool (C) held level, you will always
+be able to maintain the correct angle. There is no objection to
+providing a rest, for instance, like the cross bars (D, D), but the
+artisan disdains such contrivances, and he usually avoids them for two
+reasons: First, because habit enables him to hold the tool horizontally;
+and, second, by holding the tool firmly in the hand he has better
+control of it. There is only one thing which can be said in favor of a
+rest, and that is, the stone may be kept truer circumferentially, as
+all stones have soft spots or sides.
+
+IN THE USE OF GRINDSTONES.--There are certain things to avoid and to
+observe in the use of stones. Never use one spot on the stone, however
+narrow the tool may be. Always move the tool from side to side. Never
+grind a set of narrow tools successively. If you have chisels to grind
+intersperse their grinding with plane bits, hatchet or other broad
+cutting tools, so as to prevent the stone from having grooves therein.
+Never use a tool on a stone unless you have water in the tray.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 17. Correct manner of holding tool._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 18. Incorrect way of holding tool._]
+
+CORRECT WAY TO HOLD TOOL FOR GRINDING.--There is a correct way to hold
+each tool; see illustration (Fig. 17). The left hand should grasp the
+tool firmly, near the sharp edge, as shown, and the right hand should
+loosely hold the tool behind the left hand. There is a reason for this
+which will be apparent after you grind a few tools. The firm grasp of
+the left hand gives you absolute control of the blade, so it cannot
+turn, and when inequalities appear in the grindstone, the rigid hold
+will prevent the blade from turning, and thus enable you to correct the
+inequalities of the stone. Bear in mind, the stone should be taken care
+of just as much as the tools. An experienced workman is known by the
+condition of his tools, and the grindstone is the best friend he has
+among his tools.
+
+INCORRECT WAY TO HOLD TOOL FOR GRINDING.--The incorrect way of holding a
+tool is shown in Fig. 18. This, I presume, is the universal way in which
+the novice takes the tool. It is wrong for the reason that the thumbs of
+both hands are on top of the blade, and they serve as pivots on which
+the tool may turn. The result is that the corners of the tool will dig
+into the stone to a greater or less degree, particularly if it has a
+narrow blade, like a chisel.
+
+Try the experiment of grinding a quarter-inch chisel by holding it the
+incorrect way; and then grasp it firmly with the left hand, and you will
+at once see the difference.
+
+The left hand serves both as a vise and as a fulcrum, whereas the right
+hand controls the angle of the tool.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 19._]
+
+These remarks apply to all chisels, plane bits and tools of that
+character, but it is obvious that a drawknife, which is always held by
+the handles in grinding, and hatchets, axes and the like, cannot be held
+in the same manner.
+
+A too common error is to press the tool too hard on the stone. This is
+wrong. Do not try to force the grinding.
+
+Then, again, it is the practice of some to turn the stone away from the
+tool. The stone should always move toward the tool, so as to prevent
+forming a feather edge.
+
+THE PLANE.--Indiscriminate use of planes should be avoided. Never use
+the fore or smoothing planes on rough surfaces. The jack plane is the
+proper tool for this work. On the other hand, the fore plane should
+invariably be used for straightening the edges of boards, or for fine
+surfacing purposes. As the jack plane has its bit ground with a curved
+edge, it is admirably adapted for taking off the rough saw print
+surface.
+
+THE GAGE.--The illustration (Fig. 19) shows one of the most useful tools
+in the kit. It is used to scribe the thickness of the material which is
+to be dressed down, or for imprinting the edges of tenons and mortises.
+Two should be provided in every kit, for convenience.
+
+The scribing point should be sharpened with a file, the point being
+filed to form a blade, which is at right angles to the bar, or parallel
+with the movable cheekpiece.
+
+CHISELS.--I have already pointed out, in general, how to hold tools for
+grinding purposes, this description applying particularly to chisels,
+but several additional things may be added.
+
+Always be careful to grind the chisel so its cutting edge is square with
+the side edge. This will be difficult at first, but you will see the
+value of this as you use the tool. For instance, in making rebates for
+hinges, or recesses and mortises for locks, the tool will invariably run
+crooked, unless it is ground square.
+
+The chisel should never be struck with a hammer or metal instrument, as
+the metal pole or peon of the hammer will sliver the handle. The wooden
+mallet should invariably be used.
+
+GENERAL OBSERVATIONS.--If the workman will carefully observe the
+foregoing requirements he will have taken the most important steps in
+the knowledge of the art. If he permits himself to commence work without
+having his tools in first-class condition, he is trying to do work under
+circumstances where even a skilled workman is liable to fail.
+
+Avoid making for yourself a lot of unnecessary work. The best artisans
+are those who try to find out and know which is the best tool, or how to
+make a tool for each requirement, but that tool, to be serviceable, must
+be properly made, and that means it must be rightly sharpened.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+HOW TO HOLD AND HANDLE TOOLS
+
+
+Observation may form part of each boy's lesson, but when it comes to the
+handling of tools, practice becomes the only available means of making a
+workman. Fifty years of observation would never make an observer an
+archer or a marksman, nor would it enable him to shoe a horse or to
+build a table.
+
+It sometimes happens that an apprentice will, with little observation,
+seize a saw in the proper way, or hold a plane in the correct manner,
+and, in time, the watchful boy will acquire fairly correct habits. But
+why put in useless time and labor in order to gain that which a few
+well-directed hints and examples will convey?
+
+Tools are made and are used as short cuts toward a desired end. Before
+the saw was invented the knife was used laboriously to sever and shape
+the materials. Before planes were invented a broad, flat sharpened blade
+was used to smooth off surfaces. Holes were dug out by means of small
+chisels requiring infinite patience and time. Each succeeding tool
+proclaimed a shorter and an easier way to do a certain thing. The man
+or boy who can make a new labor-saving tool is worthy of as much praise
+as the man who makes two blades of grass grow where one grew before.
+
+Let us now thoroughly understand how to hold and use each tool. That is
+half the value of the tool itself.
+
+THE SAW.--With such a commonplace article as the saw, it might be
+assumed that the ordinary apprentice would look upon instruction with a
+smile of derision.
+
+HOW TO START A SAW.--If the untried apprentice has such an opinion set
+him to work at the task of cutting off a board accurately on a line. He
+will generally make a failure of the attempt to start the saw true to
+the line, to say nothing of following the line so the kerf is true and
+square with the board.
+
+HOW TO START ON A LINE.--The first mistake he makes is to saw _on the
+line_. This should never be done. The work should be so laid out that
+the saw kerf is on the discarded side of the material. The saw should
+cut alongside the line, and _the line should not_ be obliterated in the
+cutting. Material must be left for trimming and finishing.
+
+THE FIRST STROKE.--Now, to hold the saw in starting is the difficult
+task to the beginner. Once mastered it is simple and easy. The only time
+in which the saw should be firmly held by the hand is during the
+initial cut or two; afterwards always hold the handle loosely. There is
+nothing so tiring as a tightly grasped saw. The saw has but one handle,
+hence it is designed to be used with one hand. Sometimes, with long and
+tiresome jobs, in ripping, two hands may be used, but one hand can
+always control a saw better than two hands.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 20._]
+
+THE STARTING CUT.--In order to make our understanding of the starting
+cut more explicit, we refer to Fig. 20, in which the thumb of the left
+hand is shown in the position of a guide--the end of the thumb being
+held up a sufficient distance to clear the teeth. In this position you
+need not fear that the teeth of the saw (A) will ride up over the thumb
+if you have a firm grasp of the saw handle.
+
+The first stroke should be upwardly, not downwardly. While in the act of
+drawing up the saw you can judge whether the saw blade is held by the
+thumb gage in the proper position to cut along the mark, and when the
+saw moves downwardly for the first cut, you may be assured that the cut
+is accurate, or at the right place, and the thumb should be kept in its
+position until two or three cuts are made, and the work is then fairly
+started.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 21. Wrong sawing angle._]
+
+FOR CROSS-CUTTING.--For ordinary cross-cutting the angle of the saw
+should be at 45 degrees. For ripping, the best results are found at less
+than 45 degrees, but you should avoid flattening down the angle. An
+incorrect as well as a correct angle are shown in Figs. 21 and 22.
+
+FORCING A SAW.--Forcing a saw through the wood means a crooked kerf. The
+more nearly the saw is held at right angles to a board, the greater is
+the force which must be applied to it by the hand to cause it to bite
+into the wood; and, on the other hand, if the saw is laid down too far,
+as shown in the incorrect way, it is a very difficult matter to follow
+the working line. Furthermore, it is a hard matter to control the saw so
+that it will cut squarely along the board, particularly when ripping.
+The eye must be the only guide in the disposition of the saw. Some boys
+make the saw run in one direction, and others cause it to lean the
+opposite way. After you have had some experience and know which way you
+lean, correct your habits by disposing the saw in the opposite
+direction.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 22. Right sawing angle._]
+
+THE STROKE.--Make a long stroke, using the full blade of the saw. Don't
+acquire the "jerky" style of sawing. If the handle is held loosely, and
+the saw is at the proper angle, the weight of the saw, together with the
+placement of the handle on the saw blade, will be found sufficient to
+make the requisite cut at each stroke.
+
+You will notice that the handle of every saw is mounted nearest the back
+edge. (See Fig. 23.) The reason for so mounting it is, that as the
+cutting stroke is downward, the line of thrust is above the tooth line,
+and as this line is at an angle to the line of thrust, the tendency is
+to cause the saw teeth to dig into the wood.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 23._]
+
+[Illustration: CHINESE SAW. _Fig. 24._]
+
+THE CHINESE SAW.--This saw is designed to saw with an upward cut, and
+the illustration (Fig. 24) shows the handle jutting out below the tooth
+line, in order to cause the teeth to dig into the material as the handle
+is drawn upwardly. Reference is made to these features to impress upon
+beginners the value of observation, and to demonstrate the reason for
+making each tool a particular way.
+
+THINGS TO AVOID.--Do not oscillate the saw as you draw it back and
+forth. This is unnecessary work, and shows impatience in the use of the
+tool. There is such an infinite variety of use for the different tools
+that there is no necessity for rendering the work of any particular
+tool, or tools, burdensome. Each in its proper place, handled
+intelligently, will become a pleasure, as well as a source of profit.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 25._]
+
+THE PLANE.--The jack plane and the fore plane are handled with both
+hands, and the smoothing plane with one hand, but only when used for
+dressing the ends of boards. For other uses both hands are required.
+
+ANGLES FOR HOLDING PLANES.--Before commencing to plane a board, always
+observe the direction in which the grain of the wood runs. This
+precaution will save many a piece of material, because if the jack plane
+is set deep it will run into the wood and cause a rough surface, which
+can be cured only by an extra amount of labor in planing down.
+
+Never move the jack plane or the smoothing plane over the work so that
+the body of the tool is in a direct line with the movement of the plane.
+It should be held at an angle of about 12 or 15 degrees (see Fig. 25).
+The fore plane should always be held straight with the movement of the
+plane, because the length of the fore plane body is used as a
+straightener for the surface to be finished.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 26._]
+
+ERRORS TO BE AVOIDED.--Never draw back the plane with the bit resting on
+the board. This simply wears out the tool, and if there should be any
+grit on the board it will be sure to ruin the bit. This applies
+particularly to the jack plane, but is bad practice with the others as
+well.
+
+A work bench is a receptacle for all kinds of dirt. Provide a special
+ledge or shelf for the planes, and be sure to put each plane there
+immediately after using.
+
+THE GAGE.--A man, who professed to be a carpenter, once told me that he
+never used a gage because he could not make it run straight. A few
+moments' practice convinced him that he never knew how to hold it. The
+illustration shows how properly to hold it, and the reason why it should
+so be held follows.
+
+You will observe (Fig. 26) that the hand grasps the stem of the gage
+behind the cheekpiece, so that the thumb is free to press against the
+side of the stem to the front of the cheekpiece.
+
+HOLDING THE GAGE.--The hand serves to keep the cheekpiece against the
+board, while the thumb pushes the gage forward. The hand must not, under
+any circumstances, be used to move the gage along. In fact, it is not
+necessary for the fingers to be clasped around the gage stem, if the
+forefinger presses tightly against the cheekpiece, since the thumb
+performs all the operation of moving it along. Naturally, the hand
+grasps the tool in order to hold it down against the material, and to
+bring it back for a new cut.
+
+THE DRAW-KNIFE.--It is difficult for the apprentice to become accustomed
+to handle this useful tool. It is much more serviceable than a hatchet
+for trimming and paring work. In applying it to the wood always have the
+tool at an angle with the board, so as to make a slicing cut. This is
+specially desirable in working close to a line, otherwise there is a
+liability of cutting over it.
+
+This knife requires a firm grasp--firmness of hold is more important
+than strength in using. The flat side is used wholly for straight edges,
+and the beveled side for concave surfaces. It is the intermediate tool
+between the hatchet and the plane, as it has the characteristics of both
+those tools. It is an ugly, dangerous tool, more to be feared when lying
+around than when in use. Put it religiously on a rack which protects the
+entire cutting edge. _Keep it off the bench._
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+HOW TO DESIGN ARTICLES
+
+
+FUNDAMENTALS OF DESIGNING.--A great deal of the pleasure in making
+articles consists in creative work. This means, not that you shall
+design some entirely new article, but that its general form, or
+arrangement of parts, shall have some new or striking feature.
+
+A new design in any art does not require a change in all its parts. It
+is sufficient that there shall be an improvement, either in some
+particular point, as a matter of utility, or some change in an artistic
+direction. A manufacturer in putting out a new chair, or a plow, or an
+automobile, adds some striking characteristic. This becomes his talking
+point in selling the article.
+
+THE COMMERCIAL INSTINCT.--It is not enough that the boy should learn to
+make things correctly, and as a matter of pastime and pleasure. The
+commercial instinct is, after all, the great incentive, and should be
+given due consideration.
+
+It would be impossible, in a book of this kind, to do more than to give
+the fundamental principles necessary in designing, and to direct the
+mind solely to essentials, leaving the individual to build up for
+himself.
+
+FIRST REQUIREMENTS FOR DESIGNING.--First, then, let us see what is
+necessary to do when you intend to set about making an article. Suppose
+we fix our minds upon a table as the article selected. Three things are
+necessary to know: First, the use to which it is to be put; second, the
+dimensions; and, third, the material required.
+
+Assuming it to be the ordinary table, and the dimensions fixed, we may
+conclude to use soft pine, birch or poplar, because of ease in working.
+There are no regulation dimensions for tables, except as to height,
+which is generally uniform, and usually 30 inches. As to the length and
+width, you will be governed by the place where it is to be used.
+
+If the table top is to have dimensions, say, of 36" x 48", you may lay
+out the framework six inches less each way, thus giving you a top
+overhang of three inches, which is the usual practice.
+
+CONVENTIONAL STYLES.--Now, if you wish to depart from the conventional
+style of making a table you may make variations in the design. For
+instance, the Chippendale style means slender legs and thin top. It
+involves some fanciful designs in the curved outlines of the top, and in
+the crook of the legs. Or if, on the other hand, the Mission type is
+preferred, the overhang of the top is very narrow; the legs are straight
+and heavy, and of even size from top to bottom; and the table top is
+thick and nearly as broad as it is long. Such furniture has the
+appearance of massiveness; it is easily made and most serviceable.
+
+MISSION STYLE.--The Mission style of architecture also lends itself to
+the making of chairs and other articles of furniture. A chair is,
+probably, the most difficult piece of household furniture to make,
+because strength is required. In this type soft wood may be used, as the
+large legs and back pieces are easily provided with mortises and tenons,
+affording great rigidity when completed. In designing, therefore, you
+may see how the material itself becomes an important factor.
+
+CABINETS.--In the making of cabinets, sideboards, dressers and like
+articles, the ingenious boy will find a wonderful field for designing
+ability, because in these articles fancy alone dictates the sizes and
+the dimensions of the parts. Not so with chairs and tables. The
+imagination plays an important part even in the making of drawers, to
+say nothing of placing them with an eye to convenience and artistic
+effect.
+
+HARMONY OF PARTS.--But one thing should be observed in the making of
+furniture, namely, harmony between the parts. For instance, a table
+with thin legs and a thick top gives the appearance of a top-heavy
+structure; or the wrong use of two different styles is bad from an
+artistic standpoint; moreover, it is the height of refined education if,
+in the use of contrasting woods, they are properly blended to form a
+harmonious whole.
+
+HARMONIZING WOOD.--Imagine a chiffonier with the base of dark wood, like
+walnut, and the top of pine or maple, or a like light-colored wood. On
+the other hand, both walnut and maple, for instance, may be used in the
+same article, if they are interspersed throughout the entire article.
+The body may be made of dark wood and trimmed throughout with a light
+wood to produce a fine effect.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+HOW WORK IS LAID OUT
+
+
+CONCRETE EXAMPLES OF WORK.--A concrete example of doing any work is more
+valuable than an abstract statement. For this purpose I shall direct the
+building of a common table with a drawer in it and show how the work is
+done in detail.
+
+For convenience let us adopt the Mission style, with a top 36" x 42" and
+the height 30". The legs should be 2" x 2" and the top 1", dressed. The
+material should be of hard wood with natural finish, or, what is better
+still, a soft wood, like birch, which may be stained a dark brown, as
+the Mission style is more effective in dark than in light woods.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 27._]
+
+FRAMEWORK.--As we now know the sizes, the first thing is to build the
+framework. The legs should be dressed square and smoothed down with the
+fore plane to make them perfectly straight. Now, lay out two mortises at
+the upper end of each leg. Follow the illustrations to see how this is
+done.
+
+LAYING OUT THE LEGS.--Fig. 27 shows a leg with square cross marks (A) at
+each end. These marks indicate the finished length of the leg. You will
+also see crosses on two sides. These indicate what is called the "work
+sides." The work sides are selected because they are the finest surfaces
+on the leg.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 28._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 29._]
+
+THE LENGTH OF THE MORTISES.--Then take a small try square (Fig. 28) and
+add two cross lines (B, C) on each of the inner surfaces, the second
+line (B) one-half inch from the finish line (A), and the other line (C)
+seven inches down from the line (A). The side facing boards, hereafter
+described, are seven inches wide.
+
+When this has been done for all the legs, prepare your gage (Fig. 29) to
+make the mortise scribe, and, for convenience in illustrating, the leg
+is reversed. If the facing boards are 1" thick, and the tenons are
+intended to be 1/2" thick, the first scribe line (E) should be 1/2" from
+the work side, because the shoulder on the facing board projects out
+1/4", and the outer surface of the facing board should not be flush with
+the outer surface of the leg. The second gage line (F) should be 1" from
+the work side.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 30._]
+
+THE MORTISES.--When the mortises have been made they will appear as
+shown in the enlarged cross section of the leg (Fig. 30), the total
+depth of each mortise being 1-1/2". The depth of this mortise determines
+for us the length of the tenons on the facing boards.
+
+THE FACING BOARDS.--These boards are each 1 inch thick and 7 inches
+wide. As the top of the table is 42 inches long, and we must provide an
+overhang, say of 2 inches, we will first take off 4 inches for the
+overhang and 4 inches for the legs, so that the length of two of the
+facing boards, from shoulder to shoulder, must be 34 inches; and the
+other two facing boards 28 inches. Then, as we must add 1-1/2 inches for
+each tenon, two of the boards will be 37 inches long and two of them 31
+inches long.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 31._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 32._]
+
+The illustration (Fig. 31) shows a board marked with the cross lines (B)
+at each end for the end of the tenons, or the extreme ends of the
+boards.
+
+THE TENONS.--Do not neglect first to select the work side and the
+working edge of the board. The outer surface and the upper edges are the
+sides to work from. The cheekpiece (A) of the gage must always rest
+against the working side.
+
+The cross marks (B, C) should be made with the point of a sharp knife,
+and before the small back saw is used on the cross-cuts the lines (B),
+which indicate the shoulders, should be scored with a sharp knife, as
+shown in Fig. 33. This furnishes a guide for the saw, and makes a neat
+finish for the shoulder.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 33._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 34._]
+
+[Illusstration _Fig. 35._]
+
+TOOLS USED.--The back saw is used for cutting the tenon, and the end of
+the board appears as shown in the enlarged Fig. 34. Two things are now
+necessary to complete the tenons. On the upper or work edge of each
+board use the gage to mark off a half-inch slice, and then cut away the
+flat side of the tenon at the end, on its inner surface, so it will
+appear as shown in Fig. 35.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 36._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 37._]
+
+CHAMFERED TENONS.--The object of these chamfered or beveled tenons is to
+permit the ends to approach each other closely within the mortise, as
+shown in the assembled parts (Fig. 36).
