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+The Project Gutenberg eBook of Field's Chromatography, by George Field
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
+most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
+whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
+of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
+www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you
+will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before
+using this eBook.
+
+Title: Field's Chromatography
+       or Treatise on Colours and Pigments as Used by Artists
+
+Author: George Field
+
+Editor: Thomas Salter
+
+Release Date: March 27, 2007 [EBook #20915]
+[Most recently updated: November 19, 2022]
+
+Language: English
+
+Produced by: Barbara Tozier, Bill Tozier, Jacqueline Jeremy
+and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+http://www.pgdp.net
+
+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FIELD'S CHROMATOGRAPHY ***
+
+
+
+
+_SALTER'S EDITION._
+
+FIELD'S CHROMATOGRAPHY;
+
+OR,
+
+TREATISE ON COLOURS AND PIGMENTS
+
+AS USED BY ARTISTS.
+
+_AN ENTIRELY NEW AND PRACTICAL EDITION_;
+
+REVISED, REWRITTEN, AND BROUGHT DOWN TO THE PRESENT TIME.
+
+BY
+
+THOMAS W. SALTER, F.C.S.
+
+
+Ars probat artificem.
+
+LONDON:
+
+WINSOR AND NEWTON, 38, RATHBONE PLACE,
+
+Manufacturing Artists' Colourmen by Special Appointment
+to Her Majesty, and Their Royal Highnesses the Prince and
+Princess of Wales.
+
+[The Right of Translation is reserved.]
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+PART I.
+ON COLOURS AND COLOURING.
+
+Chapter.                                                        Page.
+
+    I.--On Colouring                                               3
+
+   II.--On the Relations and Harmonies of Colours                 13
+
+
+PART II.
+ON COLOURS AND PIGMENTS GENERALLY.
+
+  III.--On Classes of Colours                                     27
+
+   IV.--On the Durability and Fugacity of Pigments                31
+
+    V.--On the General Qualities of Pigments                      46
+
+
+PART III.
+ON COLOURS AND PIGMENTS INDIVIDUALLY.
+
+   VI.--On Colours and Pigments individually                      57
+
+  VII.--On the Neutral, White                                     62
+
+ VIII.--On the Primary, Yellow                                    81
+
+   IX.--On the Primary, Red                                      127
+
+    X.--On the Primary, Blue                                     183
+
+   XI.--On the Secondary, Orange                                 239
+
+  XII.--On the Secondary, Green                                  263
+
+ XIII.--On the Secondary, Purple                                 294
+
+  XIV.--On the Tertiary, Citrine                                 310
+
+   XV.--On the Tertiary, Russet                                  320
+
+  XVI.--On the Tertiary, Olive                                   325
+
+ XVII.--On the Semi-Neutral, Brown                               334
+
+XVIII.--On the Semi-Neutral, Marrone                             362
+
+  XIX.--On the Semi-Neutral, Gray                                372
+
+   XX.--On the Neutral, Grey                                     381
+
+  XXI.--On the Neutral, Black                                    387
+
+        Addendum                                                 414
+
+        Index                                                    417
+
+
+
+
+NOTICE.
+
+
+Among the works consulted in this Edition are the following, from most
+of which extracts have been taken:
+
+    Bancroft's Philosophy of Colours.
+
+    Brande's Manual of Chemistry.
+
+    Chemical News.
+
+    Chevreul on Colour.
+
+    Fownes' Manual of Chemistry.
+
+    Gmelin's Handbook of Chemistry.
+
+    Handbooks on Art.
+
+    Liebig and Kopp's Annual Report of the Progress of Chemistry.
+
+    Mérimée's Painting in Oil.
+
+    Muspratt's Dictionary of Chemistry.
+
+    Normandy's Commercial Handbook of Chemical Analysis.
+
+    O'Neill's Chemistry of Calico Printing.
+
+    Quarterly Journal of the Chemical Society.
+
+    Ruskin's Elements of Drawing.
+
+    Watts' Dictionary of Chemistry.
+
+
+
+
+PART I.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+ON COLOURS AND COLOURING.
+
+
+
+
+CHROMATOGRAPHY;
+
+OR,
+
+A TREATISE ON COLOURS AND PIGMENTS.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+ON COLOURING.
+
+
+How early, and to what extent, colouring may have attained the rank of
+science among the ancients, are questions not easily set at rest; but
+that some progress had been made, even at a very remote period, is
+proved by the magnificent tombs of the Egyptian kings at Thebes, where
+the walls of the royal mausoleum are described as being covered with
+paintings so fresh and perfect, as to require neither restoration nor
+improvement. So far from this, indeed, that with all care in copying, it
+was difficult to equal the brilliancy of the originals, which, as far as
+colours went, threw all others in the background. And yet, in spite of
+the scale having comprised pure vermilion, ochres, and indigo, it was
+not gaudy, owing to the judicious balance of the colours, and the
+artful management of the black. Nor was there an ornament throughout the
+dresses, wherein the red, yellow, and blue, were not so employed as to
+produce a delicious harmony.
+
+Moreover, it is stated that in one painting eighty feet high and
+proportionably broad, which was divided into two ranges of gigantic
+figures, these were glowing with most exquisite colours, suited to the
+drapery and naked parts; and in which the azure, yellow, green, &c.,
+were as well preserved as though they had been laid on yesterday. Again,
+an apartment was discovered among the stupendous ruins at Carnac, on the
+site of ancient Thebes, one hundred paces wide and sixty deep,
+completely crowded with pillars, which, together with the ceiling, roof,
+and walls, were decorated with figures in basso-relievo, and
+hieroglyphics--all marvellously beautiful and finely painted, and as
+fresh, splendid and glorious, after so many ages, as if they had just
+been finished.
+
+In various accounts these colourings of the Egyptians are described in
+the warmest terms of admiration. The most charming are undoubtedly those
+on the tombs and temples: others of less merit have been found on the
+cases and cloths of mummies, and on papyrus rolls; but it is to the
+patterns on the walls and ceilings of their houses that they seem to
+have been most partial, and paid the most attention. The ordinary
+colours employed by them were red, yellow, green, and blue. Of the last
+there were two tints; black also was common. For white, the finely
+prepared stone-coloured ground was deemed sufficient. These colours were
+occasionally modified by mixture with chalk; but were always, or nearly
+always, applied singly, in an unmixed state. With regard to their
+composition, chemical analysis has shown several of the _blues_ to be
+oxide of copper with a small proportion of iron; none containing cobalt.
+There is little doubt, however, that the most brilliant specimens--those
+which retain all their original force and beauty in the temples of Upper
+Egypt after an exposure of three thousand years, consist of
+ultramarine--the celebrated Armenian blue, possibly, of the ancients.
+The _reds_ seem for the most part to be composed of oxide of iron mixed
+with lime, and were probably limited to iron earths and ochres, with a
+native cinnabar or vermilion. The _yellows_ are said to have been, in
+many cases, vegetable colours; but it is likely earths and ochres were
+their chief source. The _greens_ consist of yellow mixed with copper
+blue. The bluish-green which sometimes appears on Egyptian antiquities,
+is merely a faded blue. The _blacks_ are both of vegetable and mineral
+origin, having been obtained from a variety of substances in a variety
+of ways.
+
+But, as shown by Layard in his discoveries at Nineveh, a knowledge of
+colouring was not confined to the Egyptians; it was likewise possessed
+by the Assyrians. The painted ornaments of the latter are stated to have
+been remarkably elegant; and although the colours were limited to blue,
+red, white, yellow, and black, yet they were arranged with so much taste
+and skill, and the contrasts were so judiciously preserved, that the
+combinations were in general agreeable to the eye. The pale
+yellowish-white ground on which the designs were painted, resembled the
+tint on the walls of Egyptian monuments, and a strong well-defined black
+outline was found to be as peculiar a feature in Assyrian as in Egyptian
+painting, black frequently combining with white alone, or alternating
+with other colours. As far as they have been analysed, the pigments
+employed were mineral, the brightest being a blue derived from copper.
+No traces of vegetable colours have been found; it is presumed that they
+existed, but being subject to more rapid decay than the mineral
+pigments, they have disappeared. That all the colours, indeed, employed
+by the ancients were not permanent, was proved by the fact of certain
+blues and reds, brilliant and vivid when the earth was removed from
+them, fading rapidly when exposed to the air.
+
+From Philocles, the Egyptian, and Gyges, a Lydian, both of whom,
+according to Pliny, acquired the knowledge of the art of painting in
+Egypt, the Greeks obtained the knowledge of their _Ars Chromatica_,
+which they are said to have carried by gradual advances during several
+centuries, from the monochromatic of their earlier painters, to the
+perfection of colouring under Zeuxis and Apelles, 450 to 350 B.C.
+Unfortunately, not long after, or about 300 B.C., art rapidly
+deteriorated; the invasion of the Romans commenced; and the principles
+of light, shade, and colours in painting as understood by the Greeks,
+together with their valuable treatises on the subject were lost. The
+early Roman and Florentine painters, so eminent in other respects, were
+almost destitute of those principles, and of truly refined feeling for
+the effects of colouring.
+
+The partial restoration of this branch seems to have been coeval with
+the earliest practice of painting in oil. The glory of it belongs to the
+Venetians, to whom the art of painting passed with the last remains of
+the Greek schools after the capture of Constantinople at the beginning
+of the thirteenth century. Giovanni Bellini laid the foundation of
+colouring, and Titian carried it to its highest practical perfection.
+From the Venetian it extended to the Lombard, Flemish, and Spanish
+schools. In the practice of these, however, there was perhaps as much of
+instinct as principle, colouring still remaining to be established in
+its perfection as a science.
+
+According to the true, natural, and philosophical classification of
+painting, there are but three principal classes or schools; viz.: the
+gross and _material_ which is content with mere nature, and to which
+belong the Dutch and Flemish schools; the _sensible_, which aims at
+refined and select nature, and accords with the Venetian school; and the
+_intellectual_, which aspires to the ideal in beauty, grandeur, and
+sublimity, and corresponds with the Greek, Roman, and Florentine
+schools. Modern art as founded upon the _intellectual_ school of the
+ancient Greeks, became grand, scientific, and severe in the practice of
+Michael Angelo, and Leonardo da Vinci; graceful, beautiful and
+expressive in Raphael, Correggio, Dominichino, and Guido; and, aiming at
+_sensible_ perfection, it attained harmony of colouring and effect in
+the works of Titian and Tintoret; but it sunk into grossness and
+sensuality while perfecting itself _materially_ among the Flemish and
+Dutch.
+
+In the practice of the individual in painting, as well as in all
+revolutions of pictorial art, in ancient Greece as in modern Italy,
+colouring in its perfection has been the last attainment of excellence
+in every school. It has been justly observed, indeed, that for near
+three hundred years, since painting was revived, we could hardly reckon
+six painters that had been good colourists, among the thousands who had
+laboured to become such. But there is reason to hope that as Zeuxis
+succeeded and excelled Polygnotus, and Titian Raphael, the artists of
+Britain will transcend all preceding schools in the chromatic department
+of painting. It is even probable that they may surpass them in all other
+branches, and in every mode and application of the art, as they have
+already more particularly done in an original and unrivalled use of
+water-colours.
+
+Happily, too, there has arisen among us a school of colouring that
+confirms this expectation, strengthened as it is, by the suitableness of
+our climate to perfect vision. For in it we have that mean degree of
+light which is best adapted to the distinguishing of colours, a
+boundless diversity of hue in nature relieved by those fine effects of
+light and shade which are denied to more vertical suns, besides those
+beauties of complexion and feature in our females peculiar to England;
+respects in which at least our country is not unfavourable to art.
+
+Even now it is urged by some to the _disparagement_ of the British
+school, that it excels in colouring; as if this were incompatible with
+any other excellence, or as if nature, the great prototype of art, ever
+dispensed with it. The graphic branches of painting, owe everything to
+colour, which, if it does not constitute a picture, is its flesh and
+blood. Without it, the finest performances remain lifeless skeletons,
+and yield no pleasure. Painting is the art of representing visible
+things by light, shade, form, and colour; but of these, colour--and
+colour alone--is the immediate object which attracts the eye. Colouring
+is, therefore, the first requisite--the one thing imparting warmth and
+life--the chief quality engaging attention; in short, the best
+introduction to a picture, and that which continues to give it value so
+long as it is regarded. It is a power, too, which is with the most
+difficulty retained, being the first to leave the artist himself, and
+the first to quit a school on its decline. Graphic art without
+colouring, is as food without flavour; and it was the deficiency of
+colouring in the great works of the Roman and Florentine schools that
+caused Sir Joshua Reynolds to confess a certain want of attraction in
+them. To relish and estimate truly their greatness, required, he said, a
+forced and often-repeated attention, and "it was only those persons
+incapable of appreciating such divine performances, who made pretensions
+to instantaneous raptures on first beholding them." Gainsborough also,
+with a candour similar to that of Reynolds, upon viewing the cartoons at
+Hampton Court, acknowledged that their beauty was of a class he could
+neither appreciate nor enjoy.
+
+Colouring, then, is a necessity; but there is in it a vicious extreme;
+that in which it is rendered so principal as, by want of subordination,
+to overlay the subject. There is also a negative excellence which
+consists in not always employing pleasing tints, but of sometimes taking
+advantage of the effects to be derived from impure hues, as Poussin did
+in his "Deluge." In this work, neither black nor white, blue, red, nor
+yellow appears; the whole mass being, with little variation, of a sombre
+grey, the true resemblance of a dark and humid atmosphere, by which
+every object is rendered indistinct and almost colourless. This absence
+of colour, however, is a merit, and not a fault. Vandyke employed such
+means with admirable effect in the background of a Crucifixion, and in
+his Pieta; and the Phaëton of Giulio Romano is celebrated for a
+suffusion of smothered red, which powerfully excites the idea of a world
+on fire.
+
+Of the rank and value of this department of painting, there will be, as
+there has been, difference of judgment and opinion, as there is variety
+in the powers of the eye and understanding. But take from Rubens,
+Rembrandt, Titian, and other distinguished masters, the estimation of
+their colouring, and we fear all that is left to them would hardly
+preserve their names from oblivion. Art cannot, indeed, attain its
+appropriate end, that of pleasing, without excellence in colouring. It
+is colour which the true artist most loves, and it is colouring in all
+its complex and high relations, that he ever seeks to attain. Looking
+above, and around, and beneath him, with the intelligent eye of the
+colourist, he finds a boundless source of never-ceasing enjoyment. With
+harmonies and accordances lost to the untutored gaze, colour meets him
+in every stone he treads on--in the mineral, vegetable, and animal
+creation--in the heavens, sea, and earth. For him, in truth, colour is
+as equally diffused as light, spreading itself over the entire face of
+nature, and clothing the whole world with beauty.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+ON THE RELATIONS AND HARMONY OF COLOUR.
+
+
+Assured as we must be of the importance of colouring as a branch of art,
+colours in all their bearings become interesting to the artist, and on
+their use and arrangement his reputation as a colourist must depend.
+
+Colour, remarks Ruskin, is wholly _relative_; each hue throughout a work
+is altered by every touch added in other places. Thus, to place white
+beside a colour is to heighten its tone; to set black beside a colour is
+to weaken its tone; while to put grey beside a colour, is to render it
+more brilliant. If a dark colour be placed near a different, but lighter
+colour, the tone of the first is heightened, while that of the second is
+lowered. An important consequence of this principle is, that the first
+effect may neutralize the second, or even destroy it altogether. What
+was cold before, becomes warm when a colder colour is set near it, and
+what was in harmony before, becomes discordant as other colours are put
+beside it. For example, to place a light blue beside a yellow, tinges
+it orange, and consequently heightens its tone. Again, there are some
+blues so dark relatively to the yellow that they weaken it, and not only
+hide the orange tint, but even cause sensitive eyes to feel that the
+yellow is rather green than orange--a very natural result when it is
+considered that the paler the yellow becomes, the more it tends to
+appear green.
+
+We learn from these relations of colours, why dapplings of two or more
+produce effects in painting so much more clear and brilliant than
+uniform tints obtained by compounding the same colours: and why
+hatchings, or a touch of their contrasts, thrown as it were by accident
+upon local tints, have the same effect. We see, too, why colours mixed
+deteriorate each other, which they do more--in many cases--by
+imperfectly neutralizing or subduing each other chromatically, than by
+any chemical action. Finally, we are impressed with the necessity, not
+only of using colours pure, but of using pure colours; although pure
+colouring and brilliancy differ as much from crudeness and harshness, as
+tone and harmony from murkiness and monotony.
+
+The powers of colours in contrasting each other agree with their
+correlative powers of light and shade, and are to be distinguished from
+their powers individually on the eye, which are those of light alone.
+Thus, although orange and blue are equal powers with respect to each
+other, as regards the eye they are totally different and opposed. Orange
+is a luminous colour, and has a powerfully irritating effect, while blue
+is a shadowy colour, possessing a soothing quality--and it is the same,
+in various degrees, with other colours.
+
+There are yet further modes of contrast or antagonism in colouring,
+which claim the attention and engage the skill of the colourist. Of the
+contrast of _hues_, upon which depend the brilliancy, force, and harmony
+of colouring, we have just spoken; but there is, secondly, the contrast
+of _shades_. To this belong all the powers of chiaroscuro, by which term
+the painter denotes the harmonious effects of light and shade; and
+though they form the simplest part of colouring, yet they cannot be
+separated from it--light and shade, the chiaroscuro, being a distinct
+and important branch of painting. A third mode of contrast in colouring
+is that of _warmth_ and _coolness_, upon which depend the toning and
+general effect of a picture. Fourthly, there is the contrast of _colour_
+and _neutrality_, the chromatic and achromatic, or hue and shade. By the
+right management of this, local colours acquire value, gradation,
+keeping, and connection: whence come breadth, aërial perspective, and
+the due distribution of greys and shadows in a picture.
+
+This principle of contrast applies even to _individual colours_, and
+conduces greatly to good colouring. It may be carried with advantage
+into the variety of hue and tint in the same colour, not only as regards
+light and shade, but likewise with respect to warmth and coolness, as
+well as to colour and neutrality. Hence the judicious landscape-painter
+knows how to avail himself of warmth and coolness in the juxtaposition
+of his greens, in addition to their lightness and darkness, or
+brilliancy and brokenness, in producing the most beautiful and varied
+effects; effects which spring in other cases from a like management of
+blue, white, &c. These powers of a colour upon itself are highly
+important to the artist, and lead to that gratification from fine
+colouring, which a good eye ever enjoys.
+
+In landscape we see nature employing broken colours in harmonious
+consonance and variety, while, equally true to picturesque relations,
+she uses also broken forms and figures, in conjoint harmony with
+colours; occasionally throwing into the composition a regular form, or a
+primary colour, for the sake of animation and contrast. And if we
+inspect her works more closely, we shall find that they have no uniform
+tints. Whether in the animal, vegetable or mineral creation--flesh or
+foliage, earth or sky, flower or stone--however uniform the colour may
+appear at a distance, it will, when examined nearly, be found to
+consist of a variety of hues and shades, compounded with harmony and
+intelligence.
+
+It is for this reason that no two colours are ever found discordant in
+nature, however much so they may be in art. Blue and green have been
+termed discordant, and in painting they may undoubtedly be made so. Yet
+those are two colours which nature seems to intend never to be
+separated, and never to be felt, either of them, in its full beauty,
+without the other--a blue sky through green leaves, or a blue wave with
+green lights through it, being precisely the loveliest things, next to
+clouds at sunrise, in this coloured world of ours. A good eye for colour
+will soon discover how constantly nature puts green and purple together,
+purple and scarlet, green and blue, yellow and neutral grey, and the
+like; and how she strikes these colour-concords for general tones,
+before working into them with innumerable subordinate ones.
+
+Upon the more intimate union, or the blending and gradience of contrasts
+from one to another mutually, depend some of the most fascinating
+effects of colouring. The practical principle employed in producing them
+is important, and consists in the blending and gradating by _mixture_,
+while we avoid the _compounding_ of contrasting colours. That is, the
+colours must be kept distinct in the act of blending them, or otherwise
+they will run into dusky neutrality and defile each other. This is the
+case in blending and gradating from green to red, or from hue to
+hue--from blue to orange, or to and from coldness and warmth--from
+yellow to purple, or to and from advancing and retiring colours. It is
+the same in light and shade, or white and black, which _mix_ with
+clearness. Now, there are only two ways in which this distinctness in
+union of contrasts can be effected in practice: the one is by hatching
+or breaking them together in mixture, without compounding them
+uniformly; and the other is by glazing, in which the colours unite and
+penetrate mutually, without monotonous composition.
+
+The former process may be said to be the carrying out of the principle
+of separate colours to the utmost possible refinement, by using atoms of
+colour in juxtaposition, instead of in large spaces. And it is to be
+noted, in filling up minute interstices of this kind, that if the colour
+with which they are filled be wanted to show brightly, a rather positive
+point of it had better be put, with a little white left beside or round
+it in the interstice. This plan is preferable to laying a pale tint of
+the colour over the whole interstice. Yellow or orange, for instance,
+will hardly show, if pale, in small spaces; but they show brightly in
+free touches, however small, with white beside them. The latter mode is
+founded on the fact, that if a dark colour be laid first, and a little
+blue or white body-colour struck lightly over it, a more beautiful gray
+will be obtained than by mixing the colour and the blue or white.
+Similarly, if over a solid and perfectly dry touch of vermilion there be
+quickly washed a little very wet carmine, a much more brilliant red will
+be produced than by mixing the two colours.
+
+Transparency and opacity constitute another contrast of colouring, the
+former of which belongs to shade and blackness, the latter to light and
+whiteness. Even contrast has its contrast, for _gradations_ or
+_intermedia_ are opposed to contrasts or _extremes_; and, upon the right
+management of contrasts and gradations depend the harmony and melody,
+the tone, effect, and general expression of a picture. Thus, painting is
+an affair of judicious contrasting so far as regards colour, if even it
+be not such altogether.
+
+Colour, it has already been observed, is wholly _relative_. In
+contrasting, therefore, any colour, if we wish it to have light or
+brilliancy, we cast its opposite into the shade; if we would have it
+warm, we cool its antagonist; and if transparent, we oppose it by an
+opaque contrary, and _vice versâ_: indeed, in practice, all these must
+be in some measure combined.
+
+Such are some of the powers of contrast in colouring alone, and such is
+the diversity of art upon which skill in colouring depends. It must not
+be forgotten, however, that contrasts or extremes, whether of light and
+shade, or of colours, become violent and offensive when they are not
+reconciled by the interposition of their media, or intermediates, which
+partake of both extremes of the contrasts. Thus blue and orange in
+contrast become reconciled, softened in effect, and harmonized, when a
+broken colour composed of the two intervenes. The same may be said of
+other colours, shades, and contrasts.
+
+Seeing that the management and mastery of colours are to a great extent
+dependent on the same principles as light and shade, it might become a
+point of good discipline, after acquiring the use of black and white in
+the chiaroscuro, to paint designs in contrast; that is, with two
+contrasting colours only, in conjunction with black and white--for
+example, with blue and orange, before attempting the whole. Indeed,
+black can be dispensed with in these cases, because it may be
+compounded, since the neutral grey and third colours always arise from
+the compounding of contrasting colours. In this way, even flesh may be
+painted--for instance, with red and green alone, as Gainsborough is said
+at one period to have done.
+
+Some artists have produced pictures in the above hot and cold colours
+only; which, although captivating to the eye, and true in theory with
+respect to colour, light and shade, are generally false in practice with
+regard to nature, which rarely employs such extreme accordances.
+Colouring like this, therefore, is more beautiful than true. It is as
+though a painter were to execute a landscape in the full light of day,
+as he saw it looking through a prism, so that every object glowed with
+rainbow hues. Such a picture would present a beautiful fairy scene, and
+be true as regards colours, but as respects nature, it would be false.
+
+Colour, and what in painting is called transparency, belong chiefly to
+shade. It has been a common error to ascribe those properties to light
+only, and hence many have employed a uniform shade tint, regarding
+shadows as simply darkness, blackness, or the mere absence of light;
+when, in truth, shadows are infinitely varied by colour, and always so
+by the colours of the lights which produce them. But while we incline
+attention toward the relation of colour to shade, both light and shade
+being strictly co-essential to colour, a vicious extreme must be
+avoided. For although, as transparent, colour inclines to shade, and, as
+opaque, it partakes of light; yet the general tendency of colour is to
+transparency and shade, all colour being a departure from light. Hence
+it becomes a maxim, which he who aspires to good colouring must never
+lose sight of, that _the colour of shadow is always transparent, and
+only that of extreme light objects opaque_. It follows, that white is to
+be kept as much as possible out of shadow, and black, for the same
+reason, out of colour. In their stead, whenever it is necessary to
+cover, opaque tints may be employed, glazed over with transparent
+colours. Such practice would also be more favourable to durability of
+the tones of pictures, than the shades and tints produced with black and
+white. The hues and shadows of nature are in no ordinary case either
+black or white, which, except as local colours, are always poor and
+frigid. The perfection of colouring is to combine harmony with
+brilliancy, unity with variety, and freshness with force, without
+violating the laws of nature.
+
+With regard to the _perspective of colours_, or the manner in which they
+affect the eye, according to position and distance, it is a branch of
+aërial perspective or the perspective of light and shade. This is
+distinguished from linear perspective, or the perspective of drawing, as
+drawing is from colouring; and they have progressed alike in the art.
+The most ancient painters seem to have known little of either; and
+linear perspective was established as science before the aërial, as
+drawing and composition preceded colouring.
+
+The perspective of colours depends upon their powers to reflect the
+elements of light, powers which are by no means uniform. Accordingly,
+blue is lost in the distance before red, and yellow is seen at a point
+at which red would disappear; yet blue preserves its hue better than
+yellow, because colours are cooled in the distance. In this respect,
+the compound colours partake of the powers of their components, in
+obedience to a general rule, by which local colours closely connected
+with black are first lost in the distance, and those nearly related to
+white disappear last. The same may be said of local light and shade, the
+latter of which is totally lost at great distances; and it is for this
+reason the shadowed side of the moon is not generally seen. These powers
+of colours are, however, varied by mist, air, altitude, and mixture,
+which produce evanescence; and by contrast, which preserves the force of
+colours by distinguishing them. Colours do not decline in force so much
+by height as by horizontal distance, because the upper atmosphere is
+less dense and clouded with vapour: and hence it is that mountains of
+great elevation appear much nearer than they really are. From all these
+circumstances, it is evident that a simple scumbling or uniform
+degradation of local colours will not effect a true perspective--for
+this will be the aërial of light and shade only--but such a
+subordination of hues and tints, as the various powers of colours
+require, and as is always observable in nature.
+
+In furnishing or _setting the palette_ philosophically and upon
+principle, it is necessary to supply it with pure blue, red, and yellow;
+to oppose to these an orange, of a hue that will neutralise the
+blue--green, of a hue that will neutralise the red--and purple, of a hue
+that will neutralise the yellow; and so on to black and white, which
+will neutralise each other. As in nature, the general colour of the sky
+is blue, and the colour of light is always opposite to that of the sky
+and shade, so the white which is to represent light should be tinged
+with the orange of the palette sufficiently to neutralise the
+predominant coldness of black. Pure neutral white may thus be reserved
+as a "local" colour, which is a technical term for the _natural_ colour
+of an object, unvaried by distance, reflection, or anything interfering
+with distinct vision; although, properly speaking, local colours are
+subject to all the relations and effects of the places they occupy in a
+composition--whether of light, shade, reflection, or distance.
+
+From what we have said, it will be seen that the relations and harmony
+of colours form a complex subject, requiring constant and careful study;
+one, indeed, into which he who would become a colourist must enter heart
+and soul. For as colouring is the beginning and end of a painter's
+craft, so colour in all its aspects must be the chief lesson of his
+life. And this lesson can only be learnt, by ever watching with a loving
+eye those wondrous colourings of nature, in which there is nothing
+inharmonious or out of place.
+
+
+
+
+PART II.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+ON COLOURS AND PIGMENTS GENERALLY.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+ON CLASSES OF COLOURS.
+
+
+By mixing his _colours with white_, the artist obtains his _tints_. By
+mixing _colours with colours_, he produces compound colours, or _hues_.
+And by mixing _colours or tints with black_, he gets _shades_. It is a
+common error to confound these distinctions.
+
+The above classification of colours enables us to understand the
+simplicity of relation which exists among an infinity of tints, hues,
+and shades of colour. Also, it is calculated to give precision to
+language respecting colours, the nomenclature of which has too often
+been vague and uncertain.
+
+There are five classes of colours, viz.:--the _Neutral_, the _Primary_,
+the _Secondary_, the _Tertiary_, and the _Semi-neutral_.
+
+_Neutral Colours_ are three only, _white_, _black_, and grey. According
+to the laws of Optics, the two first comprise all other colours
+synthetically, and afford them all by analysis. These are sometimes
+called "extreme" colours, grey being their intermediate.
+
+_Primary Colours_ are three only, _yellow_, _red_, and _blue_. They are
+such as yield others by being compounded, but are not themselves capable
+of being produced by composition of other colours. By way of
+distinction, they are occasionally designated "entire" colours.
+
+_Secondary Colours_, are three only, _orange_, _green_, and _purple_.
+Each of these is composed of, or can be resolved into, two primaries.
+Thus, orange is composed of red and yellow; green, of yellow and blue;
+and purple, of blue and red.
+
+_Tertiary Colours_ are three only, _citrine_, _russet_, and _olive_.
+Each of these is composed of, or can be resolved into, either two
+secondary colours, or the three primaries. Thus, citrine consists of
+green and orange, or of a predominant yellow with blue and red; russet
+is compounded of orange and purple, or of a predominant red with blue
+and yellow; and olive is composed of purple and green, or of a
+predominant blue with yellow and red.
+
+The last three genera of colours comprehend in an orderly gradation all
+those which are _positive_ or definite; and the three colours of each
+genus, united or compounded in such subordination that neither of them
+predominates to the eye, constitute the _negative_ or neutral colours,
+of which _black_ and _white_ have been stated to be the opposed
+extremes, and _greys_ their intermediates. Thus black and white are
+constituted of, and comprise latently, the principles of all colours,
+and accompany them in their depth and brilliancy as shade and light.
+
+_Semi-neutral Colours_ belong to a class of which _brown_, _marrone_,
+and _gray_ may be considered types. They are so called, because they
+comprehend all the combinations of the primary, secondary, and tertiary
+colours, with the neutral _black_. Of the various combinations of black,
+those in which yellow, orange, or citrine predominates, have obtained
+the name of brown, &c. A second class in which the compounds of black
+are of a predominant red, purple, or russet hue, comprises marrone,
+chocolate, &c. And a third class, in which the combinations of black
+have a predominating hue of blue, green, or olive, includes gray, slate,
+&c.
+
+While treating of the classes of colours, it may not be out of place to
+note here the difference between gray as spelt with an _a_, and grey as
+spelt with an _e_, the two names being occasionally confounded. _Gray_
+is semi-neutral, and denotes a class of cool cinereous colours, faint of
+hue; whence we have blue grays, olive grays, green grays, purple grays,
+and grays of all hues in which blue predominates; but no yellow or red
+grays, the predominance of such hues carrying the compounds into the
+classes of brown and marrone, of which gray is the natural opposite.
+_Grey_ is neutral, and is composed of or can be resolved into black and
+white alone, from a mixture of which two colours it springs in an
+infinite series.
+
+It must be observed that each colour may comprehend an indefinite series
+of _shades_ between the extremes of light and dark, as each compound
+colour also may comprise a similar series of _hues_ between the extremes
+of the colours composing it. And as the relations of colours have been
+deduced regularly, from white or light to black or shade; so the same
+may be done, inversely, from black to white. On this plan the
+tertiaries, olive, russet, and citrine, take the place of the primaries,
+blue, red, and yellow; while the secondaries still retain their
+intermediate station and relation to both.
+
+Thus, _russet and olive_ compose or unite in _dark purple_; _citrine and
+olive_ in _dark green_; _russet and citrine_ in _dark orange_. The
+tertiaries have, therefore, the same order of relation to black that the
+primaries have to white; and we have black primaries, secondaries, and
+tertiaries, inversely, as we have white primaries, secondaries, and
+tertiaries, directly. In other words, we have light and dark colours in
+all classes.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+ON THE DURABILITY AND EVANESCENCE OF PIGMENTS.
+
+
+Pigments may be defined as colours in a solid or insoluble state,
+prepared for the artists' use. Hitherto, we have treated of colours in
+the abstract sense, as appealing to the eye only: we have now to
+consider them as material bodies.
+
+As colour itself is relative, so is durability of colour relative. For
+the reason that all material substances are changeable and in perpetual
+action and reaction, no pigment is so permanent as that nothing will
+alter its colour. On the other hand, none is so fugitive as not to last
+under some favouring circumstances. Time, of long or short continuance,
+has often the effect of fire, more or less intense. Indeed, it is some
+sort of criterion of the stability and changes of colour in pigments,
+that time and fire are apt to produce similar effects thereon. Thus, if
+fire deepen, or cool, or warm a colour, so may time; if it vary its
+hues, so may time; if it destroy a colour altogether, so may time
+ultimately. The power of time, however, varies extremely with regard to
+the period in which it produces those effects, that are instantly
+accomplished by fire.
+
+That there is no absolute but only relative durability of colour may be
+proved from the most celebrated pigments. For instance, the colour of
+native ultramarine, which will endure a hundred centuries under ordinary
+circumstances, may be at once destroyed by a drop of lemon juice; and
+the generally fugitive and changeable carmine of cochineal will, when
+secluded from light and air, continue fifty years or more; while fire or
+time, which merely deepen the former colour, will completely dissipate
+the latter. Again, there have been works of art in which the white of
+lead has retained its freshness for ages in a pure atmosphere, but has
+been changed to blackness after a few days' or even hours' exposure to
+foul air. These and other peculiarities of colours will be noticed, when
+we come to speak of pigments individually; not for the purpose of
+destroying the artist's confidence, but as a caution, and a guide to the
+availing himself of their powers properly.
+
+It is, therefore, the lasting under the usual conditions of painting,
+and the common circumstances to which works of art are exposed, that
+entitles a colour to the character of permanency; and it is the
+not-so-enduring which attaches to it rightly the opposite character of
+evanescence: while a pigment may obtain a false repute for either, by
+accidental preservation or destruction under unusually favourable or
+fatal circumstances.
+
+Many have imagined that colours vitrified by intense heat are
+consequently durable when levigated for painting in oil or water. Had
+this been the case, the artist need not have looked farther for the
+furnishing of his palette than to a supply of well-burnt and levigated
+enamel pigments. But though such colours for the most part stand well
+when fluxed on glass, or in the glazing of enamel, they are nearly,
+without exception, subject to the most serious changes when ground to
+the degree of fineness necessary to their application as pigments, and
+become liable to all the chemical changes and affinities of the
+substances which compose them. These remarks even apply in a measure to
+native products, such as coloured earths and metallic ores.
+
+Others have not unreasonably supposed that when pigments are locked up
+in varnishes and oils, they are safe from all possibility of change. The
+assumption would be more warranted if we had an impenetrable
+varnish--and even that would not resist the action of light, however
+well it might exclude the influence of air and moisture. But, in fact,
+varnishes and oils themselves yield to changes of temperature, to the
+action of a humid atmosphere, and to other influences: their protection
+of colour from change is therefore far from perfect.
+
+Want of attention to the unceasing mutability of all chemical
+substances, as well as to their reciprocal actions, has occasioned those
+changes of colour to be ascribed to fugitiveness of the pigment, which
+belong to the affinities of other substances with which it has been
+improperly mixed and applied. It is thus that the best pigments have
+suffered in reputation under the injudicious processes of the painter;
+although, owing to a desultory practice, the effects and results have
+not been uniform. If a colour be not extremely permanent, dilution will
+render it in some measure more weak and fugitive; and this occurs in
+several ways--by a too free use of the vehicle; by complex mixture in
+the formation of tints; by distribution, in glazing or lackering, of
+colours upon the lights downward, or scumbling colours upon the shades
+upward; or by a mixed mode very common among the Venetian painters, in
+which opaque pigments are combined, as umber and lake.
+
+The fugitive colours do less injury in the shadows than in the lights of
+a picture, because they are employed pure, and in greater body in
+shadows, and are therefore less liable to decay by the action of light,
+and by mixture. Through partially fading, moreover, they balance any
+tendency to darken, to which the dead colouring of earthy and metallic
+pigments is disposed.
+
+The foregoing circumstances, added to the variableness of pigments by
+nature, preparation, and sophistication, have often rendered their
+effects equivocal, and their powers questionable. These considerations
+enforce the expediency of using colours as pure and free from
+unnecessary mixture as possible; for simplicity of composition and
+management is equally a maxim of good mechanism, good chemistry, and
+good colouring. Accordingly, in respect to the latter, Sir Joshua
+Reynolds remarks, "Two colours mixed together will not preserve the
+brightness of either of them single, nor will three be as bright as two:
+of this observation, simple as it is, an artist who wishes to colour
+bright will know the value."
+
+There prevail, notwithstanding, two principles of practice on the
+palette, opposed to each other--the one, simple; the other, multiple.
+The first is that of having as few pigments as possible; and consists,
+when carried to the extreme, in employing the three primary colours
+only. The second is that of having a number of pigments; and consists,
+also when carried to the extreme, of employing as many, if possible, as
+there are hues and shades of colour.
+
+On the former plan, every tint requires to be compounded; on the latter,
+one pigment supplies the place of two or more. Now, the more pigments
+are mixed, the more they are deteriorated in colour, attenuated, and
+chemically set at variance. Original pigments, that is, such as are not
+made up of two or more colours, are purer in hue and generally more
+durable than those compounded. Hence pure intermediate tints in single,
+permanent, original pigments, are to be preferred to pigments
+compounded, often to the dilution and injury of their colours. Cadmium
+Orange, for instance, which is _naturally_ an orange pigment and not
+composed of red and yellow, is superior to many mixtures of those
+colours in a chemical sense, and to all such mixtures in an artistic
+sense. At the same time, it is quite possible for the artist to multiply
+his pigments unnecessarily. Colours are sometimes brought out under new
+names which have no claim to be regarded as new colours, being, indeed,
+mere mixtures. Compound pigments like these may most frequently be
+dispensed with, in favour of hues and tints composed extemporaneously of
+original colours upon the palette.
+
+It may be inferred from the foregoing that, between the modes of
+employing as few pigments as possible, and of having as many as there
+are hues and shades of colour, a middle course is the best. But,
+whatever the practice adopted, permanent _original_ pigments should be
+used as often as the case will admit; it being borne in mind, that a
+pigment may be compound, although its colour may be primary. As a rule,
+the less colours are mixed, the purer, brighter, and more lasting they
+will be found.
+
+To the practice of producing tints and hues by _grinding_ pigments
+together, instead of _blending_ them on the palette, may be attributed
+some of the peculiarities of the tints and textures of the Flemish
+school; they being, perhaps, results of intimate combination from
+grinding, and consequently of a more powerful chemical action among the
+ingredients compounded. This method has, in a great measure, fallen into
+disuse, and undoubtedly it conduced to foulness when the colours of the
+pigments ground were not pure and true, and did not assimilate well in
+mixture chemically.
+
+The superiority of Rubens and the Flemings, and of Titian and the
+Venetian school, in colouring and effect, is due in a considerable
+degree to their sketching their designs in colours experimentally with a
+full palette. This practice, as derived from Reynolds, is common with
+the best masters of our own school, who, in executing their works,
+resort also to nature, with an improved knowledge of colours and
+colouring. Such attention to colouring and effect, from the first study
+and ground of a picture to the finishing, contributes a beauty to the
+painting no superinduced colouring can accomplish.
+
+The durability of colour in substances is to a great extent dependent
+upon the condition in which they exist chemically. If pigments, for
+example, be in a state which chemists have termed _pro_toxide, they are
+liable to absorb oxygen on exposure to light, air, or moisture, and
+becoming what is called _per_oxidized, may, by consequence, change or
+fade. In like manner, lakes and carmines thrown down upon a base, may
+owe some of their fugacity to the oxidation of that base, as well as to
+the natural infirmity of their colouring matter. On the other hand,
+pigments and bases are subject to _de_oxidation, or to a loss of oxygen,
+in which case the colour is apt to deepen. Pigments generally are more
+affected by oxidation and fading in a water vehicle, and by deoxidation
+and darkening in one of oil.
+
+A principal test of permanency in pigments is the impunity with which
+they bear exposure to light and air, an artistic proof of their
+stability the mere chemist is apt to neglect. Provided the colour remain
+unaffected by sulphuretted hydrogen, &c., he seldom hesitates to
+pronounce it safe. But a pigment may be fast in one sense and fugitive
+in another, believed in by the laboratory, and found wanting by the
+studio. It has happened before now that the same colour has been dubbed
+durable and the reverse, by the man of science and the man of art. The
+former, we take it, looks upon a pigment as a coloured substance of a
+certain composition, possessing maybe an acid and a base, either, or
+neither, or both of which, gases and other reagents may injure or
+destroy. The latter views a colour chiefly as part and parcel of his
+picture--that picture which _may_ meet with foul exhalations, but _must_
+be exposed to light and air. And he too often thinks as little of the
+effects of an impure atmosphere or injudicious admixture, as the chemist
+considers the action of air and light.
+
+With the exception of madder, those colours mostly affected by _light
+and air_ are of organic origin, such as gallstone, Indian yellow, and
+the yellow dye-wood lakes; the red and purple lakes of cochineal;
+indigo; and sap green. To these may be added the semi-organic Prussian
+blue; and the inorganic yellows and orange of arsenic.
+
+The pigments liable to injury from _sulphuretted hydrogen_, &c., are
+notably those obtained from lead and copper; and that treacherous
+compound of iodine and mercury, known as pure scarlet.
+
+Many colours are apt to change from the action of white _lead_ and other
+lead pigments, &c., principally those which are altered by light and
+air.
+
+Many, too, cannot safely come into contact with iron, or ferruginous
+pigments; especially the yellows of arsenic, the lakes of cochineal, and
+the blues and greens of copper. With these an iron palette knife is best
+avoided, one of ivory or horn being used instead. The latter, indeed, is
+preferable in all cases, several pigments being slightly affected by
+iron, cadmium yellow among the number.
+
+Numerous colours are likewise injured by _lime_ and _fire_, and cannot
+therefore be employed in fresco, or enamel painting.
+
+Of substances which may act deleteriously on colours, there remain the
+_vehicles and varnishes_ with which they are mixed. Many of these have
+been blamed, and often with justice, for their injurious effects on
+pigments. The reputation of the most permanent colour may be ruined, if
+the vehicle, &c., employed with it be untrustworthy. The presence of
+lead, for instance, in such materials renders them liable to be
+blackened by foul air, and by consequence the pigments used therewith.
+
+Time produces in many cases a mellow and harmonious change in pictures,
+but occasionally alterations altogether unfavourable. To ensure the
+former and prevent the latter, the attention of the artist in the course
+of his colouring should be to the employment of such pigments and
+colours as are prone to adapt themselves, in changing, to the intended
+key of his colouring, and the right effect of his picture. Thus, if he
+design a cool effect, ultramarine has a tendency through time to
+predominate and aid the natural key of blue. He will, therefore,
+compromise the permanence of this effect, if in such case he employ a
+declining or changeable blue, or if he introduce such reds and yellows
+as have a tendency to warmth or foxiness, by which the colouring of
+many pictures has been destroyed. In a glowing or warm key, the case is
+in some measure reversed--not wholly so, for it is observable that those
+pictures have best preserved their colouring and harmony in which the
+blue has been most lasting, by the pigment counteracting the change of
+colour in the vehicle, and that suffusion of dusky yellow which time is
+wont to bestow upon pictures even of the best complexion.
+
+Unless introduced and guaranteed by houses of acknowledged reputation,
+newly discovered pigments are to be used with caution. Good colours have
+ever been prized with so true an estimation of their value, that to
+produce such, after so many ages of research is no ordinary
+accomplishment. But too many resplendent pigments, fruits of the
+fecundity of modern chemistry, have been found deficient. The yellow and
+orange chromates of lead, for instance, withstanding as they do the
+action of the sunbeam, become by time, foul air, and the influence of
+other pigments, inferior to the ochres. So the dazzling scarlet of
+iodine and mercury must yield the palm of excellence to the more sober
+vermilion, being a chameleon colour, subject to the most sudden and
+opposite changes. And the blues of cobalt, as always tending to
+greenness and obscurity, cannot rank beside ultramarine.
+
+We are far from asserting, however, that all modern pigments are
+inferior, or that pigments should be looked upon with suspicion because
+they are modern. Several most valuable colours have lately claimed
+attention, notably the permanent transparent yellow called _Aureolin_.
+Seeing that, until its introduction, a yellow combining transparency
+with a perfect stability was unknown to the palette, the importance of
+such an addition, so long wanted and wished for, cannot be overrated.
+Equal in beauty and durability with the preceding, but possessing
+greater richness and depth, and of a semi-opacity, another yellow of the
+highest order merits regard, _Orient Yellow_, distinguished for its
+lustrous golden hue, resembling a bright Indian yellow. Dazzling in
+brilliancy, and absolute in permanency. _Cadmium Red_ next attracts
+notice. This new aspirant for artistic fame is a most vivid
+orange-scarlet, the latter colour predominating, of intense fire, but
+with no approach to rankness or harshness, yielding delicate pale
+washes, and blending happily with white in the formation of flesh tints.
+With it may be coupled _Cadmium Orange_, a colour equally brilliant and
+stable, and equally without rankness or harshness, but of a true orange
+hue, admirably adapted for sunsets and the like. Last of all the fresh
+pigments of whose thorough durability there is _no_ doubt, comes the
+splendid _Viridian_, a green nothing but fire will change, and no
+mixture of blue and yellow will afford. Clear, bright, and transparent
+as the emerald, it rivals velvet in its soft gorgeous richness. With
+this and Aureolin a series of beautiful foliage tints may be formed,
+sparkling with sunshine, as it were.
+
+Other colours there are which have been brought forward within the last
+few years, not possessing the absolute permanency of the five foregoing,
+but equal, or superior, to many formerly used. It were folly, therefore,
+and a silly conservatism on the part of the artist to limit himself to
+such pigments only as were employed by his forefathers, especially as
+their merits were often more than doubtful. New colours, it is true,
+have to be _learnt_, for each pigment has its own peculiar habitudes,
+chemical, physical, artistic; but if they be good and durable, no amount
+of time and study spent upon them is thrown away. To think less of the
+quality of one's materials than of the effects which can be produced
+with them is mistaken policy; and to be content with that quality when
+better can be had, shows no real love of art, but rather indolence and
+apathy.
+
+Perhaps one reason why freshly introduced pigments have not as fair a
+chance as they are entitled to, is due to the fashion which prevails of
+exclaiming against the fugacity of modern colours. If their detractors
+would confine themselves to certain colours, there could be no denial;
+but to assert, as is often done, that the cause of modern pictures not
+standing is owing to modern pigments generally, is unjust. It is not
+the materials which should be blamed, but those who use them. The fact
+is, that the artist's knowledge has not increased in proportion to the
+greater variety of colours at his command. In the early periods of art,
+when the palette was chiefly confined to native pigments, the painter
+could not very well go wrong. Now-a-days but too many, wanting the skill
+of the old masters, seek to make amends for it by brilliancy of
+colouring: with imperfect knowledge of their materials the result is
+obvious. The palette, we admit, wants weeding; not only of the bad new
+colours, but of the bad old colours. This, however, must be a work of
+time, and depend, not upon the colourman--for where there is a demand
+there will be a supply--but upon the artists themselves. To this end an
+increased acquaintance with the properties of pigments is required,
+whereby they may be able to choose the fast from the fugitive. It may be
+fairly assumed that the painter will be assisted in his task by the
+progress of chemical science, which will doubtless add from time to time
+to the list of stable pigments. We have heard it remarked that there are
+too many colours already--to which we reply, there are not too many good
+colours, and scarcely can be. The more crowded the palette is with
+reliable pigments, the more likely are the worthless to be pushed from
+their places. In our opinion, there is ample room for fresh colours,
+provided they be durable; and we have as little sympathy with the
+stereotyped cry of there being too many, as with the fashionable
+unbelief in modern pigments. Certainly, the artist who seeks for
+permanence among the whites, reds, or blues, will not be troubled with a
+superfluity. Certainly, too, colours are as good as ever they were, and
+better--better made, better ground, better prepared for use. But, fast
+and fugitive, pigments are more numerous, and for that reason need more
+careful selection.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+ON THE GENERAL QUALITIES OF PIGMENTS.
+
+
+The general attributes of a perfect pigment are beauty of colour,
+comprehending pureness and richness, brilliancy and intensity, delicacy
+and depth,--truth of hue--transparency or opacity, well-working,
+crispness, setting up, or keeping its place, and desiccation, or drying
+well. To all of these must be superadded _durability_ when used, a
+quality to which the health and vitality of a picture belong, and one so
+essential that all other properties put together without it are of no
+esteem with the artist who merits reputation. We have, therefore, given
+it a previous distinct consideration.
+
+It must be observed that no pigment possesses all the foregoing
+qualifications in perfection, some being naturally at variance or
+opposed; nor is there any, perhaps, that cannot boast excellence in one
+or more of them.
+
+_Beauty_ commonly comprises in the same pigment delicacy, purity, and
+brilliancy; or depth, richness, and intensity. Delicacy and depth in
+the beauty of colours are at variance in the production of all pigments,
+so that perfect success in producing the one is attended with more or
+less of failure in the other, and when they are united--as they
+occasionally are--it is with some sacrifice of both. Hence the judicious
+artist purveys for his palette at least two pigments of each colour, one
+eminent for delicate beauty, the other for richness and depth.
+
+_Truth of hue_ is a relative quality in all colours, except the extreme
+primaries, in the relations of which, blue, being of nearest affinity to
+black or shade, has properly but one other relation, in which it
+inclines to red and becomes purple-blue: it is, therefore, faulty or
+false, when, tending to yellow, it becomes of a green hue. But red,
+which is of equal affinity to light and shade, has two relations, by one
+of which it verges upon blue and becomes a purple-red or crimson; and by
+the other it leans to yellow, and becomes an orange-red or scarlet,
+neither of which is individually false or discordant. Yet yellow, which
+is of nearest affinity to white or light, has strictly but one true
+relation, by which it inclines to red, and becomes a warm or orange
+yellow, for by uniting with blue it becomes a defective green-yellow.
+The best example of true yellow in a pigment, tending neither to red nor
+blue, is furnished by _Aureolin_, alluded to in the last chapter. The
+secondary and tertiary colours, having all duplex relations, may
+incline without default to either of their relatives.
+
+_Transparency_ is an essential property of all glazing pigments, and
+adds greatly to the value of dark or shading colours; indeed it is the
+prime quality upon which depth and darkness depend, as whiteness, or
+light, does upon opacity or reflecting power. _Opacity_ is, therefore,
+the antagonist of transparency, and qualifies pigments to cover in
+dead-colouring, or solid painting, as well as to combine with
+transparent colours in forming tints; and hence it is that
+semi-transparent pigments are suited in a mean degree both for dead
+colouring and for finishing. As excellencies, therefore, transparency
+and opacity are relative only--the first being as indispensable to shade
+in all its gradations, as the latter is to light. With regard to
+transparent and opaque colours generally, it is worthy of attention in
+the practice of the oil-painter, that the best effects of the former are
+produced when they are used with a resinous varnish; as opaque pigments
+are best employed in oil, and the two become united with best effect in
+a mixture of these vehicles. The natural and artificial powers, or depth
+and brilliancy, of every colour lie within the extremes of black and
+white; hence it follows that the most powerful effects of transparent
+colours are obtained by glazing them over black and white. As, however,
+few transparent pigments have sufficient body, or tinging power for
+this, it is often necessary to glaze them over tints, or deep opaque
+colours of the required hues. There is a charm in transparent colours
+which frequently leads to an undue use thereof in glazing; but glazing,
+scumbling, and their combined process must be employed with discretion,
+according to the objects and effects of a picture.
+
+_Working well_ is a quality which depends principally upon fineness of
+texture, and what is called _body_ in colours; yet every pigment has its
+peculiarities in respect to working both in water and oil, and these
+must become matter of every artist's special experience. Some of the
+best pigments are most difficult of management, while some ineligible
+colours are rich in body and free in working. Accidental circumstances,
+however, may influence all pigments in these respects, according to the
+painter's particular mode of operation, and his vehicle; upon the
+affinities of colours with which depend their general faculties of
+working--such as keeping their place, crispness or setting up, and
+drying well. These latter, with other properties and accidents of
+pigments, will be particularly considered in treating of their
+individual characters; but it may be remarked that crispness or setting
+up, as well as keeping their place and form in which they are applied,
+are contrary to the nature of many pigments, and depend in painting with
+them upon a gelatinous mixture of their vehicle. For example, mastic
+and other resinous varnishes impart this texture to oils which have been
+rendered drying by the acetate, or sugar of lead:--simple water, also
+albumen, and animal jelly made of glue and isinglass, give the same
+quality to oils and colours; and bees-wax has a similar effect in pure
+oils. Whitelac varnish, and other spirit varnishes, rubbed into the
+colours on the palette likewise enable them to keep their place very
+effectually in most instances. This is important, because glazing cannot
+be performed except with a vehicle which keeps its place, or with
+pigments which lend this property to the vehicle, as some lakes and
+transparent colours do.
+
+_Fineness of texture_ is produced by extreme grinding and levigation.
+Pigments ground in water in the state of a thick paste, are miscible in
+oil and dry therein firmly; and in case of utility or necessity, any
+water-colour in cake, being rubbed off thick in water may be diffused in
+oil, the gum acting as a medium of union between the two. Thus, pigments
+which cannot otherwise be employed in oil, or varnish, may be forced
+into the service and add to the resources of the oil-painter, care being
+taken to use the palette-knife, if of steel, with caution.
+
+_Desiccation or drying._ The well-known additions of the acetate, or
+sugar of lead, litharge, and sulphate of zinc, either mechanically
+ground, or in solution, for light colours; and japanner's gold size, or
+oils boiled upon litharge, for lakes; or, in some cases, manganese and
+verdigris for dark colours, are resorted to when the pigments or
+vehicles are not sufficiently good dryers alone. It would be well if
+lead and copper could be banished from the list of siccatives
+altogether: assuredly, no artist with any regard for the permanent
+texture of his work should employ them except in extreme cases, and in
+the smallest possible quantity. The best of pigments may be ruined by
+their injudicious use, and obtain a character for fugacity which they in
+no way deserve. It requires attention that an excess of dryer renders
+oil saponaceous, is inimical to drying, and is otherwise injurious. Some
+colours dry badly from not being sufficiently edulcorated or washed.
+Sulphate of zinc, as a siccative, is less powerful than acetate of lead,
+but is far preferable in a chemical sense. It is supposed erroneously to
+set the colours running; which is not positively the case, though it
+will not retain those disposed to move, because it wants the property
+the acetate of lead possesses, of gelatinizing the mixture of oil and
+varnish. These two dryers should not be employed together, since they
+counteract and decompose each other, forming two new substances--acetate
+of zinc, which is a bad siccative, and sulphate of lead, which is
+insoluble and opaque. The inexperienced ought here to be guarded against
+the highly improper practice of some artists, who strew their pictures
+while wet with acetate of lead, or use that substance in some other
+mode, without grinding or solution; which, though it may promote present
+drying, will ultimately effloresce on the surface of the work, throw off
+the colour in sandy spots, and expose the paintings to peculiar risk
+from the damaging influence of impure air.
+
+It is not always that ill drying is to be attributed to the pigments or
+vehicles, the states of the weather and atmosphere have great influence
+thereon. The direct rays of the sun are powerfully active in rendering
+oils and colours siccative, and were probably resorted to before dryers
+were--not always wisely--added to oils, particularly in the warm climate
+of Italy. The ground may also advance or retard drying, because some
+pigments united by mixing or glazing, become either more or less
+siccative by their conjunction. Many other accidental circumstances may
+likewise affect drying; and among these none is to be more guarded
+against by the artist than the presence of soap and alkali, too often
+left in the washing of his brushes, and which, besides other bad
+results, decompose and are decomposed by acetate of lead and most
+siccatives. In such cases desiccation is retarded, streaks and patches
+are formed on the painting, and the odium of ill drying falls upon some
+unlucky pigment. To free brushes from this disadvantage, they should be
+cleansed with linseed oil and turpentine. Dryers should be added to
+colours only at the time of using them, because they exercise their
+drying property while chemically combining with the oils employed,
+during which the latter become thick or fatten. Too much of the
+siccative will, as before noticed, often retard drying.
+
+The various affinities of pigments occasion each to have its more or
+less appropriate dryer; and it would be a matter of useful experience if
+the habits of every colour in this respect were ascertained. It is
+probable that siccatives of less power generally than the compounds of
+lead and copper might come into use in particular cases, such as the
+oxides of manganese, to which umber and the Cappagh browns owe their
+drying quality.
+
+To other good attributes of pigments, it would be well if we could in
+all cases add the property of being _innoxious_. As this, however,
+cannot be, and colours are by no means to be sacrificed on that account,
+cleanliness and avoiding the habit of putting the brush unnecessarily to
+the mouth, so common in water-painting, are sufficient guards against
+any possibly pernicious effects from the use of any pigment. No colour
+which is not imbibed by the stomach will in the slightest degree injure
+the health of the artist.
+
+
+
+
+
+PART III.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+ON COLOURS AND PIGMENTS INDIVIDUALLY.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+ON COLOURS AND PIGMENTS INDIVIDUALLY.
+
+
+Having briefly discussed the relations and attributes of colours and
+pigments generally, we come to their powers and properties
+individually--a subject pregnant with materials and of unlimited
+connexions, every substance in nature and art possessing colour, the
+first quality of pigments.
+
+With regard to _colours_ individually, it is a general law of their
+relations, confirmed by nature and the impressions of sense, that those
+colours which lie nearest in nature to light have their greatest beauty
+in their lightest tints: and that those which tend similarly towards
+shade are most beautiful in their greatest depth or fulness, a rule of
+course applying to black and white particularly. Thus, the most
+beautiful yellow, like white, is that which is lightest and most vivid;
+blue is most beautiful when deep and rich; while red is of greatest
+beauty when of intermediate depth, or somewhat inclined to light; and
+their compounds partake of these relations. We speak here only of the
+individual beauty of colours, and not of that relative beauty by which
+every tint, hue, and shade of colour become pleasing, or otherwise
+according to space, place, and reference; for this latter beauty belongs
+to the general nature and harmony of colours.
+
+In respect to _pigments_ individually, it may be observed that--other
+things being equal--those pigments are the most beautiful which possess
+the most colour, whether they be light or dark, opaque or transparent,
+bright or subdued. There are some which exhibit all their colour at a
+glance: there are others that the more they are looked into the more
+colour they are found to have--containing, as they do, an amount of
+_latent colour_, not immediately apparent. Apart from the beauty which a
+wealth of colour imparts, those pigments imbued with it are, as a rule,
+the most permanent. And not unnaturally so, for the more colour there is
+present, the longer it takes to be affected, either by exposure or
+impure air. Colour within colour, therefore, not only lends charm to a
+pigment, but contributes to its safety.
+
+There is often a vicious predilection of some artists in favour of a
+particular colour, from which many of our best colourists have not been
+totally free, and which arises from organic defect, or mental
+association. Such predilection is greatly to be guarded against by the
+colourist, who is every way surrounded by dangers. On the one hand,
+there is fear lest he fall into whiteness or chalkiness; on the other,
+into blackness or gloom: in front he may run into fire and foxiness, or
+he may slide backward into cold and leaden dulness: all of which are
+extremes he must avoid. There are also other important prejudices to
+which the eye is liable in regard to colours individually, that demand
+his particular attention. These are occasioned by the various specific
+powers of single colours acting on the eye according to their masses and
+the activity of light, or the length of time they are viewed. By
+consequence, vision becomes over-stimulated, unequally exhausted, and
+endued, even before it is fatigued, with a spectrum which not only
+clouds the colour itself, but gives a false brilliancy by contrast to
+surrounding hues, so as totally or partially to throw the eye off its
+balance, and mislead the judgment. This derangement of the organ may be
+caused by a powerful tint on the palette, a mass of drapery, the colour
+of a wall, the light of a room, or other accidental circumstance; and
+the remedy is to refresh the eye with a new object--of nature, if
+possible--or to give it rest. The powers of colours in these respects,
+as well as of pigments individually, together with their reciprocal
+action and influence chemically, will be adverted to under their
+distinct heads.
+
+The attention of the artist to the individual powers of pigments,
+although it may be of less concern than the attention to general effect
+in colouring, is by no means less necessary in practice. For he who
+would excel in colouring must study it from several points of view, in
+respect to the whole and the parts of a picture, as regards mind and
+body, and concerning itself alone. To this end, is needed a knowledge of
+his pigments individually.
+
+If nature has arrayed herself in all the colours of the rainbow, she has
+not been niggardly in offering man the materials wherewith to copy them.
+The mineral, animal, vegetable kingdom--each helps him to realize,
+however faintly, her many manifold beauties: to give some idea, however
+slight, of that glorious flood of colour, which light lets loose upon
+the world. Metal, ore, earth, stone; root, plant, flower, fruit; beast,
+fish, insect--in turn aid the arduous task. The painter's box is a very
+museum of curiosities, from every part of the universe. For it, the
+mines yield their treasures, as well as the depths of the sea: to it
+come Arab camel, and English ox, cuttle-fish and crawling coccus: in it
+the Indian indigo lies next the madder of France, and the gaudy
+vermilion of China brightens the mummy of Egypt. Varied, indeed, are the
+sources whence we derive our pigments; and if they still leave much to
+desire, improvement is clearly manifest. Slowly but surely, year by
+year, we are advancing. With the growth of science, the exhaustless
+stores of creation, will there at last be attained--step by step, though
+it be--that summit of the artist's hopes, a perfect palette?
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+ON THE NEUTRAL, WHITE.
+
+
+The term "colour" is equivocal when applied to the neutrals, yet the
+artist is bound to consider them as colours; for a thing cannot but be
+that of which it is composed, and neutrals are composed of, or
+comprehend, all colours.
+
+With regard to colour, then, _white_ in a perfect state should be
+neutral in hue, and absolutely opaque; that white being the best which
+reflects light most brilliantly. This property in white is called
+_body_; by which in other pigments, especially those that are
+transparent, is meant _tingeing power_. White, besides its uses as a
+colour, is the instrument of light in painting, and compounds when pure
+with all colours, without changing their class. Yet it dilutes and cools
+all colours except blue, which is specifically cold; and, though it does
+not change nor defile any colour, it is changed and defiled by all
+colours. This pureness of white, if it be not in some degree broken or
+tinged, will cast down or degrade every other colour in a picture, and
+itself become harsh and crude. Hence the lowness of tone which has been
+thought a necessity in painting, but is such only because our other
+colours do not approach to the purity of white. Had we all necessary
+colours thus relatively pure as white, colouring in painting might be
+carried up to the full brilliancy of nature; and, in fact, more progress
+has already been made in that respect, than the prejudice for dulness is
+disposed to tolerate.
+
+Locally, white is the most advancing of all colours in a picture, and
+produces the effect of throwing others back in different degrees,
+according to their specific retiring and advancing powers. These latter,
+however, are not absolute qualities of colours, but depend on the
+relations of light and shade, which are variously appropriate to all
+colours. Hence it is that a white object rightly adapted, appears to
+detach, distribute, and put in keeping; as well as to give relief,
+decision, distinctness, and distance to every thing around it: hence,
+too, the use and requirement of a white or light object, in each
+separate group of a composition. White itself is advanced or brought
+forward, unless indeed white surround a dark object, in which case they
+retire together. In mixture, white communicates these properties to its
+tints, and harmonizes in conjunction with, or in opposition to all
+colours; but lies nearest in series to yellow, and remotest from blue,
+of which, next to black, it is the most thorough contrast. It is
+correlative with black, which is the opposite extreme of neutrality.
+
+Perfect white is opaque, and perfect black transparent; hence when added
+to black in minute proportion, white gives it solidity; and from a like
+small proportion of black combined with white, the latter acquires
+locality as a colour, and better preserves its hue in painting. Both
+white and black communicate these properties to other colours, in
+proportion to their lightness or depth; while they cool each other in
+mixture, and equally contrast each other when opposed. These extremes of
+the chromatic scale are each in its way most easily denied, as green,
+the mean of the scale, is the greatest defiler of all colours. Rubens
+regarded white as the nourishment of light, and the poison of shadow.
+
+In a picture, white should not be merely glittering or brilliant, but
+tender as well as bright. The eye should seek it for rest, brilliant
+though it may be; and feel it as a space of strange heavenly paleness in
+the midst of the flushing of the colours. This effect can only be
+reached by general depth of middle tint, by the perfect absence of any
+white, save where it is needed, and by keeping the white itself subdued
+by grey, except at a few points of chief lustre.
+
+White, as a pigment, is of more extensive use than any other colour in
+oil painting and fresco, owing to its local quality, its representing
+light, and its entering into composition with all colours in the
+formation of tints. The old masters have been supposed by some to
+possess whites superior to our own, but this may be questioned. The
+pureness of whites in some celebrated old pictures is rather to be
+attributed to a proper method of using, careful preservation of the
+work, and in many instances to the introduction of ultramarine or a
+permanent cold colour into the white--such as plumbago--helped also by
+judicious contrast.
+
+Notwithstanding white pigments are tolerably numerous, a thoroughly
+unexceptionable white is still a desideratum--one combining the perfect
+opacity or body of white lead with the perfect permanency of zinc white.
+The nearest approach to it that has yet been made, is Chinese white,
+which possesses in a great measure the property of the former, and,
+being a preparation of zinc, has wholly that of the latter.
+Unfortunately Chinese white is a water-colour pigment only, not
+retaining its several advantages, stability excepted, when employed in
+oil.
+
+1. CONSTANT WHITE,
+
+Also called _Permanent white_, and _Barytic white_, is, when well
+prepared, of superior body in water, but has less opacity in oil. It
+works in a somewhat unsatisfactory and unpleasant manner, and is
+considerably lower in its tone while wet than when dry, a fault which
+subjects even an experienced artist to great uncertainty where he uses
+it in compound tints. The semi-transparency of the white, while wet,
+prevents his judging of the true tint until his colour has dried, when
+he frequently finds it harsh and chalky, and out of tone with the rest
+of his painting. As little gum as possible should be employed with it,
+gum being inimical to its body, or whiteness. The best way of preparing
+this pigment, as well as other terrene whites, so as to preserve their
+opacity, is to grind them in simple water, and to add towards the end of
+the grinding sufficient only of clear _cold_ jelly of gum tragacanth as
+will connect them into a body, and attach them to the paper in painting.
+Cold starch will answer the same purpose.
+
+Constant white is a sulphate of baryta, found native and known under the
+name of heavy-spar, or prepared artificially by adding sulphuric acid,
+or a soluble sulphate, to a solution of a barytic salt. In the first
+mode, if the white be not well purified from free acid, it is apt to act
+injuriously on some pigments. Sulphate of baryta is often used for the
+purpose of adulterating white lead, the native salt being ground to fine
+powder, and washed with dilute sulphuric acid, by which its colour is
+improved, and a little oxide of iron probably dissolved out. Whether
+native or artificial, the compound is quite unaffected by impure air,
+and is not poisonous.
+
+
+LEAD WHITES
+
+Comprise and are known under the names of:--_White lead_, _Flake white_
+and _Body-white_, _Cremnitz_, or _Kremnitz_, _Crems_ or _Krems white_,
+_London_ and _Nottingham white_, _Flemish white_, _Pattison's white_,
+_Blanc d'argent_ or _Silver white_, _Ceruse_, _Dutch white_, _French
+white_, _Venetian white_, _Hamburgh white_, _Kremser white_, _Sulphate
+of lead_, &c.
+
+The heaviest and whitest of these are the best, and in point of colour
+and body, are superior to all other whites. When pure and properly
+applied in oil and varnish, they are comparatively safe and durable,
+drying well without addition; but excess of oil discolours them, and in
+water-painting they are changeable even to blackness. Upon all vegetable
+lakes, except those of madder, they have a destructive effect; and are
+injurious to gamboge, as well as to those almost obsolete pigments, red
+and orange leads, king's and patent yellow, massicot, and orpiment. With
+ultramarine, however, red and orange vermilions, yellow and orange
+chromes, yellow and orange and red cadmiums, aureolin, the ochres,
+viridian and other oxides of chromium, Indian red &c., they compound
+with little or no injury. Lead colours must not be employed in
+water-colour or crayon painting, distemper, or fresco. The whites of
+lead are carbonates of that metal, with two exceptions:--Flemish white
+or the sulphate, and Pattison's white or the oxychloride. In using all
+pigments of which lead is the basis, cleanliness is essential to health.
+
+White lead, by which we must be understood to mean the carbonate, always
+contains when commercially prepared a certain proportion of hydrated
+oxide. The less of the latter there is present, the better does the
+white cover, and the less liable is it to turn brown. The products
+formed by precipitation have proved to be inferior in body: otherwise,
+pure mono-carbonate of lead-oxide, obtained by mixing solutions of
+carbonate of potash and a lead-salt, might be best adapted for a
+pigment. However, such a carbonate has been lately produced by Mr.
+Spence's process of passing carbonic acid gas into a caustic soda or
+potash solution of lead, and for this white an opacity is claimed equal
+to that of the ordinary compound.
+
+Great as is the opacity of white lead, it is apt to lose that property
+in some measure in course of time, and become more or less transparent.
+If, over a series of dry oil-colour rubs of varied hues, there were
+brushed sufficient white lead paint to utterly obscure them, after some
+years those rubs would indistinctly appear, and by degrees become more
+and more visible, until at last their forms--if not their very
+colours--could be recognised. From this it would seem that white lead
+must slowly but surely part with some of its carbonic acid, and be at
+length converted into dicarbonate, a compound possessing less carbonic
+acid, and less coating power.
+
+Impure air, or sulphuretted hydrogen, browns or blackens white lead,
+converting it partially or wholly into sulphide. It would appear from
+the recent investigations of Dr. D. S. Price, that white lead is less
+liable to be thus affected, when the pictures in which it is used are
+exposed to a strong light; also, that when such pictures have so
+suffered, a like exposure will restore them. We have ourselves noticed
+the rapidity with which an oil rub of white lead that has been damaged
+by foul gas, regains its former whiteness when submitted to air and
+sunshine. The action of drying oils has been likewise proved to be very
+powerful upon sulphide of lead, an exposure to light for a few days only
+being sufficient to change a surface of it, coated with a thin layer of
+boiled linseed oil, into a white one. Probably, these agents may have a
+similar effect upon other pigments injured by sulphuretted hydrogen, and
+many of the colours in paintings may be restored by treating them with
+boiled linseed oil, and submitting them to a strong light. That the
+result is due to oxidation, there can be no doubt. Indeed, the eminent
+French chemist, M. Thénard, was consulted some years back upon the means
+of bringing to their original whiteness the black spots which had formed
+upon a valuable drawing, by the changing of the white lead, and
+employed for that purpose oxygenated water. He had ascertained its power
+of converting the black sulphide of lead into the white sulphate, and,
+by touching the spots with a brush dipped in the fluid, soon succeeded
+in restoring the drawing to its primitive state. Here, again, the use of
+the agent might doubtless be extended to other colours, to which foul
+air is inimical.
+
+In oil painting white lead is essential in the ground, in dead
+colouring, in the formation of tints of all colours, and in scumbling,
+either alone or mixed with other pigments. It is also the best local
+white, when neutralized with ultramarine or black; and it is the true
+representative of light, when warmed with Naples yellow, or orange
+vermilion or cadmium, or with a mixture of the yellow and either of the
+orange pigments, according to the light.
+
+Ordinary white lead is often mixed with considerable quantities of heavy
+spar, gypsum, or chalk. These injure it in body and brightness, dispose
+it to dry more slowly, keep its place less firmly, and discolour the oil
+with which it is applied, as well as prevent it dissolving completely in
+boiling dilute potash-ley, a test by which pure white lead may be known.
+
+The adulteration of pigments, which we have in some instances found
+practised to a large extent abroad, is comparatively unfrequent in our
+own country, so far at least as regards the superior class of colours
+employed by artists. As a rule, such colours when manufactured in
+England may be fairly assumed to be genuine; and certainly the
+respectable colourmen of the present day are not in the habit of
+sophisticating them. We must bear testimony, indeed, to the zeal with
+which they purvey, regardless of necessary expense, the choicest and
+most perfect materials. This should be a matter of congratulation to the
+painter, who must of necessity rely on the faith and honesty of his
+colour-dealer; for if he were ever so good a chemist, it would be
+impossible for him to analyse each pigment before proceeding to use it.
+The fault must rest with himself, therefore, if, through a mistaken
+economy, he do not frequent the best houses and pay the best prices. Of
+a surety, the colours of the artist are not among those things in which
+quality can, or should, be sacrificed to cheapness.
+
+2. BLANC D'ARGENT, OR SILVER WHITE.
+
+These are false appellations of a white lead, called also _French
+white_. It is brought from Paris in the form of drops, is exquisitely
+white, but of less body than flake white, and has all the properties of
+the best white leads. Being subject to the same changes, it is unfit
+for general use as a water-colour, though good in oil or varnish.
+
+3. CREMNITZ WHITE,
+
+Known likewise as _Kremnitz_, _Crems_, or _Krems white_, is a carbonate
+of lead which derives its names from Kremnitz in Hungary, or Crems or
+Krems in Austria. It is also called _Vienna white_, being brought from
+Vienna in cakes of a cubical form. Cremnitz white is the brightest white
+that is used in oil: it possesses rather less body than flake white,
+because the particles are finer. When newly prepared, it gives out a
+strong smell of vinegar.
+
+4. FLAKE WHITE,
+
+Called, when levigated, _Body white_, is an English white lead in the
+form of scales or plates, sometimes grey on the surface. It takes its
+name from its figure, is occasionally equal to Crems white in colour,
+and generally surpasses in body all other white leads. In composition,
+it is a mixture of protocarbonate and hydrated oxide of lead, the latter
+decreasing the opacity of the product according to the greater
+proportion in which it is present.
+
+5. FLEMISH WHITE, OR SULPHATE OF LEAD
+
+Is an exceedingly white precipitate from any solution of lead by
+sulphuric acid, much resembling the blanc d'argent. It is inferior,
+however, both in body and permanence to the ordinary carbonate. Hence,
+white lead which has more or less been converted by sulphuretted
+hydrogen into sulphide, and again been converted into sulphate by
+oxidation, with a view to restoring its colour, becomes peculiarly
+liable to the influence of impure air.
+
+6. LONDON AND NOTTINGHAM WHITES.
+
+The best of these do not essentially differ from each other, nor from
+the white leads of other manufactories. The latter variety, being
+prepared from flake white, is usually the greyer of the two.
+
+7. PATTISON'S WHITE, OR OXYCHLORIDE OF LEAD
+
+Is a mixture of chloride and oxide of lead, formed by precipitating a
+solution of chloride of lead with soda, potash, lime, or baryta, in the
+caustic or hydrated state. It would appear that when the oxychloride is
+used as a paint, the oxide contained in it gives rise to an oleate of
+lead, and, in consequence of this saponaceous matter, is capable of
+spreading over an extended surface. The product has been described as
+possessing properties which are superior to those of white lead,
+inasmuch as it does not so readily blacken as the latter body. Dr. Ure,
+however, found that water removes the chloride of lead from the paint
+compounded of this article, and, consequently, that it is not so
+effectual as the carbonate. As an artist's pigment, a partially soluble
+compound of lead can decidedly not be eligible.
+
+8. ROMAN WHITE
+
+Is of the purest white colour, and differs only from blanc d'argent in
+the warm flesh tint of the external surface of the large square masses
+in which it is commonly prepared.
+
+Besides the foregoing, there are other white leads, generally foreign,
+cheaper, and adulterated. Many of these are mixed with a small quantity
+of charcoal, indigo, or Prussian blue, so that the dead yellowish shade
+which they present may be enlivened to a brighter hue. Among them may be
+named--
+
+9. CERUSE.
+
+A French variety, not necessarily, but not unfrequently, mixed with
+different chalky earths in various proportions; and the following
+Belgian kinds:
+
+10. DUTCH WHITE,
+
+Containing three fourths of sulphate of baryta.
+
+11. HAMBURGH WHITE.
+
+A mixture of two parts of heavy spar and one of the plumbous compound.
+
+12. KREMSER WHITE,
+
+Differing from the rest in being unadulterated.
+
+13. VENETIAN WHITE
+
+Composed of heavy spar and the carbonate in equal proportions.
+
+
+ZINC WHITES.
+
+14. CHINESE WHITE.
+
+The introduction, in 1834, of this peculiar preparation of oxide of zinc
+has proved an incalculable boon to water-colour painters, who formerly
+had no white which combined perfect permanency with good body in
+working. Its invention obviated the necessity for using white lead, a
+pigment which, though it may be employed with comparative safety in oil,
+is quite unfitted for water. Since the period of its production, Chinese
+white has been generally preferred by water-colour artists, as being the
+most eligible in their peculiar department. Previous to that period, the
+complaints of whites changing were of constant occurrence; but in no
+instance has any picture, in which this white has been used, suffered
+from its employment. To the colour of oxide of zinc, sulphuretted
+hydrogen is altogether harmless; sulphide of zinc being itself white.