+
+THE FRAME ASSEMBLED.--The frame is now ready to assemble, but before
+doing so a drawer opening and supports should be made. The ends of the
+supports may be mortised into the side pieces or secured by means of
+gains.
+
+Mortises and tenons are better.
+
+THE DRAWER SUPPORTS.--Take one of the side-facing boards (Fig. 37) and
+cut a rectangular opening in it. This opening should be 4 inches wide
+and 18 inches long, so placed that there is 1 inch of stock at the upper
+margin and 2 inches of stock at the lower margin of the board. At each
+lower corner make a mortise (A), so that one side of the mortise is on a
+line with the margin of the opening, and so that it extends a half inch
+past the vertical margin of the opening.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 38._]
+
+You can easily cut a gain (B) in a strip, or, as in Fig. 38, you may use
+two strips, one (C) an inch wide and a half inch thick, and on this nail
+a strip (D) along one margin. This forms the guide and rest for the
+drawer.
+
+At the upper margin of the opening is a rebate or gain (E) at each
+corner, extending down to the top line of the drawer opening, into which
+are fitted the ends of the upper cross guides.
+
+THE TABLE FRAME.--When the entire table frame is assembled it will have
+the appearance shown in Fig. 39, and it is now ready for the top.
+
+THE TOP.--The top should be made of three boards, either tongued and
+grooved, or doweled and glued together. In order to give a massive
+appearance, and also to prevent the end grain of the boards from being
+exposed, beveled strips may be used to encase the edges. These marginal
+cleats are 3/4 inch thick and 2 inches wide, and joined by beveled ends
+at the corners, as shown in Fig. 40.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 39._]
+
+THE DRAWER.--The drawer (Fig. 41) shown in cross section, has its front
+(A) provided with an overlapping flange (B).
+
+It is not our object in this chapter to show how each particular article
+is made, but simply to point out the underlying principles, and to
+illustrate how the fastening elements, the tenons and mortises, are
+formed, so that the boy will know the proper steps in their natural
+order.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 40._]
+
+HOW ANY STRUCTURE IS BUILT UP.--It should be observed that each
+structure, however small, is usually built from the base up. Just the
+same as the more pretentious buildings are erected: First, the sill,
+then the floor supports, then the posts and top plates, with their
+connecting girders, and, finally, the roof.
+
+The chapter on House Building will give more detailed illustrations of
+large structures, and how they are framed and braced. At this point we
+are more concerned in knowing how to proceed in order to lay out the
+simple structural details, and if one subject of this kind is fully
+mastered the complicated character of the article will not be difficult
+to master.
+
+OBSERVATIONS ABOUT A BOX.--As simple a little article as a box
+frequently becomes a burden to a beginner. Try it. Simply keep in mind
+one thing; each box has six sides. Now, suppose you want a box with six
+equal sides--that is, a cubical form--it is necessary to make only three
+pairs of sides; two for the ends, two for the sides and two for the top
+and bottom. Each set has dimensions different from the other sets. Both
+pieces of the set, representing the ends, are square; the side pieces
+are of the same width as the end pieces, and slightly longer; and the
+top and bottom are longer and wider than the end pieces.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 41._]
+
+A box equal in all its dimensions may be made out of six boards,
+properly cut. Make an attempt in order to see if you can get the right
+dimensions.
+
+JOINTS.--For joining together boards at right angles to each other, such
+as box corners, drawers and like articles, tenons and mortises should
+never be resorted to. In order to make fine work the joints should be
+made by means of dovetails, rabbets or rebates, or by beveling or
+mitering the ends.
+
+BEVELING AND MITERING.--There is a difference in the terms "beveling"
+and "mitering," as used in the art. In Fig. 42 the joint A is _beveled_,
+and in Fig. 43 the joint B is _mitered_, the difference being that a
+bevel is applied to an angle joint like a box corner, while a miter has
+reference to a joint such as is illustrated in Fig. 43, such as the
+corner of a picture frame.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 42._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 43._]
+
+PROPER TERMS.--It is the application of the correct terms to things that
+lays the foundation for accurate thinking and proper expressions in
+describing work. A wise man once said that the basis of true science
+consists in correct definitions.
+
+PICTURE FRAMES.--In picture frames the mitered corners may have a saw
+kerf (C) cut across the corners, as shown in Fig. 44, and a thin blade
+of hard wood driven in, the whole being glued together.
+
+DOVETAIL JOINTS.--It is in the laying out of the more complicated
+dovetail joints that the highest skill is required, because exactness is
+of more importance in this work than in any other article in joinery. In
+order to do this work accurately follow out the examples given, and you
+will soon be able to make a beautiful dovetail corner, and do it
+quickly.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 44._]
+
+PREPARING A BOX JOINT.--In order to match a box joint for the inner end
+of a table drawer, the first step is to select two work sides. One work
+side will be the edge of the board, and the other the side surface of
+the board, and on those surfaces we will put crosses, as heretofore
+suggested.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 45._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 46._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 47._]
+
+FIRST STEPS.--Now lap together the inner surfaces of these boards (Y,
+Z), so the ends are toward you, as shown in Fig. 45. Then, after
+measuring the thickness of the boards to be joined (the thinnest, if
+they are of different thicknesses), set your compasses, or dividers, for
+1/4 inch, providing the boards are 1/2 inch thick, and, commencing at
+the work edge of the board, step off and point, as at A, the whole width
+of the board, and with a square make the two cross marks (B), using the
+two first compass points (A), then skipping one, using the next two, and
+so on.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 48._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 49._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 50._]
+
+When this is done, turn up the board Z (Fig. 46), so that it is at right
+angles to the board Y, and so the outer surface of the board Z is flush
+with the end of the board X, and with a sharp knife point extend the
+lines B along with the grain of the wood on board Z, up to the cross mark
+C. This cross mark should have been previously made and is located as
+far from the end of the board Z as the thickness of the board Y.
+
+We now have the marks for the outer surface of the board Z, and the end
+marks of board Y. For the purpose of getting the angles of the end of
+the board Z and the outer side of board Y, a cross line (D, Fig. 47) is
+drawn across the board X near the end, this line being as far from the
+end as the thickness of the board Z, and a vertical line (E) is drawn
+midway between the two first cross marks (A).
+
+Now, with your compass, which, in the meantime, has not been changed,
+make a mark (F), and draw down the line (G), which will give you the
+working angle at which you may set the bevel gage. Then draw down an
+angle from each alternate cross line (A), and turn the bevel and draw
+down the lines (H). These lines should all be produced on the opposite
+side of the board, so as to assure accuracy, and to this end the edges
+of the board also should be scribed.
+
+CUTTING OUT THE SPACES.--In cutting out the intervening spaces, which
+should be done with a sharp chisel, care should be observed not to cut
+over the shoulder lines. To prevent mistakes you should put some
+distinctive mark on each part to be cut away. In this instance E, H show
+the parts to be removed, and in Fig. 48 two of the cutaway portions are
+indicated.
+
+When the end of the board Z is turned up (Fig. 49), it has merely the
+longitudinal parallel lines B. The bevel square may now be used in the
+same manner as on the side of the board Y, and the fitting angles will
+then be accurately true.
+
+This is shown in Fig. 50, in which, also, two of the cutaway parts are
+removed.
+
+TOOLS USED IN LAYING OUT TENONS AND MORTISES.--A sharp-pointed knife
+must always be used for making all marks. Never employ an awl for this
+work, as the fiber of the wood will be torn up by it. A small try square
+should always be used (not the large iron square), and this with a
+sharp-pointed compass and bevel square will enable you to turn out a
+satisfactory piece of work.
+
+The foregoing examples, carefully studied, will enable you to gather the
+principles involved in laying off any work. If you can once make a
+presentable box joint, so that all the dovetails will accurately fit
+together, you will have accomplished one of the most difficult phases of
+the work, and it is an exercise which will amply repay you, because you
+will learn to appreciate what accuracy means.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+THE USES OF THE COMPASS AND THE SQUARE
+
+
+THE SQUARE.--The square is, probably, the oldest of all tools, and that,
+together with the compass, or dividers, with which the square is always
+associated, has constituted the craftsman's emblem from the earliest
+historical times. So far as we now know, the plain flat form, which has
+at least one right angle and two or more straight edges, was the only
+form of square used by the workman. But modern uses, and the development
+of joinery and cabinet making, as well as the more advanced forms of
+machinery practice, necessitated new structural forms in the square, so
+that the bevel square, in which there is an adjustable blade set in a
+handle, was found necessary.
+
+THE TRY SQUARE.--In the use of the ordinary large metal square it is
+necessary to lay the short limb of the square on the face of the work,
+and the long limb must, therefore, rest against the work side or edge of
+the timber, so that the scribing edge of the short limb does not rest
+flat against the work. As such a tool is defective in work requiring
+accuracy, it brought into existence what is called the try square,
+which has a rectangular handle, usually of wood, into which is fitted at
+one end a metal blade, which is at right angles to the edge of the
+handle. The handle, therefore, always serves as a guide for the blade in
+scribing work, because it lies flat down on the work.
+
+THE T-SQUARE is another modification of the try square, its principal
+use being for draughting purposes.
+
+THE COMPASS.--The compass is one of the original carpenter's tools. The
+difference between _compass_ and _dividers_ is that compasses have
+adjustable pen or pencil points, whereas dividers are without adjustable
+points. Modern work has brought refinements in the character of the
+compass and dividers, so that we now have the bow-compass, which is,
+usually, a small tool, one leg of which carries a pen or pencil point,
+the two legs being secured together, usually, by a spring bow, or by a
+hinged joint with a spring attachment.
+
+PROPORTIONAL DIVIDERS.--A useful tool is called the proportional
+dividers, the legs of which are hinged together intermediate the ends,
+so that the pivotal joint is adjustable. By means of this tool the scale
+of work may be changed, although its widest field of usefulness is work
+laid off on a scale which you intend to reduce or enlarge
+proportionally.
+
+DETERMINING ANGLES.--Now, in order to lay out work the boy should know
+quickly and accurately how to determine various angles used or required
+in his work. The quickest way in which to learn this is to become
+familiar with the degree in its various relations.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 51._]
+
+DEFINITION OF DEGREE.--A degree is not a measure, as we would designate
+a foot or a pound to determine distance or quantity. It is used to
+denote a division, space, interval or position. To illustrate, look at
+the circle, Fig. 51. The four cardinal points are formed by the cross
+lines (A, B), and in each one of the quadrants thus formed the circle is
+divided into 90 degrees. Look at the radial lines (C, D), and you will
+find that the distance between these lines is different along the
+curved line (E) than along the curved line (F). The degree is,
+therefore, to indicate only the space, division or interval in the
+circle.
+
+THE MOST IMPORTANT ANGLE.--Most important for one to know at a glance is
+that of 45 degrees, because the one can the more readily calculate the
+other degrees, approximately, by having 45 degrees once fixed in the
+mind, and impressed on the visual image. With a square and a compass it
+is a comparatively easy matter accurately to step off 45 degrees, as it
+is the line C, midway between A and B, and the other degrees may be
+calculated from the line C and the cardinal lines A or B.
+
+DEGREES WITHOUT A COMPASS.--But in the absence of a compass and when you
+do not wish to step off a circle, you will in such case lay down the
+square, and mark off at the outer margin of the limbs two equal
+dimensions. Suppose we take 2 inches on each limb of the square. The
+angle thus formed by the angle square blade is 45 degrees. To find 30
+degrees allow the blade of the angle square to run from 2 inches on one
+limb to 3-1/2 inches on the other limb, and it will be found that for 15
+degrees the blade runs from 2 inches on one limb to 7-1/2 inches on the
+other limb. It would be well to fix firmly these three points, at least,
+in your mind, as they will be of the utmost value to you. It is a
+comparatively easy matter now to find 10 degrees or 25 degrees, or any
+intermediate line.
+
+WHAT DEGREES ARE CALCULATED FROM.--The question that now arises is what
+line one may use from which to calculate degrees, or at what point in
+the circle zero is placed. Degrees may be calculated either from the
+horizontal or from the vertical line. Examine Fig. 53. The working
+margin indicated by the cross mark is your base line, and in specifying
+an angle you calculate it from the work edge. Thus, the line A indicates
+an angle of 30 degrees. The dotted line is 45 degrees.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 52._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 53._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 54._]
+
+THE DIVIDERS.--The dividers are used not only for scribing circles, but
+also for stepping and dividing spaces equally. There is a knack in the
+use of the dividers, where accuracy is wanted, and where the surface is
+of wood. Unless the utmost care is observed, the spaces will be unequal,
+for the reason that the point of the dividers will sink more deeply into
+the wood at some places than at others, due to the uneven texture of the
+wood grain. It will be better to make a line lengthwise, and a cross
+line (A) for starting (see Fig. 54). You may then insert one point of
+the dividers at the initial mark (B), and describe a small arc (C). Then
+move the dividers over to the intersection of the arc (C) on the line,
+and make the next mark, and so on.
+
+Some useful hints along this same line will be found under the chapter
+on Drawing, which should be carefully studied.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+HOW THE DIFFERENT STRUCTURAL PARTS ARE DESIGNATED
+
+
+THE RIGHT NAME FOR EVERYTHING.--Always make it a point to apply the
+right term to each article or portion of a structure. Your explanation,
+to those who do know the proper technical terms, will render much easier
+a thorough understanding; and to those who do not know, your language
+will be in the nature of an education.
+
+PROPER DESIGNATIONS.--Every part in mechanism, every point, curve and
+angle has its peculiar designation. A knowledge of terms is an
+indication of thoroughness in education, and, as heretofore stated,
+becomes really the basis of art, as well as of the sciences. When you
+wish to impart information to another you must do it in terms understood
+by both.
+
+Furthermore, and for this very reason, you should study to find out how
+to explain or to define the terms. You may have a mental picture of the
+structure in your mind, but when asked to explain it you are lost.
+
+LEARNING MECHANICAL FORMS.--Suppose, for example, we take the words
+_segment_ and _sector_. Without a thorough understanding in your own
+mind you are likely to confuse these terms by taking one for the other.
+But let us assume you are to be called upon to explain a sector to some
+one who has no idea of terms and their definitions. How would you
+describe it? While it is true it is wedge-shaped, you will see by
+examining the drawing that it is not like a wedge. The sector has two
+sides running from a point like a wedge, but the large end of the sector
+is curved.
+
+If you were called upon to define a segment you might say it had one
+straight line and one curve, but this would not define it very lucidly.
+Therefore, in going over the designations given, not only fix in your
+mind the particular form, but try to remember some particular manner in
+which you can clearly express the form, the shape or the relation of the
+parts.
+
+For your guidance, therefore, I have given, as far as possible, simple
+figures to aid you in becoming acquainted with structures and their
+designations, without repeating the more simple forms which I have used
+in the preceding chapters.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 55.-Fig. 65._]
+
+55. _Arcade._--A series of arches with the columns or piers which
+support them, the spandrels above, and other parts.
+
+56. _Arch._--A curved member made up, usually, of separate wedge-shaped
+solids, A. K, Keystone; S, Springers; C, Chord, or span.
+
+57. _Buttress._--A projecting mass of masonry. A, used for resisting the
+thrust of an arch, or for ornamentation; B, a flying buttress.
+
+58. _Chamfer._--The surface A formed by cutting away the arris or angle
+formed by two faces, B, C, of material.
+
+59. _Cotter or Cotter Pin._--A pin, A, either flat, square or round,
+driven through a projecting tongue to hold it in position.
+
+60. _Crenelated._--A form of molding indented or notched, either
+regularly or irregularly.
+
+61. _Crosses._--1. Latin cross, in the Church of Rome carried before
+Bishops. 2. Double cross, carried before Cardinals and Bishops. 3.
+Triple or Papal cross. 4. St. Andrew's and St. Peter's cross. 5. Maltese
+cross. 6. St. Anthony or Egyptian cross. 7. Cross of Jerusalem. 8. A
+cross patte or ferme (head or first). 9. A cross patonce (that is,
+growing larger at the ends). 10. Greek cross.
+
+62. _Curb Roof._--A roof having a double slope, or composed on each side
+of two parts which have unequal inclinations; a gambrel roof.
+
+63. _Cupola._--So called on account of its resemblance to a cup. A roof
+having a rounded form. When on a large scale it is called a dome.
+
+_Crown Post._--See _King Post_.
+
+64. _Console._--A bracket with a projection not more than half its
+height.
+
+65. _Corbels._--A mass of brackets to support a shelf or structure.
+Largely employed in Gothic architecture.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 66.-Fig. 79._]
+
+66. _Dormer._--A window pierced in a roof and so set as to be vertical,
+while the roof slopes away from it. Also called a _Gablet_.
+
+67. _Dowel._--A pin or stud in one block, or body, designed to engage
+with holes in another body to hold them together in alignment.
+
+68. _Drip._--That part of a cornice or sill course A, or other
+horizontal member which projects beyond the rest, so as to divert water.
+
+69. _Detents._--Recesses to lock or to serve as a stop or holding place.
+
+70. _Extrados._--The exterior curve of an arch, especially the upper
+curved face A. B is the _Intrados_ or _Soffit_.
+
+71. _Engrailed._--Indented with small concave curves, as the edge of a
+bordure, bend, or the like.
+
+72. _Facet._--The narrow plain surface, as A, between the fluting of a
+column.
+
+73. _Fret, Fretwork._--Ornamental work consisting of small fillets, or
+slats, intersecting each other or bent at right angles. Openwork in
+relief, when elaborated and minute in all its parts. Hence any minute
+play of light and shade. A, Japanese fretwork. B, Green fret.
+
+74. _Frontal_, also called _Pediment_.--The triangular space, A, above a
+door or window.
+
+75. _Frustums._--That part of a solid next the base, formed by cutting
+off the top; or the part of any solid, as of a cone, pyramid, etc.,
+between two planes, which may either be parallel or inclined to each
+other.
+
+76. _Fylfat._--A rebated cross used as a secret emblem and worn as an
+ornament. It is also called _Gammadium_, and more commonly known as
+_Swastika_.
+
+77. _Gambrel Roof._--A curb roof having the same section in all its
+parts, with a lower, steeper and longer part. See _Curb Roof_ and
+distinguish difference.
+
+78. _Gargoyle._--A spout projecting from the roof gutter of a building,
+often carved grotesquely.
+
+79. _Gudgeon._--A wooden shaft, A, with a socket, B, into which is
+fitted a casting, C. The casting has a _gudgeon_, D.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 80.-Fig. 93._]
+
+80. _Guilloche._--An ornament in the form of two or more bands or
+strings twisted together or over or through each other.
+
+81. _Half Timbered._--Constructed of a timber frame, having the spaces
+filled in with masonry.
+
+82. _Hammer Beam._--A member of one description of roof truss, called
+hammer-beam truss, which is so framed as not to have a tie beam at the
+top of the wall. A is the _hammer beam_, and C the pendant post.
+
+83. _Haunches._--The parts A, A, on each side of the crown of an arch.
+Each haunch is from one-half to two-thirds of the half arch.
+
+84. _Header._--A piece of timber, A, fitted between two trimmers, B, B,
+to hold the ends of the tail beams, C, C.
+
+85. _Hip Roof._--The external angle formed by the meeting of two sloping
+sides or skirts of a roof which have their wall plates running in
+different directions.
+
+86. _Hood Molding._--A projecting molding over the head of an arch, as
+at A, forming the outer-most member of the archivolt.
+
+87. _Inclave._--The border, or borders, having a series of dovetails.
+One variation of molding or ornamentation.
+
+88. _Interlacing Arch._--Arches, usually circular, so constructed that
+their archivolts, A, intersect and seem to be interlaced.
+
+89. _Invected._--Having a border or outline composed of semicircles or
+arches, with the convexity outward. The opposite of engrailed.
+
+90. _Inverted Arch._--An arch placed with the crown downward; used in
+foundation work.
+
+91. _Keystone._--The central or topmost stone, A, of an arch, sometimes
+decorated with a carving.
+
+92. _King Post._--A member, A, of a common form of truss for roofs. It
+is strictly a tie intended to prevent the sagging of the tie beam, B, in
+the middle. If there are struts, C, supporting the rafters, D, they
+extend down to the foot of the _King Post_.
+
+93. _Label._--The name given to the projecting molding, A, around the
+top of the door opening. A form of mediaeval architecture.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 94.-Fig. 104._]
+
+94. _Louver._--The sloping boards, A, set to shed rain water outward in
+an opening of a frame, as in belfry windows.
+
+95. _Lintel._--A horizontal member. A spanning or opening of a frame,
+and designed to carry the wall above it.
+
+96. _Lug._--A. projecting piece, as A, to which anything is attached, or
+against which another part, like B, is held.