+The variety under notice works and washes well, possesses no pasty or
+clogging properties, and is prepared beautifully white. Moreover, it has
+the desirable quality of dense body; so much so, that, as the painter
+works, his effects remain unaltered by the drying of the colour. It may
+likewise be safely mixed with all other pigments, the following blending
+very satisfactorily with the white for opaque lights--cadmium yellow,
+orange, and red; gamboge; aureolin; yellow ochre; vermilion; and light
+red. Without the artistic drawbacks of constant white or the chemical
+defects of white lead, and retaining the advantages of both, Chinese
+white cannot but be considered as a most important addition. It is a
+matter of regret that this pigment is not equally efficacious in oil.
+
+15. ZINC WHITE
+
+Is either the anhydrous oxide, the hydrate oxide, or hydrated basic
+carbonate of zinc. It varies in opacity and colour according to the mode
+of manufacture, and the purity of the compound, but may always be relied
+upon as permanent. The whiteness of the best samples rivals that of
+white lead, and it is not tarnished like the latter by sulphurous
+vapours. In opacity it never equals white lead, and might perhaps serve
+advantageously as a glaze over that pigment, either alone or compounded
+with other colours; as well as act as a medium of interposition between
+white lead and those colours which are injured by it, such as gamboge,
+crimson lake, &c. When duly and skilfully prepared the colour and body
+of this pigment are sufficient to qualify it for a general use upon the
+palette in oil: in water it has been superseded by Chinese white.
+
+Occasionally, starch, chalk, white clay, and carbonate of baryta, are
+employed as adulterants; none of which, however, are inimical to
+stability.
+
+As a pigment, zinc white may be said to be innoxious. As oxide of zinc
+does not readily form a saponaceous compound with fats or oil like white
+lead, the paint prepared with it and ordinary linseed oil does not dry
+or harden so rapidly. For the purpose of causing it to be more
+siccative, the oil was boiled with a large quantity of litharge, but by
+this method the white was liable to tarnish on meeting with foul air.
+Instead of litharge, experiments have led to the choice of salts of
+zinc, such as the chloride or sulphate, a small percentage of which, on
+being mixed with the oil or oxide, confers upon it the property of
+rapidly hardening. The same result is attained by employing an oil,
+dried by boiling with about five per cent of peroxide of manganese. In
+either case, a paint retaining its white colour permanently is produced.
+These agents might, with advantage, be more generally used in the place
+of litharge for rendering oils siccative. Many pigments which are not
+naturally affected by sulphurous emanations are apt to suffer if mixed
+with an oil made drying by means of lead.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+16. _Cadmium White._
+
+Provided the metal be freed from iron, which we have commonly found to
+be more or less present, a white of considerable beauty may be produced;
+either directly by precipitation as hydrated oxide or carbonate, or
+indirectly by exposing the brown anhydrous oxide to air and light--the
+latter mode yielding a product of greater opacity. However prepared,
+cadmium white is deficient in body, and apt to assume a yellow tint on
+meeting with an impure atmosphere.
+
+17. _Pearl White_
+
+Is an insoluble basic nitrate of bismuth, a pearly white powder of loose
+texture, turning grey on exposure, and blackened by sulphuretted
+hydrogen. It is chiefly used as a cosmetic, but is said to injure the
+skin, rendering it yellow and leather-like; and it has been known to
+cause a spasmodic trembling of the face, ending in paralysis.
+
+Another preparation under this name, and now obsolete we believe as a
+pigment, was obtained from mother-of-pearl. It is described as
+exquisitely white, and of good body in water, but of little force in oil
+or varnish.
+
+18. _Tin White_
+
+Resembles zinc white in some respects, but has less body and colour, and
+dries badly. According to its composition, it is liable to turn either
+black or a dull yellow in contact with sulphurous vapours.
+
+19. _White Chalk_
+
+Is a well-known native carbonate of lime, employed by the artist only as
+a crayon, or for tracing his designs, for which purpose it is sawed into
+suitable lengths. White crayons and tracing chalks, to be good, must
+work and cut free from grit. From this material are prepared whitening
+and lime, which form the bases of many cheap pigments and colours, used
+in distemper, paper-staining, &c.
+
+Besides those mentioned, there are other metallic whites varying in
+beauty and opacity, such as those of mercury, arsenic, and antimony; but
+none of them are of any value or reputation in painting, on account of
+their great disposition to change of colour, whether by light or foul
+air, both in water and oil.
+
+There are also other terrene whites, under equivocal names, among which
+are Morat or Modan white, Spanish white, Troys or Troy white, Rouen
+white, China white, and Satin white; the latter being a sulphate of lime
+and alumina, which dries with a glossy surface. The common oyster-shell
+contains a soft white in its thick part, and there is the white of
+egg-shells. There is, too, an endless variety of native earths, in
+addition to those prepared by art. The whole of them, however, are
+destitute of body in oil; and several, owing to their alkaline nature,
+are injurious to many colours in water, as well as to all colours which
+cannot be employed in fresco.
+
+Among the infinitude of white substances, the artist finds that there
+are but three white pigments--those of lead, zinc, and baryta. The first
+possesses the greatest opacity, while the second and third are most
+durable. The last, however, has so many objectionable qualities, that
+the number of eligible whites, may almost be said to be two--lead and
+zinc. Of these, the former is blackened by foul air, and in oil, the
+latter is wanting in body. In fact, there is but one white pigment which
+approaches perfection--Chinese white; and this is only a water-colour.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+ON THE PRIMARY, YELLOW.
+
+
+Yellow is the first of the primary or simple colours, nearest in
+relation to, and partaking most of the nature of, the neutral white; it
+is accordingly a most advancing colour, of great power in reflecting
+light. Compounded with the primary _red_, it constitutes the secondary
+_orange_, as well as its relatives, scarlet, and other warm colours.
+
+It is the archeus, or prime colour, of the tertiary _citrine_;
+characterises in like manner the endless number of semi-neutral colours
+called _brown_, and enters largely into the complex hues termed buff,
+bay, tawny, tan, dan, dun, drab, chestnut, roan, sorrel, hazel, auburn,
+isabela, fawn, feuillemort, &c. Yellow is naturally associated with red
+in transient and prismatic colours, and is the principal power with it
+in representing the effects of warmth, heat, and fire. Combined with the
+primary _blue_, yellow furnishes all the variety of the secondary
+_green_, as well as, subordinately, the tertiaries _russet_ and _olive_.
+It also enters in a very subdued degree into cool, semi-neutral, and
+broken colours, and assists in minor proportion with blue and red in the
+composition of _black_.
+
+As a pigment, yellow is a tender delicate colour, easily defiled, when
+pure, by other colours. In painting it diminishes the power of the eye
+by its action in a strong light, at the same time becoming less distinct
+as a colour; while, on the contrary, it assists vision and becomes more
+distinct as a colour in a neutral somewhat declining light. These powers
+of colours upon vision require the particular attention of the
+colourist. To remedy the ill effect arising from the eyes having dwelt
+upon a colour, they should be either passed gradually to its opposite
+colour, and refreshed amid compound or neutral tints, or washed in the
+clear light of day. Hence, in viewing large collections of pictures,
+their colours will be more duly estimated by sometimes walking to the
+window, or by taking an occasional glance at a millboard, which may be
+carried in the hand, painted a cool gray.
+
+In a warm light, yellow becomes totally lost, but is less diminished
+than all other colours, except white, by distance. The stronger tones of
+any colour subdue its fainter hues in the same proportion as opposite
+colours and contrasts exalt them. The contrasting colours of yellow are
+a purple inclining to blue when the yellow leans to orange, and a purple
+inclining to red when the yellow tends to green, in the mean
+proportions of _thirteen_ purple to _three_ yellow, measured in surface
+or intensity. Being nearest to the neutral white in the natural scale of
+colours, yellow accords with it in conjunction; while, of all colours,
+except white, it contrasts black most powerfully. Yellow is discordant
+when standing alone with orange, unsupported by other colours.
+
+On account of the paucity of fine yellows among the ancients, we find
+that in many paintings and beautiful illuminated MSS. of old, glowing
+with vermilion and ultramarine, the place of yellow was supplied by
+gilding. Now, certainly, no such scarcity exists; of the three primary
+colours, good yellows being the most numerous. It may be observed of
+yellow pigments that their colour being primary and therefore simple,
+they cannot be composed by any mixture of other colours. The same remark
+of course applies to pigments which are red or blue.
+
+20. AUREOLIN.
+
+In these days a new pigment soon finds its level, standing or falling
+according to its merits. There are too many colours already on the
+palette for a fresh comer to have much chance, unless it possess some
+great distinguishing quality, or can take a place which has never been
+occupied. Such a void aureolin fills. This "magnificent yellow
+pigment," says the _Chemical News_, "supplies a desideratum hitherto in
+vain sought for by artists. It is the nearest approach to a perfect
+yellow in existence, and more closely resembles the purity of the
+prismatic spectrum than any other artificial colour. It is transparent,
+has great brilliancy and richness, both pure and in combination, and is
+very permanent, being entirely unaffected by exposure to sulphuretted
+hydrogen and other atmospheric impurities, or to the direct rays of the
+sun during an entire summer. Aureolin, with ultramarine and madder red,
+completes the triad of brilliant, permanent, and transparent primitive
+colours." The above only tallies with the statements of several
+scientific chemists and artists of note, statements which a prolonged
+personal experience of the colour enables us to endorse. To our
+knowledge, aureolin is quite uninjured by the severest tests to which a
+pigment can be subjected. We have found it bear with impunity, even in
+its lightest and faintest tints, the foulest gas and the brightest
+sunshine. Damp has no effect upon it; and in oil, water, or fresco, it
+is equally eligible. With all other colours aureolin mixes safely and
+readily, forming combinations of the utmost variety and value. It
+affords beautiful transparent tints, well defined, and of exceeding
+purity; the paler washes being at once clear and delicate, and admitting
+the most subtle gradations of tone. The artistic properties of
+aureolin, however, will be best described by quoting the following
+extract from Mr. Aaron Penley's _English School of Painting in Water
+Colours_:--
+
+    "I have fully tested the qualifications of _Aureolin_ for the
+    Landscape Painter, and, without hesitation, pronounce it to be
+    the most valuable addition to the 'colour box' since the
+    introduction of Rose Madder. It has supplied a deficiency of a
+    very important character. Hitherto, no Primitive Yellow has been
+    quite satisfactory as to its persistence; so that the Aureolin
+    will not only be regarded by the _artist_ as a great boon in the
+    production of his works, but it must also be considered as a
+    _real_ and _lasting benefit_ to pictorial art in general. The
+    permanence and unaltered purity of its lightest and faintest
+    tints we are assured may be confidently relied upon, inasmuch as
+    they have been fully established by the most severe tests to
+    which colour can be subjected, by several of our ablest and most
+    talented chemists. It is, therefore, needless to enlarge upon
+    its merits, other than that I, for one, feel grateful for its
+    introduction. Its uses are manifold, and may be considered
+    available for every purpose requiring a Yellow of its character.
+    As to Gray--perhaps it is not possible to obtain more delicately
+    pure and transparent aërial tints than are to be produced from
+    a combination of Cobalt, Rose Madder and Aureolin; all of which
+    are of a light description and well suited for the
+    representation of soft and thin effects of the atmosphere. These
+    colours are each of them beautiful, and yield a most exquisite
+    range of tones, which, as they mix together most kindly, render
+    them desirable where purity and delicacy are sought. As to
+    Foliage.--In speaking of Aureolin as adapted for the colouring
+    of foliage and herbage, it is impossible to say too much in its
+    praise. It imparts the vividness and freshness of nature to
+    every colour with which it is combined--a quality of the highest
+    order. As a colour for drapery it has no equal, and may be
+    employed with perfect success, either by itself or with any of
+    the other pigments.
+
+    "The following table of compound tints will be found extremely
+    useful:--
+
+    Aureolin.     | Aureolin.         | Aureolin.    | Aureolin.
+    Burnt Sienna. | Vandyke Brown.    | Sepia.       | Sepia, or Rose
+    Indigo, or    | Indigo, or French |              |   Madder.
+      French Blue.|   Blue.           |              | Cobalt.
+
+    Aureolin.     | Aureolin.         | Aureolin.    | Aureolin.
+    Indigo.       | Oxide of Chromium.| Emerald      | Light Red.
+                  |                   |   Green.     | Cobalt, or
+                  |                   |              |   Indigo.
+
+    Aureolin.     | Aureolin.         | Aureolin.    | Aureolin.
+    Burnt Sienna. | Burnt Umber.      | Brown Madder.| Rose Madder.
+
+    "Aureolin, in combination with Cobalt and Sepia, or Rose Madder,
+    gives most agreeable and delicate tints for distant trees, when
+    under the influence of a soft light, or hazy state of the
+    atmosphere. Having most impartially and diligently tested the
+    qualities of the Aureolin, I can and do most conscientiously
+    recommend its adoption by all who practise water-colour
+    painting."
+
+The foregoing sufficiently proves the value of aureolin in water, and
+similar flattering notices have been given of the colour in oil. Both in
+a chemical and artistic sense, therefore, this new primitive yellow
+merits the highest regard, and justly claims a foremost place among that
+little band of pigments which are without fear and without reproach.
+
+For mural decoration, aureolin is admirably adapted, but it cannot be
+used in enamel, the colour being destroyed by great heat.
+
+
+CADMIUM YELLOWS.
+
+Of these there are three tints, _Deep_, a so-called _Pale_, and _Lemon_.
+
+21. DEEP CADMIUM.
+
+Cadmium Yellow is comparatively a recent introduction, the metal itself
+not having been discovered till 1818. The cadmium yellows of commerce
+are (the chromate excepted) all sulphides, and therefore not affected by
+impure air. Until lately, they were not manufactured in England but
+imported from abroad, and as a rule were sadly doctored. We have found
+in them a large proportion of orpiment, chromate of lead, &c., together
+with quantities of soluble salt, extracted by boiling water. Owing to
+careless preparation, there was also present an unnecessary amount of
+dirt, which interfered as much with the purity of the colour, as
+sophistication lessened its stability. For these reasons, doubtless,
+cadmium yellows got to be regarded by some with disfavour and suspicion;
+and it may fairly be said that they did not attain their present
+popularity, until they became an article of home produce.
+
+Deep cadmium yellow, if genuine, may without hesitation be declared
+permanent, both with respect to foul gas, and exposure to light or air.
+The variety under notice is of extreme depth, inclining to orange,
+glowing, lustrous, and brilliant. It is not very transparent, but
+wonderfully clear and bright, of great power, and the most richly toned
+yellow known. For draperies it is particularly adapted, and for gorgeous
+sunsets is invaluable. It works and washes well, readily throws all
+other yellows into the shade when used alone, and combines admirably
+with Chinese white for the light touches of bright clouds or mountains.
+
+By admixture with white, cadmium gives a series of beautiful clear
+tints. When compounded with white lead, however, the colour has been
+stated to be destroyed. Theoretically, this might very well happen.
+Cadmium yellow is composed of cadmium and sulphur--white lead of lead
+and carbonic acid. If the former parted with some of its sulphur to the
+latter, sulphide of lead would result, which is black. Hence, the partly
+decomposed yellow and white would be mixed with black, and there would
+be formed a blackish-yellow or a yellowish-black. Again, if the cadmium
+parted with the whole of its sulphur to the lead, receiving in exchange
+the carbonic acid of the latter, a mixture of black sulphide of lead
+with white carbonate of cadmium would be furnished, the result being a
+grey. Perhaps the following rough diagram may serve to make our meaning
+plainer:--
+
+
+  Cadmium Yellow {Cadmium.    __________ Carbonate of Cadmium (White.)
+                 {Sulphur.             /
+                           \          /
+                            \        /
+                             \      /
+                              \    /
+                               \  /
+                                \/
+                                /\
+                           ____/__\
+  White Lead {Lead.           /          Sulphide of Lead (Black.)
+             {Carbonic Acid.
+
+Such is the theory of the reaction which might take place, but which, as
+far as our own experience goes, does not. Some deep cadmium yellow which
+we ourselves prepared was intimately mixed and ground with an equal
+quantity by weight of Cremnitz white, and an oil rub of the compound
+laid upon a tile. Having placed the latter on a shelf in the laboratory,
+we watched from week to week to see if any approach to blackness
+occurred, any diminution in the beauty of the tint; but could perceive
+none. Hence, while admitting the possibility of the colour being
+damaged or destroyed in the case of an inferior and spurious article, we
+conclude that an unadulterated cadmium yellow, containing no free
+sulphur, neither injures, nor is injured by, white lead, and may safely
+be used therewith. At the same time, the artist should be warned to
+satisfy himself of the genuineness of his pigment, or otherwise to
+employ the white of zinc, at least as a medium of intervention.
+
+A good sample of cadmium yellow may rather advantageously than otherwise
+be compounded with white lead, for we have found that a mixture of equal
+parts by weight of the two will bear an atmosphere of sulphuretted
+hydrogen that completely blackens the white alone.
+
+With all the sulphides of cadmium a steel palette knife is best avoided.
+
+22. PALE CADMIUM.
+
+The cadmium yellow so-called, is not strictly pale, but pale only when
+compared with the preceding. It is, in fact, a full rich colour,
+brilliant and permanent, but without that tendency to orange which
+distinguishes the deep. For some purposes, when a warm tone is not
+required, such a tint is preferable. In water, especially, where
+delicacy of colouring can be carried to a greater degree of refinement
+than in oil, these differences of hue are important. In the first
+medium the faint washes show with a clearness which is not so apparent
+in the last, and the most subtle gradation of tone tells with a force in
+some measure lost in oil. As a consequence, the colour of the lightest
+tints in the distance must be as true as that of the deepest shades in
+the foreground, and hence the warmth or coldness of the pale washes of a
+pigment should be duly considered.
+
+Pale cadmium yellow with or without aureolin, is adapted for golden
+sunsets, and yields with French blue a beautiful sea-green.
+
+24. LEMON CADMIUM.
+
+Very pale cadmium yellows are not permanent, and lemon cadmiums are
+decidedly fugitive. Being, like the deep and 'pale' varieties,
+sulphides, they are of course unaltered by sulphurous gas; but they will
+not stand exposure to light and air, or even to light alone. Some which
+were submitted in an air-tight bottle to the action of light gradually
+whitened next the glass. Yet they were almost identical in composition
+with the deepest and most orange hues, and might have reasonably been
+presumed stable. Repeated experiments, however, both with samples of our
+own making and of others' manufacture, have shown that for a cadmium to
+be durable, it must be of a full, rich, comparatively deep yellow; and
+that any paler product than the 'pale' alluded to cannot be depended
+on. It is true that a light or lemon tint will fade quicker in water
+than in oil, but a colour which is fugitive in the one vehicle cannot be
+regarded as eligible in the other. From a somewhat long acquaintance
+with cadmiums, we have derived the opinion that their stability rests
+much on the mode of preparation, and that an amount of heat is needed
+sufficient to make the sulphur _bite into_ the base. This opinion,
+indeed, extends to all metallic sulphides, and our belief is, that if
+vermilions were made generally by wet processes, they would not be found
+the permanent pigments they undoubtedly are.
+
+25. MUTRIE YELLOW.
+
+Under this name a lemon sulphide of cadmium has lately appeared, to
+which the foregoing remarks are applicable. A water colour rub on
+exposure to air and light faded rapidly, no trace of yellow remaining in
+the pale wash. The sample which came under our notice contained a
+quantity of free sulphur.
+
+It is to be regretted that these lemon cadmiums are fugacious, so
+bright, so clear, are they, and of so pure a lemon tint can they be
+obtained. But as no beauty of colour compensates for want of durability,
+their place should be supplied by lemon yellow proper, or chromate of
+baryta.
+
+26. CHROME YELLOWS,
+
+Also called _Jaune Minérale_, _Jaune de Cologne_ or _Cologne Yellow_,
+_Pale Chrome_, and _Deep Chrome_, are chromates of lead, in which the
+latter metal more or less exists, according to the paleness or depth of
+the colour. Of modern introduction, they are distinguished for their
+brilliancy, their opacity and body, and their going cordially into tint
+with white, both in water and oil. Owing, however, to a harshness and
+hardness of tone for which they are peculiar, a coarse and disagreeable
+effect is apt to be produced by their use. In general, they do not
+accord with the modest hues of nature, nor harmonize well with the
+softer beauty of other colours. Rivalling the cadmiums in brightness,
+they are wanting in the mellow richness which belongs to the deeper
+varieties of those pigments, as well as in their permanency. Although
+they resist the sun's rays for a lengthened period, after some time they
+lose their original hue, whether employed alone or in tint, and may even
+become black in impure air. Upon several pigments they produce serious
+changes, ultimately destroying Prussian and Antwerp blues, when
+compounded therewith in the composition of greens, &c. Ranging from
+lemon to deep yellow, in oil, provided the atmosphere be good, the
+chromes may be found comparatively durable; but, on the whole, the
+artist cannot trust to them his reputation as a colourist.
+
+The chromates are often mixed with sulphate of lead, as well as with the
+sulphates of baryta and lime. The presence of the first is especially
+objectionable, as increasing the tendency of the yellows to be blackened
+by foul gas. The sulphates of baryta and lime, however, are sometimes
+formed in the process of preparation, in which case they are rather an
+advantage than otherwise; inasmuch as they not only lend a softness to
+the colour, but decrease the proportion of leaden base, and consequently
+the tendency referred to. We may remark, indeed, with respect to
+pigments, that it is difficult in many instances to say where
+manufacture ends and adulteration begins. A substance may be present
+which, although not absolutely essential to the colour itself, has been
+legitimately employed to impart a desired quality, or a certain tint.
+
+27. COLOGNE YELLOW
+
+Is a cheap inferior chrome yellow, unfit for artistic purposes, and
+consists of twenty-five parts of chromate of lead, fifteen of sulphate
+of lead, and sixty of sulphate of lime.
+
+28. JAUNE MINERALE
+
+Is prepared in Paris, and differs in no essential particular from
+ordinary chromate of lead, except in the paleness of its colour. The
+chrome yellows have also obtained other names from places or persons,
+whence they have been brought or by whom they have been made. Another
+lead yellow, not a chromate, has likewise been called jaune minérale.
+
+29. CITRON YELLOW
+
+Is chromate of zinc, a bright pale lemon-like yellow, slightly soluble
+in water. It is not affected by foul gas, but does not preserve its
+colour on exposure to light and air, or even when kept in a book. In
+contact with organic substances it is apt to turn green. Compounded,
+especially for foliage tints, this yellow is eligible; but if purity of
+hue be desired, it should certainly not be employed alone. In this
+chromate, as in many others, the affinity of the chromic acid to the
+base is small; the former is liable to separate from the latter, and, by
+deoxidation, to become converted into green oxide of chromium.
+
+30. GALLSTONE
+
+Is a deep-toned gorgeous yellow, affording richer tints than most other
+yellows, but it cannot be depended on for permanency, and therefore is
+seldom employed. Its colour is soon changed and destroyed by strong
+light, though not subject to alteration by impure air. In oil it is
+ineligible. A true gallstone is an animal calculus formed in the
+gall-bladder, chiefly of oxen; but the pigment sold under that name is
+often replaced by a substitute, resembling the original in colour, but
+of greater stability.
+
+31. GAMBOGE,
+
+Sometimes designated _Drop Gum_, and variously written _Gamboge_,
+_Camboge_, _Gamboage_, _Cambogia_, _Cambadium_, _Cambogium_,
+_Gambodium_, _Gambogium_, &c., is the produce of several kinds of trees.
+The natives of the coast of Coromandel call the tree from which it is
+principally obtained Gokathu, which grows also in Ceylon and Siam. From
+the wounded leaves and young shoots the gamboge is collected in a liquid
+state and dried. Our indigenous herb Celandine yields abundantly, in the
+same manner, a beautiful yellow juice of the same properties as gamboge.
+Gamboge is of a gum-resinous nature and clear yellow colour. It is
+bright and transparent, but not of great depth, and in its deepest
+touches shines too much and verges upon brown. When properly used, it is
+more durable than generally reputed, both in water and oil; and
+conduces, when mixed with other colours, to their stability and keeping
+their place, on account of its gum and resin. It is deepened in some
+degree by ammoniacal and impure air, and somewhat weakened, but not
+easily discoloured, by the action of light. Time effects less change on
+this colour than on other bright vegetal yellows; but white lead and
+other metalline pigments injure, while terrene and alkaline substances
+redden it. In water it works remarkably well, and forms an opaque
+emulsion without grinding or preparation, by means of its natural gum;
+but is with difficulty employed in oil, &c., in a dry condition. It
+dries well, however, in its natural state, and lasts in glazing when
+deprived of its gum. With regard to other colours it is perfectly
+innocent, and though a strong medicine, is not dangerous or deleterious
+in use. Gamboge has been employed as a yellow lake, precipitated upon an
+aluminous base; but a better way of preparing it is to form a paste of
+the colour in water, and mix it with lemon yellow, with which pigment
+being diffused it goes readily into oil or varnish. Glazed over other
+colours in water, its resin acts as a varnish which protects them; and
+under other colours its gum acts as a preparation which admits
+varnishing. It is injured by a less degree of heat than most pigments.
+
+In landscape, gamboge affords with indigo or Antwerp blue clear bright
+greens, and with sepia a very useful sober tint. For sunrise and sunset
+clouds, a mixture of gamboge and cadmium yellow will be found useful.
+
+32. EXTRACT OF GAMBOGE
+
+Is the colouring matter separated from its greenish gum and impurities
+by solution in alcohol, filtration and precipitation, by which it
+acquires a powdery texture, rendering it miscible in oil, &c., and
+capable of being employed in glazing. At the same time it is improved in
+colour, and retains its original property of working well in water with
+gum. Gamboge is likewise soluble in caustic potash, forming a red
+liquid, from which it is thrown down by acids.
+
+33. INDIAN YELLOW
+
+Is a pigment long employed in India under the name _Purree_, but has not
+many years been introduced generally into painting in Europe. It is
+imported in the form of balls of a fetid odour, and is produced from the
+urine of the camel. It appears to be a urio-phosphate of lime, and is of
+a beautiful pure yellow colour and light powdery texture; of greater
+body and depth than gamboge, but inferior in these respects to
+gallstone. Indian yellow resists the sun's rays with singular power in
+water painting; yet in ordinary light and air, or even in a book, the
+beauty of its colour is not lasting. In oil it is exceedingly fugitive,
+both alone and in tint. Owing probably to its alkaline nature, it has an
+injurious effect upon cochineal lakes and carmine when used with them.
+The colour is not damaged by foul air, and, as lime does not destroy it,
+the pigment may be employed in fresco according to its powers.
+
+Indian yellow washes and works extremely well, and is adapted for
+draperies and for compounding landscape greens--where permanency is not
+required. Blackness in the darkest shadows of the foliage will sometimes
+result from too great a use of indigo; should this evil exist, no colour
+is so fitted to regain the proper tone as Indian yellow employed
+thickly.
+
+
+LAKES.
+
+There are several pigments of this denomination, varying in colour and
+appearance according to the substances used and modes of preparation.
+Usually they are in the form of drops, and their colours are in general
+bright yellow, very transparent, and not liable to change in an impure
+atmosphere--qualities which would render them very valuable, were they
+not soon discoloured and even destroyed on exposure to air and light,
+both in water and oil. In the latter vehicle, they are bad driers, like
+most lakes, and they do not stand the action of white lead and other
+metallic pigments. If used, therefore, it should be as simple as
+possible. Of these lakes, the following are the best; but it must be
+borne in mind that, as not one of them is permanent, the compounds they
+afford are of necessity unstable.
+
+34. YELLOW LAKE
+
+Is a bright transparent yellow, a difficult drier, and liable to be
+destroyed by light. It affords beautiful foliage tints, and would, if it
+could be depended on, be of extreme value in what is called "glazing."
+
+35. ITALIAN PINK,
+
+Also called _English_ and _Dutch Pink_, is an absurd name for a stronger
+and richer kind of yellow lake, warmer in tint and more powerful than
+the preceding. It is a rich transparent yellow, yielding a variety of
+fine foliage tints by admixture with indigo and sepia in different
+proportions. These three colours with burnt sienna will produce almost
+every variety of sunny foliage. It gives likewise good olive greens with
+lamp black.
+
+36. QUERCITRON LAKE,
+
+Or _Quercitron Yellow_, is what its name implies. It is dark in
+substance, in grains of a glossy fracture, perfectly transparent, and
+when ground is of a beautiful yellow colour. In painting it follows, and
+adds richness and depth to, gamboge in water, and goes well into
+varnish; but any lead used in rendering oils siccative, browns it, and
+for the same reason it is useless in tints.
+
+37. LEMON YELLOW,
+
+Or chromate of baryta, is exceedingly difficult to make well. Upon the
+mode of manufacture depend not only the beauty of the colour but its
+stability. If properly and carefully prepared, it is of a vivid lemon
+tint, deep or pale, very clear, very pure and permanent. It also washes
+well, and is entirely free from the slightest tinge of orange. This may
+be pronounced the only chromate which possesses durability, not being
+liable to change by damp or foul air, by the action of light or the
+steel palette-knife, or by mixture with white lead and other pigments,
+either in water or oil, in both of which it works pleasantly. Lemon
+yellow is chiefly adapted to points of high light, and has a peculiarly
+happy effect when glazed over greens in both modes of painting. In water
+it exceeds gamboge in brightness, and compounded therewith improves its
+beauty. This mixture also goes readily into oil; indeed it is the best
+and easiest way of rendering gamboge diffusible as an oil colour--simple
+emulsion of the gamboge in a little water, and trituration of the lemon
+yellow therewith, being all that is requisite for the purpose.
+
+Lemon yellow has not much power, and is semi-opaque. In distance, its
+light wash is used with great effect for cool sunny greens, for which a
+minute quantity of emerald green may be added to it. Being uninjured by
+lime, the colour is eligible in fresco and crayons.
+
+38. MARS YELLOW,
+
+_Jaune de Mars_, _Jaune de Fer_, _Iron Yellow_, &c., is an artificially
+prepared iron ochre, of the nature of sienna earth. In its general
+qualities it resembles the ochres, with the same eligibilities and
+exceptions, but is more transparent, as well as purer, clearer, richer,
+and brighter. Like them it is quite permanent. The colours of iron exist
+in endless variety in nature, and are capable of the same variation by
+art, from sienna yellow, through orange and red, to a species of purple,
+brown, and black, among which are useful and valuable distinctions. They
+were formerly introduced by the author, and have been received under the
+names of Mars yellow, Mars orange, Mars red, Mars violet, and Mars
+brown. All of them are brighter and purer than native ochres, and
+equally stable. When carefully prepared, these pigments dry well in
+proportion to their depth, are marked by a subdued richness rather than
+brilliancy, and have the general habits of sienna earths and ochres.
+Their faint washes possess the desirable quality of transparent
+clearness.
+
+We have occasionally found Mars yellow mixed with orpiment, or chromate
+of lead, for the purpose of brightening the colour.
+
+39. NAPLES YELLOW
+
+Was a compound of lead and antimony, anciently prepared at Naples under
+the name of _Giallolino_, and was variously of a pleasing light, warm
+yellow tint. It was opaque and of good body, not altered by the light of
+the sun, and might be used with comparative safety in oil or varnish,
+under the same management as the whites of lead. Like these, however, it
+was liable to change even to blackness by damp and impure air when
+employed in water. Iron was also destructive of the colour of this
+yellow, on which account great care was requisite, in grinding and using
+it, not to touch it with the common steel palette knife, but to compound
+its tints with a spatula of ivory or horn. For the same reason, it was
+apt to suffer in composition with ochres, Prussian and Antwerp blues,
+and other pigments of which iron was a principal or ingredient. Used
+pure or with white lead it was eligible in oil, in which it worked and
+dried well. It was also employed in enamel painting as it vitrified
+without change. In this state it was called _Giallolino di fornace_, and
+was introduced as a pigment for artists, under the erroneous conception
+that vitrification gives permanence to colours, when in truth it only
+increases the difficulty of levigation, and injures their texture for
+working. We have spoken of Naples yellow in the past tense, because the
+pigment now sold as such is generally, or always, a compound colour, or
+manufactured with a zinc instead of a lead base. In either case the
+preceding remarks are not applicable to the present product, which is
+perfectly durable and trustworthy. The new Naples yellow presents an
+example of an old objectionable pigment being replaced by a different
+and superior preparation. However fugitive certain colours may have
+been, the fact of their once having had a place on the palette would
+seem to be sufficient recommendation to some. At any rate, they are
+still in occasional request, and we cannot but approve the pious fraud
+which offers under the same name a good substitute for a bad original.
+If an artist must needs demand a worthless pigment, he had better buy a
+colour like it that will stand, even if it be not what he asked for.
+
+The tints of Naples yellow are readily and accurately imitated by
+admixture of deep cadmium yellow and white.
+
+40. ANTIMONY YELLOW,
+
+As its name denotes, was likewise a preparation of that metal, of a
+deeper colour than Naples yellow, but similar in its properties. It was
+principally used in enamel and porcelain painting, and differed greatly
+in tint. One variety, brighter than the rest, is stated not to have
+been affected by foul air, and therefore could not have had a lead
+basis.
+
+
+OCHRES,
+
+Known as _Yellow Ochre_, _Brown Ochre_, _Roman Ochre_, _Transparent Gold
+Ochre_, _Oxford Ochre_, _Stone Ochre_, _Di Palito_, &c., are native
+earths, consisting chiefly of silica and alumina in combination with
+iron, which latter forms the principal colouring matter. They are among
+the most ancient of pigments, and their permanency is proved by the
+state of the old pictures. In a box of colours found at Pompeii, and
+analyzed by Count Chaptal, he discovered yellow ochre purified by
+washing, which had preserved its original freshness. They may all be
+produced artificially in endless variety as they exist in nature, and
+are all converted by burning into reds or reddish-browns. Several ochres
+are found in the natural state of so very fine a quality, that they
+require no other preparation than that of being washed. Their colours
+may be imitated to a certain extent by means of iron alone, uncombined
+with silica and alumina; but such ferruginous preparations are not
+equally durable, and as their chemical action is stronger, they are more
+likely to affect those pigments which are damaged by iron. It often
+happens in colours that one component of weak stability, or powerful
+for evil, is strengthened and held in check by another; thus in the case
+of the ochres, the silica and alumina by keeping a tight hand on the
+iron, both ensure its safety, and prevent it injuring others.
+
+41. YELLOW OCHRE,
+
+Called also _Mineral Yellow_, is found in most countries, and abundantly
+in our own. It differs much both in constitution and colour, ranging
+from a tolerably bright though not vivid yellow to a brown-yellow, and
+is generally of a warm cast. Its natural variety is much increased by
+artificial dressing and compounding. The best yellow ochres possess no
+great force, but as far as they go are valuable pigments, particularly
+in fresco and distemper, being neither subject to change by ordinary
+light, nor sensibly affected by impure air, or the action of lime. By
+time, however, and the direct rays of the sun, they are somewhat
+darkened. Like other ochres, they may be safely used in admixture with
+pigments which are themselves permanent. With carmine and the cochineal
+lakes, or intense blue, the ochres are best not employed.
+
+The impunity with which yellow ochre bears foul gas is one of its many
+recommendations. No immediate effect whatever is produced by
+sulphuretted hydrogen, and only a slight dirty brown tint is imparted
+by its prolonged action. This discolouration a short exposure to air and
+light quickly removes. By keeping the ochre sufficiently long in contact
+with sulphide of ammonium a jet black is obtainable, but a rub of it in
+a moist unwashed state completely regains its yellow hue in a day or so.
+Hence, yellow ochre compounded with pigments which suffer from an impure
+atmosphere doubtless acts as a preservative agent.
+
+Yellow ochre is usually employed in the distance and middle ground of a
+landscape. It possesses a slight degree of turbidness, and is esteemed
+for this property, which is considered to give it a retiring quality. By
+admixture with Antwerp blue or indigo it affords a fine range of quiet
+greens, also a very serviceable yellowish drab with Vandyke brown. The
+ochre is valuable in warm skies, the sails of ships and boats, sandstone
+rocks and cliffs, buildings, hay, sheep, &c. It does not compound kindly
+with any of the cold colours, and should therefore be used as a wash
+over others that are dry, when required to qualify their tints.
+
+42. ROMAN OCHRE
+
+Is rather deeper and more powerful than the preceding, as well as more
+transparent and cool in tint. In other respects it is similar, and forms
+with Antwerp blue and indigo a like excellent range of greens. We may
+observe, however, that as indigo is not a permanent pigment, the colours
+it yields by admixture cannot be durable as far as the blue is
+concerned. Roman ochre and brown madder are admirably adapted for red
+sails, and autumnal effects of foliage.
+
+43. BROWN OCHRE,
+
+Likewise known as _Spruce Ochre_ and _Ocre de Rue_, or, more correctly
+_Ru_, is a dense, deep-toned brownish yellow, fine in sandy foregrounds.
+With Indian yellow it gives a dark autumnal tint of great richness, but
+stable only as respects the ochre. When mixed with other colours, it
+furnishes a series of rich yet sober tones of extensive use. It covers
+well, without being too opaque; and compounded with black and a little
+brown-red is good for backgrounds, &c.
+
+44. TRANSPARENT GOLD OCHRE
+
+Resembles in a great degree Roman ochre, but is clearer in its tints,
+and more transparent. It is also brighter and much less opaque than
+yellow ochre. It approaches somewhat the character of clear bright raw
+sienna, though more pure and brilliant, serving for strong
+semi-transparent greens and sunny effects.
+
+45. OXFORD OCHRE
+
+Is a native pigment from the neighbourhood of Oxford, semi-opaque, of a
+warm yellow colour and soft argillaceous texture, absorbent of water and
+oil, in both of which it may be safely employed. It is one of the best
+of yellow ochres.
+
+46. STONE OCHRE
+
+Has been confounded with the last variety, to which, as well as to Roman
+ochre, it is frequently similar. True stone ochres are found in balls or
+globular masses of various sizes in the solid body of stones, lying near
+the surface of rocks among the quarries of Gloucestershire and
+elsewhere. These balls are smooth and compact, in general free from
+grit, and of a powdery fracture. They vary exceedingly in colour, from
+yellow to brown, murrey, and gray, but otherwise do not differ from
+ordinary ochres.
+
+In enamel they may be used for browns and dull reds.
+
+47. DI PALITO
+
+Is a light yellow ochre, with no special distinguishing quality, except
+that its tints are rather purer in colour than most ochres.
+
+48. ORIENT YELLOW
+
+Is an entirely new preparation of absolute permanence, and perfectly
+unexceptionable in all respects, both in water and oil. We can give it
+no higher praise than by saying it equals aureolin in stability, as well
+as in neither injuring, nor being injured by, other colours. Not
+possessed of the same amount of transparency, it is distinguished by
+greater richness and depth. Of a soft golden hue, lustrous and luminous,
+it resembles a brilliant and somewhat opaque Indian yellow. A gorgeous
+and durable substitute for that fugitive pigment is produced by
+compounding the orient with aureolin, or by using the latter as a glaze.
+Being more transparent than cadmiums and less obtrusive, the new yellow
+is adapted for mellow sunset and sunrise clouds, or for sunshine on
+distant mountains. With French blue it affords a beautiful sea green;
+and, mixed with aureolin, gives fine foliage tints. It is also eligible
+for draperies and illumination. For enamelling it is inadmissible, the
+colour being destroyed by great heat; but in fresco it may safely be
+employed.
+
+As in the case of aureolin, we have had a prolonged personal experience
+of this new yellow, an experience which justifies us in asserting that
+there is none more permanent. In the whole range of artistic colours
+there is no pigment less affected by chemical or physical agents. Acid
+and ammoniacal fumes, foul gases, and exposure to damp, air, light, or
+sunshine, equally fail to injure it. The perfect impunity with which it
+bears the action both of sulphuretted hydrogen and sulphide of ammonium
+is remarkable. The former gas may be continuously passed into the colour
+suspended in water, or a strong solution of the latter sulphide be
+poured upon it, and the yellow remains unchanged. Submitted to the
+direct rays of the sun during an entire summer, its lightest and
+faintest tints have preserved their original hue.
+
+In a preceding chapter we remarked that, provided the colour be stable,
+the more colour a pigment possesses the better. The "latent colour"
+there alluded to, is one of the advantages of orient yellow. The more it
+is looked into, the more colour is seen--there is no suspicion of a base
+coloured, the pigment is colour itself.
+
+49. ORPIMENT,
+
+Also called _King's Yellow_, _Chinese Yellow_, _Yellow Orpiment_, &c.,
+was known in ancient times: the Romans called it _auri pigmentum_ or
+gold colour, whence, by corruption, its present name is derived. It is
+found in the native state in China and elsewhere, the best quality being
+in masses, consisting of plates of a fine golden hue, intermixed with
+portions of a vermilion or orange-red colour; the inferior kinds are
+yellow or greenish yellow. Of orpiment, or sulphuret of arsenic, which
+is produced artificially, there are two distinct varieties; one of a
+bright pure yellow tint, in which the sulphur predominates, and one of
+an orange hue, in which the arsenic is in excess. The former is the most
+lasting, but it is not durable in water, and still less so in oil,
+although not discoloured by impure air. Compounded with white lead it is
+soon destroyed, nor can it be mixed with any colours into which lead
+enters, such as chrome yellow, the old Naples yellow, &c. The sulphur in
+combination with the arsenic, having less affinity for that metal than
+for lead, lets it go, and forms a sulphuret of lead of a dark greyish
+hue. Moreover, as orpiment is apt to deprive other pigments of their
+oxygen, and therefore to change and be changed by all pigments whose
+colour depends on that element--metallic pigments especially--it is
+probable that the orpiment after some time withdraws the oxygen from the
+lead; and this would be an additional cause for the darkening of the
+tint composed of the two colours. With sulphides or pigments containing
+sulphur, orpiment may be used with less danger. If employed at all,
+however, it had better be in a pure and unmixed state. We are far from
+recommending orpiment as an eligible colour, and it is highly
+poisonous.
+
+Brick dust and yellow ochre are sometimes found as adulterants.
+
+50. RAW SIENNA,
+
+Known likewise as _Raw Sienna Earth_, _Terra di Sienna_, &c., is a
+ferruginous native pigment, firm in substance, of a glossy fracture, and
+very absorbent. It is of rather an impure yellow colour, and much used
+in landscape, being very serviceable both in distance and foreground.
+Unless proper skill is exercised in its preparation, the sienna has the
+objection of being somewhat pasty in working. Being little liable to
+change by the action of either light, time, or impure air, it may safely
+be employed according to its powers, in oil, water, and other modes of
+practice. It possesses more body and transparency than the ochres; and
+by burning becomes deeper, orange-russet, as well as more transparent
+and drying.
+
+Raw sienna compounded with cobalt, indigo, or Prussian blue, and a very
+little bistre, yields good sea greens, that with indigo being the most
+fugitive. Alone, it is adapted for shipping, sails, baskets, decayed
+leaves, brooks and running streams.
+
+51. STRONTIAN YELLOW,
+
+To justify its name, should be a chromate of strontia, a compound very
+slightly soluble in water, and not more stable than the zinc chromate.
+The pigment, however, now sold as strontian yellow is usually formed by
+admixture, and contains no strontia whatever. Its absence cannot be
+considered a disadvantage, for the substitute possesses a durability to
+which the original could lay no claim. Other things being equal, we
+prefer an original pigment to one compounded, but a good mixture is
+decidedly better than a bad original. A light primrose, clear and
+delicate.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The foregoing comprise those yellows more generally employed, advisedly
+or not, as the case may be. The following are for the most part not
+commercially obtainable, a remark that will apply in ensuing chapters to
+all numbered colours printed in italics. As a rule, these have become
+obsolete as pigments, or have never been introduced as such. The former
+could not well be omitted in a work of this kind, and the latter deserve
+notice as being at least suggestive. At present, many of them must be
+regarded as mere curiosities, being obtainable only from materials of
+excessive rarity. In time, however, the sources whence they are derived
+may possibly be found in greater abundance, and these now fancy products
+prove of value to the palette. The new metal indium, for instance,
+furnishes a bright yellow sulphide, like that of cadmium. The colour
+could not be affected by foul air, and might possess other advantages
+which would render indium yellow a desirable pigment. With regard to
+those compounds available for artistic use, but which have not to our
+knowledge been adopted, several are quite ineligible. It may be thought
+that they are needlessly referred to, but they are mentioned as a
+warning and a guide. Strange preparations have been offered as pigments,
+and sometimes accepted, witness turbith mineral, iodine yellow, &c. In
+these days of chemistry there is less chance for them, but they are
+continually submitted to one's notice, their merits being enlarged upon
+in proportion to their worthlessness. Through an exceptional ignorance
+they may still gain a place, and it has been deemed, therefore, not
+superfluous to allude to them. At the same time we do not pretend to
+exhaust the list, any more than we claim to note all substances
+possessing colour, but yet not admissible as pigments. Some there are
+which do not retain that colour on drying; others, whose preparation
+involves processes too nice, complicated, or expensive, for
+manufacturing purposes. There are many colours, again, which exist only
+on paper. We have too often found the imaginations of chemical writers
+far more vivid than the colours they describe. Gorgeous yellows turn
+out dingy drabs; dazzling scarlets dirty reds; and brilliant blues dusky
+slates. As respects colours, most books of science need revising.
+
+52. _Arsenic Yellow_,
+
+Called also _Mineral Yellow_, has improperly been classed as an
+orpiment, from which it differs in not being a sulphide, and in
+containing lead. It is prepared from arsenic fluxed with litharge, and
+reduced to powder. It is much like orpiment in colour, dries better, and
+not being affected by lead, is less liable to change in tint. The
+presence of the litharge, however, renders it subject to be blackened by
+sulphuretted hydrogen. Of course it is poisonous.
+
+53. _Bismuth Yellow_,
+
+Or chromate of bismuth, may be obtained either as a lemon or an orange
+yellow, sparingly soluble in water. The colour is not permanent, and
+turns greenish-brown even when excluded from light and air.
+
+54. _Copper Yellow_,
+
+Or chromate of copper-potassa, is of a bright yellow tint, not insoluble
+in water. It is discoloured both by foul gas and exposure.
+
+55. _Gelbin's Yellow_,
+
+Or chromate of lime, is a pale whitish yellow, poor in colour, partly
+soluble, and not at all to be depended on.
+
+56. _Indium Yellow._
+
+Whether the new metal indium will ever be found in sufficient quantity
+to render it practically useful remains to be seen. The most abundant
+source at present known is the Freiberg blende, 100,000 parts of which
+only yield from twenty-five to forty parts of indium. The metal is
+chiefly interesting in an artistic sense on account of its sulphide, a
+fine bright yellow resembling cadmium, and best obtained by
+precipitating an acetic acid solution with sulphuretted hydrogen, or
+sulphide of ammonium. In the latter, the yellow dissolves on being
+heated, but deposits again on cooling of a rather paler tint. With one
+modification, what was said in a former edition of this Treatise
+concerning cadmium yellow may be repeated of indium yellow. "The metal
+from which it is prepared being hitherto scarce, it has not been
+employed as a pigment, and its habits are not therefore ascertained."
+All we can tell is, that the colour does not suffer from impure air.
+
+Indium is likewise distinguished by a straw-yellow oxide.
+
+57. _Iodine Yellow_,
+
+Or iodide of lead, is one of those compounds whose presence on the
+palette should never have been allowed. Exceedingly brilliant, it is
+also utterly fugitive, destroyed by exposure or foul gas, and useless in
+admixture. We may state here that, whatever its colour, no pigment
+containing iodine can in the slightest degree be relied upon. One of the
+most unstable of substances, being slowly volatile even at common
+temperatures, iodine is or ought to be quite inadmissible as a
+constituent. Combined with lead, which is in itself objectionable, it
+forms a yellow possessing every bad quality.
+
+58. _Iron Yellow_,
+
+Or oxalate of protoxide of iron, has very unadvisedly been recommended
+as a pigment. It is a bright pale yellow, but soon loses the beauty of
+its tint when submitted to air and light, becoming, by peroxidation, red
+and buffy. Even in a book the colour changes.
+
+59. _Madder Yellow._
+
+As our (the Editor's) experience of this product is somewhat at variance
+with that of the author, we subjoin his original statement. "Madder
+yellow is a preparation from the madder-root. The best is of a bright
+colour, resembling Indian yellow, but more powerful and transparent,
+though hardly equal to it in durability of hue; metallic, terrene, and
+alkaline substances acting on and reddening it as they do gamboge: even
+alone it has by time a natural tendency to become orange and foxy. We
+have produced it of various hues and tints, from an opaque and ochrous
+yellow, to a colour the most brilliant, transparent, and deep. Upon the
+whole, however, after an experience of many years, we do not consider
+them eligible pigments."
+
+While agreeing with Mr. Field as to the character given of these
+yellows, we must confess that we have never been able to obtain, nor
+have we ever seen, a "most brilliant" madder yellow. Colours bearing
+that name have come under our notice, but if their hue was pure and
+vivid, they have always proved to be falsely so called, the madder being
+conspicuous by its absence. What we have succeeded in producing, and the
+genuine samples we have met with, have been fawns, buffs, drabs, &c.,
+decidedly "ochrous" yellows, and wanting in stability. It is certain
+that no true madder yellow, brilliant and pure, ranks as a pigment at
+the present day. A variety known as Cory's Yellow Madder may be briefly
+described as Cory's _Brown_ Madder.
+
+60. _Massicot_,
+
+Or _Masticot_, is a protoxide of lead, varying from the purest and most
+tender straw colour to a dull orange yellow, and known as Light, Yellow,
+and Golden Massicot. It has in painting all the properties of white
+lead, from which it may be prepared by gentle calcination in an open
+furnace. In tint with that pigment, however, it soon loses its colour
+and returns to white, probably extracting some carbonic acid therefrom.
+If used in an unmixed state, it is permanent in oil under the same
+conditions as white lead, but should not be employed in water, on
+account of its changing even to blackness by the action of damp or
+impure air. It is an admirable dryer, and has much the same effect as
+litharge in rendering oils siccative.
+
+_Litharge_ is merely fused massicot. Old writers speak of litharge of
+silver and litharge of gold, oxides of lead, pale and reddish yellow
+respectively. Commercial litharge, especially that which is foreign,
+contains sometimes a considerable proportion of oxide of copper and
+iron. The principal impurity, however, is generally silica, left
+undissolved on treating the litharge with nitric or acetic acid.
+Litharge is commonly used in preparing drying oils, which contain a
+greater or less amount of the oxide in the form of oleate of lead. Oils
+made siccative by means of litharge are therefore liable to be damaged
+by foul gas. It is a matter of congratulation that such injury is not
+lasting, and that the oil, like white lead, recovers its original colour
+on exposure to air and light. Some drying oil which we exposed on a tile
+to an atmosphere of sulphuretted hydrogen until it was completely
+blackened, regained its former yellow hue on being submitted for a day
+or so to air and light. Hence, although the employment of lead as a
+siccative is not desirable, its effects are not so deleterious as might
+be imagined.
+
+61. _Patent Yellow_,
+
+_Turner's Yellow_, _Montpellier Yellow_, _Mineral Yellow_, _Cassel
+Yellow_, &c., is a mixture of chloride and oxide of lead, obtainable
+either as a pale or a deep yellow. It is a hard, ponderous, sparkling
+substance, of a crystalline texture and bright colour; hardly inferior,
+when ground, to chrome yellow. Of an excellent body, and working well in
+oil and water, but soon injured both by the sun's light and impure air.
+A variety, mentioned by Mérimée, in which bismuth and antimony are also
+used, is of greater durability.
+
+62. _Platinum Yellow._
+
+Our own opinion of this costly preparation is that the good qualities of
+the product do not justify its price. It may be obtained as a bright,
+rich, deep yellow, of considerable transparency; but the colour is acted
+upon by foul gas and exposure. Even in a book we have found it assume a
+dirty greyish cast, and a specimen which had been kept in a drawer,
+wrapped up in paper, became perfectly black in a few years. The presence
+of palladium interferes with the beauty of the original tint, but does
+not affect its stability.
+
+63. _Thallium Yellow._
+
+The new metal thallium yields in combination with chromic acid two
+yellow colours, a pale and an orange. They are not absolutely insoluble
+in water, and the sulphide of thallium being brown, would probably be
+damaged by impure air. But whatever their properties as pigments may be,
+their habitudes as such are not yet known. The present scarcity of the
+metal renders the colours produced from it mere scientific curiosities.
+
+64. _Thwaites' Yellow._
+
+Under this name chromate of cadmium was introduced some few years back.
+If well prepared, it is a fine soft powder of a very vivid light yellow
+colour. The compound is too soluble, however, to be of value, its
+washings even with cold water being continually tinged yellow. Hence it
+turns green after a time, and becomes otherwise discoloured. Like
+citron yellow and other chromates apt to assume a green cast, it should
+only be employed, if at all, when compounded for foliage tints, &c. This
+want of durability is to be regretted, for a good sample of cadmium
+chrome is marked by exceeding beauty, unsurpassed for clearness and
+purity by any other yellow.
+
+65. _Turbith Mineral_,
+
+Or _Queen's Yellow_, is a subsulphate of mercury, of a beautiful lemon
+yellow colour, but so liable to change by the action of light or impure
+air, that it cannot be used safely, and hardly deserves attention as a
+pigment.
+
+66. _Uranium Yellow_
+
+Can be produced of a pale or orange tint, differing in brightness and
+depth of colour according to the mode of preparation. It is fairly
+eligible as a pigment, and far superior to the many fugitive compounds
+which have from time to time appeared. Being very expensive, however,
+and not possessing the good qualities of its compeers lately introduced,
+uranium yellow has but little chance of being employed now.
+
+67. _Yellow Carmine_
+
+Is a rich transparent colour, somewhat resembling an ochre compounded
+with Indian yellow. On exposure to light, it behaves much as a mixture
+of those pigments would do, the rich _yellowness_ entirely disappearing,
+and the sober-coloured earth being left behind.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+From several metals besides those mentioned, yellows more or less vivid
+and durable may be obtained--from tin, nickel, cerium, molybdenum, &c.;
+but we do not know that any one of them would be a really desirable
+addition. To justify its being brought out, a new pigment should own
+some special advantage, chemical or artistic, by which it may be
+distinguished from other colours. No purpose would be answered by
+crowding the palette with mere repetitions, even though they were
+stable. If, for instance, indium yellow were found exactly similar to
+that of cadmium, in colour, opacity, permanence, its presence would be
+quite superfluous. The mistake is often made of offering a fresh
+compound for a pigment when something as good or better, and cheaper may
+be, already exists. We remember a patient experimenter, who had produced
+a pink from cobalt, wondering why his colour should be so generally
+declined. The product was not wanting in either beauty or stability, but
+he forgot that the lakes of madder were far more beautiful, at least as
+durable, and much less expensive. We have said that we do not join in
+the cry of there being too many pigments, or share the opinion that
+there is not room for more, but we do enforce the necessity of progress.
+Let us have as many good colours as possible, but let the new be
+superior to the old, and all be distinct from each other.
+
+As far as yellows are concerned, the palette possesses both variety and
+durability. Opaque or transparent, bright or subdued, deep or pale, it
+presents a sufficiency of permanent pigments. Most noteworthy are
+aureolin, the deep and 'pale' cadmiums, lemon yellow, Mars yellow, the
+modern Naples yellow, the ochres, orient yellow, and raw sienna. Whether
+used alone or in tint these are, if genuine, perfectly reliable, and
+comprise the list of those durable colours which may be called pigments
+of the first class.
+
+Among pigments of the second class, or the semi-stable, gamboge holds
+the foremost place, for although not strictly durable in itself, it
+conduces to the permanence of other colours. Chrome yellows, citron
+yellow, strontian yellow, and Thwaites' yellow, also belong to this
+division.
+
+As third class pigments, or the fugitive, must be ranked Mutrie yellow
+and other lemon cadmiums, the true gallstone, Indian yellow, the lakes,
+orpiment, Gelbin's yellow, massicot, patent yellow, and turbith mineral.
+
+It must not be forgotten, however, that these three classes are subject
+to modification. A durable pigment may be so adulterated as to descend
+to the second or even the third division, while a semi-stable or
+fugitive colour may be replaced by a permanent or comparatively
+permanent substitute, as in the case of strontian yellow and gallstone.
+It should likewise be remembered that pigments are apt to vary in
+stability according to the mode of their preparation; and that, as there
+are different degrees of permanence, there are different degrees of
+fugacity.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+ON THE PRIMARY, RED.
+
+
+Red is the second and intermediate of the primary colours, standing
+between _yellow_ and _blue_; and is also in like intermediate relation
+to _white_ and _black_, or light and shade. Hence red is pre-eminent
+among colours, as well as the most positive of all, forming with yellow
+the secondary _orange_ and its near relatives, scarlet, &c.; and with
+blue, the secondary _purple_ and its allies, crimson, &c. It gives some
+degree of warmth to all colours, especially to those which partake of
+yellow.
+
+Red is the archeus, or principal colour in the tertiary _russet_; enters
+subordinately into the two other tertiaries, _citrine_ and _olive_; goes
+largely into the composition of the various hues and shades of the
+semi-neutral _marrone_ or chocolate, and its relations, puce, murrey,
+morelle, mordore, pompadour, &c.; and is more or less present in
+_browns_, _grays_, and all broken colours. It is likewise the second
+power in harmonizing and contrasting other colours, as well as in
+compounding _black_ and all other neutrals, into which it enters in the
+proportion of five,--to blue, eight,--and yellow, three.
+
+Red is a colour of double power in this respect too; that, in union or
+connexion with yellow, it becomes hot and _advancing_; but mixed or
+combined with blue, cool and _retiring_. It is, however, more congenial
+with yellow than with blue, and thence partakes more of the character of
+the former in its effects of warmth, the influence of light and
+distance, and action on the eye, by which the power of vision is
+diminished on viewing this colour in a strong light. On the other hand,
+red appears to deepen in colour rapidly in a declining light as night
+comes on, or in shade. These qualities of red give it great importance,
+render it difficult of management, and require it to be generally kept
+subordinate in painting. It is therefore rarely used unbroken, as the
+ruling or predominating colour, or for toning a picture; on which
+account it will always seem detached or insulated, unless repeated and
+subordinated. Hence Nature is sparing with her red, employing it with as
+much reserve in the decoration of her works as she is profuse in
+lavishing green upon them. This latter is of all colours the most
+soothing to the eye, and the true contrasting or harmonizing equivalent
+of red, in the proportional quantity of eleven to five, according to
+surface or intensity: being, when the red inclines to scarlet or orange,
+a _blue_-green; and when it tends to crimson or purple, a
+_yellow_-green.
+
+Red breaks and diffuses with white with peculiar loveliness. It is
+discordant when standing with orange only, requiring to be joined or
+accompanied by their proper contrast, to resolve or harmonize the
+dissonance. In landscapes, &c., abounding with hues allied to green, a
+red object properly placed as regards light, shade, or distance,
+conduces wonderfully to the life, beauty, harmony, and connexion of the
+colouring. Red is, indeed, the chief element of beauty in floral nature,
+the prime ornament of the green garb of the vegetal kingdom.
+
+Being the most _positive_ of colours, and holding the middle station of
+the primaries, red contrasts and harmonizes with black and white, which
+are the _negative_ powers or neutrals of colours, and the extremes of
+the scale. Moreover, as red is less nearly allied to black or shade than
+to white or light, this harmony is most remarkable in the union or
+opposition of white and red, and this contrast most powerful in black
+and red.
+
+As a primary and simple colour, red cannot be composed by mixture of
+other colours. So much is it the instrument of beauty in nature and art
+in flesh, flowers, &c., that good pigments of this genus are most
+indispensable. On the whole, the palette cannot be considered so well
+furnished with reds as with yellows. Especially is there wanting a
+permanent transparent scarlet, a colour for which a prize of £500 has
+for many years been offered by the Society of Arts.
+
+68. CADMIUM RED.
+
+The deep, pale, and lemon yellows which cadmium at first afforded, were
+followed by an orange, which has quite recently been succeeded by a red.
+This is a most vivid orange-scarlet, the red predominating, of exceeding
+depth, and intense fire. It is a simple original pigment, containing no
+base but cadmium, and possessing a large amount of latent colour. It is
+more orange in hue than vermilion, and has the advantages of flowing and
+drying well, of greater brilliancy, of retaining that brilliancy when
+dry, and of considerable transparency. Hence this red is preferably
+employed where opacity is to be avoided--in sunset clouds for instance.
+As day declines or by artificial light, the colour approaches very
+nearly to a deep pure scarlet; and the best substitute for a permanent
+transparent scarlet which has yet been obtained is furnished by
+admixture of cadmium red with madder carmine, or by using the latter as
+a glaze. Compounded with white, the red yields a series of fine flesh
+tints; and it mixes readily and safely with other colours. Without
+harshness or rankness, neither injured by an impure atmosphere nor
+exposure to light and air, cadmium red is eligible in every department
+of art, enamel painting only excepted. In illumination, the red
+contrasted by viridian will be found most beautiful and effective.
+Seeing that previous to its introduction the number of bright reds, not
+being crimson, nor of a crimson cast, was limited to vermilions, pure
+scarlet, red chrome, and red lead, of which the first alone were
+permanent, there was room on the palette for a strictly durable and
+somewhat transparent pigment like cadmium red, with its many distinctive
+properties.
+
+
+COCHINEAL LAKES.
+
+Lake, a term derived from the _lac_ or _lacca_ of India, is the name of
+a number of transparent red and other coloured pigments of great beauty,
+prepared for the most part by precipitating coloured tinctures of dyeing
+drugs upon aluminous bases. Consequently, the lakes form a numerous
+class, both with respect to the variety of their appellations, and the
+substances whence they are produced. Those under notice are known as
+_Carmine_, _Crimson Lake_, _Scarlet Lake_, _Purple Lake_, _Chinese
+Lake_, _Florentine Lake_, _Hamburgh Lake_, _Roman Lake_, _Venetian
+Lake_, &c., and are obtained from the "coccus cacti," an insect found on
+a species of cactus, from the juice of which it extracts its
+nourishment. This coccus is a native of Mexico, where two kinds are
+recognised, under names which signify wild cochineal and fine cochineal.
+The latter may be considered a cultivated product, its food and wants
+being carefully attended to, while the former is left in a natural
+state, and is less valuable. Wild cochineal is distinguished by having a
+woolly downy coat, which is not the case with the fine cochineal. The
+females, of which there are from one hundred and fifty to two hundred
+for each male, are marked by the absence of wings, and constitute the
+commercial article. They are generally killed by immersion in boiling
+water, which causes them to swell to twice their natural size, and are
+then dried and packed for market. The insects shrivel in drying, and
+assume the form of irregular grains, fluted and concave. The best sorts
+have a silvery-grey colour, with a purplish reflection, and seem to be
+dusted with a white powder. This appearance is often given by means of
+heavy spar, carbonate of lead, Venice talc, &c. A good lens, however,
+will mostly expose the fraud; or it may be detected by macerating the
+insect in water, and allowing the loosened pulverised particles to
+settle.
+
+Cochineal is a very rich colouring substance, yielding about half its
+weight of real colouring matter, which may be easily extracted by
+boiling in water. Dr. Warren De La Rue, who examined the living animal,
+states that on piercing the side of the insect a purplish-red fluid
+exuded, containing the colouring matter in minute granules. This
+colouring matter he succeeded in obtaining pure, in the form of a
+purple-brown friable mass, pulverizable to a fine red powder,
+transparent when viewed by the microscope, and soluble both in water and
+alcohol in all proportions. At temperatures above 136° it decomposed,
+and by alkalies its colour was turned to purple. These facts account for
+the care required in drying cochineal lakes, and for their liability to
+change of hue when in contact with alkaline substances, as in mural
+decoration.
+
+The lakes of cochineal may be known from those of the dye-woods by their
+solubility in ammonia, a liquid which purples but does not dissolve the
+colours produced from the latter.
+
+69. CARMINE.
+
+A name once given only to the fine feculences of kermes and cochineal
+tinctures, now denotes generally any pigment which resembles them in
+beauty, richness of hue, and powdery texture. We have, therefore, blue
+and other coloured carmines, though the term is usually confined to the
+crimson and scarlet lakes of cochineal. As at present commonly
+understood, carmine is that preparation of cochineal which contains the
+most colouring matter and the least aluminous base. Hence it is the
+richest, deepest, most intense, and most permanent. Although not to be
+classed as durable, yet by reason of its extreme depth, carmine is more
+stable than the weaker crimson, scarlet, and purple lakes. When
+well-made, pure, and employed alone and in body, it has been known to
+retain its colour for years, especially if protected by oil or varnish.
+In tint with white lead, however, it has no stability; and though little
+affected by impure air, in glazing it is soon discoloured and destroyed
+by the action of light. Of great power in its full touches, it possesses
+considerable clearness in the pale washes, and works admirably. In
+landscape, carmine is seldom used, the colour being chiefly valued in
+flower painting and illumination.
+
+It has been erroneously stated that the finest carmines cannot be made
+in England, owing to a want of clearness in the atmosphere and a
+scarcity of sunshine. For many years, however, they have been produced
+in this country, not only finer than any foreign preparations, but
+equally good in winter as in summer.
+
+Carmine is sometimes sophisticated with starch, vermilion, and with
+alumina not formed in the process of manufacture. Occasionally also, a
+portion of the animal matter of the cochineal from which it has been
+obtained is left mixed with it. These accidental or intentional
+impurities may mostly be detected by heating the carmine with liquid
+ammonia, which entirely dissolves the colouring matter and leaves the
+impurities in an insoluble state.
+
+70. CRIMSON LAKE
+
+Is a cochineal pigment containing more aluminous base than carmine, and
+is consequently weaker in colour and less stable. Deficient in much of
+the depth and brilliancy which belong to the latter, it is more commonly
+employed and more generally useful. This lake is of service in mixing
+tints, to impart richness, in flower painting and illumination, and is,
+like all cochineal colours, of greater utility in water than in oil.
+With cobalt and gamboge it yields an excellent gray, and with cobalt
+alone a fine purple for heather. Distant hills may be strengthened with
+a tint of French blue and lake, and Vandyke brown with the crimson will
+be found admirable for a rich coloured foreground. Many other beautiful
+tints, unexceptionable in an artistic sense, are afforded by crimson
+lake on admixture. It should be remembered, however, that not one of
+them is permanent as far as the lake is concerned. All cochineal
+pigments are more or less affected by strong light, which weakens their
+tints, and in time deprives them of colour; and it is not by being
+compounded that a fugitive colour is rendered durable.
+
+71. SCARLET LAKE
+
+Is prepared in the form of drops from cochineal, and is of a fine
+transparent red colour and excellent body, though, like other lakes, it
+dries slowly. Discoloured and destroyed by strong light both in water
+and oil, and not permanent in tint with white lead or in combination
+with other pigments, it possesses the common attributes of cochineal
+lakes. Yet when well prepared, used in sufficient body, and not unduly
+exposed, it has been found to last a lengthened period; but it ought
+never to be employed in glazing, nor at all in works that aim at high
+reputation and stability. It is in general tinted with vermilion, which
+has probably been mixed with lakes at all times to give their scarlet
+hue and add to their weight; for upon examining with a powerful lens
+some fine pictures of ancient masters, in which lake had been used in
+glazing, particles of vermilion were apparent, from which lake had
+evidently flown. Unfortunately, these lakes are injured by vermilion as
+they are by lead, so that glazings of cochineal over vermilion or lead
+are particularly apt to vanish. This effect is very remarkable in
+several pictures of Cuyp, where he has introduced a figure in red from
+which the shadows have disappeared, owing to their having been formed
+with lake over vermilion. The scarlet hue of this lake should properly
+be imparted to it during the process of manufacture, and not by
+subsequent mechanical admixture.
+
+72. PURPLE LAKE
+
+Is a species of crimson lake with a purple cast, transparent and
+deep-toned, and useful in shadows: in other respects resembling that
+pigment. Red being its predominant colour, we have preferred classing
+this so-called purple among the reds, in spite of its name. On the whole
+it is more durable than crimson lake.
+
+73. FLORENTINE LAKE
+
+Differs from scarlet lake only in the mode of preparation. Formerly the
+lake so called was extracted from the shreds of scarlet cloth. The same
+may be said of _Chinese Lake_.
+
+74. HAMBURGH LAKE
+
+Is a lake of great power and depth of colour, purplish or inclining to
+crimson, which dries with extreme difficulty, but differs in no other
+essential respect from preceding cochineal lakes--an observation which
+applies to _Roman Lake_, _Venetian Lake_, and many others; none of
+which, however beautiful or reputed, is entitled to the character of
+stability either in hue, shade, or tint.
+
+75. DRAGON'S BLOOD
+
+Is a resin brought from the East Indies. It is of a warm
+semi-transparent, rather dull red colour, which is deepened by impure
+air, and darkened by light. There are two or three sorts, but that in
+drops is the best. White lead soon destroys it, and in oil it dries with
+extreme difficulty. It is sometimes used to colour varnishes and
+lackers, being soluble in oils and alcohol. Although it has been
+recommended as a pigment, dragon's blood does not merit the attention of
+the artist.
+
+76. INDIAN LAKE,
+
+Likewise called _Lac Lake_. This is obtained from the lac or lacca of
+India, a resinous secretion which seems to depend upon the puncture of a
+small insect--_coccus ficus_--made for the sake of depositing its ova on
+the branches of several plants, found in Siam, Assam, and Bengal. The
+twigs soon become encrusted with a mammelated substance of a red colour
+more or less deep, nearly transparent, hard, and having a brilliant
+conchoidal fracture. The roughly-prepared coating is imported in two
+forms, called lac-lake and lac-dye, which contain about 50 per cent of
+colouring matter, combined with more or less resin, and with earthy
+matters, consisting chiefly of carbonate and sulphate of lime and
+silica.
+
+Indian lake is rich, transparent, and deep,--less brilliant and more
+durable than the colours of cochineal, but inferior in both respects to
+those of madder. Used thickly or in strong glazing, as a shadow colour,
+it is of great body and much permanence; but in thin glazing it changes
+and flies, as it also does in tint with white lead. In the properties of
+drying, &c., it resembles other lakes. The pigment may be dispensed with
+in favour of madder lake and madder brown, whose combinations serve for
+every purpose to which it can be applied, and are stable.
+
+Lac appears to be the lake which has stood best in old pictures, and was
+probably employed by the Venetians, who had the trade of India when
+painting flourished at Venice.
+
+
+MADDER LAKES.
+
+_Rubric Lakes_, or _Field's Lakes_, are derived from the root of "rubia
+tinctorum," a plant largely grown in France and Holland, whence the bulk
+of that used in England is obtained. The French madders are in a state
+of very fine powder, containing one half their weight of gum, sugar,
+salts, and other soluble substances, which water speedily dissolves.
+Madder roots in the unground state are imported from the Levant, and
+called Turkey roots. Good qualities of Turkey madder yield near sixty
+per cent of extractive matters, a term that includes everything
+removable by water and dilute alkalis: the woody fibre is therefore
+about forty per cent. This is presuming the root to be genuine, for
+madder is often adulterated with brickdust, red ochre, red sand, clay,
+mahogany sawdust, logwood, sandal and japan-wood, and bran.
+
+Unlike cochineal, madder possesses several colouring matters; the
+question of which, despite the learned researches of Dr. Schunck and
+others, is far from settled yet. The following remarks embody our own
+experience of the root, simply as a pigment-producing product:--
+
+Madder contains five colouring matters--yellow, red, orange, purple, and
+brown. Of these, the first colour is soluble in cold water. By washing
+the powdered root quickly with it by decantation, the yellow and brown
+are extracted in the form of an opaque liquid. If this be decanted and
+allowed to stand, the brown deposits, leaving a clear buffish-yellow
+supernatant liquor. In the root from which the extract was poured, the
+remaining three colours are left. On adding a strong boiling solution of
+alum, these are dissolved, yielding a fine red liquid. From this there
+can be thrown down, by the agency of different chemicals, a red, an
+orange, or a purple precipitate. Or, supposing the whole of the
+colouring matter to be deposited as a red lake, it is possible to
+convert this--also by the agency of different chemicals--either into
+orange or purple. Hence, for all practical purposes, madder contains but
+three colouring matters: a yellow, soluble in cold water; a brown, not
+soluble in, but capable of being extracted by cold water; and a red,
+soluble in boiling alum, and furnishing at will a purple or an orange.
+
+As was observed in the previous chapter, no good pigment is obtained
+from the yellow, of which the less there is present the better; but the
+brown affords a valued product, which will be duly noticed. It is
+essential to the purity of the reds, that the madder should be freed
+from both these colours; and it was probably due to insufficient aqueous
+washing of the root, that the old lakes were dull and muddy, mere
+brick-reds of ochrous hues. For many years, however, lakes have been
+prepared perfectly transparent, and literally as beautiful and pure in
+colour as the rose; qualities in which they are unrivalled by the lakes
+and carmine of cochineal. They have justly been considered as supplying
+a desideratum, and as among the most valuable acquisitions of the
+palette in modern times, since permanent transparent red and rose
+pigments were previously unknown. The red varieties range from rich
+crimson to a delicate rose, and are known as _Madder Carmine_, _Field's
+Carmine_, _Pink Madder_, _Rose Madder_, _Madder Lake_, and _Liquid
+Rubiate_ or _Liquid Madder Lake_.
+
+77. MADDER CARMINE,
+
+Or _Field's Carmine_, like that of cochineal, is the richest and deepest
+lake prepared, containing most colouring matter and least base. It
+differs from the paler products chiefly in transparency and intensity,
+and is the only durable carmine for painting either in water or oil; for
+both which it is qualified by texture without previous grinding. In
+common with the other reds of madder, its faint washes possess greater
+clearness than those of cochineal. This carmine is a difficult colour to
+make well, exceeding care and nicety being required to obtain the
+fullest tint: hence it is apt to vary in hue according to the skill of
+the manufacturer. Being expensive also, the price increasing according
+to depth of colour, the lake has been the most liable to adulteration,
+of all the reds of madder. Mérimée states that samples were sent to him
+from Berlin, under the name of "carmine madder," which evidently owed
+their brightness to tincture of cochineal. It is certain that madder
+lakes have been imitated on the Continent with various success by those
+of lac, cochineal, and carthamus or safflower. The best we have seen is
+the _laque de garance_, which was tinged with the rouge of carthamus,
+and was of course inferior in durability. As, however, liquid ammonia
+and alkalis generally dissolve the colours of cochineal, lac, and
+safflower, the test is simple. If the liquid remain uncoloured on
+adding ammonia to an assumed madder lake, in all probability the pigment
+is genuine.
+
+78. ROSE MADDER.
+
+The exquisite flowers of Bartholomew, Miss Mutrie, and others, give
+evidence of the beauty, purity, and stability of the reds of madder,
+both in water and oil. This variety, less intense than the preceding and
+without its carmine hue, is of a rich rose colour--a true rose--tending
+neither to crimson, scarlet, nor purple. Marked by a peculiar softness,
+and an unusual clearness in its pale washes, rose madder affords the
+most perfect carnation tints known. Not liable to change by the action
+of light, impure air, or admixture with white lead and other colours, it
+resembles all madder lakes in these respects. Like them, too, it is but
+a tardy dryer in oil unless thoroughly edulcorated, and does not work in
+water with the entire fulness and facility of cochineal pigments. When,
+therefore, permanence is of no consideration, the latter may still be
+preferred. In those works, however, where the hues and tints of nature
+are to be imitated with stability and pure effect, the rose colours of
+madder are become indispensable. They have this advantage, moreover,
+that they possess the property of ultramarine of improving in hue by
+time--their tendency being to their own specific prismatic red colour.
+As they are too beautiful and require saddening for the general use of
+the painter, the addition of manganese brown, cappagh brown, or burnt
+umber, adds to their powers, and improves their drying in oils; for
+which last purpose a little japanner's gold size may be likewise
+employed.
+
+In the light touches of bright clouds or mountains, where a mixture of
+cadmium yellow and Chinese white is used, rose madder is invaluable for
+glazing over such touches when dry, should they be required of a warmer
+hue. The red portion of sunset skies may be improved by a thin wash of
+this pigment, tinged perhaps with the above yellow, or with gamboge.
+Most serviceable landscape tints are afforded by admixture of rose
+madder with cobalt, Indian red, purple madder, yellow ochre, lamp black,
+&c. In painting flesh, the lake cannot be dispensed with.
+
+79. PINK MADDER
+
+Was a weaker preparation of the preceding, paler in hue and possessing
+less colour. It was formerly employed in miniature painting, but with
+the decline of that art became less and less used, until it may now be
+said to be obsolete. The name, however, still lives, but is applied to
+rose madder, which is indeed indifferently called _Rose Madder_, _Pink
+Madder_, or _Madder Lake_. Speaking of pink roses, Mrs. Duffield remarks
+that "the local colour is best imitated with pink madder," and the
+Messrs. Rowbotham observe "this heather may be best represented by
+cobalt and madder lake." In trade catalogues several names are often
+given, as in this instance, to one and the same pigment. The seeming
+superfluity is rendered necessary through some artists knowing a pigment
+by one name and some by another. Hence arises the value of a list of
+synonyms.
+
+80. LIQUID RUBIATE,
+
+_Rose Rubiate_, or _Liquid Madder Lake_, is a concentrated tincture of
+madder of the most beautiful and perfect rose colour and transparency.
+It is used as a water colour only in its simple state, diluted with
+water, and with or without gum. In oil it dries by acting as a
+siccative. Mixed or ground with all other madder colours, with or
+without gum, it forms combinations which work freely in water, and
+produce the most charming and stable effects. The rubiate also furnishes
+a fine red ink, and is a durable stain for printing on cotton, &c. To
+the tinting of maps and charts permanently, it is peculiarly suited.
+
+81. MARS RED
+
+Or _Rouge de Mars_, is an artificial iron ochre, similar in subdued tint
+and permanence to the native earths. Its chemical affinities, however,
+are greater than those of the latter, and it therefore requires to be
+employed cautiously with pigments affected by iron. In this respect the
+red resembles its compeers, Mars yellow, Mars orange, Mars violet, and
+Mars brown, all of which are iron ochres artificially prepared.
+Possessing the richness and depth of Indian red, it is distinguished by
+the russet-orange hue of light red. Its pale washes are marked by
+considerable clearness. In keeping the Mars colours separate from the
+ochres, we have followed the plan of the author.
+
+
+OCHRES
+
+Comprise _Red Ochre_, _Indian Red_, _Light Red_, _Venetian Red_,
+_English Red_, _Persian Red_, _Prussian Red_, _Spanish Red_, _Brown
+Red_, _Indian Ochre_, _Scarlet Ochre_, _Carnagione_, _Terra Puzzoli_,
+_English Vermilion_, _Spanish Brown_, _Majolica_, _Redding_, _Ruddle_,
+_Bole_, _Almagra_, _Sil Atticum_, _Terra Sinopica_, &c. They are rather
+hues and tints than definite colours, or more properly belong to the
+tertiary, semi-neutral, and broken colours. As a rule they are native
+pigments, found in most countries, and very abundantly and fine in our
+own; but some are products of manufacture, and obtainable in the variety
+of nature by art.
+
+The colouring matter of these earths is the red oxide of iron, as that
+of the yellow ochres is the yellow oxide. All the yellow ochres are more
+or less reddened by being burnt, as yellow oxide of iron itself becomes
+red on calcination. It was observed in the fourth chapter that time has
+often the effect of fire, more or less intense; and hence it is that
+yellow ochres occasionally assume a buffish-red hue, by the gradual
+peroxidation of the iron. Similarly, if a yellow ochre be but partially
+calcined, the red so obtained is apt to deepen or darken. Especially do
+these changes take place when the iron oxides are not associated with an
+earthy base; when, in fact, the so-called ochres cannot be classed as
+such. In this case, too, as was lately remarked, the pigments are more
+chemically active, and more likely to affect those colours to which iron
+is inimical.
+
+82. RED OCHRE
+
+Is a native earth; sometimes brown ochre burnt, and called _Brown Red_.
+It is less pure in hue and clear in its tints than light red, and is
+best reserved for dark and vigorous shades and touches. For draperies of
+a dusky red it is well suited, or even for the shadows of bright-red
+drapery. In dead colouring it is very valuable. Like all ochres, it is
+characterized by permanence in water, oil, crayons, and fresco; and is,
+like most of them, available in enamel-painting.
+
+Almagra, the Sil Atticum of the ancients, is a deep red ochre found in
+Andalusia; as is also their Terra Sinopica or Armenian Bole, dug
+originally in Cappadocia, and now found in New Jersey and elsewhere
+under the name of Bloodstone.
+
+83. INDIAN RED,
+
+Once known as _Persian Red_, is brought from Bengal. It is a natural
+earth rich in peroxide of iron, of a purple russet hue and good body,
+and valued when fine for the clearness and soft lakey tone of its tints.
+In a crude state it is a coarse powder, full of extremely hard and
+brilliant particles of a dark appearance and sometimes magnetic. It is
+greatly improved by grinding and washing over, and is very permanent.
+Neither light, impure air, mixture with other colours, time, nor fire,
+effects any sensible change in it; but being opaque and not keeping its
+place well, it is unsuited for glazing. This pigment differs
+considerably in its hues, that which is most rosy being esteemed the
+best, and affording the purest tints. Inferior ochres were formerly
+substituted for Indian red, which procured it a variable character; but
+the colour being now obtained abundantly can in general be had genuine.
+It is a good drier.
+
+Mixed with Indian ink, it furnishes useful shadows; and compounded with
+cobalt or indigo, most serviceable grays. For sunsets, where deep purple
+lines are louring over the horizon's brink, a mixture of French blue
+with a little Indian red and lake is admirably adapted. In twilight and
+stormy clouds, in sails and buildings, in shade carnations of portraits
+and backgrounds, &c., the red is often employed.
+
+84. LIGHT RED
+
+Is an ochre of an orange-russet hue, chiefly valued for its tints. The
+principal yellow ochres afford this colour best, and the brighter and
+clearer the yellow ochre is from which it is prepared, the brighter will
+the red be, and the better flesh tints will it yield with white. Light
+red has the good properties common to ochres, dries capitally, and
+furnishes an excellent crayon. It is much used both in figure and
+landscape painting, giving fine grays with cobalt, and serviceable
+compounds with yellow ochre, indigo, lamp black, rose madder, Payne's
+grey, brown madder, &c.
+
+Terra Puzzoli, a volcanic production, is a species of light red, as is
+the Carnagione of the Italians.
+
+85. VENETIAN RED,
+
+Less known as _English Red_, _Prussian Red_, and _Scarlet Ochre_. True
+Venetian red, that is, the red of the Venetians, was probably brought
+from India, and similar to our modern Indian red. The Venetian red of
+the present day, however, is an artificial product, containing no earthy
+base, and therefore improperly classed among the ochres. It is prepared
+by calcining sulphate of iron, to which a little nitre may be
+advantageously added. The result is a peroxide of iron, resembling light
+red, but more powerful, and of a more scarlet hue. It is very permanent,
+but being a purely iron pigment, should be cautiously employed with
+colours affected by that metal. Though not bright, its tints are clear,
+and it mixes and works kindly with cobalt or French blue, affording fine
+pearly grays. Heightened by madder lake, it furnishes a glowing red,
+very useful in some descriptions of skies; and saddened by black, it
+gives low toned reds of good quality for buildings. With white it
+produces carnation tints nearly approaching to nature, and much employed
+by Titian, Vandyke, and others. Compounded with aureolin, Venetian red
+yields a clear orange of considerable transparency.
+
+_Spanish Red_ is an ochre differing little from the above.
+
+86. PURE SCARLET,
+
+Or _Iodine Scarlet_, is an iodide of mercury, having the body and
+opacity of vermilion, and being as much inferior to it in permanence as
+it is superior in brilliancy. Of all artistic pigments, it is at once
+the most dazzling and the most fugitive, and should have no place on the
+palette. If used, it should be with an ivory knife, as iron and most
+metals change it to colours varying from yellow to black; hence it
+should never be compounded with metallic pigments. So sensitive, indeed,
+is it to the slightest touch of metal, that it has been known to turn to
+a dull brown merely by being washed over with a colour which had been
+taken out of its saucer with a penknife. In the cake, it must be
+carefully kept wrapped up in paper, otherwise the presence of metal
+tubes or a knife in the colour-box may spoil it. By a foul atmosphere,
+the scarlet is soon utterly destroyed, and even metallized. In contact
+with the air, it quickly fades away; and has been found to vanish
+completely, when exposed to light alone. Employed in water, a thick
+glaze of gum-arabic or gamboge adds to its stability. As a landscape
+pigment, the colour is out of the general scale of nature; but in
+flower-painting its charms are almost irresistible. Nothing certainly
+can approach it as a colour for scarlet geraniums, but its beauty is
+almost as fleeting as the flowers.
+
+87. RED CHROME,
+
+Also called _Scarlet Chrome_, is a bright chromate of lead of an
+orange-red colour, the red being predominant. Rank in tone, it is liable
+to the changes of the yellow chromes, though in a less degree. The
+recent introduction of cadmium red renders the use of this unnecessary.
+
+88. RED LEAD,
+
+_Minium_, or _Saturnine Red_, is an ancient pigment, by some old writers
+confounded with cinnabar, and termed Sinoper or Synoper. It is an oxide
+of uncertain composition, prepared by subjecting massicot to the heat of
+a furnace with an expanded surface and free accession of air. Of a
+scarlet colour and fine hue, it is warmer than common vermilion, whose
+body and opacity it possesses, and with which it was once customary to
+mix it. Bright, but not so vivid as the iodide of mercury, it is more
+durable, although far less so than vermilion. When pure and alone, light
+does not affect its colour, which soon flies, however, on being mixed
+with white lead or any preparation of that metal. By impure air, red
+lead is blackened and ultimately metallized.
+
+On account of its extreme fugacity when compounded with white lead, this
+red cannot be used in tints; but employed, unmixed with other pigments,
+in simple varnish or oil not rendered drying by any metallic oxide, it
+may stand a long time under favourable circumstances. It is an excellent
+dryer in oil, and has often been used as a siccative with other colours,
+but it cannot safely be so employed except with the ochres, earths, and
+blacks in general. Oils, varnishes, and, in some measure, strong
+mucilages, are preventive of chemical action in the compounding of
+colours, by intervening and clothing the particles of pigments; and
+hence heterogeneous and injudicious tints and mixtures have sometimes
+stood well, but are not to be relied upon in practice. Altogether, red
+lead is a dangerous pigment in any but skilled hands, and has naturally
+had a variable character for permanence. It is frequently adulterated
+with earthy substances, such as brickdust, red ochre, and colcotha.
+
+
+VERMILIONS.
+
+Vermilion is so called from the Italian word _vermiglio_ (little worm,)
+given to the kermes or "coccus ilicis," which was used as a scarlet dye
+before the introduction of cochineal. It is a sulphuret of mercury,
+which previous to levigation is called Cinnabar; and is found native in
+quicksilver mines, as well as produced artificially. This is an ancient
+pigment, the [Greek: kinnabari] of the Greeks, and the _minium_--a term
+now confined to red lead--of older writers. Pliny states that it was so
+esteemed by the Romans, as to have its price fixed by express law of
+state. Among other places, the natural product is met with in
+California, Spain, and Peru; and in China there is a native cinnabar so
+pure as only to require grinding to become very perfect vermilion.
+Whether the natural possesses any advantages over the artificial,
+appears to admit of doubt: Bouvier thought that the former blackened
+more than the latter, and others coincide with him. As, however, native
+vermilion has become commercially obsolete, the question of their
+comparative permanence is of little importance. Theoretically, it is
+difficult to assign a reason why there should be any difference between
+the two.
+
+Vermilion is capable of being made by both wet and dry processes, but
+the last are almost exclusively adopted on a scale, and are, we
+believe, preferable. Our opinion, expressed with some diffidence, is,
+that pigments whose colour depends on the union of sulphur with a
+metal--such as vermilion and cadmium yellow--are more stable when the
+sulphur is forced to bite into the base. This can only be effected by a
+considerable degree of heat, far greater than can be obtained in any
+moist method. We hold that in pigments so produced, the sulphur is less
+liable to oxidation by air and light, and that therefore the colour
+better withstands exposure to those agents. Before now, vermilions have
+been taxed with fading in a strong light: supposing them genuine, it
+would be interesting to know by what mode they were manufactured.
+
+There are two kinds of vermilion in common use, European and Chinese, of
+which the first inclines to orange and the second to purple. These
+include the several varieties known as--_Vermilion_, _Deep Vermilion_,
+_Pale Vermilion_, _Scarlet Vermilion_, _Chinese Vermilion_, _Carmine
+Vermilion_, _Extract of Vermilion_, _Orange Vermilion_, and _Field's
+Orange Vermilion_.
+
+89. VERMILION,
+
+Deep or pale, when well made and pure is of strict permanence, not
+sensibly affected by light, time, or foul air; and eligible either in
+water, oil, or fresco. For an enamel colour it is unsuited, being
+dissipated at a red heat, a test that detects the presence of any
+non-volatile adulterant. The best vermilion is a powerful vivid colour,
+higher in tone than all reds, except the scarlet iodide of mercury. With
+this it should not be compounded, but with other pigments it may safely
+be used in admixture, as far as its own colour is concerned. Of great
+body, weight, and opacity, it is a somewhat slow drier; and does not
+retain that brilliancy when dry, which is peculiar to it while wet. A
+want of transparency, and not drying well, prevent its being so
+generally employed as would be desirable. Pictures should seem to be
+painted with colour, not with pigment, the material being lost amid the
+hues, tints, and shades; but with such compounds as vermilion, the art
+of concealing art becomes difficult indeed. The pigment is apt to
+predominate over the colour, and the painting to look mechanical rather
+than natural: particles are apparent where hues alone should be seen,
+and all sense of reality is destroyed. For these reasons, vermilion is a
+dangerous pigment in unskilled hands, needing an intimate acquaintance
+with its physical properties. The extreme weight or specific gravity of
+the red renders it liable to sink and separate when compounded with
+other colours; hence the heavier those mixed with it the better. Its
+almost equal opacity, too, and habit of washing up, militate against its
+use by young painters. With experience, however, and due care, this is
+a serviceable colour; yielding with white most delicate flesh tints, and
+in minute proportion with cobalt or French blue and white, tender aërial
+grays.
+
+Being cheaper than formerly, vermilion is not so much adulterated as it
+once was; although, even now, brickdust, orpiment, &c. sometimes
+sophisticate it. The knavish practices to which the pigment has been
+subjected, have acquired it an ill-fame both with authors and artists.
+Vermilion has been charged with fading in the light, and with being
+blackened by impure air; but it was the custom to crimson the colour by
+means of lake, or tone it to a scarlet hue by red lead. With pigments as
+with persons, evil communications corrupt good manners--a motto that
+might be written with advantage on every palette.
+
+90. SCARLET VERMILION
+
+Resembles the preceding in all respects, except in being more scarlet in
+its tint, and washing better; advantages which render it more useful
+when the tone is required to be very bright and pure. At one time, the
+Dutch alone in Europe possessed the secret of giving to vermilion a rich
+scarlet colour.
+
+91. CHINESE VERMILION,
+
+Or _Carmine Vermilion_, partakes of a crimson hue, and is adapted,
+mixed with white, for the rose and lilac-tints of some complexions. Like
+other vermilions, however, the colour needs much nicety of management;
+and it must not be attempted to further enrich it by admixture of
+cochineal lakes. Those colours, as we have remarked, cannot safely be
+brought into contact with vermilion, either compounded or as a glaze.
+The reds of madder should be substituted for them.
+
+92. EXTRACT OF VERMILION,
+
+A somewhat curious name for a metallic colour, was a peculiar
+preparation of the author, possessing in its time certain advantages
+over other vermilions, and especially distinguished by a more scarlet
+hue. Now, however, extract of vermilion and scarlet vermilion are
+synonymous terms.
+
+93. ORANGE VERMILION
+
+Is rather more transparent than ordinary vermilion, with a clear but not
+bright orange hue. It also washes better, and is for landscape purposes
+more generally useful. Resembling red-lead in appearance, it is not
+subject to its changes, being perfectly durable in oil and water. A most
+powerful tinger of white, its tints are warmer than red-lead's,
+affording delicate carnations similar to those of Titian and Rubens.
+This pigment--or, preferably, the succeeding variety--may be employed
+with excellent results in scumbling of flesh, for which Sir Joshua
+Reynolds improperly used the so-called red orpiment. It dries in simple
+linseed oil, but works with best effect in water with a considerable
+portion of gum. In speaking of sunset and sunrise clouds, Mr. Penley
+observes--"Orange vermilion if used so thin as to get rid of its
+opacity, is a fine tone; but it must be remembered that _transparency_
+is the character of the sunset or sunrise, and hence arises the
+difficulty of employing such opaque colour effectively." Before the
+introduction of cadmium red, this and the following pigment were the
+best and only unexceptionable orange-reds known. It is probable,
+however, that the new colour will in a great measure supersede these
+latter in cases where transparency is sought. Orange vermilion is often
+a mixture, in which case the yellow employed is apt to separate from the
+red and float on its surface.
+
+94. FIELD'S ORANGE VERMILION
+
+Is a superior preparation to the preceding, being brighter, purer, and
+clearer. It possesses also, less opacity, and is not a compound. Both
+pigments are rather reds with an orange cast than strictly orange
+colours, and are therefore inserted in this chapter.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+95. _Antimony Red_,
+
+Or Mineral Kermes. We have obtained this colour ranging from light
+orange to deep carmine, of different degrees of brightness and
+stability. Some of the tints stood well in a book, but faded on exposure
+to light and air; and some even vanished when secluded from those
+agents. It has more than once been recommended as a pigment, but our
+experience is against its adoption by artists. The colour is not
+affected by sulphuretted hydrogen.
+
+96. _Chica Red_
+
+Is extracted from the leaves of a tree growing in central and southern
+America. A sample examined by Mr. O'Neill was in small irregular lumps,
+of a bright scarlet colour, adherent to the tongue like indigo, and
+taking a metallic polish of a greenish reflection, when rubbed against a
+hard smooth body, as the finger nail. So far it seems to be only
+employed by the Indians as a paint for their bodies, mixed up with fatty
+matters. It has doubtless been used in painting: for in the old churches
+of those parts of America there is a good deal of red colour, which
+remains brilliant and sound after a couple of centuries; and from the
+appearance of it, and such accounts as can be collected, it is probably
+this chica. A portion was forwarded to an eminent artist in England, to
+ascertain whether it would be of any value as a pigment in the fine
+arts. His report is stated to have been unfavourable; and the chica,
+contained in a gourd labelled "Chica d'Andiguez," was then tested as to
+its capabilities for dyeing and printing. Fine and durable reds were
+found to be produced by it upon woollen, equal to those of cochineal. To
+mordanted calico the shades imparted were dull and heavy, but very
+solid. Chica is described as a very strong colouring matter, a small
+quantity dyeing a large amount of cloth, and as more nearly resembling
+lac lake than anything else.
+
+No information existing as to its price, or the quantity that could be
+obtained if it were wanted, chica remains in the state of an unapplied
+product. If it really possess, however, the durability assigned to it,
+this red is worth attention. With regard to the artist's disapproval,
+the chica sent him may not have been properly or sufficiently prepared
+to adapt it for a pigment.
+
+97. _Coal-Tar Colours._
+
+Our work might be considered incomplete without some allusion to the
+coal-tar colours, even though they are rather dyes than pigments, not
+possessing sufficient stability for the palette. To avoid repeated
+reference, we have preferred grouping them in this chapter, irrespective
+of hue. Consequently, yellow, red, blue, orange, green, purple, brown,
+and black, will be all comprised under the heading of coal-tar colours.
+
+Previous to the year 1856 the colouring matters derived from coal-tar
+were practically unknown. Until then, that black evil-smelling substance
+was looked upon as almost worthless; but gradually the unsightly grub
+emerged into a beautiful butterfly, clothed first in mauve and next in
+magenta. After its long winter of neglect, there sprung from coal-tar
+the most vivid and varied hues, like flowers from the earth at spring.
+At a touch of the fairy wand of science, the waste land became a garden
+of tropic tints, and colour succeeded colour, until the whole gamut had
+been gone through. Never was transformation more dazzling or more
+complete. The once despised refuse was now a valued commercial
+product--indeed a trade in itself. Perfectly fascinated by the study,
+chemists threw themselves heart and soul into coal-tar, and coal-tar
+colours were to be seen everywhere.
+
+It were beside our purpose to enter into the various stages through
+which coal has to pass to become colour. Enough to state that to the
+introduction of gas-light we are indebted for the acquisition of
+coal-tar colours, the starting point for the production of mauve,
+magenta, &c., being the manufacture of coal-gas. From the destructive
+distillation of coal, coal-tar oil results; and from this are obtained
+the products which yield the colours in question. Among these products
+may be mentioned aniline, rosaniline, napthaline, chinoline, carbolic
+acid, picric acid, &c., with their derivatives.
+
+Of the fifty-one compounds furnished by the distillation of coal,
+perhaps the most popularly associated with coal-tar colours is aniline,
+to which we will therefore confine ourselves. Discovered in 1826, this
+body was formerly prepared from indigo--in Spanish, _anil_, whence the
+name; but is now produced on a larger scale from benzol, a coal-tar
+product. As the source of mauve and magenta, aniline must be considered
+the parent of coal-tar colours generally. Little was known of it at one
+time except that on being mixed with a solution of chloride of lime
+there was formed a splendid purple liquid, which immediately gave place
+to a dingy reddish precipitate. From the investigation of this simple
+fact, however, by Mr. W. Perkin, there was created a new and important
+branch of chemical industry--the manufacture of coal-tar colours. The
+violet mauve led the way, followed by the red magenta, the blue azuline,
+the yellow phosphine, the green emeraldine, the orange aurine, by
+purple, and brown, and black. Such were the hues, with many intermediate
+tints and shades, which one reaction brought forth. The world rubbed its
+eyes with astonishment; and truly it seemed almost as wonderful to
+produce the colours of the rainbow from a lump of coal, as to extract
+sunshine from cucumbers.
+
+The history of these colours reads more like a romance than a sober
+story, but to the artist it is of slight practical interest.
+Sufficiently stable as dyes, though they be, coal-tar colours are not
+adapted to the palette. Mauve, magenta, with a few others, hare been
+introduced as pigments and fairly tried, but a want of permanence has
+been fatal to their success. Mauve is more durable than magenta, and the
+rest vary in stability, but none of them have proved really fitted for
+artists' colours. Exposed to light and air, they all more or less fade,
+especially in thin washes; and they have mostly the objection of
+staining and permeating the paper or canvas on which they are employed.
+Used in body, some may be found eligible in portfolio illuminations and
+the like, where the brilliancy of their colours shows to advantage; but
+in landscapes and pictures of life, coal-tar pigments are best avoided.
+
+Cakes of red, blue, violet, and other hues, may be prepared for
+painting, by combining the colours with a mixture of starch and alumina,
+or with soap and alumina in a moist state--thus: 150 parts of white curd
+soap, dissolved in 1000 parts of hot water, are mixed with an alcoholic
+or a methylated spirit solution of six parts of the crystallized or
+solid coal-tar colour. To this are added 250 parts by weight of washed
+gelatinous alumina. The whole is then well stirred, collected on a
+filter, drained, and dried. Several hues, tints, and shades may be
+obtained by compounding: for instance, an orange is produced on
+admixture of picric yellow with aniline red, or a green by adding the
+same yellow to aniline blue.
+
+98. _Cobalt Reds._
+
+There are obtainable from cobalt by different processes rose and red
+colours of more or less beauty and intensity, but all vastly inferior to
+those of madder, in whose absence alone they could gain a place on the
+palette. Durable as a rule, they are in general characterized by a fatal
+chalkiness, and poorness of hue. More expensive than the madder colours,
+and without their purity, delicacy, depth, or transparency, cobalt reds
+have often been offered as pigments, and as often declined. A colour may
+be good in itself, but if there is something better and at the same time
+cheaper, its introduction into commerce is out of the question.
+
+99. _Copper Reds._
+
+A somewhat finely coloured red oxide is produced by exposing to a white
+heat for twenty minutes, a mixture of certain proportions of blue
+vitriol, mono-carbonate of soda, and copper filings. The product,
+however, is affected by impure air, and is otherwise not so desirable as
+an iron oxide.
+
+An interesting account has lately been given by Professor Church of a
+new animal pigment, containing copper, found in the feathers of the
+violet plantain-eater and two species of Turacus, natives respectively
+of the Gold Coast, the Cape, and Natal. _Turacine_, the name proposed
+for it, is noticed here only because it is the first animal or vegetable
+pigment, with copper as an essential element, which has been hitherto
+isolated. The colour is extracted by solution in an alkali, and
+precipitation by an acid, and is changed on long exposure to air and
+moisture to a green hue. As the entire plumage of a bird yields not more
+than three grains of pigment, turacine must be looked upon as a mere
+curiosity.
+
+100. _Ferrate of Baryta_,
+
+Produced by adding aqueous ferrate of potash to an excess of dilute
+solutions of baryta salts, has been described as carmine-coloured and
+permanent. We have not found it to be so--an experience which has
+evidently not been confined to ourselves; and we cannot help thinking
+that this is one of those errors which get copied from one chemical work
+into another, to the special confusion of students. It is but fair,
+however, to add that in Mr. Watts' Dictionary of Chemistry, the latest
+and best work of the kind, this ferrate is said to become "brick-red
+after washing and drying at 100° C.," and to be only "tolerably stable."
+
+101. _Gold Reds._
+
+Many organic substances added to gold solutions throw down either the
+metallic gold or the red oxide, which then unites with the organic
+compound more or less decomposed and forms a red precipitate. Sugar,
+gum, the decoctions of cochineal, gamboge, fustic, turmeric, sumach,
+catechu, and Brazil wood, all afford red pulverulent colours. Boiled
+with sugar, gold solution gives first a light and then a dark red.
+Whatever their merits, the excessive costliness of these preparations
+renders them inadmissible as pigments. At one time, indeed, a gold
+compound known as purple of Cassius was so employed, but this soon
+became obsolete on the introduction of madder purple.
+
+102. _Iodine Pink._
+
+There may be obtained from iodine and mercury a very pretty pink colour,
+analogous in composition to pure scarlet. It is apt to pass into the
+scarlet modification, and is in other respects even less to be depended
+on than that variety.
+
+103. _Kermes Lake_
+
+Is an ancient pigment, perhaps the earliest of the European lakes, and
+so called from the Arabic Alkermes. It is sometimes spelt _cermes_,
+whence probably cermosin and crimson, and kermine and carmine. In old
+books it is named vermilion, in allusion to the insect, or _vermes_,
+from which it is prepared. This insect is the "coccus ilicis," which
+feeds upon the leaves of the prickly oak in the south of Europe. Like
+the "coccus cacti," it is covered with a whitish dust, and yields a
+tinctorial matter soluble in water and alcohol. Kermes and the lac of
+India doubtless afforded the lakes of the Venetians, and appear to have
+been used by the earliest painters in oil of the school of Van Eyck. The
+former, under the appellation [Greek: kurno kokino], is said to be
+employed by the modern Greeks for dyeing their caps red.
+
+Some old specimens of this pigment which the author obtained were in
+drops of a powdery texture and crimson colour, warmer than cochineal
+lakes, and having less body and brilliancy. They worked well, however,
+and withstood the action of light better than the latter, though the sun
+ultimately discoloured and destroyed them. In other respects, they
+resembled the lakes of cochineal. As a colouring matter, kermes is only
+about one-twelfth part as powerful as that substance.
+
+104. _Lawson's Red._
+
+In 1861 it was stated that Professor Lawson had prepared a new dye of
+great richness, in the laboratory of Queen's College, Canada, from an
+insect, a species of coccus, found the previous summer for the first
+time on a tree of the common black spruce (_Abies nigra_), in the
+neighbourhood of Kingston. Having been but recently observed, a
+sufficient quantity had not been obtained for a complete series of
+experiments as to its nature and uses; but the habits of the insect, as
+well as the properties of the dye, seemed to indicate that it might
+become of practical importance. In colour it closely resembled ordinary
+cochineal, but was rather more scarlet in hue. It was described as
+capable of being produced in temperate countries. The colouring matter
+had not then been thrown upon a base, nor do we know that it has since
+been introduced as a pigment. If it possessed greater stability than
+cochineal, with equal brilliancy and depth, this dye might form one of
+those colours of the future, to whose possible sources we would direct
+attention.
+
+105. _Manganese Red._
+
+Bisulphide of arsenic combines with basic metallic sulphides forming a
+class of sulphur-salts, called by Berzelius, hyposulpharsenites. The
+hyposulpharsenite of manganese is a dark red precipitate, uninjured by
+sulphuretted hydrogen, and so far applicable as a pigment. Containing
+arsenic, it would of course be poisonous; and would probably be found to
+fade on exposure to air and light.
+
+106. _Murexide._
+
+The red obtained from this substance created a great deal of interest
+among printers and dyers on its introduction in 1857, or thereabouts.
+For purity and brilliancy of shade it was not excelled by any other
+colour, but not being able to stand the effects of air and light, its
+employment was limited. We are not aware that murexide has yet been
+brought forward as a pigment, and judging from its character as a dye,
+it would scarcely enrich the palette. Dyes and pigments have much in
+common, and a fugitive dye cannot be expected to furnish a permanent
+pigment.
+
+Murexide is produced by the action of ammonia on alloxan, which is
+itself derived from the uric acid of guano by treatment with nitric
+acid, and was known nearly forty years back to stain the fingers and
+nails red. The first murexide sent into the market was a reddish-purple
+powder, dissolving in water with a fine purple tint, leaving a little
+residue undissolved. Owing to improvements in manufacture, it is now
+capable of being prepared almost chemically pure, and with that green
+metallic reflection peculiar to several coal-tar salts and the wings of
+certain insects. When sulphuretted hydrogen is passed through a
+concentrated solution of murexide, it is immediately decoloured; a fact
+which renders it likely that murexide pigments would be as liable to
+suffer from an impure atmosphere, as from exposure to light and air.
+
+When an alkaline solution of murexide is precipitated by an acid, a
+light shining powder results, called purpuric acid. This dissolves in
+alkalies, and combines with metalline bases to form various coloured
+compounds, termed _Purpurates_. Among them may be mentioned a red
+purpurate of lead, a purple-red and a rose-coloured purpurate of
+mercury, a purple-red purpurate of silver, a dark red-brown purpurate of
+strontia, a crystalline red purpurate of cobalt, a scarlet purpurate of
+platinum, a yellow purpurate of zinc, and a green purpurate of baryta.
+All of these, however, being more or less soluble in water, and owing
+their colours to murexide, would be ill adapted for pigments.
+
+107. _Paille de Mil,_
+
+Or African Cochineal, is a substance obtained from Africa. Whether it
+has received its name of cochineal from its appearance or origin is not
+clear, but it behaves more like galls and sumac than cochineal, though
+it does give a kind of red with alumina mordants. The colours it yields
+are deficient in brightness, and it has otherwise been reported
+unfavourably of.
+
+108. _Peganum Harmala,_
+
+The seeds of which afford a red colour, has been investigated by the
+French, but described as inferior to existing reds both in brilliancy
+and stability.
+
+109. _Persulphomolybdates._
+
+The metallic compounds formed by the combination of persulphomolybdic
+acid with a base are pulverulent, in many cases of a red colour, and for
+the most part insoluble in water. With barium, the acid furnishes a
+yellowish-red powder, insoluble in, but made denser by water, which
+imparts to it a cinnabar colour. With calcium it is said to yield a
+scarlet, sparingly soluble in water. With chromium, uranium, lead,
+platinum, and copper, it gives a dark red; that from the last metal
+turning brown when collected on a filter. It likewise produces reds with
+zinc, cadmium, iron, mercury, and tin; of which the last is slightly
+soluble in water.
+
+Molybdenum being a rare metal, and persulphomolybdate of potash, the
+salt used in the foregoing reactions, difficult to prepare, it is
+unlikely that the colours named will rank among the pigments of this
+generation. Nevertheless, as we have observed before, such fancy
+products should not be altogether ignored, it being quite as well to
+have some knowledge of our resources, even though those resources be not
+at present available. All the rare metals afford coloured compounds:
+tantalum, niobium, pelopium, vanadium, tellurium, titanium, yttrium,
+lanthanum, didymium, glucinum, cerium, thorinum, zirconium, palladium,
+rhodium, iridium, ruthenium, osmium, indium, thallium, &c.; and it is
+just possible that some of these may one day scrape acquaintance with
+the palette.
+
+110. _Red Chalk_,
+
+The colouring matter of which is sesquioxide of iron, is used as a
+crayon. Some specimens are excessively hard, so much so that they are
+difficult to crush, even in an iron mortar; while others have the
+consistence of the softest iron-ochres. They vary too in tint from a
+fawn colour to the softest brick-red, occasionally being almost as
+bright as a mixture of equal weights of vermilion and Venetian red. The
+amount of iron oxide present has been found to range from four to
+thirty-seven per cent, according to the depth and hardness of the
+samples. When a specimen of red chalk tolerably rich, but not too rich,
+in iron oxide is finely powdered and strongly ignited, it offers a
+remarkable change of colour, becoming a dull sage-green. Perhaps this,
+if it were permanent, might prove useful in foliage tints.
+
+111. _Red Precipitate_,
+
+Or mercuric oxide, may be obtained either of a brick-red or
+orange-yellow colour. It is destroyed by impure air, and on exposure to
+sunshine gradually turns black, being superficially decomposed into
+oxygen and metallic mercury or mercurous oxide.
+
+112. _Rose Pink_
+
+Is a coarse kind of lake, produced by dyeing chalk or whitening with
+decoction of Brazil wood, peachwood, sapan, bar, camwood, &c. It is a
+pigment much used by paper-stainers, and in the commonest distemper
+painting, &c., but is too perishable to merit the attention of the
+artist.
+
+Chevreul obtained a crystalline substance from Brazil wood, which he
+looked upon as the pure colouring matter, or as containing the pure
+colouring matter, and which gave red and crimson precipitates with many
+salts. Possibly some of these might prove more durable than the roughly
+made rose pink.
+
+113. _Rouge_,
+
+The rouge végétale of the French, is a species of carmine, prepared
+from safflower or carthamus, which is the flower of a plant growing in
+the north of Africa, India, and other warm climates. Safflower yields
+two colours--a valueless yellow which dissolves in cold water, and about
+five per cent of red, insoluble in water but dissolved by alkalies. The
+red, or carthamin, furnishes a pigment of exquisite beauty, marked by
+richness, transparency, and free working. Its extreme fugacity, however,
+militates against its employment by artists. As a dye, its manner of
+fixing upon fibre is different from that of any other colouring matter;
+requiring no mordant, like madder or cochineal, and needing no solution,
+like indigo or anotta, but fixing at once as soon as the cloth is
+brought into contact with it. But even for a dye the colour is fugitive,
+fading after a few hours' exposure to sunshine, and sometimes being
+quite bleached in the course of a day. It is when combined with
+levigated talc to form the paint of the toilette that the red becomes
+most serviceable. Possessing a peculiar softness and velvety glow, rouge
+is an unrivalled--and a most harmless--aid to beauty.
+
+_Chinese Rouge_ and _Pink Saucers_ have much of the qualities of, and
+appear to be also prepared from, the safflower.
+
+114. _Rufigallic Red._
+
+When a duly proportioned mixture of gallic acid and oil of vitriol is
+carefully and gradually heated to 140°, a viscid wine-red liquid
+results. If this be poured into cold water, after cooling, a heavy
+brown-red granular precipitate is formed, soluble in 3333 parts of
+boiling water. It dissolves in potash-ley, and to fabrics impregnated
+with alum or iron mordants, imparts the same shades of colour as madder;
+the colours so produced withstanding soap but not chlorine.
+
+Whether brilliant lakes could be obtained from the potash solution of
+the red, and whether those reds would be stable, it might be worth while
+to ascertain.
+
+115. _Sandal Red._
+
+We have kept this separate from other reds derived from woods, because
+it is said (by Professor H. Dussance) to be obtainable not only equal in
+beauty and brightness to carmine, but of greater permanence. The process
+of preparation is as follows:--The powdered root exhausted by alcohol
+gives a solution to which hydrated oxide of lead is added in excess. The
+combination of colouring matter and lead oxide is then collected on a
+filter, washed with alcohol, dried, dissolved in acetic acid, and mixed
+with a quantity of water. The red being insoluble therein is
+precipitated, while the acetate of lead remains dissolved. After being
+washed, the colour is dried at a low temperature. The Professor affirms
+that the red so produced is unaffected by sulphuretted hydrogen, or by
+light and air; and it is stated that the colour which was used to paint
+the carriages of the Emperor Napoleon, remained as bright at the end of
+nine years as when it was put on. Possessing such properties, it is
+curious that the red has never been--in this country at
+least--introduced as an artistic pigment, the more especially as
+seventeen years have elapsed since its discovery.
+
+116. _Silver Red._
+
+By adding monochromate of potash to an acid solution of nitrate of
+silver, a particularly fine ochre-red is obtained. It is, however, apt
+to be injured both by foul air and exposure.
+
+117. _Sorgho Red._
+
+Some nine years back there was found to be a carmine colouring matter in
+most parts of the Chinese sorgho, chiefly in the unpressed stem. The
+red, which is extracted in an impure state, is dissolved in weak
+potash-ley, thrown down by sulphuric acid, and washed with water. This
+purified product, soluble in alcohol, caustic alkalies, and dilute
+acids, has been employed in Austria, Baden, &c., for the dyeing of silks
+and woollens with the common tin mordants. The colours produced from it
+are unchanged, they say, by warm soapsuds or light. We do not know
+whether the red found its way to England, but it has certainly not
+appeared here as a pigment.
+
+118. _Thallium Red._
+
+The orange-yellow precipitate formed by mixing a neutral salt of
+protoxide of thallium with bichromate of potash, is converted by nitric
+acid into an orange-red. The latter compound, which is a terchromate, is
+almost insoluble in cold water, 2814 parts being required to dissolve
+it. If the colour be boiled in a large excess of moderately strong
+nitric acid it is dissolved, yielding magnificent cinnabar red crystals
+on the solution cooling. These crystals likewise seem to be the
+terchromate.
+
+119. _Tin Pink._
+
+By igniting strongly for some hours a mixture of stannic oxide, chalk,
+chromate of potash, and a little silica and alumina, a dingy red mass is
+obtained, which acquires a beautiful rose-red colour on being washed
+with water containing hydrochloric acid. For the same reason that the
+pinks of cobalt are superfluous as artistic pigments, this tin product
+is commercially ineligible. Having, however, the advantage of being
+cheap, and being probably durable, it would be well adapted for the
+common purposes of painting, in place of the fugitive rose pink.
+
+120. _Ultramarine Red?_
+
+In Gmelin's Handbook of Chemistry it is remarked that "Hydrogen gas
+passed over ignited ultramarine, colours it light red, from formation of
+liver of sulphur, hydrosulphuric acid gas and water being evolved at the
+same time." On most carefully making the experiment with a sample of
+native blue (the variety referred to) we did not succeed in effecting
+this change: no alteration to red or even to purple took place, the only
+result being that the colour was entirely spoilt, having assumed a
+leaden slate-gray hue. At our request, the trial was kindly repeated by
+well-known chemists, who took every precaution to ensure success.
+Several specimens of ultramarine were acted upon, but in no case was a
+red or anything like a red obtained, the products ranging from a
+slate-gray to a drab-grey. Sufficient hydrosulphuric acid gas was
+evolved to blacken paper moistened with acetate of lead, a fact which
+proved that the blue had lost some of its sulphur. Seeing that not only
+no red was produced, but that no tendency to red was imparted, is it
+possible the change described by Gmelin occurred under exceptional
+circumstances? All conversant with chemical matters will admit that
+results are obtained occasionally which cannot be repeated, owing it may
+be to some slight difference in the materials employed, or some slight
+variation of the process. Perhaps a link, considered of no importance
+at the time and overlooked, has been lost, and thus the whole chain of
+proceeding becomes useless. It is, therefore, within the bounds of
+probability that the red ultramarine of the great German chemist was
+furnished either by a peculiar specimen of blue, or by a modified form
+of the method he gives. We have noticed the subject at some length
+because if a red ultramarine, brilliant and durable, could be obtained,
+the colour might prove of value. A permanent artificial compound
+corresponding to French blue would certainly be an acquisition.
+
+121. _Uranium Red._
+
+By treating the yellow sulphite of uranium with a prolonged current of
+sulphuretted hydrogen, and saturating gradually with ammonia, a red
+finally results. This colour is insoluble in water, and it has the
+objection of remaining partially suspended for an almost indefinite
+time, colouring the liquid light red. The product is brighter and more
+beautiful while moist; when dried and powdered, its tone--slightly
+approaching vermilion--is duller. The colour may be obtained of several
+degrees of brilliancy, but, apart from the question of expense, it would
+be inadmissible in oil, the red gradually altering by contact therewith.
+The most persistent tint at length resembles burnt Sienna.
+
+122. _Wongshy Red._
+
+There was imported a few years ago from Batavia a new colouring
+principle, under the name of _wongshy_, and consisting of the
+seed-capsule of a species of gentian. The aqueous extract, freed from
+the pectin which it contains, yields with baryta- and lime-water yellow
+precipitates, from which acids separate the colouring matter of a
+vermilion hue. When thus prepared it is insoluble in water, and would so
+far be adapted for a pigment. The red has not, however, been employed as
+such, and we are unacquainted with its habitudes.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The concluding remarks appended to the chapter on yellow apply equally
+to red, and indeed to all other colours. It is not assumed that the list
+is exhausted: there are other reds, but they are, like some we have
+mentioned, ineligible as pigments, either by reason of their fugacity,
+their costliness, the difficulty of producing them on a scale, or the
+sources whence they are derived being commercially unavailable. While
+endeavouring throughout the work to render complete the collection of
+pigments actually in use, it is our object to give a selection only of
+numbered italicised colours; ample enough, however, to include those
+which have become obsolete or nearly so, and full enough to afford some
+insight into our resources. The nearer we approach perfection, the more
+eager we are to arrive at it: the path before us, therefore, cannot fail
+to be of interest.
+
+Looking back, and noting those pigments commonly employed, we find that
+the reds like the yellows are divisible into three classes--the good,
+bad, and indifferent; or the permanent, the semi-stable, and the
+fugitive.
+
+Among permanent reds, rank cadmium red, madder reds, Mars red, the
+ochres, and vermilions.
+
+In the second or semi-stable class, must be placed cochineal lakes,
+Indian lake, and red chrome.
+
+To the third division, or the fugitive, belong dragon's blood, pure
+scarlet, red lead, and the coal-tar reds.
+
+With regard to the foregoing classification, it must be borne in mind
+that the properties and effects of pigments are much influenced by
+adventitious circumstances. Sometimes pigments are varied or altogether
+changed by the grounds on which they are employed, the vehicles in which
+they are used, the siccatives and colours with which they are mixed, and
+the varnishes by which they are covered. And as there is no exact and
+constant agreement in different specimens of like pigments, so there is
+no exact and constant result in their use. Artists vary as much as the
+pigments they employ: some resemble the old masters in the delicacy with
+which they treat their colours, the cleanliness with which they surround
+them, and the care with which they compound them: in the hands of such
+artists pigments have every chance. Some, however, are characterized by
+a careless manipulation, a dirty mode of working, an utter disregard for
+all rules of admixture: with such painters the best colours may be
+ruined. And here, indeed, it may be asked, whether these latter are not
+more properly termed painters than artists, chiefly belonging as they do
+to that slap-dash school which manufactures pictures simply to sell
+them. Duly subordinated, the commercial side of art has a value which it
+were affectation to ignore; but to paint merely for the present,
+heedless of the future, is to sink art to the level of a trade, not the
+most honest. For it is the purchaser who suffers from the want of
+thought bestowed on the materials, the sloppy manipulation, the careless
+compounding; sins of omission and commission that cause him, on finding
+his picture becoming chaos, to join the detractors of modern pigments.
+In classifying colours therefore, those also should be classified who
+use them:--into artists, whose love for art would render it more lasting
+than themselves; and into painters, whose motto is _Vita brevis est, Ars
+quoque_.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+ON THE PRIMARY, BLUE.
+
+
+The third and last of the primary or simple colours is _blue_, which
+bears the same relation to shade as yellow to light. Hence it is the
+most retiring and diffusive of all colours, except purple and black; and
+all colours have the power of throwing it back in painting, to a greater
+or less extent, in proportion to the intimacy of their relations to
+light--first white, then yellow, orange, red, &c.
+
+Blue alone possesses entirely the quality technically called 'coldness'
+in colouring, and it communicates this property variously to all other
+colours with which it happens to be compounded. Most powerful in a
+strong light, it seems to become neutral and pale in a declining light,
+owing to its ruling affinity with black or shade, and its power of
+absorbing light. Consequently, the eye of the artist is liable to be
+deceived when painting with blue in too low a light, or toward the close
+of day, to the endangering of the warmth and harmony of his picture.
+Entering into combination with yellow in the composition of all
+_greens_, and with red in all _purples_, blue characterizes the tertiary
+_olive_, and is also the prime colour or archeus of the neutral _black_,
+&c., as well as of the semi-neutral _gray_, &c.: it therefore is changed
+in hue less than any other colour by mixture with black, as it is
+likewise by distance. Blue is present subordinately in all tertiary and
+broken colours, and being nearest in the scale to black, breaks and
+contrasts powerfully and agreeably with white, as in pale blues, skies,
+&c. Being less active than the other primaries in reflecting light, it
+is sooner lost as a local colour by assimilation with distance. There is
+an ancient doctrine that the azure of the sky is a compound of light and
+darkness, and some have argued hence that blue is not a primary colour,
+but a mixture of black and white; but pure or _neutral_ black and white
+compound in infinite shades, all of which are neutral also, or _grey_.
+It is true that a mixture of black and white is of a _cool_ hue, because
+black is not a primary colour, but a compound of the three primary
+colours in which blue predominates, a predominance which is rendered
+more sensible when black is diluted with white. As to the colour of the
+sky, in which light and shade are combined, that is likewise neutral,
+and never blue except by contrast; thus, the more the light of the sun
+partakes of a golden or orange hue, and the more parched and burnt the
+earth is, the bluer appears the sky, as in Italy and all hot countries.
+In England, where the sun is cooler, and a perpetual verdure reigns,
+infusing blue latently into the landscape, the sky is warmer and nearer
+to neutrality, partaking of a diversity of greys, which beautifully
+melodize with blue as their key, and harmonize with the light and
+landscape. Therefore the colour of the sky is always a contrast to the
+direct and reflected light of the scene: if this light were of a rose
+colour, the neutral of the sky would be converted into green, or if
+purple, the sky would become yellow. Similarly would it be in all cases,
+according to the laws of chromatic equivalence and contrast, as may be
+often seen in the openings of coloured clouds at the rising and setting
+of the sun.
+
+In art, blue is apt to be discordant in juxtaposition with green, and
+less so with purple, both which are cool colours; consequently blue
+requires its contrast, _orange_, in equal proportion whether of surface
+or intensity, to compensate or resolve its dissonances and correct its
+coldness. In nature, however, blue is not discordant with either green
+or purple, nor are any two colours (as we have said before) ever found
+so. On the palette of nature each _colour_ is an example of _colouring_:
+no colour is too absolute or defined, no perfectly pure blue appears
+beside a perfectly pure green. A blue flower nestled in its green leaves
+does not offend the nicest eye, but the blue and green are not blue and
+green alone. There is, perhaps, but a single gleam of pure colour in
+each: the rest is composed of such varied hues and tints and shades, so
+broken and blended and beautifully harmonized, that no jarring discord
+is possible. Hue melts into hue, tint into tint, shade into shade; and
+thus does the simplest weed teach a lesson in colouring the proudest
+painter may stoop to learn.
+
+We have spoken of blue, which is termed a cold colour, as retiring; and
+of yellow and red, which are called warm colours, as advancing. By this
+we must not be understood to mean that blue, as blue, expresses
+distance; or that yellow and red, as yellow and red, express nearness.
+Colours are advancing or retiring in their _quality_--as depth,
+delicacy, &c., not in their hue. A blue object set side-by-side a yellow
+one will not look an inch farther off, but a red or orange cloud, in the
+upper sky, will always seem to be beyond a blue cloud close to us, as it
+is in reality. We grant that in certain objects, blue is a _sign_ of
+distance, but that is not because blue, as a mere colour, is retiring;
+but because the mist in the air is blue, and therefore any warm colour
+which has not strength of light enough to pierce the mist is lost or
+subdued in its blue. Blue in itself, however, is no more, on this
+account, retiring, than brown is retiring, because when stones are seen
+through brown water, the deeper they lie, the browner they appear.
+Neither blue nor yellow nor red possesses, as such, the smallest power
+of expressing either nearness or distance; they merely express
+themselves under the peculiar circumstances which render them at the
+moment, or in that place, signs of nearness or distance. Thus, purple in
+a violet is a sign of nearness, because the closer it is looked at the
+more purple is seen; but purple in a mountain is a sign of distance,
+because a mountain close at hand is not purple, but green or grey. It
+may, indeed, be generally assumed that a tender or pale colour will more
+or less denote distance, and a powerful or dark colour nearness; but
+even this is not always so. Heathery hills will usually give a pale and
+tender purple near, and an intense or dark purple far away: the rose
+colour of sunset on snow is pale on the snow at one's feet, but deep and
+full on the snow in the distance; and the green of a Swiss lake is pale
+in the clear waves on the beach, but intense as an emerald in the
+sunstreak, six miles from shore. And in any case, when the foreground is
+in strong light, with much water about it or white surface, casting
+intense reflections, all its colours may be perfectly delicate, pale,
+and faint; while the distance, when it is in shadow, may relieve the
+whole foreground with deepest shades of purple, blue green, or
+ultramarine blue.
+
+There is one law, however, about distance, which has some claims to be
+considered constant, namely, that dulness and heaviness of colour are
+more or less indicative of nearness. All distant colour is pure colour:
+it may not be bright, but it is clear and lovely, not opaque nor soiled;
+for the air and light coming between us and any earthy or imperfect
+colour, purify or harmonize it; hence a bad colourist is peculiarly
+incapable of expressing distance. It is not of course meant that bad
+colours are to be used in the foreground by way of making it come
+forward; but only that a failure in colour there will not put it out of
+its place. A failure in colour in the distance will at once do away with
+its remoteness; a dull-coloured foreground will still be a foreground,
+though coloured badly; but an ill-painted distance will not be merely a
+dull distance, it will be no distance at all.
+
+This seeming digression is not out of place, as it will enable the
+artist better to understand that it is in their quality, not in their
+hue, that colours are advancing or retiring; and that he must rely on
+the depth, delicacy, &c., of his pigments, and not simply on their
+colours, to produce effects of distance.
+
+Of all colours, except black, blue contrasts white most powerfully. In
+all harmonious combinations of colours, whether of mixture or
+neighbourhood, blue is the natural, prime, or predominating power.
+Accordingly, blue is universally agreeable to the eye in due relation to
+the composition, and may more frequently be repeated therein, pure or
+unbroken, than either of the other primaries; whence the employment of
+ultramarine by some masters throughout the colouring of a picture.
+
+Blue pigments, like blue flowers, are more rare than those of the other
+primary colours. In permanent blues the palette is very deficient, the
+list being exhausted when the native and artificial ultramarines and the
+cobalts have been mentioned. That there is room for new blues, durable
+and distinct, cannot therefore be denied. A good addition has been made
+of late years in the German _Coëlin_, known here as Cerulian Blue and
+Coeruleum. What is chiefly wanted, however, is a colour combining the
+wonderful depth, richness, and transparency of Prussian blue with the
+strict stability of ultramarine. A permanent Prussian blue would be the
+most valued gift the palette could receive.
+
+
+COBALT BLUES
+
+comprise _Cerulian Blue_ or _Coeruleum_, _Cobalt Blue_, _Smalt_,
+_Royal Blue_, _Dumont's Blue_, _Saxon Blue_, _Thénard's Blue_,
+_Leithner's Blue_, _Hungary Blue_, _Dutch Ultramarine_, _Zaffre or
+Enamel Blue_, _Vienna Blue_, _Paris Blue_, _Azure_, &c., and are
+obtained by the action of heat on mixtures of earthy or metallic bases
+with cobalt. They are divisible into three classes--the stannic cerulian
+blue, the aluminous cobalt blues, and the siliceous smalts. Of these,
+the first possesses the least depth; the second hold a middle position;
+while the third are marked by exceeding richness. Although not to be
+ranked with ultramarine, the stannic and aluminous blues may be
+described as durable, or at least as durable rather than semi-stable.
+There are, as we have before observed, different degrees of permanence,
+and the blues in question are not readily affected. With regard to
+smalts, they are, as artist's pigments, inferior in stability to other
+blues of cobalt.
+
+123. CERULIAN BLUE,
+
+or _Coeruleum_. Under the name Coëlin there has of late years been
+imported from Germany the cobalt blue with a tin base to which reference
+has just been made. This comparatively new pigment--which likewise
+contains or is mixed with gypsum, silica, and sometimes magnesia--has
+the distinctive property of appearing a pure blue by artificial light,
+tending neither to green on the one hand nor to purple on the other.
+This advantage, added to its permanence, has conferred a popularity upon
+coeruleum which its mere colour would scarcely have gained for it. A
+light and pleasing blue, with a greenish-grey cast by day, it possesses
+little depth or richness, and is far excelled in beauty by a good
+aluminous cobalt. A certain chalkiness, moreover, somewhat detracts from
+its transparency, and militates against its use in water. It is in oil,
+and as a night colour, that coeruleum becomes of service, as our
+present system of lighting picture galleries by gas affects the purity
+of blues generally. If those galleries were illuminated by means of the
+electric light, we have it on the authority of Chevreul that all colours
+and shades would show as well as by day: the same purpose would be
+answered by the magnesium light. Some artificial lights are the ruin of
+colours; in the soda flame (alcohol and salt) for instance, yellow
+chromate of lead appears white, while red ochre and aniline blue appear
+black.
+
+Like other blues of cobalt, coeruleum assumes a greenish obscurity in
+time, but like them it resists for a lengthened period both the action
+of light and impure air, although chemically it is more open to the
+influence of the latter, owing to its tin base. In admixture it may
+safely be employed, as well as in fresco or enamel. For stage skies,
+&c., in high-art scenery, the blue is admirably adapted. Now that there
+are so many scene-painters who are artists--and so many artists who are
+scene-painters--in bringing Nature to the foot-lights the effect of gas
+on colours is of importance.
+
+124. COBALT BLUE,
+
+to which the various appellations have been given of _Thénard's Blue_,
+_Vienna Blue_, _Paris Blue_, _Azure_, _Cobalt-Ultramarine_, &c., is the
+name now exclusively confined to that preparation of cobalt which has a
+base of alumina. It may, therefore, be not improperly called a blue
+lake, the colour of which is brought up by fire, in the manner of enamel
+blues. The discovery of this important pigment was made in 1802 by M.
+Thénard, who obtained it by calcining a well-combined mixture of alumina
+and crystals of cobalt. There may be employed with the aluminous base,
+either the arseniate, the borate, or the phosphate of cobalt; but the
+latter in preference, as it produces the purest colour. The arseniate
+has always a violet tinge, more visible by gas-light than by day; while,
+on account of the arsenic, the blue is more apt to be greened by impure
+air, by reason of the formation of yellow sulphide of arsenic. The
+purity of the colour, however, does not altogether depend on the
+compound of cobalt used; in a great measure--as with other pigments--it
+rests on the purity of the materials. To obtain a perfect blue, neither
+inclining to purple nor green, the cobalt and alumina should be freed
+from iron, and the former, as much as possible, from nickel also. With
+the absence of these and proper skill, a true and brilliant blue may be
+produced, almost rivalling the finest ultramarine. Apart, too, from its
+increased beauty, a cobalt blue containing no iron or nickel is of
+greater permanence than the ordinary products, being less liable to that
+greenness and obscurity which time confers.
+
+Though not possessing the body, transparency, and depth of ultramarine,
+nor its natural and modest hue, commercial cobalt blue works better in
+water than that pigment in general does; and is hence an acquisition to
+those who have not the management of the latter. Resisting the action of
+strong light and acids, its beauty declines by time, while impure air
+greens and ultimately blackens it. Nevertheless, these changes are not
+readily effected, especially in well made samples full of colour, and
+sometimes the green tone is mechanically imparted. What wheat is to a
+loaf, colour is to a pigment--it has to be ground and made up for use;
+in the one vehicle to be mixed with gums, in the other with oils. It
+often happens that colours have an antipathy to the latter, and refuse
+to compound kindly therewith. Occasionally this repugnance manifests
+itself in a few days, occasionally not for months. We know of a green
+which flatly declines to have anything to do with oils, sinking and
+separating therefrom in the course of a week, and leaving the clear oil
+on the top. Repeatedly have colours to be coaxed to behave themselves as
+pigments, coaxed not to 'run,' to work well, to dry well, &c.; and in
+the humouring of their likes and dislikes the skill and patience of the
+artist-colourman are sometimes severely taxed. Given a colour, it might
+puzzle most chemists to convert it into a pigment; luckily Commerce
+lends her aid. Lasting success, it is true, does not always follow, and
+oils will rise to the surface now and then, giving green hues to blues,
+orange hues to reds, and buff hues to yellows. Hence changes of colour
+have been imputed before now to chemical alteration, when in reality the
+results have been physical, caused by the subsidence of the pigments,
+and the floating of the vehicles employed.
+
+Cobalt blue dries well in oil, does not injure or suffer injury from
+pigments in general, and may be used with a proper flux in enamel, as
+well as in fresco. It affords clear bright tints in skies and distances,
+but is apt to cause opacity if brought too near the foreground, and to
+assume a violet tinge by artificial light. With madder brown it yields a
+range of fine pearly neutrals; and with light red, in any proportion,
+gives beautiful cloud tints. In combination with aureolin and sepia, or
+rose madder, cobalt furnishes most agreeable and delicate tints for
+distant trees, when under the influence of a soft light, or hazy state
+of the atmosphere. In water-colour painting, cobalt is tolerably firm on
+paper, and consequently answers better for some purposes than French
+blue. In middle distances, if the cobalt possess a tendency to
+chalkiness, the addition of a little indigo is a good corrective,
+especially where the blue tone is required to be sombre and dark: it
+should, however, be observed that the change is but temporary, indigo
+being a fugitive pigment. In marine painting in water-colours, cobalt is
+most useful for the remotest parts of seas and headlands. When dry, it
+can be changed by going over it with a slight wash of vermilion or light
+red, whereby a prismatic character is realized. Any strength of tone can
+be obtained by repeating the washes, and should the colour be too
+powerful, it may be reduced by pouncing it with a soft wet sponge; or if
+too cold and blue, by a thin wash of burnt Sienna, merely the water
+stained.
+
+The blues of cobalt, on whatever base they may be prepared, are
+distinguished from native and artificial ultramarines by not being
+decolorised by acids.
+
+125. SMALT,
+
+Invented about the year 1540, in Saxony, is a vitreous compound of
+cobalt and silica, in fact a blue glass. Since the fifteenth century,
+cobalt has been used in different parts of Europe to tinge glass; and
+so intense is the colouring power of its oxide, that pure white glass is
+rendered sensibly blue by the addition of one thousandth part, while one
+twenty-thousandth part communicates a perceptible azure tint. In common
+with cobalt blue, the name _Azure_ has sometimes been given to it.
+Varying exceedingly in quality and colour, the rougher kinds have been
+employed by the laundress, and in the making of porcelain, pottery,
+stained glass, encaustic tiles, &c.; as well as to cover the yellow
+tinge of paper. For this last purpose, however, smalt is not perfectly
+adapted, the colour being difficult to lay on uniformly, and the paper
+when written on blunting the nibs of pens. Hence it has been superseded
+to a great extent by artificial ultramarine, the presence of which may
+be detected by the yellow spot which a drop of acid leaves on the paper.
+
+A coarse gritty texture is peculiar to smalt, whether it be the _Powder
+Blue_ of the washtub and _Blue Sand_ of the pottery, or the _Dumont's_
+and _Royal Blue_ of the artist and high-class manufacturer. But the
+strict stability which is a feature in smalt when used for painting on
+glass and enamel does not follow it to the studio: both in water and oil
+its beauty soon decays, as is often the case with other vitrified
+pigments; nor is it in other respects eligible, being, notwithstanding
+its richness and depth, very inferior to the cobalts preceding. It may
+seem a paradox that the same colour should be at once so durable and so
+fugitive, but we may briefly explain it by saying _when vitreous
+pigments are reduced to that extreme state of division which the palette
+requires, they lose the properties they possess in a less finely divided
+state_. The best smalt in lumps appears black, yields a blue powder on
+grinding, becomes paler on further grinding, and may be almost
+decolourised by continued and excessive grinding. Smalt, it has been
+stated, is merely a blue glass; and when a piece of blue glass, or a
+blue crystal of sulphate of copper, is reduced to the fineness of flour,
+the blue is lost. In vitrified and crystallised compounds, colour
+depends on cohesion: sufficiently separate the particles, and the colour
+more or less disappears. Not only, moreover, does grinding effect an
+optical change in vitreous pigments, but it imposes further alteration.
+That colour which was safe when locked up in a mass, crushed to minute
+atoms is no longer so: imbedded in glass or enamel it will endure for
+ages, but ground to impalpable powder becomes as liable to influence as
+though it had never been subjected to heat at all. To sum up, vitreous
+pigments are durable in a coarse or compact form, but are not more
+stable than others when reduced to extreme division. As far as regards
+artists' colours, therefore, vitrification does _not_ impart
+permanence.
+
+The grittiness to which we have referred is one of the defects of smalt,
+which cannot, consistently with preserving its colour be entirely freed
+from that drawback--an objection which pertains to vitreous pigments in
+general. Hence it does not wash well, and in mural decoration is
+sometimes applied to work by strewing the dry powdered colour upon a
+flat ground of white or blue oil paint immediately after the latter is
+laid on, whilst it yet remains wet. Of little body, it is a vivid and
+gorgeous blue; bright, deep, and transparent, bordering on the violet
+hue. It is chiefly employed in illumination and flower painting. The
+inferior kinds of smalt are occasionally adulterated with chalk.
+
+126. CYANINE.
+
+Beckmann is fully convinced that the _cyanus_ of Theophrastus and the
+_coeruleum_ of Pliny were a blue copper earth. However that may be, in
+these days both names signify cobalt compounds, coeruleum being a
+stannate of cobalt, and cyanine a mixture of cobalt and Prussian blue.
+Unlike the former, cyanine, being composed of two old colours, can lay
+no claim to originality. In the fourth chapter it was observed, "it is
+quite possible for the artist to multiply his pigments unnecessarily.
+Colours are sometimes brought out under new names which have no claim to
+be regarded as new colours, being, indeed, mere mixtures. Compound
+pigments like these may most frequently be dispensed with, in favour of
+hues and tints composed extemporaneously of original colours upon the
+palette." Whether these remarks are applicable to cyanine or not is a
+question for artists to decide: in our opinion, with so many semi-stable
+original pigments, the introduction of semi-stable compounds is to be
+deprecated. Cyanine is a rich, deep, transparent blue, but its richness
+and depth, as well as to a great extent its transparency, depend upon
+Prussian blue, which is not strictly stable. Hence the peculiar
+properties of cyanine remain unchanged only so long as the Prussian blue
+itself, the pigment losing its colour by degrees on exposure to air and
+light, and gradually assuming the tint of the paler but more permanent
+cobalt. A mixture, be it remembered, necessarily partakes of the
+qualities of its constituents, and if one of these be fugitive, the
+compound cannot preserve its original hue.
+
+Within the last few years, a compound similar to cyanine has appeared,
+under the name of _Leitch's Blue_.
+
+127. INDIGO,
+
+or _Indian Blue_, was known to the ancients under the name of _Indicum_,
+whence its present appellation. In modern Europe, it first came into
+extensive use in Italy; but about the middle of the sixteenth century,
+the Dutch began to import and employ it in considerable quantity.
+Present in the woad plant, which is a native of Great Britain, indigo is
+chiefly derived from a genus of leguminous plants called _Indigofera_,
+found in India, Africa, and America. The colouring matter of these is
+wholly in the cellular tissue of the leaves, as a secretion or juice;
+not, however, in the blue state in which one is accustomed to see
+indigo, but as a colourless substance, which continues white only so
+long as the tissue of the leaf remains perfect: when this is by any
+means destroyed, oxygen is absorbed from the atmosphere, and the
+principle becomes blue. The best indigo is so light as to swim upon
+water, but the commercial article seldom contains more than 50 per cent.
+of blue colouring matter or true indigo, the remainder consisting of
+either accidental or intentional impurities.
+
+In painting, indigo is not nearly so bright as Prussian blue, but it is
+extremely powerful and transparent, and may be described as a Prussian
+blue in mourning. Of great body, it glazes and works well both in water
+and oil. Its relative permanence as a dye has obtained it a false
+character of extreme durability as a pigment, a quality in which it is
+nevertheless very inferior even to Prussian blue. By impure air it is
+injured, and in glazing some specimens are firmer than others, but not
+durable; while in tint with white lead they are all fugitive. Employed
+in considerable body in shadow, it is more permanent, but in all
+respects Prussian blue is superior.
+
+Despite this want of stability, indigo is a favourite colour with many
+artists, who sacrifice by its use future permanence to present effect.
+It is so serviceable a pigment for so many purposes, especially in
+admixture, that its sin of fugacity is overlooked. Hence we find indigo
+constantly mentioned in works on painting, their authors forgetting or
+not caring to remember that wholesome axiom, a fugitive colour is not
+rendered durable by being compounded. Artistically, it is adapted for
+moonlights, and when mixed with a little lamp black, is well suited for
+night clouds, distant cliffs, &c. With a little raw umber and madder it
+is used for water in night effects. With the addition of a little madder
+it forms a good gray; and with madder and burnt Sienna is useful for
+dark rocks, this combination, with raw Sienna, being also eligible for
+boats. For these and other mixed tints, however, Prussian blue saddened
+by black with a suspicion of green in it, is equally fitted, and is more
+permanent. Indeed, it would be perhaps justifiable to introduce such a
+compound, under the name say, of Factitious Indigo.
+
+Indigo in dust, or in small bits, is often adulterated with sand,
+pulverized slate, and other earthy substances. That indigo is best which
+is lightest, brightest, most copper-coloured, most fine-grained, and
+inodorous.
+
+128. INTENSE BLUE
+
+is indigo refined by solution and precipitation. By this process, indigo
+becomes more durable, and, being separated from impurities, is rendered
+much more powerful, transparent, and deep. It washes and works admirably
+in water; in other respects it possesses the common properties of
+indigo. It is apt, however, to penetrate the paper on which it is
+employed, if not well freed by washing from the acid and saline matter
+used in its preparation. This is not always easily effected, and we
+cannot help thinking that in the manufacture of intense blue a dry
+method would be preferable. Indigo may, by cautious management, be
+volatilized, and therefore be most thoroughly purified without the aid
+of acids and alkalies. The best mode of subliming this substance is to
+mix one part of indigo with two parts of plaster of Paris, make the
+whole into a paste with water, spread it upon an iron plate, and, when
+quite dry, heat it by a spirit lamp. The volatilization of the indigo
+is aided by the vapour of water disengaged from the gypsum, and the
+surface of the mass becomes covered with beautiful crystals of pure
+indigo, which may be readily removed by a thin spatula. At a higher
+temperature, charring and decomposition take place.
+
+129. PRUSSIAN BLUE,
+
+otherwise called _Berlin Blue_, _Paris Blue_, _Prussiate of Iron_,
+_Ferrocyanide of Iron_, &c., was accidentally discovered in 1710 by
+Diesbach, a colour-maker at Berlin. It is a compound of iron and
+cyanogen, of varying composition, formed by adding yellow prussiate of
+potash to a persalt of iron, or by oxidizing the precipitate obtained
+from the prussiate and a protosalt. The finest blue is furnished by
+sesquinitrate of iron, but the salt almost exclusively employed is the
+protosulphate, the freedom of which from copper is essential to the
+colour of the blue. As is the case with other pigments, Prussian blue
+differs considerably in colour, in depth, and in permanence, according
+to the purity of the materials, the mode of manufacture, and the absence
+of adulterants. Like smalt, it is known in the washtub as well as in the
+studio; and in the cheaper varieties, alumina, starch, chalk, oxide of
+iron, &c., are often largely present. A good unsophisticated sample in
+the dry state is intense blue, almost black, hard and brittle, much
+resembling in appearance the best indigo, and having a similar
+copper-red fracture. It does not effervesce with acids, as when
+adulterated with chalk; nor become pasty with boiling water, as when
+sophisticated with starch. Further, it feels light in the hand, adheres
+to the tongue, is inodorous, tasteless, not poisonous, and is insoluble
+in water. Forming a bulky mass while moist, Prussian blue shrinks to a
+comparatively small compass when well washed and dried by gentle heat;
+and, when once dried, being difficult to reduce again to the state of
+extreme division which it possessed while wet, it is frequently sold and
+used in paste for common purposes. We have said that a good sample of
+Prussian blue is insoluble in water, and for artistic use it should
+certainly be so, as otherwise it has a tendency to stain the fabric on
+which it is employed, a defect formerly very prevalent. All Prussian
+blues, however, are not insoluble, and these are not only liable to the
+drawback named, but are less to be depended on for permanence. Improper
+proportions, for instance, of sesquichloride of iron and
+potash-ferrocyanide will yield a blue which, when washed even with cold
+water, continually imparts to it a yellow or green colour, through the
+partial solution of the prussiate. All commercial Prussian blue, and
+indeed that which is prepared by careful chemical processes, give up the
+ferrocyanide to boiling water, thereby colouring it greenish yellow; but
+a sample which parts with its prussiate to _cold_ water is quite
+unfitted for the palette, for which the most perfect specimen is none
+too stable.
+
+In spite of the learned researches of Professor Williamson, whose name
+is as closely connected with the pigment as are the names of Schunck and
+De La Rue with madder and cochineal, Prussian blue is not yet entirely
+understood. Complex and uncertain in composition, uncertain too in its
+habitudes, our best course perhaps will be not to attempt a complete
+survey, but to state briefly those facts which bear on the artist's
+craft.
+
+Prussian blue is a colour of vast body and wonderful transparency, with
+a soft velvety richness, and of such intense depth as to appear black in
+its deepest washes. Notwithstanding it lasts a long time under
+favourable circumstances, its tints fade by the action of strong light;
+becoming white, according to Chevreul, in the direct rays of the sun,
+but regaining its blue colour in the dark; hence that subdued light
+which is favourable to all colours is particularly so to this blue. Its
+colour has the singular property of fluctuating, or of coming and going,
+under certain conditions; and which it owes to the action and reaction
+by which it acquires or relinquishes oxygen alternately. It also becomes
+greenish sometimes by a development of the oxide of iron; and is
+purpled, darkened, or otherwise discoloured by damp or impure air. Time
+has a neutralizing tendency upon its colour, which forms tints of much
+beauty with white lead, though they are not equal either in purity,
+brilliancy, or permanence to those of cobalt and ultramarine. When
+carefully heated, Prussian blue gives off water and assumes a pale green
+hue; its colour, therefore, depending on the presence of water, must not
+be exposed to a high temperature. And as it is likewise injured or
+destroyed by alkalis, which decompose it into oxide of iron and a
+soluble prussiate, the blue should be avoided in fresco, on account of
+the lime; neither should it be employed with pigments of an alkaline
+nature, nor with hard water containing bicarbonate of lime in solution,
+but with clean rain or distilled water, either of which is preferable
+for colours generally.
+
+Prussian blue dries and glazes well in oil, but its great and principal
+use is in painting deep blues, in which its body helps to secure its
+permanence, and its transparency gives force to its depth. It is also
+valuable in compounding deep purples with lake, and is a powerful
+neutralizer and component of black, to the intensity of which it adds
+considerably. Prussian blue borders slightly on green, a quality which
+militates against its use in skies and distances. In spite, however, of
+its want of, or deficiency in, durability, the old water-colour painters
+so employed it, neutralized by the addition of a little crimson lake. It
+is serviceable in mixed tints of greens, affording with light red a
+sea-green neutral. Dissolved in oxalic acid, the blue is available as an
+ink, or for tinting maps.
+
+Besides the preceding, there is a _Basic Prussian Blue_, formed by
+simply submitting to the air the bluish-white precipitate which falls on
+adding yellow prussiate of potash to green vitriol. This compound
+dissolves entirely by continued washing with water, yielding a beautiful
+deep blue solution, from which the colour may be thrown down in a solid
+form by the addition of any salt. Probably it was this basic
+preparation, so cheaply and easily made, that conferred upon Prussian
+blue the character of staining paper. In name, there is also another
+variety of this pigment, known as _Native Prussian Blue_; which is
+really a native phosphate of iron, occurring as a blue earthy powder, or
+as a white powder that becomes blue by exposure.
+
+130. ANTWERP BLUE,
+
+_Haerlem Blue_, _Berlin Blue_, _Mineral Blue_, is a lighter and
+somewhat brighter Prussian blue, with less depth and less permanence. It
+is a species of lake, having a considerable proportion of aluminous
+base, to which its paler tint is due. As the stability of Prussian blue
+rests in a great measure on the marvellous amount of latent colour the
+pigment contains, when its particles of colour are set farther apart by
+the intervention of the alumina, the permanence of its hue is
+endangered. It was remarked, with respect to vitrified pigments, that
+colour depends on cohesion. More or less, this holds good as regards all
+pigments; but not only, as was also observed, does colour rest on
+cohesion, in many instances durability depends likewise. It is only when
+a colour is stable in itself that its particles will bear separating:
+native ultramarine, for example, may be weakened almost to white, and
+will still preserve its hue. If, however, a colour be naturally
+fugitive, and rely chiefly on its extreme depth for what permanence it
+possesses, that colour cannot with impunity be paled: witness the
+cochineal lakes, which the deeper they are, the more durable they are
+found; and so it is with Prussian blue. Antwerp blue is distinguished
+from the latter by its more earthy fracture.
+
+131. TURNBULL'S BLUE,
+
+Or _Ferricyanide of Iron_, is formed by adding the red prussiate of
+potash to a protosalt of iron. This blue is lighter and more delicate
+than ordinary Prussian blue, and is believed to resist the action of
+alkalies longer. It is a question whether the common Prussian blue
+obtained by oxidizing the precipitate yielded by green vitriol and the
+yellow prussiate is not in reality this variety. However that may be,
+there is, as far as permanence goes, little or no difference between the
+two kinds.
+
+
+ULTRAMARINES.
+
+ARTIFICIAL ULTRAMARINES
+
+comprise the varieties known as _French Ultramarine_, _French Blue_,
+_Brilliant Ultramarine_, _Factitious Ultramarine_, _Guimet's
+Ultramarine_, _New Blue_, _Permanent Blue_, _Gmelin's German
+Ultramarine_, _Bleu de Garance_, _Outremer de Guimet_, &c. The
+unrivalled qualities of native ultramarine prepared from the lapis
+lazuli rendered it most desirable to obtain an artificial compound
+which, while possessing similar properties, could be produced in
+quantity, and at a less costly rate. In demolishing some furnaces
+employed in making soda, by means of decomposing sulphate of soda, some
+earth had been found impregnated with a light blue, which was proved to
+have so close a resemblance to ultramarine as to foster hopes of
+success. As a stimulus, there was offered a prize of six thousand francs
+or £500 for the production of artificial ultramarine by the _Société
+d'Encouragement_ of Paris, which was won in 1828 by M. Guimet. It is
+fitting that the discoverer of a colour should excel in its manufacture,
+and to this day Guimet's ultramarine is the finest made. As an instance
+of how the researches of different men may, almost simultaneously, lead
+to the same results, it is curious that very shortly after the problem
+was also solved by Gmelin.
+
+The cause of the blue colour of ultramarine was long a matter of
+controversy, but was believed generally to be due to iron. When,
+however, the discovery of artificial ultramarine was made, this
+assumption was shown to be false, by the fact that a blue could be
+obtained with materials perfectly free from iron. The absolutely
+necessary constituents of ultramarine are silica, alumina, sulphur, and
+soda; and there is little doubt that the colouring matter consists of
+hyposulphite of soda and sulphide of sodium: it is certain that the blue
+colour is dependant on the soda, inasmuch as potash yields an analogous
+compound which is purely white. A number of substances, such as iron,
+lime, magnesia, and potash, may be present as impurities, and were, in
+part at least, purposely added to the earlier manufactures; but they are
+found to be superfluous. Nevertheless, as regards iron, it is probable
+that a very small portion, such as is usually contained in the
+ingredients, greatly facilitates the production of the blue, and may
+even be essential in some cases.
+
+The colour of ultramarine is brought out by successive heatings. Green
+portions, more or less in quantity, are often formed in the crucibles,
+especially on the first ignition. On repeated heating they pass into a
+blue tint. Artificial ultramarines are said to be seldom entirely freed
+from all traces of the green modification, and are therefore less
+beautiful than the natural varieties, having a shade of green or grey.
+This defect, however, is certainly not discernible in Guimet's products,
+which sometimes incline so much to purple as to require neutralizing
+with a little Prussian blue. Depth for depth, the artificial are darker
+and less azure than the natural varieties, but the superiority of the
+latter consists not so much in their greater purity of hue, although
+this is considerable, as in their far greater transparency. The finest
+French ultramarine is never so transparent as the native; it is
+brilliant, it is powerful, it is permanent, it is nearly--but only
+nearly--transparent. Possessing in a subdued degree the characteristics
+and qualities of the genuine, it works, washes, and dries well; and is
+useful either in figures, draperies, or landscape. Rivalling in depth,
+although not equalling in colour, the pure azure of native ultramarine,
+it answers to the same acid tests, but is sometimes distinguished
+therefrom by the effervescence which ensues on the addition of an acid.
+Not a bubble escapes in such case from the natural blue; unless, indeed,
+as occasionally happens, it retain a portion of alkali, with which it
+may have been combined in the preparation, but from which it should have
+been freed. Darkened as a rule by fire, factitious ultramarine becomes
+dingy blue, and at last white, when strongly ignited for a long time;
+and is, like the true variety, decolourised by ignition in an atmosphere
+of hydrogen gas. At a high temperature, this effect is even produced by
+silica, whence the unfitness of ultramarine for painting on glass or
+porcelain; and simply by a prolonged red heat the blue is rendered
+white. Being unaffected by alkalis, it is eligible in mural decoration,
+and is particularly adapted to siliceous painting, on account of the
+silica and alumina which it contains, two substances with which a
+soluble silicate readily unites. If artificial ultramarine be mixed with
+a soluble silicate, for example silicate of potash, and be laid on a
+properly prepared ground, it will become so firmly fixed, says Mr.