+
+97. _M-Roof._--A kind of roof formed by the junction of two common roofs
+with a valley between them, so the section resembles the letter M.
+
+98. _Mansard Roof._--A hipped curb roof, that is, a roof having on all
+sides two slopes, the lower one, A, being steeper than the upper portion
+or deck.
+
+99. _Newel Post._--The upright post at the foot of a stairway, to which
+the railing is attached.
+
+100. _Parquetry._--A species of joinery or cabinet work, consisting of
+an inlay of geometric or other patterns, generally of different colored
+woods, used particularly for floors.
+
+101. _Peen._ also _Pein._--The round, _round_-edged or hemispherical
+end, as at A, of a hammer.
+
+102. _Pendant._--A hanging ornament on roofs, ceilings, etc., and much
+used in the later styles of Gothic architecture where it is of stone.
+Imitated largely in wood and plaster work.
+
+103. _Pentastyle._--A pillar. A portico having five pillars, A, is
+called the _Pentastyle_ in temples of classical construction.
+
+104. _Pedestal._--An upright architectural member, A, right-angled in
+plan, constructionally a pier, but resembling a column, having a
+capital, shaft and base to agree with the columns in the structure.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 105.-Fig. 117._]
+
+105. _Pintle._--An upright pivot pin, or the pin of a hinge; A
+represents the _pintle_ of a rudder.
+
+106. _Portico._--A colonnade or covered structure, especially in
+classical style, of architecture, and usually at the entrance of a
+building.
+
+107. _Plate._--A horizontal timber, A, used as a top or header for
+supporting timbers, roofs and the like.
+
+108. _Queen Post._--One of two suspending posts in a roof truss, or
+other framed truss of simple form. Compare with _King Post._ A, B, tie
+beam; C, C, queen posts; D, straining piece; E, principal rafter; F,
+rafter.
+
+109. _Quirk Molding._--A small channel, deeply recessed, in proportion
+to its width, used to insulate and give relief to a convex rounded
+molding. An excellent corner post for furniture.
+
+110. _Re-entering._--The figure shows an irregular polygon (that is,
+many-sided figure) and is a re-entering polygon. The recess A is a
+re-entering angle.
+
+111. _Rafter._--Originally any rough and heavy piece of timber, but in
+modern carpentry used to designate the main roof support, as at A. See
+_Queen Post_.
+
+112. _Scarfing._--Cutting timber at an angle along its length, as the
+line A. Scarfing joints are variously made. The overlapping joints may
+be straight or recessed and provided with a key block B. When fitted
+together they are securely held by plates and bolts.
+
+113. _Scotia Molding._--A sunken molding in the base of a pillar, so
+called from the dark shadow which it casts.
+
+114. _Sill._--In carpentry the base piece, or pieces, A, on which the
+posts of a structure are set.
+
+115. _Skew-Back._--The course of masonry, such as a stone, A, with an
+inclined face, which forms the abutment for the voussoirs, B, or
+wedge-shaped stones comprising the arch.
+
+116. _Spandrel._--The irregular, triangular space, A, between the curve
+of an arch and the enclosing right angle.
+
+117. _Strut._--In general, any piece of a frame, such as a timber A, or
+a brace B, which resists pressure or thrust in the direction of its
+length.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 118.-Fig. 123._]
+
+118. _Stud, Studding._--The vertical timber or scantling, A, which is
+one of the small uprights of a building to which the boarding or
+plastering lath are nailed.
+
+119. _Stile._--The main uprights of a door, as A, A; B, B, B, rails; C,
+C, mullions; D, D, panels.
+
+_Tie Beam._--See _Queen Post_.
+
+120. _Trammel._--A very useful tool for drawing ellipses. It comprises a
+cross, A, with grooves and a bar, B, with pins, C, attached to sliding
+blocks in the grooves, and a pen or stylus, D, at the projecting end of
+the bar to scribe the ellipse.
+
+121. _Turret._--A little tower, frequently only an ornamental structure
+at one of the angles of a larger structure.
+
+122. _Transom._--A horizontal cross-bar, A, above a door or window or
+between a door and a window above it. Transom is the horizontal member,
+and if there is a vertical, like the dotted line B, it is called a
+_Mullion_. See _Stile_.
+
+123. _Valley Roof._--A place of meeting of two slopes of a roof which
+have their sides running in different directions and formed on the plan
+of a re-entrant angle.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+DRAWING AND ITS UTILITY
+
+
+A knowledge of drawing, at least so far as the fundamentals are
+concerned, is of great service to the beginner. All work, after being
+conceived in the brain, should be transferred to paper. A habit of this
+kind becomes a pleasure, and, if carried out persistently, will prove a
+source of profit. The boy with a bow pen can easily draw circles, and
+with a drawing or ruling pen he can make straight lines.
+
+REPRESENTING OBJECTS.--But let him try to represent some object, and the
+pens become useless. There is a vast difference in the use of drawing
+tools and free-hand drawing. While the boy who is able to execute
+free-hand sketches may become the better artist, still that art would
+not be of much service to him as a carpenter. First, because the use of
+tools gives precision, and this is necessary to the builder; and,
+second, because the artist deals wholly with perspectives, whereas the
+builder must execute from plane surfaces or elevations.
+
+FORMING LINES AND SHADOWS.--It is not my intention to furnish a complete
+treatise on this subject, but to do two things, one of which will be to
+show, among other features, how simple lines form objects; how shading
+becomes an effective aid; how proportions are formed; and, second, how
+to make irregular forms, and how they may readily be executed so that
+the boy may be able to grasp the ideas for all shapes and structural
+devices.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 125._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 126._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 127._]
+
+ANALYSIS OF LINE SHADING.--In the demonstration of this work I shall
+give an analysis of the simple lines formed, showing the terms used to
+designate the lines, curves, and formations, so that when any work is
+laid out the beginner will be able, with this glossary before him, to
+describe architecturally, as well as mathematically, the angles and
+curves with which he is working.
+
+HOW TO CHARACTERIZE SURFACE.--Suppose we commence simply with straight
+lines. How shall we determine the character of the surface of the
+material between the two straight lines shown in Fig. 125? Is it flat,
+rounded, or concaved? Let us see how we may treat the surface by simple
+lines so as to indicate the configuration.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 128._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 129._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 130._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 131._]
+
+CONCAVE SURFACES.--In Fig. 126 the shading lines commence at the upper
+margin, and are heaviest there, the lines gradually growing thinner and
+farther apart.
+
+CONVEX SURFACES.--In Fig. 127 the shading is very light along the upper
+margin, and heavy at the lower margin. The first shaded figure,
+therefore, represents a concaved surface, and the second figure a
+convex surface. But why? Simply for the reason that in drawings, as well
+as in nature, light is projected downwardly, hence when a beam of light
+moves past the margin of an object, the contrast at the upper part,
+where the light is most intense, is strongest.
+
+The shading of the S-shaped surface (Fig. 128) is a compound of Figs.
+126 and 127.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 132._]
+
+SHADOWS FROM A SOLID BODY.--We can understand this better by examining
+Fig. 129, which shows a vertical board, and a beam of light (A) passing
+downwardly beyond the upper margin of the board. Under these conditions
+the upper margin of the board appears darker to the vision, by contrast,
+than the lower part. It should also be understood that, in general, the
+nearer the object the lighter it is, so that as the upper edge of the
+board is farthest from the eye the heavy shading there will at least
+give the appearance of distance to that edge.
+
+But suppose that instead of having the surface of the board flat, it
+should be concaved, as in Fig. 130, it is obvious that the hollow, or
+the concaved, portion of the board must intensify the shadows or the
+darkness at the upper edge. This explains why the heavy shading in Fig.
+126 is at that upper margin.
+
+FLAT EFFECTS.--If the board is flat it may be shaded, as shown in Fig.
+131, in which the lines are all of the same thickness, and are spaced
+farther and farther apart at regularly increasing intervals.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 133._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 134._]
+
+THE DIRECTION OF LIGHT.--Now, in drawing, we must observe another thing.
+Not only does the light always come from above, but it comes also from
+the left side. I show in Fig. 132 two squares, one within the other. All
+the lines are of the same thickness. Can you determine by means of such
+a drawing what the inner square represents? Is it a block, or raised
+surface, or is it a depression?
+
+RAISED SURFACES.--Fig. 133 shows it in the form of a block, simply by
+thickening the lower and the right-hand lines.
+
+DEPRESSED SURFACES.--If, by chance, you should make the upper and the
+left-hand lines heavy, as in Fig. 134, it would, undoubtedly, appear
+depressed, and would need no further explanation.
+
+FULL SHADING,--But, in order to furnish an additional example of the
+effect of shading, suppose we shade the surface of the large square, as
+shown in Fig. 135, and you will at once see that not only is the effect
+emphasized, but it all the more clearly expresses what you want to show.
+In like manner, in Fig. 136, we shade only the space within the inner
+square, and it is only too obvious how shadows give us surface
+conformation.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 135._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 136._]
+
+ILLUSTRATING CUBE SHADING.--In Fig. 137 I show merely nine lines joined
+together, all lines being of equal thickness.
+
+As thus drawn it may represent, for instance, a cube, or it may show
+simply a square base (A) with two sides (B, B) of equal dimensions.
+
+SHADING EFFECTS.--Now, to examine it properly so as to observe what the
+draughtsman wishes to express, look at Fig. 138, in which the three
+diverging lines (A, B, C) are increased in thickness, and the cube
+appears plainly. On the other hand, in Fig. 139, the thickening of the
+lines (D, E, F) shows an entirely different structure.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 137._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 138._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 139._]
+
+It must be remembered, therefore, that to show raised surfaces the
+general direction is to shade heavily the lower horizontal and the right
+vertical lines. (See Fig. 133.)
+
+HEAVY LINES.--But there is an exception to this rule. See two examples
+(Fig. 140). Here two parallel lines appear close together to form the
+edge nearest the eye. In such cases the second, or upper, line is
+heaviest. On vertical lines, as in Fig. 141, the second line from the
+right is heaviest. These examples show plain geometrical lines, and
+those from Figs. 138 to 141, inclusive, are in perspective.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 140._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 141._]
+
+PERSPECTIVE.--A perspective is a most deceptive figure, and a cube, for
+instance, may be drawn so that the various lines will differ in length,
+and also be equidistant from each other. Or all the lines may be of the
+same length and have the distances between them vary. Supposing we have
+two cubes, one located above the other, separated, say, two feet or more
+from each other. It is obvious that the lines of the two cubes will not
+be the same to a camera, because, if they were photographed, they would
+appear exactly as they are, so far as their positions are concerned, and
+not as they appear. But the cubes do appear to the eye as having six
+equal sides. The camera shows that they do not have six equal sides so
+far as measurement is concerned. You will see, therefore, that the
+position of the eye, relative to the cube, is what determines the angle,
+or $the relative$ angles of all the lines.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 142._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 143._]
+
+A TRUE PERSPECTIVE OF A CUBE.--Fig. 142 shows a true perspective--that
+is, it is true from the measurement standpoint. It is what is called an
+_isometrical_ view, or a figure in which all the lines not only are of
+equal length, but the parallel lines are all spaced apart the same
+distances from each other.
+
+ISOMETRIC CUBE.--I enclose this cube within a circle, as in Fig. 143. To
+form this cube the circle (A) is drawn and bisected with a vertical line
+(B). This forms the starting point for stepping off the six points (C)
+in the circle, using the dividers without resetting, after you have made
+the circle. Then connect each of the points (C) by straight lines (D).
+These lines are called chords. From the center draw two lines (E) at an
+angle and one line (F) vertically. These are the radial lines. You will
+see from the foregoing that the chords (D) form the outline of the
+cube--or the lines farthest from the eye, and the radial lines (E, F)
+are the nearest to the eye. In this position we are looking at the block
+at a true diagonal--that is, from a corner at one side to the extreme
+corner on the opposite side.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 144._]
+
+Let us contrast this, and particularly Fig. 142, with the cube which is
+placed higher up, viewed from the same standpoint.
+
+FLATTENED PERSPECTIVE.--Fig. 144 shows the new perspective, in which the
+three vertical lines (A, A, A) are of equal length, and the six
+angularly disposed lines (B, C) are of equal length, but shorter than
+the lines A. The only change which has been made is to shorten the
+distance across the corner from D to D, but the vertical lines (A) are
+the same in length as the corresponding lines in Fig. 143.
+Notwithstanding this change the cubes in both figures appear to be of
+the same size, as, in fact, they really are.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 145._]
+
+In forming a perspective, therefore, it would be a good idea for the boy
+to have a cube of wood always at hand, which, if laid down on a
+horizontal support, alongside, or within range of the object to be
+drawn, will serve as a guide to the perspective.
+
+TECHNICAL DESIGNATIONS.--As all geometrical lines have designations, I
+have incorporated such figures as will be most serviceable to the boy,
+each figure being accompanied by its proper definition.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 146._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 147._]
+
+Before passing to that subject I can better show some of the simple
+forms by means of suitable diagrams.
+
+Referring to Fig. 145, let us direct our attention to the body (G),
+formed by the line (D) across the circle. This body is called a segment.
+A chord (D) and a curve comprise a segment.
+
+SECTOR AND SEGMENT.--Now examine the shape of the body formed by two of
+the radial lines (E, E) and that part of the circle which extends from
+one radial line to the other. The body thus formed is a sector, and it
+is made by two radiating lines and a curved line. Learn to distinguish
+readily, in your mind, the difference between the two figures.
+
+TERMS OF ANGLES.--The relation of the lines to each other, the manner in
+which they are joined together, and their comparative angles, all have
+special terms and meanings. Thus, referring to the isometric cube, in
+Fig. 145, the angle formed at the center by the lines (B, E) is
+different from the angle formed at the margin by the lines (E, F). The
+angle formed by B, E is called an exterior angle; and that formed by E,
+F is an interior angle. If you will draw a line (G) from the center to
+the circle line, so it intersects it at C, the lines B, D, G form an
+equilateral or isosceles triangle; if you draw a chord (A) from C to C,
+the lines H, E, F will form an obtuse triangle, and B, F, H a
+right-angled triangle.
+
+CIRCLES AND CURVES.--Circles, and, in fact, all forms of curved work,
+are the most difficult for beginners. The simplest figure is the circle,
+which, if it represents a raised surface, is provided with a heavy line
+on the lower right-hand side, as in Fig. 146; but the proper artistic
+expression is shown in Fig. 147, in which the lower right-hand side is
+shaded in rings running only a part of the way around, gradually
+diminishing in length, and spaced farther and farther apart as you
+approach the center, thus giving the appearance of a sphere.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 148._]
+
+IRREGULAR CURVES.--But the irregular curves require the most care to
+form properly. Let us try first the elliptical curve (Fig. 148). The
+proper thing is, first, to draw a line (A), which is called the "major
+axis." On this axis we mark for our guidance two points (B, B). With the
+dividers find a point (C) exactly midway, and draw a cross line (D).
+This is called the "minor axis." If we choose to do so we may indicate
+two points (E, E) on the minor axis, which, in this case, for
+convenience, are so spaced that the distance along the major axis,
+between B, B, is twice the length across the minor axis (D), along E, E.
+Now find one-quarter of the distance from B to C, as at F, and with a
+compass pencil make a half circle (G). If, now, you will set the compass
+point on the center mark (C), and the pencil point of the compass on B,
+and measure along the minor axis (D) on both sides of the major axis,
+you will make two points, as at H. These points are your centers for
+scribing the long sides of the ellipse. Before proceeding to strike the
+curved lines (J), draw a diagonal line (K) from H to each marking point
+(F). Do this on both sides of the major axis, and produce these lines so
+they cross the curved lines (G). When you ink in your ellipse do not
+allow the circle pen to cross the lines (K), and you will have a
+mechanical ellipse.
+
+ELLIPSES AND OVALS.--It is not necessary to measure the centering points
+(F) at certain specified distances from the intersection of the
+horizontal and vertical lines. We may take any point along the major
+axis, as shown, for instance, in Fig. 149. Let B be this point, taken at
+random. Then describe the half circle (C). We may, also, arbitrarily,
+take any point, as, for instance, D on the minor axis E, and by drawing
+the diagonal lines (F) we find marks on the circle (C), which are the
+meeting lines for the large curve (H), with the small curve (C). In this
+case we have formed an ovate or an oval form. Experience will soon make
+perfect in following out these directions.
+
+FOCAL POINTS.--The focal point of a circle is its center, and is called
+the _focus_. But an ellipse has two focal points, called _foci_,
+represented by F, F in Fig. 148, and by B, B in Fig. 149.
+
+A _produced line_ is one which extends out beyond the marking point.
+Thus in Fig. 148 that part of the line K between F and G represents the
+produced portion of line K.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 149._]
+
+SPIRALS.--There is no more difficult figure to make with a bow or a
+circle pen than a spiral. In Fig. 150 a horizontal and a vertical line
+(A, B), respectively, are drawn, and at their intersection a small
+circle (C) is formed. This now provides for four centering points for
+the circle pen, on the two lines (A, B). Intermediate these points
+indicate a second set of marks halfway between the marks on the lines.
+If you will now set the point of the compass at, say, the mark 3, and
+the pencil point of the compass at D, and make a curved mark one-eighth
+of the way around, say, to the radial line (E), then put the point of
+the compass to 4, and extend the pencil point of the compass so it
+coincides with the curved line just drawn, and then again make another
+curve, one-eighth of a complete circle, and so on around the entire
+circle of marking points, successively, you will produce a spiral,
+which, although not absolutely accurate, is the nearest approach with a
+circle pen. To make this neatly requires care and patience.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 150._]
+
+PERPENDICULAR AND VERTICAL.--A few words now as to terms. The boy is
+often confused in determining the difference between _perpendicular_ and
+_vertical_. There is a pronounced difference. Vertical means up and
+down. It is on a line in the direction a ball takes when it falls
+straight toward the center of the earth. The word _perpendicular_, as
+usually employed in astronomy, means the same thing, but in geometry, or
+in drafting, or in its use in the arts it means that a perpendicular
+line is at right angles to some other line. Suppose you put a square
+upon a roof so that one leg of the square extends up and down on the
+roof, and the other leg projects outwardly from the roof. In this case
+the projecting leg is _perpendicular_ to the roof. Never use the word
+_vertical_ in this connection.
+
+SIGNS TO INDICATE MEASUREMENTS.--The small circle ( deg.) is always used to
+designate _degree_. Thus 10 deg. means ten degrees.
+
+Feet are indicated by the single mark '; and two closely allied marks "
+are for inches. Thus five feet ten inches should be written 5' 10". A
+large cross (x) indicates the word "by," and in expressing the term six
+feet by three feet two inches, it should be written 6' x 3'2".
+
+The foregoing figures give some of the fundamentals necessary to be
+acquired, and it may be said that if the boy will learn the principles
+involved in the drawings he will have no difficulty in producing
+intelligible work; but as this is not a treatise on drawing we cannot go
+into the more refined phases of the subject.
+
+DEFINITIONS.--The following figures show the various geometrical forms
+and their definitions:
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 151.-Fig. 165._]
+
+151. _Abscissa._--The point in a curve, A, which is referred to by
+certain lines, such as B, which extend out from an axis, X, or the
+ordinate line Z.
+
+152. _Angle._--The inclosed space near the point where two lines meet.
+
+153. _Apothegm._--The perpendicular line A from the center to one side
+of a regular polygon. It represents the radial line of a polygon the
+same as the radius represents half the diameter of a circle.
+
+154. _Apsides_ or _Apsis_.--One of two points, A, A, of an orbit, oval
+or ellipse farthest from the axis, or the two small dots.
+
+155. _Chord._--A right line, as A, uniting the extremities of the arc of
+a circle or a curve.
+
+156. _Convolute_ (see also _Involute_).--Usually employed to designate a
+wave or folds in opposite directions. A double involute.
+
+157. _Conic Section._--Having the form of or resembling a cone. Formed
+by cutting off a cone at any angle. See line A.
+
+158. _Conoid._--Anything that has a form resembling that of a cone.
+
+159. _Cycloid._--A curve, A, generated by a point, B, in the plane of a
+circle or wheel, C, when the wheel is rolled along a straight line.
+
+160. _Ellipsoid._--A solid, all plane sections of which are ellipses or
+circles.
+
+161. _Epicycloid._--A curve, A, traced by a point, B, in the
+circumference of a wheel, C, which rolls on the convex side of a fixed
+circle, D.
+
+162. _Evolute._--A curve, A, from which another curve, like B, on each
+of the inner ends of the lines C is made. D is a spool, and the lines C
+represent a thread at different positions. The thread has a marker, E,
+so that when the thread is wound on the spool the marker E makes the
+evolute line A.