+Barff, that no amount of washing nor the slow action of moisture will
+remove it, or affect its brilliancy. Judging from the behaviour of
+ultramarine, therefore, if the colours employed in siliceous painting
+contain silica and alumina, they should adhere as firmly to the surface
+on which they are placed; and this is really the case. It is possible to
+produce a mixed solution of aluminate and silicate of potash which will
+remain liquid for twenty-four hours. If, while in the liquid state,
+colours are saturated with this solution and allowed to dry, their
+particles will be very intimately mixed with silica and alumina
+chemically combined with potash. According to the author quoted, the
+admixture of silica and alumina does not interfere with the brilliancy
+or depth of the colours, and the method may be used for all those which
+are not injured by potash, and are in themselves adapted to the art.
+
+With respect to permanence, the finer varieties of artificial
+ultramarines may, undoubtedly, be pronounced stable; but, like all other
+colours, these blues are apt to vary in quality, and inferior kinds are
+liable to lose their purity in a measure, and become grayer. Moreover,
+they are made by different processes, and the mode adopted for the
+manufacture of a pigment not only tells upon the colour, but may
+influence to some extent its durability. From the following experiment
+of an ingenious artist and friend of the author, it is evident that the
+production of artificial ultramarine was not carried in its early days
+to that state of perfection at which it has now arrived. He took a
+picture, the sky of which had been recently painted in the ordinary
+manner with Prussian blue and white; and having painted over the clear
+part of the sky uniform portions with tints formed of the best
+factitious ultramarine, cobalt blue, and genuine ultramarine, so as to
+match the ground of the sky, and to disappear to the eye thereon by
+blending with the ground, when viewed at a moderate distance, he set the
+picture aside for some months. Upon examination, it appeared that the
+colour of these various blue pigments had taken different ways, and
+departed from the hue of the ground: the factitious ultramarine had
+_blackened_, the cobalt blue _greened_, the genuine ultramarine remained
+a _pure azure_, like a spot of light, while their ground, the Prussian
+blue sky, seemed by contrast with the ultramarine of a _grey_ or _slate
+colour_.
+
+Other things being equal, those artificial ultramarines are most durable
+which possess the most colour; and all are, perhaps, most permanent in
+water. If used in that vehicle, care should be taken to employ a gum
+free from acid; also, whether in water or oil, not to compound the blue
+with a pigment which may possibly contain acid, such as constant white.
+Acid, as we have said, is the great test for ultramarine; whence if a
+sample be sophisticated with cobalt, its blue colour will not be
+entirely destroyed. With high-class artistic pigments, however,
+adulteration is the exception and not the rule. It is as a powder-blue
+for the washtub that ultramarine gets disguised, when it is ground up
+with soda-ash, chalk, gypsum, &c., and sold sometimes under its own
+name, but more frequently as superfine Saxon smalts.
+
+132. BRILLIANT ULTRAMARINE,
+
+lately called _Factitious Ultramarine_, is a specially fine preparation
+of M. Guimet, presenting the nearest approach to the natural product of
+any artificial ultramarine, both in transparency, purity of hue, and
+chemical characteristics. Equalling in depth and power the ordinary
+French ultramarine, it possesses greater clearness, beauty, and
+brightness; and has, in a subdued degree, that quality of light in it,
+and of the tint of air, which forms so distinguishing a feature in the
+native blue.
+
+133. FRENCH ULTRAMARINE,
+
+or _French Blue_, is a rich deep colour, but less transparent and vivid
+than the preceding variety, which is preferable in unmixed tints. For
+compound hues, French blue is sufficiently well adapted, and is
+extremely useful. With aureolin and burnt Sienna, or Vandyke brown, it
+affords valuable autumn greens; and with lamp black, or lamp black and
+light red, good stormy clouds. A sombre gray for distant mountains is
+furnished by French blue and madder brown, with a very little gamboge;
+and a deep purple for sunsets, by the blue and purple madder, or Indian
+red and rose madder. With cadmium and orient yellows, sepia, viridian,
+and many other colours, this ultramarine is of service.
+
+134. NEW BLUE
+
+Is confined to water-colour painting, and is an artificial ultramarine,
+holding a middle position between French blue and permanent blue, being
+less deep than the one and less pale than the other. It may be said to
+hover in tint between a rich ultramarine and cobalt.
+
+135. PERMANENT BLUE
+
+Is a pale ultramarine, with a cobalt hue; and, in spite of its name,
+less permanence than belongs to the richer and deeper sorts. What
+Antwerp blue is to Prussian blue, this is to French blue--that is, as
+regards colour. With respect to durability, however, permanent and
+Antwerp blues cannot be compared; the former being a weakened variety of
+a stable, and the latter a weakened variety of a semi-fugitive, pigment.
+Hence permanent blue justifies its name, although that name would be
+more suited to the brilliant, or French, ultramarine.
+
+136. GENUINE ULTRAMARINE,
+
+_Native Ultramarine_, _Natural Ultramarine_, _Real Ultramarine_, _True
+Ultramarine_, _Ultramarine_, _Pure _Ultramarine_, _Azure_, _Outremer_,
+_Lazuline_, _Lazulite Blue_, and _Lazurstein_. This most costly, most
+permanent, and most celebrated of all pigments, is obtained by isolating
+the blue colouring matter of the _lapis lazuli_, a stone chiefly brought
+from China, Thibet, and the shores of Lake Baikal. About the antiquity
+of the stone, and its colour, much has been written, and many
+conflicting statements have been made; but there is little doubt that
+our lapis lazuli was the sapphire of the ancients; and that the first
+certain mention of ultramarine occurs in a passage of Arethas, who lived
+in the eleventh century, and who, in his exposition of a verse in the
+book of Revelation, says, the sapphire is that stone of which
+_lazurium_, as we are told, is made. It has been common to confound
+ultramarine with the _cyanus_ and _coeruleum_ of the ancients; but
+their cyanus, or Armenian blue, was a kind of mineral or mountain blue,
+tinged with copper; and their coeruleum, although it may sometimes
+have been real ultramarine, was properly and in general a copper ochre.
+That ultramarine was known to the ancients there seems every
+probability, for it is certain they were acquainted with the stone; and
+modern travellers describe the brilliant blue painting still remaining
+in the ruins of temples of Upper Egypt as having all the appearance of
+ultramarine. Whether it is so or not, however, could only be proved by
+analysis; for, be it recollected, although the colour had preserved its
+hue during so many centuries, it had been completely buried, and
+therefore most perfectly secluded from light and air. Mr. Layard, in his
+'Nineveh,' referring to some painted plaster, remarks that "The colours,
+particularly the blues and reds, were as brilliant and vivid when the
+earth was removed from them as they could originally have been; but, on
+exposure to the air, they faded rapidly." In all likelihood, these were
+of organic, or semi-organic, origin, prepared in some such manner as
+that mentioned by Pliny, who speaks of an earth which, when boiled with
+plants, acquired their blue colour, and was in some measure inflammable.
+As a pigment, cobalt was unknown to the ancients; but to these vegetable
+and copper blues of theirs, a third blue may perhaps be added.
+Experiments made upon blue tiles, found in a Roman tesselated
+foot-pavement at Montbeillard, showed that the colour was due to iron.
+M. Gmelin has proved that a blue tint can be imparted to glass and
+enamel by means of iron; and it is probable that the ancients were first
+induced by the blue slag of their smelting-houses to study the colouring
+of glass with iron; that in this art they acquired a dexterity not
+possessed at present, and that they employed their iron-smalt as a
+pigment, as we do our smalt of cobalt. To sum up, there are grounds for
+believing that the ancients were acquainted with copper blues,
+vegetable blues, and iron blues; and that, consequently, the blue
+described by travellers as having all the appearance of ultramarine may,
+or may not, be that pigment.
+
+Lapis lazuli, or lazulite, is usually disseminated in a rock, which
+contains, among other substances, a fine white lazulite. In the _Musée
+Minéralogique_ of Paris are two splendid specimens of the stone, in
+which is seen the transition from the azure to the white. According to
+the quantity and quality of blue present, the lapis varies from an
+almost uniform tint of the deepest indigo-blue to grayish-white, dotted
+and streaked at intervals with pale blue. The exceeding beauty of good
+samples has caused the lazulite to be much sought after, both as a gem
+for adorning the person, and for inlaid works in ornamental decoration.
+In China the stone is highly esteemed, being worn by mandarins as badges
+of nobility conferred only by the Emperor; and in the apartments of a
+summer palace near St. Petersburg, the walls are covered with amber,
+interspersed with plates of this costly lapis. Besides the colouring
+principle of the lazulite, there are always more or less mica and iron
+pyrites, the latter a lustrous yellow bisulphide of iron, which has
+often been mistaken for pellets of gold. Having chosen portions of the
+stone most free from these impurities, it is simply requisite to reduce
+them to an impalpable powder to obtain a blue pigment; and probably this
+was the original mode of preparing it before the discovery of the modern
+process. This curious method, which is mechanical rather than chemical,
+depends for its success on the character and proportions of the
+materials employed, as well as on the nicety of working. When well
+carried out, it perfectly isolates the blue from all extraneous matter,
+yielding the colour at first deep and rich, then lighter and paler, and
+lastly of that gray tint which is known by the name of Ultramarine Ash.
+The refuse, containing little or no blue, furnishes the useful pigment,
+Mineral Gray.
+
+The immense price of ultramarine--or, as it was at first called, azurrum
+ultramarinum, blue beyond-the-sea--was almost a prohibition to its use
+in former times. It is related that Charles I. presented to Mrs.
+Walpole, and possibly to Vandyke also, five hundred pounds worth of
+ultramarine, which lay in so small a compass as only to cover his hand.
+Even in these days, despite the introduction of artificial ultramarines,
+the native product continues costly, commanding in proportion to its
+intensity and brightness, from two to eight guineas an ounce. To say,
+however, that the merits of the blue at least equal its expense, is to
+give the genuine ultramarine no more than its due. It has, indeed, not
+earned its reputation upon slight pretensions, being, when of fine
+quality, and skilfully prepared, of the most exquisitely beautiful blue,
+ranging from the utmost depth of shadow to the highest brilliancy of
+light and colour,--transparent in all its shades, and pure in all its
+tints. A true medial blue, when perfect, partaking neither of purple on
+the one hand, nor of green on the other, it sustains no injury either by
+damp and impure air, or by the intensest action of light, and is so
+eminently durable, that it remains unchanged in the oldest paintings.
+Drying well, working well in oil and fresco, ultramarine may be safely
+compounded with pigments generally, excepting only an acid sulphate of
+baryta or constant white. The blue has so much of the property of light
+in it, and of the tint of air--is so purely a sky-colour, and hence so
+singularly adapted to the direct and reflex light of the sky, and to
+become the antagonist of sunshine--that it is indispensable to the
+painter. Moreover, it is so pure, so true, so unchangeable in its tints
+and glazings, as to be no less essential in imitating the marvellous
+colouring of nature in flesh and flowers. To this may be added that it
+enters so admirably into purples, blacks, greens, grays, and broken
+hues, that it has justly obtained the character of clearing or carrying
+light and air into all colours, both in mixture and glazing, as well as
+gained a sort of claim to universality throughout a picture.
+
+Nevertheless, ultramarine is not always entitled to the whole of this
+commendation. Frequently it is coarse in texture, in which case it is
+apparently more deep and valuable; yet such blue cannot be used with
+effect, nor ground fine without injuring its colour. Again, it is apt to
+be separated in an impure state from the lapis lazuli, which is an
+exceedingly varying and compound mineral, abounding with earthy and
+metallic parts in different states of oxidation and composition: hence
+ultramarine sometimes contains iron as a red oxide, when it has a purple
+cast; and sometimes the same metal as a yellow oxide, when it is of a
+green tone; while often it retains a portion of black sulphuret of iron,
+which imparts a dark and dusky hue. Occasionally, it is true, artists
+have preferred ultramarine for each of these tones; still are they
+imperfections which may account for various effects and defects of this
+pigment in painting. Growing deeper by age has been attributed to
+ultramarine; but it is only such specimens as would acquire depth in the
+fire that could be subject to the change; and it has been reasonably
+supposed that in pictures wherein other colours have faded, it may have
+taken this appearance by contrast. Ultramarine, prepared from calcined
+lapis, is not liable to so deepen; but this advantage may be purchased
+at some sacrifice of the vivid, warm, and pure azure colour of the blue
+produced from unburnt stone. We have frequently found ultramarine to be
+darkened, dimmed, and somewhat purpled by ignition; and the same results
+ensue, in many instances, when the lazulite is calcined. In burning the
+stone, the sulphur of the pyrites is in a great measure expelled, and
+during its expulsion has probably a deteriorating influence on the
+beauty of the colour: our belief in this being so is strengthened by the
+fact that certain samples of ultramarine, ignited with sulphur, were not
+improved thereby. Similar effects are likewise caused by a careless or
+improper mode of treatment, for the finest lapis may yield dingy blues,
+containing particles of mica, metal, &c., and possessing a dull green,
+black, or purple hue. Of course the perfection of the pigment is
+dependant to a large extent upon the quality of the stone itself.
+
+Though unexceptionable as an oil-colour, both in solid painting and
+glazing, it does not work so well as some other blues in water; nor is
+it, unless carefully prepared, so well adapted for mixed tints, on
+account of a gritty quality, of which no grinding will entirely divest
+it, and which causes it to separate from other pigments. When extremely
+fine in texture, however, or when a considerable portion of gum, which
+renders it transparent, can be employed to give connexion or adhesion
+while flowing, it becomes no less valuable in water than in oil; but
+when its vivid azure is to be preserved, as in illuminated manuscripts
+and missals, little gum must be used. The fine greens, purples, and
+grays of the old masters, are often unquestionably compounds of
+ultramarine; and formerly it was the only blue known in fresco. Pure
+ultramarine varies in shade from light to dark, and in hue from pale
+warm azure to the deepest cold blue.
+
+Native ultramarine consists of silica, alumina, sulphur, and soda; its
+colouring matter seeming to be due to hyposulphite of soda and sulphide
+of sodium. In these respects, as well as in that of being decolourised
+by acids, the natural product resembles the artificial. As a precious
+material, the former has been subject to adulteration; and it has been
+dyed, damped, and oiled to enrich its appearance; attempts of fraud,
+however, which may be easily detected. In the preceding edition of this
+work the author adds--"and the genuine may be as easily distinguished
+from the spurious by dropping a few particles of the pigment into
+lemon-juice, or any other acid, which almost instantly destroys the
+colour of the true ultramarine totally, and without effervescence." With
+this statement, so far as it pretends to be a test for the two kinds, we
+are not inclined to agree. Genuine ultramarine is always decolourised by
+acids; but it depends on the mode and nicety of its preparation whether
+it is decolourised without effervescence: that this is the case the
+author himself admits in his article on artificial ultramarine.
+Moreover, the "violent effervescence" which he describes as ensuing on
+the latter being dropped into an acid, does not of necessity take place:
+in M. Guimet's finest variety, the brilliant ultramarine, acid produces
+little or no effervescence. Seeing, therefore, that both sorts are
+decolourised by acids, and that both may or may not effervesce
+therewith, the acid test must be considered fallacious. Experiments made
+with different samples of each, showed that native ultramarines offered
+greater resistance to acid than the artificial, taking longer to
+decolourise; and that the residues of the first were in general of a
+purer white than those of the last. It was also found that the brilliant
+ultramarine, above referred to, was less readily decolourised than other
+French or German kinds.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+137. _Blue Carmine._
+
+In a former edition of this work there appeared the following:--"Blue
+carmine is a blue oxide of molybdenum, of which little is known as a
+substance or as a pigment. It is said to be of a beautiful blue colour,
+and durable in a strong light, but is subject to be changed in hue by
+other substances, and blackened by foul air: we may conjecture,
+therefore, that it is not of much value in painting." In his estimate of
+this colour the author was certainly right. It is formed when a
+solution of bichloride of molybdenum is poured into a saturated, or
+nearly saturated, solution of molybdate of ammonia. A blue precipitate
+falls, which is a molybdate of molybdic oxide, hydrated, and abundantly
+soluble in water. When dried, it furnishes a dark blue powder,
+resembling powdered indigo, having a bitter, rough, metallic taste, and
+reddening litmus strongly. The solubility of this hydrated oxide is
+alone fatal to its employment as a pigment. It may, indeed, be rendered
+comparatively insoluble in water by ignition; but the anhydrous oxide so
+obtained is nearly black, and as a colour worthless.
+
+A more eligible preparation is the molybdate of baryta, produced by
+mixing solutions of molybdate of potash and acetate of baryta. A white,
+flocculent precipitate results, which rapidly condenses to a crystalline
+powder, and turns blue on ignition. It is, however, a costly compound,
+of little merit, and not likely to come into use. It is insoluble in
+water.
+
+138. _Blue Ochre_,
+
+which has been improperly called Native Prussian Blue, is a native
+hydrated phosphate of iron of rare occurrence, found with iron pyrites
+in Cornwall, and also in North America. What Indian red is to the colour
+red, and Oxford ochre to yellow, this pigment is to the colour blue,
+being sober and subdued rather than brilliant. It has the body of other
+ochres, more transparency, and is of considerable depth. Both in water
+and oil it works well, dries readily, and does not suffer in tint with
+white lead, nor change when exposed to the action of strong light, damp,
+or impure air. As far as its powers extend, therefore, it is an eligible
+pigment, though not generally employed nor easily procured; it may,
+however, be artificially prepared. Answering to similar acid tests as
+ultramarine, it is distinguished therefrom by assuming an olive-brown
+hue on exposure to a red heat.
+
+139. _Cobalt Prussian Blue._
+
+Gmelin states that yellow prussiate of potash yields with a solution of
+oxalate of sesquioxide of cobalt a blue resembling Prussian blue--that,
+in fact, there can be obtained a Prussian blue with a base of cobalt
+instead of iron. In the moist state, the similarity is sufficiently
+great, but when washed and dried, the product is, with us, a dingy slate
+colour. Possibly, if such a blue could be produced, it might exceed in
+permanence the ferro- and ferri-cyanides of iron. Of course the compound
+would be much more expensive.
+
+
+_Copper Blues_
+
+are now seldom or never employed as artists' pigments. The following
+are the principal varieties:--
+
+140. _Bice_,
+
+Blue Bice, Iris, Terre Bleu, was prepared, when true, from the Armenian
+stone, which is a calcareous kind of stone coloured with copper. It was
+of a light bright hue, but is completely superseded by pale ultramarine.
+The Persian lazur appears to have been a similar pigment, being a sort
+of copper ore, which, when the stone was pounded and sifted, furnished a
+fine paint, very bright and pleasant. It could not, however, stand the
+effects of the atmosphere like the Tartarian lazur or lapis lazuli, in
+the course of time becoming of a dark and dismal colour.
+
+Ground smalts, blue verditer, and other pigments, have passed under the
+name of bice.
+
+141. _Blue Ashes_, or _Mountain Blue_,
+
+are both hydrated carbonates of copper, the first being artificially
+prepared, and the second found native in Cumberland. Neither is durable,
+especially in oil; and, as pigments, both are precisely of the character
+of verditer. By treating the natural malachite green with an alkali, it
+may be converted into blue.
+
+142. _Blue Verditer_,
+
+or Verditer, is an oxide of copper, formed by precipitating nitrate of
+copper with lime. It is of a beautiful light blue colour, little
+affected by light, but greened and ultimately blackened by time, damp,
+and impure air--changes which ensue even more rapidly in oil than in
+water. It is mostly confined to distemper painting and paper-staining.
+
+143. _Egyptian Blue_,
+
+called by Vitruvius, Coeruleum, is frequently found on the walls of
+the temples in Egypt, as well as on the cases enclosing mummies. Count
+Chaptal, who analysed some of it discovered in 1809 in a shop at
+Pompeii, found that it was blue ashes, not prepared in the moist manner,
+but by calcination. He considers it a kind of frit, of a semi-vitreous
+nature; and this would appear to be the case from Sir H. Davy obtaining
+a similar colour by exposing to a strong heat, for two hours, a mixture
+of fifteen parts of carbonate of soda, twenty of powdered flints, and
+three of copper. The colour is very brilliant when first made, and
+retains its hue well in distemper and decorative painting; but it has
+the common defect of copper blues of turning green in oil, when ground
+impalpably for artistic use. One remarkable effect of this copper
+smalt--for it is nothing else--is, that by lamp-light it shows somewhat
+greenish, but shines by day with all the brightness of azure. Mérimée
+believes that Paul Veronese employed this sort of blue in many of his
+pictures where the skies have become green.
+
+144. _Saunders Blue_,
+
+a corrupt name from _Cendres Bleues_, the original denomination probably
+of ultramarine ashes, is of two kinds, the natural and artificial. The
+first is a blue mineral found near copper mines, while the last is
+simply a verditer.
+
+145. _Schweinfurt Blue_,
+
+or Reboulleau's Blue, is prepared by fusing together equal weights of
+ordinary arseniate of protoxide of copper and arseniate of potash, and
+adding one-fifth its weight of nitre to the fused mass. The result is,
+so to speak, a sort of blue Scheele's green, into which latter colour it
+soon passes when rubbed with oil.
+
+146. _Cotton Seed Blue._
+
+Cotton seed oil is bleached by treatment with either carbonate of soda
+or caustic lime. In both cases, a considerable residue is left after
+drawing off the bleached oil. This residue is treated with sulphuric
+acid, and distilled at a high temperature, when there is left a compact
+mass of a deep greenish-blue colour. On further treatment of this mass
+with strong sulphuric acid, the green tint disappears, and a very
+intense pure blue colour is produced. The blue mass is a mixture of the
+coloured substance with some sulphuric acid, sulphate of soda, and fats.
+The two former may be removed by washing with water; the latter by
+treatment with naptha. Alcohol now dissolves the blue colour, and water
+precipitates it from the solution chemically pure.
+
+This blue has not been introduced as a pigment; and of its permanence,
+and other attributes, we know nothing.
+
+147. _Gold Blue._
+
+Gold purple, under the name of Purple of Cassius, was once very well
+known: a like compound of tin and gold may be made to yield a blue.
+Resembling indigo, the colour is not remarkably brilliant, and, unless
+several precautions are carefully observed, is rather violet than blue.
+When obtained, the colour must be quickly washed by decantation, or it
+changes first to violet and then to purple. Its costliness, lack of
+brightness, and tendency to redden, are against its employment on the
+palette. In enamelling it would doubtless preserve its colour, and in
+exceptional cases might be useful.
+
+148. _Iodine Blue._
+
+It is curious that iodine, which gives a yellow with lead, should also
+afford a blue with the same metal. When a solution of iodine in aqueous
+soda (carbonate of soda is not so good) is added to nitrate or acetate
+of lead-oxide, a transient violet-red precipitate falls, which
+decomposes spontaneously under water, yielding iodine and a beautiful
+blue powder. The colour, however, is exceedingly fugitive, even the
+carbonic acid of the air separating iodine from it and forming a lead
+salt. Bearing in mind the scarlet iodide of mercury, iodine is capable
+of furnishing the three primary colours, distinguished alike by their
+brilliancy and fugacity.
+
+149. _Iridium Blue._
+
+The rare metal iridium affords a blue which is a mixture of the oxide
+and the sesquioxide. But being slightly soluble in water and
+decolourised by sulphuretted hydrogen, it would not, other
+considerations apart, be an acquisition.
+
+150. _Manganese Blue._
+
+An aqueous solution of permanganate of potash yields with baryta-water a
+violet mixture, which afterwards becomes colourless, and deposits a blue
+precipitate. This retains its colour after washing and drying, but
+cannot be recommended as a pigment, being liable to suffer in contact
+with organic substances, which deoxidize and decolourize the manganates
+and permanganates.
+
+151. _Platinum Blue._
+
+With mercurous nitrate, the platinocyanide of potassium forms a thick
+smalt blue, and the platinidcyanide a dark blue precipitate. The
+compound is a mixture of platino- or platinidcyanide of mercury and
+mercurous nitrate. Upon the presence of the latter the colour seems to
+depend, for on washing with cold water containing nitric acid, the
+nitrate is not removed nor the blue affected; but boiling water extracts
+the nitrate and leaves a white residue. A blue containing mercurous
+nitrate must necessarily be injured by impure air, and be otherwise
+objectionable.
+
+152. _Tungsten Blue_
+
+is an oxide formed by the action of various deoxidizing agents on
+tungstic acid. It remains unaltered in the air at ordinary temperatures,
+is opaque, and of a blackish indigo-blue colour. As a pigment, there is
+little to recommend it.
+
+153. _Wood-Tar Blue._
+
+The colours obtained from coal-tar have become household words, and it
+is not impossible that those from wood-tar may be some day equally
+familiar. At present wood-tar is comparatively unexplored, but the fact
+that picamar furnishes a blue is at least as suggestive and hopeful as
+that transient purple colouration by which aniline was once chiefly
+distinguished. As aniline is a product of coal-tar, so picamar is a
+product of wood-tar; and as the former gives a purple with
+hypochlorites, so the latter yields a blue with baryta-water. Both are
+distinguished by coloured tests, but there is this advantage in the
+picamar blue--it is comparatively permanent.
+
+Picamar blue is produced when a few drops of baryta-water are added to
+an alcoholic solution of impure picamar, or even to wood-tar oil
+deprived of its acid. The liquor instantly assumes a bright blue tint,
+which in a few minutes passes into an indigo colour. From [Greek: pitta]
+pitch, and [Greek: kallos] ornament, the blue is named _Pittacal_.
+
+The mode of separating pittacal has not been clearly described. Dumas
+states, that when precipitated in a flocculent state from its solutions,
+or obtained by evaporation, it closely resembles indigo, and, like it,
+acquires a coppery hue when rubbed. It is inodorous, tasteless, and not
+volatile; and is abundantly soluble in acetic acid, forming a red
+liquid, which, when saturated by an alkali, becomes of a bright blue. It
+is represented as a more delicate test of acid and alkalis than litmus.
+With acetate of lead, protochloride of tin, ammonio-sulphate of copper,
+and acetate of alumina, it yields a fine blue colour with a tint of
+violet, said not to be affected by air or light, and therefore
+recommended for dyeing.
+
+Like indigo, pittacal is believed to contain nitrogen, but its ultimate
+composition has not been accurately determined. Dumas considers it
+identical with a blue product obtained in 1827 from coal-tar by MM.
+Barthe and Laurent. If this be the case, its greater stability over
+coal-tar blues and colours generally admits of doubt. That, however, has
+yet to be ascertained. Our object in noticing this blue has been
+two-fold: first, to direct attention to wood-tar as a possible source of
+colour; and secondly, to point to pittacal as a possible substitute for
+indigo, possessing greater durability.
+
+154. _Zinc-Cobalt Blue._
+
+Cobalt, as furnishing a blue colour, is usually associated with alumina,
+silica, or tin; and, as furnishing a green colour, with zinc. But there
+is obtainable a compound of zinc and cobalt which gives a blue not only
+free from green, but inclining rather to red. It is made by adding to a
+solution of ordinary phosphate of soda in excess a solution first of
+sulphate of zinc and then of sulphate of cobalt, and washing and
+igniting the precipitate. The result is a vitreous blue with a purple
+cast, of little body, and exceedingly difficult to grind. Altogether, it
+is not unlike smalt, over which it has no advantages as an artistic
+pigment either in colour or permanence. For tinting porcelain, however,
+it is admirably adapted, imparting thereto a very pure dark blue of
+extraordinary beauty. This blue is distinguished from smalt by
+dissolving in acetic acid.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Compared with the wide range of yellows, or even with reds, the artist
+finds the number of his blues limited. The perfect native and excellent
+artificial ultramarines, the good blues of cobalt, the fair Prussian
+blue, and the doubtful indigo, are the four varieties he has for years
+been in the habit of using, and is still mainly dependent on. Our
+division, therefore, into permanent, semi-stable, and fugitive, is
+easily effected.
+
+In the front rank, pre-eminent among blues as among pigments generally,
+stands genuine ultramarine. Behind it, are the artificial ultramarines;
+and behind them again, cobalt and cerulian blue. To a greater or less
+extent, all these are durable.
+
+Among the semi-stable, must be classed cyanine or Leitch's blue, smalt,
+and Prussian blue.
+
+To the fugitive, belong indigo and the somewhat more permanent intense
+blue, Antwerp blue, and the copper blues.
+
+In this list of blues, which grace or disgrace the palette of the
+present day, there is one colour which, although not permanent, is
+almost indispensable. As yet, the chemist cannot in all cases lay down
+the law as to what pigments may or may not be employed. The painter who
+unnecessarily uses fugitive colours must have little love for his
+craft, and a poor opinion of the value of his work; but, even with the
+best intentions and the utmost self-esteem, the artist cannot always
+confine himself to strictly stable pigments. He has no right to use
+orpiment instead of cadmium yellow, or red lead instead of vermilion, or
+copper blue instead of cobalt: he has no business to employ indigo when
+Prussian blue saddened by black will answer his purpose; but--what
+pigment can he substitute for Prussian blue itself? None. In its
+wondrous depth, richness, and transparency, it stands alone: there is no
+yellow to compare with it, no red to equal it, no blue to rival it. In
+force and power it is a colour among colours, and transparent beyond
+them all. The great importance of transparent pigments is to unite with
+solid or opaque colours of their own hues, giving tone and atmosphere
+generally, together with beauty and life; to convert primary into
+secondary, and secondary into tertiary colours, with brilliancy; to
+deepen and enrich dark colours and shadows, and to impart force and tone
+to black itself. For such effects, no pigment can vie with Prussian
+blue. What purples it produces, what greens it gives, what a matchless
+range of grays; what velvety glow it confers, how it softens the
+harshness of colours, and how it subdues their glare. No; until the
+advent of a perfect palette, the artist can scarcely part with his
+Prussian blue; nor can the chemist, who has nothing better to offer,
+hold him to blame. It is for Art to copy Nature with the best materials
+she possesses: it is for Science to learn the secrets of Nature, and
+turn them to the benefit of Art.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI.
+
+ON THE SECONDARY, ORANGE.
+
+
+Orange is the first of the secondary colours in relation to light, being
+in all the variety of its hues composed of _yellow_ and _red_. A true or
+perfect orange is such a compound of red and yellow as will neutralize a
+perfect blue in equal quantity either of surface or intensity; and the
+proportions of such compound are five of perfect red to three of perfect
+yellow. When orange inclines to red, it takes the names of _scarlet_,
+_poppy_, &c.: in gold colour, &c., it leans towards yellow. Combined
+with green it forms the tertiary _citrine_, and with purple the tertiary
+_russet_: it also furnishes a series of warm semi-neutral colours with
+black, and harmonizes in contact and variety of tints with white.
+
+Orange is an advancing colour in painting:--in nature it is effective at
+a great distance, acting powerfully on the eye, diminishing its
+sensibility in accordance with the strength of the light in which it is
+viewed. It is of the hue, and partakes of the vividness of sunshine, as
+it likewise does of all the powers of its components, red and yellow.
+Pre-eminently a _warm_ colour, being the equal contrast of or antagonist
+to blue, to which the attribute of _coolness_ peculiarly belongs, it is
+discordant when standing alone with yellow or with red, unresolved by
+their proper contrasts or harmonizing colours, purple and green. As an
+archeus or ruling colour, orange is one of the most agreeable keys in
+toning a picture, from the richness and warmth of its effects. If it
+predominate therein, for the colouring to be true, the violet and purple
+should be more or less red, the red more or less scarlet, the yellow
+more or less intense and orange, and the orange itself be intense and
+vivid. Further, the greens must lose some of their blue and consequently
+become yellower, the light blues be more or less light grey, and the
+deep indigo more or less marrone.
+
+Although the secondary colours are capable of being obtained by
+admixture of the primaries in an infinitude of hues, tints, and shades;
+yet simple original pigments of whatever class--whether secondary,
+tertiary, or semi-neutral--are, it has been said before, often superior
+to those compounded, both in a chemical and artistic sense. Hence a
+thoroughly good original orange is only of less value and importance
+than a thoroughly good original yellow, a green than a blue, or a
+purple than a red. To produce pure and permanent compound hues requires
+practice and knowledge, and we too often see in the works of painters
+combinations neither pleasing nor stable. Colours are associated with
+each other which do not mix kindly, and compounds formed of which one or
+both constituents are fugitive. As a consequence, mixed tints are
+frequently wanting in clearness, and, where they do not disappear
+altogether, resolve themselves into some primary colour; orange becoming
+red by a fading of the yellow, green yellow by a fading of the blue, and
+purple blue by a fading of the red. Again, with regard to compound
+tints, there is the danger of one colour reacting upon and injuring
+another, as in the case of greens obtained from chrome yellow and
+Prussian blue, where the former ultimately destroys the latter. Of
+course a mixture of two permanent pigments which do not react on each
+other will remain permanent; the green, for instance, furnished by
+aureolin and native ultramarine lasting as long as the ground itself. To
+produce, however, the effects desired, the artist does not always stop
+to consider the fitness and stability of his colours in compounding,
+even if he possess the needed acquaintance with their physical and
+chemical properties. At all times, therefore, but especially when such
+knowledge is slight, good orange, &c., pigments are of more or less
+value, as by their use the employment of inferior mixtures is to a great
+extent avoided. In mingling primary with primary, if one colour does not
+compound well with the other, or is fugacious, the result is failure;
+but a secondary is not so easily affected by admixture: a green, for
+example, is seldom quite ruined by the injudicious addition of blue or
+yellow; and even if either of the latter be fugitive, the green will
+remain a green if originally durable. Thus the secondaries, if they are
+not already of the colour required, may be brightened or subdued,
+deepened or paled, with comparative impunity. The artist who, from long
+years of experience, knows exactly the properties and capabilities of
+the colours he employs, may in a measure dispense with secondary
+pigments, and obtain from the primaries mixed tints at once stable,
+beautiful, and pure; but even he must sometimes resort to them, as when
+a green like emerald or viridian is required, which no mixture of blue
+and yellow will afford. The primaries, by reason of their not being able
+to be composed of other colours, occupy the first place on the palette,
+and are of the first importance; but the secondaries are far too useful
+to be disregarded, and have a value of their own, which both veteran and
+tyro have cause to acknowledge.
+
+The list of original orange pigments was once so deficient, that in some
+old treatises on the subject of colours, they are not even mentioned.
+This may have arisen, not merely from their paucity, but from the
+unsettled signification of the term orange, as well as from improperly
+calling these pigments reds, yellows, &c. In these days, however, orange
+pigments are sufficiently numerous to merit a chapter to themselves;
+they indeed comprise some of the best colours on the palette.
+
+155. BURNT SIENNA,
+
+or _Burnt Terra di Sienna_, is calcined raw Sienna, of a rich
+transparent brown-orange or orange-russet colour, richer, deeper, and
+more transparent than the raw earth. It also works and dries better, has
+in other respects the qualities of its parent colour, and is a most
+permanent and serviceable pigment in painting generally. For the warm
+tints in rocks, mud banks, and buildings, this colour is excellent. When
+mixed with blue it makes a good green; furnishing a bright green with
+cobalt, and one much more intense with Prussian blue. For the foresea,
+whether calm or broken by waves, it may be employed with a little
+madder; while compounded with a small portion of the latter and lamp
+black, it meets the hues of old posts, boats, and a variety of near
+objects, as the tints may be varied by modifying the proportions of the
+component colours. Used with white, it yields a range of sunny tones;
+and with aureolin or French blue and aureolin will be found of service,
+the last compound giving a fine olive green. Similar but fugitive greens
+are afforded by admixture of burnt Sienna with indigo and yellow or
+Roman ochre, or raw Sienna; tints which may be saddened into olive
+neutrals by the addition of sepia, and rendered more durable by
+substituting for indigo Prussian blue and black. Mixed with viridian, it
+furnishes autumnal hues of the utmost richness, beauty, and permanence;
+and, alone, is valuable as a glaze over foliage and herbage. For the
+dark markings and divisions of stones a compound of Payne's gray and
+burnt Sienna will prove serviceable; while for red sails the Sienna,
+either by itself, with brown madder, or with Indian red, cannot be
+surpassed. For foregrounds, banks and roads, cattle and animals in
+general, burnt Sienna is equally eligible, both alone and compounded. It
+has a slight tendency to darken by time.
+
+156. CADMIUM ORANGE
+
+was first introduced to the art-world at the International Exhibition of
+1862, where it was universally admired for its extreme brilliancy and
+beauty, a brilliancy equalled by few of the colours with which it was
+associated, and a beauty devoid of coarseness. We remember well the
+power it possessed of attracting the eye from a distance; and how, on
+near approach, it threw nearly all other pigments into the shade. It has
+in truth a lustrous luminosity not often to be met with, added to a
+total absence of rankness or harshness. A simple original colour,
+containing no base but cadmium, it is of perfect permanence, being
+uninjured by exposure to light, air or damp, by sulphuretted hydrogen,
+or by admixture. Having in common with cadmium sulphides a certain
+amount of transparency, it is invaluable for gorgeous sunsets and the
+like, either alone or compounded with aureolin. Of great depth and power
+in its full touches, the pale washes are marked by that clearness and
+delicacy which are so essential in painting skies. As day declines, and
+blue melts into green, green into orange, and orange into purple, the
+proper use of this pigment will produce effects both glowing and
+transparent. Transparency signifies the quality of being seen through or
+into; and in no better way can it be arrived at than by giving a number
+of thin washes of determined character, each lighter than the preceding
+one. With due care in preserving their forms, from the commencement to
+the termination, such washes of orange will furnish hues the softest and
+most aerial. For bits of bright drapery, a glaze over autumn leaves, and
+mural decoration, this colour is adapted; while in illumination it
+supplies a want formerly much felt. "With the exception of scarlet or
+bright orange," said Mr. Bradley, nine or ten years since, in his Manual
+of Illumination, "our colours are everything we could wish." As an
+original pigment, a permanent scarlet does not yet exist; but the
+brilliancy of cadmium orange cannot be disputed, nor its claim to be the
+only unexceptionable bright orange known. It even assists the formation
+of the other colour: remarks the author mentioned, "Brilliancy is
+obtained by gradation. Suppose a scarlet over-curling leaf, for example.
+The whole should be painted in pure orange, with the gentlest possible
+after-touch of vermilion towards the corner under the curl. When dry, a
+firm line--not wash--of carmine, (of madder, preferable.--_Ed._), passed
+within the outline on the shade side only of the leaf, will give to the
+whole the look of a bright scarlet surface, but with an indescribable
+superadded charm, that no merely flat colour can possess." In the same
+branch of art, illumination, cadmium orange, opposed to viridian,
+presents a most dazzling contrast, especially if relieved by purple.
+
+157. CHINESE ORANGE
+
+belongs to the coal-tar colours, and ought strictly to have been classed
+therewith. We have preferred, however, to keep it separate, because, as
+Chinese Orange, it was introduced as a pigment, and has not been
+employed as a dye. In colour, it somewhat resembles burnt Sienna,
+enriched, reddened, brightened, and made more transparent, by admixture
+with crimson lake. From its behaviour, it would seem to be composed of
+yellow and red, such a compound as magenta and aniline yellow would
+afford. Its pale washes are uncertain, being apt to resolve themselves
+into red and yellow, of which the latter appears the most permanent;
+for, on exposure to light and air, the red more or less flies, leaving
+here a yellow, and there a reddish-yellow ground: in places both red and
+yellow disappear. Like all fugitive colours, it is comparatively stable
+when used in body; but even then it entirely loses its depth and
+richness, and in a great measure its redness, becoming faded and
+yellowish. In thin washes or glazing it is totally inadmissible; and,
+being neither a red, an orange, nor a brown, is unsuited to pure
+effects. Nevertheless, where it need not be unduly exposed; in portfolio
+illuminations, for instance, the richness, subdued brilliancy, and
+transparency of this pigment, justify its adoption. It is not affected
+by an impure atmosphere.
+
+Aniline colours may be adapted for oil painting by dissolving them in
+the strongest alcohol, saturating the solution with Dammar resin,
+filtering the tincture, and pouring the filtrate either on pure water or
+solution of common salt, stirring well all the time. The water or brine
+solution must be at least twenty times the bulk of the tincture. The
+colour after being collected on a filter, washed, and dried, can be
+ground with linseed oil, poppy oil, or oil varnishes.
+
+158. CHROME ORANGE,
+
+_Orange Chrome_, or _Orange Chromate of Lead_, is a sub-chromate of lead
+of an orange-yellow colour, produced by the action of an alkali on
+chrome yellow. Like all the chromates of lead, it is characterized by
+power and brilliancy; but also by a rankness of tone, a want of
+permanence, and a tendency to injure organic pigments. By reason of its
+lead base it is subject to alteration by impure air, but is on the whole
+preferable to the chrome yellows, being liable in a somewhat less degree
+to their changes and affinities. As, however, a colour has no business
+to be used if a better can be procured, the recent introduction of
+cadmium orange renders all risk unnecessary.
+
+159. MARS ORANGE,
+
+_Orange de Mars_, is a subdued orange of the burnt Sienna class, but
+without the brown tinge that distinguishes the latter. Marked by a
+special clearness and purity of tone, with much transparency, it affords
+bright sunny tints in its pale washes, and combines effectively with
+white. Being an artificial iron ochre it is more chemically active than
+native ochres, and needs to be cautiously employed with pigments
+affected by iron, such as the lakes of cochineal and intense blue.
+
+160. MIXED ORANGE.
+
+Orange being a compound colour, the place of original orange pigments
+can be supplied by mixtures of yellow and red; either by glazing one
+over the other, by stippling, or by other modes of breaking and
+intermixing them, according to the nature of the work and the effect
+required. For reasons lately given, mixed pigments are apt to be
+inferior to the simple or homogeneous both in colour, working, and other
+properties; yet some pigments mix and combine more cordially and with
+better results than others; as is the case with liquid rubiate and
+gamboge. Generally speaking, the compounding of colours is easier in oil
+than in water; but in both vehicles trouble will be saved by beginning
+with the predominating colour, and adding the other or others to it.
+
+Perhaps in this, our first chapter on the secondary colours, and
+consequently on colours that can be compounded, a few remarks on mixed
+tints from a chemical point of view will not be deemed superfluous.
+
+There are two ways, we take it, of looking at a picture--from a purely
+chemical, and from a purely artistic, point of view. Regarded in the
+first light, it matters little whether a painting be a work of genius or
+a daub, provided the pigments employed on it are good and properly
+compounded. The effects produced are lost sight of in a consideration of
+the materials, their permanence, fugacity, and conduct towards each
+other. Painting is essentially a chemical operation: with his pigments
+for reagents, the artist unwittingly performs reaction after reaction,
+not with the immediate results indeed of the chemist in his laboratory,
+but often as surely. As colour is added to colour, and mixture to
+mixture, acid meets alkali, metal animal, mineral vegetable, inorganic
+organic. With so close a union of opposite and opposing elements, the
+wonder is not so much that pictures sometimes perish, but that they ever
+live. It behoves the artist, then, not only to procure the best and most
+permanent pigments possible, but to compound them in such a manner that
+his mixed tints may be durable as well as beautiful. To effect or aid in
+effecting this, although he may not always be able to act upon them, the
+following axioms should be borne in mind:--
+
+1. If they do not react on each other, a permanent pigment added to a
+permanent pigment yields a permanent mixture.
+
+2. If they do react on each other, a permanent pigment added to a
+permanent pigment yields a semi-stable or fugitive mixture.
+
+3. A permanent pigment added to a semi-stable pigment yields a
+semi-stable mixture.
+
+4. A permanent pigment added to a fugitive pigment yields a fugitive
+mixture.
+
+Consequently--
+
+5. A permanent pigment may be rendered fugitive or semi-stable by
+improper compounding.
+
+6. A semi-stable or fugitive pigment is not rendered durable by being
+compounded.
+
+7. As a chain is only as strong as its weakest link, so a mixture is
+only as permanent as its least durable constituent.
+
+To give illustrations--
+
+1. Ultramarine added to Chinese white yields a permanent mixture.
+
+2. Ultramarine added to an acid constant white yields a semi-stable or
+fugitive mixture.
+
+3. Ultramarine added to Prussian blue yields a semi-stable mixture.
+
+4. Ultramarine added to indigo yields a fugitive mixture.
+
+Except in the second instance, where the blue is either partially or
+wholly destroyed--in time, be it remembered, not at once--according to
+the quantity and strength of the acid in the white, the ultramarine
+remains unchanged. Hence at first sight our third and fourth conclusions
+may appear wrong; inasmuch as, it may be argued, a blue mixture cannot
+be semi-stable or fugitive when blue is left. To this we reply, unless
+both constituents are fugitive, a mixture will always more or less
+possess colour; but, if even one constituent be semi-stable or fugitive,
+a mixture will slowly but surely lose _the_ colour for which it was
+compounded, and be _as a mixture_ semi-stable or fugitive.
+
+It need hardly be observed that the number of permanent orange, green,
+and purple hues which the artist can compound, depends mainly on the
+number of permanent yellows, reds, and blues at his disposal. In mixed
+orange, therefore, a selection of durable yellows and reds is of the
+first importance. It should, however, be remarked that mixed orange,
+more sober and less decided, is obtainable by the use of citrine and
+russet; in the former of which yellow predominates, and in the latter,
+red: consequently orange results when yellow is added to russet, red to
+citrine, or citrine to russet.
+
+    PERMANENT YELLOWS.     | PERMANENT REDS.
+                           |
+    Aureolin.              | Cadmium Red.
+    Cadmium, deep.         | Liquid Rubiate.
+    Cadmium, pale.         | Madder Carmine.
+    Lemon Yellow.          | Rose Madder.
+    Mars Yellow.           | Mars Red.
+    Naples Yellow, modern. | Ochres.
+    Ochres.                | Vermilions.
+    Orient Yellow.         |
+    Raw Sienna.            |
+
+None of these pigments react on each other, and from them can be
+produced the most durable mixed orange that yellow and red will afford.
+
+161. NEUTRAL ORANGE,
+
+or _Penley's Neutral Orange_, is a permanent compound pigment composed
+of yellow ochre and the russet-marrone known as brown madder: it is
+chiefly valuable in water-colour. Paper, being white, is too opaque to
+paint upon, without some wash of colour being first passed over it;
+otherwise the light tones of the sky are apt to look crude and harsh. It
+must, therefore, be gone over with some desirable tint, that shall
+break, in a slight degree, the extreme brilliancy of the mere paper. For
+this purpose, a thin wash of the orange is to be put over the whole
+surface of the paper with a large flat brush, care being taken never to
+drive the colour too bare, _i.e._ never to empty the brush too closely,
+but always to replenish before more is actually required. This first
+wash of colour not only gives a tone to the paper, but secures the
+pencil sketch from being rubbed out.
+
+The reason why, in this compound, yellow ochre, as a yellow, is
+preferred to any of the others, is, that it is a broken yellow, that is,
+a yellow slightly altered by having another hue, such as red, or brown,
+in its composition. It is somewhat opaque too, and hence, from this
+quality, is especially adapted for distances. Brown madder also is a
+subdued red, which, when in combination with the former, produces a
+neutral orange, partaking of the character of soft light. As a general
+rule, yellow ochre is to predominate in broad daylight, and brown madder
+in that which is more sombre and imperfect: hence the pigment can be
+yellowed or reddened, by the addition of one or the other. For a clear
+sunset, the neutral orange must be repeated, with a preponderance of
+ochre at the top, assisted by a little cadmium yellow near the sun; the
+madder being added downwards.
+
+In treating of distant mountains, a distinction is to be made between
+them and the clouds, the former requiring solidity, while the latter are
+only to be regarded as vapour and air. Mountains, being opaque bodies,
+are acted upon by atmosphere more or less, according to their position,
+their distance, and the state of the weather. To express this
+distinction, recourse must be had to an under tint, except where the
+tone is decidedly blue--an uncommon case. No mixture can give this with
+such truth as the neutral orange. A wash, therefore, should be passed
+over the mountains, with nearly all yellow in the high lights, or in the
+gleams of sunshine, and, on the contrary, almost all brown madder for
+the shadows. These two degrees of tone must be run into each other
+while the drawing is wet. A beautiful and soft under tone will thus be
+given to receive the greys.
+
+162. ORANGE, OR BURNT ROMAN OCHRE,
+
+called also _Spanish Ochre_, is a very bright yellow or Roman ochre
+burnt, by which operation it acquires warmth, colour, transparency, and
+depth. Moderately bright, it forms good flesh tints with white, dries
+and works well both in water and oil, and is a very good and eligible
+pigment. It may be used in enamel painting, and has all the properties
+of its original ochre in other respects.
+
+A redder hue is imparted by mixing the ochre with powdered nitre before
+ignition, the orange red being subsequently washed with hot water.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+163. _Anotta_,
+
+Annotto, Annatto, Arnotto, Arnotta, Terra Orellana, Rocou, &c., is met
+with in commerce under the names of cake anotta, and flag or roll
+anotta. The former, which comes almost exclusively from Cayenne, should
+be of a bright yellow colour: the latter, which is imported from the
+Brazils, is brown outside and red within. It is prepared from the pods
+of the _bixa orellana_, and appears generally to contain two colouring
+matters, a yellow and a red, which are apt to adhere to each other and
+produce orange. Anotta dissolves with difficulty in water, but readily
+in alcohol and alkaline solutions, from which last it may be thrown down
+as a lake by means of alum. Being, however, exceedingly fugitive and
+changeable, it is not fit for painting; but is chiefly employed in
+dyeing silk, and colouring varnishes and cheese. Very red cheese should
+be looked upon with suspicion, for although the admixture of anotta is
+in no way detrimental to health provided the drug be pure, it is
+commonly adulterated with red lead and ochre. Several instances are on
+record that Gloucester and other cheeses have been found contaminated
+with red lead, through having been coloured with anotta containing it,
+and that this contamination has produced serious consequences.
+
+_Bixine_ is a purified extract of anotta made in France, and used by
+dyers.
+
+164. _Antimony Orange_,
+
+Golden Sulphur of Antimony, or Golden Yellow, is a hydro-sulphuret of
+antimony of an orange colour, which is destroyed by the action of strong
+light. It is a bad dryer in oil, injurious to many pigments, and in no
+respect eligible either in water or oil.
+
+165. _Chromate of Mercury_
+
+has been improperly classed as a red with vermilion, for though it is of
+a bright ochrous red in powder, when ground it becomes a bright
+ochre-orange, and affords with white very pure orange tints.
+Nevertheless it is a bad pigment, since light soon changes it to a deep
+russet colour, and foul air reduces it to extreme blackness.
+
+166. _Damonico_,
+
+or Monicon, is an iron ochre, being a compound of raw Sienna and Roman
+ochre burnt, and having all their qualities. It is rather more russet in
+hue than the pigment known as orange or burnt Roman ochre, has
+considerable transparency, is rich and durable in colour, and furnishes
+good flesh tints. As in orange ochre, powdered nitre may be employed in
+its preparation. Notwithstanding its merits, it is obsolete or nearly
+so; doubtless because burnt Sienna mixed with burnt Roman ochre
+sufficiently answers the purpose.
+
+167. _Gamboge Orange._
+
+On adding acetate of lead to a potash solution of gamboge, a rich bright
+orange is precipitated, which may be washed on a filter till the
+washings are colourless, and preserves its hue with careful drying. The
+orange which we thus obtained stood well in a book, but it cannot be
+recommended as an artistic pigment. Perhaps in dyeing, the lead and
+gamboge solutions might be worth a trial.
+
+168. _Laque Minérale_
+
+is a French pigment, a species of chromic orange, similar to the orange
+chromate of lead. This name is likewise given to orange oxide of iron.
+
+169. _Madder Orange_,
+
+or Orange Lake. It has been said that the yellows so-called produced
+from madder are not remarkable for stability, differing therein from the
+reds, purples, russets, and browns. Like them, this 'orange' is of
+doubtful colour and permanence, and not to be met with, brilliant and
+pure, on the palette of to-day. The russet known as Rubens' madder has a
+tendency to orange.
+
+170. _Orange Lead_,
+
+of a dull orange colour, is an orange protoxide of lead or massicot.
+Like litharge, it may be employed in the preparation of drying oils,
+and, being a better drier than white lead, may be substituted for it in
+mixing with pigments which need a siccative, as the bituminous earths.
+
+Minium sometimes leans to orange; and there is made from ceruse a
+peculiar red, _Mineral Orange_.
+
+
+_Orange Orpiment_,
+
+or Realgar, has also been called Red Orpiment, improperly, since it is
+a brilliant orange, inclining to yellow. There are two kinds, a native
+and an artificial, of which the former is the _sandarac_ of the
+ancients, and is rather redder than the latter. They possess the same
+qualities as pigments, and as such resemble yellow orpiment, to which
+the old painters gave the orange hue by heat, naming it alchemy and
+burnt orpiment. Orange orpiment contains more arsenic and less sulphur
+than the yellow, and is of course highly poisonous. It is often
+sophisticated with brickdust and yellow ochre.
+
+172. _Thallium Orange_
+
+is produced when bichromate of potash is added to a neutral salt of the
+protoxide of thallium, as an orange-yellow precipitate. The scarcity of
+the metal precludes their present introduction as pigments, but if the
+chromates of thallium were found to resist the action of light and air,
+and not to become green by deoxidation of the chromic acid, they might
+possibly prove fitted for the palette. It is a question whether their
+_very_ slight solubility in water would be a fatal objection; and,
+although they would be liable to suffer from a foul atmosphere, we are
+inclined to think the effects would not be so lasting as in the
+chromates of lead. Like lead sulphide, the sulphide of thallium ranges
+from brown to brownish-black, or grey-black; and, like it too, is
+subject to oxidation and consequent conversion into colourless sulphate.
+It is, however, much more readily oxidized than sulphate of lead; and
+hence the thallium chromates would doubtless soon regain their former
+hue on exposure to a strong light.
+
+Mr. Crookes, who discovered this new metal in 1861, believes that the
+deep orange shade observable in some specimens of sulphide of cadmium is
+due to the presence of thallium. He has frequently found it, he says, in
+the dark-coloured varieties, and considers the variations of colour in
+cadmium sulphide to be owing to traces of thallium. That thallium
+affects the colour is most probable, but it is not necessarily the cause
+of the orange hue. The tint of cadmium sulphide is a mere matter of
+manufacture, seeing that from the same sample of metal there can be
+obtained lemon-yellow, pale yellow, deep yellow, orange-yellow, and
+orange-red. With deference to the opinion of a chemist so distinguished,
+we hold that thallium rather impairs the beauty of cadmium sulphide than
+imparts to it an orange shade, the thallium being likewise in the form
+of sulphide, and therefore more or less black. On chromate of cadmium,
+made with bichromate of potash, thallium would naturally confer an
+orange hue.
+
+173. _Uranium Orange_
+
+is obtainable by wet and dry methods as a yellowish-red, or, when
+reduced to powder, an orange-yellow, uranate of baryta. It is an
+expensive preparation, superfluous as a pigment.
+
+174. _Zinc Orange._
+
+When hydrochloric acid and zinc are made to act on nitro-prusside of
+sodium, a corresponding zinc compound is formed of a deep orange colour,
+slightly soluble in water, and not permanent.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+For a secondary colour, orange is well represented on the modern
+palette, and can point to some pigments as good and durable as any to be
+found among the primaries. Burnt Sienna, cadmium orange, Mars orange,
+neutral orange, and orange or burnt Roman ochre, are all strictly
+permanent. The so-called orange vermilions were, it will be remembered,
+classed among the reds.
+
+As semi-stable, must be ranked chrome orange; and as fugitive, Chinese
+orange, orange orpiment, and orange lead.
+
+From the foregoing division, the predominance of eligible orange
+pigments over those less trustworthy is manifest. Unfortunately, with
+many painters it is not so manifest that their secondary and compound
+colours should receive as much attention as the primaries, and that it
+is their duty, not only to the art which they practice, but to the
+patrons for whom they practice it, that their orange and green and
+purple hues, should be as durable as their yellows, reds, and blues. For
+such, the introduction of a new permanent pigment is of little interest,
+unless its colour be primary; so wedded are they to that passion for
+compounding which the chemist views with dismay. With dismay, because he
+knows that the rules of mixture are severe, and cannot with impunity be
+altered; that, although disguised in oil or gum, each pigment is a
+chemical compound, with more or less of affinity and power, more or less
+likely to act or be acted upon. Because he knows that, except with the
+most experienced artists, compounding leads to confusion; and that in it
+the temptations to use semi-stable or fugitive colours are strong. Look
+at those tables of mixed tints of which artist-authors are so fond, and
+tell us whether they always bear scrutiny--surely not. Admirable,
+perfect as these tints may be in an artistic sense, how often is their
+beauty like the hectic flush of consumption, which carries with it the
+seeds of a certain death. Will that orange where Indian yellow figures
+ever see old age, or that green with indigo, or purple with cochineal
+lake? Will they not rather spread over the picture the Upas-tree of
+fugacity, and kill it as they die themselves!
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII.
+
+ON THE SECONDARY, GREEN.
+
+
+Green, which occupies the middle station in the natural scale of colours
+and in relation to light and shade, is the second of the secondary
+colours. It is composed of the extreme primaries, _yellow_ and _blue_,
+and is most perfect in hue when constituted in the proportions of three
+of yellow to eight of blue of equal intensities; because such a green
+will exactly neutralize and contrast a perfect red in the ratio of
+eleven to five, either of space or power. Of all compound colours, green
+is the most effective, distinct, and striking, causing surprise and
+delight when first produced by a mixture of blue and yellow, so
+dissimilar to its constituents does it appear to the untutored eye.
+Compounded with orange, green converts it into the one extreme tertiary
+_citrine_; while mixed with purple, it becomes the other extreme
+tertiary _olive_: hence its relations and accordances are more general,
+and its contrasts more agreeable with all colours, than those of any
+other individual colour. Accordingly it has been adopted very wisely in
+nature as the common garb of the vegetal creation. It is, indeed, in
+every respect a central or medial colour, being the contrast,
+compensatory in the proportion of eleven to five, of the middle primary
+_red_, on the one hand, and of the middle tertiary _russet_, on the
+other; while, unlike the other secondaries, all its hues, whether
+tending to blue or yellow, are of the same denomination.
+
+These attributes of green, which render it so universally effective in
+contrasting colours, cause it also to become the least useful in
+compounding them, and the most apt to defile other colours in mixture.
+Nevertheless it forms valuable semi-neutrals of the olive class with
+_black_, for of such subdued tones are those greens by which the more
+vivid tints of nature are opposed. Accordingly, the various greens of
+foliage are always more or less semi-neutral in hue. As green is the
+most general colour of vegetal nature and principal in foliage; so red,
+its harmonizing colour, with compounds of red, is most general and
+principal in flowers. Purple flowers are commonly contrasted with
+centres or variegations of bright yellow, as blue flowers are with like
+relievings of orange; and there is a prevailing hue, or character, in
+the green colour of the foliage of almost every plant, by which it is
+harmonized with the colours of its flowers.
+
+The chief discord of green is blue; and when they approximate or
+accompany each other, they require to be resolved by the opposition of
+warm colours. It is in this way that the warmth of distance and the
+horizon reconciles the azure of the sky with the greenness of a
+landscape. Its less powerful discord is yellow, which needs to be
+similarly resolved by a purple-red, or its principles. In tone, green is
+cool or warm, sedate or gay, either as it inclines to blue or to yellow;
+yet in its general effects it is cool, calm, temperate, and refreshing.
+Having little power in reflecting light, it is a retiring colour, and
+readily subdued by distance: for the same reason, it excites the retina
+less than most colours, and is cool and grateful to the eye. As a colour
+individually, green is eminently beautiful and agreeable, but it is more
+particularly so when contrasted by its compensating colour, red, as it
+often is in nature, even in the green leaves and young shoots of plants
+and trees. "The autumn only is called the painter's season," remarks
+Constable, "from the great richness of the colours of the dead and
+decaying foliage, and the peculiar tone and beauty of the skies; but the
+spring has, perhaps, more than an equal claim to his notice and
+admiration, and from causes not wholly dissimilar,--the great variety of
+tints and colours of the living foliage, accompanied by their flowers
+and blossoms. The beautiful and tender hues of the young leaves and
+buds are rendered more lovely by being contrasted, as they now are, with
+the sober russet browns of the stems from which they shoot, and which
+still show the drear remains of the season that is past."
+
+The number of pigments of any colour is in general proportioned to its
+importance; hence the variety of greens is very great, though the
+classes of those in common use are not very numerous. Of the three
+secondaries, green is the colour most often met with, and, consequently,
+the most often compounded: for this last reason, perhaps, the palette is
+somewhat deficient in really good original greens--more deficient than
+there is any necessity for.
+
+
+CHROME OXIDES.
+
+By numerous methods both wet and dry, oxides of chromium are obtainable
+pale and deep, bright and subdued, warm and cool, opaque and
+transparent: sometimes hydrated, in which case they cannot be employed
+in enamelling; and sometimes anhydrous, when they are admissible
+therein. But whatever their properties may be, chemical, physical, or
+artistic, they are all strictly stable. Neither giving nor receiving
+injury by admixture, equally unaffected by foul gas and exposure to
+light, air, or damp, these oxides are perfectly unexceptionable in every
+respect. For the most part they are eligible in water and oil, drying
+well in the latter vehicle, and requiring in the former much gum. They
+have long been known as affording pure, natural, and durable tints; but,
+until within the last few years, have been rather fine than brilliant
+greens. Lately, however, processes have been devised, yielding them
+almost as bright, rich, and transparent, as the carmine of cochineal
+itself.
+
+175. OXIDE OF CHROMIUM,
+
+_Opaque Oxide of Chromium_, _Green Oxide of Chromium_, _Chrome Oxide_,
+_True Chrome Green_, _Native Green_, _&c._, is found native in an impure
+state as Chrome Ochre, but is always artificially prepared for artistic
+use. Obtained anhydrous by dry modes, this is the only chrome oxide
+available in enamelling, and is the one seen on superior porcelain. It
+is a cold, sober sage green, deep-toned, opaque, and, although dull,
+agreeable to the eye. Its tints with white are peculiarly delicate and
+pleasing, possessing a silvery luminous quality, and giving the effect
+of atmosphere. Being very dense and powerful, it must be employed with
+care to avoid heaviness, and is preferably diluted with a large quantity
+of white, or compounded with transparent yellow. In the hands of a
+master, this gray-green furnishes lustrous hues with brown pink, Italian
+pink, and Indian yellow; three beautiful but fugitive pigments, of
+which the two last may be replaced by aureolin. Of this Mr. Penley
+observes, "as adapted for the colouring of foliage and herbage, it is
+impossible to say too much in its praise. It imparts the vividness and
+freshness of nature to every colour with which it is combined;" and he
+brackets oxide of chromium with aureolin as a compound hue "extremely
+useful." In flat tints, the oxide sometimes does not wash well in water.
+
+176. TRANSPARENT OXIDE OF CHROMIUM
+
+being deficient in body, is only eligible in oil. A very pale
+greyish-white green in powder, it gives an agreeable yellowish green of
+some depth in oil, moderately bright, but not very pure or clear.
+
+We are acquainted with another transparent chrome oxide of far greater
+beauty, brightness, purity, and clearness than the above. Of a bluish
+green hue, a difficulty in getting it to mix with oil renders it at
+present unavailable.
+
+177. VERONESE GREEN,
+
+or _French Veronese Green_, is a comparatively recent introduction,
+similar in colour and general properties to the following; beside which,
+however, it appears dull, muddy, and impure. It is often adulterated
+with arsenic to an enormous extent, which interferes with its
+transparency, mars its beauty, and renders it of course rankly
+poisonous.
+
+178. VIRIDIAN
+
+is a still later addition to the palette, and the only permanent green
+which can be described as gorgeous, being not unlike the richest velvet.
+Pure and clear as the emerald, it may be called the Prussian Blue of
+Greens, of such richness, depth, and transparency is it. In hue of a
+bluish-green, its deepest shades verge on black, while its light tints
+are marked by transparent clearness unsurpassed. No compound of blue and
+yellow will afford a green at once so beautiful and stable, so gifted
+with the quality of light, and therefore so suited for aerial and liquid
+effects. Used with aureolin, it gives foliage greens sparkling with
+sunshine; and, fitly compounded, will be found invaluable for the glassy
+liquidity of seas, in painting which it becomes incumbent to employ
+pigments more or less transparent. "The general failing in the
+representation of the sea is, that instead of appearing liquid and thin,
+it is made to bear the semblance of opacity and solidity. In order to
+convey the idea of transparency, some object is often placed floating on
+the wave, so as to give reflection; and it is strange that we find our
+greatest men having recourse to this stratagem. To say it is not true in
+all cases, is saying too much; but this we do assert, that as a general
+principle it is quite false, and we prove it in this way: water has its
+motion, more or less, from the power of the wind; it is acted upon in
+the mass, and thus divided into separate waves, and these individually
+have their surface ruffled, which renders them incapable of receiving
+reflection. The exception to this will be, where the heaving of the sea
+is the result of some gone-by storm, when the wind is hushed, and the
+surface becomes bright and glassy. In this state, reflections are
+distinctly seen. Another exception will be in the hollow portion of the
+waves, as they curl over, and dash upon the shore."
+
+As viridian, like the sea, is naturally "liquid and thin, bright and
+glassy," the extract we have quoted from Mr. Penley, points to this
+green as a pigment peculiarly adapted for marine painting; in which, it
+may be added, its perfect permanence and transparency will be
+appreciated in glazing. Its fitness for foliage has been remarked; but
+in draperies the colour will prove equally useful, and in illumination
+will be found unrivalled. In the last branch of art, indeed, viridian
+stands alone, not only through its soft rich brilliancy, but by the
+glowing contrast it presents with other colours: employed as a ground,
+it throws up the reds, &c., opposed to it, in a marvellous manner. Like
+the three preceding oxides of chromium, viridian neither injures nor is
+injured by other pigments; is unaffected by light, damp, or impure air;
+and is admissible in fresco. In enamelling it cannot be used; the
+colour, depending on the water of hydration, being destroyed by a strong
+heat.
+
+
+COPPER GREENS
+
+are commercially known as _Emerald Green_, _Malachite Green_, _Scheele's
+Green_, _Schweinfurt Green_, _Verdigris_, _Green Bice_, _Green
+Verditer_, _Brunswick Green_, _Vienna Green_, _Hungary Green_, _Green
+Lake_, _Mineral Green_, _Patent Green_, _Mountain Green_, _Marine
+Green_, _Saxon Green_, _French Green_, _African Green_, _Persian Green_,
+_Swedish Green_, _Olympian Green_, _Imperial Green_, _Mitis Green_,
+_Pickle Green_, &c.
+
+The general characteristics of these greens are brightness of colour,
+well suited to the purposes of house-painting, but seldom adapted to the
+modesty of nature in fine art; considerable permanence, except when
+exposed to the action of damp and impure air, which ultimately blacken
+most of them; and good body. They have a tendency to darken by time, dry
+well as a rule in oil, and are all more or less poisonous, even those
+not containing arsenic.
+
+179. EMERALD GREEN,
+
+_Schweinfurt Green_, _Vienna Green_, _Imperial Green_, _Brunswick
+Green_, _Mitis Green_, &c., is a cupric aceto-arsenite, prepared on the
+large scale by mixing arsenious acid with acetate of copper and water.
+It differs from Scheele's Green, or cupric arsenite, in being lighter,
+more vivid, and more opaque. Powerfully reflective of light, it is
+perhaps the most durable pigment of its class, not sensibly affected by
+damp nor by that amount of impure air to which pictures are usually
+subject: indeed it may be ranked as permanent both in itself and when in
+tint with white. It works better in water than in oil, in which latter
+vehicle it dries with difficulty. Bearing the same relation to greens
+generally as Pure Scarlet bears to reds, its vivid hue is almost beyond
+the scale of other bright pigments, and immediately attracts the eye to
+any part of a painting in which it may be employed. Too violent in
+colour to be of much service, it has the effect, when properly placed,
+of toning down at once, by force of contrast, all the other greens in a
+picture. If discreetly used, it is occasionally of value in the drapery
+of a foreground figure, where a bright green may be demanded; or in a
+touch on a gaily painted boat or barge. When required, no mixture will
+serve as a substitute. Compounded with aureolin, it becomes softened and
+semi-transparent, yielding spring tints of extreme brilliancy and
+beauty.
+
+180. SCHEELE'S GREEN,
+
+or _Swedish Green_, resembles the preceding variety in being a compound
+of copper and arsenic, and therefore rankly poisonous; but differs from
+it in containing no acetic acid, in possessing less opacity, and in
+having a darker shade. It is a cupric arsenite, with the common
+attributes of emerald green, under which name it is sometimes sold. Of
+similar stability, it must not be employed with the true Naples yellow
+or antimoniate of lead, by which it is soon destroyed.
+
+Upon the lavish use of this dangerous pigment in colouring toys,
+dresses, paper-hangings, artificial leaves, and even cheap
+confectionery, it is not our province to enlarge: the constant-recurring
+diseases and deaths, which, directly or indirectly, result from the
+employment of arsenical pigments, are such every-day facts that they are
+merely deplored and forgotten. With arsenic on our heads, our clothes,
+our papers, our sweets, our children's playthings, we are so accustomed
+to live--and die--in a world of poison, that familiarity with it has
+bred contempt. Into the fatal popularity, therefore, of arsenical
+colours for decorative purposes, we shall not further enter; but it
+behoves us to deprecate their presence, and the presence of all
+poisonous pigments, in colour-boxes for the young. It is one of the
+pleasures of childhood to suck anything attractive that comes in its
+way, openly if allowed, furtively otherwise: and as in early life we
+have a preference for brilliancy, so vivid a pigment as Scheele's green
+is an object of special attention. Artistically, it matters little
+whether a pigment is noxious or not, but we hold that poison should not
+be put into the hands of the young; and indeed are of opinion that a box
+of colours is about the worst present a child can receive.
+
+181. MALACHITE GREEN,
+
+or _Mountain Green_, is met with in Cumberland, and is also found in the
+mountains of Kernhausen, whence it is sometimes called _Hungary Green_.
+It is prepared from malachite, a beautiful copper ore employed by
+jewellers, and is a hydrated dicarbonate of copper, combined with a
+white earth, and often striated with veins of mountain blue, to which it
+bears the same relation that green verditer bears to blue verditer. The
+colour, which may be extracted from the stone by the process followed
+for native ultramarine, varies from emerald-green to grass-green, and
+inclines to grey. It has been held in great esteem by some, and
+considered strictly stable, on the assumption, probably, that a pigment
+obtained from a stone like ultramarine, and by the same method, could
+not be otherwise than permanent. That it is so, with respect to light
+and air, there is no denying; but the green, when separated from the ore
+and purified for artistic use, is merely a carbonate of copper, and
+therefore subject to the influence of damp and impure air, in common
+with other non-arsenical copper colours. As a pigment, native malachite
+green has the same composition, or very nearly the same, as that which
+can be artificially produced, and answers to the same tests. Water-rubs
+of the two varieties which we exposed to an atmosphere of sulphuretted
+hydrogen became equally blackened by the gas. Practically, there is
+little or no difference between them: both preserve their colour if kept
+from damp and foul air, both are injured by those agents, and both are
+liable to darken in time, especially when secluded from light. The
+artificial, however, can be obtained of a much finer colour than the
+natural, which it may be made to resemble by admixture with mineral
+gray. On the whole, they can scarcely be recommended for the palette,
+and are certainly inferior in durability to Scheele's and Schweinfurt
+greens. In fresco painting they have been pronounced admissible; but,
+apart from the question of damp, we should deem the conjunction of lime
+with carbonate of copper not favourable to permanence. By the action of
+alkalies, even the native green malachite may be converted into blue;
+and it becomes a question whether the dingy greenish-blue on some
+ancient monuments was not originally malachite green.
+
+182. VERDIGRIS,
+
+or _Viride Æris_, is of two kinds, common or impure, and crystallized or
+_Distilled Verdigris_, or, more properly, refined verdigris. The best is
+made at Montpellier in France, and is a sub-acetate of copper of a
+bright green colour inclining to blue. The least durable of the copper
+greens, it soon fades as a water-colour by the action of light, &c., and
+becomes first white and ultimately black by damp and foul gas. In oil,
+verdigris is permanent with respect to light and air, but moisture and
+an impure atmosphere change its colour, and cause it to effloresce or
+rise to the surface through the oil. It dries rapidly, and is
+exceptionally useful with other greens or very dark colours. In varnish
+it stands better; but cannot be considered safe or eligible, either
+alone or compounded. Vinegar dissolves it, forming a solution used for
+tinting maps, and formerly much employed for colouring pickles, &c.
+
+The painters, who lived at the time when the arts were restored in
+Italy, used this pigment; and the bright greens seen in some old
+pictures are made by glazings of verdigris. It is often largely
+adulterated with chalk and sulphate of copper.
+
+183. MIXED GREEN
+
+Green, being a compound of blue and yellow, may be got by combining
+those colours in the several ways of working--by mixing, glazing,
+hatching, or otherwise blending them in the proportions of the various
+hues required. To obtain a _pure_ green, which consists of blue and
+yellow only, a blue should be chosen tinged with yellow rather than with
+red, and a yellow tinged with blue. If either a blue or a yellow were
+taken, tinged with red, this latter colour would go to produce some grey
+in the compound, which would tarnish the green. The fine nature-like
+greens, which have lasted so well in some of the pictures of the Italian
+schools, appear to have been compounded of ultramarine, or ultramarine
+ashes and yellow. Whatever pigments are employed on a painting in the
+warm yellow hues of the foreground, and blue colouring of the distance
+and sky, are advantageous for forming the greens in landscape, &c.,
+because they harmonize better both in colouring and chemically, and
+impart homogeneity to the whole: a principle conducive to a fine tone
+and durability of effect, and applicable to all mixed tints. In
+compounding colours, it is desirable not only that they should agree
+chemically, but that they should have, as far as possible, the same
+degree of durability. In these respects, aureolin and ultramarine,
+gamboge and Prussian blue, Indian yellow and indigo, are all judicious
+mixtures, although not all to be recommended.
+
+    PERMANENT YELLOWS.     | PERMANENT BLUES.
+                           |
+    Aureolin.              | Cerulian Blue.
+    Cadmium Yellow, pale.  | Cobalt Blue.
+    Cadmium Yellow, deep.  | Genuine Ultramarine.
+    Lemon Yellow.          | Brilliant Ultramarine.
+    Mars Yellow.           | French Ultramarine.
+    Naples Yellow, modern. | New Blue.
+    Ochres.                | Permanent Blue.
+    Orient Yellow.         |
+    Raw Sienna.            |
+
+The foregoing yellows and blues are in no wise inimical to each other,
+and yield the best mixed greens, chemically considered, the palette can
+afford. In an artistic sense, we confess, the result is not so
+satisfactory: the list of blues, it must be admitted, being somewhat
+scant. Among the latter there is no pigment with the wonderful depth,
+richness, and transparency of Prussian blue, and none consequently which
+will furnish with yellow a green of similar quality. That the artist,
+therefore, will dispense with Prussian blue, it would be too much to
+expect. There is, however, less necessity for it since the introduction
+of viridian, a green resembling that which is produced by admixture of
+Prussian blue and yellow, and which may be varied in hue by being
+compounded with aureolin or ultramarine. Our object in this work is to
+give precedence to the chemical rather than the artistic properties of
+pigments, to separate the strictly stable from the semi-stable, and the
+semi-stable from the fugitive. A colour or a mixture may be chemically
+bad but artistically good, and vice versâ; but the chemist looks upon no
+pigment or compound with favour unless it be perfectly permanent, and
+ignores its mere beauty when void of durability. Hence, all artistic
+considerations are set aside in our lists of permanent pigments: if it
+be possible to use them alone, so much the better for the permanence of
+painting; if not, so much the worse will it be, according to the degree
+of fugacity of the colours employed.
+
+184. BRONZE,
+
+and the three succeeding varieties, are greens resembling each other in
+being semi-stable, and more or less transparent. Bronze is a species of
+Prussian green, of a dull blue-black hue. In its deep washes it appears
+a greenish-black with a coppery cast. It is used in ornamental work, and
+sometimes as a background tint for flower pieces.
+
+185. CHROME GREENS,
+
+commonly so called, are compounds of chromate of lead and Prussian blue,
+a mixture which is also known as _Brunswick Green_. Fine bright greens,
+they are suited to the ordinary purposes of mechanic painting, but are
+quite unfit for the artist's craft, chrome yellow reacting upon and
+ultimately destroying Prussian blue when mixed therewith. For the
+latter, cheap cobalts and ultramarines are preferably substituted,
+although they do not yield greens of like power and intensity.
+
+Under the names of English Green, Green Cinnabar, &c., 'new' green
+pigments have been from time to time introduced, which have turned out
+mixtures of Prussian blue and chromate of lead; not made, however, by
+compounding the two, but directly by processes similar to the
+following:--A mixed solution of the acetates of lead and iron is added
+to a mixed solution of the yellow prussiate and chromate of potash, the
+necessary acetate of iron being obtained by precipitating a solution of
+acetate of lead by sulphate of iron, and filtering the supernatant
+liquid. Or; to a solution of Prussian blue in oxalic acid, first
+chromate of potash is added, and then acetate of lead.
+
+By the last process, superior and more permanent chrome greens may be
+produced, free from lead, by using chloride of barium or nitrate of
+bismuth in place of the acetate of lead. Chromate of baryta, or chromate
+of bismuth is then formed, neither of which acts on the Prussian blue.
+
+It should be added that where the latter pigment is present, no green
+will serve for painting walls containing lime, as its action alters the
+tint of the Prussian blue.
+
+186. HOOKER'S GREEN
+
+is a compound of Prussian blue and gamboge, two pigments possessing a
+like degree of stability, and perfectly innocuous to each other. It is a
+mixture more durable and more transparent than chrome greens made with
+chromate of lead. There are two varieties in common use--No. 1, a light
+grass green, in which the yellow predominates; and No. 2, a deeper and
+more powerful green, with a larger amount of blue.