+
+163. _Focus._--The center, A, of a circle; also one of the two centering
+points, B, of an ellipse or an oval.
+
+164. _Gnome._--The space included between the boundary lines of two
+similar parallelograms, the one within the other, with an angle in
+common.
+
+165. _Hyperbola._--A curve, A, formed by the section of a cone. If the
+cone is cut off vertically on the dotted line, A, the curve is a
+hyperbola. See _Parabola_.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 167.-Fig. 184._]
+
+167. _Hypothenuse._--The side, A, of a right-angled triangle which is
+opposite to the right angle B, C. A, regular triangle; C, irregular
+triangle.
+
+168. _Incidence._--The angle, A, which is the same angle as, for
+instance, a ray of light, B, which falls on a mirror, C. The line D is
+the perpendicular.
+
+169. _Isosceles Triangle._--Having two sides or legs, A, A, that are
+equal.
+
+170. _Parabola._--One of the conic sections formed by cutting of a cone
+so that the cut line, A, is not vertical. See _Hyperbola_ where the cut
+line is vertical.
+
+171. _Parallelogram._--A right-lined quadrilateral figure, whose
+opposite sides, A, A, or B, B, are parallel and consequently equal.
+
+172. _Pelecoid._--A figure, somewhat hatchet-shaped, bounded by a
+semicircle, A, and two inverted quadrants, and equal to a square, C.
+
+173. _Polygons._--Many-sided and many with angles.
+
+174. _Pyramid._--A solid structure generally with a square base and
+having its sides meeting in an apex or peak. The peak is the vertex.
+
+175. _Quadrant._--The quarter of a circle or of the circumference of a
+circle. A horizontal line, A, and a vertical line, B, make the four
+quadrants, like C.
+
+176. _Quadrilateral._--A plane figure having four sides, and
+consequently four angles. Any figure formed by four lines.
+
+177. _Rhomb._--An equilateral parallelogram or a quadrilateral figure
+whose sides are equal and the opposite sides, B, B, parallel.
+
+178. _Sector._--A part, A, of a circle formed by two radial lines, B, B,
+and bounded at the end by a curve.
+
+179. _Segment._--A part, A, cut from a circle by a straight line, B. The
+straight line, B, is the chord or the _segmental line_.
+
+180. _Sinusoid._--A wave-like form. It may be regular or irregular.
+
+181. _Tangent._--A line, A, running out from the curve at right angles
+from a radial line.
+
+182. _Tetrahedron._--A solid figure enclosed or bounded by four
+triangles, like A or B. A plain pyramid is bounded by five triangles.
+
+183. _Vertex._--The meeting point, A, of two or more lines.
+
+184. _Volute._--A spiral scroll, used largely in architecture, which
+forms one of the chief features of the Ionic capital.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+MOLDINGS, WITH PRACTICAL ILLUSTRATIONS IN EMBELLISHING WORK
+
+
+MOLDINGS.--The use of moldings was early resorted to by the nations of
+antiquity, and we marvel to-day at many of the beautiful designs which
+the Ph[oe]necians, the Greeks and the Romans produced. If you analyze
+the lines used you will be surprised to learn how few are the designs
+which go to make up the wonderful columns, spires, minarets and domes
+which are represented in the various types of architecture.
+
+THE BASIS OF MOLDINGS.--Suppose we take the base type of moldings, and
+see how simple they are and then, by using these forms, try to build up
+or ornament some article of furniture, as an example of their utility.
+
+THE SIMPLEST MOLDING.--In Fig. 185 we show a molding of the most
+elementary character known, being simply in the form of a band (A)
+placed below the cap. Such a molding gives to the article on which it is
+placed three distinct lines, C, D and E. If you stop to consider you
+will note that the molding, while it may add to the strength of the
+article, is primarily of service because the lines and surfaces produce
+shadows, and therefore become valuable in an artistic sense.
+
+THE ASTRAGAL.--Fig. 186 shows the ankle-bone molding, technically called
+the _Astragal_. This form is round, and properly placed produces a good
+effect, as it throws the darkest shadow of any form of molding.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 185. Band._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 186. Astragal or Ankle Bone._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 187. Cavetto. Concave._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 188. Ovolo. Quarter round._]
+
+THE CAVETTO.--Fig. 187 is the cavetto, or round type. Its proper use
+gives a delicate outline, but it is principally applied with some other
+form of molding.
+
+THE OVOLO.--Fig. 188, called the ovolo, is a quarter round molding with
+the lobe (A) projecting downwardly. It is distinguished from the
+astragal because it casts less of a shadow above and below.
+
+THE TORUS.--Fig. 189, known as the torus, is a modified form of the
+ovolo, but the lobe (A) projects out horizontally instead of downwardly.
+
+THE APOPHYGES (Pronounced apof-i-ges).--Fig. 190 is also called the
+_scape_, and is a concaved type of molding, being a hollowed curvature
+used on columns where its form causes a merging of the shaft with the
+fillet.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 189. Torus._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 190. Apophyge._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 191. Cymatium._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 192. Ogee-Recta._]
+
+THE CYMATIUM.--Fig. 191 is the cymatium (derived from the word cyme),
+meaning wave-like. This form must be in two curves, one inwardly and one
+outwardly.
+
+THE OGEE.--Fig. 192, called the ogee, is the most useful of all
+moldings, for two reasons: First, it may have the concaved surface
+uppermost, in which form it is called ogee recta--that is, right side
+up; or it may be inverted, as in Fig. 193, with the concaved surface
+below, and is then called ogee reversa. Contrast these two views and you
+will note what a difference the mere inversion of the strip makes in the
+appearance. Second, because the ogee has in it, in a combined form, the
+outlines of nearly all the other types. The only advantage there is in
+using the other types is because you may thereby build up and space your
+work better than by using only one simple form.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 193. Ogee-Reversa._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 194. Bead or Reedy._]
+
+You will notice that the ogee is somewhat like the cymatium, the
+difference being that the concaved part is not so pronounced as in the
+ogee, and the convexed portion bulges much further than in the ogee. It
+is capable of use with other moldings, and may be reversed with just as
+good effect as the ogee.
+
+THE REEDY.--Fig. 194 represents the reedy, or the bead--that is, it is
+made up of reeds. It is a type of molding which should not be used with
+any other pronounced type of molding.
+
+THE CASEMENT (Fig. 195).--In this we have a form of molding used almost
+exclusively at the base of structures, such as columns, porticoes and
+like work.
+
+[Illustration:_ Fig. 195. Casement._]
+
+Now, before proceeding to use these moldings, let us examine a
+Roman-Doric column, one of the most famous types of architecture
+produced. We shall see how the ancients combined moldings to produce
+grace, lights and shadows and artistic effects.
+
+THE ROMAN-DORIC COLUMN.--In Fig. 196 is shown a Roman-Doric column, in
+which the cymatium, the ovolo, cavetto, astragal and the ogee are used,
+together with the fillets, bases and caps, and it is interesting to
+study this because of its beautiful proportions.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 196._]
+
+The pedestal and base are equal in vertical dimensions to the
+entablature and capital. The entablature is but slightly narrower than
+the pedestal; and the length of the column is, approximately, four times
+the height of the pedestal. The base of the shaft, while larger
+diametrically than the capital, is really shorter measured vertically.
+There is a reason for this. The eye must travel a greater distance to
+reach the upper end of the shaft, and is also at a greater angle to that
+part of the shaft, hence it appears shorter, while it is in reality
+longer. For this reason a capital must be longer or taller than the base
+of a shaft, and it is also smaller in diameter.
+
+It will be well to study the column not only on account of the wonderful
+blending of the various forms of moldings, but because it will impress
+you with a sense of proportions, and give you an idea of how simple
+lines may be employed to great advantage in all your work.
+
+LESSONS FROM THE DORIC COLUMN.--As an example, suppose we take a plain
+cabinet, and endeavor to embellish it with the types of molding
+described, and you will see to what elaboration the operation may be
+carried.
+
+APPLYING MOLDING.--Let Fig. 197 represent the front, top and bottom of
+our cabinet; and the first thing we shall do is to add a base (A) and a
+cap (B). Now, commencing at the top, suppose we utilize the simplest
+form of molding, the band.
+
+This we may make of any desired width, as shown in Fig. 198. On this
+band we can apply the ogee type (Fig. 199) right side up.
+
+But for variation we may decide to use the ogee reversed, as in Fig.
+200. This will afford us something else to think about and will call
+upon our powers of initiative in order to finish off the lower margin or
+edge of the ogee reversa.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 197._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 198._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 199._]
+
+If we take the ogee recta, as shown in Fig. 201, we may use the cavetto,
+or the ovolo (Fig. 202); but if we use the ogee reversa we must use a
+convex molding like the cavetto at one base, and a convex molding, like
+the torus or the ovolo, at the other base.
+
+In the latter (Fig. 202) four different moldings are used with the ogee
+as the principal structure.
+
+BASE EMBELLISHMENTS.--In like manner (Fig. 204) the base may have the
+casement type first attached in the corner, and then the ovolo, or the
+astragal added, as in Fig. 203.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 200._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 201._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 202._]
+
+STRAIGHT-FACED MOLDINGS.--Now let us carry the principle still further,
+and, instead of using various type of moldings, we will employ nothing
+but straight strips of wood. This treatment will soon indicate to you
+that the true mechanic or artisan is he who can take advantage of
+whatever he finds at hand.
+
+Let us take the same cabinet front (Fig. 205), and below the cap (A)
+place a narrow strip (B), the lower corner of which has been chamfered
+off, as at C. Below the strip B is a thinner strip (D), vertically
+disposed, and about two-thirds its width. The lower corner of this is
+also chamfered, as at F. To finish, apply a small strip (G) in the
+corner, and you have an embellished top that has the appearance, from a
+short distance, of being made up of molding.
+
+PLAIN MOLDED BASE.--The base may be treated in the same manner. The main
+strip (4) has its upper corner chamfered off, as at I, and on this is
+nailed a thin, narrow finishing strip (J). The upper part or molded top,
+in this case, has eleven distinct lines, and the base has six lines. By
+experimenting you may soon put together the most available kinds of
+molding strips.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 203._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 204._]
+
+DIVERSIFIED USES.--For a great overhang you may use the cavetto, or the
+apophyges, and below that the astragal or the torus; and for the base
+the casement is the most serviceable molding, and it may be finished off
+with the ovolo or the cymatium.
+
+Pages of examples might be cited to show the variety and the
+diversification available with different types.
+
+SHADOWS CAST BY MOLDINGS.--Always bear in mind that a curved surface
+makes a blended shadow. A straight, flat or plain surface does not, and
+it is for that reason the concaved and the convexed surfaces, brought
+out by moldings, become so important.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 205._]
+
+A little study and experimenting will soon teach you how a convex, a
+concave or a flat surface, and a corner or corners should be arranged
+relatively to each other; how much one should project beyond the other;
+and what the proportional widths of the different molding bands should
+be. An entire volume would scarcely exhaust this subject.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+AN ANALYSIS OF TENONING, MORTISING, RABBETING AND BEADING
+
+
+In the chapter on How Work is Laid Out, an example was given of the
+particular manner pursued in laying out mortises and tenons, and also
+dovetailed work. I deem it advisable to add some details to the subject,
+as well as to direct attention to some features which do not properly
+belong to the laying out of work.
+
+WHERE MORTISES SHOULD BE USED.--Most important of all is a general idea
+of places and conditions under which mortises should be resorted to.
+There are four ways in which different members may be secured to each
+other. First, by mortises and tenons; second, by a lap-and-butt; third,
+by scarfing; and, fourth, by tonguing and grooving.
+
+DEPTH OF MORTISES.--When a certain article is to be made, the first
+consideration is, how the joint or joints shall be made. The general
+rule for using the tenon and mortise is where two parts are joined
+wherein the grains of the two members run at right angles to each
+other, as in the following figure.
+
+RULE FOR MORTISES.--Fig. 206 shows such an example. You will notice this
+in doors particularly, as an example of work.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 206._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 207._]
+
+The next consideration is, shall the mortises be cut entirely through
+the piece? This is answered by the query as to whether or not the end of
+the tenon will be exposed; and usually, if a smooth finish is required,
+the mortise should not go through the member. In a door, however, the
+tenons are exposed at the edges of the door, and are, therefore, seen,
+so that we must apply some other rule. The one universally adopted is,
+that where, as in a door stile, it is broad and comparatively thin, or
+where the member having the mortise in its edge is much thinner than
+its width, the mortise should go through from edge to edge.
+
+The reason for this lies in the inability to sink the mortises through
+the stile (A, Fig. 207) perfectly true, and usually the job is turned
+out something like the illustration shows. The side of the rail (B) must
+be straight with the side of the stile. If the work is done by machinery
+it results in accuracy unattainable in hand work.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 208._]
+
+TRUE MORTISE WORK.--The essense of good joining work is the ability to
+sink the chisel true with the side of the member. More uneven work is
+produced by haste than by inability. The tendency of all beginners is
+to strike the chisel too hard, in order the more quickly to get down to
+the bottom of the mortise. Hence, bad work follows.
+
+STEPS IN CUTTING MORTISES.--Examine Fig. 208, which, for convenience,
+gives six successive steps in making the mortise. The marks _a_, _b_
+designate the limits, or the length, of the mortise. The chisel (C) is
+not started at the marking line (A), but at least an eighth of an inch
+from it. The first cut, as at B, gives a starting point for the next cut
+or placement of the chisel. When the second cut (B) has thus been made,
+the chisel should be turned around, as in dotted line _d_, position C,
+thereby making a finish cut down to the bottom of the mortise, line _e_,
+so that when the fourth cut has been made along line _f_, we are ready
+for the fifth cut, position C; then the sixth cut, position D, which
+leaves the mortise as shown at E. Then turn the chisel to the position
+shown at F, and cut down the last end of the mortise square, as shown in
+G, and clean out the mortise well before making the finishing cuts on
+the marking lines (_a_, _b_). The particular reason for cleaning out the
+mortise before making the finish cuts is, that the corners of the
+mortise are used as fulcrums for the chisels, and the eighth of an inch
+stock still remaining protects the corners.
+
+THINGS TO AVOID IN MORTISING.--You must be careful to refrain from
+undercutting as your chisel goes down at the lines _a_, _b_, because if
+you commit this error you will make a bad joint.
+
+As much care should be exercised in producing the tenon, although the
+most common error is apt to occur in making the shoulder. This should be
+a trifle undercut.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 209._]
+
+See the lines (A, Fig. 209), which illustrate this.
+
+LAP-AND-BUTT JOINT.--The lap-and-butt is the form of uniting members
+which is most generally used to splice together timbers, where they join
+each other end to end.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 210._]
+
+Bolts are used to secure the laps.
+
+But the lap-and-butt form is also used in doors and in other cabinet
+work. It is of great service in paneling.
+
+A rabbet is formed to receive the edge of the panel, and a molding is
+then secured to the other side on the panel, to hold the latter in
+place.
+
+SCARFING.--This method of securing members together is the most rigid,
+and when properly performed makes the joint the strongest part of the
+timber. Each member (A, Fig. 212) has a step diagonally cut (B), the two
+steps being on different planes, so they form a hook joint, as at C, and
+as each point or terminal has a blunt end, the members are so
+constructed as to withstand a longitudinal strain in either direction.
+The overlapping plates (D) and the bolts (E) hold the joint rigidly.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 211._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 212._]
+
+THE TONGUE AND GROOVE.--This form of uniting members has only a limited
+application. It is serviceable for floors, table tops, paneling, etc.
+In Fig. 213, a door panel is shown, and the door mullions (B) are also
+so secured to the rail (C). The tongue-and-groove method is never used
+by itself. It must always have some support or reinforcing means.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 213._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 214._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 215._]
+
+BEADING.--This part of the work pertains to surface finishings, and may
+or may not be used in connection with rabbeting.
+
+Figs. 214 and 215 show the simplest and most generally adopted forms in
+which it is made and used in connection with rabbeting, or with the
+tongue and groove. The bead is placed on one or both sides of that
+margin of the board (Fig. 214) which has the tongue, and the adjoining
+board has the usual flooring groove to butt against and receive the
+tongue. It is frequently the case that a blind bead, as in Fig. 215,
+runs through the middle of the board, so as to give the appearance of
+narrow strips when used for wainscoting, or for ceilings. The beads also
+serve to hide the joints of the boards.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 216._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 217._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 218._]
+
+ORNAMENTAL BEAD FINISH.--These figures show how the bead may be used for
+finishing corners, edges and projections. Fig. 216 has a bead at each
+corner of a stile (A), and a finishing strip of half-round material (B)
+is nailed to the flat edge. Fig. 217 has simply the corners themselves
+beaded, and it makes a most serviceable finish for the edges of
+projecting members.
+
+Fig. 218, used for wider members, has the corners beaded and a fancy
+molding (C); or the reduced edge of the stile itself is rounded off.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 219._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 220._]
+
+THE BEAD AND RABBET.--A more amplified form of work is available where
+the rabbet plane is used with the beader. These two planes together
+will, if properly used, offer a strong substitute for molding and
+molding effects.
+
+Fig. 219 has both sides first rabbeted, as at A, and the corners then
+beaded, as at B, with the reduced part of the member rounded off, as at
+C. Or, as in Fig. 220, the reduced edge of the member may have the
+corners beaded, as at D, and the rabbeted corners filled in with a round
+or concaved moulding (E).
+
+SHADING WITH BEADS AND RABBETS.--You will see from the foregoing, that
+these embellishments are serviceable because they provide the article
+with a large number of angles and surfaces to cast lights and shadows;
+and for this reason the boy should strive to produce the effects which
+this class of work requires.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+HOUSE BUILDING
+
+
+House building is the carpenter's craft; cabinet-making the joiner's
+trade, yet both are so intimately associated, that it is difficult to
+draw a line. The same tools, the same methods and the same materials are
+employed.
+
+There is no trade more ennobling than home building. It is a vocation
+which touches every man and woman, and to make it really an art is, or
+should be, the true aspiration of every craftsman.
+
+THE HOUSE AND EMBELLISHMENTS.--The refined arts, such as sculpture and
+painting, merely embellish the home or the castle, so that when we build
+the structure it should be made with an eye not only to comfort and
+convenience, but fitting in an artistic and aesthetic sense. It is just
+as easy to build a beautiful home as an ugly, ungainly, illy
+proportioned structure.
+
+BEAUTY NOT ORNAMENTATION.--The boy, in his early training, should learn
+this fundamental truth, that beauty, architecturally, does not depend
+upon ornamentation. Some of the most beautiful structures in the world
+are very plain. Beauty consists in proportions, in proper correlation
+of parts, and in adaptation for the uses to which the structure is to be
+put.
+
+PLAIN STRUCTURES.--A house with a plain facade, having a roof properly
+pitched and with a simple cornice, if joined to a wing which is not
+ungainly or out of proper proportions, is infinitely more beautiful than
+a rambling structure, in which one part suggests one order of
+architecture and the other part some other type or no type at all, and
+in which the embellishments are out of keeping with the size or
+pretensions of the house.
+
+COLONIAL TYPE.--For real beauty, on a larger scale, there is nothing
+to-day which equals the old Colonial type with the Corinthian columns
+and entablature. The Lee mansion, now the National Cemetery, at
+Washington, is a fine example. Such houses are usually square or
+rectangular in plan, severely plain, with the whole ornamentation
+consisting of the columns and the portico. This type presents an
+appearance of massiveness and grandeur and is an excellent illustration
+of a form wherein the main characteristic of the structure is
+concentrated or massed at one point.
+
+The Church of the Madelaine, Paris, is another striking example of this
+period of architecture.
+
+Of course, it would be out of place with cottages and small houses, but
+it is well to study and to know what forms are most available and
+desirable to adopt, and particularly to know something of the art in
+which you are interested.
+
+THE ROOF THE KEYNOTE.--Now, there is one thing which should, and does,
+distinguish the residence from other types of buildings, excepting
+churches. It is the roof. A house is dominated by its covering. I refer
+to the modern home. It is not true with the Colonial or the Grecian
+types. In those the facade or the columns and cornices predominate over
+everything else.
+
+BUNGALOW TYPES.--If you will take up any book on bungalow work and note
+the outlines of the views you will see that the roof forms the main
+element or theme. In fact, in most buildings of this kind everything is
+submerged but the roof and roof details. They are made exceedingly flat,
+with different pitches with dormers and gables intermingled and
+indiscriminately placed, with cornices illy assorted and of different
+kinds, so that the multiplicity of diversified details gives an
+appearance of great elaboration. Many of those designs are monstrosities
+and should, if possible, be legally prohibited.
+
+I cannot attempt to give even so much as an outline of what constitutes
+art in its relation to building, but my object is to call attention to
+this phase of the question, and as you proceed in your studies and your
+work you will realize the value and truthfulness of the foregoing
+observations.
+
+GENERAL HOUSE BUILDING.--We are to treat, generally, on the subject of
+house building, how the work is laid out, and how built, and in doing so
+I shall take a concrete example of the work. This can be made more
+effectual for the purpose if it is on simple lines.
+
+BUILDING PLANS.--We must first have a plan; and the real carpenter must
+have the ability to plan as well as to do the work. We want a five-room
+house, comprising a parlor, dining room, two bedrooms, a kitchen and a
+bathroom. Just a modest little home, to which we can devote our spare
+hours, and which will be neat and comfortable when finished. It must be
+a one-story house, and that fact at once settles the roof question. We
+can make the house perfectly square in plan, or rectangular, and divide
+up the space into the proper divisions.
+
+THE PLAIN SQUARE FLOOR PLAN will first be taken up, as it is such an
+easy roof to build. Of course, it is severely plain.
+
+Fig. 221 shows our proposed plan, drawn in the rough, without any
+attempts to measure the different apartments, and with the floor plan
+exactly square. Supposing we run a hall (A) through the middle. On one
+side of this let us plan for a dining room and a kitchen, a portion of
+the kitchen space to be given over to a closet and a bathroom.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 221._]
+
+The chimney (B) must be made accessible from both rooms. On the other
+side of the hallway the space is divided into a parlor and two
+bedrooms.
+
+THE RECTANGULAR PLAN.--In the rectangular floor plan (Fig. 222) a
+portion of the floor space is cut out for a porch (A), so that we may
+use the end or the side for the entrance. Supposing we use the end of
+the house for this purpose. The entrance room (B) may be a bedroom, or a
+reception and living room, and to the rear of this room is the dining
+room, connected with the reception room by a hall (C). This hall also
+leads to the kitchen and to the bathroom, as well as to the other
+bedroom. The parlor is connected with the entrance room (B), and also
+with the bedroom. All of this is optional, of course.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 222._]
+
+There are also two chimneys, one chimney (D) having two flues and the
+other chimney (E) having three flues, so that every room is
+accommodated.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 223._]
+
+ROOM MEASUREMENTS.--We must now determine the dimensions of each room,
+and then how we shall build the roof.
+
+In Figs. 223 and 224, we have now drawn out in detail the sizes, the
+locations of the door and windows, the chimneys and the closets, as well
+as the bathroom. All this work may be changed or modified to suit
+conditions and the taste of the designer.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 224._]
+
+FRONT AND SIDE LINES.--From the floor diagram, and the door and window
+spaces, as marked out, we may now proceed to lay out rough front and
+side outlines of the building. The ceilings are to be 9 feet, and if we
+put a rather low-pitched roof on the square structure (Fig. 223) the
+front may look something like Fig. 225, and a greater pitch given to the
+rectangular plan (Fig. 224) will present a view as shown in Fig. 226.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 225._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 226._]
+
+THE ROOF.--The pitch of the roof (Fig. 225) is what is called "third
+pitch," and the roof (Fig. 226) has a half pitch. A "third" pitch is
+determined as follows:
+
+ROOF PITCH.--In Fig. 227 draw a vertical line (A) and join it by a
+horizontal line (B). Then strike a circle (C) and step it off into three
+parts. The line (D), which intersects the first mark (E) and the angle
+of the lines (A, B), is the pitch.
+
+In Fig. 228 the line A is struck at 15 degrees, which is halfway between
+lines B and C, and it is, therefore, termed "half-pitch."
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 227._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 228._]
+
+Thus, we have made the ground plans, the elevations and the roofs as
+simple as possible. Let us proceed next with the details of the
+building.
+
+THE FOUNDATION.--This may be of brick, stone or concrete, and its
+dimensions should be at least 1-1/2 inches further out than the sill.
+
+THE SILLS.--We are going to build what is called a "balloon frame"; and,
+first, we put down the sills, which will be a course of 2" x 6", or 2" x
+8" joists, as in Fig. 229.
+
+THE FLOORING JOIST.--The flooring joists (A) are then put down (Fig.
+230). These should extend clear across the house from side to side, if
+possible, or, if the plan is too wide, they should be lapped at the
+middle wall and spiked together. The ends should extend out flush with
+the outer margins of the sills, as shown, but in putting down the first
+and last sill, space must be left along the sides of the joist of
+sufficient width to place the studding.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 229._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 230._]
+
+THE STUDDING.--The next step is to put the studding into position. 4" x
+4" must be used for corners and at the sides of door and window
+openings. 4" x 6" may be used at corners, if preferred. Consult your
+plan and see where the openings are for doors and windows. Measure the
+widths of the door and window frames, and make a measuring stick for
+this purpose. You must leave at least one-half inch clearance for the
+window or door frame, so as to give sufficient room to plumb and set the
+frame.
+
+SETTING UP.--First set up the corner posts, plumbing and bracing them.
+Cut a top plate for each side you are working on.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 231._]
+
+THE PLATE.--As it will be necessary in our job to use two or more
+lengths of 2" x 4" scantling for the plate, it will be necessary to join
+them together. Do this with a lap-and-butt joint (Fig. 231).
+
+Then set up the 4" x 4" posts for the sides of the doors and windows,
+and for the partition walls.
+
+The plate should be laid down on the sill, and marked with a pencil for
+every scantling to correspond with the sill markings. The plate is then
+put on and spiked to the 4" x 4" posts.
+
+INTERMEDIATE STUDDING.--It will then be an easy matter to put in the
+intermediate 2" x 4" studding, placing them as nearly as possible 16
+inches apart to accommodate the 48-inch plastering lath.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 232._]
+
+WALL HEADERS.--When all the studding are in you will need headers above
+and rails below the windows and headers above all the doors, so that you
+will have timbers to nail the siding to, as well as for the lathing.
+
+CEILING JOISTS.--We are now ready for the ceiling joists, which are,
+usually, 2" x 6", unless there is an upper floor. These are laid 16
+inches apart from center to center, preferably parallel with the floor
+joist.
+
+It should be borne in mind that the ceiling joist must always be put on
+with reference to the roof.
+
+Thus, in Fig. 232, the ceiling joists (A) have their ends resting on the
+plate (B), so that the rafters are in line with the joists.
+
+BRACES.--It would also be well, in putting up the studding, to use
+plenty of braces, although for a one-story building this is not so
+essential as in two-story structures, because the weather boarding
+serves as a system of bracing.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 233._]
+
+THE RAFTERS.--These may be made to provide for the gutter or not, as may
+be desired. They should be of 2" x 4" scantling.
+
+THE GUTTER.--In Fig. 233 I show a most serviceable way to provide for
+the gutter. A V-shaped notch is cut out of the upper side of the rafter,
+in which is placed the floor and a side. This floor piece is raised at
+one end to provide an incline for the water.
+
+A face-board is then applied and nailed to the ends of the rafters. This
+face-board is surmounted by a cap, which has an overhang, beneath which
+is a molding of any convenient pattern. The face-board projects down at
+least two inches below the angled cut of the rafter, so that when the
+base-board is applied, the lower margin of the face-board will project
+one inch below the base.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 234._]
+
+This base-board is horizontal, as you will see. The facia-board may be
+of any desired width, and a corner molding should be added. It is
+optional to use the brackets, but if added they should be spaced apart a
+distance not greater than twice the height of the bracket.
+
+A much simpler form of gutter is shown in Fig. 234, in which a V-shaped
+notch is also cut in the rafter, and the channel is made by the pieces.
+The end of the rafter is cut at right angles, so the face-board is at an
+angle. This is also surmounted by an overhanging cap and a molding. The
+base is nailed to the lower edges of the rafters, and the facia is then
+applied.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 234a._]
+
+In Fig. 234_a_ the roof has no gutter, so that the end of the rafter is
+cut off at an angle and a molding applied on the face-board. The base is
+nailed to the rafters. This is the cheapest and simplest form of
+structure for the roof.
+
+SETTING DOOR AND WINDOW FRAMES.--The next step in order is to set the
+door and window frames preparatory to applying the weather boarding. It
+is then ready for the roof, which should be put on before the floor is
+laid.
+
+PLASTERING AND INSIDE FINISH.--Next in order is the plastering, then the
+base-boards and the casing; and, finally, the door and windows should
+be fitted into position.
+
+Enough has been said here merely to give a general outline, with some
+details, how to proceed with the work.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+BRIDGES, TRUSSED WORK AND LIKE STRUCTURES
+
+
+BRIDGES.--Bridge building is not, strictly, a part of the carpenter's
+education at the present day, because most structures of this kind are
+now built of steel; but there are certain principles involved in bridge
+construction which the carpenter should master.
+
+SELF-SUPPORTING ROOFS.--In putting up, for instance, self-supporting
+roofs, or ceilings with wide spans, and steeples or towers, the bridge
+principle of trussed members should be understood.
+
+The most simple bridge or trussed form is the well-known A-shaped arch.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 235._]
+
+COMMON TRUSSES.--One form is shown in Fig. 235, with a vertical king
+post. In Fig. 236 there are two vertical supporting members, called
+queen posts, used in longer structures. Both of these forms are equally
+well adapted for small bridges or for roof supports.
+
+THE VERTICAL UPRIGHT TRUSS.--This form of truss naturally develops into
+a type of wooden bridge known all over the country, as its framing is
+simple, and calculations as to its capacity to sustain loads may readily
+be made. Figs. 237, 238 and 239 illustrate these forms.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 236._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 237._]
+
+THE WARREN GIRDER.--Out of this simple truss grew the Warren girder, a
+type of bridge particularly adapted for iron and steel construction.
+
+This is the simplest form for metal bridge truss, or girder. It is now
+also largely used in steel buildings and for other work requiring
+strength with small weight.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 238._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 239._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 240._]
+
+THE BOWSTRING GIRDER.--Only one other form of bridge truss need be
+mentioned here, and that is the _bowstring_ shown in Fig. 240.
+
+In this type the bow receives the entire compression thrust, and the
+chords act merely as suspending members.
+
+FUNDAMENTAL TRUSS FORM.--In every form of truss, whether for building or
+for bridge work, the principles of the famous A-truss must be employed
+in some form or other; and the boy who is experimentally inclined will
+readily evolve means to determine what degree of strength the upper and
+the lower members must have for a given length of truss to sustain a
+specified weight.
+
+There are rules for all these problems, some of them very intricate, but
+all of them intensely interesting. It will be a valuable addition to
+your knowledge to give this subject earnest study.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+THE BEST WOODS FOR THE BEGINNER
+
+
+In this place consideration will be given to some of the features
+relating to the materials to be employed, particularly with reference to
+the manner in which they can be worked to the best advantage, rather
+than to their uses.
+
+THE BEST WOODS.--The prime wood, and the one with which most boys are
+familiar, is white pine. It has an even texture throughout, is generally
+straight grained, and is soft and easily worked. White pine is a wood
+requiring a very sharp tool. It is, therefore, the best material for the
+beginner, as it will at the outset teach him the important lesson of
+keeping the tools in a good, sharp condition.
+
+SOFT WOODS.--It is also well for the novice to do his initial work with
+a soft wood, because in joining the parts together inaccuracies may be
+easily corrected. If, for instance, in mortising and tenoning, the edge
+of the mortised member is not true, or, rather, is not "square," the
+shoulder of the tenon on one side will abut before the other side does,
+and thus leave a crack, if the wood is hard. If the wood is soft there
+is always enough yield to enable the workman to spring it together.
+Therefore, until you have learned how to make a true joint, use soft
+wood.
+
+Poplar is another good wood for the beginner, as well as redwood, a
+western product.
+
+HARD WOODS.--Of the hard woods, cherry is the most desirable for the
+carpenter's tool. For working purposes it has all the advantages of a
+soft wood, and none of its disadvantages. It is not apt to warp, like
+poplar or birch, and its shrinking unit is less than that of any other
+wood, excepting redwood. There is practically no shrinkage in redwood.
+
+THE MOST DIFFICULT WOODS.--Ash is by far the most difficult wood to
+work. While not as hard as oak, it has the disadvantage that the entire
+board is seamed with growth ribs which are extremely hard, while the
+intervening layers between these ribs are soft, and have open pores, so
+that, for instance, in making a mortise, the chisel is liable to follow
+the hard ribs, if the grain runs at an angle to the course of the
+mortise.
+
+THE HARD-RIBBED GRAIN IN WOOD.--This peculiarity of the grain in ash
+makes it a beautiful wood when finished. Of the light-colored woods, oak
+only excels it, because in this latter wood each year's growth shows a
+wider band, and the interstices between the ribs have stronger
+contrasting colors than ash; so that in filling the surface, before
+finishing it, the grain of the wood is brought out with most effective
+clearness and with a beautifully blended contrast.
+
+THE EASIEST WORKING WOODS.--The same thing may be said, relatively,
+concerning cherry and walnut. While cherry has a beautiful finishing
+surface, the blending contrasts of colors are not so effective as in
+walnut.
+
+Oregon pine is extremely hard to work, owing to the same difficulties
+experienced in handling ash; but the finished Oregon pine surface makes
+it a most desirable material for certain articles of furniture.
+
+Do not attempt to employ this nor ash until you have mastered the trade.
+Confine yourself to pine, poplar, cherry and walnut. These woods are all
+easily obtainable everywhere, and from them you can make a most
+creditable variety of useful articles.
+
+Sugar and maple are two hard woods which may be added to the list.
+Sugar, particularly, is a good-working wood, but maple is more
+difficult. Spruce, on the other hand, is the strongest and toughest
+wood, considering its weight, which is but a little more than that of
+pine.
+
+DIFFERENCES IN THE WORKING OF WOODS.--Different woods are not worked
+with equal facility by all the tools. Oak is an easy wood to handle
+with a saw, but is, probably, aside from ash, the most difficult wood
+known to plane.
+
+Ash is hard for the saw or the plane. On the other hand, there is no
+wood so easy to manipulate with the saw or plane as cherry. Pine is
+easily worked with a plane, but difficult to saw; not on account of
+hardness, but because it is so soft that the saw is liable to tear it.
+
+FORCING SAWS IN WOOD.--One of the reasons why the forcing of saws is
+such a bad practice will be observed in cutting white or yellow pine.
+For cross-cutting, the saw should have fine teeth, not heavily set, and
+evenly filed. To do a good job of cross-cutting, the saw must be held at
+a greater angle, or should lay down flatter than in ripping, as by so
+doing the lower side of the board will not break away as much as if the
+saw should be held more nearly vertical.
+
+These general observations are made in the hope that they will serve as
+a guide to enable you to select your lumber with some degree of
+intelligence before you commence work.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+WOOD TURNING
+
+
+ADVANTAGES OF WOOD TURNING.--This is not, strictly, in the carpenter's
+domain; but a knowledge of its use will be of great service in the
+trade, and particularly in cabinet making. I urge the ingenious youth to
+rig up a wood-turning lathe, for the reason that it is a tool easily
+made and one which may be readily turned by foot, if other power is not
+available.
+
+SIMPLE TURNING LATHE.--A very simple turning lathe may be made by
+following these instructions:
+
+THE RAILS.--Procure two straight 2" x 4" scantling (A), four feet long,
+and planed on all sides. Bore four 3/8-inch holes at each end, as shown,
+and 10 inches from one end four more holes. A plan of these holes is
+shown in B, where the exact spacing is indicated. Then prepare two
+pieces 2" x 4" scantling (C), planed, 42 inches long, one end of each
+being chamfered off, as at 2, and provided with four bolt holes. Ten
+inches down, and on the same side, with the chamfer (2) is a cross gain
+(3), the same angle as the chamfer. Midway between the cross gain (3)
+and the lower end of the leg is a gain (4) in the edge, at right angles
+to the cross gain (3).
+
+THE LEGS.--Now prepare two legs (D) for the tail end of the frame, each
+32 inches long, with a chamfer (5) at one end, and provided with four
+bolt holes. At the lower end bore a bolt hole for the cross base piece.
+This piece (E) is 4" x 4", 21 inches long, and has a bolt hole at each
+end and one near the middle. The next piece (F) is 2" x 4", 14-1/2
+inches long, provided with a rebate (6) at each end, to fit the cross
+gains (4) of the legs (C). Near the middle is a journal block (7).
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 241. Frame details._]
+
+CENTERING BLOCKS.--Next provide a 4" x 4" piece (G), 40 inches long,
+through which bore a 3/4-inch hole (8), 2 inches from the upper end,
+and four bolt holes at right angles to the shaft hole (8). Then, with a
+saw split down this bearing, as shown at 9, to a point 4 inches from the
+end. Ten inches below the upper end prepare two cross gains (10), each
+an inch deep and four inches wide. In these gains are placed the top
+rails (A), so the bolt holes in the gains (10) will coincide with the
+bolt holes (11) in the piece A. Below the gains (10) this post has a
+journal block (12), intended to be in line with the journal block (7) of
+the piece F.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 242. Tail Stock._]
+
+Then make a block (H) 2" x 4", and 6 inches long. This also must have a
+shaft hole (B), and a saw kerf (14), similar to the arrangement on the
+upper end of the post (G); also bore four bolt holes, as shown. This
+block rests between the upper ends of the lugs (C).
+
+Another block (I), 2" x 4", and 6 feet long, with four bolt holes, will
+be required for the tail end of the frame, to keep the rails (A) two
+inches apart at that end.
+
+THE TAIL STOCK.--This part of the structure is made of the following
+described material:
+
+Procure a scantling (J), planed, 4" x 4", 24 inches long, the upper end
+of which is to be provided with four bolt holes, and a centering hole
+(15). At the lower end of the piece is a slot (16) 8 inches long and
+1-1/2 inches wide, and there are also two bolt holes bored transversely
+through the piece to receive bolts for reinforcing the end.
+
+A pair of cheekpieces (K), 2" x 4", and each 12 inches long, are mitered
+at the ends, and each has four bolt holes by means of which the ends may
+be bolted to the upright (J).
+
+Then a step wedge (L) is made of 1-3/8" x 2" material, 10 inches long.
+This has at least four steps (17), each step being 2 inches long. A
+wedge 1-3/8 inches thick, 10 inches long, and tapering from 2 inches to
+1-3/8 inches, completes the tail-stock.
+
+THE TOOL REST.--This is the most difficult part of the whole lathe, as
+it must be rigid, and so constructed that it has a revolvable motion as
+well as being capable of a movement to and from the material in the
+lathe.
+
+Select a good 4" x 4" scantling (M), 14 inches long, as shown in Fig.
+243. Two inches from one end cut a cross gain (I), 1-1/2 inches deep and
+1 inch wide, and round off the upper edge, as at 2.
+
+Then prepare a piece (N), 1 inch thick, 8 inches wide, and 10 inches
+long. Round off the upper edge to form a nose, and midway between its
+ends cut a cross gain 4 inches wide and 1-1/2 inches deep. The lower
+margin may be cut away, at an angle on each side of the gain. All that
+is necessary now is to make a block (O), 8 inches long, rounded on one
+edge, and a wedge (P).
+
+[Illustration: _Fig 243. Tool Rest._]
+
+A leather belt or strap (Q), 1-1/2 inches wide, formed into a loop, as
+shown in the perspective view (R), serves as a means for holding the
+rest rigidly when the wedge is driven in.
+
+MATERIALS.--Then procure the following bolts:
+
+ 4-3/8" bolts, 10" long.
+ 8-3/8" '' 6" ''
+ 20-3/8" '' 5" ''
+ 5-3/8" '' 9" ''
+
+THE MANDREL.--A piece of steel tubing (S), No. 10 gage, 3/4 inch in
+diameter, 11-1/2 inches long, will be required for the mandrel. Get a
+blacksmith, if a machine shop is not convenient, to put a fixed center
+(1) in one end, and a removable centering member (2) in the other end.
+
+On this mandrel place a collar (3), held by a set screw, and alongside
+of it a pair of pulleys, each 1-1/2 inches wide, one of them, being,
+say, 2 inches in diameter, and the other 3 inches. This mandrel is held
+in position by means of the posts of the frame which carry the split
+journal bearings. This form of bearing will make a durable lathe, free
+from chattering, as the bolts can be used for tightening the mandrel
+whenever they wear.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 244. Mandrel._]
+
+The center point (1) is designed to rest against a metal plate (4)
+bolted to the wooden post, as shown in the large drawing.