+
+187. PRUSSIAN GREEN,
+
+like the preceding, is composed of Prussian blue and gamboge; but
+contains a very great excess of the former, and is therefore a
+bluish-green of the utmost depth and transparency, verging on black in
+its deep washes. Yellow ochre may be employed instead of gamboge, but is
+not so eligible.
+
+A true Prussian green, which has been recommended as a pigment, can be
+produced as a simple original colour, with a base wholly of iron. It is
+got by partially decomposing the yellow oxalate of protoxide of iron
+with red prussiate of potash. We have made this green and given it a
+fair trial, but our verdict is decidedly against it. In colour it is
+far from being equal to a good compound of Prussian blue and gamboge,
+and it assumes a dirty buff-yellow on exposure to light and air, the
+film of blue on the oxalate more or less disappearing.
+
+Another Prussian green, with a base of cobalt, is obtained by
+precipitating the nitrate of that metal with yellow prussiate of potash.
+According to the mode adopted, and the degree of heat, either a light or
+dark green results; but this also is inferior in colour, and presents no
+advantage as to permanence.
+
+188. SAP GREEN,
+
+_Verde Vessie_, or _Iris Green_, is a vegetal pigment prepared from the
+juice of the berries of the buckthorn, the green leaves of the woad, the
+blue flowers of the iris, &c. It is usually preserved in bladders, and
+is thence sometimes called _Bladder Green_. When good, it is of a dark
+colour and glossy fracture, extremely transparent, and a fine natural
+yellowish green. This gummy juice, inspissated and formed into a cake,
+is occasionally employed in flower painting. It is, however, a very
+imperfect pigment, disposed to attract the moisture of the atmosphere,
+and to mildew; while, having little durability in water and less in oil,
+it is not eligible in the one and is totally useless in the other.
+
+Similar pigments, obtained from coffee-berries, and named Venetian and
+Emerald Greens, are of a colder colour, equally defective and fugitive,
+and now obsolete.
+
+189. TERRE VERTE,
+
+or _Green Earth_, is a sober bluish green with a grey cast. It is a
+species of ochre, containing silica, oxide of iron, magnesia, potash,
+and water. Not bright and of little power, it is a very durable pigment,
+being unaffected by strong light or impure air, and combining with other
+colours without injury. It has not much body, is semi-transparent, and
+dries well in oil. Veins of brownish or reddish ochre are often found
+mixed with terre verte, to the detriment of its colour; and there are
+varieties of this pigment with copper for their colouring matter, which,
+although generally brighter, are inferior in other respects, and not
+true terre vertes. Verona Green and Verdetto or Holy Green, are
+ferruginous native pigments of a warmer hue. These are met with in the
+Mendip Hills, France, Italy, and the island of Cyprus, and have been
+used as pigments from the earliest times. Rubens has availed himself
+much of terre verte, not in his landscapes merely, but likewise in the
+carnation tints in his figures of a dead Christ. It is evident that much
+of the glazing is done with this colour: it is, in fact, most useful in
+glazing; because, having only a thin substance, it can be rendered pale
+by a small portion of white; although in the end it becomes darker by a
+concentration of its molecules. Mérimée states that in the greater part
+of Alexander Veronese's works--in his Death of Cleopatra, in the Louvre,
+for instance--there are some demi-tints which are too green, and which
+it is certain were not so originally. Terre verte, therefore, must be
+employed with caution; and it would be well to ascertain beforehand
+whether a mineral colour will in time become darker than when first laid
+on the picture, by putting a drop of oil on the powder in its natural
+state. If the tone this gives to it be more intense than that which it
+acquires by being ground up, it may fairly be assumed that it will
+attain to the same degree of strength whenever, having completely dried,
+its molecules shall have re-united as closely as it is possible. Umber
+and terra di Sienna are of this class.
+
+In combination with Indian red and Naples yellow, terre verte forms a
+series of mild russet greens, of much use in middle distance.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+190. _Chrome Arseniate_
+
+is an agreeable apple-green colour, prepared from arseniate of potash
+and salts of chromic oxide. It is durable, but possesses no advantages
+over the chrome oxides, and is of course poisonous.
+
+191. _Cobalt Green_,
+
+Rinman's Green, Vert de Zinc or Zinc Green. True cobalt green is made by
+igniting a very large quantity of carbonate of zinc with a very small
+quantity of carbonate of cobalt. To give a green tint to an enormous
+proportion of the former, an inappreciable amount of the latter will
+suffice. Some samples which were analysed, consisted almost entirely of
+zinc, there being only two or three per cent. of cobalt present. This
+green presents an example of a pigment being chemically good and
+artistically bad, or at least indifferent. It is a moderately bright
+green, apt to vary in hue according to the mode of manufacture,
+permanent both alone and compounded, but so sadly deficient in body and
+power, as to have become almost obsolete. With other physical defects,
+and a colour inferior to the chrome oxides, cobalt green has never been
+a favourite with artists, though justly eulogised by chemists.
+
+192. _Copper Borate_
+
+is obtained by precipitating sulphate of copper with borax, washing the
+residue with cold water, and, after drying, igniting it, fusion being
+carefully avoided. In this manner, a pretty yellowish green is produced,
+which upon longer ignition assumes a dark green shade: the mass is
+levigated for use. The compound has the objection of being glassy, and
+possessing little body, but is preferable to verdigris as to permanence.
+
+193. _Copper Chrome_
+
+may be prepared by several methods, but the colour is in no case so fine
+as Scheele's or Schweinfurt green, nor is it as stable.
+
+194. _Copper Stannate_,
+
+or Tin-Copper Green, equals in colour any of the copper greens free from
+arsenic. The cheapest way of making it is to heat 59 parts of tin in a
+Hessian crucible with 100 parts nitrate of soda, and dissolve the mass
+when cold in a caustic alkali. To the clear solution, diluted with
+water, a cold solution of sulphate of copper is added: a reddish-yellow
+precipitate falls, which on being washed and dried, becomes a beautiful
+green. On the palette it would be superfluous, but for common purposes
+might be found of service.
+
+195. _Elsner's Green_
+
+is also a combination of tin and copper. It is made by adding to a
+solution of sulphate of copper a decoction of fustic, previously
+clarified by a solution of gelatine. To this mixture are added ten or
+eleven per cent. of protochloride of tin, and lastly an excess of
+caustic potash or soda. The precipitate is then washed and dried,
+whereupon it takes a green colour tinged with blue, but without the
+brightness or durability of the preceding stannate.
+
+196. _Green Bice_,
+
+or Green Verditer, is the same in substance as blue verditer, which is
+converted into green verditer by boiling. This pigment is one of the
+least eligible of copper greens.
+
+197. _Green Ochre._
+
+By partially decomposing yellow ochre with prussiate of potash, we have
+produced a fine dark blue-green, resembling Prussian green, of great
+depth and transparency. There are, however, difficulties in the process;
+and the results do not warrant us in pronouncing this green superior or
+equal to a mixture of the ochre and Prussian blue.
+
+198. _Green Ultramarine_
+
+is French or artificial ultramarine before the final roasting. It is a
+somewhat bright bluish-green, becoming a dull greenish-blue on continued
+exposure. Chemically, it is not a bad colour; but artists generally have
+decided against it.
+
+199. _Manganese Green_,
+
+or Cassel Green. By several methods, manganate of baryta may be obtained
+either as an emerald-green, a bluish-green, or a pale green. The
+manganates, however, are decomposed by contact with organic matter; and
+hence the green would be liable to suffer from the vehicles employed, as
+well as by being compounded with animal or vegetal pigments.
+
+200. _Mineral Green_
+
+is the commercial name of _Green Lakes_, prepared from sulphate of
+copper. These vary in hue and shade, have all the properties of the
+common non-arsenical copper-greens, and, not being subject to change of
+colour by oxygen and light, stand the weather well, and are excellent
+for the use of the house-painter, &c. Having a tendency to darken and
+blacken by time and foul air, they are not eligible in the nicer works
+of fine art.
+
+Another Mineral Green adopted in Germany as a substitute for the
+poisonous Schweinfurt green, is composed of chromate of lead, carbonate
+of copper, oxide of iron, and chalk. Valueless for the palette, it has
+not the beauty of Schweinfurt green, but is recommended as being free
+from arsenic. It is not, however, altogether harmless, and should not
+be used in confectionery or the like.
+
+201. _Molybdenum Green._
+
+A clear malachite green colour, when dried, is produced from molybdate
+of soda and potash-chrome-alum, or from the molybdate and alum with
+ammonia. Being more expensive than the chrome oxides and not better, its
+introduction, for use by artists, would be attended with no advantage.
+
+There is likewise obtainable a copper molybdate, by adding neutral
+molybdate of soda in excess to sulphate of copper. The precipitate is a
+very pale green colour, flocculent at first, but crystalline after
+washing. Like the chrome molybdate it would be superfluous as a pigment.
+
+202. _Quinine Green_
+
+is rather adapted for a dye than an artist-colour. It is furnished by
+acting on quinine with hypochlorite of lime, hydrochloric acid, and
+ammonia, successively. Thus prepared, the green resembles a resin,
+insoluble in water, but soluble in alcohol, and turned blue by acetic
+acid. Its alcoholic solution dyes silk green, and also woollen and
+cotton when mordanted with albumen.
+
+203. _Roman Green_,
+
+brought from Rome some years back by a President of the Royal Academy,
+appeared to be a mixture of Prussian blue and Dutch or Italian pink. It
+was a fugitive compound, which became blue in fading.
+
+204. _Silicate of Baryta._
+
+One part of silica heated to whiteness with three parts of baryta,
+yields a pale green solid mass, permanent, but deficient in colour when
+ground. It might be employed in enamelling.
+
+205. _Titanium Green_
+
+has been proposed as a substitute for the green arsenical pigments in
+common use; but, apart from its expense, the colour is very inferior to
+Scheele's green, &c. Titanium green is a ferrocyanide of that metal,
+produced by adding yellow prussiate of potash to a solution of titanic
+acid in dilute hydrochloric acid, and heating the mixture to ebullition
+rapidly. The dark green precipitate is washed with water acidulated with
+hydrochloric acid, and dried with great care, since it decomposes at
+temperatures above 100°.
+
+206. _Uranium Green_
+
+is an oxide of a deep dull green colour, inclining to olive, and nearly
+black when in lumps. A durable but unattractive preparation, equalled in
+permanence and far surpassed in beauty by many cheaper compounds.
+
+207. _Vanadium Green_
+
+falls when ferrocyanide of potassium is added to vanadic acid dissolved
+in a strong acid. It is a beautiful green precipitate, but at present
+simply a curiosity, owing to the rarity of the metal vanadium.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Adopting our usual custom of separating the wheat from the chaff, we
+point to the opaque and transparent oxides of chromium, Veronese green,
+viridian, emerald green, Scheele's green, and terre verte, as more or
+less worthy of being dubbed durable.
+
+As semi-stable, malachite green, bronze, Hooker's green, and Prussian
+green, must be classed.
+
+Verdigris, chrome greens, and sap green, should be branded as fugitive:
+the chrome greens, because they are always commercially composed of
+chromate of lead and Prussian blue, two compounds which are semi-stable
+in themselves, but become fugacious when compounded.
+
+A reference to the numbered italicised greens will show that there are
+many not known to the palette, which are nevertheless very greatly
+superior, as regards permanence, to some that disgrace it. Why these
+latter are suffered to hold their position is a mystery not easily
+explained: it is hard to reconcile the deplored degeneracy of modern
+pigments with the popularity of semi-stable and fugitive colours.
+Pictures do not stand, is the common cry; therefore, says the public,
+there are no good pigments now-a-days. To which we answer, newly built
+houses are constantly falling down; therefore there are no good bricks
+in these times. Of a truth, one conclusion is as reasonable as the
+other: in either case, if rotten materials be used, the result cannot be
+lasting; but in neither case does it follow, because such materials are
+employed, that there are no better obtainable. A well-built house
+implies a conscientious builder, and a well-painted picture implies a
+conscientious artist. It is because, we fear, that there are so few
+conscientious artists, that there are so few permanent paintings; not,
+certainly, because there are no good pigments. In this last belief,
+however, the public is encouraged by certain painters, who seek thereby
+to excuse their own shortcomings, forgetting that it is a bad workman
+who finds fault with his tools. It has been well observed that when
+artists speak regrettingly of lost 'systems,' or pigments enjoyed by the
+mediævalists and unattainable now, it would be far better were they to
+make the best use of existing materials, and study their further
+development. There is no need for this cant cry of fugacity, which casts
+such a blight on modern art. Durable pigments are not yet obsolete, they
+have only to be employed and employed properly to furnish paintings
+equal in permanence to those of the old masters. "Titian," says Haydon,
+"got his colours from the colour shops on the Rialto, as we get ours
+from Brown's; and if Apelles or Titian were living now, they would paint
+just as good works with our brushes and colours as with their own."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII.
+
+ON THE SECONDARY, PURPLE.
+
+
+Purple, the third and last of the secondary colours, is composed of
+_red_ and _blue_, in the proportions of five of the former to eight of
+the latter; proportions which constitute a perfect purple, or one of
+such a hue as will neutralize and best contrast a perfect yellow, in the
+ratio of thirteen to three, either of surface or intensity. When mixed
+with its co-secondary colour, green, purple forms the tertiary _olive_;
+and, when compounded with the remaining secondary, orange, it
+constitutes in like manner the tertiary _russet_. Of the three secondary
+colours it is the coolest, as well as the nearest in relation to _black_
+or shade; in which respect, and in never being a warm colour, it
+resembles blue. In other respects also, purple partakes of the
+properties of blue, which is its archeus, or ruling colour; hence it is
+to the eye a retiring colour, that reflects light little, and loses
+rapidly in power in a declining light, and according to the distance at
+which it is viewed. By reason of its being the mean between black and
+blue it becomes the most retiring of all positive colours. Nature
+employs this hue beautifully in landscape, as a sub-dominant, in
+harmonizing the broad shadows of a bright sunshine ere the light sinks
+into deep orange or red. Girtin, who saw Nature as she is, and painted
+what he saw, delighted in this effect of sunlight and shadow. As a
+ruling colour, whether in flesh or otherwise, purple is commonly too
+cold, or verges on ghastliness, a fault which is to be as much avoided
+as the opposite extreme of viciousness in colouring, stigmatized as
+foxiness.
+
+Yet, next to green, purple is the most generally pleasing of the
+consonant colours; and has been celebrated as a regal or imperial
+colour, as much perhaps from its rarity in a pure state, as from its
+individual beauty. Romulus wore it in his trabea or royal mantle, and
+Tullus Hostilius, after having subdued the Tuscans, assumed the pretexta
+or long robe, broadly striped with purple. Under the Roman emperors, it
+became the peculiar emblem or symbol of majesty, and the wearing of it
+by any who were not of the Imperial family, was deemed a "treasonable
+usurpation," punishable by death. At the decline of the empire, the
+Tyrian purple was an important article of commerce, and got to be common
+in the clothing of the people. Pliny says, "Nepos Cornelius, who died in
+the reign of Augustus Cæsar, when I was a young man, assured me that
+the light violet purple had been formerly in great request, and that a
+pound of it usually fetched 100 denaria (about £4 sterling): that soon
+after the tarentine or reddish purple came into fashion; and that this
+was followed by the Tyrian dibapha, which could not be bought for less
+than 1000 denaria (nearly £40 sterling) the pound; which was its price
+when P. Lentulus Spinter was Ædile, Cicero being then Consul. But
+afterwards, the double-dyed purple became less rare, &c." The Tyrian
+purple alluded to was obtained from the purpuræ, a species of shell-fish
+adhering to rocks and large stones in the sea adjoining Tyre. On
+account, probably, of its extreme costliness, it was frequently the
+custom to dye the cloth with a ground of kermes or alkanet, previous to
+applying the Tyrian purple. This imparted to the latter a crimson hue,
+and explains doubtless the term, double-dyed. The Greeks feigned the
+ancient purple to be the discovery of Hercules Tyrius, whose dog, eating
+by chance of the fish from which it was produced, returned to him with
+his mouth tinged with the dye. Alexander the Great is said to have found
+in the royal treasury, at the taking of Susa, purple to the enormous
+value of 5000 talents,[A] which had lain there one hundred and
+ninety-two years, and still preserved its freshness and beauty.
+
+When inclining to red, purple takes the name of _crimson_, &c.; and when
+leaning to blue, the names of _violet_, _lilac_, _mauve_, _&c._ Blue is
+a colour which it serves to mellow, or follows well into shade. The
+contrast or harmonizing colour of purple is yellow on the side of light
+and the primaries; while purple itself is the harmonizing contrast of
+the tertiary _citrine_ on the side of shade, and less perfectly so of
+the semi-neutral _brown_. As the extreme primaries, blue and yellow,
+when either compounded or opposed, afford, though not the most perfect
+harmony, yet the most pleasing consonance of the primary colours; so the
+extremes, purple and orange, yield the most pleasing of the secondary
+consonances. This analogy extends likewise to the extreme tertiary and
+semi-neutral colours, while the mean or middle colours furnish the most
+agreeable contrasts or harmonies.
+
+In nature pure purple is not a common colour, and on the palette purple
+pigments are singularly few. They lie under a peculiar disadvantage as
+to apparent durability and beauty of colour, owing to the neutralizing
+power of yellowness in the grounds upon which they are laid; as well as
+to the general warm colour of light, and the yellow tendency of almost
+all vehicles and varnishes, by which the colour of purple is subdued.
+
+208. BURNT CARMINE
+
+is the carmine of cochineal partially charred till it resembles in
+colour the purple of gold, for which, in miniature and water-painting,
+it is substituted. It is a magnificent reddish purple of extreme
+richness and depth, eligible in flower-painting and the shadow of
+draperies. As it is generally impossible, however, to alter the nature
+of a pigment by merely changing its colour, burnt carmine is scarcely
+more permanent than the carmine from which it is produced. If used,
+therefore, it should be in body, and not in thin washes or as a glaze.
+Durable pigments are admissible in any form; but semi-stable pigments
+(gamboge excepted) should only be employed in body.
+
+209. BURNT LAKE
+
+holds the same relation to crimson lake as burnt carmine to ordinary
+carmine; and is hence a weaker variety of the preceding, with less
+richness, and likewise less permanence.
+
+210. INDIAN PURPLE
+
+is prepared by precipitating an extract of cochineal with sulphate of
+copper. It is a very deep-toned but rather cold and subdued purple,
+neither so red nor so brilliant as burnt carmine; and is chiefly of
+service in draperies. It is apt to lose its purple colour in a great
+measure on exposure to light and air, and assume an inky blackness; a
+defect which becomes less apparent when the pigment is used in bulk.
+
+211. MARS VIOLET,
+
+_Violet de Mars_, _Purple Ochre_, or _Mineral Purple_, is a dark ochre,
+native of the Forest of Dean in Gloucestershire. It is of a murrey or
+chocolate colour, and forms cool tints of a purple hue with white. It is
+of a darker colour than Indian red, which has also been classed among
+purples, but has a similar body and opacity, and generally resembles
+that pigment. It may be prepared artificially, and some natural red
+ochres burn to this colour. Being difficult and sometimes impossible to
+procure, Mars violet is often compounded; in which case it is liable to
+vary both in hue and stability. As, however, Indian red is always taken
+for its basis, the mixture is never wholly fugitive, nor exhibits any
+very glaring contrast on exposure.
+
+212. MIXED PURPLE.
+
+Purple being a secondary colour, composed of _blue_ and _red_, it
+follows of course that any blue and red pigments, which are not
+chemically at variance, may be employed in producing mixed purples of
+any required hue, either by compounding or grinding them together ready
+for use, or by combining them in the various modes of operation in
+painting. In such compounding, the more perfect and permanent the
+original colours are, the more perfect and permanent will be the purple
+obtained. To produce a pure purple, neither the red nor the blue must
+contain or incline to yellow; while to compound a durable purple, both
+the red and the blue must be durable also. Ultramarine and the reds of
+madder yield beautiful and excellent purples, equally stable in water or
+oil, in glazing or tint, whether under the influence of light or impure
+air. Cobalt blue and madder red likewise afford good purples; and some
+of the finest and most delicate purples in ancient paintings appear to
+have been composed of ultramarine and vermilion, which furnish tints
+equally permanent, but less transparent than the above, and less easily
+compounded. Facility of use, and other advantages, are obtained at too
+great a sacrifice by the employment of perishable mixtures, such as the
+lakes of cochineal with indigo.
+
+    PERMANENT REDS. | PERMANENT BLUES.
+                    |
+    Cadmium Red.    | Cerulian Blue.
+    Liquid Rubiate. | Cobalt Blue.
+    Madder Carmine. | Genuine Ultramarine.
+    Rose Madder.    | Brilliant Ultramarine.
+    Mars Red.       | French Ultramarine.
+    Ochres.         | New Blue.
+    Vermilions.     | Permanent Blue.
+
+It should be noted that all the above reds do not afford pure purples
+with blue; those which contain more or less yellow, as cadmium red and
+orange vermilion, furnish purples partaking more or less of olive, which
+is a compound of purple and green. To those reds may be added the russet
+Rubens Madder and the marrone Madder Brown, two pigments which are alike
+eligible for mixed purple and mixed orange. No purple, it will be
+remarked, equal in gorgeous richness to that produced from crimson lake
+and Prussian blue is obtainable from the colours given; just as no mixed
+green is of such depth and power if that blue be wanting as a
+constituent. But, as our compound tints are given rather as examples of
+durability than beauty, all semi-stable or fugitive mixtures are of
+necessity ignored.
+
+213. PURPLE MADDER,
+
+_Field's Purple_, or _Purple Rubiate_, is the only durable organic
+purple the palette possesses. Marked by a soft subdued richness rather
+than by brilliancy, it leans somewhat towards marrone, and affords the
+greatest depth of shadow without coldness of tint. Unfortunately, in the
+whole range of artistic pigments there is no colour obtainable in such
+small quantity as madder purple; hence its scarcity and high price cause
+it to be confined to water-colour painting, in which the clearness and
+beauty of its delicate tones render it invaluable in every stage of a
+drawing. With raw Sienna and indigo or Prussian blue, subdued by black,
+it gives beautiful shadow tints, and will be found useful in sky and
+other effects compounded with cobalt, rose madder, French blue and
+sepia, yellow ochre and cobalt, lamp black and cobalt, light red,
+Vandyke brown, burnt Sienna, or aureolin. With great transparency, body,
+and depth, it is pure and permanent in its tints, neither gives nor
+sustains injury on admixture, dries and glazes well in oil, works well,
+and is altogether most perfect and eligible. For fresco it is admirably
+adapted, being quite uninjured by lime.
+
+There is a lighter and slightly brighter sort, containing less colouring
+matter and more base, which has all the properties of the above with
+less intensity of colour. For the sake of cheapness, the purple is
+sometimes compounded in oil, generally of brown madder and a blue.
+Provided the latter be stable, transparent, and mix kindly, no greater
+objection can be taken to this than to the neutral orange of brown
+madder and yellow ochre.
+
+214. VIOLET CARMINE
+
+is a brilliant bluish purple of much richness, employed in draperies and
+the like. It is prepared by precipitating an alcoholic extract of the
+root of the _Anchusa tinctoria_, commonly known as alkanet, a plant
+growing in the Levant, and some other warm countries. It was used by the
+ancients as a dye, or as a groundwork to those stuffs which were to be
+dyed purplish-red: the ladies in ancient times also employed it as a
+paint. Its colouring matter or _anchusin_ has the character of a resin,
+and is dark-red, softened by heat, insoluble in water, soluble in
+alcohol and alkalis, and freely so in ether, fats, and volatile oils, to
+all of which it imparts a brilliant red hue. To obtain anchusin, all the
+soluble matters are first abstracted from the bruised root by water: it
+is then digested in a solution of carbonate of potash, from which it may
+be readily precipitated by an acid. Its alcoholic solution yields with
+different reagents crimson, flesh-coloured, blue, and violet
+precipitates, none of which, however, can be classed as durable. The
+variety under notice, violet carmine, resembles the other colours
+afforded by alkanet in not being able to withstand the action of light.
+On continued exposure, it loses its beauty and brightness, together with
+much of its colour, and, like Indian purple, assumes an inky blackness.
+Hence it is unsuited to permanently pure effects, and should only be
+used in body.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+215. _Archil Purple._
+
+Archil may be regarded as the English, cudbear as the Scotch, and litmus
+as the Dutch name for one and the same substance, extracted from
+several species of lichens by various processes. These lichens, which
+are principally collected on rocks adjacent to the sea, are cleaned and
+ground into a pulp with water, treated from time to time with ammoniacal
+liquor, and exposed with frequent agitation to the action of the
+atmosphere. Peculiar principles existing in the lichens are, by the
+joint instrumentality of the air, water, and ammonia, so changed as to
+generate colouring matter, which, when perfect, is expressed. Soluble in
+water and alcohol, this colouring principle yields by precipitation with
+chloride of calcium a compound known as 'Solid French Purple', a pigment
+more stable than the archil colours generally, but all too fugitive for
+the palette.
+
+216. _Bismuth Purple._
+
+A purple powder is capable of being produced from bismuth by passing
+chlorine gas through the hydrated oxide suspended in a saturated
+solution of potash. As soon as the oxide becomes brown-red, the mixture
+is boiled and the liquid decanted off at once, the residue being
+immediately washed first with alcohol and then with water. On the whole,
+the result is not, for an artistic pigment, worth the trouble involved
+in the preparation.
+
+217. _Burnt Madder_
+
+is obtained by carefully charring madder carmine until it becomes of the
+hue required. Bearing the same relation to madder carmine as burnt
+carmine to the carmine of cochineal, burnt madder is a permanent and
+perfectly unexceptionable pigment. By reason, probably, of its great
+price, it is not mentioned in trade catalogues, and must be held as
+commercially unknown.
+
+218. _Cobalt Purples_
+
+are obtainable ranging from the richest crimson purple to the most
+delicate violet. We have produced them by wet and dry methods, varying
+in brilliancy and beauty, but characterised generally by want of body,
+and frequently by a smalt-like grittiness. Chemically, good and stable
+colours, they are not received with favour on the palette, and certainly
+may be very well replaced by mixtures of cobalt blue and madder red.
+When a permanent compound is obtainable equal in colour to an original
+pigment, and superior in its physical attributes, no objection can
+fairly be taken to its artistic preference. There are other things to be
+considered in a pigment besides permanence, or even permanence and
+colour combined. The two together do not constitute a perfect pigment,
+that is, a material of practical utility and value. In the last
+chapter, allusion was made to a green which possesses both the one and
+the other, and yet is--at present, at least--quite unfitted for artistic
+use. Hence, with a strong partiality for simple original pigments, we
+are bound to confess there are cases where mixtures are justifiably
+preferred. All we contend for is, that each constituent of such mixtures
+should be stable, and neither give nor receive injury by being
+compounded.
+
+219. _Gold Purple_,
+
+Purple of Cassius, or Cassius's Purple Precipitate, was discovered in
+1683 by Cassius of Leyden. It is a compound of tin and gold, best formed
+by mixing aqueous perchloride of iron with aqueous protochloride of tin,
+till the colour of the liquid has a shade of green, and then adding this
+liquid, drop by drop, to a solution of perchloride of gold, which is
+free from nitric acid and very dilute: after twenty-four hours the
+purple is deposited. When recently prepared, the colour is brightened by
+boiling nitric acid. Not brilliant, but rich and powerful, this purple
+varies in hue according to the mode of manufacture from deep crimson to
+murrey or dark purple: it also differs in degrees of transparency.
+Working well in water, it is an excellent though costly pigment, once
+popular in miniatures, but at present rarely, if ever used, as purple
+madder is cheaper, and perfectly well supplies its place. Retaining its
+colour at a high red heat, it is now confined to enamel and porcelain
+painting, and to tinging glass of a fine red. If, whilst in its hydrated
+state, it be washed with ammonia, a bright purple liquid results, from
+which a violet colour, somewhat less expensive, can be produced, by
+combining the gold purple with alumina, and calcining the product in the
+same way that is practised with cobalt. This compound may be exposed to
+the action of the sun's rays for a year without being sensibly affected.
+
+220. _Prussian Purple._
+
+A prussiate of iron is obtainable of a violet hue, affording good shadow
+tints and clear pale washes. It has not, however, been introduced as a
+pigment, as ordinary Prussian blue tinged with red furnishes a similar
+colour.
+
+221. _Sandal Wood Purple._
+
+Sandal wood contains about 16 per cent. of colouring matter, soluble
+with difficultly in water, but readily dissolved by alcohol. From the
+latter solution, chloride of tin throws down a purple, and sulphate of
+iron a deep violet precipitate; neither of which is remarkable for
+permanence.
+
+222. _Tin Violet._
+
+By heating chromate of stannic oxide to bright redness, a dark violet
+mass is obtained, which is better adapted to enamel painting than to the
+palette. It communicates in glazings a variety of tints, from rose-red
+to violet.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+So scant is the number of good purples in common use, that there are but
+two which can be classed as durable, namely, purple madder and the true
+Mars violet.
+
+Foremost in the second group stands burnt carmine. As there are
+different degrees both of permanence and fugacity, so are there
+different degrees of semi-stability. Burnt carmine, burnt lake, Indian
+purple, and violet carmine, all belong to this division; but the first
+certainly is more permanent than the rest.
+
+Rich and beautiful as it is, purple madder cannot be called brilliant;
+while Mars violet is, of course, ochrous. Unlike green and orange,
+therefore, purple can point to no original pigment at once vivid and
+durable: as regards purple, brilliancy implies a semi-stability that
+borders more or less closely on fugacity. Until the advent of a perfect
+palette, however, brilliancy and semi-stability will doubtless hold
+their own. Their present popularity may be seen by a glance at the lists
+of artist-colours--lists compiled, be it remembered, in obedience to
+the law of demand and supply. If art were really so much honoured as
+some of its disciples pretend, none but durable colours would be
+employed. In our opinion, if a picture be worth painting at all, it is
+worth painting with permanent pigments; but many evidently think
+otherwise. Deploring an error neither flattering to the craft they
+practise nor to themselves, we would urge such to bear in mind this
+axiom, semi-stable pigments become fugitive when used in thin washes.
+Even in body they do not preserve their primitive hue, but in glazing
+and the like, their colour altogether flies or is wholly destroyed.
+
+It is this semi-stability, recommended to the thoughtless and
+indifferent by the beauty which generally accompanies it, that is the
+bane of modern art. Even our greatest painters have yielded to its
+fascination. Who has not gazed upon one of Turner's fading pictures with
+still more of sadness than enjoyment, that anything so grand, so
+beautiful, so true, should slowly but surely be passing away? A feeling
+akin to pity is conjured up at the sight of the helpless wreck,
+abandoned amid the treacherous materials employed, and sinking deeper
+and deeper. Mournful, indeed, is that mighty ruin of mind amid matter;
+mournful the thought that in years to come, the monument sought for will
+not be found.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[A] A talent of money, _i.e._, a talent's weight of silver, was equal to
+nearly £244.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV.
+
+ON THE TERTIARY, CITRINE.
+
+
+Citrine, or the colour of the citron, is the first of the tertiary class
+of colours, or ultimate compounds of the primary triad, yellow, red, and
+blue; in which yellow is the archeus or predominating colour, and blue
+the extreme subordinate. For citrine being an immediate compound of the
+secondaries, _orange_ and _green_, of both which yellow is a
+constituent, the latter colour is of double occurrence therein, while
+the other two primaries enter singly into its composition. The mean or
+middle hue comprehends eight blue, five red, and six yellow, of equal
+intensities.
+
+Hence citrine, according to its name, which is that of a class of
+colours and used commonly for a dark yellow, partakes in a subdued
+degree of all the powers of its archeus yellow. In estimating,
+therefore, its properties and effects in painting, it is to be regarded
+as participating of all the relations of yellow. By some this colour is
+improperly called brown, as almost all broken colours are. The
+harmonizing contrast of citrine is a _deep purple_, which may be seen
+beautifully opposed to it in nature, when the green of summer declines.
+As autumn advances, citrine tends towards its orange hues, including the
+colours termed aurora, chamoise, and others before enumerated under the
+head of yellow. It is the most advancing of the tertiary colours, or
+nearest in relation to light; and is variously of a tender, modest,
+cheering character.
+
+To understand and relish the harmonious relations and expressive powers
+of the tertiary colours, require a cultivation of perception and a
+refinement of taste for which study and practice are needed. To a great
+extent the colourist, like the poet, is born not made; but although he
+must have an innate sense of the beautiful and the true, hard work
+alone, with his head, his eyes, and his hands, will enable him to learn
+and turn to account the complex beauties and relations of tertiary
+colours. They are at once less definite and less generally evident, but
+more delightful--more frequent in nature, though rarer in common art,
+than the like relations of the secondaries and primaries. There is very
+little pure colour in the world: now and then a gleam dazzles us, like a
+burst of sunshine through grey mists; but as a rule, nature prefers
+broken colours to absolute hues. Most pure in spring, most full in
+summer, most mellow in autumn, most sober in winter, her tints and
+shades of colour are always more or less interlaced, from white and the
+primaries to the semi-neutral and black.
+
+Of original citrine-coloured pigments there are only a few, unless we
+include several imperfect yellows which might not improperly be called
+citrines. The following are best entitled to this appellation:--
+
+223. BROWN PINK,
+
+_Brown Stil de Grain_, _Citrine Lake_, or _Quercitron Lake_ is usually
+prepared from the berries of Avignon (ramnus infectorius), better known
+as French, Persian, or Turkey berries; but a more durable and quicker
+drying species is obtained from the quercitron bark. If produced from
+the former, it must be branded as fugitive, but if from the latter, it
+may be termed semi-stable. In either case it is a lake, precipitated
+from the alkaline decoction by means of alum, in such proportions that
+the alkali shall not be more than half saturated. The excess of soda or
+potash employed imparts a brown hue; but the lake being in general an
+orange broken by green, falls into the class of citrine colours,
+sometimes inclining to greenness, and sometimes towards the warmth of
+orange. It works well both in water and oil, in the latter of which it
+is of great depth and transparency, but its tints with white lead are
+very fugitive, and in thin glazing it does not stand: the berry variety
+dries badly. A fine rich colour, more beautiful than eligible, it is
+popular in landscape for foliage in foregrounds. Modified by admixture
+with burnt Sienna or gamboge, it yields a compound which, with the
+addition of a small quantity of indigo, gives a warm though not very
+durable green. In many of the Flemish pictures the foliage has become
+blue from the yellowish lake, with which the ultramarine was mixed,
+having faded.
+
+It has been remarked that the alteration made by time in semi-stable
+pigments is not so observable when they are employed in full body. Their
+use generally has been deprecated, but in shadows such vegetable colours
+as brown pink are sometimes of advantage, as they are transparent, lose
+part of their richness by the action of the air, and do not become
+black. Moreover, if mixed with pigments which have a tendency to darken,
+they mitigate it very much. This last, indeed, is the most legitimate
+purpose to which semi-stable pigments whose colour fades on exposure can
+be put.
+
+224. MARS BROWN,
+
+or _Brun de Mars_, is either a natural or artificial ochre containing
+iron, or iron and manganese. Of much richness and strict permanence, it
+resembles raw umber in being a brown with a citrine cast, but is
+generally marked by a flush of orange which is not so observable in the
+latter pigment.
+
+225. MIXED CITRINE.
+
+What has been before remarked of the mixed secondary colours is more
+particularly applicable to the tertiary, it being more difficult to
+select three homogeneous substances of equal powers as pigments than
+two, that shall unite and work together cordially. Hence the mixed
+tertiaries are still less perfect and pure than the secondaries; and as
+their hues are of extensive use in painting, original pigments of these
+colours are proportionably estimable to the artist. Nevertheless there
+are two evident principles of combination, of which he may avail himself
+in producing these colours in the various ways of working; the one being
+that of combining two original secondaries; and the other, of uniting
+the three primaries in such a manner that the archeus shall predominate.
+Thus in the case of citrine, either orange and green may be directly
+compounded; or yellow, red, and blue be so mixed that the yellow shall
+be in excess.
+
+These colours are, however, obtained in many instances with best and
+most permanent effect, not by the intimate combination of pigments upon
+the palette, but by intermingling them, in the manner of nature, on the
+canvas, so as to produce the appearance at a proper distance of a
+uniform colour. Thus composed is the _citrine_ colour of fruit and
+foliage, on inspecting which we distinctly trace the stipplings of
+orange and green, or of yellow, red, and green. The truth and beauty
+resulting from such stipplings in art may be seen in the luscious
+fruit-pieces of the late W. Hunt, where the bloom on the plum, the down
+of the peach, &c., are given with wondrous fidelity to nature. In the
+_russet_ hues of autumn foliage, where purple and orange have broken or
+superseded the summer green, this interlacing of colour appears; and
+also in the _olive_ foliage of the rose-tree, formed in the individual
+leaf by the ramification of purple in green. Besides the durable
+yellows, reds, and blues, the following orange and green pigments are
+eligible for mixed citrines. They may likewise, however, be safely and
+simply compounded by slight additions, to an original brown, of that
+primary or secondary tone which is requisite to give it the required
+hue.
+
+    PERMANENT ORANGE.  | PERMANENT GREEN.
+                       |
+    Burnt Roman Ochre. | Oxide of Chromium, opaque.
+    Burnt Sienna.      | Oxide of Chromium, transparent.
+    Cadmium Orange.    | Veronese Green.
+    Mars Orange.       | Viridian.
+    Neutral Orange.    | Emerald Green.
+                       | Scheele's Green.
+                       | Terre Verte.
+
+226. RAW UMBER,
+
+or Umber, is a natural ochre, chiefly composed of oxide of manganese,
+oxide of iron, silica, and alumina. It is said to have been first
+brought from ancient Ombria, now Spoleto, in Italy. Found in England,
+and in most parts of the world, that which comes from Cyprus, under the
+name of Turkish or Levant umber, is the best. Of a quiet brown-citrine
+colour, semi-opaque, it dries rapidly, and injures no other good pigment
+with which it may be mixed. By time it grows darker, a disadvantage
+which may be obviated by compounding it with colours which pale on
+exposure. For light shadow tones and delicate grays it is extremely
+useful, and yields with blue most serviceable neutral greens. To mud
+walls, tints for stone, wood, gray rocks, baskets, yellow sails, and
+stormy seas, this citrine is suited. Some artists have painted on
+grounds primed with umber, but it has penetrated through the lighter
+parts of the work. Mérimée states that there are several of Poussin's
+pictures so painted; that fine series, "The Seven Sacraments," being
+clearly among the number.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+227. _Cassia Fistula_
+
+is a native vegetal pigment, though it is more commonly employed as a
+medicinal drug. It is brought from the East and West Indies in a sort of
+cane, in which it is naturally produced. As a pigment it is deep,
+transparent, of an imperfect citrine colour, inclining to dark green,
+and diffusible in water without grinding, like gamboge and sap green.
+Once sparingly used in water as a sort of substitute for bistre, it is
+not now to be met with on the palette.
+
+228. _Citrine Brown._
+
+From boiling, hot, or cold solutions of bichromate of potash and
+hyposulphite of soda in excess, we have obtained an agreeable
+citrine-brown colour, varying in hue and tint according to the mode of
+preparation and proportions of materials employed. It is a hydrated
+oxide of chromium which, when washed and carefully dried, yields a soft
+floury powder. Transparent, and affording clear, delicate pale washes,
+the oxide has not been introduced as a pigment; partly owing to certain
+physical objections, and partly to a tendency to greenness. This
+tendency is peculiar to all the brown chrome oxides of whatever hue,
+whether hydrated or anhydrous; and indeed distinguishes more or less
+nearly all the compounds of chromium. Green, in fact, is the natural
+colour of such compounds, the colour which they are constantly
+struggling to attain; and hence it is that the green oxides of chromium,
+being clothed in their native hue, are of such strict stability. The
+inclination to green which the citrine under notice possesses, may be
+seen by washing the precipitate with boiling water. It has been
+supposed that hydrated brown oxide of chromium is not a distinct
+compound of chromium and oxygen, but a feeble union of the green oxide
+with chromic acid. If this be the case, the citrine cast of the brown
+oxide is easily explained, as well as the gradual addition to its green
+by the deoxidation of the chromic acid.
+
+In mixed tints for autumn foliage and the like, the tendency to green of
+this citrine brown would be comparatively unimportant; but whether the
+oxide be adapted to the palette or not, we believe the colour might be
+utilized. In dyeing, for instance, the solutions of bichromate of potash
+and hyposulphite of soda would be worth a trial, the liquids of course
+being kept separate, and the brown washed with cold water. Various
+patterns could be printed with the bichromate on a ground previously
+treated with hyposulphite.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Several other browns, and ochrous earths, partake of a citrine hue, such
+as Cassel Earth, Bistre, &c. But in the confusion of names, infinity of
+tones and tints, and variations of individual pigments, it is impossible
+to arrive at an unexceptionable or universally satisfactory arrangement.
+We have therefore followed a middle and general course in distributing
+pigments under their proper heads.
+
+Of the three citrines in common use, Mars brown and raw umber are
+strictly stable; while brown pink, the purest original citrine the
+palette possesses, is either semi-stable or fugitive, according to the
+colouring substance used in its preparation.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV.
+
+ON THE TERTIARY, RUSSET.
+
+
+Russet, the second or middle tertiary colour, is, like citrine,
+constituted ultimately of the three primaries, red, yellow, and blue;
+but with this difference--instead of yellow as in citrine, the archeus
+or predominating colour in russet is red, to which yellow and blue are
+subordinates. For _orange_ and _purple_ being the immediate constituents
+of russet, and red being a component part of each of those colours, it
+follows that red enters doubly into russet, while yellow and blue appear
+but once therein. The proportions of its middle hue are eight blue, ten
+red, and three yellow, of equal intensities. Thus composed, russet takes
+the relations and powers of a subdued red; and many pigments and dyes of
+the latter denomination are strictly of the class of russet colours. In
+fact, nominal distinction of colours is only relative; the gradation
+from hue to hue, as from tint to tint, and shade to shade, being of such
+unlimited extent, that it is impossible to pronounce absolutely where
+one hue, tint, or shade ends, and another begins.
+
+The harmonizing, neutralizing, or contrasting colour of russet, is a
+_deep green_; or when the russet inclines to orange, a _gray_ or
+_subdued blue_. These are often beautifully opposed in nature, being
+medial accordances or in equal relation to light, shade and other
+colours, and among the most agreeable to sense.
+
+Russet, as we have said, partakes of the relations of red, but it is a
+hue moderated in every respect, and qualified for greater breadth of
+display in the colouring of nature and art; less so, perhaps, than its
+fellow-tertiaries in proportion as it is individually more beautiful.
+The powers of beauty are ever most effective when least obtrusive; and
+its presence in colour should be chiefly evident to the eye that seeks
+it--not so much courting as being courted.
+
+Of the tertiary colours, russet is the most important to the artist; and
+there are many pigments classed as red, purple, &c., which are of russet
+hues. But there are few true russets, and only one original pigment of
+that colour is now known on the palette, to wit--
+
+229. RUBENS' MADDER,
+
+_Orange Russet_, _Russet Rubiate_, or _Field's Russet_. This is a very
+rich crimson russet with a flush of orange; pure, transparent, and of a
+middle hue between orange and purple. Prepared from the madder root, it
+is not subject to change by the action of light, time, or mixture of
+other pigments. Although not so much employed as the marrone Madder
+Brown, it is serviceable both as a local and auxiliary colour in
+compounding and producing with yellow the glowing hues of autumnal
+foliage, &c.; and with blue, the beautiful and endless variety of grays
+in skies, flesh, &c. A good glazing colour, its thin washes afford fine
+flesh tints in water: as an oil pigment it dries indifferently, and
+requires to be forced by the addition of a little gold size or varnish.
+Cappah brown and burnt umber sadden it to the rich tones adapted for
+general use in shadows. So saddened, this lake meets admirably the dark
+centres of the upper petals of certain fancy geraniums, while alone its
+pale washes are equally well suited to the lower leaves.
+
+230. MIXED RUSSET.
+
+What has been remarked in the preceding chapter upon the production of
+mixed citrine colours, is likewise applicable to mixed russet. By the
+immediate method of producing it materially from its secondaries, good
+and durable colours are obtained by compounding the following orange and
+purple pigments--
+
+    PERMANENT ORANGE.  | PERMANENT PURPLE.
+                       |
+    Burnt Roman Ochre. | Mars Violet, true.
+    Burnt Sienna.      | Purple Madder.
+    Cadmium Orange.    |
+    Mars Orange.       |
+    Neutral Orange.    |
+
+Many other less eligible duple and triple compounds of russet are
+obvious upon principle, and it may be produced by adding red in due
+predominance to some browns; but these, like most mixtures, are inferior
+to original pigments. To the orange colours there may be added cadmium
+red and the orange vermilions, pigments which were classed among the
+reds, but which contain sufficient yellow to render them adapted for
+either compound russets or compound citrines. And as of original purple
+pigments there are two only which are stable, such mixtures as madder
+red and French blue will help to swell the list of available permanent
+purples. Rubens' madder itself may be changed in hue by being first
+mixed with blue and then with orange.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+231. _Prussiate of Copper_
+
+differs chemically from Prussian blue only in having copper instead of
+iron for its basis. It varies in hue from russet to purple brown, is
+transparent and deep, but, being very liable to change in colour by the
+action of light and by other pigments, has never been much used, and is
+now obsolete. The compound has the objection of containing free
+prussiate of potash, not removable by continued washing--sometimes as
+much as five per cent.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+There are several other pigments which enter imperfectly into, or verge
+upon, the class of russet, which, having obtained the names of other
+classes to which they are allied, will be found under other heads; such
+are some of the ochres, as Indian red. Burnt carmine is often of the
+russet hue, or convertible to it by due additions of yellow or orange;
+as are burnt Sienna and various browns, by like additions of lake or
+other reds.
+
+The one pigment in this chapter known to the modern palette, Rubens'
+madder, is permanent.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI.
+
+ON THE TERTIARY, OLIVE.
+
+
+Olive is the third and last of the tertiary colours, and nearest in
+relation to shade. Like its co-tertiaries, citrine and russet, it is
+composed of the three primaries, blue, red, and yellow; but is formed
+more directly of the secondaries, _purple_ and _green_, in each of which
+blue is a constituent: hence blue occurs twice in the latter mode of
+forming olive, while red and blue enter therein singly and
+subordinately. Blue is, therefore, in every instance the archeus or
+predominating colour of olive; its perfect or middle hue comprehending
+sixteen of blue to five of red and three of yellow. It partakes in a
+proportionate measure of the powers, properties, and relations of its
+archeus: accordingly, the antagonist or harmonizing contrast of olive is
+a _deep orange_. Like blue, olive is a retiring colour, the most so of
+all the colours, being the penultimate of the scale, or nearest of all
+in relation to black, and last, theoretically, of the regular
+distinctions of colours. Hence its importance in nature and painting is
+almost as great as that of black; it divides the office of clothing the
+face of creation with green and blue; with both which, as with black and
+grey, it enters into innumerable compounds and accordances, changing its
+name as either hue prevails, into green, gray, ashen, slate, &c. Thus
+the olive hues of foliage are called green, and the purple hues of
+clouds are called gray, &c.; but such terms are general only, and
+unequal to the infinite particularity of nature.
+
+This infinity, or endless variation of hue, tint, and relation, of which
+the tertiaries are susceptible, gives a boundless license to the revelry
+of taste, in which the genius of the pencil may display the most
+captivating harmonies of colouring, and the most chaste and delicate
+expressions; too subtle to be defined, too intricate to be easily
+understood, and often too exquisite to be felt by the untutored eye.
+Nature always melodizes by imperceptible gradations, while she
+harmonizes by distinct contrasts. At different seasons we have blossoms
+of all hues, variously subordinated; and when the time of flowers may be
+considered past, as if she had no further use for her fine colours, or
+were willing to display her ultimate skill and refinement, Nature
+lavishes the contents of her palette, not disorderly, but in multiplied
+relations, over all vegetal creation, in those rich and beautiful
+accordances of broken and finishing colours with which autumn is
+decorated ere the year decays and sinks into olive darkness.
+
+As a rule, no colour exists in nature without gradation, which is to
+colours what curvature is to lines. The difference in mere beauty
+between a gradated and ungradated colour may be seen by laying an even
+tint of rose-colour on paper, and putting a rose leaf beside it. The
+victorious beauty of the rose, as compared with other flowers, depends
+wholly on the delicacy and quantity of its colour gradations, all other
+flowers being either less rich in gradation, not having so many folds of
+leaf; or less tender, being patched and veined instead of flushed. It is
+not enough, however, that colour should be gradated in painting by being
+made simply paler or darker at one place than another. Generally, colour
+changes as it diminishes, and is not only darker at one spot, but also
+purer at one spot than elsewhere; although it does not follow that
+either the darkest or the lightest spot should be the purest. Very often
+the two gradations more or less cross each other, one passing in one
+direction from paleness to darkness, another in another direction from
+purity to dulness; but there will almost always be both of them, however
+reconciled. Hence, every piece of blue, say, laid on should be quite
+pure only at some given spot, from which it must be gradated into blue
+less pure--greyish blue, or greenish blue, or purplish blue--over all
+the rest of the space it occupies. In Turner's largest oil pictures,
+there is not one spot of colour as large as a grain of wheat ungradated;
+and it will be found in practice that brilliancy of hue, vigour of
+light, and even the aspect of transparency in shade, are essentially
+dependent on this character alone; hardness, coldness, and opacity,
+resulting far more from equality of colour than from nature of colour.
+Given some mud off a city crossing, some ochre out of a gravel pit, a
+little whitening, and some coal-dust, and a luminous picture might be
+painted, if time were allowed to gradate the mud, and subdue the dust.
+But not with the red of the ruby, the blue of the gentian, snow for the
+light, and amber for the gold, could such a picture be produced, if the
+masses of those colours were kept unbroken in purity, and unvarying in
+depth.
+
+Olive being usually a compound colour both with the artist and mechanic,
+there are few olive pigments in commerce.
+
+232. MIXED OLIVE
+
+may be compounded in several ways; directly, by mixing green and purple;
+or indirectly, by adding to blue a smaller proportion of yellow and red,
+or by breaking much blue with little orange. Cool black pigments,
+combined with yellow ochre, afford eligible olives; hues which are
+called _green_ in landscape, and _invisible green_ in mechanic painting.
+It is to be noted that in producing these and other compound colours on
+the palette or canvass, those mixtures will most conduce to the harmony
+of the performance which are formed of pigments otherwise generally
+employed in the picture. Thus, presuming aureolin to be the principal
+yellow used, the same yellow should be chosen for compounding orange and
+green, or for obtaining indirectly citrine, russet, and olive.
+
+    PERMANENT GREEN.                | PERMANENT PURPLE.
+                                    |
+    Oxide of Chromium, opaque.      | Mars Violet, true.
+    Oxide of Chromium, transparent. | Purple Madder.
+    Veronese Green.                 |
+    Viridian.                       |
+    Emerald Green.                  |
+    Scheele's Green.                |
+    Terre Verte.                    |
+
+As in the case of russet, there may be added to the two original
+purples, mixtures composed of durable reds and blues. There are so many
+ways of producing the tertiaries, that no difficulty can be found in
+compounding them with stable pigments. Each tertiary may be represented
+as follows:--
+
+    CITRINE = Orange          + Green.
+       "    = (Yellow + Red)  + (Yellow + Blue.)
+       "    = 2 Yellow + Red  + Blue.
+
+    RUSSET  = Orange          + Purple.
+       "    = (Yellow + Red)  + (Red + Blue.)
+       "    = 2 Red + Yellow  + Blue.
+
+    OLIVE   = Green           + Purple.
+       "    = (Yellow + Blue) + (Red + Blue.)
+       "    = 2 Blue + Yellow + Red.
+
+From the above equations, and by consulting the lists given of permanent
+primary and secondary colours, the artist will at once see how easily
+and safely he may vary his mode of compounding the tertiaries.
+
+233. OLIVE GREEN,
+
+sometimes called _Dewint's Green_, is an arbitrary compound, or mixed
+green, of a fine deep olive colour and sober richness. Advisedly or not,
+it is used in landscape, sketching, &c.; but only in water, olive lake
+supplying its place in oil. Like many other compound pigments, it is
+either permanent, semi-stable, or fugitive, according to the
+constituents of which it is composed. Generally speaking, it is more
+beautiful than durable, and is often decidedly fugacious, fading on
+exposure. It is impossible for a writer to pronounce an absolute opinion
+on the stability of all mixtures sold in a separate form, inasmuch as
+the compounds of one firm may differ from those of another. We have
+before expressed our dislike to such pigments, and this uncertainty with
+regard to their composition serves to strengthen it. Nevertheless, as
+there are exceptions to every rule, it must be admitted that the palette
+possesses compounds always to be relied upon.
+
+234. OLIVE LAKE
+
+is in commerce exclusively an oil colour. When true, it is a lake
+prepared from the green ebony, or laburnum, and is of considerable
+permanence, transparency, and depth, both in water and oil; in which
+latter vehicle it dries well. This variety, however, may be said to be
+obsolete; having given way to a mixture, usually semi-stable, and liable
+to blacken.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+235. _Burnt Verdigris_
+
+is what its name expresses, and is an olive-coloured oxide of copper
+deprived of acid. It dries remarkably well in oil, is more durable than
+the original verdigris, and is in other respects an improved and more
+eligible pigment, although not to be recommended.
+
+236. _Olive Oxide of Chromium._
+
+An olive oxide of this metal is obtainable, transparent, of strict
+stability, and altogether superior to any original or compound olive
+pigment as yet known. Eligible either in water or oil, it is admirably
+adapted for autumn foliage, where a quiet, subdued, nature-like green
+is required. It has not, however, been introduced, partly because of its
+expense, and partly because a mixture of other pigments with the
+ordinary chrome oxides sufficiently answers the purpose. There are more
+good colours in the world than are dreamt of in the palette's
+philosophy, but either they are not wanted, or are too costly to sell.
+In a great measure, both art and science are dependent on commerce.
+
+237. _Olive Rinman's Green._
+
+A compound analogous to cobalt green may be made, of an olive hue, with
+more body, and equally stable.
+
+238. _Olive Scheele's Green._
+
+Cupric arsenite, when heated, gives off arsenious acid and water,
+leaving a residue of arsenide of copper and copper arseniate. A series
+of olive colours is so afforded, which are as durable as their original
+pigment, and might with advantage be substituted for the doubtful
+compounds at present in use.
+
+239. _Olive Schweinfurt Green_
+
+is likewise furnished by gentle calcination. It may be directly prepared
+by mixing boiling aqueous solutions of equal parts of crystallised
+verdigris and arsenious acid. An olive-green precipitate is immediately
+formed, which is apt, without due precaution, to pass into an emerald
+green. A durable copper colour.
+
+240. _Olive Terre Verte._
+
+We have obtained a very beautiful olive from terre verte by simply
+changing its hue. In oil, especially, the colour so produced would be
+found of service for autumn foliage, or richly painted foregrounds. A
+simple original pigment, consisting wholly of the earth, it resembles
+ordinary terre verte in being unaffected by strong light or impure air,
+and uninjured by admixture; but differs from it in not darkening by
+time. Semi-transparent, of sober richness and drying well in oil, it is,
+according to its powers, a perfectly unexceptionable colour, of strict
+stability.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Of the two olive colours in common use, olive lake and olive green, the
+first is generally semi-stable, and apt to blacken; while the second is
+usually fugitive, and liable to fade: both are compounds. The palette,
+therefore, possesses no original olive pigment, good or bad. A glance at
+the numbered italicised olives will show that the doubtful mixtures
+referred to might with advantage be superseded. It is clear that the
+olive pigments which the palette does not know, are better than those
+with which it is acquainted.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII.
+
+ON THE SEMI-NEUTRAL, BROWN.
+
+
+As colour, according to the regular scale descending from white, ceases
+properly with the last of the tertiaries, olive, in theory the neutral
+black would here form a fitting conclusion. Practically, however, every
+coloured pigment, of every class or tribe, combines with black as it
+exists in pigments--not simply being deepened or lowered in tone
+thereby, but likewise defiled in colour, or changed in class. Hence
+there arises a new series or scale of coloured compounds, having black
+for their basis, which, though they differ not theoretically from the
+preceding order inverted, are yet in practice imperfect or impure. These
+broken compounds of black, or coloured blacks and greys, we have
+distinguished by the term, semi-neutral, and divided them into three
+classes: Brown, Marrone, and Gray. What tints are with respect to white,
+they are with regard to black, being, so to speak, black tints or
+shades.
+
+The first of the series is BROWN, a term which, in its widest
+acceptation, has been used to include vulgarly every kind of dark broken
+colour, and is, in a more limited sense, the rather indefinite name of a
+very extensive class of colours of warm or tawny hues. Accordingly there
+are browns of every denomination except blue; to wit, yellow-brown,
+red-brown, orange-brown, purple-brown, citrine-brown, russet-brown, &c.
+But there is no such thing as a blue-brown, nor, strictly, any other
+coloured brown in which blue predominates; such predominance of a cold
+colour at once carrying the compound into the class of gray, ashen, or
+slate. Brown comprises the hues called dun, hazel, auburn, feuillemort,
+mort d'ore, &c.; several of which have been already mentioned as allied
+to the tertiary colours.
+
+The term _brown_, then, denotes rightly a warm broken colour, of which
+_yellow_ is a chief constituent: hence brown is in some measure to shade
+what yellow is to light. Hence, also, proper quantities of either the
+three primaries, the three secondaries, or the three tertiaries, produce
+variously a brown mixture. Browns contribute to coolness and clearness
+by contrast when opposed to pure colours, and Rubens more especially
+appears to have employed them upon this principle; although the same may
+be said of Titian, Correggio, Paulo Veronese, and all the best
+colourists. Being a sort of intermedia between positive colours and
+neutrality, browns equally contrast colour and shade. This accounts for
+their vast importance in painting, and the necessity of preserving them
+distinct from other colours, to which they give foulness in mixture; and
+to this is due their use in backgrounds and in relieving of coloured
+objects.
+
+The tendency in the compounds of colours to run into brownness and
+warmth is one of the common natural properties of colours which
+occasions them to deteriorate or defile each other in mixture. Brown by
+consequence is synonymous with foul or dirty, as opposed to fair or
+clean; and hence brown, which is the nearest of the semi-neutrals in
+relation to light, is to be avoided in mixture with light colours. Yet
+is it an example of the wisdom of nature's Author that brown is
+rendered, like green, a prevailing hue, and in particular an earth
+colour, as a contrast which is harmonized by the blueness and coldness
+of the sky.
+
+This tendency will likewise explain the use of brown in harmonizing and
+toning, as well as the great number of natural and artificial pigments
+and colours so called. It was the fertility and abundance of browns that
+caused our great landscape-colourist Wilson, when a friend went
+exultingly to tell him that he had discovered a new brown, to check him
+in his characteristic way, with--"I'm sorry for it: we have gotten too
+many of them already." Nevertheless, fine transparent browns are
+obviously very valuable.
+
+If red or blue in excess be added to brown, it falls into the other
+semi-neutral classes, marrone or gray. The wide acceptation of the term
+brown has occasioned much confusion in the naming of colours, since
+broken colours in which red, &c. predominate, have been improperly
+called brown. That term, therefore, should be confined to the
+semi-neutral colours, compounded of, or like in hue to, either the
+primary _yellow_, the secondary orange, or the tertiary _citrine_, with
+a _black_. The general contrast or harmonizing colour of such compounds
+will consequently be more or less purple or blue.
+
+The number of browns is great, as may be seen by the following list.
+This list, however, is good, and includes a considerable proportion of
+permanent pigments.
+
+241. ASPHALTUM,
+
+_Asphalt_, _Bitumen_, _Mineral Pitch_, _Jew's Pitch_, _Antwerp Brown_,
+_Liquid Asphaltum_, &c., is a sort of mineral pitch or tar which, rising
+liquid to the surface of the Lacus Asphaltites or Asphaltic Lake (the
+Dead Sea) concretes there by the natural action of the atmosphere and
+sun, and, floating in masses to the shores, is gathered by the Arabs.
+The French give it an additional name from the region of the lake, to
+wit, Bitumen of Judea; and with the English, from the same cause, it has
+the alias of Jew's pitch. Asphaltum is not so called, however, after
+the lake, as is asserted by a writer in the Encyclopædia: it is just the
+reverse--Pliny says, "The Asphaltic lake produces nothing but bitumen
+(in Greek, asphaltos); and hence its name."
+
+A substance resembling asphalt is found at Neufchâtel in Switzerland,
+and in other parts of Europe. A specimen of the native bitumen, brought
+from Persia, and of which the author made trial, had a powerful scent of
+garlic when rubbed. In the fire it softened without flowing, and burnt
+with a lambent flame; did not dissolve by heat in turpentine, but ground
+easily as a pigment in pale drying oil, affording a fine deep
+transparent brown colour, resembling that of commercial asphaltum; dried
+firmly almost as soon as the drying-oil alone, and worked admirably both
+in water and oil. Asphaltum may be used as a permanent brown in water,
+for which purpose the native is superior to the artificial. The former,
+however, is now seldom to be met with, the varieties employed on the
+palette being the residua of various resinous and bituminous matters,
+distilled for the sake of their essential oils. These residua are all
+black and glossy like common pitch, which differs from them only in
+having been less acted upon by fire, and thence in being softer. At
+present asphaltum is prepared in excessive abundance as a product of the
+distillation of coal at the gas manufactories, and is chiefly confined
+to oil-painting, being first dissolved in turpentine, which fits it for
+glazing and shading. Its fine brown colour and perfect transparency are
+lures to its free use with many artists, notwithstanding the certain
+destruction that awaits the work on which it is much employed, owing to
+its tendency to contract and crack by changes of temperature and the
+atmosphere; but for which, and a slight liability to blacken, it would
+be a most beautiful, durable, and eligible pigment. The solution of
+asphaltum in turpentine, united with drying oil by heat, or the bitumen
+torrefied and ground in linseed or drying-oil, acquires a firmer
+texture, but becomes less transparent and dries with difficulty. If
+common asphaltum, as usually prepared with turpentine, be used with some
+addition of Vandyke brown, umber, or Cappah brown ground in drying oil,
+it will gain body and solidity which will render it much less disposed
+to crack. Nevertheless, asphaltum is to be regarded in practice rather
+as a dark varnish than as a solid pigment, and all the faults of a bad
+varnish are to be guarded against in employing it.
+
+It is common to call the solution in turpentine _Asphaltum_, and the
+mixture with drying-oil _Bitumen_: the latter is likewise known as
+_Antwerp Brown_. A preparation for the use of water-colour artists is
+employed under the name of _Liquid Asphaltum_.
+
+242. BISTRE
+
+is extracted by watery solution from the soot of wood fires, whence it
+derives a strong pyroligneous scent. It is a very powerful
+citrine-brown, washes well, and has a clearness suited to architectural
+subjects. Its use is confined to water-colour painting, in which it was
+much employed by the old masters for tinting drawings and shading
+sketches, before the general application of Indian ink to such purposes.
+Of a wax-like texture, it is perfectly durable, but unfitted for oil,
+drying therein with the greatest difficulty.
+
+A substance of this kind collects at the back of fire-places in cottages
+where peat is the constant fuel burnt; which, purified by solution and
+evaporation, yields a fine bistre, similar to the Scotch. All kinds of
+bistre attract moisture from the atmosphere.
+
+243. BONE BROWN
+
+and _Ivory Brown_ are obtained by roasting bone and ivory until by
+partial charring they become of a brown colour throughout. Though much
+esteemed by some artists, they are not quite eligible pigments, being
+bad driers in oil, the only vehicle in which they are now used.
+Moreover, their lighter shades are not permanent either in water or oil
+when exposed to the action of strong light, or mixed in tint with white
+lead. The palest of these colours are the most opaque: the deepest are
+more durable, and most so when approaching black. Neither bone nor ivory
+brown is often employed, but the former may be occasionally applied in
+forming clear, silvery, warm grays, in combination with zinc white.
+
+244. BURNT UMBER
+
+is what its name denotes, and has a deeper shade with a more russet hue
+than the raw umber. A quiet brown, it affords clear and warm shadows,
+but is apt to look rather turbid if used in great depth. It washes and
+works capitally in water, and dries quickly in oil, in which it is
+employed as a siccative. Perfectly stable in either vehicle, it may
+sometimes be substituted for Vandyke brown, is eligible in fresco, and
+invaluable in buildings. Where the lakes of madder require saddening,
+the addition of burnt umber increases their powers, and improves their
+drying in oil. It contains manganese and iron, and may be produced
+artificially. The old Italians called it _falsalo_.
+
+245. CALEDONIAN BROWN
+
+is a permanent native pigment, the use of which is confined to oil. A
+magnificent orange-russet brown of considerable transparency, it is
+marked by great depth and richness, and will be found serviceable where
+a powerful brown of the burnt Sienna class is required.
+
+246. CAPPAH BROWN,
+
+or _Cappagh Brown_, is likewise a colour peculiar to oil. It is a
+species of bog-earth or peat, mixed with manganese in various
+proportions, and found on the estate of Lord Audley at Cappagh, near
+Cork. The specimens in which the peat earth most abounds are of light
+weight, friable texture, and dark colour; while those which contain more
+of the metal are heavy and paler.
+
+As pigments, the peaty Cappah brown is the most transparent and rich in
+colour. A prompt drier in oil, its surface rivels during drying where it
+lies thick. The other and metallic sort is a more opaque, a lighter and
+warmer brown pigment, which dries rapidly and smoothly in a body or
+thick layer. The first may be regarded as a superior Vandyke brown, the
+second as a superior umber. The two extreme kinds should be
+distinguished as light and deep Cappah browns; the former excellent for
+dead colouring and grounds, the latter for glazing and graining. These
+pigments work well in oil and varnish; they do not, however, keep their
+place while drying in oil by fixing the oil, like the driers of lead,
+but run. Under the names of _Euchrome_ and _Mineral Brown_, they have
+been introduced into commerce for civil and marine painting.
+
+247. CASSEL EARTH,
+
+_Terre de Cassel_, or, corruptly, _Castle Earth_, is specially an oil
+pigment, similar to burnt umber but of a more russet hue. It is an earth
+containing bitumen, a substance which, with pit-coal, lignite or brown
+coal, jet, petroleum or rock oil, naphtha, &c., is looked upon as a
+product of the decomposition of organic matter, beneath the surface of
+the earth, in situations where the conditions of contact with water, and
+almost total exclusion of atmospheric air, are fulfilled. Deposited at
+the bottom of seas, lakes, or rivers, and subsequently covered up by
+accumulations of clay and sand, the organic tissue undergoes a kind of
+fermentation by which the bodies in question are slowly produced. The
+true bitumens appear to have arisen from coal or lignite by the action
+of subterranean heat; and very closely resemble some of the products
+yielded by the destructive distillation of those bodies.
+
+Rich as is the tone of colour of Cassel earth, it is apt to lose this in
+some measure on exposure to light. Mérimée remembers to have seen a
+head, the brown hair of which had been painted partly with the earth
+alone, and partly with a mixture of the earth and white; yet the hair
+where the white was employed was darker than that painted solely with
+the brown, the white having fixed the colour. To compensate for its
+thus fading, it should be mixed with pigments that are permanent, such
+as umber and lamp black. Like all bituminous earths, it needs the
+strongest drying oil. By calcination, a greater degree of intensity may
+be imparted to the colour, and perhaps a little more solidity. In
+landscapes it is of much service for the most vigorous portions of
+foregrounds and the trunks of trees, as well as for painting cavernous
+rocks or deep recesses in architecture. Compounded with burnt lake and a
+little Prussian blue, it gives a black the most profound.
+
+248. CHALON'S BROWN
+
+is a water-colour pigment, transparent and inclining to red; deep, full,
+and very rich. On exposure to light it becomes less russet, but is
+otherwise strictly stable.
+
+249. COLOGNE EARTH,
+
+incorrectly called _Cullen's Earth_, is a native bituminous earth,
+containing less bitumen than Cassel earth, and therefore drying more
+quickly. Darker than that variety, it is less transparent, and covers
+better. In its general qualities it resembles Vandyke brown, except that
+in combination with white, it affords a range of cooler brown tints.
+Useful for the shadows of buildings, it does not wash so well as sepia,
+and is preferred occasionally on that account. By some it has been
+called durable, by others branded as fugacious. According to Bouvier,
+brown hair represented by this colour has been known to disappear in six
+months, all the brown vanishing, and nothing remaining but a few black
+lines of the sketch. As it is similar in composition to Cassel earth,
+the safest course would be to mix it with umber, and not to employ it
+alone. Calcined, it acquires a reddish hue.
+
+250. INDELIBLE BROWN INK.
+
+Although this cannot be classed as a pigment, yet, being very useful in
+water-colours, it may be proper to describe its qualities. The ink is a
+rich brown fluid, and, as its name imports, is indelibly fixed on the
+paper as soon as it is dry; thus allowing the artist to work or wash
+over it repeatedly, without its being disturbed. If diluted with water
+to its faintest tint, it still continues to retain its indelible
+properties undiminished. It is generally used with a reed pen, and
+employed chiefly in architectural details and outlines.
+
+Various brown inks, principally solutions of bistre and sepia, were
+adopted in sketching by Claude, Rembrandt, and many of the old masters.
+In modern times, a beautiful transparent brown for water-colour artists,
+known as _Liquid Prout's Brown_, has been extensively employed. This
+contains less fixative than the indelible ink, and is the vehicle with
+which nearly all Samuel Prout's drawings were executed.
+
+251. LEITCH'S BROWN
+
+is a permanent pigment peculiar to water painting. A most beautiful
+olive brown, soft and rich, it is admirably adapted for autumnal foliage
+tints and the like, either alone or compounded with burnt Sienna or
+cadmium orange. Transparent and clear in its washes, this is a most
+serviceable colour in landscape generally.
+
+252. MIXED BROWN
+
+can be produced in endless variety, either by adding a warm colour to
+black, such as yellow, orange, or citrine, or else by combining the
+three primaries, secondaries, or tertiaries in suitable proportions. By
+consulting the lists given of permanent pigments belonging to those
+classes, and by referring to the chapter on Black, it will be seen that
+no difficulty exists in obtaining durable mixed browns when required.
+For example, there may be formed from the primaries, a compound of
+aureolin, rose madder, and ultramarine; or from the secondaries, a
+mixture of cadmium orange, viridian, and madder purple. Of course, as
+with other mixed tints, the brown hue can be furnished not only by
+direct compounding of the colours on the palette, but by laying one
+colour over the other on the paper or canvass, or by stippling.
+
+253. MUMMY,
+
+_Mummy Brown_, or _Egyptian Brown_, is a bituminous product mixed with
+animal remains, brought from the catacombs of Egypt, where liquid
+bitumen was employed three thousand years ago in embalming. By a slow
+chemical change, it has combined during so many ages with substances
+which give it, as a rule, a more solid and lasting texture than simple
+asphaltum. Generally resembling the latter in its other properties and
+uses as a pigment, mummy is often substituted for it, being less liable
+to crack or move on the canvass. It must be remembered, however, that
+mummy varies exceedingly both in its composition and qualities; and as
+from its very nature and origin nothing certain can be said of it, but
+little reliance should be placed on this brown. Mummy belongs to the
+class of pigments which are either good or bad, according as they turn
+out. On the whole, we agree with the American artist, who has been more
+than once quoted in these pages, that nothing is to be gained by
+smearing one's canvass with a part, perhaps, of the wife of Potiphar.
+With a preference for materials less frail and of a more sober
+character, we likewise hold with Bouvier, that it is not particularly
+prudent to employ without necessity these crumbled remains of dead
+bodies, which must contain ammonia and particles of fat in a concrete
+state and so be more or less apt to injure the colours with which they
+may be united. The use of mummy is now confined to oil, in which, says
+Mr. Carmichael, a mixture of mummy and bitumen will dry and never crack.
+If this be the case, the compound would be preferable to either
+separate.
+
+254. PRUSSIAN BROWN
+
+is an iron oxide, containing more or less alumina, and prepared by
+calcining an aluminous Prussian blue, or treating an aluminous
+ferrocyanide of peroxide of iron with an alkali. Possessing the nature
+and properties of burnt Sienna, it is transparent, permanent, and dries
+well in oil. Of an orange hue, it is neither so rich nor so powerful as
+that pigment, and is better employed as a glaze than in body.
+
+255. SEPIA,
+
+_Liquid Sepia_, _Seppia_, or _Animal Æthiops_, is named after the sepia
+or cuttle-fish, also called the ink-fish, from its affording a dark
+liquid, which was used as an ink and pigment by the ancients. All the
+species of cuttle-fish are provided with a dark-coloured fluid,
+sometimes quite black, which they emit to obscure the water, when it is
+wanted to favour their escape from danger, or, by concealing their
+approach, to enable them with greater facility to seize their prey. The
+liquid consists of a mass of extremely minute carbonaceous particles,
+intermixed with an animal gelatine or glue, and is capable of being so
+widely spread, than an ounce of it will suffice to darken several
+thousand ounces of water. From this liquid, brought chiefly from the
+Adriatic, but likewise obtainable from our own coasts, is derived the
+pigment sepia, as well as, partially, the Indian ink of the Chinese.
+
+Sepia is a powerful dusky brown, of a fine texture, transparent, works
+admirably in water, combines cordially with other pigments, and is very
+permanent. It is much used as a water-colour, and for making drawings in
+the manner of bistre and Indian ink; but is not employed in oil, as it
+dries therein very reluctantly. Extremely clear in its pale tints, and
+perhaps the best washing colour known, sepia must be used with caution,
+or otherwise heaviness will be engendered in the shades, so strong is
+its colouring property. Mixed with indigo, or, preferably, Prussian blue
+and black, it is eligible for distant trees, for a general shadow tint
+in light backgrounds, and for the shade of white linen or white
+draperies. With madder red it forms a fine hue, somewhat resembling
+brown madder, and with crimson lake and indigo gives an artistically
+excellent black. Sometimes alone and sometimes in combination with lamp
+black, or madder red and Prussian blue saddened by the black, it will be
+found useful in dark foreground boats, rocks, near buoys, sea-weed, &c.
+Compounded with aureolin, sepia yields a series of beautiful and durable
+neutral greens for landscape; and mixed with Prussian blue, affords low
+olive greens, which may be deepened into very cool dark greens by the
+addition of black. For hills and mountains in mid-distance, sepia
+combined with cobalt and brown madder is of service; or, for the dark
+markings and divisions of stones in brooks and running streams, the same
+compound without the cobalt. Mixed with purple madder, it furnishes a
+fine tint for the stems and branches of trees; and with French blue and
+madder red gives a really good black. Compounds of sepia and yellow
+ochre, gamboge, raw Sienna, or cobalt and aureolin, are severally
+useful. A rich and strong brown is formed by the admixture of madder
+red, burnt Sienna, and sepia; a tint which may be modified by omitting
+the sepia or the Sienna, or reducing the proportions of either. For
+Dutch craft, this tint and its variations are of great value. A wash of
+sepia over green very agreeably subdues the force of the colour.
+
+256. WARM SEPIA
+
+is the natural sepia warmed by mixture with other browns of a red hue,
+and is intended for drawings where it would be difficult to keep the
+whole work of the same tint, unless the compound were made in the cake
+of colour.
+
+257. ROMAN SEPIA
+
+is a preparation similar to the preceding, but with a yellow instead of
+a red cast.
+
+258. VANDYKE BROWN.
+
+This pigment, hardly less celebrated than the great painter whose name
+it bears, is a species of peat or bog-earth of a fine, deep,
+semi-transparent brown colour. The pigment so much esteemed and used by
+Vandyke is said to have been brought from Cassel; an assertion which
+seems to be justified by a comparison of Cassel earth with the browns of
+his pictures. Gilpin in his Essays on Picturesque Beauty, remarks that
+"In the tribe of browns--in oil-painting, one of the finest earths is
+known, at the colour shops, by the name of Castle-earth, or Vandyke's
+brown." The Vandyke brown of the present day is a bituminous ochre,
+purified by grinding and washing over. Apt to vary in hue, it is durable
+both in water and oil, but, like all bituminous earths, dries tardily as
+a rule in the latter vehicle. Clear in its pale tints, deep and glowing
+in shadows, in water it has sometimes the bad property of working up:
+for this reason, where it is necessary to lay on a great body of it,
+the moist tube colour should be preferred to the cake. With madder red,
+the brown gives a fine tint, most useful as a warm shadow colour; and
+with Prussian blue, clear, very sober neutral greens for middle
+distances. In banks and roads, Vandyke brown is the general colour for
+dragging over the surface, to give roughness of texture: compounded with
+yellow ochre, it affords a good ground tint, and with purple madder a
+rich shadow colour. In sunrise and sunset clouds, a mixture of the brown
+with cobalt yields a cold neutral green, adapted for those clouds at the
+greatest distance from the sun. For foliage tints, aureolin, French
+blue, and Vandyke brown, will be found of service; or as a glaze over
+such tints, the yellow and the brown. With raw Sienna, brown madder,
+Payne's gray, gamboge, and Roman ochre, this brown is useful. In a
+water-colour winter scene, when the trees are denuded of foliage, the
+net work of the small branches at the tops of them may be prettily given
+with cobalt and Vandyke brown, used rather dry, and applied with a brush
+having its hairs spread out either by the fingers or by drawing them
+through a fine-tooth comb before working. Grass is likewise represented
+readily by this means, and so are small trees on the summit of a cliff
+or in like positions.