+
+FLY-WHEEL.--It now remains only to provide a fly-wheel and treadle with
+the communicating belt. The fly-wheel may be of any convenient size, or
+it may be some discarded pulley or wheel. Suppose it is two feet in
+diameter; then, as your small pulley is 2 inches in diameter, each
+revolution of the large wheel makes twelve revolutions in the mandrel,
+and you can readily turn the wheel eighty times a minute. In that case
+your mandrel will revolve 960 revolutions per minute, which is ample
+speed for your purposes.
+
+The wheel should be mounted on a piece of 3/4-inch steel tubing, one end
+having a crank 3 inches long. This crank is connected up by a pitman
+rod, with the triangularly shaped treadle frame.
+
+Such a lathe is easily made, as it requires but little metal or machine
+work, and it is here described because it will be a pleasure for a boy
+to make such a useful tool. What he needs is the proper plan and the
+right dimensions to carry out the work, and his own ingenuity will make
+the modifications suitable to his purpose.
+
+The illustration (Fig. 245) shows such a lathe assembled ready for work.
+
+THE TOOLS REQUIRED.--A few simple tools will complete an outfit capable
+of doing a great variety of work. The illustration (Fig. 246) shows five
+chisels, of which all other chisels are modifications.
+
+A and B are both oblique firmer chisels, A being ground with a bevel on
+one side only, and B with a bevel on each side.
+
+C is a broad gage, with a hollow blade, and a curved cutting edge,
+ground with a taper on the rounded side only.
+
+D is a narrow gage similarly ground, and E is a V-shaped gage.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 245._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 246._]
+
+It may be observed that in wood-turning sharp tools are absolutely
+necessary, hence a good oil stone, or several small, round and V-shaped
+stones should be used.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+ON THE USE OF STAINS
+
+
+As this subject properly belongs to the painter and decorator, it is not
+necessary to go into details concerning the methods used to finish off
+your work. As you may not be able to afford the luxury of having your
+productions painted or stained, enough information will be given to
+enable you, if the character of the wood justifies it, to do the work
+yourself to a limited extent.
+
+SOFT WOOD.--As, presumably, most of your first work will be done with
+pine, poplar, or other light-colored material, and, as many people
+prefer the furniture to be dark in color, you should be prepared to
+accommodate them.
+
+USE OF STAINS.--Our subject has nothing to do with the technique of
+staining, but has reference, solely, to the use of stains. I recommend,
+therefore, that, since all kinds of stains are now kept in stock, and
+for sale everywhere, you would better rely upon the manufactured goods
+rather than to endeavor to mix up the paints yourself.
+
+STAINS AS IMITATIONS.--It will be well to remember one thing as to
+stains. Never attempt to stain anything unless that stain is intended
+to produce an imitation of some real wood. There are stains made up
+which, when applied, do not imitate any known wood. This is bad taste
+and should be avoided. Again you should know that the same stain tint
+will not produce like effects on the different light-colored woods. Try
+the cherry stain on pieces of pine, poplar, and birch, and you will
+readily see that while pine gives a brilliant red, comparatively
+speaking, pine or birch will be much darker, and the effect on poplar
+will be that of a muddy color. In fact, poplar does not stain cherry to
+good advantage; and for birch the ordinary stain should have a small
+addition of vermilion.
+
+By making trials of your stains before applying them to the furniture,
+you will readily see the value of this suggestion.
+
+GOOD TASTE IN STAINING.--Oak, mahogany, cherry, black walnut, and like
+imitations are always good in an artistic sense, but imitations of
+unfamiliar woods mean nothing to the average person. The too common
+mistake is to try to imitate oak by staining pine or poplar or birch. It
+may, with good effect, be stained to imitate cherry.
+
+Oregon pine, or some light-colored wood, with a strong contrasting grain
+may be used for staining in imitation of oak.
+
+GREAT CONTRASTS BAD.--Violent contrasts in furniture staining have the
+effect of cheapness, unless the contrasting outlines are artistically
+distributed throughout the article, from base to top finish.
+
+STAINING CONTRASTING WOODS.--Then, again, do not stain a piece of
+furniture so that one part represents a cheap, soft wood, and the other
+part a dark or costly wood. Imagine, for instance, a cabinet with the
+stiles, rails and mullions of mahogany, and the panels of pine or
+poplar, or the reverse, and you can understand how incongruous would be
+the result produced.
+
+On the other hand, it would not be a very artistic job to make the
+panels of cherry and the mullions and stiles of mahogany, because the
+two woods do not harmonize, although frequently wrongly combined.
+
+HARD WOOD IMITATIONS.--It would be better to use, for instance, ash or
+oak for one portion of the work, and a dark wood, like cherry or walnut,
+for the other part; but usually a cherry cabinet should be made of
+cherry throughout; while a curly maple chiffonier could not be improved
+by having the legs of some other material.
+
+These considerations should determine for you whether or not you can
+safely use stains to represent different woods in the same article.
+
+NATURAL EFFECTS.--If effects are wanted, the skilled workman will
+properly rely upon the natural grain of the wood; hence, in staining,
+you should try to imitate nature, because in staining you will depend
+for contrast on the natural grain of the wood to help you out in
+producing pleasing effects.
+
+NATURAL WOOD STAINS.--It should be said, in general, however, that a
+stain is, at best, a poor makeshift. There is nothing so pleasing as the
+natural wood. It always has an appearance of cleanliness and openness.
+To stain the wood shows an attempt to cover up cheapness by a cheap
+contrivance. The exception to this rule is mahogany, which is generally
+enriched by the application of a ruby tint which serves principally to
+emphasize the beautiful markings of the wood.
+
+POLISHING STAINED SURFACES.--If, on the other hand, you wish to go to
+the labor of polishing the furniture to a high degree, staining becomes
+an art, and will add to the beauty and durability of any soft or cheap
+wood, excepting poplar.
+
+When the article is highly polished, so a good, smooth surface is
+provided, staining does not cheapen, but, on the other hand, serves to
+embellish the article.
+
+As a rule, therefore, it is well to inculcate this lesson: Do not stain
+unless you polish; otherwise, it is far better to preserve the natural
+color of the wood. One of the most beautiful sideboards I ever saw was
+made of Oregon pine, and the natural wood, well filled and highly
+polished. That finish gave it an effect which enhanced its value to a
+price which equaled any cherry or mahogany product.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+THE CARPENTER AND THE ARCHITECT
+
+
+A carpenter has a trade; the architect a profession. It is not to be
+assumed that one vocation is more honorable than the other. A
+_profession_ is defined as a calling, or occupation, "if not mechanical,
+agricultural, or the like," to which one devotes himself and his
+energies. A _trade_ is defined as an occupation "which a person has
+learned and engages in, especially mechanical employment, as
+distinguished from the liberal arts," or the learned professions.
+
+_Opportunity_ is the great boon in life. To the ambitious young man the
+carpenter's trade offers a field for venturing into the learned
+professions by a route which cannot be equaled in any other pursuit. In
+his work he daily enters into contact with problems which require
+mathematics of the highest order, geometry, the methods of calculating
+strains and stresses, as well as laying out angles and curves.
+
+This is a trade wherein he must keep in mind many calculations as to
+materials, number, size, and methods of joining; he must remember all
+the small details which go to make up the entire structure. This
+exercise necessitates a mental picture of the finished product. His
+imagination is thus directed to concrete objects. As the mind develops,
+it becomes creative in its character, and the foundation is laid for a
+higher sphere of usefulness in what is called the professional field.
+
+A good carpenter naturally develops into an architect, and the best
+architect is he who knows the trade. It is a profession which requires
+not only the artistic taste, but a technical knowledge of details, of
+how practically to carry out the work, how to superintend construction,
+and what the different methods are for doing things.
+
+The architect must have a scientific education, which gives him a
+knowledge of the strength of materials, and of structural forms; of the
+durability of materials; of the price, quality, and use of everything
+which goes into a structure; of labor conditions; and of the laws
+pertaining to buildings.
+
+Many of these questions will naturally present themselves to the
+carpenter. They are in the sphere of his employment, but it depends upon
+himself to make the proper use of the material thus daily brought to
+him.
+
+It is with a view to instil that desire and ambition in every young man,
+to make the brain do what the hand has heretofore done, that I suggest
+this course. The learned profession is yours if you deserve it, and you
+can deserve it only through study, application, and perseverance.
+
+Do well that which you attempt to do. _Don't_ do it in that manner
+because some one has done it in that way before you. If, in the trade,
+the experience of ages has taught the craftsman that some particular way
+of doing things is correct, there is no law to prevent you from
+combating that method. Your way may be better. But you must remember
+that in every plan for doing a thing there is some particular reason, or
+reasons, why it is carried out in that way. Study and learn to apply
+those reasons.
+
+So in your leisure or in your active moments, if you wish to advance,
+you must be alert. _Know for yourself the reasons for things_, and you
+will thereby form the stepping stones that will lead you upward and
+contribute to your success.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+USEFUL ARTICLES TO MAKE
+
+
+As stated in the Introductory, the purpose of this book is to show _how
+to do the things_, and not to draw a picture in order to write a
+description of it. Merely in the line of suggestion, we give in this
+chapter views and brief descriptions of useful household articles, all
+of which may be made by the boy who has carefully studied the preceding
+pages.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 247._]
+
+This figure shows a common bench wholly made of material 1 inch thick,
+the top being 12 inches wide and 4 feet long. The legs are 14 inches
+high and 13 inches wide; and the side supporting rails are 3 inches
+wide. These proportions may, of course, be varied. You will note that
+the sides of the top or seat have an overhang of 1/2 inch on each
+margin.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 248._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 249._]
+
+This is a common, square-top stool, the seat being 12" x 12", and the
+legs 14 inches high. Two of the pieces forming the legs are 10 inches
+wide and the other two 8 inches wide, so that when the wide pieces are
+nailed to the edges of the narrow pieces the leg body will be 10" x 10"
+and thus give the seat an overhang of 1 inch around the margins.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 250._]
+
+A most useful article is shown in Fig. 249. It is a blacking-box with a
+lid, a folding shoe rest and three compartments. The detached figure
+shows a vertical cross-section of the body of the box, and illustrates
+how the shoe rest is hinged to the sides of the box. The box itself is
+14" x 16" in dimensions; the sides are 6 inches wide and the legs 5
+inches in height. In order to give strength to the legs, the bottom has
+its corners cut out, to permit the upper ends of the legs to rest in
+the recesses thus formed.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 251._]
+
+This is a convenient form of easel, made of four uprights. The main
+front uprights are of strips 5/8" x 1-1/4", and the rear uprights are of
+1/2" x 1" material. A thin broomstick will serve as the pivot bar for
+the upper end. The rest is made of two strips, each 1/2" x 1", nailed
+together to form an L, and nails or wooden pins will serve to hold the
+rest in any desired position. The front uprights should be at least 5
+feet long.
+
+A simple hanging book-rack is illustrated in Fig. 251. The two vertical
+strips are each 4 inches wide, 1 inch thick and 4 feet long. Four
+shelves are provided, each 3/4 inch thick, 9 inches wide and 4 feet
+long. Each shelf is secured to the uprights by hinges on the upper side,
+so as to permit it to be swung upwardly, or folded; and below each hinge
+is a triangular block or bracket, fixed to the shelf, to support it in a
+horizontal position.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 252._]
+
+A sad-iron holder, or bookcase, shown in Fig. 252, is another simple
+form of structure. It may be sufficiently large to serve as a standing
+case by having the uprights at the ends serve as legs, or the uprights
+may have holes at their upper ends, by means of which it can be
+suspended on a wall. As shown, it is 30 inches long from bottom to top,
+and 20 inches wide. The shelves are 8 inches wide. All the material is,
+preferably, 3/4-inch stock.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 253._]
+
+Fig. 253 shows a wood-box, or it may readily be adapted for coal. For
+wood it should be 2 feet long, 1 foot 8 inches wide and 1 foot 10 inches
+high. It will, of course, be made of such dimensions as to suit the wood
+to be stored in it, and both the flat-top as well as the sloping portion
+of the top should be hinged, so that the entire top can be opened for
+filling purposes.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 254._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 255._]
+
+A pair of parallel bars is shown in Fig. 254. The dimensions of this
+will vary, and be dependent on the size of the boy intending to use it;
+but a size best adapted is to make the posts 3 feet high, and the
+distance between the bars 16 inches. This gives ample room for the
+exercises required. The length between the posts along the bars should
+be at least 5 feet. The entire structure can be made of soft wood,
+except the bars, which should be of hard, rigid wood. The posts can be
+made of 2" x 2" material, and the braces 2" x 1". The base pieces, both
+longitudinal and transverse, should also be of 2" x 2" material.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 256._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 257._]
+
+Fig. 255 represents a mission type of writing desk for a boy's use. All
+the posts, braces and horizontal bars are of 2" x 2" material, secured
+to each other by mortises and tenons. The legs are 27 inches high up to
+the table top, and the narrow shelf is 12 inches above the top. The most
+convenient size for the top is 26" x 48". The top boards may be 1 inch
+thick and the shelf the same thickness, or even 3/4 inch. It is well
+braced and light, and its beauty will depend largely on the material of
+which it is made.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 258._]
+
+The screen (Fig. 256) represents simply the framework, showing how
+simple the structure is. The bars are all of 1-1/2" x 1-1/2" material,
+secured together by mortises and tenons.
+
+Fig. 257 represents a mission chair to match the desk (Fig. 255), and
+should be made of the same material. The posts are all of 2" x 2"
+material. The seat of the chair should be 16 inches, and the rear posts
+should extend up above the seat at least 18 inches.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 259._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 260._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 261._]
+
+Fig. 258 is a good example of a grandfather's clock in mission style.
+The framework only is shown. The frame is 12" x 12", and 5 feet high,
+and made up of 2" x 2" material. When neatly framed together, it is a
+most attractive article of furniture. The top may be covered in any
+suitable way, showing a roof effect. The opening for the dial face of
+the clock should be at one of the gable ends.
+
+A more pretentious bookcase is shown in Fig. 259, in which the frame is
+made up wholly of 2" x 2" material. The cross-end bars serve as ledges
+to support the shelves. This may be lined interiorly and backed with
+suitable casing material, such as Lincrusta Walton, or fiber-board, and
+the front provided with doors. Our only object is to show the framework
+for your guidance, and merely to make suggestions as to structural
+forms.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 262._]
+
+Another most serviceable article is a case for a coal scuttle (Fig.
+260). This should be made of 1-inch boards, and the size of the door,
+which carries the scuttle shelf, should be 12" x 16" in size. From this
+you can readily measure the dimensions of the case itself, the exterior
+dimensions of which are 15" x 20", so that when the 1-inch top is placed
+on, it will be 21 inches high. The case from front to rear is 12 inches,
+and the shelf above the top is 11 inches wide, and elevated 10 inches
+above the top of the case. This is a most useful box for culinary
+articles, if not needed for coal, because the ledge, used for the coal
+scuttle, can be used to place utensils on, and when the door is opened
+all the utensils are exposed to view, and are, therefore, much more
+accessible than if stored away in the case itself.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 263._]
+
+A mission armchair. Fig. 261 is more elaborate than the chair shown in
+Fig. 257, but it is the same in general character, and is also made of
+2" x 2" stock. The seat is elevated 16 inches from the floor, and the
+rear posts are 28 inches high. The arms are 8 inches above the seat. A
+chair of this character should have ample seat space, so the seat is 18"
+x 18".
+
+The dog house (Fig. 262), made in imitation of a dwelling, is 24 inches
+square, and 18 inches high to the eaves of the roof. The opening in
+front is 8" x 10", exclusive of the shaped portion of the opening.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 264._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 265._]
+
+Fig. 263 shows a simple and easily constructed settee with an under
+shelf. The seat is 16 inches from the floor and 24 inches wide. The back
+extends up 24 inches from the seat. The lower shelf is midway between
+the floor and seat, and is 19 inches wide. This may or may not be
+upholstered, dependent on the character of the material of which it is
+made. If upholstered, the boards may be of second-class material,
+preferably of pine or other light, soft wood.
+
+A towel rack (Fig. 264) is always a needed article in the kitchen. The
+roller may be an old curtain roller cut down to 18 inches in length. The
+top piece is 2-1/2 inches wide and 21 inches long. The vertical bars are
+each 1-1/2 inches wide and 9 inches long. The brackets are 1-1/2 inches
+wide and made of 3/4-inch material.
+
+Fig. 265 represents the framework of a sofa, the seat of which is 16
+inches high, the front posts up to the arm-rests 24 inches, and the rear
+posts 38 inches. From front to rear the seat is 18 inches. The posts are
+of 3" x 3" material. This makes a very rigid article of furniture, if
+mortised and tenoned and properly glued. The seat is 6 feet long, but it
+may be lengthened or shortened to suit the position in which it is to be
+placed. It is a companion piece to the chair (Fig. 261).
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII
+
+SPECIAL TOOLS AND THEIR USES
+
+
+In the foregoing chapters we have referred the reader to the simple
+tools, but it is thought desirable to add to the information thus given,
+an outline of numerous special tools which have been devised and are now
+on the market.
+
+BIT AND LEVEL ADJUSTER.--It is frequently necessary to bore holes at
+certain angles. This can be done by using a bevel square, and holding it
+so one limb will show the boring angle. But this is difficult to do in
+many cases.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 266. Bit and Square level._]
+
+This tool has three pairs of V slots on its back edges. The shank of the
+bit will lie in these slots, as shown in Fig. 266, either vertically, or
+at an angle of 45 degrees, and boring can be done with the utmost
+accuracy. It may be attached to a Carpenter's square, thus making it an
+accurate plumb or level.
+
+MITER BOXES.--The advantages of metal miter boxes is apparent, when
+accurate work is required.
+
+The illustration, Fig. 267, shows a metal tool of this kind, in which
+the entire frame is in one solid casting. The saw guide uprights are
+clamped in tapered sockets in the swivel arm and can be adjusted to hold
+the saw without play, and this will also counteract a saw that runs out
+of true, due to improper setting or filing.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 267. Metal Miter Box._]
+
+A second socket in the swivel arm permits the use of a short saw or
+allows a much longer stroke with a standard or regular saw.
+
+The swivel arm is provided with a tapering index pin which engages in
+holes placed on the under side of the base. The edge of the base is
+graduated in degrees, as plainly shown, and the swivel arm can be set
+and automatically fastened at any degree desired.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 268. Parts of Metal Miter Box._]
+
+The uprights, front and back are graduated in sixteenths of inches, and
+movable stops can be set, by means of thumb-screw to the depth of the
+cut desired.
+
+Figure 268 shows the parts of the miter box, in which the numbers
+designate the various parts: 101 is the frame; 102 the frame board; 104
+frame leg; 106 guide stock; 107 stock guide clamp; 109 stock guide
+plate; 110 swivel arm; 111 swivel arm bushing; 112 swivel bushing screw;
+113 index clamping lever; 115 index clamping lever catch; 116 index
+clamping lever spring; 122 swivel complete; 123 T-base; 124-1/2
+uprights; 126 saw guide cap; 127 saw guide cap plate; 132 saw guide tie
+bar; 133 left saw guide stop and screw; 134 right side guide stop and
+screw; 135 saw guide stop spring; 136 saw guide cylinder; 137 saw guide
+cylinder plate; 138 trip lever (back); 139 trip lever (front); 141
+leveling screw; 142 trip clamp and screw; 146 T-base clamp screw.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 269. Angle Dividers._]
+
+ANGLE DIVIDERS.--This is another tool, which does not cost much and is
+of great service to the carpenter in fitting moldings where they are
+applied at odd angles.
+
+To lay out the cut with an ordinary bevel necessitates the use of
+dividers and a second handling of the bevel, making three operations.
+
+THE "ODD JOB" TOOL.--A most useful special tool, which combines in its
+make-up a level, plumb try-square, miter-square, bevel, scratch awl,
+depth gage, marking gage, miter gage, beam compass, and a one-foot rule.
+To the boy who wishes to economize in the purchase of tools this is an
+article which should be obtained.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 270. "Odd Job" Tool._]
+
+Figure 270 shows the simplicity of the tool, and how it is applied in
+use.
+
+BIT BRACES.--These tools are now made with so many improved features
+that there is really no excuse for getting poor tools.
+
+The illustrations show merely the heads and the lower operating parts of
+the tools. Fig. 271 shows a metal-clad ball-bearing head, so called, as
+its under side is completely encased in metal securely screwed to the
+wood and revolving against the ball thrust bearing.
+
+D represents a concealed ratchet in which the cam ring governs the
+ratchet, and, being in line with the bit, makes it more convenient in
+handling than when it is at right angles. The ratchet parts are entirely
+enclosed, thus keeping out moisture and dirt, retaining lubrication and
+protecting the users' hands.
+
+The ratchet mechanism is interchangeable, and may be taken apart by
+removing one screw. The two-piece clutch, which is drop forged, is
+backed by a very strong spring, insuring a secure lock. When locked, ten
+teeth are in engagement, while five are employed while working at a
+ratchet. It has universal jaws (G) for both wood and metal workers.
+
+In Fig. 272, B represents a regular ball bearing head, with the wood
+screw on the large spindle and three small screws to prevent its working
+loose. This also has a ball thrust. E is the ratchet box, and this shows
+the gear teeth cut on the extra heavy spindle, and encased, so that the
+user's hands are protected from the teeth.
+
+The interlocking jaws (H), which are best for taper shanks, hold up to
+No. 2 Clark's expansion, and are therefore particularly adapted for
+carpenter's use.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 271. Fig. 272. Fig. 273. Types of Bit Braces._]
+
+In Fig. 273 the plain bearing head (C) has no ball thrust. The head is
+screwed on the spindle and held from turning off by two small screws.
+The open ratchet (F) shows the gear pinned to the spindle and exposed.
+This has alligator jaws (J), and will hold all ordinary size taper shank
+bits, also small and medium round shank bits or drills.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 274. Fig. 275. Fig. 276. Steel Frame Breast Drills._]
+
+STEEL FRAME BREAST DRILL.--These drills are made with both single and
+double speed, each speed having three varieties of jaws. The single
+speed is very high, the ratio being 4-1/2 to 1, which makes it
+desirable to use for small drills, or for use in wood.
+
+A level is firmly set in the frames of these tools to assist the user to
+maintain a horizontal position in boring. Each of the forms shown has a
+ball thrust bearing between the pinion and frame. The breast plate may
+be adjusted to suit and is locked by a set screw. The spindle is kept
+from turning while changing drills, by means of the latch mounted on the
+frame, and readily engaging with the pinion. The crank is pierced in
+three places so that the handle can be set for three different sweeps,
+depending on the character of the work.
+
+Figure 274 has a three jaw chuck, and has only single speed. Figure 275
+has an interlocking jaw, and is provided with double speed gearing.
+Figure 276 has a universal jaw, and double speed.
+
+PLANES.--The most serviceable planes are made in iron, and it might be
+well to show a few of the most important, to bring out the manner
+employed to make the adjustments of the bits.
+
+In order to familiarize the boy with the different terms used in a
+plane, examine Figure 277. The parts are designated as follows: 1A is
+the double plane iron; 1 single plane iron; 2 plane iron cap; 3 cap
+screw; 4 lever cap; 5 lever cap screw; 6 frog complete; 7 Y adjusting
+lever; 8 adjusting nut; 9 lateral adjusting lever; 11 plane handle; 12
+plane knob; 13 handle bolt and nut; 14 knob bolt and nut; 15 plane
+handle screw; 16 plane bottom; 44 frog pin; 45 frog clamping screw; 46
+frog adjusting screw.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 277. Details of Metal Plane._]
+
+RABBETING, MATCHING AND DADO PLANES.--Figure 278 shows a useful form of
+plane for the reason that it is designed to receive a variety of irons,
+adapted to cut rabbets.
+
+The detached sections of Fig. 278 show the various parts, as well as the
+bits which belong to it. 1, 1 represent the single plane irons; 4 the
+lever cap; 16 the plane bottom, 50 the fence; 51 the fence thumb screw;
+61 the short arm; 70 the adjustable depth gage; 71 the depth gage which
+goes through the screw; and 85 the spurs with screws.
+
+MOLDING AND BEADING PLANE.--A plane of the character shown in Fig. 279
+will do an immense variety of work in molding, beading and dado work,
+and is equally well adapted for rabbeting, for filletsters and for match
+planing. The regular equipment with this tool comprises fifty-two
+cutters.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 278. Rabbet, Matching and Dado Plane._]
+
+As shown in Fig. 279, the plane has a main stock (A), which carries the
+cutter adjustment, a handle, a depth gage, a slitting gage, and a steel
+bottom forming a bearing for the other end of the cutter, and slides on
+arms secured to the main stock.
+
+This bottom can be raised or lowered, so that, in addition to allowing
+the use of cutters of different widths, cutters can be used having one
+edge higher or lower than the edge supported in the main stock.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 279. Molding and Beading Plane._]
+
+The auxiliary center bottom (C), which can be adjusted for width or
+depth, fulfils the requirement of preventing the plane from tilting and
+gouging the work. The fence D has a lateral adjustment by means of a
+screw, for extra fine work. The four small cuts in the corners show how
+the bottoms should be set for different forms of cutters, and the great
+importance of having the fences adjusted so that the cutters will not
+run.
+
+The samples of work illustrated show some of the moldings which can be
+turned out with the plane.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 280. Dovetail Tongue and Groove Plane._]
+
+DOVETAIL TONGUE AND GROOVE PLANE.--This is a very novel tool, and has
+many features to recommend it. Figure 280 shows its form, and how it is
+used. It is designed to make the dovetailed tongue as well as the
+groove.
+
+It will cut any size groove and tongues to fit with sides of twenty
+degrees flare, where the width of the neck is more than one-quarter of
+an inch thick, and the depth of the groove not more than three-quarters
+of an inch. The tongue and groove are cut separately, and can be made
+with parallel or tapering sides. The operation of the plane is very
+simple.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 281. Fig. 282. Router Planes._]
+
+ROUTER PLANES.--This is a type of plane used for surfacing the bottom of
+grooves or other depressions parallel with the general surface of the
+work.
+
+The planes are made in two types, one, like Fig. 281, which has a closed
+throat, and the other, Fig. 282, with an open throat. Both are
+serviceable, but the latter is preferable. These planes will level off
+bottoms of depression, very accurately, and the tool is not an expensive
+one.
+
+DOOR TRIM PLANE.--This is a tool for making mortises for butts, face
+plates, strike plates, escutcheons, and the like, up to a depth of 5/16,
+and a width of 3 inches. The principal feature in the plane is the
+method of mounting the cutter, which can be instantly set to work from
+either end of the plane or across it.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 283. Door Trim Plane._]
+
+The cutter, as shown in Fig. 283, is cushioned by a spring which
+prevents taking a heavier chip than can be easily carried. A fence
+regulates the position of the cut and insures the sides of the cut being
+parallel. The depth of the cut is governed by a positive stop. By
+removing the fence and locking the cutter post with the thumb screw,
+instead of using the spring, a very superior router plane is obtained.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX
+
+ROOFING TRUSSES
+
+
+The chapter on Bridge Building gives some suggestions as to form of
+trusses, the particular types there shown being principally for wide
+spans. Such trusses were made for one purpose only, namely, to take
+great weight, and they were, as a consequence, so constructed as to
+provide strength.
+
+But a roofing truss, while designed to hold the accumulated materials,
+such as snow and ice, likely to be deposited there, is of such a design,
+principally, so as to afford means of ornamentation. This remark has
+reference to such types as dispense with the cross, or tie beam, which
+is the distinguishing feature in bridge building.
+
+The tie beam is also an important element in many types of trusses,
+where ornamentation is not required, or in such structures as have the
+roofed portion of the buildings enclosed by ceiling walls, or where the
+space between the roofs is used for storage purposes.
+
+In England, and on the Continent of Europe, are thousands of trusses
+structured to support the roofs, which are marvels of beauty. Some of
+them are bewildering in their formation. The moldings, beaded surfaces,
+and the carved outlines of the soffits, of the arches, and of the
+purlins, are wonderful in detail.
+
+The wooden roof of Westminster Hall, while very simple in structure, as
+compared with many others, looks like an intricate maze of beams, struts
+and braces, but it is, nevertheless, so harmonized that the effect is
+most pleasing to the eye, and its very appearance gives the impression
+of grandeur and strength.
+
+Nearly all of the forms shown herein have come down to us from mediaeval
+times, when more stress was laid on wooden structures than at the
+present time, but most of the stone and metal buildings grew out of the
+wooden prototypes.
+
+Now the prime object of nearly all the double-roofed trusses was to
+utilize the space between the rafters so as to give height and majesty
+to the interior.
+
+A large dome is grand, owing to its great simplicity, but the same plain
+outlines, or lack of ornamentation, in the ceiling of a square or
+rectangular building would be painful to view, hence, the braces, beams,
+plates, and various supports of the roofed truss served as ornamental
+parts, and it is in this particular that the art of the designer finds
+his inspiration.
+
+Before proceeding to apply the matter of ornamentation, it might be well
+to develop these roof forms, starting with the old type Barn Roof, where
+the space between the rafters must be utilized for the storage of hay.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 284. Gambrel Roof._]
+
+_The Gambrel Roof_, Fig. 284, requires a tie beam, (A), as shown, but
+the space above the beam is free of all obstructions, and gives a large
+storage space. The roof has two sets of rafters (B, C), and of different
+pitch, the lower rafters (B) having a pitch of about 30 degrees, and the
+upper ones (C), about 45 degrees.
+
+A tie bar (D) joins the middle portion of each of the rafters (B, C) and
+another tie bar (E) joins the middle part of the rafter (B), and the
+supporting post (F). The cross tie beam (G) completes the span, and a
+little study will show the complete interdependence of one piece upon
+the other.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 285. Purlin Roof._]
+
+_The Purlin Roof_ is a type of structure used very largely throughout
+the United States, for wide barns. (A) is the cross beam; (B, B) the
+purlin posts; (C, C) the purlin plates; (D, D) the rafters; and (E, E)
+the supporting braces.
+
+The rafters (D) are in two sections, the distance from the eaves to the
+comb being too great for single length rafters, and the purlin plates
+are not designed to make what is called a "self-supporting" roof, but
+merely to serve as supports for the regular rafters.
+
+_The Princess Truss_, on the other hand, is designed to act as a support
+for the different lengths of rafters (A, B, C), and as a means for
+holding the roof. It is adapted for low pitch and wide spans.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 286. Princess Truss._]
+
+The main truss is made up of the cross beam (D), rafters (E, E) and
+thrust beam (F). Purlin posts (G, G) are placed at an angle intermediate
+the ends of the rafters, and the purlin plates (H, H) support the roof
+rafters (A, B, C); I, I are the vertical tie rods.
+
+This type is probably the oldest form of truss for building purposes,
+and it has been modified in many ways, the most usual modification being
+the substitution of posts for the tie rods (I, I).
+
+Following out the foregoing forms, we may call attention to one more
+type which permitted ornamentation to a considerable degree, although it
+still required the tie beam. In fact the tie beam itself was the feature
+on which the architect depended to make the greatest effect by
+elaborating it.
+
+This is shown in Fig. 287, and is called the _Arched_, or _Cambered, Tie
+Beam Truss_. It is a very old type, samples of which have been found
+which take it back to a very remote age.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 287. Arched, or Cambered, Tie Beam._]
+
+The tie beam A, in wide spans, was made in two sections, properly tied
+together, and sometimes the outer ends were very wide, and to add to the
+effect of the arch, it might also be raised in the middle, something in
+the form shown by the dotted line (B).
+
+_The Mansard_ is what may be called a double-mounted roof, and it will
+be seen how it was evolved from the preceding types. It will be noted
+that the simple truss formed by the members (A, B, C) is merely
+superposed on the leaning posts, the tie beam also being necessary in
+this construction.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 288. The Mansard._]
+
+But the most elaborate formations are those which were intended to
+provide trusses for buildings wherein the tie beams were dispensed with.
+
+The simplest form known is called the _Scissors Beam_, illustrated in
+Fig. 289. This has been utilized for small spaces, and steep pitches.
+Each rafter (A) has an angled beam or brace (B), springing from its
+base, to the opposite rafter (A), to which it is joined, midway between
+its ends, as at C.
+
+Where the two braces (B) cross each other they are secured together, as
+at D. As a result, three trusses are formed, namely, 1, 2, 3, and it
+possesses remarkable strength.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 289. Scissors Beam._]
+
+BRACED COLLAR BEAM.--This is a modification of the last type, but is
+adapted for thick walls only. The tie rod braces (A, A) have to be
+brought down low to give a good bracing action, and this arrangement is
+capable of considerable ornamentation.
+
+The steeper the pitch the higher up would be the inner and lower brace
+posts (B, B) which were supported by the top of the wall. This form is
+not available for wide spans, and is shown to illustrate how the
+development was made into the succeeding types.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 290. Braced Collar Beam._]
+
+THE RIB AND COLLAR TRUSS, Fig. 291, is the first important structural
+arrangement which permitted the architect to give full sway to
+embellishment. The inwardly-projecting members (A, A) are called _Hammer
+Beams_. They were devised as a substitute for the thick walls used in
+the Braced Collar Beam Truss, and small brackets (B, B) were placed
+beneath as supports.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 291. Rib and Collar Truss._]
+
+The short tie beam (C), near the apex, serves as the member to receive
+the thrust and stress of the curved ribs (D, D). It forms a most
+graceful type of roof, and is capable of the most exquisite
+ornamentation, but it is used for the high pitched roofs only.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 290-1/2. Hammer Beam Truss._]
+
+The acme of all constructions, in which strength, beauty, and capacity
+for ornamentation are blended, is the _Hammer Beam Truss_. Here the
+hammer beam projects inwardly farther than in the preceding figure, and
+has a deeper bracket (B), and this also extends down the pendant post
+(C) a greater distance.
+
+The curved supporting arch (D), on each side, is not ribbed, as in the
+Rib and Collar Truss, but instead, is provided with openwork (not shown
+herein), together with beadings and moldings, and other ornamental
+characteristics, and some of the most beautiful architectural forms in
+existence are in this type of roof.
+
+What are called Flying Buttresses (E) are sometimes used in connection
+with the Hammer Beam Truss, which, with heavy roofs and wide spans, is
+found to be absolutely necessary.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XX
+
+ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF JOINTS
+
+
+In uniting two or more elements, some particular type of joint is
+necessary. In framing timbers, in making braces, in roof construction
+and supports, in floor beams, and in numerous other places, where
+strength is required, the workman should have at his command a knowledge
+of the most serviceable methods.
+
+Illustrations can most forcibly convey the different types; but the
+sizes must be determined by the character of the material you are
+working with. Our aim is to give the idea involved, and the name by
+which each is known.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 292. Bridle Joints._]
+
+Reference has been made in Chapter X, to certain forms of scarfing and
+lapping pieces. This chapter has to do with a variety of other
+structural forms, but principally with such as are used in heavy
+building work, and in cases where neither fish plates nor scarfing will
+answer the purpose.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 293. Spur Tenon._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 294. Saddle Joints._]
+
+BRIDLE JOINTS.--This is a form of joint where permanency is not desired,
+and where it is necessary to readily seat or unseat the vertical timber.
+It is also obvious that the socket for the upright is of such a
+character that it will not weaken it to any great extent.
+
+SPUR TENON.--This tenon can be used in many places where the regular one
+is not available. This, like the preceding, is used where the parts are
+desired to be detachable, and the second form is one which is used in
+many structures.
+
+SADDLE JOINT.--This is still another manner in which a quickly
+detachable joint can be constructed. The saddle may be mounted on the
+main base, or cut into the base piece. An infinite variety of forms of
+saddles are made, most of them being used in dock work, and for framing
+of that character where large timbers are used, as in the building of
+coal chutes, and the like.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 295. Joggle Joints._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 296. Framing Joints._]
+
+JOGGLE JOINT.--This joint is used almost exclusively for brace work
+where great weight must be supported. The brace has a tenon, and the
+end must also be so arranged that it will have a direct bearing against
+the upright, which it braces and supports, or it may have two faces, as
+in the second figure, which is an exceedingly strong construction.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 297. Heel Joints._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 298. Stub Tenon._]
+
+FRAMING JOINTS.--These are the simplest form in which two members are
+secured together. They are used almost wholly in rafter work, and have
+very few modifications. The depth of the cut, for the toe of the rafter,
+depends on the load to be carried, and also on the distance the end of
+the rafter is from the end of the horizontal member on which the rafter
+rests.
+
+HEEL JOINTS.--This is by far the most secure of the framing type of
+joints. This, if properly made, is much better than the construction
+shown in the previous illustration, but the difficulty is to make the
+rafter fit into the recesses properly. This is no excuse for failure to
+use, but it is on account of inability to make close fits that is
+accountable for lack of use. It will be seen that in case one of the
+heels rests against the recess, and the others do not, and the pressure
+is great, there is a liability to tear out the entire joint.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 299. Tusk Tenon._]
+
+STUB TENON.--This is another form of tenon which is made and designed to
+be used where it is in close proximity to another tenon, or where the
+mortises, if made full size, will weaken the member. The long tusk can
+be shortened, to suit the place where it projects, and the stub tenon on
+each side of the tusk may be made very short, and one side longer than
+the other if necessary.
+
+TUSK TENON.--Two forms of tusk construction are given. Any number of
+forms have been devised, all for special purposes, and designed for
+different kinds of woods. These shown are particularly adapted for soft
+woods, and the principal feature that is valuable lies in the fact that
+they have a number of shoulders within the mortise, each of which,
+necessarily adds to the strength. It should be observed that in the
+construction of the tusk tenon, the greatest care must be taken to have
+it fit the mortise tightly, and this has reference to the bottom and
+shoulder ends as well.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 300. Double Tusk Tenon._]
+
+DOUBLE TUSK TENONS.--The distinguishing difference between this and the
+preceding is in the tusk, which in this form of construction goes
+through the upright member, and is held by a cross key. The double tusk
+is intended for hard woods, and it is regarded as the finest, as well
+as the strongest, joint known.
+
+COGGED JOINTS.--This differs from the regular tenoning and mortising
+methods, principally because the groove or recess is in the form of an
+open gain. It is used where the member is to be inserted after the main
+structure is put together.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 301. Cogged Joints._]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 302. Anchor Joint._]
+
+ANCHOR JOINT.--This form of connection is designed for very large
+timbers, and where great care must be taken in making the parts fit
+together nicely, as everything depends on this. This style is never
+used where the angles are less than 45 degrees, and the depth of the
+gain in the timber receiving the brace is dependent on the thrust of the
+brace.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig. 303. Deep Anchor Joint._]
+
+The Deep Anchor Joint is an extension of the tongue of the Anchor tenon,
+so that it affords a greater support for the end thrust. To clearly
+distinguish between this and the preceding form, it might be said that
+the Anchor Joint is one designed to protect the member containing the
+gains, while the Deep Anchor Joint favors the brace, by giving it a
+greater power.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXI
+
+SOME MISTAKES, AND A LITTLE ADVICE IN CARPENTRY
+
+
+In the mechanical arts, workers are as likely to learn from the mistakes
+committed as through correct information imparted. Advice, therefore,
+might be considered superfluous. But there are certain things which are
+easily remembered and may be borne in mind while engaged in turning out
+any work.
+
+This chapter is not given for the purpose of calling attention to all
+the errors which are so common, but merely to point out a few which the
+boy will commit as he tries to carry out his work for the first time.
+
+One of the difficult things for any one to learn, in working with wood,
+is to plane the edge of a board straight and square at the same time.
+This is made doubly difficult if it is desired to plane it strictly to
+dimensions.
+
+Usually before the edge is straight it is down to the proper width
+desired, and it is then too late to correct any error, because further
+work will make it too narrow.
+
+The whole difficulty is in the holding of the plane. It matters not how
+rigidly it is held, and how carefully it is guarded to veer it toward
+one side or the other, it will be found a most difficult task.
+
+If the fore, or finishing, plane is used, and which is the proper tool
+for the purpose, the impression seems to be, that to square up the edge
+and make it cut off a thicker shaving on one side than on the other,
+requires that the plane should be pressed down with force, so as to make
+it dig in and cut a thicker shaving.
+
+When this is resorted to the board is liable to get out of true from end
+to end. A much better plan is to put the plane on the edge of the board
+true and straight. If it is too high on the edge nearest you, bring the
+plane over so the inside edge is flush with the inside edge of the
+board.
+
+Then use the fingers of the left hand as a gage to keep the plane from
+running over.
+
+Now, the weight of the plane in such a condition is sufficient to take
+off a thicker shaving at the high edge, and this will be done without
+any effort, and will enable you to concentrate your thoughts on keeping
+the plane straight with the board.
+
+The weight of the plane will make a thicker shaving on one side than on
+the other, and correct inequalities, provided you do not attempt to
+force the plane.
+
+It requires an exceedingly steady hand to hold a plane firmly for
+squaring up a half-inch board. Singular as it may seem, it is almost as
+difficult a job with a two-inch plank. In the case of the thin board the
+plane will move laterally, unless the utmost care is exercised; in the
+truing up the thick plank the constant tendency is to move the plane
+along the surface at a slight diagonal, and this is sure to cause
+trouble.