+
+The Campania Brown of the old Italian painters was a similar earth.
+
+259. VERONA BROWN,
+
+a pigment peculiar to oil painting, is a native ferruginous earth. A
+citrine brown of great service in tender drab greens, it forms with
+terre verte and the madder lakes rich autumnal tints of much beauty and
+permanence.
+
+260. YELLOW MADDER,
+
+_Cory's Yellow Madder_, or _Cory's Madder_, is classed among the browns
+for the same reason that Italian Pink was ranked among the yellows. It
+was stated in the eighth chapter that no true madder yellow, brilliant
+and pure, exists as a pigment at the present day, and certainly this
+preparation can lay no claim to the title. Except in name, it is an
+orange-brown of the burnt Sienna hue, and might therefore with more
+reason have been called Orange Madder. It is a good and permanent
+colour, rich and transparent, at present used only in oil, we believe,
+and chiefly as a glaze.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+261. _Cadmium Brown_.
+
+By igniting the white carbonate of cadmium, among other methods, a
+cinnamon-brown oxide is obtainable, of a very clear and beautiful colour
+if the process be well conducted. It is, however, not eligible as a
+pigment, owing to the rapidity with which the oxide is acted upon by the
+air. In water, especially, we have found this brown so eagerly absorb
+carbonic acid from the atmosphere as to become in a few months once more
+a carbonate, and as purely white as before. The same result is
+observable when the powder is exposed: some shown at the International
+Exhibition of 1862, on a glass stand, had to be removed, its label
+marked 'Cadmium Brown' being at last found attached to a sample of
+cadmium white. In oil, the conversion takes place less readily, that
+vehicle having the property of protecting, to some extent, pigments from
+oxidation. It is curious that even in a book a water-rub of the brown
+slowly but surely changes to white.
+
+262. _Catechu Browns._
+
+Catechu is an extract of the Khair tree or _acacia catechu_ of Bombay,
+Bengal, and other parts of India. With the exception of such earthy
+matters as are communicated to it during the preparation, or are added
+purposely as adulterants, catechu is entirely soluble both in water and
+alcohol. An aqueous solution has a reddish-brown colour, and gives the
+following results:--protosalts of iron thrown down olive-brown and
+persalts greenish-brown precipitates; salts of tin and lead yield
+brownish-yellow and brick-coloured deposits respectively; while acetate
+of copper or bichromate of potash furnishes brown residues. To our
+knowledge, none of these have been introduced as pigments, but a brown
+prepared by Dr. Lyon Playfair some years back from the catechu bark has
+been described as exceedingly rich, transparent, and beautiful; and
+recommended for painting _if not too thinly applied_.
+
+263. _Chrome Browns_
+
+are produced by various methods of several hues, tints, and shades, both
+by wet and dry processes. We have obtained them by many methods, of
+different degrees of permanence. Some very intense in colour have stood
+well, while others paler and more delicate have gradually greened, but
+none possessed the strict stability of the green oxides. Presuming a
+paucity of browns, these preparations of chromium would be worth further
+attention; but, with the objection of being--for browns--somewhat
+expensive, they have the far more fatal objection of not being wanted.
+
+264. _Copper Brown_,
+
+varying in hue, is obtainable, in the form of prussiate, &c., but cannot
+be recommended, however made.
+
+265. _French Prussian-Brown._
+
+According to Bouvier, a colour similar to that of bistre, and rivalling
+asphaltum in transparency, is produced by partially charring a
+moderately dark Prussian blue; neither one too intense, which gives a
+heavy and opaque brownish-red, nor one too aluminous and bright, which
+yields a feeble and yellowish tint. Yielding to a rapture we cannot
+wholly share, he describes its qualities in the warmest terms. In his
+opinion, it has the combined advantages of asphaltum, mummy, and raw
+Sienna, without their drawbacks. "I cannot," he says, "commend too
+highly the use of this charming bistre-tint: it is as beautiful and good
+in water as in oil, perfectly transparent, of a most harmonious tone,
+and dries better than any other colour suitable for glazing. Closely
+resembling asphaltum in tint as well as in transparency, this brown is
+preferable to it in every point of view." As the colour is very quickly
+and easily obtained, the artist can judge for himself of its proper
+value. M. Bouvier's process is, to place upon a clear fire a large iron
+spoon, into which, when red hot, some pieces of the Prussian blue are
+put about the size of a small nut: these soon begin to crackle, and
+throw off scales in proportion as they grow hot. The spoon is then
+removed, and allowed to cool: if suffered to remain too long on the
+fire, the right colour will not be produced. When the product is crushed
+small, some of it will be found blackish, and the rest of a yellowish
+brown: this is quite as it should be. Chemically, the result is a
+mixture of oxide of iron and partly undecomposed or carbonised
+prussiate.
+
+266. _Gambogiate of Iron._
+
+Dr. Scoffern read a paper at the Meeting of the British Association of
+Science, in 1851, describing this combination as a rich brown, like
+asphaltum, but richer, as well as more durable in oil. It has not been,
+however, employed as a pigment, or at least is not at present.
+
+267. _Hypocastanum_,
+
+or Chestnut Brown, is a brown lake prepared from the horse-chestnut.
+This now obsolete pigment is transparent and rich in colour, warmer than
+brown pink, and very durable both in water and oil; in the latter of
+which it dries moderately well.
+
+268. _Iron Browns_,
+
+native or artificial, are well represented on the palette, but nothing
+would be easier than to increase their number. Of all metals, iron is
+the richest source of colour, capable of affording all colours with the
+exception of white. None of them, however, are so numerous as the
+browns, a description of which would fill this chapter. Suffice it to
+state they are obtainable of every hue, tint, and shade, and are
+generally permanent. They are made on a large scale and sold under
+various names for house-painting, &c.
+
+269. _Manganese Brown_
+
+is an oxide of manganese, which is quite durable both in water and oil,
+and dries admirably in the latter. A fine, deep, semi-opaque brown of
+good body, it is deficient in transparency, but might be useful for
+glazing or lowering the tone of white without tinging it, and as a local
+colour in draperies, &c.
+
+270. _Nickel Brown._
+
+A very pleasing yellowish brown is obtainable from nickel, bright and
+clear in its pale washes, and of some richness in oil. Unless thoroughly
+washed, it has a tendency to greenness in time.
+
+271. _Ochre Browns._
+
+The slight affinity of sulphur for yellow ochre, with its merely
+temporary effect thereon, was observed in the eighth chapter, where
+allusion was made to the action of sulphuretted hydrogen and sulphide of
+ammonium on the earth. Sulphur alone, and in the dry state, ignited with
+yellow or other native ochres converts them into browns, varying in hue,
+and of greater or less durability. Those browns, however, which we have
+made by this process, although standing well in a book, have not
+withstood exposure to light and air. They have all become pale, whitish,
+or of a drab cast, evidently through the oxidation of the sulphur, or
+rather the sulphide of iron formed during the calcination. Practically,
+therefore, ochres have an antipathy to sulphur, moist or dry, by itself
+or in combination; and are, so to speak, the disinfectants of the
+palette. Ever waging war against sulphurous vapours, the native earths
+serve to protect a picture from the damaging influence of impure air,
+whether they be used alone, or employed in admixture with such pigments
+as are injured thereby.
+
+272. _Purple Brown_
+
+is a refuse manufacture from Indian red washings. A dull, heavy, coarse
+colour, it belongs to the class of common pigments which are
+unexceptionable for decorative painting, but scarcely suited to the
+higher branches of art. As this work professes simply to treat of
+artistic pigments, that have been, are, or might be, more than a passing
+reference to those colours exclusively adopted by house-painters, &c.,
+would be out of place.
+
+273. _Rubens' Brown_,
+
+still in use in the Netherlands under this appellation, is an earth of
+a lighter colour and more ochrous texture than the Vandyke brown of
+English commerce: it is also of a warmer or more tawny hue than the
+latter pigment. Beautiful and durable, it works well both in water and
+oil, and much resembles the brown employed by Teniers.
+
+274. _Uranium Brown._
+
+Yellow, red, orange, green, have been previously noticed as being
+derived from uranium, and to this list of colours may now be added
+brown. A warm rich hue of the utmost intensity may be produced, which
+possesses considerable permanence, although not equal to that of uranium
+yellow.
+
+275. _Zinc Brown._
+
+A yellow-brown, so yellow that it might fairly have been classed with
+the ochrous colours of that denomination, is made by combining zinc with
+another metal by the aid of heat. Experience tells us that it is,
+chemically, a thoroughly good and stable pigment. Safely to be used in
+admixture, it is a clear, bright colour, affording good greens by
+compounding with blue. Of no great power, and semi-opaque, this
+yellow-brown or brown-yellow is superior to some of the pigments at
+present used, but is probably too much like them in hue and other
+properties to be of any special value.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Besides the preceding, there are those browns of a citrine or russet
+cast which are elsewhere described, such as raw umber, madder brown, &c.
+Moreover, there are numberless other varieties, obtainable from most of
+the metals, from many organic substances, and from a combination of the
+two. Of all colours, a 'new' brown is the most easily discovered:
+success may not be met with in seeking a yellow, red, or blue, or an
+orange, green, or purple; but it is strange if in the course of one's
+experiments a brown does not turn up. No difficulty, therefore, would
+have been found in greatly extending the present list; but it was felt
+that no advantage could have accrued by further multiplying the notices
+of a colour, with which we are already furnished so abundantly by nature
+and art, and which is capable of being produced in such profusion by
+admixture.
+
+With the exception of ivory and bone browns, and perhaps Cassel and
+Cologne earths, all the browns commonly employed may be considered more
+or less durable.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII.
+
+ON THE SEMI-NEUTRAL, MARRONE.
+
+
+We have adopted the term MARRONE, or _maroon_ as it is sometimes called,
+for our second and middle semi-neutral, as applicable to a class of
+impure colours composed of black and red, black and purple, or black and
+russet, or of black and any other denomination in which red
+predominates. It is a mean between the warm, broken, semi-neutral
+_browns_, and the cold, semi-neutral _grays_. Marrone is practically to
+shade, what red is to light; and its relations to other colours are
+those of red, &c., when we invert the scale from black to white. It is
+therefore a following, or shading, colour of red and its derivatives;
+and hence its accordances, contrasts, and expressions agree with those
+of red degraded; consequently red added to dark brown converts it into
+marrone if in sufficient quantity to prevail. In smaller proportions,
+red gives to lighter browns the names of bay, chestnut, sorrel, &c.
+
+Owing to confused nomenclature, most of the colours and pigments of
+this class have been assigned to other denominations--puce, murrey,
+morelle, chocolate, columbine, pavonazzo, &c., being variously ranked
+among reds, browns, and purples. This vagueness also accounts for
+pigments having been ranged under heads not suited to the names they
+bear, and explains why Brown Ochre has been classed among the yellows,
+Italian Pink among the same, Brown Pink among the citrines, &c.
+
+As adapted to the walls of a picture gallery, marrone, more or less deep
+and inclined to crimson, is one of the best colours known. For the
+reason that each colour has its antagonist, and consequently may affect
+a picture well or ill, according to its tone or general hue, there can
+be no universally good colour for such a purpose. What suits one picture
+or style of painting may not suit another: with a blood-red sunset, for
+instance, or portrait with crimson drapery, marrone would be out of
+place. But as it is impossible to provide each picture with a separate
+background, all that can be done in large collections is to study the
+general effect, sacrificing the interests of the few to the good of the
+many. If cool-coloured landscapes predominate, with blue skies and green
+foliage, it will be found that the orange-yellow of the frames agreeably
+contrasts the former, and the crimson-marrone of walls as agreeably sets
+off the latter. If portraits and historic paintings prevail, which are
+in general of a warm advancing nature, then a modest green may prove
+eligible. And if engravings form the staple, the grey hue of the print
+is best opposed by a bright fawn colour. Where several rooms are devoted
+to pictures, a suitable wall colour is most easily secured by
+classifying the paintings as far as possible according to their general
+hue, and placing them in different chambers: in each there will be a
+prevailing character in the colouring of its pictures, and each can be
+painted or papered accordingly. However, whether this plan is adopted or
+not--and it may be objected to as involving a certain monotony--care
+should be taken to have a wall colour of some sort or other, that is, to
+let it be seen. Pictures crammed together kill each other: without a
+pin's point between them, a speck of wall space visible, much of the
+illusion is destroyed. "It is only," says Chevreul, "the intelligent
+connoisseur and amateur who, on seeing a picture exhibited in a gallery,
+experience all the effect which the artist has wished to produce;
+because they alone know the best point of view, and because, while their
+attention is fixed on the work they are observing, they alone end by no
+longer seeing the surrounding pictures, or even the frame of that one
+they contemplate." Amid a moving crowd of people, inseparable from
+nearly all public exhibitions, it becomes difficult for the visitor,
+intelligent or otherwise, thus to concentrate his attention on one work.
+As far, therefore, as space will allow, paintings should be kept
+separate: larger rooms, or fewer pictures, are what is wanted.[B]
+
+From this digression, pardonable, let us hope, because in the interests
+of art, we will pass on to a consideration of marrone pigments.
+
+276. BROWN MADDER
+
+is an exceedingly rich marrone or russet-marrone brown, bearing the same
+relation to the colour marrone that raw umber bears to the colour
+citrine. One of the most valuable products of the madder root, it has
+supplied a great desideratum, and in water especially is indispensable,
+both as a local and auxiliary colour. Of intense depth and transparency,
+if made with skill, it affords the richest description of shadows,
+either alone or compounded with blue, and the most delicate pale tints.
+Being quite permanent, a good drier, and working most kindly, it is a
+pigment which cannot be too strongly recommended to the landscape
+painter's notice. Containing a large proportion of red, it is eligible,
+with yellow or blue, for mixed orange or mixed purple of a subdued tone.
+It may be used tolower red curtains or draperies, and for the darkest
+touches in flesh. Mixed with cobalt, it forms a fine shadow colour for
+distant objects; and with indigo or Prussian blue and black, is
+serviceable for the shades of those nearer the foreground. It is
+similarly useful when mixed with black, and will be found advantageous
+in rusty iron, as anchors, chains, &c. For the deepest and richest parts
+of foregrounds it may be employed alone, as also for deep dark cracks
+and fissures, or strong markings in other near objects, as boats and
+figures. With French blue, or cobalt and white, a set of beautiful warm
+or cold grays may be obtained, in proportion as the brown or blue
+predominates. Compounded with blues and bright yellows such as aureolin,
+it gives fine autumnal russet greens. A good purple for soft aerial
+clouds is furnished by cobalt and brown madder, or for stormy clouds
+by the brown, Prussian blue, and black: an equally good slate colour
+is obtained from cobalt, sepia, and the brown. For glazing over foliage
+and herbage, a mixture of the madder with aureolin or gamboge is adapted;
+and for brooks and running streams compounds of this brown with raw Sienna,
+cobalt and raw Sienna, Vandyke brown, and French blue, will each be found
+useful. Black sails are well represented by burnt Sienna, French blue, and
+brown madder; and red sails by light red or burnt Sienna with the brown.
+
+277. MIXED MARRONE.
+
+Marrone is a retiring colour easily compounded in all its hues and
+shades by the mixture variously of red, and black or brown; or of any
+other warm colours in which red and black predominate. A reference to
+the permanent brown, black, and red or reddish pigments will show to
+what extent the colour marrone may safely be produced by admixture. In
+compounding marrone, the brown or black may be itself compounded, before
+the addition of the red, reddish-purple, or russet, requisite for its
+conversion.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+278. _Chica Marrone_.
+
+Chica, the red colouring principle alluded to in the ninth chapter, is
+extracted from the _Bignonia chica_, by boiling its leaves in water,
+decanting the decoction, and allowing it to cool, when a red matter
+falls down, which is formed into cakes and dried. Insoluble in cold
+water, it dissolves in alcohol and alkalies; is precipitated from
+alkaline solutions by acids without alteration; and is bleached by
+chlorine. Another variety of the same substance, obtained from Para in
+Brazil, and known as crajuru, carajuru, or caracuru, behaves in a
+similar manner. This is said to be superior to the former sort.
+
+A chica pigment, brought from South America, and examined by the author,
+was of a soft powdery texture, and rich marrone colour. Somewhat
+resembling Rubens' madder in hue, it was equal in body and transparency
+to the carmine of cochineal, though by no means approaching it in
+beauty, or even in durability. Simply exposed to the light of a window,
+without sun, the colour was soon changed and destroyed. Conclusive
+evidence as this is that the sample submitted to Mr. Field was
+worthless, it remains to be seen whether all the colours to be derived
+from chica, by different modes and from different kinds, are equally
+valueless as pigments.
+
+279. _Chocolate Lead_,
+
+or Marrone Red, is a pigment prepared by calcining oxide of lead with
+about a third of copper oxide, and reducing the compound to a uniform
+tint by levigation. It is of a chocolate hue, strong opaque body, and
+dries freely. Like all lead and copper colours, it is blackened by
+impure air.
+
+280. _Cobalt Marrone._
+
+There is obtainable from cobalt a very rich marrone brown, which, like
+many other colours, is more beautiful while moist than when dried.
+Permanent, if carefully made and most thoroughly washed, it is an
+expensive compound, and must rank among those colours which are
+interesting in the laboratory but superfluous in the studio.
+
+281. _Madder Marrone_,
+
+or Marrone Lake, was a preparation of madder, of great depth,
+transparency, and stability. Working well in water, glazing and drying
+in oil, and in every respect a good pigment, it was one of those colours
+which gradually--and often, as in this case, unfortunately--become
+obsolete, on account of their hues being easily given by admixture of
+other pigments. There was likewise a deeper kind, called Purple Black. A
+good madder marrone may be produced by adding to brown madder either
+rose madder, madder carmine, or Rubens' madder, with a slight portion of
+black or blue if required.
+
+282. _Mars Marrone._
+
+Under the heading of a New Marrone Pigment there appeared some months
+back in a chemical journal the following:--"The blood-red compound
+obtained by adding a soluble sulphocyanide to a salt of iron in solution
+can be made (apparently at least) to combine with resin thus: To a
+concentrated solution of sesquichloride of iron and sulphocyanide of
+potassium in ether, an etherial solution of common resin is added, and
+the whole well shaken together. There is then mixed with it a
+sufficiency of water to cause a precipitate, when it will be found,
+after the mixture has stood a few hours, that the whole or nearly the
+whole of the red-coloured iron compound has united with the precipitated
+resin, forming the marrone-coloured pigment in question. When this
+coloured substance is finely powdered and mixed with water, the liquid
+is not the least coloured; whence it is inferred that the red iron
+compound has chemically united itself with the resin."
+
+The foregoing account is rather to be regarded as of scientific interest
+than of practical utility. The blood-red solution of sulphocyanide of
+iron is in itself not stable: when the red solution of this salt is so
+exposed to the sun, that the rays pass through the glass jar containing
+it, it is rendered colourless, but the colour is retained or restored
+when the rays pass directly from the air into the fluid; so that when a
+properly diluted solution is placed in a cylindrical glass vessel in
+direct sunshine, it loses colour in the morning till about eleven in the
+forenoon, when the rays beginning to fall upon the surface exposed to
+the air, gradually restore the colour, which attains its maximum about
+two o'clock. Moreover, the solution is immediately decolourised by
+sulphuretted hydrogen and other deoxidizing agents, as well as by
+alkalies and many acids. It is scarcely probable that the union of the
+red colouring matter with the resin would suffice to secure it from
+change; and there is little doubt that the new marrone pigment would be
+a chameleon colour.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Failures in the process of burning carmines, and preparing the purple of
+gold, frequently afford good marrones. Compounds more or less of that
+hue are likewise furnished by copper, mercury, &c. Some ochres incline
+to marrone when calcined: indeed we have remarked in many instances that
+the action of fire anticipates the effects of long continued time; and
+that several of the primary and secondary colours may, by different
+degrees of burning, be converted into their analogous secondary,
+tertiary, or semi-neutral colours.
+
+The one marrone or brown-marrone pigment at present employed, brown
+madder, is permanent.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[B] This was written previous to the opening of the new rooms of the
+Royal Academy at Burlington House. In these, among other improvements,
+the subject of wall space has been considered.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX.
+
+ON THE SEMI-NEUTRAL, GRAY.
+
+
+Of the tribe of semi-neutral colours, GRAY is third and last, being
+nearest in relation to black. In its common acceptation, and that in
+which we here use it, gray, as was observed in the third chapter,
+denotes a class of cool cinereous colours faint of hue; whence we have
+blue grays, olive grays, green grays, purple grays, and grays of all
+hues, in which blue predominates; but no yellow or red grays, the
+prevalence of such hues carrying the compounds into the classes of brown
+and marrone, of which gray is the natural opposite. In this sense the
+_semi-neutral_ Gray is distinguished from the _neutral_ Grey, which
+springs in an infinite series from the mixture of the neutral black and
+white. Between gray and grey, however, there is no intermediate, since
+where colour ends in the one, neutrality commences in the other, and
+vice versâ. Hence the natural alliance of the semi-neutral
+gray--definable as a cool coloured grey--with black or shade; an
+alliance which is strengthened by the latent predominance of blue in the
+synthesis of black, so that in the tints resulting from the mixture of
+black and white, so much of that hue is developed as to give apparent
+colour to the tints. This explains why the tints of black and dark
+pigments are colder than their originals, so much so as in some
+instances to answer the purposes of positive colours. It accounts in
+some measure for the natural blueness of the sky, yet not wholly, for
+this is in part dependent, by contrast, upon the warm colour of sunshine
+to which it is opposed; for, if by any accident the light of nature
+should be rendered red, the colour of the sky would not appear purple,
+in consequence, but green. Again, if the sun shone green, the sky would
+not be green, but red inclined to purple; and so would it be with all
+colours, not according to the laws of composition, but of contrast;
+since, if it were otherwise, the golden rays of the sun would render a
+blue sky green.
+
+The grays are the natural cold correlatives, or contrasts, of the warm
+semi-neutral browns, as well as degradations of blue and its allies.
+Hence blue added to brown throws it into or toward the class of grays,
+and hence grays are equally abundant in nature and necessary in art: in
+both they comprehend a widely diffused and beautiful play of retiring
+colours in skies, distances, carnations, and the shadowings and
+reflections of pure light, &c. Gray is, indeed, the colour of space, and
+has therefore the property of diffusing breadth in a picture, while it
+furnishes at the same time good connecting tints, or media, for
+harmonizing the general colouring. Consequently the grays are among the
+most essential hues of the art, though they must not be suffered to
+predominate where the subject or sentiment does not require it, lest
+they cast over the painting that gloom or leaden dulness reprobated by
+Sir Joshua Reynolds; yet in solemn works they are wonderfully effective,
+and proper ruling colours. Nature supplies these hues from the sky
+abundantly and effectively throughout landscape, and Rubens has employed
+them as generally to correct and give value to his colouring, with fine
+natural perception in this branch of his art: witness his works in the
+National Gallery, and in that of the Luxembourg.
+
+According to the foregoing relations, grays favour the effects and force
+of warm colours, which in their turn also give value to grays. It is
+hence that the tender gray distances of a landscape are assisted,
+enlivened, and kept in place by warm and forcible colouring in the
+foreground, gradually connected through intermediate objects and middle
+distances by demi-tints declining into gray; a union which secures full
+value to the colours and objects, and by reconciling opposites gives
+repose to the eye. As a general rule, it may be inferred that half of a
+picture should be of a neutral hue, to ensure the harmony of the
+colouring; or at least that a balance of colour and neutrality is quite
+as essential to the best effect of a painting as a like balance of light
+and shade.
+
+283. MINERAL GRAY,
+
+or Mineral Gr_e_y, as it is often improperly spelt, is obtainable from
+the lapis lazuli, after the blue and ash have been worked out. So
+derived, it is a refuse article, worthless if the stone has been
+skilfully exhausted of its ultramarine. As this is now generally the
+case, the best mineral gray is no longer a waste product, but a lower
+species of ash, a pale whitish blue with a grey cast. Possessing the
+permanence of ultramarine, it may be regarded in colour as a very weak
+variety of that blue, diluted with a large quantity of white slightly
+tinged by black. A pigment peculiar to oil painting, it is admirably
+adapted to that gray semi-neutrality, the prevalence of which in nature
+has been just remarked. For misty mornings, cloudy skies, and the like,
+this gray will be found useful.
+
+284. MIXED GRAY
+
+is formed by compounding black and blue, black and purple, black and
+olive, &c.; and is likewise produced by adding blue in excess to madder
+brown, sepia, &c., transparent mixtures which are much employed. It
+should be borne in mind that the semi-neutrals, like the secondaries and
+tertiaries, may be so compounded as to be permanent, semi-stable, or
+fugitive. The due remembrance of this cannot be too strongly insisted
+upon, seeing that in every picture the browns and grays are of frequent
+occurrence. These it is that lend such charm to the whole, flowing, as
+it were, like a quiet under-current of colour beneath the troubled
+surface of more decided hues. In the work of every true artist--between
+whom and the mere painter there is as much difference as between the
+poet and the poetaster--there is sentiment as well as colour, whether
+the subject be an exciting battle-scene or a bit of still life. This
+sentiment, as strongly felt as the colour is clearly seen, is imparted
+in no small degree by the skilful use of semi-neutrality, the
+compounding of which, as time goes on, will therefore affect a picture
+for good or for evil.
+
+Subjoined is an analysis of the three semi-neutrals, which serves partly
+to show in what great variety they may be obtained by admixture.
+
+    Brown   = Black                 + Yellow }
+       "    =   "                   + Orange }   + Red, Purple, &c.
+       "    =   "                   + Citrine}
+       "    = 2 Yellow              + Red        + Blue
+       "    = 2 Orange              + Green      + Purple
+       "    = 2 Citrine             + Russet     + Olive
+    Marrone = Black                 + Red
+       "    =     "                 + Purple-red
+       "    =     "                 + Russet
+       "    = 2 Red       }
+       "    = 2 Purple-red}         + Dark Brown or Black
+       "    = 2 Russet    }
+    Gray    = Black + Blue       }
+       "    =   "   + Purple-blue}  + 2 White
+       "    =   "   + Olive      }
+       "    = 2 Blue       }
+       "    = 2 Purple-blue}        + Light Brown, or Black + 2 White
+       "    = 2 Olive      }
+
+In the last division, the White has been added to remind the reader that
+grays are coloured greys, not coloured blacks; and are therefore faint
+of hue. This paleness, however, need not necessarily be produced by
+admixture with white: it can be gained by means of thin washes. As a
+pigment, gray may be to all appearance black in bulk.
+
+285. NEUTRAL TINT,
+
+or, more correctly, _Semi_-Neutral Tint, is a compound shadow colour of
+a cool character. It is permanent, except that on exposure the gray is
+apt to become grey, a change which may be prevented by a slight addition
+of ultramarine ash. So protected, it becomes serviceable in landscape
+for the extreme distance, which, it may be laid down as a general
+principle, should be painted rather cold than otherwise. Blue being the
+principal compound of atmosphere, it is of the utmost importance to
+obtain this in the first instance, particularly as, from its being only
+of a blue tint, not blue colour, it is so immediately altered and acted
+upon by subsequent washes; whereas, the blue tone once lost, it will be
+found very difficult to be recovered. Wherever a picture is wanting in
+air effect, the cause will, upon examination, be seen to rest entirely
+upon the absence of pure grays, bordering upon a bluish tone, not
+tending, be it observed, to brown or purple. A bluish gray, then, of
+rather a cold tone, such as the neutral tint, is recommended as the
+prevailing hue with which to begin the extreme distances; and, as a
+rule, it is better to pass with this over as much of the landscape as
+possible, and thus lay the foundation for a general atmosphere.
+
+286. PAYNE'S GRAY
+
+resembles the preceding in being a compound colour and liable to assume
+a grey cast by time, but differs from it in having more lilac in its
+hue, and being therefore of a warmer tone. Giving by itself a clear
+violet shadow, it may be rendered more neutral by a small portion of
+burnt Sienna, an admixture which, whether the gray or Sienna
+predominates, affords useful tints. Compounded with light red or Vandyke
+brown, the gray is good for shipping and sails, or the stems and
+branches of trees; while with gamboge or aureolin it is suited to glossy
+leaves in high light, also to very cold tones in foregrounds, herbage,
+&c. Yellow ochre, light red, and Payne's gray form a mixture for banks
+and roads; the ochre, gray, and sepia, a most beautiful tint for stones;
+and brown madder and the gray, a fine shade for the black head and feet
+of cattle. Alone, the gray is serviceable for slate; and compounded with
+light red, for bricks or tiles in shadow.
+
+287. ULTRAMARINE ASH
+
+is obtained from the stone after the richer and more intense blue has
+been extracted. Although not equal in beauty, and inferior in strength
+of colour to ultramarine, it is a valuable bye-product varying in shade
+from light to dark, and in hue from pale azure to cold blue. With a grey
+cast, it affords delicate and extremely tender tints, not so positive as
+ultramarine, but which, as water-colours, wash much better. It furnishes
+grays softer, purer, and more suited to the pearly tints of flesh,
+skies, distances, foliage, shadows of drapery, &c. than those composed
+of other blues, with white and black, which the old masters were wont to
+employ. Ultramarine, however, produces the same effects when broken with
+black and white, and is thus sometimes carried throughout the colouring
+of a picture. The ash, compounded with lamp black, gives a soft cold
+gray for dark louring clouds, or for twilight away from the sun's
+influence. Alone it is adapted to very remote hills or mountains, and
+with orient yellow or aureolin to distant foliage.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The native phosphate of iron, which has been already described in the
+tenth chapter under its name of Blue Ochre, might have been classed
+among the grays, being similar in colour to the deeper hues of
+ultramarine ashes. Powdered slate, slate clays, and several native
+earths, likewise rank with grays; but some of the earths we have tried
+are not durable, being apt to become brown by the oxidation of the iron
+they contain. It may be proper here to mention those other pigments,
+known as tints, which, being the result of the experience of accredited
+masters in their peculiar modes of practice, serve to facilitate the
+progress of their amateur pupils, while they are more or less eligible
+for artists. Such are _Harding's_ and _Macpherson's Tints_, composed of
+pigments which associate cordially, and sold ready prepared in cakes and
+boxes for miniature and water painting.
+
+Of the four grays in use--mineral gray, ultramarine ash, neutral tint,
+and Payne's gray--the two first are quite unchangeable, and the others
+sufficiently stable to be classed as permanent.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XX.
+
+ON THE NEUTRAL, GREY.
+
+
+Grey is the second and intermediate of the neutral colours, standing
+between _white_ and _black_. True or normal grey is only obtainable by
+admixture of pure white with pure black, various proportions of which
+afford numerous tones of pure grey. In practice it may likewise be
+produced by a thin wash of black over white. The neutral gr_e_y differs
+from the semi-neutral gr_a_y in not being coloured by any primary,
+secondary, tertiary, or semi-neutral; hence any blue, purple, olive, or
+gray added to it, at once destroys the neutrality of grey, and converts
+it into gray. Thus easily defiled and changed in class, grey is rather a
+theoretical than a practical colour. To our knowledge, there has never
+been a true grey pigment, that is, one composed exclusively of pure
+white and pure black; the gr_a_ys known to the palette as Mineral Grey
+and Payne's Grey having been incorrectly named. Practically, the nearest
+approach to a normal grey is furnished by Black Lead, which forms grey
+tints of greater permanence and purity than the blacks in general use,
+and is now employed for this purpose with approved satisfaction by
+experienced artists.
+
+Being compounded of white and black, grey partakes in some measure of
+the qualities of both those colours--for colours, as a matter of
+convenience, they must be called; although white is often spoken of as
+no colour, and black as the complete extinction of all colour. With
+white predominant, grey is used, pure or coloured, for the general
+lights of a picture; just as, with black predominant, grey is employed,
+pure or coloured, for the shades. It helps to subdue the absolute white,
+and to make the absolute black conspicuous. Black and white are in some
+respects complementary to each other, and when in contact, appear to
+differ more from each other than when viewed separately: both show with
+best effect when harmonised by a medium of grey, normal or otherwise.
+The primary colours, also, gain in brilliancy and purity by the
+proximity of grey. With dark colours, such as blue and violet, and deep
+tones in general, grey forms assortments of analogous harmonies; while
+with the luminous colours, such as red, orange, yellow, and the light
+tints of green, it forms harmonies of contrast. Although grey never
+produces a bad effect in its assortments with two luminous colours, in
+most cases the association is dull and inferior to black and white. The
+only instance in which grey associates with two such colours more
+happily than white is that with red and orange. Grey is inferior to both
+white and black with red and green, red and yellow, orange and yellow,
+orange and green, yellow and green; and is not so good as white with
+yellow and blue. In association with sombre colours, such as blue and
+violet, and with broken tones of luminous colours, grey gives rise to
+harmonies of analogy which have not the vigour of those with white; but
+if the colours do not combine well together, it has the advantage of
+separating them from each other. Associated with two colours, one
+sombre, the other luminous, grey will perhaps be better than white, if
+white produces too strong a contrast of tone: on the other hand, grey
+will be preferable to black, if that has the inconvenience of increasing
+too much the proportion of sombre colours. Grey associates more happily
+than black with orange and violet, green and blue, or green and violet.
+
+288. MIXED GREY.
+
+When a ray of solar light (a sunbeam) is passed through a prism of flint
+glass, and the image or 'prismatic spectrum' received upon a screen of
+white paper, it is found to consist of numerous rays of different
+colours, which are conveniently divided into six groups--red, orange,
+yellow, green, blue, violet. Optically, the union of red, yellow, and
+blue, in proper proportions, constitutes white light; whether the rays
+of the three separate colours are mixed, or of one with the other two in
+combination: the same result ensues when red is mixed with green as if
+it were mixed with blue and yellow, because green is composed of blue
+and yellow. Consequently, any primary mixed with a secondary composed of
+the other two primaries, forms the complement of rays necessary to
+constitute or make up white light, and vice versâ.
+
+There is, however, a very great difference between the results arising
+from the mixture of the pure coloured rays of the spectrum, and those
+from material colours or pigments. When, by means of a convex lens, we
+reunite the coloured rays of the spectrum white light is reproduced; but
+when we mix coloured materials, blues, yellows, and reds, the compound
+is never white, but grey or black; even if these coloured pigments are
+taken in the exact proportions in which their colours exist in the
+spectrum. Ultramarine, our purest blue, reflects red rays as well as
+blue rays; aureolin, our purest yellow, reflects blue as well as yellow
+rays; and carmine reflects yellow as well as red rays. Now whenever the
+third primary colour is present in any mixture of coloured materials, it
+tends to form grey, by mixing with a sufficient quantity of the other
+coloured rays to neutralize it, and the presence of this grey breaks or
+tarnishes the pure colour. Hence it is that to obtain a pure green, a
+blue should be taken tinged with yellow rather than with red, and a
+yellow tinged with blue: if there were chosen either a blue or a yellow
+tinged with red, this latter colour would go to form some grey in the
+compound, which would tarnish the green. In like manner, to produce pure
+orange, neither the red nor the yellow must contain blue; and similarly
+with pure purple, neither the blue nor red should contain yellow.
+
+As regards pigments, then, a proper mixture of yellow, red, and blue; or
+of yellow and purple, red and green, or blue and orange; or of orange,
+green, and purple, affords black if sufficiently intense, and grey if
+sufficiently diluted. The black may be rendered grey by spreading a thin
+wash over a white ground, or by the direct addition of white. It must be
+remembered, however, that suitable proportions of the component colours
+are essential. When all three of the primaries, for example, are mixed
+together, colour is neutralised according as they are compounded of
+equal strength and in right quantities: if proper proportions are
+observed, pure black or normal grey results; but if not, there will be
+produced a coloured black or a coloured grey, an excess of one or two of
+the primaries giving rise to brown, marrone, or gray.
+
+A reference to the lists of permanent primary and secondary pigments
+will show to what extent durable greys can be compounded. As these
+pigments differ so widely in hue and other properties, no fixed rules
+can be given for their admixture: to ensure neutrality, practice and a
+correct eye are indispensable. Without perfect neutrality, difficult to
+attain and rarely to be met with, grey ceases to exist. In pure white,
+pure grey, and pure black, colour is, so to speak, conspicuous by its
+absence.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXI.
+
+ON THE NEUTRAL, BLACK.
+
+
+Black is the last and lowest in the series or scale of colours
+descending--the opposite extreme from white--the maximum of colour. To
+be perfect, it must be neutral with respect to colours individually, and
+absolutely transparent, or destitute of reflective power as regards
+light; its use in painting being to represent shade or depths, of which
+black is the element in a picture and in colours, as white is of light.
+
+As there is no perfectly pure and transparent black pigment, black
+deteriorates all colours in deepening them, as it does warm colours by
+partially neutralizing them, but it combines less injuriously with cold
+colours. Though black is the antagonist of white, yet added to it in
+minute portion, it in general renders white more neutral, solid, and
+local, with less of the character of light. Impure black is brown, but
+black in its purity is a cold colour, and communicates a coolness to all
+light colours; thus it _blues_ white, _greens_ yellow, _purples_ red,
+and _cools_ blue. Hence the artist errs with ill effect who regards
+black as of nearest affinity to hot and brown colours, and will do well
+to keep in mind--"The glow of sunshine and the _cool_ of shade."
+
+It is a fault of even some of our best colourists, as evinced by their
+pictures, to be too fond of black upon their palettes, and thence to
+infuse it needlessly into their tints and colours. With such it is a
+taste acquired from the study of old pictures; but in nature hardly any
+object above ground is black, or in daylight is rendered neutral
+thereby. Black, therefore, should be reserved for a local colour, or
+employed only in the under-painting properly called grounding and dead
+colouring. As a local colour, black has the effect of connecting or
+amassing surrounding objects, and is the most retiring of all colours, a
+property which it communicates to other colours in mixture. It heightens
+the effect of warm as well as light colours, by a double contrast when
+opposed to them, and in like manner subdues that of cold and deep
+colours. In mixture or glazing, however, these effects are reversed, by
+reason of the predominance of cold colour in the constitution of black.
+Having, therefore, the double office of colour and of shade, black is
+perhaps the most important of all colours to the artist, both as to its
+use and avoidance.
+
+It may be laid down as a rule that the black must be conspicuous.
+However small a point of black may be, it ought to catch the eye,
+otherwise the work is too heavy in the shadow. All the ordinary shadows
+should be of some _colour_--never black, nor approaching black, they
+should be evidently and always of a luminous nature, and the black
+should look strange among them; never occurring except in a black
+object, or in small points indicative of intense shade in the very
+centre of masses of shadow. Shadows of absolutely negative grey,
+however, may be beautifully used with white, or with gold; but still
+though the black thus, in subdued strength, becomes spacious, it should
+always be conspicuous: the spectator should notice this grey neutrality
+with some wonder, and enjoy, all the more intensely on account of it,
+the gold colour and the white which it relieves. Of all the great
+colourists, Velasquez is the greatest master of the black chords: his
+black is more precious than other people's crimson. Yet it is not simply
+black and white that must be made valuable, rare worth must be given to
+each colour employed; but the white and black ought to separate
+themselves quaintly from the rest, while the other colours should be
+continually passing one into the other, being all plainly companions in
+the same gay world; while the white, black, and neutral grey should
+stand monkishly aloof in the midst of them. Crimson may be melted into
+purple, purple into blue, and blue into green, but none of them must be
+melted into black.
+
+All colours are comprehended in the synthesis of black, consequently the
+whole sedative power of colour is comprised in black. It is the same in
+the synthesis of white; and, with like relative consequence, white
+includes all the stimulating powers of colour in painting. It follows
+that a little white or black is equivalent to much colour, and hence
+their use as colours requires judgment and caution. By due attention to
+the synthesis of black, it may be rendered a harmonizing medium to all
+colours, to all which it lends brilliancy by its sedative effect on the
+eye, and its powers of contrast: nevertheless, we repeat, it must be
+introduced with caution when _hue_ is of greater importance than shade.
+Even when employed as a shadow, without much judgment in its use, black
+is apt to appear as local colour rather than as privation of light; and
+black pigments obtained by charring have a tendency to rise and
+predominate over other hues, subduing the more delicate tints by their
+chemical bleaching power upon other colours, and their own disposition
+to turn brown or dusky. For these reasons deep and transparent colours,
+which have darkness in their constitution, are better adapted as a rule
+for producing the true natural and permanent effects of shade. Many
+pictures of the early masters, and especially of the Roman and
+Florentine schools, evince the truth of our remarks; and it is to be
+feared the high reputation of these works has betrayed their admirers
+into this defective employment of black.
+
+Black substances reflect a small quantity of white light, which receives
+the complementary of the colour contiguous to the black. By
+'complementary' is meant that colour which is required with another
+colour to form white light; thus, green is the complementary of red,
+blue of orange, and yellow of violet, or vice versâ; because green and
+red, blue and orange, and yellow and violet, each make up the full
+complement of rays necessary to form white light. Briefly digressing, we
+give the following mode of observing complementary colours:--Place a
+sheet of white paper on a table opposite to one of two windows admitting
+diffused daylight[C] into a room; take a piece of coloured glass and so
+place it that the coloured light transmitted through it falls over the
+surface of the paper; then put an opaque object on the paper close to
+the coloured glass. The shadow of this object will not appear black or
+of the colour of the glass, as might be supposed, but of its
+complementary colour; thus if the glass is red, the colour of the
+shadow will be green, although the whole of the paper surrounding it
+appears red. Similarly, if the glass is blue, the shadow will appear
+orange; if it is green, the shadow will appear red; and so with other
+colours. It is absolutely essential, however, to the success of this
+experiment, that the paper be also illuminated with the white light
+admitted from the other window.
+
+It has been said that black substances reflect a small quantity of white
+light, which receives the complementary of the colour contiguous to the
+black. If this colour is deep, it gives rise to a luminous
+complementary, such as orange, or yellow, and enfeebles the black; while
+the other complementaries, such as violet or green, strengthen and
+purify it. In colours associated with black, if green is juxtaposed
+therewith, its complementary red, added to the black, makes it seem
+rusty. Those colours which best associate with black are orange, yellow,
+blue, and violet. It would be well to remember that black, being always
+deeper than the juxtaposed colour, entails contrast of tone, and tends
+to lower the tone of that colour.
+
+Most of the black pigments in use are obtained by charring, and owe
+their colour to the carbon they contain. As the objects of vegetal and
+animal nature may be blackened through every degree of impurity by the
+action of fire, black substances more or less fitted for pigments
+abound. The following are the chief native and artificial black
+pigments, or colours available as such:--
+
+289. BLACK LEAD,
+
+_Plumbago_, or _Graphite_, contains in spite of its name no lead, being
+simply a species of carbon or charcoal. In most specimens iron is
+present, varying in quantity from a mere trace up to five per cent,
+together with silica and alumina. Sometimes manganese and titanic acid
+are likewise found. It is curious that carbon should occur in two
+distinct and very dissimilar forms--as diamond, and as graphite; one,
+white, hard, and transparent; the other, black, soft, and opaque: the
+artist, therefore, who uses a pigment of plumbago, paints with nothing
+more or less than a black diamond. The best graphite, the finest and
+most valuable for pencils, is yielded by the mine of Borrowdale, at the
+west end of Derwent Lake, in Cumberland, where it was first wrought
+during the reign of Elizabeth. A kind of irregular vein traverses the
+ancient slate-beds of that district, furnishing the carbon of an
+iron-grey colour, metallic lustre, and soft and greasy to the touch.
+Universally employed in the form of crayons, &c. in sketching,
+designing, and drawing, until of late years it was not acknowledged as a
+pigment: yet its powers in this respect claim a place for it. As a
+water-colour, levigated in gum in the usual manner, it may be
+effectively used with rapidity and freedom in the shading and finishing
+of pencil drawings, or as a substitute therein for Indian ink. Even in
+oil it may be employed occasionally, as it possesses remarkably the
+property of covering, forms very pure grey, dries quickly, injures no
+colour chemically, and endures for ever. These qualities render it the
+most eligible black for adding to white in minute quantity to preserve
+the neutrality of its tint.
+
+Although plumbago has usurped the name of Black Lead, there is another
+substance more properly entitled to this appellation, and which may be
+used in the same way, and with like effects as a pigment. This substance
+is the sulphide of lead, found native in the beautiful lead ore, or
+Galena, of Derbyshire. An artificial sulphide can be prepared by dry and
+wet processes, which is subject to gradual oxidation on exposure to the
+air, and consequent conversion into grey or white. Neither variety can
+be compared to graphite for permanence, although the native is
+preferable to the artificial.
+
+Plumbago, or the so-called Black Lead, is often adulterated to an
+enormous extent with lamp black.
+
+290. BLUE BLACK,
+
+_Charcoal_, _Liege_, or _Vine Black_, is a well-burnt and levigated
+charcoal prepared from vine twigs, of weaker body than ivory or lamp
+black, and consequently better suited to the grays and general mixed
+tints of landscape painting, in which it is not so likely to look black
+and sooty as the others may do. Of a cool neutral tint, it has, in
+common with all carbonaceous blacks, a preserving influence on white
+when duly mixed therewith; which it owes, chemically, to the bleaching
+power of carbon, and, chromatically, to the neutralizing and contrasting
+power of black with white. Compounded slightly with blue black, and
+washed over with zinc white, white lead may be exposed to any ordinary
+impure atmosphere with comparative impunity. It would be well for art if
+carbon had a like power upon the colour of oils, but of this it is
+deficient; and although chlorine destroys their colour temporarily, they
+re-acquire it at no very distant period.
+
+Alone, blue black is useful as a cool shade for white draperies; and
+compounded with cobalt, affords a good gray for louring clouds.
+
+291. BRITISH INK
+
+is a compound black, preferred by some artists to Indian ink, on account
+of its not being liable to wash streaky, as the latter does: at the same
+time it is not so perfectly fixed on the paper as Indian ink.
+
+292. INDIAN INK,
+
+sometimes called _China_ or _Chinese Ink_, is chiefly brought from
+China in oblong cakes, of a musky scent, ready prepared for painting in
+water. Varying considerably in body and colour, the best has a shining
+black fracture, is finely compact, and homogeneous when rubbed with
+water, in which, when largely diluted, it yields no precipitate. Without
+the least appearance of particles, its dry surface is covered with a
+pellicle of a metallic appearance. When dry on the paper, it resists the
+action of water, yet it will give way at once to that action, when it
+has been used and dried on marble or ivory, a fact which proves that the
+alummed paper forms a strong combination with the ink; possibly a
+compound of the latter on an aluminous base, might even be employed in
+oil. Different accounts are given of the mode of making this ink, the
+principal substance or colouring matter of which is a smoke black,
+having all the properties of our lamp black; the variety of its hues and
+texture seeming wholly to depend on the degree of burning and levigating
+it receives. From certain Chinese documents, we learn that the ink of
+Nan-king is the most esteemed; and among the many sorts imported into
+this country, we find those of the best quality are prepared with lamp
+black of the oil of Sesame; with which are combined camphor, and the
+juice of a plant named _Houng hoa_ to give it brightness of tone.
+According to an analysis by M. Proust, the better kinds contain about
+two per cent. of camphor. By some, the pigment known as Sepia has been
+supposed to enter into their composition.
+
+_Liquid Indian Ink_ is a solution for architects, surveyors, &c.
+
+293. IVORY BLACK
+
+is ivory charred to blackness by strong heat in closed vessels.
+Differing chiefly through want of care or skill in preparing, when well
+made it is the richest and most transparent of all the blacks, a fine
+neutral colour perfectly durable and eligible both in water and oil.
+When insufficiently burnt, however, it is brown, and dries badly; or if
+too much burnt, it becomes cineritious, opaque, and faint in hue. With a
+slight tendency to brown in its pale washes, this full, silky black is
+serviceable where the sooty density of lamp black would be out of place.
+It is occasionally adulterated with bone black, a cheaper and inferior
+product.
+
+Being nothing more nor less than animal charcoal, ivory or bone black
+had best not be compounded with organic pigments, in water at least. It
+is well known that this charcoal possesses the singular property of
+completely absorbing the colour of almost any vegetal or animal
+solution, and of rendering quite limpid and colourless the water charged
+with it. If a solution of indigo in concentrated sulphuric acid be
+diluted with water, and animal charcoal added in sufficient quantity,
+the solution will soon be deprived of colour. The more perfect the ivory
+or bone black, the more powerful is its action likely to be: either over
+or under calcined, animal charcoal is less energetic; in the former
+case, because it is less porous; in the latter, because the animal
+matter, not being wholly consumed, makes a kind of varnish in the
+charcoal which interferes with its acting. To a greater or less extent,
+gums, oils, and varnishes serve similarly as preventives, thereby
+decreasing the danger of employing these blacks in admixture; but, in
+the compounding of colours, nothing is gained by needless risk. To mix
+with organic pigments, therefore, blue or lamp blacks should be
+substituted for those of ivory or bone; that is, vegetal charcoal should
+be used instead of animal. It is a question whether even with inorganic
+pigments the adoption of the former in admixture would not be advisable.
+It was once the general opinion that the action of animal charcoal was
+limited to bodies of organic origin, but it has since been found that
+inorganic matters are likewise influenced. "Through its agency," says
+Graham, "even the iodine is separated from iodide of potassium;" whence
+probably pigments containing iodine would suffer by contact. The
+investigation of Weppen appears to prove that the action of the charcoal
+extends to all metallic salts; with the following, no doubt remains of
+this being so, to wit:--the sulphates of copper, zinc, chromium, and
+protoxide of iron; the nitrates of lead, nickel, silver, cobalt,
+suboxide and oxide of mercury; the protochlorides of tin and mercury;
+the acetates of lead and sesquioxide of iron; and the tartrate of
+antimony. Whether animal charcoal exercises any deleterious influence on
+pigments consisting of these metals, and, if so, how far and under what
+circumstances, can only be answered when our knowledge of the properties
+of pigments is greater than it now is. At present, perhaps, it is safer
+to choose vegetal charcoal for mixed tints, inasmuch as, although it
+shares the property of bleaching in a certain degree, it does not
+possess the same energy.
+
+294. LAMP BLACK,
+
+or _Lamblack_, is a smoke black, being the soot procured by the burning
+of resins or resinous woods. It is a pure vegetal charcoal of fine
+texture, not quite so intense nor so transparent as the black made from
+ivory, but less brown in its pale tones. It has a very strong body that
+covers readily every underlay of colour, works well, but dries badly in
+oil. On emergency, it may be prepared extemporaneously for
+water-painting by holding a plate over the flame of a lamp or candle,
+and adding gum to the colour: the nearer the plate is held to the wick
+of the lamp, the more abundant and warm will be the hue of the black
+obtained; at a greater distance it will be more effectually charred, and
+blacker.
+
+Mixed with French blue or cobalt, lamp black gives good cloudy grays,
+which are useful for the shadows of heavy storm clouds. With French blue
+and this black alone various beautiful stormy skies may be represented;
+the contrast of the blue causing the black to assume, if desired, a warm
+tone in shadows. For like purposes, the black with ultramarine ash
+affords a very soft hue, and with light red and cobalt in different
+proportions yields silvery tones most serviceable. To the dark marking
+of murky and dirty clouds, a compound of lamp black and light red is
+particularly suited; while a mixture of the black with cobalt and purple
+madder is adapted for slate-coloured sunset and sunrise clouds. French
+blue softened with a little lamp black is fitted for mountains or hills,
+very remote; and the same blue and black with rose madder meet their
+tints if nearer. In seas the black is useful with raw Sienna and other
+colours; while, whether in storm or calm, vessels and boats may be
+painted with tints of lamp black, madder brown, and burnt Sienna,
+varying in degrees of strength according to the distances. Lamp black
+alone, or with French blue, cobalt and purple madder, emerald green, or
+rose madder, is good for rocks; and for dark foreground objects when
+mixed with madder lake and burnt Sienna. With aureolin the black
+furnishes a sober olive for foliage, and with rose madder a fine colour
+for the stems and branches of trees. Compounded with light red, it is
+suited to the first general tones of the ground for banks and roads; and
+with yellow ochre or madder red, to parts of buildings and cattle. A
+very eminent miniature painter recommends for hair tints, lamp black,
+Indian red, and burnt Sienna. Being a dense solid colour, this black
+must be used sparingly to avoid heaviness.
+
+Hitherto confined to painting and engraving, lamp black has lately
+refuted the assertion that there is nothing new under the sun by making
+its appearance in photography. By a method which combines the fidelity
+of that art with the permanence of prints, there is produced a species
+of photographic engraving, so to speak, having lamp black or carbon for
+its colouring matter. Indeed, in this 'Autotype' process, as it is
+called, any other durable pigment or pigments may be used, and a
+photographic picture thus obtained. In copying the works of artists,
+especially, the mode promises to be of value, inasmuch as by its agency
+the same pigments may be made the colouring matter of the reproduction
+as are employed in the original. If this be in sepia or bistre, the copy
+can be autotyped in those colours; or if a red chalk drawing be required
+to be multiplied, the proofs may be in red chalk, the copy when
+produced to the same scale being scarcely distinguishable from the
+original. In like manner, any single colour of the artist's palette is
+applicable without restriction or limitation, so that not only are every
+line and touch rendered absolutely, but the very pigment used in the
+original is found in the copy. Moreover, as the pigments are quite
+unchanged by the action of the other agents employed, the resulting
+colour of the print is determined once for all, just as the artist mixes
+those pigments on his palette for his picture. As extending the use of
+lamp black and permanent pigments in general, this brief digression on
+Autotypography may be pardoned in a treatise on colours.
+
+295. MIXED BLACK.
+
+Black is to be considered as a synthesis of the three primary colours,
+the three secondaries, or the three tertiaries, or of all these
+together; and, consequently, also of the three semi-neutrals, and may
+thus be composed of due proportions of either tribe or triad. All
+antagonistic colours, or contrasts, likewise afford the neutral black by
+composition; but in all the modes of producing black by compounding
+colours, blue is to be regarded as its archeus or predominating colour,
+and yellow as subordinate to red, in the proportions, when their hues
+are true, of eight blue, five red, and three yellow. It is owing to
+this predominance of blue in the constitution of black, that it
+contributes by mixture to the pureness of hue in white colours, which
+usually incline to warmth, and that it produces the cool effect of
+blueness in glazing and tints, or however otherwise diluted or dilated.
+It accords with the principle here inculcated that in glass-founding the
+oxide of manganese, which gives the _red_ hue, and that of cobalt, which
+furnishes the _blue_, are added to brown or _yellow_ frit, to obtain a
+velvety black glass. Similarly the dyer proceeds to dye black upon a
+deep blue basis of indigo, with the ruddy colour of madder and the
+yellow of quercitron, &c.
+
+Some of the best blacks and neutrals of the painter are those formed
+with colours of sufficient power and transparency upon the palette.
+Prussian blue and burnt lake afford a powerful though not very durable
+black; and compound blacks in which transparent pigments are employed
+will generally go deeper and harmonize better with other colours than
+any original black pigment alone. Hence lakes and deep blues, added to
+the common blacks, greatly increase their clearness and intensity: in
+mixture and glazing of the fine blacks of some old pictures, ultramarine
+has evidently been used. In this view, black altogether compounded of
+blue with red and yellow, each deep and transparent, and duly
+subordinated according to its powers, will give the most powerful and
+transparent blacks; although, like most other blacks, they dry badly in
+oil. Of course, as with all compound colours, it depends entirely on the
+pigments employed whether these mixed blacks are permanent or not: a
+compound black can very well pass through the stages of black to grey,
+gray, or dirty white, if each link in the chain of combination be not as
+strong as its fellows.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+296. _Black Chalk_
+
+is an indurated clay, of the texture of white chalk, and chiefly used
+for cutting into crayons. Fine specimens have been found near Bantry in
+Ireland, and in Wales, but the Italian has the most reputation. Crayons
+for sketching and drawing are also artificially prepared, which are
+deeper in colour and free from grit. Wood charcoal is likewise cut into
+crayons, that of soft woods, such as lime, poplar, &c., being best
+adapted for the purpose.
+
+297. _Black Ochre_,
+
+Earth Black, or Prussian Black, is a native earth, combined with iron
+and alluvial clay. It is found in most countries, and should be washed
+and exposed to the atmosphere before being employed. Sea-coal, and
+other black mineral substances, have been and may be used as substitutes
+for the more perfect blacks, when the latter are not procurable, which
+now seldom or never happens.
+
+298. _Bone Black_,
+
+obtained by charring, is similar to that of ivory, except that it is a
+little warmer in tone, having a reddish or orange tinge, and is a worse
+drier in oil. Like ivory black, it is very transparent. Immense
+quantities of bone black are consumed with sulphuric acid in the
+manufacture of shoe blacking.
+
+299. _Coffee Black_,
+
+though little known and not on sale, has been strongly recommended by
+Bouvier as one of the best blacks that can be used. Soft without being
+greasy, light, almost impalpable, even before being ground, it gives
+tints of a very bluish gray when mixed with white, a quality precious
+for making the blues of the sketch, and dull greens. It is said to dry
+better than blue or vine black, and to combine admirably with other
+colours. De Montabert prefers calling it Coffee Brown, giving it as an
+exemplification of a bluish-brown, but probably this brown hue is owing
+to want of skill in its manufacture. We have not had personal experience
+of the colour, but there is no theoretical reason why a carbonaceous
+black should not be produced from coffee. The mode of proceeding is to
+calcine the berry in a covered vessel, and well wash the resulting
+charcoal with boiling water by decantation. In order to prevent the
+powder, which is of great lightness, from floating, it is made into
+paste with a few drops of alcohol before adding the water.
+
+300. _Frankfort Black_
+
+is said to be made of the lees of wine from which the tartar has been
+washed, by burning, in the manner of ivory black; although the inferior
+sort is merely the levigated charcoal of woods, of which the hardest,
+such as box and ebony, yield the best. Fine Frankfort black, though
+almost confined to copper-plate printing, is one of the best black
+pigments extant, being of a neutral colour, next in intensity to lamp
+black, and more powerful than that of ivory. Strong light has the effect
+of deepening its colour. It is probable that this was the black used by
+some of the Flemish painters, and that the pureness of the greys formed
+therewith is due to the property of charred substances of preventing
+discolourment.
+
+301. _Manganese Black_,
+
+the common black oxide of that metal, is the best of all blacks for
+drying in oil without addition. It is also a colour of vast body and
+tingeing power. As a siccative, it might be advantageously employed with
+ivory black.
+
+302. _Mineral Black_
+
+is a native impure carbon of soft texture, found in Devonshire. Blacker
+than plumbago, and free from its metallic lustre, it is of a neutral
+colour, greyer and more opaque than ivory black, and forms pure neutral
+tints. Being perfectly durable, and drying well in oil, it is of value
+in dead colouring on account of its solid body, as a preparation for
+black and deep colours before glazing. It would likewise be the most
+permanent and best possible black for frescoes.
+
+303. _Paper Black_,
+
+a pigment unknown to the modern palette, like most of our numbered
+italicised colours, is of the nature of blue or vine black. Very soft
+and of a fine bluish-gray, it is fitted for flesh, or for mixing with
+whites or yellows in landscapes.
+
+304. _Peach Black_,
+
+or Almond Black, made by burning the stones of fruits, the shell of the
+cocoa-nut, &c., is a violet-black, once much used by Parisian artists.
+Bouvier believes it to be a good black, but at the same time sensibly
+asks, of what use is it to have a black of this cast, which can always
+be given by lake, without diminishing but rather increasing the
+intensity of the black it may be mixed with.
+
+305. _Prussian Black._
+
+The same Prussian blue which gives a brown when burnt in the open air,
+yields a black when calcined in a close crucible. Very intense, very
+soft and velvety, and very agreeable to work, this bluish-black dries
+much more promptly than most other blacks, and scarcely requires
+grinding. On account of its extreme division, however, it would probably
+be found more energetic as a decolourising agent in admixture with
+organic pigments than most carbonaceous blacks.
+
+Another Prussian black, containing copper, and made by a wet process, is
+obtained when a dilute solution of cupric sulphate and ferrous sulphate,
+in proper proportions, is mixed with a quantity of ferrocyanide of
+potassium not in excess. A very bulky deep black precipitate is formed,
+which is difficult to wash, and is deep black when dry. It is insoluble
+in water, and appears to be a compound analogous to Prussian blue. As a
+pigment, this black is inferior to the preceding.
+
+306. _Purple Black_
+
+is, or rather was, a preparation of madder, of a deep purple hue
+approaching black. Powerful and very transparent, it glazed and dried
+well in oil, and was a durable and eligible pigment. Its tints with
+white lead were of a purple cast.
+
+307. _Spanish Black_,
+
+or Cork Black, is a soft black, obtained by charring cork, and differs
+not essentially from Frankfort black, except in being of a lighter and
+softer texture. "Some of my friends," says Bouvier, "call it _Beggars'
+Ultramarine_, because it produces, by combinations, tints almost as fine
+as ultramarine." A blue but not a velvet black, where intensity is
+required some other is to be preferred. For mixtures, however, it is
+stated to be admirable, and especially for linen, skies, distances, and
+the various broken tints of carnations, &c.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Besides those blacks which have been mentioned, there are others
+furnished by several of the metals and by many organic substances
+employed as dyes; but as the blacks in common use are all permanent, and
+have been found sufficient for every purpose, it is scarce needful to
+swell the list. Nor is it more needful, the Editor considers, to swell
+the book; lest his aim be defeated of reflecting in a _moderate_-sized
+mirror the palette as it is and might be at the present day. Arrived at
+age, as it were, in its twenty-first chapter, this treatise may fitly
+conclude with Black, the last of the series of colours. Let us hope the
+maxim of Sir Joshua Reynolds, that success in some degree was never
+denied to earnest work may apply here.
+
+Still, by way of finale, we would offer a few remarks. In no branch of
+the science, perhaps, is it more hazardous to commit oneself to a
+positive dictum than in the chemistry of colours, so liable are theory
+and practice to clash, and so often does the experience of one person or
+one time differ from that of another. He who has turned his attention to
+pigments, finds nearly every assertion must be qualified, for to nearly
+every rule there is some exception, and learns that theory alone may
+mislead. For example, a colour known to be fugacious may last, in
+certain cases, a surprisingly long time; while, on the contrary, a
+pigment permanent when used alone, may be rendered fugitive by improper
+compounding. Again, what holds good of a colour produced by one process,
+or employed in one vehicle or by one artist, may not be true of the same
+colour made by a different mode, or used in another vehicle or by
+another artist. It is because, then, colours are of every degree of
+durability, from the perfectly stable to the utterly fugitive, and
+because each one is liable to influence by every condition of time,
+place, and circumstance, that the chemist's theory is opposed as often
+to the painter's practice as the experience of artists themselves
+varies. This may explain the charges of inconsistency and contradiction
+which have been brought against writers on pigments, faults that lie
+rather with the nature of the subject than with the authors.
+
+Even at the risk of being tiresome, we have throughout insisted on the
+choice of permanent pigments, not simply for use alone but for mixed
+tints. To quote Cennini, "I give you this advice, that you endeavour
+always to use ... good colours.... And if you say that a poor person
+cannot afford the expense, I answer, that if you work well (and give
+sufficient time to your works), and paint with good colours, you will
+acquire so much fame that from a poor person you will become a rich one;
+and your name will stand so high for using good colours, that if some
+masters receive a ducat for painting one figure, you will certainly be
+offered two, and your wishes will be fulfilled, according to the old
+proverb, 'good work, good pay.'" Of a truth, if man cannot dip his brush
+in the rainbow and paint with the aerial colours of the skies, he can at
+least select the best pigments that earth and the sea afford him;
+preferring, where he cannot get brilliancy and permanence combined,
+sobriety and permanence to brilliancy and fugacity. It must be the wish
+of every real artist to leave behind him a lasting record of his skill,
+a permanent panorama of those hues of nature which in life he loved so
+well. To effect this, genius alone is powerless: there must be first a
+proper choice of materials, and next a proper use of them. The painter's
+pigments are the bricks wherewith the mortar of his mind must be mixed,
+either to erect an edifice that shall endure for ages, or one which will
+quickly topple over like a house of cards. Now in nothing more than in
+painting is prevention better than cure--indeed cure may be said to be
+here out of the question: for good or for evil a picture once painted is
+painted for ever. Without a strong constitution there is no hope for it;
+no chemistry can strengthen the sickly frame, restore the faded colour,
+stop the ravages of consumption: Science stands helpless before dying
+Art.
+
+And yet, she sighs to think, it might have been otherwise. If durable
+pigments had been employed, if her counsel had been sought, this need
+not have been. In the history of modern art the use and abuse of colours
+would furnish a sad chapter, telling of gross ignorance, and a grosser
+indifference. Happily there is promise of a healthier state of things.
+When this comes, Art will be less shy to consult her sister: in the
+interests of both there should be closer union. Without waiting till the
+picture is finished--for then it will be too late--let her, if in doubt,
+frankly display the contents of her palette and ask advice. Now, not
+knowing what pigments are chosen or how they are used, never standing
+by and watching the progress of the work, how can Science lend her aid?
+She would willingly, for she herself needs help: at present her
+knowledge is limited, not so much of the chemistry of colours as of the
+properties of pigments. She seeks to mix her pound of theory with an
+ounce of practice, and craves a warmer welcome to the studio. For any
+approximation to the truth to be arrived at, facts must be noted with
+the conditions under which they occur, not by one sister alone nor by
+the other alone, but by both. In future, Art and Science should go hand
+in hand, mutually dependent on each other, mutually trustful of each
+other, working with and for each other, earnestly and patiently.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[C] Light is either direct or diffused--direct, when the sun's rays fall
+upon any object; diffused, when ordinary daylight illumines objects with
+white light, causing them to appear of their peculiar colours.
+
+
+
+
+ADDENDUM.
+
+With the present rapid progress of applied chemistry, an addendum in a
+work of this kind is quite excusable. Even while the book is being
+printed some fact may be announced which the author or editor would wish
+to insert. In our case this has happened. Very recently there has been
+introduced in France as a pigment
+
+308. TUNGSTEN WHITE,
+
+or _Tungstate of Baryta_. "At the request of a landscape painter," says
+M. Sacc in a letter to M. Dumas, "I was induced to examine in succession
+all our insoluble white compounds, with regard to their adaptability to
+painting purposes. Tungstate of baryta answers perfectly, covers as well
+as white lead, and is as unalterable as zinc white. It has been employed
+by this artist for three months, and was found equally successful in oil
+or water colours, chromolithography, and even in making white
+impressions on a black ground. This harmless substitute for the
+injurious white lead is prepared on a large scale in Paris by M. E.
+Rousseau." We have not met with a sample of that gentleman's
+manufacture, but judging from our own specimens, made both by wet and
+dry processes, and carefully tried in water and oil, it would seem that
+a perfect white pigment has yet to be discovered. With us, at least,
+tungstate of baryta is far from having the body of white lead, and
+indeed is inferior in opacity to good zinc white. Unaffected by foul
+air, the tungstate appears to possess the common fault of all whites
+when compared with white lead--want of body, moreover it is a bad dryer.
+However, M. Rousseau's preparation may not be open to these objections,
+and we therefore reserve our final opinion of tungsten white. It is
+intended to publish from time to time a fresh edition of Field's
+Chromatography, and we hope in the next issue to give a more detailed
+and favourable account of the new pigment.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX.
+
+
+A.
+
+Acacia catechu, 354.
+
+Academy, Royal, at Burlington House, 365.
+
+Acetate of lead, as a siccative, 51.
+  "        improper use of, 52.
+
+Adulteration, 70.
+  "  of Anotta, 256.
+  "     Artificial Ultramarine, 214.
+  "     Black Lead, 394.
+  "     Cadmium Yellow, 88.
+  "     Carmine, 134.
+  "     Chrome Yellow, 94.
+  "     Cochineal, 132.
+  "     Genuine Ultramarine, 214.
+  "     Indigo, 202.
+  "     Ivory Black, 397.
+  "     Madder, 140.
+  "     Madder Carmine, 142.
+  "     Mars Yellow, 102.
+  "     Prussian Blue, 203.
+  "     Red Lead, 152.
+  "     Smalt, 198.
+  "     Verdigris, 276.
+  "     Vermilion, 156.
+  "     Veronese Green, 268.
+  "     White Lead, 70, 74, 75.
+  "     Yellow and Orange Orpiment, 113, 259.
+  "     Zinc White, 77.
+
+Advancing and retiring colours, 186-188.
+
+Advice, Cennini's, 411.
+
+Aerial perspective, 22.
+
+African cochineal, 170.
+  "     green, 271.
+
+Air and light, action of, on pigments, 39.
+
+Air effect, want of, 378.
+
+Albumen, 50.
+
+Alchemy, 259.
+
+Alexander the Great, 296.
+  "       Veronese, 284.
+
+Alkanet, 302.
+
+Almagra, 147.
+
+Almond Black, 407.
+
+American artist, an, 347.
+
+Analysis of Brown, 377.
+  "         Citrine, 329.
+  "         Gray, 377.
+  "         Marrone, 377.
+  "         Olive, 330.
+  "         Russet, 330.
+
+Anchusa tinctoria, 302.
+
+Ancients, colouring of the, 3.
+  "       colours of the, 5, 6, 218.
+
+Aniline, 162.
+  "      colours, 162.
+  "        "      cakes of, 163.
+  "        "      in oil, 247.
+
+Animal Æthiops, 348.
+  "    charcoal, 397-399.
+  "    jelly, 50.
+
+Anotta, 255.
+
+Antimony, Golden Sulphur of, 256.
+  "       Orange, 256.
+  "       Red, 159.
+  "       White, 79.
+  "       Yellow, 105.
+
+Antipathies of pigments, 193.
+
+Antwerp Blue, 207.
+  "     Brown, 339.
+
+Apelles, 7, 293.
+
+Archil, 303.
+  "     Purple, 303.
+
+Arethas, 217.
+
+Armenian blue, 5, 217, 228.
+  "      bole, 147.
+  "      stone, 228.
+
+Arsenical pigments, 273.
+
+Arsenic green, substitutes for, 288, 290.
+  "     white, 79.
+  "     yellow, 116.
+
+Art and Science, 238, 412.
+
+Artificial Ultramarine, 209-216.
+  "        acid pigments with, 214.
+  "        adulteration of, 215.
+  "        green in, 211.
+  "        gum with, 214.
+
+Artificial Ultramarine, in siliceous painting, 212.
+  "        origin of, 209.
+  "        prize for, 209.
+  "        test for, 212.
+
+Artists and painters, 182.
+
+Arts, Society of, 130.
+
+Ash, Ultramarine, 379.
+
+Ashes, Blue, 228.
+
+Asphaltic Lake, the, 337.
+
+Asphaltum and Asphalt, 337.
+  "       Liquid, 339.
+
+Association of Science, British, 357.
+
+Assyrians, colouring and colours of, 6.
+
+Augustus Cæsar, 295.
+
+Aureolin, 42, 47, 83-87.
+  "       Chemical News on, 84.
+  "       in admixture, 86.
+  "       Mr. Aaron Penley on, 85.
+  "       the purest yellow, 84, 384.
+
+Aurine, 162.
+
+Autotype process, the, 401.
+
+Avignon, berries of, 312.
+
+Axiom, a wholesome, 201.
+
+Axioms for compounding, 250.
+
+Azuline, 162.
+
+Azure, 192, 196, 217.
+
+
+B.
+
+Barff, Mr., 212.
+
+Barium and Bismuth chrome greens, 280.
+
+Barthe and Laurent, MM., 235.
+
+Bartholomew, Mr., 143.
+
+Baryta, Ferrate of, 165.
+  "     Silicate of, 290.
+
+Barytic White, 65.
+
+Beauty in Pigments, 46.
+
+Beeswax, 50.
+
+Berries, French, Persian, and Turkey, 212.
+
+Berzelius, 169.
+
+Bice, Green, 187.
+
+Bignonia chica, 367.
+
+Bismuth Purple, 304.
+
+Bixa Orellana, 255.
+
+Bixine, 256.
+
+Black, 27.
+  "    ancient, 5.
+  "    as a colour, 387, 391.
+  "    as a pigment, 389.
+  "    colours with, 392.
+  "    on the Neutral, 387.
+
+BLACK PIGMENTS:--
+  Almond Black, 407.
+  Beggars' Ultramarine, 409.
+  Black Chalk, 404.
+  Black Lead, 382, 393.
+  Black Ochre, 404.
+  Blue Black, 394.
+  Bone Black, 405.
+  British Ink, 395.
+  Charcoal Black, 394.
+  Chinese Ink, 395.
+  Coffee Black, 405.
+  Copper Prussian Black, 408.
+  Cork Black, 409.
+  Earth Black, 404.
+  Frankfort Black, 406.
+  Galena, 394.
+  Graphite, 393.
+  Indian Ink, 395.
+  Ivory Black, 397.
+  Lamp Black, 399.
+  Liege Black, 394.
+  Manganese Black, 406.
+  Mineral Black, 407.
+  Mixed Black, 402.
+  Paper Black, 407.
+  Peach Black, 407.
+  Plumbago, 393.
+  Prussian Black, 404, 408.
+  Purple Black, 408.
+  Spanish Black, 409.
+  Vine Black, 394.
+
+Bladder Green, 282.
+
+Blanc d'Argent, 71.
+
+Blending of pigments, 37.
+
+Blood, Dragon's, 137.
+
+Bloodstone, 147.
+
+Blue, 28.
+  "   ancient, 5, 217.
+  "   Armenian, 5, 217.
+  "   as a colour, 183.
+  "   contrast of, 185, 188.
+  "   discordant, 185.
+  "   on the Primary, 183.
+
+BLUE PIGMENTS:--
+  Antwerp Blue, 207.
+  Artificial Ultramarines, 209-216.
+  Azure, 192, 217.
+  Basic Prussian Blue, 207.
+  Berlin Blue, 203, 207.
+  Bice, 228.
+  Bleu de Garance, 209.
+  Blue Ashes, 228.
+  Blue Bice, 228.
+  Blue Carmine, 228.
+  Blue Ochre, 226, 380.
+  Blue Sand, 196.
+  Blue Verditer, 228.
+  Brilliant Ultramarine, 215.
+  Cerulian Blue, or Coeruleum, 190.
+  Cobalt Blue, 192.
+  Cobalt Blues, 189-199.
+  Cobalt Prussian Blue, 227.
+  Cobalt Ultramarine, 192.
+  Coëlin, 190.
+  Copper Blues, 227-230.
+  Cotton Seed Blue, 230.
+  Cyanine, 198.
+  Dumont's Blue, 196.
+  Dutch Ultramarine, 189.
+  Enamel Blue, 189.
+  Egyptian Blue, 229.
+  Factitious Ultramarine, 215.
+  Ferricyanide of Iron, 208.
+  Ferrocyanide of Iron, 203.
+  French Blue, 215.
+  French Ultramarine, 215.
+  Genuine Ultramarine, 216-225.
+  Gmelin's German Ultramarine, 209.
+  Gold Blue, 231.
+  Guimet's Ultramarine, 209.
+  Haerlem Blue, 207.
+  Hungary Blue, 189.
+  Indian Blue, 199.
+  Indicum, 199.
+  Indigo, 199.
+  Intense Blue, 202.
+  Iodine Blue, 231.
+  Iridium Blue, 232.
+  Iris, 228.
+  Lazuline, 217.
+  Lazulite Blue, 217.
+  Lazurstein, 217.
+  Leitch's Blue, 199.
+  Leithner's Blue, 189.
+  Manganese Blue, 232.
+  Mineral Blue, 207.
+  Mountain Blue, 228.
+  Native Prussian Blue, 207.
+  Native Ultramarine, 216.
+  Natural Ultramarine, 216.
+  New Blue, 216.
+  Outremer, 217.
+  Outremer de Guimet, 209.
+  Paris Blue, 192, 203.
+  Permanent Blue, 216.
+  Platinum Blue, 233.
+  Powder Blue, 196.
+  Prussian Blue, 203.
+  Prussiate of Iron, 203.
+  Pure Ultramarine, 217.
+  Real Ultramarine, 216.
+  Reboulleau's Blue, 230.
+  Royal Blue, 196.
+  Saunders' Blue, 230.
+  Saxon Blue, 189.
+  Schweinfurt Blue, 230.
+  Smalt, 195-198.
+  Terre Bleu, 228.
+  Thénard's Blue, 192.
+  True Ultramarine, 216.
+  Tungsten Blue, 233.
+  Turnbull's Blue, 208.
+  Ultramarines, 209-225.
+  Verditer, 228.
+  Vienna Blue, 192.
+  Wood-Tar Blue, 233.
+  Zaffre, 189.
+  Zinc-Cobalt Blue, 235.
+
+Body White, 72.
+
+Bole, Armenian, 147.
+
+Borrowdale, 393.
+
+Bouvier, 153, 345, 347, 355, 405, 407, 409.
+
+Box, the painter's, 60.
+
+Bradley, Mr., 246.
+
+British School, 9.
+
+Broken colours, 16.
+
+Bronze, 279.
+
+Brown, 28.
+  "    analysis of, 377.
+  "    as a colour, 335.
+  "    Citrine, 317.
+  "    contrast of, 337.
+  "    Liquid, Prout's, 345.
+  "    Madder, 305.
+  "    Mars, 313.
+  "    on the Semi-Neutral, 334.
+
+BROWN PIGMENTS:--
+  Animal Æthiops, 348.
+  Antwerp Brown, 339.
+  Asphaltum or Asphalt, 337.
+  Bistre, 340.
+  Bitumen, 339.
+  Bitumen of Judea, 337.
+  Bone Brown, 340.