+
+It only emphasizes the fact most clearly, that to do a good job the
+plane must be firmly held, that it must move along the board with the
+utmost precision, and that it should not be forced into the wood.
+
+In smoothing down a board with the short smoothing plane, preparatory to
+sandpapering it, the better plan is to move the plane slightly across
+the grain. This will enable the bit to take hold better, and when the
+sandpaper is applied the course of the movement should be across the
+grain opposite the direction taken by the smoothing plane.
+
+It is never satisfactory to draw the sandpaper directly along in the
+course of the grain. Such a habit will cause the sandpaper to fill up
+very rapidly, particularly with certain woods.
+
+When gluing together joints or tenons, always wipe off the surplus glue
+with warm water taken from the glue pot. If you do not follow this
+advice the glue will gum up the tools and the sandpaper used to finish
+the work.
+
+Never try to work from opposite sides of a piece of material. Have a
+_work side_ and a work _edge_, and make all measurements therefrom. Mark
+each piece as you go along. Take a note mentally just how each piece is
+to be placed, and what must be done with it.
+
+The carpenter, above all others, must be able to carry a mental picture
+of his product.
+
+Never saw out the scribing or marking line, either in cutting or in
+ripping. The lines should be obliterated by the plane, when it is being
+finished, and not before.
+
+Make it a habit to finish off the surfaces and edges true and smooth
+before the ends are cut, or the mortises or tenons are made. This is one
+of the most frequent mistakes. No job can be a perfect one unless your
+material has been worked down to proper dimensions.
+
+Learn to saw across a board squarely. This may be a hard thing for the
+novice to do. A long, easy stroke of the saw will prevent it from
+running, unless too badly set or filed, and will also enable you to hold
+it more nearly square with the board.
+
+If you find that you invariably saw "out of true," then take some sawing
+lessons for your own benefit, until you can judge whether the saw is
+held true or not.
+
+It is better to saw up a half dozen boards in making the test than
+commit the error while working on a job.
+
+
+
+
+GLOSSARY OF WORDS USED IN TEXT OF THIS VOLUME
+
+
+$Acute.$ Sharp, to the point.
+
+$Adjuster.$ A tool which measures distances and relative spaces.
+
+$AEsthetic.$ The theory of taste; science of the beautiful in nature and
+art.
+
+$Abstract.$ That which exists in the mind only; separate from matter; to
+think of separately as a quality.
+
+$Alligator jaws.$ A term used to designate a pair of serrated bars which
+are held together in a headpiece, and capable of clamping bits between
+them.
+
+$Analyzed.$ Separated into its primitive or original parts.
+
+$Anchor.$ Any device for holding an object in a fixed position.
+
+$Angle dividers.$ A sort of double bevel tool so arranged that an angle
+can be made at the same time on both side of a base line.
+
+$Angularly disposed.$ Forming an angle with reference to some part or
+position.
+
+$Archivolt.$ The architectural member surrounding the curved opening of
+an arch. More commonly the molding or other ornaments with which the
+wall face of an arch is changed.
+
+$Artisan.$ One trained in some mechanic's art or trade.
+
+$Beaded.$ A piece of wood or iron having rounded creases on its
+surface.
+
+$Beam compass.$ A drawing compass in which the points are arranged to
+slide on a rod, instead of being fixed on dividers.
+
+$Belfry.$ A bell-tower, usually attached to a church.
+
+$Bevel square.$ A handle to which is pivotally attached a blade, which
+may be swung and held at any desired angle.
+
+$Bisected.$ To divide, mark, or cut into two portions.
+
+$Bit.$ A small tool, either for drilling, or for cutting, as a plane
+iron.
+
+$Braced collar.$ A form of roofing truss, in which the upper cross
+member is supported by a pair of angled braces.
+
+$Breast drill.$ A tool for holding boring tools, and designed to have
+the head held against the breast for forcing in the boring tool.
+
+$Bridle joint.$ A form for securing elements together which provides a
+shallow depression in one member, and a chamfered member at its end to
+fit therein.
+
+$Bungalow.$ A Bengalese term; originally a thatched or tiled house or
+cottage, single story, usually surrounded by a veranda.
+
+$Bushing.$ A substance of any kind interposed, as, for instance, a
+wearing surface between a mandrel and its bearing.
+
+$Butts.$ A term applied to certain hinges, usually of the large type.
+
+$Callipered.$ A measured portion which has its side or thickness fixed
+by a finely graduated instrument.
+
+$Cambered.$ Slightly rising in the middle portion. An upward bend, or
+projection.
+
+$Capital.$ A small head or top of a column; the head or uppermost member
+of a pilaster.
+
+$Cardinal.$ Pre-eminent, chief, main line; _Cardinal_ line is the
+principal line to make calculations or measurements from.
+
+$Centering point.$ A place for the reception of the point of an
+instrument, like a compass or a dividers, or for the dead center of the
+tail-stock of a lathe.
+
+$Cheekpiece.$ A piece or pieces at right angles to another piece, either
+fixed or movable, which serves as a rest or a guide.
+
+$Chiffonier.$ A movable and ornamental closet or piece of furniture with
+shelves and drawers.
+
+$Chute.$ A channel in any material, or made of any substance, for
+conveying liquids or solids.
+
+$Circumference.$ The distance around an object.
+
+$Circumferentially.$ Surrounding or encircling.
+
+$Classical.$ Relating to the first class or rank, especially in
+literature or art.
+
+$Cogged.$ Having teeth, either at regular or at irregular intervals.
+
+$Concrete.$ Expressing the thing itself specifically; also the quality;
+a specific example.
+
+$Configuration.$ Form, as depending on the relative disposition of the
+parts of a thing; a shape or a figure.
+
+$Coincide.$ To occupy the same place in space; to correspond exactly; to
+agree; to concur.
+
+$Correlation.$ A reference, as from one thing to another; the putting
+together of various parts.
+
+$Conventional.$ Something which grows out of or depends upon custom, or
+is sanctioned by general usage.
+
+$Craftsman.$ One skilled in a craft or trade.
+
+$Curvature.$ The act of curving or being bent.
+
+$Concentrated.$ To bring to a common center; to bring together in one
+mass.
+
+$Dado.$ A plain flat surface between a base and a surbase molding.
+Sometimes a painted or encrusted skirting on interior walls.
+
+$Depth gage.$ A tool by means of which the depths of grooves and
+recesses are measured.
+
+$Degree.$ Measure of advancement; quality; extent; a division or space.
+
+$Discarded.$ Cast off; to reject or put away.
+
+$Deterioration.$ To grow worse; impairing in quality.
+
+$Depressed.$ A sunken surface or part.
+
+$Diagrammatical.$ A drawing made to illustrate the working or the
+scheme, without showing all the parts or giving their relative positions
+or measurements.
+
+$Diametrically.$ A direction toward the center or across the middle of a
+figure or thing.
+
+$Diagonal.$ A direction which is not parallel with or perpendicular to a
+line.
+
+$Dominate.$ To govern; controlling.
+
+$Door trim.$ The hardware which is attached to a door.
+
+$Double-roofed.$ All form of roof structure where there is an inner
+frame to support the rafters.
+
+$Drop forged.$ Metal forms which are struck up by means of heavy
+hammers, in which are the molds or patterns of the article to be formed.
+
+$Elaboration.$ Wrought with labor; finished with great care.
+
+$Elevation.$ The act of raising from a lower to a higher degree; a
+projection of a building or other object on a plane perpendicular to the
+horizon.
+
+$Elliptical.$ Having the form of an ellipse.
+
+$Embellishment.$ The act of adorning; that which adds beauty or
+elegance.
+
+$Entablature.$ The structure which lies horizontally upon the columns.
+
+$Equidistant.$ Being at an equal distance from a point.
+
+$Escutcheon.$ An ornamental plate like that part about a keyhole.
+
+$Evolve.$ To unfold or unroll; to open and expand.
+
+$Facade.$ The front of a building; the principal front having some
+architectural pretensions.
+
+$Facing-boards.$ The finishing of the face of a wall of different
+material than the main part of the wall; the wide board below the
+cornice or beneath the windows.
+
+$Factor.$ One of the elements, circumstances or influences which
+contribute to produce a result.
+
+$Fence.$ A term used to designate a metal barrier or guard on a part of
+a tool.
+
+$Fish plate.$ A pair of plates, usually placed on opposite sides of the
+pieces to be secured together, and held by cross bolts.
+
+$Flare.$ A pitch; an angle; an inclination.
+
+$Flush.$ Unbroken, or even in surface; on a level with the adjacent
+surface.
+
+$Frog clamping screw.$ A screw which is designed to hold or adjust two
+angled pieces.
+
+$Fulcrum.$ That by which a lever is sustained, or on which a lever rests
+in turning or moving a body.
+
+$Fluting.$ The channel or channels in a body; as the grooves in a
+column.
+
+$Gain.$ A square or beveled notch or groove cut out of a girder, beam,
+post or other material, at a corner.
+
+$Gambrel.$ A roof having two different pitches, the upper much greater
+than the lower.
+
+$Geometry.$ Pertaining to that branch of mathematics which investigates
+the relations, properties and measurements of solids, surfaces, lines
+and angles.
+
+$Girder.$ A main beam; a straight horizontal beam to span an opening or
+carry a weight, such as the ends of floor beams.
+
+$Glossary.$ A collection or explanation of words and passages of the
+works of an author; a partial dictionary.
+
+$Graduated.$ Cut up into steps; divided into equal parts.
+
+$Guide stock.$ A member which is the main portion of the tool, and from
+which all measurements are taken.
+
+$Hammer beam.$ A member in a truss roof structure, at the base of the
+roof proper, which consists of an inwardly projecting part, on which the
+roof rests, and from which it is braced.
+
+$Hammer-pole.$ The peon, or round end of a hammer which is used for
+driving nails.
+
+$Hemispherical.$ Pertaining to a half globe or sphere.
+
+$Horizontal.$ On the level; at right angles to a line which points to
+the center of the earth.
+
+$Incorporated.$ United in one body.
+
+$Index pin.$ A small movable member which is designed to limit the
+movement of the operative part of a machine.
+
+$Initial.$ To make a beginning with; the first of a series of acts or
+things.
+
+$Insulate.$ To place in a detached position; to separate from.
+
+$Interchangeable.$ One for the other.
+
+$Interval.$ A space between things; a void space; between two objects.
+
+$Interest.$ To engage the attention of; to awaken or attract attention.
+
+$Interlocking jaw.$ Two or more parts of a piece of mechanism in which
+the said parts pass each other in their motions.
+
+$Intersection.$ The point or line in which one line or surface cuts
+another.
+
+$Intervening.$ The portion between.
+
+$Inverted.$ Turned over; to put upside down.
+
+$Joggle-joint.$ A form of connection which has struts attached to a
+pendant post.
+
+$Joinery.$ The art or trade of joining wood.
+
+$Kerf.$ A notch, channel or slit made in any material by cutting or
+sawing.
+
+$Kit.$ A working outfit; a collection of tools or implements.
+
+$Level.$ A tool designed to indicate horizontal or vertical surfaces.
+
+$Liberal.$ Not narrow or contracted.
+
+$Lobe.$ Any projection, especially of a rounded form; the projecting
+part of a cam-wheel.
+
+$Longitudinal.$ In the direction of the length; running lengthwise.
+
+$Lubrication.$ The system of affording oiling means to a machine or to
+any article.
+
+$Mandrel.$ The live spindle of a lathe; the revolving arbor of a
+circular saw.
+
+$Mansard.$ A type of roof structure with two pitches, one, the lower,
+being very steep, and the other very flat pitch.
+
+$Manual.$ Of or pertaining to the hand; done or made by hand.
+
+$Marginal.$ The border or edge of an object.
+
+$Marking gage.$ A bar on which is placed a series of points, usually
+equidistant from each other.
+
+$Matching.$ Placing tongue in one member and a corresponding groove in
+another member, so that they will join each other perfectly.
+
+$Mediaeval.$ Of or relating to the Middle Ages.
+
+$Miter-box.$ A tool for the purpose of holding a saw true at any desired
+adjustable angle.
+
+$Miter-square.$ A tool which provides adjustment at any desired angle.
+
+$Mullion.$ A slender bar or pier which forms the vertical division
+between the lights of windows, screens, etc.; also, indoors, the main
+uprights are _stiles_, and the intermediate uprights are _mullions_.
+
+$Obliterated.$ Erased or blotted out.
+
+$Obtuse.$ Not pointed; bent.
+
+$Orbit.$ The path made by a heavenly body in its travel around another
+body.
+
+$Ordinate.$ The distance of any point in a curve or a straight line,
+measured on a line called the _axis of ordinates,_ or on a line parallel
+to it from another line, at right angles thereto, called the _axis of
+abscissas_.
+
+$Ornamentation.$ To embellish; to improve in appearance.
+
+$Oscillate.$ To swing like a pendulum.
+
+$Overhang.$ In a general sense that which projects out.
+
+$Paneling.$ A sunken compartment or portion with raised margins, molded
+or otherwise, as indoors, ceilings wainscoting, etc.
+
+$Parallelogram.$ A right-lined quadrilateral figure, whose opposite
+sides are parallel and, consequently, equal.
+
+$Parallel.$ Extended in the same direction, and in all parts equally
+distant.
+
+$Perspective.$ A view; a vista; the effect of distance upon the
+appearance of objects, by means of which the eye recognizes them as
+being at a more or less measurable distance.
+
+$Pivot.$ A fixed pin, or short axis, on the end of which a wheel or
+other body turns.
+
+$Pitch.$ Slope; descent; declivity, like the slope of a roof.
+
+$Placement.$ The act of placing; in the state of being placed.
+
+$Predominate.$ To be superior in number, strength, influence or
+authority; controlling.
+
+$Produced.$ To lengthen out; to extend.
+
+$Prototype.$ The original; that from which later forms sprang.
+
+$Purlin.$ A longitudinal piece of timber, under a roof, midway between
+the eaves and comb, to hold the rafters.
+
+$Rabbeting.$ The manner of cutting grooves or recesses.
+
+$Ratchet.$ A wheel, bar, or other form of member, having teeth or
+recesses.
+
+Rebate. A rectangular, longitudinal recess or groove, cut in the corner
+or edge of a body.
+
+$Rail.$ A horizontal piece in a frame or paneling.
+
+$Rectangular.$ Right-angled; having one or more angles of ninety
+degrees; a four-sided figure having only right angles.
+
+$Rib and collar.$ A form of roof truss in which the collar between
+rafters is used as the thrust bearing for the ribs which project up from
+the hammer beam.
+
+$Router.$ A tool for cutting grooves or recesses.
+
+$Saddle joint.$ A form of connection in which one part has a portion cut
+away, resembling a saddle, and in which the part to be attached has its
+end cut so as to fit the saddle thus formed.
+
+$Scarfing.$ The cutting away of the ends of timbers to be joined, so the
+two parts on lapping will unite evenly.
+
+$Scissors beam.$ A form of truss, in which there is a pair of interior
+braces formed like shears, and secured to the main rafters themselves.
+
+$Score, Scored.$ Shear; cut; divide; also notching or marking.
+
+$Scratch awl.$ A sharp-pointed tool, with a handle.
+
+$Scribe.$ To cut, indent or mark with a tool, such as a knife, awl or
+compass, so as to form a cutting line for the workman.
+
+$Self-supporting.$ Held by itself; not depending upon outside aid.
+
+$Shank.$ Usually the handle, or portion to which the handle is attached.
+
+$Slitting gage.$ A tool which is designed to cut along a certain line
+guided by an adjustable fence.
+
+$Soffit.$ The under side of an arch.
+
+$Solid.$ Not hollow; full of matter; having a fixed form; hard; opposed
+to liquid or fluid.
+
+$Spindle.$ A small mandrel; an arbor; a turning shaft.
+
+$Springer.$ The post or point at which an arch rests upon its support,
+and from which it seems to spring.
+
+$Sphere.$ A body or space continued under a single surface which, in
+every part, is equally distant from a point within called its center.
+
+$Spur.$ A small part jutting from another.
+
+$Strike plate.$ A plate serving as a keeper for a beveled latch bolt and
+against which the latter strikes in closing.
+
+$Steel Tubing.$ Pipes made from steel; tubing is measured across from
+outside to outside; piping is measured on the inside.
+
+$Step-wedge.$ A wedge having one straight edge, and the other edge
+provided with a succession of steps, by means of which the piece
+gradually grows wider.
+
+$Strain, Stresses.$ To act upon in any way so as to cause change of form
+or volume; as forces on a beam to bend it.
+
+$Strut.$ Any piece of timber which runs from one timber to another, and
+is used to support a part.
+
+$Stub.$ A projecting part, usually of some defined form, and usually
+designed to enter or engage with a corresponding recess in another
+member.
+
+$Submerged.$ To be buried or covered, as with a fluid; to put under.
+
+$Swivel.$ A pivoted member, used in many forms of tools, in which one
+part turns on the other.
+
+$Tail-stock.$ The sliding support or block in a lathe, which carries the
+dead spindle, or adjustable center.
+
+$Technical.$ Of or pertaining to the useful in mechanical arts, or to
+any science, business, or the like.
+
+$Texture.$ The disposition of the several parts of any body in
+connection with each other; or the manner in which the parts are united.
+
+$Tool rest.$ That part of a lathe, or other mechanism, which supports a
+tool, or holds the tool support.
+
+$Torso.$ The human body as distinguished from the head and limbs.
+
+$Transverse.$ In a crosswise direction; lying across; at right angles to
+the longitudinal.
+
+$Trimmer.$ A beam, into which are framed the ends of headers in floor
+framing, as when a hole is left for stairs, chimneys, and the like.
+
+$Truss.$ An assemblage of members of wood or iron, supported at two
+points, and arranged to transmit pressure vertically to those points
+with the least possible strain, across the length of any member.
+
+$Tusk.$ In mechanism, a long projecting part, longer than a tenon, and
+usually applied to the long or projecting part of a tenon.
+
+$Universal joint.$ A joint wherein one member is made to turn with
+another, although the two turning members are not in a line with each
+other.
+
+$Vocation.$ Employment; trade; profession; business.
+
+$Voissoir.$ One of the wedgelike stones of which an arch is composed.
+
+
+
+
+THE "HOW-TO-DO-IT" BOOKS
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+has a complete glossary of terms, and is illustrated with two hundred
+original drawings.
+
+ * * * * *
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+
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+and the manner in which all dimensional work is carried out. Every
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+
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+
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+
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+will appeal to the boy's love of the open.
+
+ * * * * *
+
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+
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+to use their recently acquired knowledge in a practical way. Elmer
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+familiarity with camp life. A clean, wholesome story every boy should
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+
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+
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+
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+
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+
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+
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+form a stirring narrative. One of the best baseball stories of recent
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+
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+
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+
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+
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+
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+
+Wild Animals of the United States--Tracking--in Number I.
+Trees and Wild Flowers of the United States in Number II.
+Reptiles of the United States in Number III.
+Fishes of the United States in Number IV.
+Insects of the United States in Number V.
+Birds of the United States in Number VI.
+
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+2. The Rivals of the Trail.
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+4. Lost in the Great Dismal Swamp.
+5. With Trapper Jim in the North Woods.
+6. Caught in a Forest Fire.
+
+BY LAWRENCE J. LESLIE
+
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+appealing to their love of the open.
+
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+
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+
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+before their entrance into the major leagues.
+
+One gains a very clear idea of "inside baseball" stripped of wearisome
+technicalities. The book is profusely illustrated throughout and
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+throws his deceptive curves, together with brief description of each.
+
+_Cloth bound 5-1/2 x 7-5/8 Price 60c. per volume_
+
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+ECONOMICAL COOKING
+_Primrose Edition_
+
+_Planned for Two or More Persons_
+
+By
+MISS WINIFRED S. GIBBS
+
+Dietitian and Teacher of Cooking of the New York Association for
+Improving the Condition of the Poor
+
+_Printed on Fine Quality Book Paper. Cover Design in Colors_
+
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+requirements, or to elucidate certain theories, but very few have been
+written to meet the needs of the large proportion of our population who
+are acutely affected by the constantly increasing cost of food products.
+Notwithstanding that by its valuable suggestions this book helps to
+reduce the expense of supplying the table, the recipes are so planned
+that the economies effected thereby are not offset by any lessening in
+the attractiveness, variety or palatability of the dishes.
+
+Of equal importance are the sections of this work which deal with food
+values, the treatment of infants and invalids and the proper service of
+various dishes.
+
+The recipes are planned for two persons, but may readily be adapted for
+a larger number. The book is replete with illustrations and tables of
+food compositions--the latter taken from the latest Government
+statistics.
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+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Carpentry for Boys, by J. S. Zerbe
+
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