+  Burnt Umber, 341.
+  Cadmium Brown, 353.
+  Caledonian Brown, 341.
+  Campania Brown, 352.
+  Cappah Brown, 342.
+  Cassel Earth, 343.
+  Castle Earth, 343.
+  Catechu Browns, 374.
+  Chalon's Brown, 344.
+  Chestnut Brown, 357.
+  Chrome Browns, 355.
+  Cologne Earth, 344.
+  Copper Brown, 355.
+  Cory's Madder or Yellow Madder, 353.
+  Cullen's Earth, 344.
+  Egyptian Brown, 347.
+  Euchrome, 342.
+  French Prussian Brown, 355.
+  Gambogiate of Iron, 357.
+  Hypocastanum, 357.
+  Iron Browns, 357.
+  Ivory Brown, 340.
+  Jew's Pitch, 337.
+  Leitch's Brown, 346.
+  Manganese Brown, 358.
+  Mineral Brown, 342.
+  Mineral Pitch, 337.
+  Mixed Brown, 346.
+  Mummy, 347.
+  Mummy Brown, 347.
+  Nickel Brown, 358.
+  Ochre Browns, 358.
+  Prussian Brown, 348.
+  Purple Brown, 359.
+  Roman Sepia, 351.
+  Rubens' Brown, 359.
+  Sepia, 348.
+  Terre de Cassel, 343.
+  Uranium Brown, 360.
+  Vandyke Brown, 351.
+  Verona Brown, 353.
+  Warm Sepia, 350.
+  Yellow Madder, 353.
+  Zinc Brown, 360.
+
+Brown Pink, 312.
+  "   Red, 147.
+  "   Spanish, 146.
+  "   Stil de Grain, 312.
+
+Browns, abundance of, 336, 361.
+
+Brun de Mars, 313.
+
+Brunswick Green, 271, 279.
+
+Brushes, soap and alkali in, 52.
+
+Burlington House, Royal Academy at, 365.
+
+Burnt Carmine, 298.
+  "   Lake, 298.
+  "   Madder, 305.
+  "   Orpiment, 259.
+  "   Roman Ochre, 255.
+  "   Sienna, 243.
+  "   Terra di Sienna, 243.
+  "   Verdigris, 331.
+
+
+C.
+
+Cadmium Brown, 353.
+  "     Orange, 36, 42, 244.
+  "     Red, 42, 130.
+  "     White, 78.
+  "     Yellow, 87, 92.
+  "       "     adulteration of, 88.
+  "       "     manufacture of, 92.
+  "       "     when fugacious, 92.
+  "       "     with White Lead, 89.
+
+Caledonian Brown, 341.
+
+Campania Brown, 352.
+
+Camphor, 396.
+
+Cappah or Cappagh Brown, 342.
+
+Carajuru, 367.
+
+Carbolic acid, 162.
+
+Carbon, 393.
+
+Carmichael, Mr., 348.
+
+Carmine, 133, 135.
+  "      adulteration of, 134.
+  "      Blue, 225.
+  "      Burnt, 298.
+  "      Field's, 142.
+
+Carmine, Madder, 142.
+  "      manufacture of, 134.
+  "      Vermilion, 156.
+  "      Violet, 302.
+  "      with Indian Yellow, 98.
+  "        "  White Lead, 134.
+
+Carnac, ruins at, 4.
+
+Carnagione, 149.
+
+Carthamus, 174.
+
+Cartoons at Hampton Court, 10.
+
+Cassel Earth, 343.
+  "    Green, 288.
+  "    Terre de, 343.
+  "    Yellow, 121.
+
+Cassius, Purple of, 306.
+
+Cassius's Purple Precipitate, 306.
+
+Castle Earth, 343.
+
+Catechu Browns, 354.
+
+Celandine, 96.
+
+Cendres Bleues, 230.
+
+Cennini, advice of, 411.
+
+Cerulian Blue or Coeruleum, 190.
+
+Ceruse, 74.
+
+Chalk, Black, 404.
+  "    Green, 173.
+  "    Red, 172.
+  "    White, 79.
+
+Chalon's Brown, 344.
+
+Chaptal, Count, 105, 229.
+
+Charcoal, animal, 397, 399.
+  "       Black, 394.
+  "       vegetal, 398, 406.
+
+Charles I., 220.
+
+Charred blacks, 390, 395, 406.
+
+Cheese, anotta in, 256.
+
+Chemical News, extract from, 84.
+
+Chestnut Brown, 357.
+
+Chevreul, M., 173, 191, 205, 364.
+
+Chiaroscuro, 15.
+
+Chica d'Andiguez, 160.
+  "   Marrone, 367.
+  "   Red, 159.
+
+China, Mandarins of, 219.
+  "    White, 80.
+
+Chinese Ink, 395.
+  "     Lake, 137.
+  "     Orange, 246.
+  "     Rouge, 174.
+  "     Vermilion, 156.
+  "     White, 75.
+  "     Yellow, 111.
+
+Chinoline, 162.
+
+Chocolate Lead, 368.
+
+Chromate of Mercury, 256.
+
+Chromates of lead, organic pigments with, 248, 280.
+
+Chrome Arseniate, 284.
+  "    Browns, 355.
+  "    Green, True, 267.
+  "    Greens, 279-281.
+  "    Ochre, 267.
+
+Chrome Orange, 248.
+  "    Oxide, 267.
+  "    Oxides, 266-271.
+  "    Red, 151.
+  "    Scarlet, 151.
+  "    Yellows, 93-95.
+  "      "      adulteration of, 94.
+
+Chromium, Green Oxide of, 267.
+  "       Opaque Oxide of, 267.
+  "       Oxide of, 267.
+  "       Transparent Oxide of, 268.
+
+Church, Professor, 165.
+
+Cicero, 296.
+
+Cinnabar, 153.
+  "       Green, 280.
+
+Citrine, 28.
+  "      analysis of, 329.
+  "      as a colour, 310.
+  "      contrast of, 311.
+  "      on the Tertiary, 310.
+
+CITRINE PIGMENTS:--
+  Brown Pink, 312.
+  Brown Stil de Grain, 312.
+  Brun de Mars, 313.
+  Cassia Fistula, 316.
+  Citrine Brown, 317.
+  Citrine Lake, 312.
+  Mars Brown, 313.
+  Mixed Citrine, 314.
+  Quercitron Lake, 312.
+  Raw Umber, 315.
+  Umber, 315.
+
+Citron Yellow, 95.
+
+Classes of Colours, on, 27-30.
+
+CLASSIFIED PIGMENTS:--
+  Black, 409.
+  Blue, 236.
+  Brown, 361.
+  Citrine, 319.
+  Gray, 380.
+  Green, 291.
+  Grey, 386.
+  Marrone, 371.
+  Olive, 333.
+  Orange, 261.
+  Purple, 308.
+  Red, 181.
+  Russet, 324.
+  White, 80.
+  Yellow, 125.
+
+Claude, 345.
+
+Cleanliness in painting, 53.
+
+Coal-Tar Colours, 160-164, 247.
+  "               cakes of, 163.
+  "               in oil, 247.
+
+Cobalt Blue, 192.
+             chalkiness in, 195.
+             manufacture of, 192.
+  "    Blues, 189-199.
+  "    Green, 285.
+  "    Marrone, 368.
+  "    Prussian Blue, 227.
+  "      "      Green, 282.
+  "    Purples, 305.
+  "    Ultramarine, 192.
+
+Coccus (Abies nigra), 168.
+  "    cacti, 131.
+  "    ficus, 138.
+  "    ilicis, 153, 167.
+
+Cochineal, 132.
+  "        adulteration of, 132.
+  "        Dr. Warren de la Rue on, 132.
+  "        lake, with Vermilion, 136.
+  "        Lakes, 131-137.
+
+Coëlin, 190.
+
+Coeruleum, 190, 198, 217, 229.
+
+Coffee Black, 405.
+  "    Brown, 405.
+
+Cohesion and colour, 197, 208.
+  "      durability, 197, 208.
+
+Cologne Earth, 344.
+  "     Yellow, 94.
+
+Colour and neutrality, 375.
+  "    latent, 58.
+  "    of extreme light objects, 21.
+  "    of shadow, 21.
+  "    on the Relations and Harmony of, 13.
+
+Coloured rays, mixture of, 384.
+
+Colouring, ancient, 3-7.
+  "        false, 20.
+  "        importance of, 10-12.
+  "        on, 3.
+  "        vicious, 11-21.
+
+Colours, ancient, 5, 6, 218.
+  "      and Pigments Individually, on, 57.
+  "      broken, 16.
+  "      classes of:--
+  "        "          Neutral, 27.
+  "        "          Primary, 28.
+  "        "          Secondary, 28.
+  "        "          Semi-Neutral, 29.
+  "        "          Tertiary, 28.
+  "      complementary, 391.
+  "      discordant, 17, 185.
+  "      entire, 28.
+  "      extreme, 28.
+  "      fugacity of ancient, 6.
+  "      held in check, 106.
+  "      hot and cold, 20.
+  "      imaginary, 115.
+  "      individual beauty of, 57.
+  "      light and dark, 30.
+  "      material, mixture of, 384.
+  "      mixture and compounding of, 17-19.
+  "      not obtainable, 114.
+  "      not pigments, 305.
+  "      perspective of, 22.
+
+Colours, retiring or advancing, 186-188.
+  "      superfluous, 124.
+  "      unfitted for pigments, 115, 180.
+  "      vitrified, 33, 197.
+  "      with black, 27, 392.
+  "        "  colours, 27.
+  "        "  grey, 382.
+  "        "  white, 27, 63.
+
+Common pigments, 359.
+
+Compounding colours, on, 242-252, 277.
+
+Compound pigments, 36.
+
+Constable, 265.
+
+Constantinople, 7.
+
+Constant White, 65.
+  "      free acid in, 66.
+
+Contrast of colour and neutrality, 15.
+  "      gradations and extremes, 19.
+  "      hues, 13-15.
+  "      shades, 15.
+  "      warmth and coolness, 15.
+
+Copper Blues, 227-230.
+  "    Borate, 285.
+  "    Brown, 355.
+  "    Chrome, 286.
+  "    Greens, 271-276.
+  "    Prussian Black, 408.
+  "    Prussiate of, 323.
+  "    Reds, 164.
+  "    Smalt, 220.
+  "    Stannate, 286.
+  "    Yellow, 116.
+
+Cork Black, 409.
+
+Correggio, 8, 335.
+
+Cory's Madder or Yellow Madder, 119, 353.
+
+Cotton Seed Blue, 230.
+
+Cremnitz or Crems White, 72.
+
+Crimson Lake, 135.
+
+Crookes, Mr., 260.
+
+Crowding of pictures, 364.
+
+Cudbear, 303.
+
+Cullen's Earth, 344.
+
+Cuttle Fish, 348.
+
+Cuyp, 136.
+
+Cyanine, 198.
+
+Cyanus, 198, 217.
+
+
+D.
+
+Damonico, 257.
+
+Darkening of mineral colours, 284.
+
+Davy, Sir H., 229.
+
+Dead Sea, the, 337.
+
+Deep Cadmium, 87.
+  "  Chrome, 93.
+  "  Vermilion, 154.
+  "  Deoxidation of pigments, 38.
+
+Detractors of modern pigments, 43-45.
+
+Dewint's Green, 330.
+
+Diagram, 89.
+
+Diesbach, M. 203.
+
+Dilution of colour, 34.
+
+Di Palito, 109.
+
+Direct and diffused light, 391.
+
+Discord of colours, 17, 185.
+
+Disinfectants of the palette, 359.
+
+Distance, law about, 188.
+
+Distilled Verdigris, 276.
+
+Distinction of colours, 318, 320.
+
+Dominichino, 8.
+
+Dragon's Blood, 137.
+  "      with White Lead, 138.
+
+Drop Gum, 96.
+
+Drying of pigments, 50.
+  "    oils, lead in, 121.
+
+Duffield, Mrs., 144.
+
+Dumas, M., 234, 414.
+
+Dumont's Blue, 196.
+
+Durability of pigments, 31-45, 46.
+
+Dussance, Professor H., 175.
+
+Dutch Pink, 100.
+  "   Schools, 8.
+  "   the, 156, 200.
+  "   Ultramarine, 189.
+  "   White, 74.
+
+Dyeing, brown for, 318.
+  "     orange for, 257.
+
+Dyes and pigments, 169.
+
+
+E.
+
+Earth Black, 404.
+  "   Burnt Sienna, 243.
+  "   Cassel, or Castle, 343.
+  "   Cologne, 344.
+  "   Cullen's, 344.
+  "   Green, 283.
+  "   Raw Sienna, 113.
+
+Egg-shells, white of, 80.
+
+Egypt, catacombs of, 347.
+  "    temples of Upper, 5, 217.
+
+Egyptian Blue, 229.
+  "      Brown, 347.
+
+Egyptians, the, colouring and colours of, 3-5.
+
+Elizabeth, Queen, 393.
+
+Eisner's Green, 286.
+
+Emerald Green, 271.
+
+Emeraldine, 162.
+
+Enamel Blue, 189.
+  "    colours, 33, 197.
+
+England, climate and females of, 9.
+
+English Green, 280.
+  "     Pink, 100.
+  "     Red, 149.
+  "     Vermilion, 146.
+
+Entire colours, 28.
+
+Equations, 329, 330, 377.
+
+Euchrome, 342.
+
+Exhibition, International, of 1862, 244, 354.
+
+Experiment, 213.
+
+Exposure of pigments, 38.
+
+Extract of Gamboge, 97.
+  "     Vermilion, 157.
+
+Extreme colours, 28.
+
+
+F.
+
+Factitious Indigo, proposed, 202.
+  "        Ultramarine, 215.
+
+Falsalo, 341.
+
+Fast and fugitive, pigments both, 38.
+
+Ferrate of Baryta, 165.
+
+Ferricyanide of Iron, 208.
+
+Ferrocyanide  "  203.
+
+Field's Carmine, 142.
+  "     Lakes, 139-145.
+  "     Orange Vermilion, 158.
+  "     Purple, 301.
+  "     Russet, 321.
+
+Fineness of texture in pigments, 50.
+
+Fire, action of, on pigments, 371.
+  "   pigments affected by, 40.
+
+Fistula, Cassia, 316.
+
+Flake White, 72.
+
+Flemish painters, 406.
+  "     Schools, 8, 37.
+  "     White, 72.
+
+Florentine Lake, 137.
+  "        painters and painting, 7, 8, 10, 391.
+
+Flower pieces, background tint for, 279.
+
+Foul air, ochres with, 359.
+
+Frankfort Black, 406.
+
+French berries, 312.
+  "    Blue, 215.
+  "    Green, 271.
+  "    Prussian Brown, 355.
+  "    Purple, Solid, 304.
+  "    Ultramarine, 215.
+  "    Veronese Green, 268.
+  "    White, 71.
+
+Fresco, Prussian Blue in, 206, 281.
+
+Fruit pieces of W. Hunt, 315.
+
+Fugacity of pigments, 31-45.
+
+Fugitive colours, 34.
+
+
+G.
+
+Gainsborough, 20.
+
+Galena, 394.
+
+Galleries, picture, 363-365.
+
+Gallstone, 95.
+
+Gamboge, 96.
+  "      as a glaze, 97.
+  "      extract of, 97.
+
+Gamboge Orange, 257.
+
+Gambogiate of Iron, 357.
+
+Garance, Bleu de, 209.
+
+Gas, effect of, on colours, 191.
+
+Gelbin's Yellow, 117.
+
+General Qualities of Pigments, on the, 46.
+
+Genuine Ultramarine, 216-225.
+  "     adulteration of, 224.
+  "     colouring matter of, 224.
+  "     defects in, 222.
+  "     manufacture of, 220.
+  "     price of, 220.
+  "     properties of, 221.
+  "     tests for, 224.
+
+Giallolino, 103.
+
+Gilpin, 351.
+
+Giovanni Bellini, 7.
+
+Giulio Romano, 11.
+
+Glazing of colours, 18.
+
+Gloucestershire, 109.
+
+Gmelin, M., 178, 210, 218, 227.
+
+Gmelin's German Ultramarine, 209.
+
+Gold Blue, 231.
+  "  Purple, 306.
+  "  Reds, 166.
+  "  size, japanner's, 51.
+
+Golden Sulphur of Antimony, 256.
+  "    Yellow, 256.
+
+Gradation in art, 328.
+  "       nature, 326.
+
+Graham, Mr., 398.
+
+Graphite, 393.
+
+Gray, 29, 372.
+  "   analysis of, 277.
+  "   and grey, 29, 372, 381.
+  "   as a colour, 372, 374.
+  "   as a pigment, 377.
+  "   contrast of, 373.
+  "   on the Semi-Neutral, 372.
+
+GRAY PIGMENTS:--
+  Mineral Gray, 375.
+  Mixed Gray, 377.
+  Neutral Tint, 377.
+  Payne's Gray, 378.
+  Ultramarine Ash, 379.
+
+Greeks, colouring of the, 7, 8.
+  "     the, 153, 167, 296.
+
+Green, 28.
+  "    as a colour, 263, 265.
+  "    contrast of, 263.
+  "    Dewint's, 330.
+  "    discordant, 265.
+  "    Olive, 330.
+  "    on the Secondary, 263.
+
+GREEN PIGMENTS:--
+  African Green, 271.
+  Barium Chrome Green, 280.
+  Bismuth Chrome Green, 280.
+  Bladder Green, 282.
+  Bronze, 279.
+  Brunswick Green, 271, 279.
+  Chrome Arseniate, 284.
+  Chrome Greens, 279-281.
+  Chrome Oxide, 267.
+  Chrome Oxides, 266-271.
+  Cobalt Green, 285.
+  Cobalt Prussian Green, 282.
+  Copper Borate, 285.
+  Copper Chrome, 286.
+  Copper Greens, 271-276, 285-287, 288.
+  Copper Stannate, 286.
+  Distilled Verdigris, 276.
+  Elsner's Green, 286.
+  Emerald Green, 271, 283.
+  English Green, 280.
+  French Green, 271.
+  French Veronese Green, 268.
+  German Mineral Green, 288.
+  Green Bice, 287.
+  Green Cinnabar, 280.
+  Green Earth, 283.
+  Green Lake, 288.
+  Green Ochre, 287.
+  Green Oxide of Chromium, 267.
+  Green Ultramarine, 287.
+  Green Verditer, 287.
+  Holy Green, 283.
+  Hooker's Green, 281.
+  Hungary Green, 274.
+  Imperial Green, 271.
+  Iris Green, 282.
+  Malachite Green, 274.
+  Manganese Green, 288.
+  Marine Green, 271.
+  Mineral Green, 288.
+  Mitis Green, 271.
+  Mixed Green, 277.
+  Molybdenum Green, 289.
+  Mountain Green, 274.
+  Native Green, 267.
+  Olympian Green, 271.
+  Opaque Oxide of Chromium, 267.
+  Oxide of Chromium, 267.
+  Patent Green, 271.
+  Persian Green, 271.
+  Pickle Green, 276.
+  Prussian Greens, 281.
+  Quinine Green, 289.
+  Rinman's Green, 285.
+  Roman Green, 290.
+  Sap Green, 282.
+  Saxon Green, 271.
+  Sheele's Green, 272.
+  Schweinfurt Green, 271.
+  Silicate of Baryta, 290.
+  Swedish Green, 272.
+  Terre Verte, 283.
+  Titanium Green, 290.
+  Transparent Oxide of Chromium, 268.
+  True Chrome Green, 267.
+  True Prussian Green, 281.
+  Uranium Green, 291.
+  Vanadium Green, 291.
+  Venetian Green, 283.
+  Verde Vessie, 282.
+  Verdetto, 283.
+  Verdigris, 276.
+  Verona Green, 283.
+  Veronese Green, 268.
+  Vert de Zinc, 285.
+  Vienna Green, 271.
+  Viride Æris, 276.
+  Viridian, 269.
+  Zinc Green, 285.
+
+Green, pure, to obtain, 277.
+
+Greens, ancient, 5.
+
+Grey, 28-30, 372.
+  "   and gray, 29, 381.
+  "   as a colour, 381.
+  "   as a pigment, 382.
+  "   colours with, 382, 383.
+  "   on the Neutral, 381.
+
+GREY PIGMENTS:--
+  Black Lead, 382.
+  Mixed Grey, 384-386.
+
+Grinding of pigments, 37.
+
+Guido, 8.
+
+Guimet, M., 210, 215.
+  "     Outremer de, 209.
+
+Guimet's Ultramarine, 209.
+
+Gum, Drop, 96
+  "  tragacanth, 66.
+
+Gyges, 7.
+
+
+H.
+
+Haerlem Blue, 207.
+
+Hamburgh Lake, 137.
+  "      White, 74.
+
+Hampton Court, cartoons at, 10.
+
+Harding's Tint, 380.
+
+Harmony of colour, 13-24.
+
+Hatching of colours, 18.
+
+Haydon, 293.
+
+Hercules Tyrius, 296.
+
+Holy Green, 283.
+
+Hooker's Green, 281.
+
+Houng hoa, 396.
+
+Hues, 27, 30.
+
+Hungary Blue, 189.
+  "     Green, 274.
+
+Hunt, W., 315.
+
+Hypocastanum, 357.
+
+
+I.
+
+Illumination, Cadmium Orange in, 246.
+  "           Coal-Tar Colours in, 163, 247.
+  "           Manual of, 246.
+  "           Viridian in, 270.
+
+Imperial Green, 271.
+
+Indian Blue, 199.
+  "    Ink, 349, 395.
+  "    Lake, 138.
+  "    Ochre, 146.
+  "    Purple, 298.
+  "    Red, 148.
+  "    Yellow, 98.
+
+Indicum, 199.
+
+Indigo, 199.
+  "     adulteration of, 202.
+  "     possible substitute for, 235.
+  "     proposed Factitious, 202.
+
+Indigofera, 200.
+
+Indium Yellow, 117.
+
+Individually, on Colours and Pigments, 57.
+
+Ink, blue, 207.
+  "  British, 395.
+  "  Chinese, 395.
+  "  green, 276.
+  "  Indelible Brown, 345.
+  "  Indian, 395.
+  "  Liquid Indian, 397.
+  "  red, 145.
+
+Inkfish, the, 348.
+
+Innoxious pigments, 53.
+
+Intense Blue, 202.
+  "       "   manufacture of, 202.
+
+International Exhibition of 1862, 244, 354.
+
+Invisible Green, 329.
+
+Iodine, 118.
+  "     Blue, 231.
+  "     Pink, 166.
+  "     Scarlet, 150.
+  "     Yellow, 118.
+
+Iridium Blue, 232.
+
+Iris, 228.
+  "   Green, 282.
+
+Iron Browns, 357.
+  "  Ferricyanide of, 208.
+  "  Ferrocyanide of, 203.
+  "  Gambogiate of, 357.
+  "  pigments affected by, 39, 90, 145, 147, 149, 150, 249.
+  "  Prussiate of, 203.
+  "  Smalt, 218.
+  "  Yellow, 102, 118.
+
+Italian Greens, 276, 277.
+  "     Pink, 100.
+
+Italics, numbered colours in, 114, 407.
+
+Italy, colouring in modern, 8.
+
+Ivory Black, 397.
+  "     "    with Manganese Black, 407.
+
+Ivory Brown, 340.
+
+
+J.
+
+Japanner's gold size, 51.
+
+Jaune de Cologne, 94.
+  "    " Fer, 102.
+  "    " Mars, 102.
+  "   Minérale, 94.
+
+Jew's Pitch, 337.
+
+Judea, Bitumen of, 337.
+
+
+K.
+
+Kermes, 153.
+  "     Lake, 167.
+  "     Mineral, 159.
+
+Key of colouring, 40.
+
+Khair tree, the, 354.
+
+King's Yellow, 111.
+
+Knowledge of pigments, 43, 44.
+
+Kremnitz or Krems White, 72.
+
+Kremser White, 75.
+
+
+L.
+
+Lac, 138, 167.
+  "  Lake, 138.
+
+Lake, Asphaltic, the, 337.
+  "   Burnt, 198.
+  "   Chinese, 137.
+  "   Citrine, 312.
+  "   Crimson, 135.
+  "   Drop, 131.
+  "   Florentine, 137.
+  "   Green, 288.
+  "   Hamburgh, 137.
+  "   Indian, 138.
+  "   Kermes, 167.
+  "   Liquid Madder, 145.
+  "   Madder, 144.
+  "   Marrone, 369.
+  "   Olive, 331.
+  "   Orange, 258.
+  "   Purple, 137.
+  "   Quercitron, 100, 312.
+  "   Roman, 137.
+  "   Scarlet, 136.
+  "   Venetian, 137.
+  "   Yellow, 100.
+
+Lakes, Cochineal, 131-137.
+  "    Field's, 139-145.
+  "    Madder, 139-145.
+  "    Rubric, 139-145.
+  "    Yellow, 99, 100.
+
+Lamblack, 399.
+
+Lamp Black, 399.
+
+Lapis Lazuli, 209, 217, 219.
+
+Laque de garance, 142.
+  "   Minérale, 258.
+
+Latent colour, 58.
+
+Lawson, Professor, 168.
+
+Lawson's Red, 168.
+
+Layard, Mr., 6, 218.
+
+Lazuline, 217.
+
+Lazulite Blue, 217.
+
+Lazur, Persian and Tartarian, 228.
+
+Lazurium, 217.
+
+Lazurstein, 217.
+
+Lead, acetate or sugar of, 50-52.
+  "   Black, 382, 393.
+  "   carbonate of, 68.
+  "   Chocolate, 368.
+  "   dicarbonate of, 69.
+  "   hydrated oxide of, 68.
+  "   in drying oils, 121.
+  "   Orange, 258
+  "   oxychloride of, 73.
+  "   pigments affected by, 39, 67, 97, 99, 112, 120, 134, 138, 139, 152, 201, 206, 248, 280, 312, 341.
+  "   pigments, avoidance of, 67.
+  "   Red, 151.
+  "   Sulphate of, 72.
+  "   White, 67-70.
+  "   Whites, 67-75.
+
+Leitch's Blue, 199.
+  "      Brown, 346.
+
+Leithner's Blue, 189.
+
+Lemon Cadmium, 91.
+  "   Yellow, 101.
+
+Leonardo da Vinci, 8.
+
+Leyden, Cassius of, 306.
+
+Lichens, 304.
+
+Liege Black, 394.
+
+Light and air, pigments affected by, 91, 92, 95, 97, 98, 99, 112, 124, 134, 135, 136, 139, 151, 163, 199, 201, 205, 208, 247, 276, 282, 298, 303, 313, 330, 340, 343.
+
+Light, direct and diffused, 391.
+  "    electric, the, 191.
+  "    magnesium, the, 191.
+  "    Red, 149.
+
+Likes and dislikes of pigments, 194.
+
+Lime, pigments affected by, 40, 97, 98, 206, 275, 281.
+  "   with Prussian Blue, 206, 281.
+
+Linear perspective, 22.
+
+Linseed oil with White Lead, 69.
+
+Liquid Asphaltum, 339.
+  "    Indian Ink, 397.
+  "    Madder Lake, 145.
+  "    Prout's Brown, 345.
+  "    Rubiate, 145.
+
+Lists of Permanent Pigments:--
+  "   Blue, 278, 300.
+  "   Green, 315, 329.
+  "   Orange, 315, 323.
+  "   Purple, 323, 329.
+  "   Red, 253, 300.
+  "   Yellow, 252, 278.
+
+Litharge, 51, 120.
+
+Litmus, 303.
+
+Local colour, 24.
+
+Lombard School, 8.
+
+London White, 73.
+
+
+M.
+
+Macpherson's Tint, 380.
+
+Madder, 139.
+  "     adulteration of, 140.
+  "     Brown, 365.
+  "     Burnt, 305.
+  "     Carmine, 142.
+  "       "      adulteration of, 142.
+  "     colouring matters of, 140.
+  "     Cory's or Cory's Yellow, 119, 353.
+  "     Dr. Schunck on, 140.
+  "     Lake, 144.
+  "     Lakes, 139-145.
+  "       "    manufacture of, 141.
+  "     Liquid Lake, 145.
+  "     Orange, 258, 353.
+  "     Pink, 144.
+  "     Purple, 301.
+  "     reds in oil, 144.
+  "     Rose, 143.
+  "     Rubens', 321.
+  "     Yellow, 118, 353.
+
+Magenta, 162.
+
+Majolica, 146.
+
+Malachite Green, 274.
+
+Manganese as a siccative, 51, 77, 406.
+  "       Black, 406.
+  "       Blue, 232.
+  "       Brown, 358.
+  "       Green, 288.
+  "       Red, 168.
+
+Manufacture of Cadmium Yellow, 92.
+  "         Carmine, 134.
+  "         Cobalt Blue, 192.
+  "         Intense Blue, 202.
+  "         Vermilion, 92, 153.
+
+Marine Green, 271.
+
+Marrone, 28.
+  "      analysis of, 377.
+  "      as a colour, 362.
+  "      contrasts of, 362.
+  "      for walls of picture galleries, 363.
+  "      on the Semi-Neutral, 362.
+
+MARRONE PIGMENTS:--
+  Brown Madder, 365.
+  Chica Marrone, 367.
+  Chocolate Lead, 368.
+  Cobalt Marrone, 368.
+  Madder Marrone, 369.
+  Marrone Lake, 369.
+  Marrone Red, 368.
+  Mars Marrone, 369.
+  Mixed Marrone, 367.
+  Purple Black, 369.
+
+Mars Brown, 313.
+  "  Brun de, 313.
+  "  colours named after, 102, 146.
+  "  Orange, 248.
+  "  Red, 145.
+  "  Rouge de, 145.
+  "  Violet, 290.
+  "  Violet de, 290.
+  "  Yellow, 102.
+
+Massicot, 120.
+
+Mastic varnish, 50.
+
+Mauve, 163.
+
+Mercury, Chromate of, 256.
+  "      marrone, 371.
+  "      white, 79.
+
+Mérimée, 121, 142, 229, 284, 316,  343.
+
+Metallic whites, 79.
+
+Metals, rare, 172.
+
+Michael Angelo, 8.
+
+Mineral Black, 407.
+  "     Blue, 207.
+  "     Brown, 342.
+  "     colours, darkening of, 284.
+  "     Gray, 375.
+  "     Green, 288.
+  "     Green, German, 288.
+  "     Kermes, 159.
+  "     Orange, 258.
+  "     Pitch, 337.
+  "     Purple, 290.
+  "     Turbith, 123.
+  "     Yellow, 106, 116, 121.
+
+Minérale, Jaune, 94.
+  "       Laque, 258.
+
+Miniature painter, a, 401.
+
+Minium, 151, 153.
+
+Mitis Green, 271.
+
+Mixed Colours:--
+  "   Black, 402.
+  "   Brown, 346.
+  "   Citrine, 314.
+  "   Gray, 377.
+  "   Green, 277.
+  "   Grey, 384.
+  "   Marrone, 367.
+  "   Olive, 328.
+  "   Orange, 249.
+  "   Purple, 290.
+  "   Russet, 322.
+
+Mixed tints, on, 249-252, 262.
+
+Mixture, a, 199.
+  "      of Bitumen and Mummy,  348.
+  "      of coloured rays, 384.
+  "      of material colours, 384.
+  "      unnecessary, 35.
+
+Modan or Morat White, 80.
+
+Modern pigments, 41-45.
+  "    detractors of, 43-45.
+  "    inferior, 41.
+  "    superior, 42.
+
+Molybdenum Green, 289.
+
+Monicon, 257.
+
+Montabert, De, 405.
+
+Montbeillard, Roman pavement at,  218.
+
+Montpellier Yellow, 121.
+
+Mountain Blue, 228.
+  "      Green, 274.
+
+Mountains, 254.
+
+Mummy, 347.
+  "    Brown, 347.
+  "    and Bitumen, mixed, 348.
+
+Murexide, 169.
+
+Musée Minéralogique, of Paris,  219.
+
+Mutrie, Miss, 143.
+  "     Yellow, 92.
+
+
+N.
+
+Naphthaline, 162.
+
+Naples Yellow, modern, 104.
+  "    old, 103.
+
+Napoleon, Emperor, 176.
+
+Native Bitumen, 338.
+  "    Green, 267.
+  "    Prussian Blue, 207, 226.
+  "    Ultramarine, 216.
+
+Natural Ultramarine, 216.
+
+Nature, colour in, 311.
+  "     gradation in, 326.
+  "     palette of, 185.
+  "     study of, 24.
+
+Negative colours, 28.
+
+Nepos Cornelius, 295.
+
+Neutral colours, 27.
+  "     Orange, Penley's, 253.
+  "     Tint, 377.
+
+Neutrality and colour, 375, 376.
+
+Neutrals, colour as applied to the,  62.
+
+New Blue, 216.
+  "       pigments, 41-45.
+
+Nickel Brown, 358.
+
+Nineveh, 6, 218.
+
+Nottingham White, 73.
+
+
+O.
+
+Objectionable pigments, substitutes for, 96, 104, 114.
+
+Ochre, Black, 404
+  "    Blue, 226.
+  "    Brown, 108.
+  "    Browns, 358.
+  "    Burnt Roman, 255.
+  "    Chrome, 267.
+  "    Green, 287.
+  "    Indian, 148.
+  "    Orange, 255.
+  "    Oxford, 109.
+  "    Purple, 290.
+  "    Red, 147.
+  "    Roman, 107.
+  "    Scarlet, 149.
+  "    Spanish, 255.
+  "    Spruce, 108.
+  "    Stone, 109.
+  "    Transparent Gold, 108.
+  "    Yellow, 106.
+
+Ochres and foul air, 359.
+  "    Red, 146-150.
+  "    Yellow, 105-109.
+
+Ocre de Ru, 108
+
+Oil, coal-tar colours in, 247.
+  "  water-colour cakes in, 50.
+
+Oils, 33, 152, 194.
+
+Olive, 28.
+  "    analysis of, 330.
+  "    as a colour, 325.
+  "    contrast of, 325.
+  "    on the Tertiary, 325.
+
+OLIVE PIGMENTS:--
+  Burnt Verdigris, 331.
+  Dewint's Green, 330.
+  Mixed Olive, 328.
+  Olive Green, 330.
+  Olive Lake, 331.
+  Olive Oxide of Chromium, 331.
+  Olive Rinman's Green, 332.
+  Olive Scheele's Green, 332.
+  Olive Schweinfurt Green, 332.
+  Olive Terre Verte, 333.
+
+Olive purples, 301.
+
+Olympian Green, 271.
+
+O'Neill, Mr., 159.
+
+Opacity of pigments, 48.
+
+Orange, 28,
+  "     as a colour, 239.
+  "     as an archeus, 240.
+  "     contrast of, 240.
+  "     discordant, 240.
+  "     on the Secondary, 239.
+
+ORANGE PIGMENTS:--
+  Anotta, 255.
+  Antimony Orange, 256.
+  Bixine, 256.
+  Burnt Roman Ochre, 255.
+  Burnt Sienna, 243.
+  Burnt Terra di Sienna, 243.
+  Cadmium Orange, 36, 244.
+  Chinese Orange, 246.
+  Chromate of Mercury, 256.
+  Chrome Orange, 248.
+  Damonico, 257.
+  Gamboge Orange, 257.
+  Golden Sulphur of Antimony, 256.
+  Golden Yellow, 256.
+  Laque Minérale, 258.
+  Madder Orange, 258, 353.
+  Mars Orange, 248.
+  Mineral Orange, 248.
+  Mixed Orange, 249.
+  Monicon, 257.
+  Neutral Orange, 253.
+  Orange Chrome, 248.
+  Orange Chromate of Lead, 248.
+  Orange de Mars, 248.
+  Orange Lake, 258.
+  Orange Lead, 258.
+  Orange Ochre, 255.
+  Orange Orpiment, 258.
+  Penley's Neutral Orange, 253.
+  Realgar, 258.
+  Red Orpiment, 258.
+  Rocou, 255.
+  Spanish Ochre, 255.
+  Terra Orellana, 255.
+  Thallium Orange, 259.
+  Uranium Orange, 260.
+  Zinc Orange, 261.
+
+Orange Russet, 321.
+  "    Vermilion, 157.
+  "      "        Field's, 158.
+
+Order of Colours:--
+  White, 62-80, 414.
+  Yellow, 81-126.
+  Red, 127-182.
+  Blue, 183-238.
+  Orange, 239-262.
+  Green, 263-293.
+  Purple, 294-309.
+  Citrine, 310-319.
+  Russet, 320-324.
+  Olive, 325-333.
+  Brown, 334-361.
+  Marrone, 362-371.
+  Gray, 372-380.
+  Grey, 381-386.
+  Black, 387-413.
+
+Organic pigments with lead chromates, 248.
+
+Orient Yellow, 42, 110.
+
+Original pigments, 35.
+  "      importance of, 240-242.
+
+Orpiment Yellow, 111-113.
+
+Outremer, 217.
+
+Outremer de Guimet, 209.
+
+Oxford Ochre, 109.
+
+Oxidation of pigments, 38.
+
+Oxide, Chrome, 267.
+  "    of Chromium, Green, 267.
+  "     " Opaque, 267.
+  "     " Transparent, 268.
+
+Oxychloride of Lead, 73.
+
+Oxygenated water, 69.
+
+Oyster-shell, white of, 80.
+
+
+P.
+
+Paille de Mil, 170.
+
+Painting, siliceous, 212.
+
+Pale Cadmium, 90.
+  "  Chrome, 93.
+  "  Vermilion, 154.
+  "  washes of a pigment, 91.
+
+Palette, disinfectants of the, 359.
+  "      motto for the, 156.
+  "      setting the, 23.
+
+Palette-knife, avoidance of a steel, 39, 50, 90, 103.
+
+Palladium, 122.
+
+Paper Black, 407.
+  "   Smalt and Ultramarine in, 196.
+  "   to give a tone to, 253.
+
+Paris Blue, 192, 203.
+
+Paris, Musée Minéralogique at, 219.
+  "    Société d'Encouragement of, 210.
+
+Particular colour, predilection for a, 58, 59.
+
+Patent Green, 271.
+  "    Yellow, 121.
+
+Pattison's White, 73.
+
+Paul Veronese, 229, 335.
+
+Payne's Gray, 378.
+
+Peach Black, 407.
+
+Pearl White, 78.
+
+Peganum Harmala, 171.
+
+Penley, Mr. Aaron, 85-87, 158, 268, 270.
+
+Penley's Neutral Orange, 253.
+
+Perfect pigment, a, 46.
+
+Perkin, Mr. W., 162.
+
+Permanent Blue, 216.
+  "       pigments, 252, 278, 300, 315, 323, 329.
+  "       White, 65.
+
+Peroxidized pigments, 38.
+
+Persian berries, 312.
+  "     Green, 271.
+  "     lazur, 228.
+  "     Red, 148.
+
+Perspective, aerial, 22, 23.
+  "          linear, 22.
+  "          of colours, 22, 23.
+
+Persulphomolybdates, 171.
+
+Philocles, 7.
+
+Phosphine, 162.
+
+Photography, lamp black in, 401.
+  "          pigments generally in, 401.
+
+Pickle Green, 276.
+
+Picric acid, 162.
+
+Picture galleries, 363-365.
+
+Pictures and pigments, 292.
+
+Pigment and colour, 31.
+
+Pigments, action of fire and time on 31.
+  "       adulteration of, 70.
+  "       apt to vary, 126, 181.
+  "       beauty in, 46.
+  "       blending of, 37.
+  "       common, 359.
+  "       compound, 36.
+  "       drying of, 50.
+  "       fineness of texture in, 50.
+  "       grinding of, 37.
+  "       individual beauty of, 58.
+  "       innoxious, 53.
+  "       on the Durability and Fugacity of, 31.
+  "       on the General Qualities of, 46.
+  "       opacity and transparency of, 48.
+  "       past and present, 293.
+  "       rays from, 384.
+  "       truth of hue in, 47.
+  "       vehicles with, 48-53.
+  "       working well, 49.
+
+Pink, Brown, 313.
+  "   Dutch, 100.
+  "   English, 100.
+  "   Italian, 100.
+  "   Madder, 144.
+  "   Rose, 173.
+  "   Saucers, 174.
+
+Pitch, Jew's, 337.
+  "    Mineral, 337.
+
+Pittacal, 234.
+
+Platinum Blue, 233.
+  "      Yellow, 121.
+
+Playfair, Dr. Lyon, 355.
+
+Pliny, 7, 153, 198, 218, 295, 338.
+
+Plumbago, 393.
+
+Polygnotus, 9.
+
+Pompeii, 105, 229.
+
+Porcelain, blue for, 235.
+  "        green for, 267.
+
+Poussin, 11, 316.
+
+Powder Blue, 196.
+
+Power of pigments, individual, 59.
+
+Powers of colours, 82.
+
+Practice of Sir J. Reynolds, 37.
+
+Precipitate, Red, 173.
+
+Prevention and cure, 412.
+
+Price, Dr. D. S., 69.
+
+Primary colours, 28.
+
+Principles of practice, 35.
+
+Process, Autotype, 401.
+
+Protoxide, pigments in the state of, 37.
+
+Proust, M., 396.
+
+Prout, Samuel, 346.
+
+Prout's Brown, Liquid, 345.
+
+Prussian Black, 404, 408.
+  "      Copper, 408.
+
+Prussian Blue, 203.
+  "      adulteration of, 203.
+  "      character of, 237, 278, 301.
+  "      Cobalt, 227.
+  "      manufacture of, 203.
+  "      Native, 207, 226.
+  "      want of a permanent, 189.
+  "      with alkalies, 206.
+
+Prussian Brown, 348.
+  "        "    French, 255.
+  "      Greens, 281, 282.
+  "      Red, 149.
+
+Prussiate of Copper, 323.
+  "       Iron, 203.
+
+Pure Scarlet, 150.
+  "  Ultramarine, 216.
+
+Purple, 28.
+  "     as a colour, 295.
+  "     as a pigment, 297.
+  "     Black, 369, 408.
+  "     Brown, 359.
+  "     contrast of, 294, 297.
+  "     Lake, 137.
+  "     on the Secondary, 294.
+
+PURPLE PIGMENTS:--
+  Archil Purple, 303.
+  Bismuth Purple, 304.
+  Burnt Carmine, 298.
+  Burnt Lake, 298.
+  Burnt Madder, 305.
+  Cassius's Purple Precipitate, 306.
+  Cobalt Purples, 305.
+  Field's Purple, 301.
+  Gold Purple, 306.
+  Indian Purple, 298.
+  Mars Violet, 290.
+  Mauve, 163.
+  Mineral Purple, 290.
+  Mixed Purple, 290.
+  Prussian Purple, 307.
+  Purple Madder, 301.
+  Purple Ochre, 290.
+  Purple of Cassius, 306.
+  Purple Rubiate, 301.
+  Sandal Wood Purple, 307.
+  Solid French Purple, 304.
+  Tin Violet, 308.
+  Violet Carmine, 302.
+  Violet de Mars, 290.
+  Purple, pure, 300.
+    "     Tyrian, 295, 296.
+
+Purpurates, 170.
+
+Purree, 98.
+
+
+Q.
+
+Qualities of Pigments, on the General, 46.
+
+Queen's Yellow, 123.
+
+Quercitron Lake, 100, 312.
+  "        Yellow, 100.
+
+Quinine Green, 289.
+
+
+R.
+
+Ramnus infectorius, 315.
+
+Raphael, 8, 9.
+
+Rare Metals, 172.
+
+Raw Sienna, 113.
+  " Umber, 315.
+
+Rays from pigments, 384.
+
+Real Ultramarine, 216.
+
+Realgar, 258.
+
+Reboulleau's Blue, 230.
+
+Red, 28.
+  "  as a colour, 128.
+  "  contrasts of, 128, 129.
+  "  discordant, 129.
+  "  Marrone, 368.
+  "  on the Primary, 127.
+  "  Orpiment, 258.
+
+RED PIGMENTS:--
+  Almagra, 147.
+  Antimony Red, 159.
+  Armenian Bole, 147.
+  Bloodstone, 147.
+  Brown Red, 147.
+  Cadmium Red, 130.
+  Carmine, 133-135.
+  Carmine Vermilion, 156.
+  Carnagione, 149.
+  Chica Red, 159.
+  Chinese Lake, 137.
+  Chinese Rouge, 174.
+  Chinese Vermilion, 156.
+  Coal-Tar Colours, 160.
+  Cobalt Reds, 164.
+  Cochineal Lakes, 131-137.
+  Copper Reds, 164.
+  Crimson Lake, 135.
+  Deep Vermilion, 154.
+  Dragon's Blood, 137.
+  English Red, 149.
+  English Vermilion, 146.
+  Extract of Vermilion, 157.
+  Ferrate of Baryta, 165.
+  Field's Carmine, 142.
+  Field's Lakes, 139-145.
+  Field's Orange Vermilion, 158.
+  Florentine Lake, 137.
+
+RED PIGMENTS:--
+  Gold Reds, 166.
+  Hamburgh Lake, 137.
+  Indian Lake, 138.
+  Indian Ochre, 146.
+  Indian Red, 148.
+  Iodine Pink, 166.
+  Iodine Scarlet, 150.
+  Kermes Lake, 167.
+  Lac Lake, 138.
+  Lawson's Red, 168.
+  Light Red, 149.
+  Liquid Madder Lake, 145.
+  Liquid Rubiate, 145.
+  Madder Carmine, 142.
+  Madder Lake, 144.
+  Madder Lakes, 139-145.
+  Magenta, 160.
+  Majolica, 146.
+  Manganese Red, 168.
+  Mars Red, 145.
+  Mineral Kermes, 159.
+  Minium, 151.
+  Murexide, 169.
+  Ochres, 146-150.
+  Orange Vermilion, 157.
+  Paille de Mil, 170.
+  Pale Vermilion, 154.
+  Peganum Harmala, 171.
+  Persian Red, 148.
+  Persulphomolybdates, 171.
+  Pink Madder, 144.
+  Pink Saucers, 174.
+  Prussian Red, 149.
+  Pure Scarlet, 150.
+  Purple Lake, 137.
+  Red Chalk, 172.
+  Red Chrome, 151.
+  Red Lead, 151.
+  Red Ochre, 147.
+  Red Precipitate, 173.
+  Redding, 146.
+  Roman Lake, 137.
+  Rose Madder, 143.
+  Rose Pink, 173.
+  Rose Rubiate, 145.
+  Rouge, 173.
+  Rouge de Mars, 145.
+  Rubric Lakes, 139-145.
+  Rufigallic Red, 174.
+  Sandal Red, 175.
+  Saturnine Red, 151.
+  Scarlet Chrome, 151.
+  Scarlet Lake, 136.
+  Scarlet Ochre, 149.
+  Scarlet Vermilion, 156.
+  Sil Atticum, 147.
+  Silver Red, 176.
+  Sinoper, 151.
+  Sorgho Red, 176.
+  Spanish Brown, 146.
+  Spanish Red, 150.
+  Terra Puzzoli, 149.
+  Terra Sinopica, 147.
+  Thallium Red, 177.
+  Tin Pink, 177.
+  Ultramarine Red, 178.
+  Uranium Red, 179.
+  Venetian Lake, 137.
+  Venetian Red, 149.
+  Vermilion, 154.
+  Vermilions, 153-158.
+  Wongshy Red, 180.
+
+Reds, ancient, 5.
+
+Relations of colour, 13-24.
+
+Relative durability of colour, 32.
+
+Rembrandt, 11, 345.
+
+Revelation, Book of, 217.
+
+Reynolds, Sir Joshua, 10, 35, 37, 158, 374, 410.
+
+Rinman's Green, 285.
+  "      Olive, 332.
+
+Rocou, 255.
+
+Roman Green, 290.
+  "   Lake, 137.
+  "   Ochre, 107.
+  "     "    Burnt, 255.
+  "   painters and painting, 7, 8, 10, 391.
+  "   Sepia, 351.
+  "   White, 74.
+
+Romans, the, 153, 295.
+
+Romulus, 295.
+
+Rosaniline, 162.
+
+Rose, the, 327.
+
+Rousseau, M. E., 414.
+
+Rowbotham, Messrs., 144.
+
+Royal Academy at Burlington House, 365.
+  "   Blue, 196.
+
+Rubens, 11, 37, 64, 157, 283, 334, 374.
+  "     Brown, 359.
+  "     Madder, 321.
+
+Rubia tinctorum, 139.
+
+Rubiate, Purple, 301.
+
+Rue, Dr. Warren de la, 132.
+
+Ruskin, Mr., 13.
+
+Russet, 28.
+  "     analysis of, 330.
+  "     as a colour, 320.
+  "     contrast of, 321.
+  "     on the Tertiary, 320.
+
+RUSSET PIGMENTS:--
+  Field's Russet, 321.
+  Mixed Russet, 322.
+  Orange Russet, 321.
+  Prussiate of Copper, 323.
+  Rubens' Madder, 321.
+  Russet Rubiate, 321.
+
+
+S.
+
+Sacc, M., 414.
+
+Safflower, 174.
+
+Samuel Prout, 346.
+
+Sandal Red, 175.
+  "    Wood Purple, 307.
+
+Sandarac, 259.
+
+Sap Green, 282.
+
+Satin White, 80.
+
+Saturnine Red, 151.
+
+Saucers, Pink, 174.
+
+Saunders Blue, 230.
+
+Saxon Blue, 189.
+  "   Green, 271.
+  "   Smalts, 215.
+
+Scarlet Chrome, 151.
+  "     Iodine, 150.
+  "     Lake, 136.
+  "     Ochre, 149.
+  "     Pure, 150.
+  "     transparent, a, reward for, 130.
+  "       "          substitute for, 130.
+  "     Vermilion, 156.
+
+Scheele's Green, 272.
+  "       Olive, 332.
+
+Schools of painting, 8-10, 37.
+
+Schunck, Dr., 140.
+
+Schweinfurt Blue, 230.
+  "         Green, 271.
+  "           "   Olive, 332.
+
+Scoffern, Dr., 357.
+
+Sea, the Dead, 337.
+  "  transparency of the, 269.
+
+Secondary colours, 28.
+  "       pigments, 242.
+
+Semi-Neutral colours, 29.
+  "  the term, 334.
+
+Semi-stability, on, 308.
+
+Semi-stable pigments, 298, 313.
+
+Sepia, 348, 397.
+  "    Liquid, 348.
+  "    Roman, 350.
+  "    Warm, 351.
+
+Shades, 21.
+
+Shadow, colour of, 27, 30.
+
+Siccatives, 51-53.
+
+Sienna, Burnt, 243.
+  "     Raw, 113.
+  "     Terra di, 113.
+
+Sil Atticum, 147.
+
+Silicate of Baryta, 290.
+
+Siliceous painting, Ultramarine in, 212.
+
+Silver Red, 176.
+  "    White, 71.
+
+Sinoper, 151.
+
+Slate Clays, 380.
+  "   powdered, 380.
+
+Smalt, 195-198.
+  "    adulteration of, 198.
+  "    Copper, 229.
+
+Smalt, grinding of, 197.
+  "    in mural decoration, 198.
+  "    in paper, 196.
+  "    Iron, 218.
+
+Soap and alkali in brushes, 52.
+
+Société d'Encouragement of Paris, 210.
+
+Society of Arts, 130.
+
+Soda flame, 191.
+
+Solid French Purple, 304.
+
+Sorgho Red, 176.
+
+Sources of pigments, 60.
+
+South America, chica from, 368.
+
+Spanish Black, 409.
+  "     Brown, 146.
+  "     Ochre, 255.
+  "     Red, 150.
+  "     Schools, 8.
+  "     White, 80.
+
+Spence, Mr., 68.
+
+Spruce Ochre, 108.
+
+St. Petersburg, palace at, 219.
+
+Starch, 66.
+
+Stil de Grain, Brown, 312.
+
+Stippling, 315.
+
+Stone, Armenian, 228.
+  "    lapis lazuli, 217, 219.
+  "    malachite, 274.
+  "    Ochre, 109.
+
+Strontian Yellow, 113.
+
+Sulphate of Lead, 72.
+  "      zinc, 51.
+
+Sulphide of cadmium, thallium in, 260.
+
+Sulphur and ochres, 359.
+
+Sulphuretted hydrogen, pigments affected by, 39, 67, 69, 73, 78, 79, 93, 103, 120, 151, 152, 229, 248, 275, 276.
+
+Susa, 296.
+
+Swedish Green, 272.
+
+Synonyms, value of, 145.
+
+
+T.
+
+Talent of money, 296.
+
+Teniers, 360.
+
+Terra di Sienna, 113.
+  "    "   "     Burnt, 243.
+  "   Orellana, 255.
+  "   Puzzoli, 149.
+  "   Sinopica, 147.
+
+Terre Bleu, 228.
+  "   Verte, 283.
+  "     "    Olive, 333.
+
+Terrene whites, 66, 80.
+
+Tertiary colours, 28.
+  "      on, 311.
+
+Thallium, in sulphide of cadmium, 260.
+  "       Orange, 259.
+  "       Red, 177.
+  "       Yellow, 122.
+
+Thebes, mausoleum at, 3.
+
+Thénard, M., 69, 192.
+
+Thénard's Blue, 192.
+
+Theophrastus, 198.
+
+Theory and practice, 410.
+
+Thwaites' Yellow, 122.
+
+Time, pigments affected by, 40.
+
+Tin Pink, 177.
+  "       Violet, 308.
+  "       White, 79.
+
+Tin-Copper Green, 286.
+
+Tint, Harding's, 380.
+  "   Macpherson's, 380.
+  "   Neutral, 377.
+
+Tintoret, 8.
+
+Tints, 27.
+
+Titanium Green, 290.
+
+Titian, 7, 8, 9, 11, 37, 150, 157, 293, 334.
+
+Transparency of pigments, 48.
+  "   to obtain, 245.
+
+Transparent Gold Ochre, 108.
+  "         Oxide of Chromium, 268.
+  "         pigments, use of, 237.
+
+Troy White, 80.
+
+True Chrome Green, 267.
+  "  Prussian Green, 281.
+  "  Ultramarine, 216.
+
+Truth of hue in pigments, 47.
+
+Tullus Hostilius, 295.
+
+Tungsten Blue, 233.
+  "      White, 414.
+
+Turacine, 165.
+
+Turbith Mineral, 123.
+
+Turkey Berries, 312.
+
+Turnbull's Blue, 208.
+
+Turner, 309, 328.
+
+Turner's Yellow, 121.
+
+Tyrian Purple, 295, 296.
+
+
+U.
+
+Ultramarine, Artificial, 209-216.
+  "          acid pigments with, 214.
+  "          adulteration of, 215.
+  "          experiment with, 213.
+  "          green in, 211.
+  "          gum with, 214.
+  "          in siliceous painting, 212.
+  "          test for, 212.
+
+Ultramarine Ash, 379.
+  "         Beggars', 409.
+  "         Brilliant, 215.
+  "         Cobalt, 192.
+  "         Dutch, 189.
+  "         Factitious, 215.
+  "         French, 215.
+
+Ultramarine, Genuine, 216-225.
+  "          adulteration of, 224.
+  "          colouring matter of, 224.
+  "          defects in, 222, 223.
+  "          manufacture of, 220.
+  "          price of, 220.
+  "          properties of, 221.
+  "          tests for, 224.
+
+Ultramarine, Gmelin's German, 209.
+  "          Green, 287.
+  "          Guimet's, 209-211.
+  "          Native, 216.
+  "          Natural, 216.
+  "          Pure, 217.
+  "          Real, 216.
+  "          Red, 178.
+  "          True, 216.
+
+Umber, 315.
+  "    Burnt, 341.
+  "    grounds primed with, 316.
+  "    Raw, 315.
+
+Unnecessary mixture, 35.
+
+Uranium Brown, 360,
+  "     Green, 291.
+  "     Orange, 260.
+  "     Red, 179.
+  "     Yellow, 123.
+
+Ure, Dr., 73.
+
+
+V.
+
+Vanadium Green, 291.
+
+Vandyke, 11, 150, 220, 351.
+  "      Brown, 351.
+
+Van Eyck, 167.
+
+Varnishes, 33, 152.
+
+Vegetal charcoal, 398.
+
+Vehicles with pigments, 48-53.
+
+Velasquez, 389.
+
+Venetian Green, 283.
+  "      Lake, 137.
+  "      painters, painting, and pigments, 7, 8, 34, 37, 139, 167.
+  "      Red, 149.
+  "      White, 75.
+
+Verde Vessie, 282.
+
+Verdetto, 283.
+
+Verdigris, 51, 276.
+  "        Burnt, 331.
+  "        Distilled, 276.
+
+Verditer, Blue, 228.
+  "       Green, 287.
+
+Vermilion, 153-158.
+  "        adulteration of, 156.
+  "        Carmine, 156.
+  "        Chinese, and English, 156, 146.
+  "        Deep, 154.
+  "        European and Chinese, 154.
+  "        Extract of, 157.
+  "        Field's Orange, 158.
+  "        manufacture of, 154.
+  "        Orange, 157.
+
+Vermilion Pale, 154.
+  "       Scarlet, 156.
+  "       with cochineal lake, 136.
+  "       with iodide of mercury, 155.
+
+Verona Brown, 353.
+  "    Green, 283.
+
+Veronese Green, 268.
+  "      French, 268.
+
+Vert de Zinc, 285.
+
+Vicious extremes in colouring, 59.
+
+Vienna Blue, 192.
+  "    Green, 271.
+  "    White, 72.
+
+Vine Black, 394.
+
+Violet, Carmine, 302.
+  "     de Mars, 290.
+  "     Mars, 290.
+  "     Tin, 308.
+
+Viride Æris, 276.
+
+Viridian, 42, 269.
+
+Vision, derangement of, 59.
+
+Vitrification and permanence, 197.
+
+Vitrified colours, 33, 103, 197.
+
+Vitruvius, 229.
+
+
+W.
+
+Wall colour for picture galleries, 363.
+  "  space in     "       "        364.
+
+Walpole, Mrs., 220.
+
+Warm Sepia, 350.
+
+Water-colour cakes in oil, 50.
+
+Watts, Mr., 165.
+
+Weppen, 398.
+
+White, 27.
+  "    as a colour, 62.
+  "    as a pigment, 64.
+  "    Chalk, 79.
+  "    colour as applied to, 62.
+
+Whitelac varnish, 50.
+
+White Lead, 67-70.
+  "   adulteration of, 70.
+  "   colour restored in, 69.
+  "   hydrated oxide in, 68.
+  "   loss of opacity in, 68.
+  "   use of, 70.
+  "   with Blue Black, 395.
+  "     "  Bone Brown, 341.
+  "     "  Brown Pink, 312.
+  "     "  Cadmium Yellow, 89.
+  "     "  Carmine, 134.
+  "     "  Dragon's Blood, 138.
+  "     "  Gamboge, 97.
+  "     "  Indian Lake, 139.
+  "     "  Indigo, 201.
+  "     "  Massicot, 120.
+  "     "  Orpiment, 112.
+  "     "  Prussian Blue, 206.
+  "     "  Red Lead, 152.
+  "     " Yellow Lakes, 99.
+
+White, on the Neutral, 62.
+  "    perfect, 62, 64.
+
+WHITE PIGMENTS:--
+  Antimony White, 79.
+  Arsenic White, 79.
+  Barytic White, 65.
+  Blanc d'Argent, 71.
+  Body White, 72.
+  Cadmium White, 78.
+  Ceruse, 74.
+  China White, 80.
+  Chinese White, 75.
+  Constant White, 65.
+  Cremnitz or Kremnitz White, 72.
+  Crems or Krems White, 72.
+  Dutch White, 74.
+  Flake White, 72.
+  Flemish White, 72.
+  French White, 71.
+  Hamburgh White, 74.
+  Kremser White, 75.
+  London White, 73.
+  Mercury White, 79.
+  Modan or Morat White, 80.
+  Nottingham White, 73.
+  Oxychloride of Lead, 73.
+  Pattison's White, 73.
+  Pearl White, 78.
+  Permanent White, 65.
+  Roman White, 74.
+  Rouen White, 80.
+  Satin White, 80.
+  Silver White, 71.
+  Spanish White, 80.
+  Sulphate of Lead, 72.
+  Tin White, 79.
+  Tungsten White, 414.
+  Troy White, 80.
+  Venetian White, 75.
+  Vienna White, 72.
+  White Lead, 67-70.
+  Zinc White, 76.
+  Zinc Whites, 75-78.
+
+White, properties of, 62-64.
+  "    use of, 64.
+
+Whites, classified, 80.
+  "     in old pictures, 65.
+
+Williamson, Professor, 205.
+
+Wilson, 336.
+
+Winter scene, a water-colour, 352.
+
+Wongshy Red, 180.
+
+Wood-Tar Blue, 233.
+
+Working well in pigments, 49.
+
+
+Y.
+
+Yellow, 28.
+  "     as a colour, 82.
+  "     contrasts of, 82, 83.
+
+Yellow, discordant, 83.
+  "     Golden, 256.
+  "     Madder, Cory's, 353.
+  "     on the Primary, 81.
+
+YELLOW PIGMENTS:--
+  Antimony Yellow, 105.
+  Arsenic Yellow, 116.
+  Aureolin, 83-87.
+  Bismuth Yellow, 116.
+  Brown Ochre, 108.
+  Cadmium Yellows, 87-92.
+  Cassel Yellow, 121.
+  Chinese Yellow, 111.
+  Chrome Yellows, 93-95.
+  Citron Yellow, 95.
+  Cologne Yellow, 94.
+  Copper Yellow, 116.
+  Deep Cadmium, 87.
+  Deep Chrome, 93.
+  Di Palito, 109.
+  Drop Gum, 96.
+  Dutch Pink, 100.
+  English Pink, 100.
+  Extract of Gamboge, 97.
+  Gallstone, 95.
+  Gamboge, 96.
+  Gelbin's Yellow, 117.
+  Giallolino, 103.
+  Indian Yellow, 98.
+  Indium Yellow, 117.
+  Iodine Yellow, 118.
+  Iron Yellow, 102, 118.
+  Italian Pink, 100.
+  Jaune de Cologne, 94.
+  Jaune de Fer, 102.
+  Jaune de Mars, 102.
+  Jaune Minérale, 94.
+  King's Yellow, 111.
+  Lakes, 99, 100.
+  Lemon Cadmium, 91.
+  Lemon Yellow, 101.
+  Litharge, 120.
+  Madder Yellow, 118, 353.
+  Mars Yellow, 102.
+  Massicot, 120.
+  Mineral Yellow, 106, 116, 121.
+  Montpellier Yellow, 121.
+  Mutrie Yellow, 92.
+  Naples Yellow, 103.
+  Ochres, 105-109.
+  Ocre de Ru, 108.
+  Orient Yellow, 110.
+  Orpiment or Yellow Orpiment, 111.
+  Oxford Ochre, 109.
+  Pale Cadmium, 90.
+  Pale Chrome, 93.
+  Patent Yellow, 121.
+  Platinum Yellow, 121.
+  Purree, 98.
+  Queen's Yellow, 123.
+  Quercitron Lake, or Yellow, 100.
+  Raw Sienna, 113.
+  Roman Ochre, 107.
+  Spruce Ochre, 108.
+  Stone Ochre, 109.
+  Strontian Yellow, 113.
+  Terra di Sienna, 113.
+  Thallium Yellow, 122.
+  Thwaites' Yellow, 122.
+  Transparent Gold Ochre, 108.
+  Turbith Yellow, 123.
+  Turner's Yellow, 121.
+  Uranium Yellow, 123.
+  Yellow Carmine, 123.
+  Yellow Lake, 100.
+  Yellow Ochre, 106.
+
+Yellows, ancient, 5.
+  "      classified, 125.
+  "      former paucity of, 83.
+  "      various, 124.
+
+
+Z.
+
+Zaffre, 189.
+
+Zeuxis and Apelles, 7.
+
+Zinc Brown, 360.
+  "  Cobalt Blue, 235.
+  "  Green, 285.
+  "  Orange, 261,
+  "  siccatives, 51, 77.
+  "  Vert de, 285.
+  "  White, 76.
+  "   "     adulteration of, 77.
+  "   "     over White Lead, 76.
+  "  Whites, 75-78.
+
+
+
+
+ERRATA.
+
+
+Page  16 _for_ inharmonious _read_ harmonious
+  "   35 _for_ There prevails _read_ There prevail
+  "   48 _for_ as whiteness, or light do, _read_ as whiteness or light does
+  "  166 _for_ purple of cassius _read_ purple of Cassius
+  "  182 _for_ which manufactures _read_ which manufactures pictures
+  "  258 _for_ _Laque Minéral_ _read_ _Laque Minérale_
+  "  342 _for_ rivals _read_ rivels
+  "  378 _for_ predominate _read_ predominates
+
+
+THE END.
+
+
+LONDON:
+Printed by A. Schulze, 13, Poland Street.
+
+
++------------------------------------------------------+
+|Transcriber's Note:                                   |
+|                                                      |
+|The errata above and the following have been corrected|
+|in the text:                                          |
+|                                                      |
+|Page  vi Semi-neutral changed to Semi-Neutral         |
+|      10 life less changed to lifeless                |
+|      17 sun-rise changed to sunrise                  |
+|      20 in the the changed to in the                 |
+|      22 perpective changed to perspective            |
+|      29 marone changed to marrone                    |
+|      69 di-carbonate changed to dicarbonate          |
+|      73 hydrogren changed to hydrogen                |
+|      77 imimical changed to inimical                 |
+|      81 feuillemorte changed to feuillemort          |
+|      91 Item numbering has been left consistent      |
+|         with the omission of item no. 23             |
+|     129 extemes changed to extremes                  |
+|     169 muroxide changed to murexide                 |
+|     188 dullness changed to dulness                  |
+|     192 gaslight changed to gas-light                |
+|     200 durablity changed to durability              |
+|     206 and 293 developement changed to development  |
+|     212 decolorized changed to decolourised          |
+|     235 indentical changed to identical              |
+|     241 re-acting changed to reacting                |
+|     250 Exibition changed to Exhibition              |
+|     273 childrens' changed to children's             |
+|     336 toneing changed to toning                    |
+|     352 fine tooth-comb changed to fine-tooth comb   |
+|     408 analagous changed to analogous               |
+|     414 announceed changed to announced              |
+|     421 abies changed to Abies                       |
+|                                                      |
+|Inconsistencies in the use of analyse/analyze,        |
+|harmonise/harmonize and neutralise/neutralize have    |
+|been retained as in the original text, as have the    |
+|use of aërial and aerial.                             |
++------------------------------------------------------+
+
+
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+<p style='text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; font-weight:bold'>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Field's Chromatography, by George Field</p>
+<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
+most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
+whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
+of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online
+at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you
+are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the
+country where you are located before using this eBook.
+</div>
+
+<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: Field's Chromatography</div>
+<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: George Field</div>
+<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: March 27, 2007 [eBook #20915]<br />
+[Most recently updated: November 19, 2022]</p>
+<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</p>
+  <p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:left'>Produced by: Barbara Tozier, Bill Tozier, Jacqueline Jeremy
+and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+http://www.pgdp.net</p>
+<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FIELD'S CHROMATOGRAPHY ***</div>
+
+<div id="auto">
+
+<h3 style="letter-spacing: 1em; margin-top: 5em;"><i>SALTER'S EDITION.</i></h3>
+
+<hr style="width: 35%;" />
+
+<h1 style="word-spacing: 1em; margin-bottom: 50px;">FIELD'S CHROMATOGRAPHY;</h1>
+
+<h5><span class="smcap">OR</span>,</h5>
+
+<h2 style="word-spacing: 1em; margin-top: 50px;">TREATISE ON COLOURS AND PIGMENTS</h2>
+
+<h3 style="word-spacing: 1em; margin-bottom: 50px;">AS USED BY ARTISTS.</h3>
+
+<h3><i>AN ENTIRELY NEW AND PRACTICAL EDITION</i>;</h3>
+
+<h5>REVISED, REWRITTEN, AND BROUGHT DOWN TO THE PRESENT TIME.</h5>
+
+<h5 style="margin-top: 50px; margin-bottom: 50px;">BY</h5>
+
+<h3 class="word-spacing: 1em;">THOMAS W. SALTER, F.C.S.</h3>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;">
+<img src="images/fig01.png" width="200" height="137" alt="logo" title="[logo]" />
+</div>
+
+<h5 class="center">Ars probat artificem.</h5>
+
+<h3 style="letter-spacing: 1em; margin-top: 50px; font-weight: 500;">LONDON:</h3>
+
+<h3 style="word-spacing: 1em; font-weight: 500;">WINSOR AND NEWTON, <b>38</b>, RATHBONE PLACE,</h3>
+
+<h5>Manufacturing Artists' Colourmen by Special Appointment
+to Her Majesty, and Their Royal Highnesses the Prince and
+Princess of Wales.</h5>
+
+<h6>[The Right of Translation is reserved.]</h6>
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%; margin-top: 80px; margin-bottom: 80px;" />
+<h2 style="letter-spacing: .5em;"><a name="contents" id="contents"></a>CONTENTS</h2>
+<hr style="width: 35%" />
+
+
+<table summary="table of contents" style="width: 500px;">
+<colgroup span="3">
+<col width="30px"></col>
+<col width="440px"></col>
+<col width="30px"></col>
+</colgroup>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd" colspan="3"><h3 class="nospace">PART I.</h3></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd" colspan="3"><h4 class="nospace">ON COLOURS AND COLOURING.</h4></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<th class="tda" style="padding-bottom: 5px;"><span style="font-size: small;">Chapter</span></th>
+<th class="tdc" colspan="2" style="padding-bottom: 5px;"><span style="font-size: small;">Page</span></th>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tda"><span class="smcap">I.&mdash;</span></td>
+<td class="tdb">On Colouring </td>
+<td class="tdc"><a href="#chapter_1">3</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tda"><span class="smcap">II.&mdash;</span></td>
+<td class="tdb">On the Relations and Harmonies of Colours</td>
+<td class="tdc"><a href="#chapter_2">13</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd" colspan="3"><h3 class="spacetop">PART II.</h3></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd" colspan="3"><h4 class="nospace">ON COLOURS AND PIGMENTS GENERALLY.</h4></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tda"><span class="smcap">III.&mdash;</span></td>
+<td class="tdb">On Classes of Colours</td>
+<td class="tdc"><a href="#chapter_3">27</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tda"><span class="smcap">IV.&mdash;</span></td>
+<td class="tdb">On the Durability and Fugacity of Pigments</td>
+<td class="tdc"><a href="#chapter_4">31</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tda"><span class="smcap">V.&mdash;</span></td>
+<td class="tdb">On the General Qualities of Pigments</td>
+<td class="tdc"><a href="#chapter_5">46</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd" colspan="3"><h3 class="spacetop">PART III.</h3></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd" colspan="3"><h4 class="nospace">ON COLOURS AND PIGMENTS INDIVIDUALLY.</h4></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tda"><span class="smcap">VI.&mdash;</span></td>
+<td class="tdb">On Colours and Pigments individually</td>
+<td class="tdc"><a href="#chapter_6">57</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tda"><span class="smcap">VII.&mdash;</span></td>
+<td class="tdb">On the Neutral, White</td>
+<td class="tdc"><a href="#chapter_7">62</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tda"><span class="smcap">VIII.&mdash;</span></td>
+<td class="tdb">On the Primary, Yellow</td>
+<td class="tdc"><a href="#chapter_8">81</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tda"><span class="smcap">IX.&mdash;</span></td>
+<td class="tdb">On the Primary, Red</td>
+<td class="tdc"><a href="#chapter_9">127</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tda"><span class="smcap">X.&mdash;</span></td>
+<td class="tdb">On the Primary, Blue  </td>
+<td class="tdc"><a href="#chapter_10">183</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tda"><span class="smcap">XI.&mdash;</span></td>
+<td class="tdb">On the Secondary, Orange </td>
+<td class="tdc"><a href="#chapter_11">239</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tda"><span class="smcap">XII.&mdash;</span></td>
+<td class="tdb">On the Secondary, Green </td>
+<td class="tdc"><a href="#chapter_12">263</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tda"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[vi]</a></span><span class="smcap">XIII.&mdash;</span></td>
+<td class="tdb">On the Secondary, Purple </td>
+<td class="tdc"><a href="#chapter_13">294</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tda"><span class="smcap">XIV.&mdash;</span></td>
+<td class="tdb">On the Tertiary, Citrine</td>
+<td class="tdc"><a href="#chapter_14">310</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tda"><span class="smcap">XV.&mdash;</span></td>
+<td class="tdb">On the Tertiary, Russet </td>
+<td class="tdc"><a href="#chapter_15">320</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tda"><span class="smcap">XVI.&mdash;</span></td>
+<td class="tdb">On the Tertiary, Olive</td>
+<td class="tdc"><a href="#chapter_16">325</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tda"><span class="smcap">XVII.&mdash;</span></td>
+<td class="tdb">On the <ins class="trans" title="was Semi-neutral">Semi-Neutral</ins>, Brown</td>
+<td class="tdc"><a href="#chapter_17">334</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tda"><span class="smcap">XVIII.&mdash;</span></td>
+<td class="tdb">On the Semi-Neutral, Marrone </td>
+<td class="tdc"><a href="#chapter_18">362</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tda"><span class="smcap">XIX.&mdash;</span></td>
+<td class="tdb">On the Semi-Neutral, Gray</td>
+<td class="tdc"><a href="#chapter_19">372</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tda"><span class="smcap">XX.&mdash;</span></td>
+<td class="tdb">On the Neutral, Grey </td>
+<td class="tdc"><a href="#chapter_20">381</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tda"><span class="smcap">XXI.&mdash;</span></td>
+<td class="tdb">On the Neutral, Black </td>
+<td class="tdc"><a href="#chapter_21">387</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tda"><span class="smcap">&nbsp;</span></td>
+<td class="tdb">Addendum</td>
+<td class="tdc"><a href="#addendum">414</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tda"><span class="smcap">&nbsp;</span></td>
+<td class="tdb">Index</td>
+<td class="tdc"><a href="#index">417</a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%; margin-bottom: 80px;" />
+
+<h3>NOTICE.</h3>
+
+
+<p>Among the works consulted in this Edition are the following, from most
+of which extracts have been taken:</p>
+
+<p>Bancroft's Philosophy of Colours.</p>
+<p>Brande's Manual of Chemistry.</p>
+<p>Chemical News.</p>
+<p>Chevreul on Colour.</p>
+<p>Fownes' Manual of Chemistry.</p>
+<p>Gmelin's Handbook of Chemistry.</p>
+<p>Handbooks on Art.</p>
+<p>Liebig and Kopp's Annual Report of the Progress of Chemistry.</p>
+<p>M&eacute;rim&eacute;e's Painting in Oil.</p>
+<p>Muspratt's Dictionary of Chemistry.</p>
+<p>Normandy's Commercial Handbook of Chemical Analysis.</p>
+<p>O'Neill's Chemistry of Calico Printing.</p>
+<p>Quarterly Journal of the Chemical Society.</p>
+<p>Ruskin's Elements of Drawing.</p>
+<p>Watts' Dictionary of Chemistry.</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%; margin-top: 80px;" />
+
+<h1>PART I.</h1>
+
+<hr style="width: 35%; margin-top: 0px;" />
+
+<h2>ON COLOURS AND COLOURING.</h2>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="chromatography" id="chromatography"></a>CHROMATOGRAPHY;</h2>
+
+<h5>OR,</h5>
+
+<h3>A TREATISE ON COLOURS AND PIGMENTS.</h3>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 35%;" />
+
+<h2><a name="chapter_1" id="chapter_1"></a><a href="#contents">CHAPTER I.</a></h2>
+
+<h3>ON COLOURING.</h3>
+
+
+<p><span class="dropcap">How</span> early, and to what extent, colouring may have attained the rank of
+science among the ancients, are questions not easily set at rest; but
+that some progress had been made, even at a very remote period, is
+proved by the magnificent tombs of the Egyptian kings at Thebes, where
+the walls of the royal mausoleum are described as being covered with
+paintings so fresh and perfect, as to require neither restoration nor
+improvement. So far from this, indeed, that with all care in copying, it
+was difficult to equal the brilliancy of the originals, which, as far as
+colours went, threw all others in the background. And yet, in spite of
+the scale having comprised pure vermilion, ochres, and indigo, it was
+not<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span> gaudy, owing to the judicious balance of the colours, and the
+artful management of the black. Nor was there an ornament throughout the
+dresses, wherein the red, yellow, and blue, were not so employed as to
+produce a delicious harmony.</p>
+
+<p>Moreover, it is stated that in one painting eighty feet high and
+proportionably broad, which was divided into two ranges of gigantic
+figures, these were glowing with most exquisite colours, suited to the
+drapery and naked parts; and in which the azure, yellow, green, &amp;c.,
+were as well preserved as though they had been laid on yesterday. Again,
+an apartment was discovered among the stupendous ruins at Carnac, on the
+site of ancient Thebes, one hundred paces wide and sixty deep,
+completely crowded with pillars, which, together with the ceiling, roof,
+and walls, were decorated with figures in basso-relievo, and
+hieroglyphics&mdash;all marvellously beautiful and finely painted, and as
+fresh, splendid and glorious, after so many ages, as if they had just
+been finished.</p>
+
+<p>In various accounts these colourings of the Egyptians are described in
+the warmest terms of admiration. The most charming are undoubtedly those
+on the tombs and temples: others of less merit have been found on the
+cases and cloths of mummies, and on papyrus rolls; but it is to the
+patterns<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span> on the walls and ceilings of their houses that they seem to
+have been most partial, and paid the most attention. The ordinary
+colours employed by them were red, yellow, green, and blue. Of the last
+there were two tints; black also was common. For white, the finely
+prepared stone-coloured ground was deemed sufficient. These colours were
+occasionally modified by mixture with chalk; but were always, or nearly
+always, applied singly, in an unmixed state. With regard to their
+composition, chemical analysis has shown several of the <i>blues</i> to be
+oxide of copper with a small proportion of iron; none containing cobalt.
+There is little doubt, however, that the most brilliant specimens&mdash;those
+which retain all their original force and beauty in the temples of Upper
+Egypt after an exposure of three thousand years, consist of
+ultramarine&mdash;the celebrated Armenian blue, possibly, of the ancients.
+The <i>reds</i> seem for the most part to be composed of oxide of iron mixed
+with lime, and were probably limited to iron earths and ochres, with a
+native cinnabar or vermilion. The <i>yellows</i> are said to have been, in
+many cases, vegetable colours; but it is likely earths and ochres were
+their chief source. The <i>greens</i> consist of yellow mixed with copper
+blue. The bluish-green which sometimes appears on Egyptian antiquities,
+is merely a faded blue. The <i>blacks</i> are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span> both of vegetable and mineral
+origin, having been obtained from a variety of substances in a variety
+of ways.</p>
+
+<p>But, as shown by Layard in his discoveries at Nineveh, a knowledge of
+colouring was not confined to the Egyptians; it was likewise possessed
+by the Assyrians. The painted ornaments of the latter are stated to have
+been remarkably elegant; and although the colours were limited to blue,
+red, white, yellow, and black, yet they were arranged with so much taste
+and skill, and the contrasts were so judiciously preserved, that the
+combinations were in general agreeable to the eye. The pale
+yellowish-white ground on which the designs were painted, resembled the
+tint on the walls of Egyptian monuments, and a strong well-defined black
+outline was found to be as peculiar a feature in Assyrian as in Egyptian
+painting, black frequently combining with white alone, or alternating
+with other colours. As far as they have been analysed, the pigments
+employed were mineral, the brightest being a blue derived from copper.
+No traces of vegetable colours have been found; it is presumed that they
+existed, but being subject to more rapid decay than the mineral
+pigments, they have disappeared. That all the colours, indeed, employed
+by the ancients were not permanent, was proved by the fact of certain
+blues and reds, brilliant and vivid when the earth was removed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span> from
+them, fading rapidly when exposed to the air.</p>
+
+<p>From Philocles, the Egyptian, and Gyges, a Lydian, both of whom,
+according to Pliny, acquired the knowledge of the art of painting in
+Egypt, the Greeks obtained the knowledge of their <i>Ars Chromatica</i>,
+which they are said to have carried by gradual advances during several
+centuries, from the monochromatic of their earlier painters, to the
+perfection of colouring under Zeuxis and Apelles, 450 to 350 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>
+Unfortunately, not long after, or about 300 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>, art rapidly
+deteriorated; the invasion of the Romans commenced; and the principles
+of light, shade, and colours in painting as understood by the Greeks,
+together with their valuable treatises on the subject were lost. The
+early Roman and Florentine painters, so eminent in other respects, were
+almost destitute of those principles, and of truly refined feeling for
+the effects of colouring.</p>
+
+<p>The partial restoration of this branch seems to have been coeval with
+the earliest practice of painting in oil. The glory of it belongs to the
+Venetians, to whom the art of painting passed with the last remains of
+the Greek schools after the capture of Constantinople at the beginning
+of the thirteenth century. Giovanni Bellini laid the foundation of
+colouring, and Titian carried it to its highest practical perfection.
+From<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span> the Venetian it extended to the Lombard, Flemish, and Spanish
+schools. In the practice of these, however, there was perhaps as much of
+instinct as principle, colouring still remaining to be established in
+its perfection as a science.</p>
+
+<p>According to the true, natural, and philosophical classification of
+painting, there are but three principal classes or schools; viz.: the
+gross and <i>material</i> which is content with mere nature, and to which
+belong the Dutch and Flemish schools; the <i>sensible</i>, which aims at
+refined and select nature, and accords with the Venetian school; and the
+<i>intellectual</i>, which aspires to the ideal in beauty, grandeur, and
+sublimity, and corresponds with the Greek, Roman, and Florentine
+schools. Modern art as founded upon the <i>intellectual</i> school of the
+ancient Greeks, became grand, scientific, and severe in the practice of
+Michael Angelo, and Leonardo da Vinci; graceful, beautiful and
+expressive in Raphael, Correggio, Dominichino, and Guido; and, aiming at
+<i>sensible</i> perfection, it attained harmony of colouring and effect in
+the works of Titian and Tintoret; but it sunk into grossness and
+sensuality while perfecting itself <i>materially</i> among the Flemish and
+Dutch.</p>
+
+<p>In the practice of the individual in painting, as well as in all
+revolutions of pictorial art, in ancient Greece as in modern Italy,
+colouring in its perfection has been the last attainment of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span> excellence
+in every school. It has been justly observed, indeed, that for near
+three hundred years, since painting was revived, we could hardly reckon
+six painters that had been good colourists, among the thousands who had
+laboured to become such. But there is reason to hope that as Zeuxis
+succeeded and excelled Polygnotus, and Titian Raphael, the artists of
+Britain will transcend all preceding schools in the chromatic department
+of painting. It is even probable that they may surpass them in all other
+branches, and in every mode and application of the art, as they have
+already more particularly done in an original and unrivalled use of
+water-colours.</p>
+
+<p>Happily, too, there has arisen among us a school of colouring that
+confirms this expectation, strengthened as it is, by the suitableness of
+our climate to perfect vision. For in it we have that mean degree of
+light which is best adapted to the distinguishing of colours, a
+boundless diversity of hue in nature relieved by those fine effects of
+light and shade which are denied to more vertical suns, besides those
+beauties of complexion and feature in our females peculiar to England;
+respects in which at least our country is not unfavourable to art.</p>
+
+<p>Even now it is urged by some to the <i>disparagement</i> of the British
+school, that it excels in colouring; as if this were incompatible with
+any other excellence, or as if nature, the great pro<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span>totype of art, ever
+dispensed with it. The graphic branches of painting, owe everything to
+colour, which, if it does not constitute a picture, is its flesh and
+blood. Without it, the finest performances remain <ins class="trans" title="was life less">lifeless</ins> skeletons,
+and yield no pleasure. Painting is the art of representing visible
+things by light, shade, form, and colour; but of these, colour&mdash;and
+colour alone&mdash;is the immediate object which attracts the eye. Colouring
+is, therefore, the first requisite&mdash;the one thing imparting warmth and
+life&mdash;the chief quality engaging attention; in short, the best
+introduction to a picture, and that which continues to give it value so
+long as it is regarded. It is a power, too, which is with the most
+difficulty retained, being the first to leave the artist himself, and
+the first to quit a school on its decline. Graphic art without
+colouring, is as food without flavour; and it was the deficiency of
+colouring in the great works of the Roman and Florentine schools that
+caused Sir Joshua Reynolds to confess a certain want of attraction in
+them. To relish and estimate truly their greatness, required, he said, a
+forced and often-repeated attention, and "it was only those persons
+incapable of appreciating such divine performances, who made pretensions
+to instantaneous raptures on first beholding them." Gainsborough also,
+with a candour similar to that of Reynolds, upon viewing the cartoons at
+Hampton<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span> Court, acknowledged that their beauty was of a class he could
+neither appreciate nor enjoy.</p>
+
+<p>Colouring, then, is a necessity; but there is in it a vicious extreme;
+that in which it is rendered so principal as, by want of subordination,
+to overlay the subject. There is also a negative excellence which
+consists in not always employing pleasing tints, but of sometimes taking
+advantage of the effects to be derived from impure hues, as Poussin did
+in his "Deluge." In this work, neither black nor white, blue, red, nor
+yellow appears; the whole mass being, with little variation, of a sombre
+grey, the true resemblance of a dark and humid atmosphere, by which
+every object is rendered indistinct and almost colourless. This absence
+of colour, however, is a merit, and not a fault. Vandyke employed such
+means with admirable effect in the background of a Crucifixion, and in
+his Pieta; and the Pha&euml;ton of Giulio Romano is celebrated for a
+suffusion of smothered red, which powerfully excites the idea of a world
+on fire.</p>
+
+<p>Of the rank and value of this department of painting, there will be, as
+there has been, difference of judgment and opinion, as there is variety
+in the powers of the eye and understanding. But take from Rubens,
+Rembrandt, Titian, and other distinguished masters, the estimation of
+their colouring, and we fear all that is left to them would hardly
+preserve their names from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span> oblivion. Art cannot, indeed, attain its
+appropriate end, that of pleasing, without excellence in colouring. It
+is colour which the true artist most loves, and it is colouring in all
+its complex and high relations, that he ever seeks to attain. Looking
+above, and around, and beneath him, with the intelligent eye of the
+colourist, he finds a boundless source of never-ceasing enjoyment. With
+harmonies and accordances lost to the untutored gaze, colour meets him
+in every stone he treads on&mdash;in the mineral, vegetable, and animal
+creation&mdash;in the heavens, sea, and earth. For him, in truth, colour is
+as equally diffused as light, spreading itself over the entire face of
+nature, and clothing the whole world with beauty.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span><a name="chapter_2" id="chapter_2"></a><a href="#contents">CHAPTER II.</a></h2>
+
+<h3>ON THE RELATIONS AND HARMONY OF COLOUR.</h3>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Assured</span> as we must be of the importance of colouring as a branch of art,
+colours in all their bearings become interesting to the artist, and on
+their use and arrangement his reputation as a colourist must depend.</p>
+
+<p>Colour, remarks Ruskin, is wholly <i>relative</i>; each hue throughout a work
+is altered by every touch added in other places. Thus, to place white
+beside a colour is to heighten its tone; to set black beside a colour is
+to weaken its tone; while to put grey beside a colour, is to render it
+more brilliant. If a dark colour be placed near a different, but lighter
+colour, the tone of the first is heightened, while that of the second is
+lowered. An important consequence of this principle is, that the first
+effect may neutralize the second, or even destroy it altogether. What
+was cold before, becomes warm when a colder colour is set near it, and
+what was in harmony before, becomes discordant as other colours are put
+beside it. For example, to place a light blue<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span> beside a yellow, tinges
+it orange, and consequently heightens its tone. Again, there are some
+blues so dark relatively to the yellow that they weaken it, and not only
+hide the orange tint, but even cause sensitive eyes to feel that the
+yellow is rather green than orange&mdash;a very natural result when it is
+considered that the paler the yellow becomes, the more it tends to
+appear green.</p>
+
+<p>We learn from these relations of colours, why dapplings of two or more
+produce effects in painting so much more clear and brilliant than
+uniform tints obtained by compounding the same colours: and why
+hatchings, or a touch of their contrasts, thrown as it were by accident
+upon local tints, have the same effect. We see, too, why colours mixed
+deteriorate each other, which they do more&mdash;in many cases&mdash;by
+imperfectly neutralizing or subduing each other chromatically, than by
+any chemical action. Finally, we are impressed with the necessity, not
+only of using colours pure, but of using pure colours; although pure
+colouring and brilliancy differ as much from crudeness and harshness, as
+tone and harmony from murkiness and monotony.</p>
+
+<p>The powers of colours in contrasting each other agree with their
+correlative powers of light and shade, and are to be distinguished from
+their powers individually on the eye, which are those of light alone.
+Thus, although orange and blue<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span> are equal powers with respect to each
+other, as regards the eye they are totally different and opposed. Orange
+is a luminous colour, and has a powerfully irritating effect, while blue
+is a shadowy colour, possessing a soothing quality&mdash;and it is the same,
+in various degrees, with other colours.</p>
+
+<p>There are yet further modes of contrast or antagonism in colouring,
+which claim the attention and engage the skill of the colourist. Of the
+contrast of <i>hues</i>, upon which depend the brilliancy, force, and harmony
+of colouring, we have just spoken; but there is, secondly, the contrast
+of <i>shades</i>. To this belong all the powers of chiaroscuro, by which term
+the painter denotes the <ins class="correction" title="inharmonious read as harmonious">harmonious</ins> effects of light and shade; and
+though they form the simplest part of colouring, yet they cannot be
+separated from it&mdash;light and shade, the chiaroscuro, being a distinct
+and important branch of painting. A third mode of contrast in colouring
+is that of <i>warmth</i> and <i>coolness</i>, upon which depend the toning and
+general effect of a picture. Fourthly, there is the contrast of <i>colour</i>
+and <i>neutrality</i>, the chromatic and achromatic, or hue and shade. By the
+right management of this, local colours acquire value, gradation,
+keeping, and connection: whence come breadth, a&euml;rial perspective, and
+the due distribution of greys and shadows in a picture.</p>
+
+<p>This principle of contrast applies even to <i>indi<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span>vidual colours</i>, and
+conduces greatly to good colouring. It may be carried with advantage
+into the variety of hue and tint in the same colour, not only as regards
+light and shade, but likewise with respect to warmth and coolness, as
+well as to colour and neutrality. Hence the judicious landscape-painter
+knows how to avail himself of warmth and coolness in the juxtaposition
+of his greens, in addition to their lightness and darkness, or
+brilliancy and brokenness, in producing the most beautiful and varied
+effects; effects which spring in other cases from a like management of
+blue, white, &amp;c. These powers of a colour upon itself are highly
+important to the artist, and lead to that gratification from fine
+colouring, which a good eye ever enjoys.</p>
+
+<p>In landscape we see nature employing broken colours in harmonious
+consonance and variety, while, equally true to picturesque relations,
+she uses also broken forms and figures, in conjoint harmony with
+colours; occasionally throwing into the composition a regular form, or a
+primary colour, for the sake of animation and contrast. And if we
+inspect her works more closely, we shall find that they have no uniform
+tints. Whether in the animal, vegetable or mineral creation&mdash;flesh or
+foliage, earth or sky, flower or stone&mdash;however uniform the colour may
+appear at a distance, it will, when examined nearly, be found to
+consist<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span> of a variety of hues and shades, compounded with harmony and
+intelligence.</p>
+
+<p>It is for this reason that no two colours are ever found discordant in
+nature, however much so they may be in art. Blue and green have been
+termed discordant, and in painting they may undoubtedly be made so. Yet
+those are two colours which nature seems to intend never to be
+separated, and never to be felt, either of them, in its full beauty,
+without the other&mdash;a blue sky through green leaves, or a blue wave with
+green lights through it, being precisely the loveliest things, next to
+clouds at <ins class="trans" title="was sun-rise">sunrise</ins>, in this coloured world of ours. A good eye for colour
+will soon discover how constantly nature puts green and purple together,
+purple and scarlet, green and blue, yellow and neutral grey, and the
+like; and how she strikes these colour-concords for general tones,
+before working into them with innumerable subordinate ones.</p>
+
+<p>Upon the more intimate union, or the blending and gradience of contrasts
+from one to another mutually, depend some of the most fascinating
+effects of colouring. The practical principle employed in producing them
+is important, and consists in the blending and gradating by <i>mixture</i>,
+while we avoid the <i>compounding</i> of contrasting colours. That is, the
+colours must be kept distinct in the act of blending them, or otherwise
+they will run into dusky neutrality and defile each other. This is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span> the
+case in blending and gradating from green to red, or from hue to
+hue&mdash;from blue to orange, or to and from coldness and warmth&mdash;from
+yellow to purple, or to and from advancing and retiring colours. It is
+the same in light and shade, or white and black, which <i>mix</i> with
+clearness. Now, there are only two ways in which this distinctness in
+union of contrasts can be effected in practice: the one is by hatching
+or breaking them together in mixture, without compounding them
+uniformly; and the other is by glazing, in which the colours unite and
+penetrate mutually, without monotonous composition.</p>
+
+<p>The former process may be said to be the carrying out of the principle
+of separate colours to the utmost possible refinement, by using atoms of
+colour in juxtaposition, instead of in large spaces. And it is to be
+noted, in filling up minute interstices of this kind, that if the colour
+with which they are filled be wanted to show brightly, a rather positive
+point of it had better be put, with a little white left beside or round
+it in the interstice. This plan is preferable to laying a pale tint of
+the colour over the whole interstice. Yellow or orange, for instance,
+will hardly show, if pale, in small spaces; but they show brightly in
+free touches, however small, with white beside them. The latter mode is
+founded on the fact, that if a dark colour be laid first, and a little
+blue or white body-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span>colour struck lightly over it, a more beautiful gray
+will be obtained than by mixing the colour and the blue or white.
+Similarly, if over a solid and perfectly dry touch of vermilion there be
+quickly washed a little very wet carmine, a much more brilliant red will
+be produced than by mixing the two colours.</p>
+
+<p>Transparency and opacity constitute another contrast of colouring, the
+former of which belongs to shade and blackness, the latter to light and
+whiteness. Even contrast has its contrast, for <i>gradations</i> or
+<i>intermedia</i> are opposed to contrasts or <i>extremes</i>; and, upon the right
+management of contrasts and gradations depend the harmony and melody,
+the tone, effect, and general expression of a picture. Thus, painting is
+an affair of judicious contrasting so far as regards colour, if even it
+be not such altogether.</p>
+
+<p>Colour, it has already been observed, is wholly <i>relative</i>. In
+contrasting, therefore, any colour, if we wish it to have light or
+brilliancy, we cast its opposite into the shade; if we would have it
+warm, we cool its antagonist; and if transparent, we oppose it by an
+opaque contrary, and <i>vice vers&acirc;</i>: indeed, in practice, all these must
+be in some measure combined.</p>
+
+<p>Such are some of the powers of contrast in colouring alone, and such is
+the diversity of art upon which skill in colouring depends. It must not
+be forgotten, however, that contrasts or ex<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span>tremes, whether of light and
+shade, or of colours, become violent and offensive when they are not
+reconciled by the interposition of their media, or intermediates, which
+partake of both extremes of the contrasts. Thus blue and orange in
+contrast become reconciled, softened in effect, and harmonized, when a
+broken colour composed of the two intervenes. The same may be said of
+other colours, shades, and contrasts.</p>
+
+<p>Seeing that the management and mastery of colours are to a great extent
+dependent on the same principles as light and shade, it might become a
+point of good discipline, after acquiring the use of black and white in
+the chiaroscuro, to paint designs in contrast; that is, with two
+contrasting colours only, in conjunction with black and white&mdash;for
+example, with blue and orange, before attempting the whole. Indeed,
+black can be dispensed with in these cases, because it may be
+compounded, since the neutral grey and third colours always arise from
+the compounding of contrasting colours. In this way, even flesh may be
+painted&mdash;for instance, with red and green alone, as Gainsborough is said
+at one period to have done.</p>
+
+<p>Some artists have produced pictures <ins class="trans" title="was in the the">in the</ins> above hot and cold colours
+only; which, although captivating to the eye, and true in theory with
+respect to colour, light and shade, are generally false in practice with
+regard to nature,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span> which rarely employs such extreme accordances.
+Colouring like this, therefore, is more beautiful than true. It is as
+though a painter were to execute a landscape in the full light of day,
+as he saw it looking through a prism, so that every object glowed with
+rainbow hues. Such a picture would present a beautiful fairy scene, and
+be true as regards colours, but as respects nature, it would be false.</p>
+
+<p>Colour, and what in painting is called transparency, belong chiefly to
+shade. It has been a common error to ascribe those properties to light
+only, and hence many have employed a uniform shade tint, regarding
+shadows as simply darkness, blackness, or the mere absence of light;
+when, in truth, shadows are infinitely varied by colour, and always so
+by the colours of the lights which produce them. But while we incline
+attention toward the relation of colour to shade, both light and shade
+being strictly co-essential to colour, a vicious extreme must be
+avoided. For although, as transparent, colour inclines to shade, and, as
+opaque, it partakes of light; yet the general tendency of colour is to
+transparency and shade, all colour being a departure from light. Hence
+it becomes a maxim, which he who aspires to good colouring must never
+lose sight of, that <i>the colour of shadow is always transparent, and
+only that of extreme light objects opaque</i>. It follows, that white is to
+be kept as much as possible out<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span> of shadow, and black, for the same
+reason, out of colour. In their stead, whenever it is necessary to
+cover, opaque tints may be employed, glazed over with transparent
+colours. Such practice would also be more favourable to durability of
+the tones of pictures, than the shades and tints produced with black and
+white. The hues and shadows of nature are in no ordinary case either
+black or white, which, except as local colours, are always poor and
+frigid. The perfection of colouring is to combine harmony with
+brilliancy, unity with variety, and freshness with force, without
+violating the laws of nature.</p>
+
+<p>With regard to the <i>perspective of colours</i>, or the manner in which they
+affect the eye, according to position and distance, it is a branch of
+a&euml;rial <ins class="trans" title="was perpective">perspective</ins> or the perspective of light and shade. This is
+distinguished from linear perspective, or the perspective of drawing, as
+drawing is from colouring; and they have progressed alike in the art.
+The most ancient painters seem to have known little of either; and
+linear perspective was established as science before the a&euml;rial, as
+drawing and composition preceded colouring.</p>
+
+<p>The perspective of colours depends upon their powers to reflect the
+elements of light, powers which are by no means uniform. Accordingly,
+blue is lost in the distance before red, and yellow is seen at a point
+at which red would disappear; yet blue preserves its hue better than
+yellow,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span> because colours are cooled in the distance. In this respect,
+the compound colours partake of the powers of their components, in
+obedience to a general rule, by which local colours closely connected
+with black are first lost in the distance, and those nearly related to
+white disappear last. The same may be said of local light and shade, the
+latter of which is totally lost at great distances; and it is for this
+reason the shadowed side of the moon is not generally seen. These powers
+of colours are, however, varied by mist, air, altitude, and mixture,
+which produce evanescence; and by contrast, which preserves the force of
+colours by distinguishing them. Colours do not decline in force so much
+by height as by horizontal distance, because the upper atmosphere is
+less dense and clouded with vapour: and hence it is that mountains of
+great elevation appear much nearer than they really are. From all these
+circumstances, it is evident that a simple scumbling or uniform
+degradation of local colours will not effect a true perspective&mdash;for
+this will be the a&euml;rial of light and shade only&mdash;but such a
+subordination of hues and tints, as the various powers of colours
+require, and as is always observable in nature.</p>
+
+<p>In furnishing or <i>setting the palette</i> philosophically and upon
+principle, it is necessary to supply it with pure blue, red, and yellow;
+to oppose to these an orange, of a hue that will neutralise the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span>
+blue&mdash;green, of a hue that will neutralise the red&mdash;and purple, of a hue
+that will neutralise the yellow; and so on to black and white, which
+will neutralise each other. As in nature, the general colour of the sky
+is blue, and the colour of light is always opposite to that of the sky
+and shade, so the white which is to represent light should be tinged
+with the orange of the palette sufficiently to neutralise the
+predominant coldness of black. Pure neutral white may thus be reserved
+as a "local" colour, which is a technical term for the <i>natural</i> colour
+of an object, unvaried by distance, reflection, or anything interfering
+with distinct vision; although, properly speaking, local colours are
+subject to all the relations and effects of the places they occupy in a
+composition&mdash;whether of light, shade, reflection, or distance.</p>
+
+<p>From what we have said, it will be seen that the relations and harmony
+of colours form a complex subject, requiring constant and careful study;
+one, indeed, into which he who would become a colourist must enter heart
+and soul. For as colouring is the beginning and end of a painter's
+craft, so colour in all its aspects must be the chief lesson of his
+life. And this lesson can only be learnt, by ever watching with a loving
+eye those wondrous colourings of nature, in which there is nothing
+inharmonious or out of place.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span>PART II.</h2>
+
+<h3><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span>ON COLOURS AND PIGMENTS GENERALLY.</h3>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span><a name="chapter_3" id="chapter_3"></a><a href="#contents">CHAPTER III.</a></h2>
+
+<h3>ON CLASSES OF COLOURS.</h3>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">By</span> mixing his <i>colours with white</i>, the artist obtains his <i>tints</i>. By
+mixing <i>colours with colours</i>, he produces compound colours, or <i>hues</i>.
+And by mixing <i>colours or tints with black</i>, he gets <i>shades</i>. It is a
+common error to confound these distinctions.</p>
+
+<p>The above classification of colours enables us to understand the
+simplicity of relation which exists among an infinity of tints, hues,
+and shades of colour. Also, it is calculated to give precision to
+language respecting colours, the nomenclature of which has too often
+been vague and uncertain.</p>
+
+<p>There are five classes of colours, viz.:&mdash;the <i>Neutral</i>, the <i>Primary</i>,
+the <i>Secondary</i>, the <i>Tertiary</i>, and the <i>Semi-neutral</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Neutral Colours</i> are three only, <i>white</i>, <i>black</i>, and grey. According
+to the laws of Optics, the two first comprise all other colours
+synthetically, and afford them all by analysis. These are sometimes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span>
+called "extreme" colours, grey being their intermediate.</p>
+
+<p><i>Primary Colours</i> are three only, <i>yellow</i>, <i>red</i>, and <i>blue</i>. They are
+such as yield others by being compounded, but are not themselves capable
+of being produced by composition of other colours. By way of
+distinction, they are occasionally designated "entire" colours.</p>
+
+<p><i>Secondary Colours</i>, are three only, <i>orange</i>, <i>green</i>, and <i>purple</i>.
+Each of these is composed of, or can be resolved into, two primaries.
+Thus, orange is composed of red and yellow; green, of yellow and blue;
+and purple, of blue and red.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tertiary Colours</i> are three only, <i>citrine</i>, <i>russet</i>, and <i>olive</i>.
+Each of these is composed of, or can be resolved into, either two
+secondary colours, or the three primaries. Thus, citrine consists of
+green and orange, or of a predominant yellow with blue and red; russet
+is compounded of orange and purple, or of a predominant red with blue
+and yellow; and olive is composed of purple and green, or of a
+predominant blue with yellow and red.</p>
+
+<p>The last three genera of colours comprehend in an orderly gradation all
+those which are <i>positive</i> or definite; and the three colours of each
+genus, united or compounded in such subordination that neither of them
+predominates to the eye, constitute the <i>negative</i> or neutral colours,
+of which <i>black</i> and <i>white</i> have been stated to be the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span> opposed
+extremes, and <i>greys</i> their intermediates. Thus black and white are
+constituted of, and comprise latently, the principles of all colours,
+and accompany them in their depth and brilliancy as shade and light.</p>
+
+<p><i>Semi-neutral Colours</i> belong to a class of which <i>brown</i>, <ins class="trans" title="was marone"><i>marrone</i></ins>,
+and <i>gray</i> may be considered types. They are so called, because they
+comprehend all the combinations of the primary, secondary, and tertiary
+colours, with the neutral <i>black</i>. Of the various combinations of black,
+those in which yellow, orange, or citrine predominates, have obtained
+the name of brown, &amp;c. A second class in which the compounds of black
+are of a predominant red, purple, or russet hue, comprises <ins class="trans" title="was marone">marrone</ins>,
+chocolate, &amp;c. And a third class, in which the combinations of black
+have a predominating hue of blue, green, or olive, includes gray, slate,
+&amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>While treating of the classes of colours, it may not be out of place to
+note here the difference between gray as spelt with an <i>a</i>, and grey as
+spelt with an <i>e</i>, the two names being occasionally confounded. <i>Gray</i>
+is semi-neutral, and denotes a class of cool cinereous colours, faint of
+hue; whence we have blue grays, olive grays, green grays, purple grays,
+and grays of all hues in which blue predominates; but no yellow or red
+grays, the predominance of such hues carrying the compounds into the
+classes of brown and <ins class="trans" title="was marone">marrone</ins>, of which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span> gray is the natural opposite.
+<i>Grey</i> is neutral, and is composed of or can be resolved into black and
+white alone, from a mixture of which two colours it springs in an
+infinite series.</p>
+
+<p>It must be observed that each colour may comprehend an indefinite series
+of <i>shades</i> between the extremes of light and dark, as each compound
+colour also may comprise a similar series of <i>hues</i> between the extremes
+of the colours composing it. And as the relations of colours have been
+deduced regularly, from white or light to black or shade; so the same
+may be done, inversely, from black to white. On this plan the
+tertiaries, olive, russet, and citrine, take the place of the primaries,
+blue, red, and yellow; while the secondaries still retain their
+intermediate station and relation to both.</p>
+
+<p>Thus, <i>russet and olive</i> compose or unite in <i>dark purple</i>; <i>citrine and
+olive</i> in <i>dark green</i>; <i>russet and citrine</i> in <i>dark orange</i>. The
+tertiaries have, therefore, the same order of relation to black that the
+primaries have to white; and we have black primaries, secondaries, and
+tertiaries, inversely, as we have white primaries, secondaries, and
+tertiaries, directly. In other words, we have light and dark colours in
+all classes.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span><a name="chapter_4" id="chapter_4"></a><a href="#contents">CHAPTER IV.</a></h2>
+
+<h3>ON THE DURABILITY AND EVANESCENCE OF PIGMENTS.</h3>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Pigments</span> may be defined as colours in a solid or insoluble state,
+prepared for the artists' use. Hitherto, we have treated of colours in
+the abstract sense, as appealing to the eye only: we have now to
+consider them as material bodies.</p>
+
+<p>As colour itself is relative, so is durability of colour relative. For
+the reason that all material substances are changeable and in perpetual
+action and reaction, no pigment is so permanent as that nothing will
+alter its colour. On the other hand, none is so fugitive as not to last
+under some favouring circumstances. Time, of long or short continuance,
+has often the effect of fire, more or less intense. Indeed, it is some
+sort of criterion of the stability and changes of colour in pigments,
+that time and fire are apt to produce similar effects thereon. Thus, if
+fire deepen, or cool, or warm a colour, so may time; if it vary its
+hues, so may time; if it destroy a colour altogether, so may time
+ultimately. The power of time, however, varies extremely with regard<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span> to
+the period in which it produces those effects, that are instantly
+accomplished by fire.</p>
+
+<p>That there is no absolute but only relative durability of colour may be
+proved from the most celebrated pigments. For instance, the colour of
+native ultramarine, which will endure a hundred centuries under ordinary
+circumstances, may be at once destroyed by a drop of lemon juice; and
+the generally fugitive and changeable carmine of cochineal will, when
+secluded from light and air, continue fifty years or more; while fire or
+time, which merely deepen the former colour, will completely dissipate
+the latter. Again, there have been works of art in which the white of
+lead has retained its freshness for ages in a pure atmosphere, but has
+been changed to blackness after a few days' or even hours' exposure to
+foul air. These and other peculiarities of colours will be noticed, when
+we come to speak of pigments individually; not for the purpose of
+destroying the artist's confidence, but as a caution, and a guide to the
+availing himself of their powers properly.</p>
+
+<p>It is, therefore, the lasting under the usual conditions of painting,
+and the common circumstances to which works of art are exposed, that
+entitles a colour to the character of permanency; and it is the
+not-so-enduring which attaches to it rightly the opposite character of
+evanescence: while a pigment may obtain a false repute for either, by
+accidental preservation or destruction<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span> under unusually favourable or
+fatal circumstances.</p>
+
+<p>Many have imagined that colours vitrified by intense heat are
+consequently durable when levigated for painting in oil or water. Had
+this been the case, the artist need not have looked farther for the
+furnishing of his palette than to a supply of well-burnt and levigated
+enamel pigments. But though such colours for the most part stand well
+when fluxed on glass, or in the glazing of enamel, they are nearly,
+without exception, subject to the most serious changes when ground to
+the degree of fineness necessary to their application as pigments, and
+become liable to all the chemical changes and affinities of the
+substances which compose them. These remarks even apply in a measure to
+native products, such as coloured earths and metallic ores.</p>
+
+<p>Others have not unreasonably supposed that when pigments are locked up
+in varnishes and oils, they are safe from all possibility of change. The
+assumption would be more warranted if we had an impenetrable
+varnish&mdash;and even that would not resist the action of light, however
+well it might exclude the influence of air and moisture. But, in fact,
+varnishes and oils themselves yield to changes of temperature, to the
+action of a humid atmosphere, and to other influences: their protection
+of colour from change is therefore far from perfect.</p>
+
+<p>Want of attention to the unceasing mutability<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span> of all chemical
+substances, as well as to their reciprocal actions, has occasioned those
+changes of colour to be ascribed to fugitiveness of the pigment, which
+belong to the affinities of other substances with which it has been
+improperly mixed and applied. It is thus that the best pigments have
+suffered in reputation under the injudicious processes of the painter;
+although, owing to a desultory practice, the effects and results have
+not been uniform. If a colour be not extremely permanent, dilution will
+render it in some measure more weak and fugitive; and this occurs in
+several ways&mdash;by a too free use of the vehicle; by complex mixture in
+the formation of tints; by distribution, in glazing or lackering, of
+colours upon the lights downward, or scumbling colours upon the shades
+upward; or by a mixed mode very common among the Venetian painters, in
+which opaque pigments are combined, as umber and lake.</p>
+
+<p>The fugitive colours do less injury in the shadows than in the lights of
+a picture, because they are employed pure, and in greater body in
+shadows, and are therefore less liable to decay by the action of light,
+and by mixture. Through partially fading, moreover, they balance any
+tendency to darken, to which the dead colouring of earthy and metallic
+pigments is disposed.</p>
+
+<p>The foregoing circumstances, added to the variableness of pigments by
+nature, preparation,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span> and sophistication, have often rendered their
+effects equivocal, and their powers questionable. These considerations
+enforce the expediency of using colours as pure and free from
+unnecessary mixture as possible; for simplicity of composition and
+management is equally a maxim of good mechanism, good chemistry, and
+good colouring. Accordingly, in respect to the latter, Sir Joshua
+Reynolds remarks, "Two colours mixed together will not preserve the
+brightness of either of them single, nor will three be as bright as two:
+of this observation, simple as it is, an artist who wishes to colour
+bright will know the value."</p>
+
+<p><ins class="correction" title="There prevails read There prevail">There prevail</ins>, notwithstanding, two principles of practice on the
+palette, opposed to each other&mdash;the one, simple; the other, multiple.
+The first is that of having as few pigments as possible; and consists,
+when carried to the extreme, in employing the three primary colours
+only. The second is that of having a number of pigments; and consists,
+also when carried to the extreme, of employing as many, if possible, as
+there are hues and shades of colour.</p>
+
+<p>On the former plan, every tint requires to be compounded; on the latter,
+one pigment supplies the place of two or more. Now, the more pigments
+are mixed, the more they are deteriorated in colour, attenuated, and
+chemically set at variance. Original pigments, that is, such as are not
+made up of two or more colours, are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span> purer in hue and generally more
+durable than those compounded. Hence pure intermediate tints in single,
+permanent, original pigments, are to be preferred to pigments
+compounded, often to the dilution and injury of their colours. Cadmium
+Orange, for instance, which is <i>naturally</i> an orange pigment and not
+composed of red and yellow, is superior to many mixtures of those
+colours in a chemical sense, and to all such mixtures in an artistic
+sense. At the same time, it is quite possible for the artist to multiply
+his pigments unnecessarily. Colours are sometimes brought out under new
+names which have no claim to be regarded as new colours, being, indeed,
+mere mixtures. Compound pigments like these may most frequently be
+dispensed with, in favour of hues and tints composed extemporaneously of
+original colours upon the palette.</p>
+
+<p>It may be inferred from the foregoing that, between the modes of
+employing as few pigments as possible, and of having as many as there
+are hues and shades of colour, a middle course is the best. But,
+whatever the practice adopted, permanent <i>original</i> pigments should be
+used as often as the case will admit; it being borne in mind, that a
+pigment may be compound, although its colour may be primary. As a rule,
+the less colours are mixed, the purer, brighter, and more lasting they
+will be found.</p>
+
+<p>To the practice of producing tints and hues by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span> <i>grinding</i> pigments
+together, instead of <i>blending</i> them on the palette, may be attributed
+some of the peculiarities of the tints and textures of the Flemish
+school; they being, perhaps, results of intimate combination from
+grinding, and consequently of a more powerful chemical action among the
+ingredients compounded. This method has, in a great measure, fallen into
+disuse, and undoubtedly it conduced to foulness when the colours of the
+pigments ground were not pure and true, and did not assimilate well in
+mixture chemically.</p>
+
+<p>The superiority of Rubens and the Flemings, and of Titian and the
+Venetian school, in colouring and effect, is due in a considerable
+degree to their sketching their designs in colours experimentally with a
+full palette. This practice, as derived from Reynolds, is common with
+the best masters of our own school, who, in executing their works,
+resort also to nature, with an improved knowledge of colours and
+colouring. Such attention to colouring and effect, from the first study
+and ground of a picture to the finishing, contributes a beauty to the
+painting no superinduced colouring can accomplish.</p>
+
+<p>The durability of colour in substances is to a great extent dependent
+upon the condition in which they exist chemically. If pigments, for
+example, be in a state which chemists have termed <i>pro</i>toxide, they are
+liable to absorb oxygen<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span> on exposure to light, air, or moisture, and
+becoming what is called <i>per</i>oxidized, may, by consequence, change or
+fade. In like manner, lakes and carmines thrown down upon a base, may
+owe some of their fugacity to the oxidation of that base, as well as to
+the natural infirmity of their colouring matter. On the other hand,
+pigments and bases are subject to <i>de</i>oxidation, or to a loss of oxygen,
+in which case the colour is apt to deepen. Pigments generally are more
+affected by oxidation and fading in a water vehicle, and by deoxidation
+and darkening in one of oil.</p>
+
+<p>A principal test of permanency in pigments is the impunity with which
+they bear exposure to light and air, an artistic proof of their
+stability the mere chemist is apt to neglect. Provided the colour remain
+unaffected by sulphuretted hydrogen, &amp;c., he seldom hesitates to
+pronounce it safe. But a pigment may be fast in one sense and fugitive
+in another, believed in by the laboratory, and found wanting by the
+studio. It has happened before now that the same colour has been dubbed
+durable and the reverse, by the man of science and the man of art. The
+former, we take it, looks upon a pigment as a coloured substance of a
+certain composition, possessing maybe an acid and a base, either, or
+neither, or both of which, gases and other reagents may injure or
+destroy. The latter views a colour chiefly as part<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span> and parcel of his
+picture&mdash;that picture which <i>may</i> meet with foul exhalations, but <i>must</i>
+be exposed to light and air. And he too often thinks as little of the
+effects of an impure atmosphere or injudicious admixture, as the chemist
+considers the action of air and light.</p>
+
+<p>With the exception of madder, those colours mostly affected by <i>light
+and air</i> are of organic origin, such as gallstone, Indian yellow, and
+the yellow dye-wood lakes; the red and purple lakes of cochineal;
+indigo; and sap green. To these may be added the semi-organic Prussian
+blue; and the inorganic yellows and orange of arsenic.</p>
+
+<p>The pigments liable to injury from <i>sulphuretted hydrogen</i>, &amp;c., are
+notably those obtained from lead and copper; and that treacherous
+compound of iodine and mercury, known as pure scarlet.</p>
+
+<p>Many colours are apt to change from the action of white <i>lead</i> and other
+lead pigments, &amp;c., principally those which are altered by light and
+air.</p>
+
+<p>Many, too, cannot safely come into contact with iron, or ferruginous
+pigments; especially the yellows of arsenic, the lakes of cochineal, and
+the blues and greens of copper. With these an iron palette knife is best
+avoided, one of ivory or horn being used instead. The latter, indeed, is
+preferable in all cases, several pigments being slightly affected by
+iron, cadmium yellow among the number.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span>Numerous colours are likewise injured by <i>lime</i> and <i>fire</i>, and cannot
+therefore be employed in fresco, or enamel painting.</p>
+
+<p>Of substances which may act deleteriously on colours, there remain the
+<i>vehicles and varnishes</i> with which they are mixed. Many of these have
+been blamed, and often with justice, for their injurious effects on
+pigments. The reputation of the most permanent colour may be ruined, if
+the vehicle, &amp;c., employed with it be untrustworthy. The presence of
+lead, for instance, in such materials renders them liable to be
+blackened by foul air, and by consequence the pigments used therewith.</p>
+
+<p>Time produces in many cases a mellow and harmonious change in pictures,
+but occasionally alterations altogether unfavourable. To ensure the
+former and prevent the latter, the attention of the artist in the course
+of his colouring should be to the employment of such pigments and
+colours as are prone to adapt themselves, in changing, to the intended
+key of his colouring, and the right effect of his picture. Thus, if he
+design a cool effect, ultramarine has a tendency through time to
+predominate and aid the natural key of blue. He will, therefore,
+compromise the permanence of this effect, if in such case he employ a
+declining or changeable blue, or if he introduce such reds and yellows
+as have a tendency to warmth or foxiness, by which the colouring<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span> of
+many pictures has been destroyed. In a glowing or warm key, the case is
+in some measure reversed&mdash;not wholly so, for it is observable that those
+pictures have best preserved their colouring and harmony in which the
+blue has been most lasting, by the pigment counteracting the change of
+colour in the vehicle, and that suffusion of dusky yellow which time is
+wont to bestow upon pictures even of the best complexion.</p>
+
+<p>Unless introduced and guaranteed by houses of acknowledged reputation,
+newly discovered pigments are to be used with caution. Good colours have
+ever been prized with so true an estimation of their value, that to
+produce such, after so many ages of research is no ordinary
+accomplishment. But too many resplendent pigments, fruits of the
+fecundity of modern chemistry, have been found deficient. The yellow and
+orange chromates of lead, for instance, withstanding as they do the
+action of the sunbeam, become by time, foul air, and the influence of
+other pigments, inferior to the ochres. So the dazzling scarlet of
+iodine and mercury must yield the palm of excellence to the more sober
+vermilion, being a chameleon colour, subject to the most sudden and
+opposite changes. And the blues of cobalt, as always tending to
+greenness and obscurity, cannot rank beside ultramarine.</p>
+
+<p>We are far from asserting, however, that all modern pigments are
+inferior, or that pigments<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span> should be looked upon with suspicion because
+they are modern. Several most valuable colours have lately claimed
+attention, notably the permanent transparent yellow called <i>Aureolin</i>.
+Seeing that, until its introduction, a yellow combining transparency
+with a perfect stability was unknown to the palette, the importance of
+such an addition, so long wanted and wished for, cannot be overrated.
+Equal in beauty and durability with the preceding, but possessing
+greater richness and depth, and of a semi-opacity, another yellow of the
+highest order merits regard, <i>Orient Yellow</i>, distinguished for its
+lustrous golden hue, resembling a bright Indian yellow. Dazzling in
+brilliancy, and absolute in permanency. <i>Cadmium Red</i> next attracts
+notice. This new aspirant for artistic fame is a most vivid
+orange-scarlet, the latter colour predominating, of intense fire, but
+with no approach to rankness or harshness, yielding delicate pale
+washes, and blending happily with white in the formation of flesh tints.
+With it may be coupled <i>Cadmium Orange</i>, a colour equally brilliant and
+stable, and equally without rankness or harshness, but of a true orange
+hue, admirably adapted for sunsets and the like. Last of all the fresh
+pigments of whose thorough durability there is <i>no</i> doubt, comes the
+splendid <i>Viridian</i>, a green nothing but fire will change, and no
+mixture of blue and yellow will afford. Clear, bright, and transparent
+as the emerald, it rivals velvet in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span> its soft gorgeous richness. With
+this and Aureolin a series of beautiful foliage tints may be formed,
+sparkling with sunshine, as it were.</p>
+
+<p>Other colours there are which have been brought forward within the last
+few years, not possessing the absolute permanency of the five foregoing,
+but equal, or superior, to many formerly used. It were folly, therefore,
+and a silly conservatism on the part of the artist to limit himself to
+such pigments only as were employed by his forefathers, especially as
+their merits were often more than doubtful. New colours, it is true,
+have to be <i>learnt</i>, for each pigment has its own peculiar habitudes,
+chemical, physical, artistic; but if they be good and durable, no amount
+of time and study spent upon them is thrown away. To think less of the
+quality of one's materials than of the effects which can be produced
+with them is mistaken policy; and to be content with that quality when
+better can be had, shows no real love of art, but rather indolence and
+apathy.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps one reason why freshly introduced pigments have not as fair a
+chance as they are entitled to, is due to the fashion which prevails of
+exclaiming against the fugacity of modern colours. If their detractors
+would confine themselves to certain colours, there could be no denial;
+but to assert, as is often done, that the cause of modern pictures not
+standing is owing to modern pigments generally, is unjust. It is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span> not
+the materials which should be blamed, but those who use them. The fact
+is, that the artist's knowledge has not increased in proportion to the
+greater variety of colours at his command. In the early periods of art,
+when the palette was chiefly confined to native pigments, the painter
+could not very well go wrong. Now-a-days but too many, wanting the skill
+of the old masters, seek to make amends for it by brilliancy of
+colouring: with imperfect knowledge of their materials the result is
+obvious. The palette, we admit, wants weeding; not only of the bad new
+colours, but of the bad old colours. This, however, must be a work of
+time, and depend, not upon the colourman&mdash;for where there is a demand
+there will be a supply&mdash;but upon the artists themselves. To this end an
+increased acquaintance with the properties of pigments is required,
+whereby they may be able to choose the fast from the fugitive. It may be
+fairly assumed that the painter will be assisted in his task by the
+progress of chemical science, which will doubtless add from time to time
+to the list of stable pigments. We have heard it remarked that there are
+too many colours already&mdash;to which we reply, there are not too many good
+colours, and scarcely can be. The more crowded the palette is with
+reliable pigments, the more likely are the worthless to be pushed from
+their places. In our opinion, there is ample room for fresh colours,
+provided they be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span> durable; and we have as little sympathy with the
+stereotyped cry of there being too many, as with the fashionable
+unbelief in modern pigments. Certainly, the artist who seeks for
+permanence among the whites, reds, or blues, will not be troubled with a
+superfluity. Certainly, too, colours are as good as ever they were, and
+better&mdash;better made, better ground, better prepared for use. But, fast
+and fugitive, pigments are more numerous, and for that reason need more
+careful selection.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span><a name="chapter_5" id="chapter_5"></a><a href="#contents">CHAPTER V.</a></h2>
+
+<h3>ON THE GENERAL QUALITIES OF PIGMENTS.</h3>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The</span> general attributes of a perfect pigment are beauty of colour,
+comprehending pureness and richness, brilliancy and intensity, delicacy
+and depth,&mdash;truth of hue&mdash;transparency or opacity, well-working,
+crispness, setting up, or keeping its place, and desiccation, or drying
+well. To all of these must be superadded <i>durability</i> when used, a
+quality to which the health and vitality of a picture belong, and one so
+essential that all other properties put together without it are of no
+esteem with the artist who merits reputation. We have, therefore, given
+it a previous distinct consideration.</p>
+
+<p>It must be observed that no pigment possesses all the foregoing
+qualifications in perfection, some being naturally at variance or
+opposed; nor is there any, perhaps, that cannot boast excellence in one
+or more of them.</p>
+
+<p><i>Beauty</i> commonly comprises in the same pigment delicacy, purity, and
+brilliancy; or depth, richness, and intensity. Delicacy and depth in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span>
+the beauty of colours are at variance in the production of all pigments,
+so that perfect success in producing the one is attended with more or
+less of failure in the other, and when they are united&mdash;as they
+occasionally are&mdash;it is with some sacrifice of both. Hence the judicious
+artist purveys for his palette at least two pigments of each colour, one
+eminent for delicate beauty, the other for richness and depth.</p>
+
+<p><i>Truth of hue</i> is a relative quality in all colours, except the extreme
+primaries, in the relations of which, blue, being of nearest affinity to
+black or shade, has properly but one other relation, in which it
+inclines to red and becomes purple-blue: it is, therefore, faulty or
+false, when, tending to yellow, it becomes of a green hue. But red,
+which is of equal affinity to light and shade, has two relations, by one
+of which it verges upon blue and becomes a purple-red or crimson; and by
+the other it leans to yellow, and becomes an orange-red or scarlet,
+neither of which is individually false or discordant. Yet yellow, which
+is of nearest affinity to white or light, has strictly but one true
+relation, by which it inclines to red, and becomes a warm or orange
+yellow, for by uniting with blue it becomes a defective green-yellow.
+The best example of true yellow in a pigment, tending neither to red nor
+blue, is furnished by <i>Aureolin</i>, alluded to in the last chapter. The
+secondary and tertiary colours, having all<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span> duplex relations, may
+incline without default to either of their relatives.</p>
+
+<p><i>Transparency</i> is an essential property of all glazing pigments, and
+adds greatly to the value of dark or shading colours; indeed it is the
+prime quality upon which depth and darkness depend, <ins class="correction" title="as whiteness, or light do, reasd as whiteness or light does">as whiteness, or
+light, does</ins> upon opacity or reflecting power. <i>Opacity</i> is, therefore,
+the antagonist of transparency, and qualifies pigments to cover in
+dead-colouring, or solid painting, as well as to combine with
+transparent colours in forming tints; and hence it is that
+semi-transparent pigments are suited in a mean degree both for dead
+colouring and for finishing. As excellencies, therefore, transparency
+and opacity are relative only&mdash;the first being as indispensable to shade
+in all its gradations, as the latter is to light. With regard to
+transparent and opaque colours generally, it is worthy of attention in
+the practice of the oil-painter, that the best effects of the former are
+produced when they are used with a resinous varnish; as opaque pigments
+are best employed in oil, and the two become united with best effect in
+a mixture of these vehicles. The natural and artificial powers, or depth
+and brilliancy, of every colour lie within the extremes of black and
+white; hence it follows that the most powerful effects of transparent
+colours are obtained by glazing them over black and white. As, however,
+few transparent pigments have<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span> sufficient body, or tinging power for
+this, it is often necessary to glaze them over tints, or deep opaque
+colours of the required hues. There is a charm in transparent colours
+which frequently leads to an undue use thereof in glazing; but glazing,
+scumbling, and their combined process must be employed with discretion,
+according to the objects and effects of a picture.</p>
+
+<p><i>Working well</i> is a quality which depends principally upon fineness of
+texture, and what is called <i>body</i> in colours; yet every pigment has its
+peculiarities in respect to working both in water and oil, and these
+must become matter of every artist's special experience. Some of the
+best pigments are most difficult of management, while some ineligible
+colours are rich in body and free in working. Accidental circumstances,
+however, may influence all pigments in these respects, according to the
+painter's particular mode of operation, and his vehicle; upon the
+affinities of colours with which depend their general faculties of
+working&mdash;such as keeping their place, crispness or setting up, and
+drying well. These latter, with other properties and accidents of
+pigments, will be particularly considered in treating of their
+individual characters; but it may be remarked that crispness or setting
+up, as well as keeping their place and form in which they are applied,
+are contrary to the nature of many pigments, and depend in painting with
+them upon a gelatinous<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span> mixture of their vehicle. For example, mastic
+and other resinous varnishes impart this texture to oils which have been
+rendered drying by the acetate, or sugar of lead:&mdash;simple water, also
+albumen, and animal jelly made of glue and isinglass, give the same
+quality to oils and colours; and bees-wax has a similar effect in pure
+oils. Whitelac varnish, and other spirit varnishes, rubbed into the
+colours on the palette likewise enable them to keep their place very
+effectually in most instances. This is important, because glazing cannot
+be performed except with a vehicle which keeps its place, or with
+pigments which lend this property to the vehicle, as some lakes and
+transparent colours do.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fineness of texture</i> is produced by extreme grinding and levigation.
+Pigments ground in water in the state of a thick paste, are miscible in
+oil and dry therein firmly; and in case of utility or necessity, any
+water-colour in cake, being rubbed off thick in water may be diffused in
+oil, the gum acting as a medium of union between the two. Thus, pigments
+which cannot otherwise be employed in oil, or varnish, may be forced
+into the service and add to the resources of the oil-painter, care being
+taken to use the palette-knife, if of steel, with caution.</p>
+
+<p><i>Desiccation or drying.</i> The well-known additions of the acetate, or
+sugar of lead, litharge,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span> and sulphate of zinc, either mechanically
+ground, or in solution, for light colours; and japanner's gold size, or
+oils boiled upon litharge, for lakes; or, in some cases, manganese and
+verdigris for dark colours, are resorted to when the pigments or
+vehicles are not sufficiently good dryers alone. It would be well if
+lead and copper could be banished from the list of siccatives
+altogether: assuredly, no artist with any regard for the permanent
+texture of his work should employ them except in extreme cases, and in
+the smallest possible quantity. The best of pigments may be ruined by
+their injudicious use, and obtain a character for fugacity which they in
+no way deserve. It requires attention that an excess of dryer renders
+oil saponaceous, is inimical to drying, and is otherwise injurious. Some
+colours dry badly from not being sufficiently edulcorated or washed.
+Sulphate of zinc, as a siccative, is less powerful than acetate of lead,
+but is far preferable in a chemical sense. It is supposed erroneously to
+set the colours running; which is not positively the case, though it
+will not retain those disposed to move, because it wants the property
+the acetate of lead possesses, of gelatinizing the mixture of oil and
+varnish. These two dryers should not be employed together, since they
+counteract and decompose each other, forming two new substances&mdash;acetate
+of zinc, which is a bad siccative, and sulphate of lead, which is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span>
+insoluble and opaque. The inexperienced ought here to be guarded against
+the highly improper practice of some artists, who strew their pictures
+while wet with acetate of lead, or use that substance in some other
+mode, without grinding or solution; which, though it may promote present
+drying, will ultimately effloresce on the surface of the work, throw off
+the colour in sandy spots, and expose the paintings to peculiar risk
+from the damaging influence of impure air.</p>
+
+<p>It is not always that ill drying is to be attributed to the pigments or
+vehicles, the states of the weather and atmosphere have great influence
+thereon. The direct rays of the sun are powerfully active in rendering
+oils and colours siccative, and were probably resorted to before dryers
+were&mdash;not always wisely&mdash;added to oils, particularly in the warm climate
+of Italy. The ground may also advance or retard drying, because some
+pigments united by mixing or glazing, become either more or less
+siccative by their conjunction. Many other accidental circumstances may
+likewise affect drying; and among these none is to be more guarded
+against by the artist than the presence of soap and alkali, too often
+left in the washing of his brushes, and which, besides other bad
+results, decompose and are decomposed by acetate of lead and most
+siccatives. In such cases desiccation is retarded, streaks and patches
+are formed on the painting, and the odium of ill drying falls<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span> upon some
+unlucky pigment. To free brushes from this disadvantage, they should be
+cleansed with linseed oil and turpentine. Dryers should be added to
+colours only at the time of using them, because they exercise their
+drying property while chemically combining with the oils employed,
+during which the latter become thick or fatten. Too much of the
+siccative will, as before noticed, often retard drying.</p>
+
+<p>The various affinities of pigments occasion each to have its more or
+less appropriate dryer; and it would be a matter of useful experience if
+the habits of every colour in this respect were ascertained. It is
+probable that siccatives of less power generally than the compounds of
+lead and copper might come into use in particular cases, such as the
+oxides of manganese, to which umber and the Cappagh browns owe their
+drying quality.</p>
+
+<p>To other good attributes of pigments, it would be well if we could in
+all cases add the property of being <i>innoxious</i>. As this, however,
+cannot be, and colours are by no means to be sacrificed on that account,
+cleanliness and avoiding the habit of putting the brush unnecessarily to
+the mouth, so common in water-painting, are sufficient guards against
+any possibly pernicious effects from the use of any pigment. No colour
+which is not imbibed by the stomach will in the slightest degree injure
+the health of the artist.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span></p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span>PART III.</h2>
+
+<h3><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span>ON COLOURS AND PIGMENTS INDIVIDUALLY.</h3>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span><a name="chapter_6" id="chapter_6"></a><a href="#contents">CHAPTER VI.</a></h2>
+
+<h3>ON COLOURS AND PIGMENTS INDIVIDUALLY.</h3>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Having</span> briefly discussed the relations and attributes of colours and
+pigments generally, we come to their powers and properties
+individually&mdash;a subject pregnant with materials and of unlimited
+connexions, every substance in nature and art possessing colour, the
+first quality of pigments.</p>
+
+<p>With regard to <i>colours</i> individually, it is a general law of their
+relations, confirmed by nature and the impressions of sense, that those
+colours which lie nearest in nature to light have their greatest beauty
+in their lightest tints: and that those which tend similarly towards
+shade are most beautiful in their greatest depth or fulness, a rule of
+course applying to black and white particularly. Thus, the most
+beautiful yellow, like white, is that which is lightest and most vivid;
+blue is most beautiful when deep and rich; while red is of greatest
+beauty when of intermediate depth, or somewhat inclined to light; and
+their compounds partake of these relations. We speak<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span> here only of the
+individual beauty of colours, and not of that relative beauty by which
+every tint, hue, and shade of colour become pleasing, or otherwise
+according to space, place, and reference; for this latter beauty belongs
+to the general nature and harmony of colours.</p>
+
+<p>In respect to <i>pigments</i> individually, it may be observed that&mdash;other
+things being equal&mdash;those pigments are the most beautiful which possess
+the most colour, whether they be light or dark, opaque or transparent,
+bright or subdued. There are some which exhibit all their colour at a
+glance: there are others that the more they are looked into the more
+colour they are found to have&mdash;containing, as they do, an amount of
+<i>latent colour</i>, not immediately apparent. Apart from the beauty which a
+wealth of colour imparts, those pigments imbued with it are, as a rule,
+the most permanent. And not unnaturally so, for the more colour there is
+present, the longer it takes to be affected, either by exposure or
+impure air. Colour within colour, therefore, not only lends charm to a
+pigment, but contributes to its safety.</p>
+
+<p>There is often a vicious predilection of some artists in favour of a
+particular colour, from which many of our best colourists have not been
+totally free, and which arises from organic defect, or mental
+association. Such predilection is greatly to be guarded against by the
+colourist, who<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span> is every way surrounded by dangers. On the one hand,
+there is fear lest he fall into whiteness or chalkiness; on the other,
+into blackness or gloom: in front he may run into fire and foxiness, or
+he may slide backward into cold and leaden dulness: all of which are
+extremes he must avoid. There are also other important prejudices to
+which the eye is liable in regard to colours individually, that demand
+his particular attention. These are occasioned by the various specific
+powers of single colours acting on the eye according to their masses and
+the activity of light, or the length of time they are viewed. By
+consequence, vision becomes over-stimulated, unequally exhausted, and
+endued, even before it is fatigued, with a spectrum which not only
+clouds the colour itself, but gives a false brilliancy by contrast to
+surrounding hues, so as totally or partially to throw the eye off its
+balance, and mislead the judgment. This derangement of the organ may be
+caused by a powerful tint on the palette, a mass of drapery, the colour
+of a wall, the light of a room, or other accidental circumstance; and
+the remedy is to refresh the eye with a new object&mdash;of nature, if
+possible&mdash;or to give it rest. The powers of colours in these respects,
+as well as of pigments individually, together with their reciprocal
+action and influence chemically, will be adverted to under their
+distinct heads.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span>The attention of the artist to the individual powers of pigments,
+although it may be of less concern than the attention to general effect
+in colouring, is by no means less necessary in practice. For he who
+would excel in colouring must study it from several points of view, in
+respect to the whole and the parts of a picture, as regards mind and
+body, and concerning itself alone. To this end, is needed a knowledge of
+his pigments individually.</p>
+
+<p>If nature has arrayed herself in all the colours of the rainbow, she has
+not been niggardly in offering man the materials wherewith to copy them.
+The mineral, animal, vegetable kingdom&mdash;each helps him to realize,
+however faintly, her many manifold beauties: to give some idea, however
+slight, of that glorious flood of colour, which light lets loose upon
+the world. Metal, ore, earth, stone; root, plant, flower, fruit; beast,
+fish, insect&mdash;in turn aid the arduous task. The painter's box is a very
+museum of curiosities, from every part of the universe. For it, the
+mines yield their treasures, as well as the depths of the sea: to it
+come Arab camel, and English ox, cuttle-fish and crawling coccus: in it
+the Indian indigo lies next the madder of France, and the gaudy
+vermilion of China brightens the mummy of Egypt. Varied, indeed, are the
+sources whence we derive our pigments; and if they still leave much to
+desire, improvement is clearly manifest. Slowly but<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span> surely, year by
+year, we are advancing. With the growth of science, the exhaustless
+stores of creation, will there at last be attained&mdash;step by step, though
+it be&mdash;that summit of the artist's hopes, a perfect palette?</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span><a name="chapter_7" id="chapter_7"></a><a href="#contents">CHAPTER VII.</a></h2>
+
+<h3>ON THE NEUTRAL, WHITE.</h3>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The</span> term "colour" is equivocal when applied to the neutrals, yet the
+artist is bound to consider them as colours; for a thing cannot but be
+that of which it is composed, and neutrals are composed of, or
+comprehend, all colours.</p>
+
+<p>With regard to colour, then, <i>white</i> in a perfect state should be
+neutral in hue, and absolutely opaque; that white being the best which
+reflects light most brilliantly. This property in white is called
+<i>body</i>; by which in other pigments, especially those that are
+transparent, is meant <i>tingeing power</i>. White, besides its uses as a
+colour, is the instrument of light in painting, and compounds when pure
+with all colours, without changing their class. Yet it dilutes and cools
+all colours except blue, which is specifically cold; and, though it does
+not change nor defile any colour, it is changed and defiled by all
+colours. This pureness of white, if it be not in some degree broken or
+tinged, will cast down or degrade every other colour in a picture, and
+itself become<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span> harsh and crude. Hence the lowness of tone which has been
+thought a necessity in painting, but is such only because our other
+colours do not approach to the purity of white. Had we all necessary
+colours thus relatively pure as white, colouring in painting might be
+carried up to the full brilliancy of nature; and, in fact, more progress
+has already been made in that respect, than the prejudice for dulness is
+disposed to tolerate.</p>
+
+<p>Locally, white is the most advancing of all colours in a picture, and
+produces the effect of throwing others back in different degrees,
+according to their specific retiring and advancing powers. These latter,
+however, are not absolute qualities of colours, but depend on the
+relations of light and shade, which are variously appropriate to all
+colours. Hence it is that a white object rightly adapted, appears to
+detach, distribute, and put in keeping; as well as to give relief,
+decision, distinctness, and distance to every thing around it: hence,
+too, the use and requirement of a white or light object, in each
+separate group of a composition. White itself is advanced or brought
+forward, unless indeed white surround a dark object, in which case they
+retire together. In mixture, white communicates these properties to its
+tints, and harmonizes in conjunction with, or in opposition to all
+colours; but lies nearest in series to yellow, and remotest from blue,
+of which, next to black, it is the most thorough contrast.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span> It is
+correlative with black, which is the opposite extreme of neutrality.</p>
+
+<p>Perfect white is opaque, and perfect black transparent; hence when added
+to black in minute proportion, white gives it solidity; and from a like
+small proportion of black combined with white, the latter acquires
+locality as a colour, and better preserves its hue in painting. Both
+white and black communicate these properties to other colours, in
+proportion to their lightness or depth; while they cool each other in
+mixture, and equally contrast each other when opposed. These extremes of
+the chromatic scale are each in its way most easily denied, as green,
+the mean of the scale, is the greatest defiler of all colours. Rubens
+regarded white as the nourishment of light, and the poison of shadow.</p>
+
+<p>In a picture, white should not be merely glittering or brilliant, but
+tender as well as bright. The eye should seek it for rest, brilliant
+though it may be; and feel it as a space of strange heavenly paleness in
+the midst of the flushing of the colours. This effect can only be
+reached by general depth of middle tint, by the perfect absence of any
+white, save where it is needed, and by keeping the white itself subdued
+by grey, except at a few points of chief lustre.</p>
+
+<p>White, as a pigment, is of more extensive use than any other colour in
+oil painting and fresco, owing to its local quality, its representing
+light,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span> and its entering into composition with all colours in the
+formation of tints. The old masters have been supposed by some to
+possess whites superior to our own, but this may be questioned. The
+pureness of whites in some celebrated old pictures is rather to be
+attributed to a proper method of using, careful preservation of the
+work, and in many instances to the introduction of ultramarine or a
+permanent cold colour into the white&mdash;such as plumbago&mdash;helped also by
+judicious contrast.</p>
+
+<p>Notwithstanding white pigments are tolerably numerous, a thoroughly
+unexceptionable white is still a desideratum&mdash;one combining the perfect
+opacity or body of white lead with the perfect permanency of zinc white.
+The nearest approach to it that has yet been made, is Chinese white,
+which possesses in a great measure the property of the former, and,
+being a preparation of zinc, has wholly that of the latter.
+Unfortunately Chinese white is a water-colour pigment only, not
+retaining its several advantages, stability excepted, when employed in
+oil.</p>
+
+
+<h4>1. CONSTANT WHITE,</h4>
+
+<p>Also called <i>Permanent white</i>, and <i>Barytic white</i>, is, when well
+prepared, of superior body in water, but has less opacity in oil. It
+works in a somewhat unsatisfactory and unpleasant manner, and is
+considerably lower in its tone while wet than when dry, a fault which
+sub<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span>jects even an experienced artist to great uncertainty where he uses
+it in compound tints. The semi-transparency of the white, while wet,
+prevents his judging of the true tint until his colour has dried, when
+he frequently finds it harsh and chalky, and out of tone with the rest
+of his painting. As little gum as possible should be employed with it,
+gum being inimical to its body, or whiteness. The best way of preparing
+this pigment, as well as other terrene whites, so as to preserve their
+opacity, is to grind them in simple water, and to add towards the end of
+the grinding sufficient only of clear <i>cold</i> jelly of gum tragacanth as
+will connect them into a body, and attach them to the paper in painting.
+Cold starch will answer the same purpose.</p>
+
+<p>Constant white is a sulphate of baryta, found native and known under the
+name of heavy-spar, or prepared artificially by adding sulphuric acid,
+or a soluble sulphate, to a solution of a barytic salt. In the first
+mode, if the white be not well purified from free acid, it is apt to act
+injuriously on some pigments. Sulphate of baryta is often used for the
+purpose of adulterating white lead, the native salt being ground to fine
+powder, and washed with dilute sulphuric acid, by which its colour is
+improved, and a little oxide of iron probably dissolved out. Whether
+native or artificial, the compound is quite unaffected by impure air,
+and is not poisonous.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4>LEAD WHITES</h4>
+
+<p>Comprise and are known under the names of:&mdash;<i>White lead</i>, <i>Flake white</i>
+and <i>Body-white</i>, <i>Cremnitz</i>, or <i>Kremnitz</i>, <i>Crems</i> or <i>Krems white</i>,
+<i>London</i> and <i>Nottingham white</i>, <i>Flemish white</i>, <i>Pattison's white</i>,
+<i>Blanc d'argent</i> or <i>Silver white</i>, <i>Ceruse</i>, <i>Dutch white</i>, <i>French
+white</i>, <i>Venetian white</i>, <i>Hamburgh white</i>, <i>Kremser white</i>, <i>Sulphate
+of lead</i>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>The heaviest and whitest of these are the best, and in point of colour
+and body, are superior to all other whites. When pure and properly
+applied in oil and varnish, they are comparatively safe and durable,
+drying well without addition; but excess of oil discolours them, and in
+water-painting they are changeable even to blackness. Upon all vegetable
+lakes, except those of madder, they have a destructive effect; and are
+injurious to gamboge, as well as to those almost obsolete pigments, red
+and orange leads, king's and patent yellow, massicot, and orpiment. With
+ultramarine, however, red and orange vermilions, yellow and orange
+chromes, yellow and orange and red cadmiums, aureolin, the ochres,
+viridian and other oxides of chromium, Indian red &amp;c., they compound
+with little or no injury. Lead colours must not be employed in
+water-colour or crayon painting, distemper, or fresco. The whites of
+lead are carbonates of that metal, with two exceptions:&mdash;Flemish white
+or the sul<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span>phate, and Pattison's white or the oxychloride. In using all
+pigments of which lead is the basis, cleanliness is essential to health.</p>
+
+<p>White lead, by which we must be understood to mean the carbonate, always
+contains when commercially prepared a certain proportion of hydrated
+oxide. The less of the latter there is present, the better does the
+white cover, and the less liable is it to turn brown. The products
+formed by precipitation have proved to be inferior in body: otherwise,
+pure mono-carbonate of lead-oxide, obtained by mixing solutions of
+carbonate of potash and a lead-salt, might be best adapted for a
+pigment. However, such a carbonate has been lately produced by Mr.
+Spence's process of passing carbonic acid gas into a caustic soda or
+potash solution of lead, and for this white an opacity is claimed equal
+to that of the ordinary compound.</p>
+
+<p>Great as is the opacity of white lead, it is apt to lose that property
+in some measure in course of time, and become more or less transparent.
+If, over a series of dry oil-colour rubs of varied hues, there were
+brushed sufficient white lead paint to utterly obscure them, after some
+years those rubs would indistinctly appear, and by degrees become more
+and more visible, until at last their forms&mdash;if not their very
+colours&mdash;could be recognised. From this it would seem that white lead
+must slowly but surely part with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span> some of its carbonic acid, and be at
+length converted into <ins class="trans" title="was di-carbonate">dicarbonate</ins>, a compound possessing less carbonic
+acid, and less coating power.</p>
+
+<p>Impure air, or sulphuretted hydrogen, browns or blackens white lead,
+converting it partially or wholly into sulphide. It would appear from
+the recent investigations of Dr. D. S. Price, that white lead is less
+liable to be thus affected, when the pictures in which it is used are
+exposed to a strong light; also, that when such pictures have so
+suffered, a like exposure will restore them. We have ourselves noticed
+the rapidity with which an oil rub of white lead that has been damaged
+by foul gas, regains its former whiteness when submitted to air and
+sunshine. The action of drying oils has been likewise proved to be very
+powerful upon sulphide of lead, an exposure to light for a few days only
+being sufficient to change a surface of it, coated with a thin layer of
+boiled linseed oil, into a white one. Probably, these agents may have a
+similar effect upon other pigments injured by sulphuretted hydrogen, and
+many of the colours in paintings may be restored by treating them with
+boiled linseed oil, and submitting them to a strong light. That the
+result is due to oxidation, there can be no doubt. Indeed, the eminent
+French chemist, M. Th&eacute;nard, was consulted some years back upon the means
+of bringing to their original whiteness the black spots which had formed
+upon a valuable drawing, by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span> the changing of the white lead, and
+employed for that purpose oxygenated water. He had ascertained its power
+of converting the black sulphide of lead into the white sulphate, and,
+by touching the spots with a brush dipped in the fluid, soon succeeded
+in restoring the drawing to its primitive state. Here, again, the use of
+the agent might doubtless be extended to other colours, to which foul
+air is inimical.</p>
+
+<p>In oil painting white lead is essential in the ground, in dead
+colouring, in the formation of tints of all colours, and in scumbling,
+either alone or mixed with other pigments. It is also the best local
+white, when neutralized with ultramarine or black; and it is the true
+representative of light, when warmed with Naples yellow, or orange
+vermilion or cadmium, or with a mixture of the yellow and either of the
+orange pigments, according to the light.</p>
+
+<p>Ordinary white lead is often mixed with considerable quantities of heavy
+spar, gypsum, or chalk. These injure it in body and brightness, dispose
+it to dry more slowly, keep its place less firmly, and discolour the oil
+with which it is applied, as well as prevent it dissolving completely in
+boiling dilute potash-ley, a test by which pure white lead may be known.</p>
+
+<p>The adulteration of pigments, which we have in some instances found
+practised to a large extent abroad, is comparatively unfrequent in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span> our
+own country, so far at least as regards the superior class of colours
+employed by artists. As a rule, such colours when manufactured in
+England may be fairly assumed to be genuine; and certainly the
+respectable colourmen of the present day are not in the habit of
+sophisticating them. We must bear testimony, indeed, to the zeal with
+which they purvey, regardless of necessary expense, the choicest and
+most perfect materials. This should be a matter of congratulation to the
+painter, who must of necessity rely on the faith and honesty of his
+colour-dealer; for if he were ever so good a chemist, it would be
+impossible for him to analyse each pigment before proceeding to use it.
+The fault must rest with himself, therefore, if, through a mistaken
+economy, he do not frequent the best houses and pay the best prices. Of
+a surety, the colours of the artist are not among those things in which
+quality can, or should, be sacrificed to cheapness.</p>
+
+
+<h4>2. BLANC D'ARGENT, OR SILVER WHITE.</h4>
+
+<p>These are false appellations of a white lead, called also <i>French
+white</i>. It is brought from Paris in the form of drops, is exquisitely
+white, but of less body than flake white, and has all the properties of
+the best white leads. Being subject to the same changes, it is unfit<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span>
+for general use as a water-colour, though good in oil or varnish.</p>
+
+
+<h4>3. CREMNITZ WHITE,</h4>
+
+<p>Known likewise as <i>Kremnitz</i>, <i>Crems</i>, or <i>Krems white</i>, is a carbonate
+of lead which derives its names from Kremnitz in Hungary, or Crems or
+Krems in Austria. It is also called <i>Vienna white</i>, being brought from
+Vienna in cakes of a cubical form. Cremnitz white is the brightest white
+that is used in oil: it possesses rather less body than flake white,
+because the particles are finer. When newly prepared, it gives out a
+strong smell of vinegar.</p>
+
+
+<h4>4. FLAKE WHITE,</h4>
+
+<p>Called, when levigated, <i>Body white</i>, is an English white lead in the
+form of scales or plates, sometimes grey on the surface. It takes its
+name from its figure, is occasionally equal to Crems white in colour,
+and generally surpasses in body all other white leads. In composition,
+it is a mixture of protocarbonate and hydrated oxide of lead, the latter
+decreasing the opacity of the product according to the greater
+proportion in which it is present.</p>
+
+
+<h4>5. FLEMISH WHITE, OR SULPHATE OF LEAD</h4>
+
+<p>Is an exceedingly white precipitate from any solution of lead by
+sulphuric acid, much resembling<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span> the blanc d'argent. It is inferior,
+however, both in body and permanence to the ordinary carbonate. Hence,
+white lead which has more or less been converted by sulphuretted
+<ins class="trans" title="was hydrogren">hydrogen</ins> into sulphide, and again been converted into sulphate by
+oxidation, with a view to restoring its colour, becomes peculiarly
+liable to the influence of impure air.</p>
+
+
+<h4>6. LONDON AND NOTTINGHAM WHITES.</h4>
+
+<p>The best of these do not essentially differ from each other, nor from
+the white leads of other manufactories. The latter variety, being
+prepared from flake white, is usually the greyer of the two.</p>
+
+
+<h4>7. PATTISON'S WHITE, OR OXYCHLORIDE OF LEAD</h4>
+
+<p>Is a mixture of chloride and oxide of lead, formed by precipitating a
+solution of chloride of lead with soda, potash, lime, or baryta, in the
+caustic or hydrated state. It would appear that when the oxychloride is
+used as a paint, the oxide contained in it gives rise to an oleate of
+lead, and, in consequence of this saponaceous matter, is capable of
+spreading over an extended surface. The product has been described as
+possessing properties which are superior to those of white lead,
+inasmuch as it does not so readily blacken as the latter body. Dr. Ure,
+however, found that water removes the chloride of lead from the paint<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span>
+compounded of this article, and, consequently, that it is not so
+effectual as the carbonate. As an artist's pigment, a partially soluble
+compound of lead can decidedly not be eligible.</p>
+
+
+<h4>8. ROMAN WHITE</h4>
+
+<p>Is of the purest white colour, and differs only from blanc d'argent in
+the warm flesh tint of the external surface of the large square masses
+in which it is commonly prepared.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the foregoing, there are other white leads, generally foreign,
+cheaper, and adulterated. Many of these are mixed with a small quantity
+of charcoal, indigo, or Prussian blue, so that the dead yellowish shade
+which they present may be enlivened to a brighter hue. Among them may be
+named&mdash;</p>
+
+
+<h4>9. CERUSE.</h4>
+
+<p>A French variety, not necessarily, but not unfrequently, mixed with
+different chalky earths in various proportions; and the following
+Belgian kinds:</p>
+
+
+<h4>10. DUTCH WHITE,</h4>
+
+<p>Containing three fourths of sulphate of baryta.</p>
+
+
+<h4>11. HAMBURGH WHITE.</h4>
+
+<p>A mixture of two parts of heavy spar and one of the plumbous compound.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span>12. KREMSER WHITE,</h4>
+
+<p>Differing from the rest in being unadulterated.</p>
+
+
+<h4>13. VENETIAN WHITE</h4>
+
+<p>Composed of heavy spar and the carbonate in equal proportions.</p>
+
+
+<h4>ZINC WHITES.</h4>
+
+<h4>14. CHINESE WHITE.</h4>
+
+<p>The introduction, in 1834, of this peculiar preparation of oxide of zinc
+has proved an incalculable boon to water-colour painters, who formerly
+had no white which combined perfect permanency with good body in
+working. Its invention obviated the necessity for using white lead, a
+pigment which, though it may be employed with comparative safety in oil,
+is quite unfitted for water. Since the period of its production, Chinese
+white has been generally preferred by water-colour artists, as being the
+most eligible in their peculiar department. Previous to that period, the
+complaints of whites changing were of constant occurrence; but in no
+instance has any picture, in which this white has been used, suffered
+from its employment. To the colour of oxide of zinc, sulphuretted
+hydrogen is altogether harmless; sulphide of zinc being itself white.
+The variety under notice<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span> works and washes well, possesses no pasty or
+clogging properties, and is prepared beautifully white. Moreover, it has
+the desirable quality of dense body; so much so, that, as the painter
+works, his effects remain unaltered by the drying of the colour. It may
+likewise be safely mixed with all other pigments, the following blending
+very satisfactorily with the white for opaque lights&mdash;cadmium yellow,
+orange, and red; gamboge; aureolin; yellow ochre; vermilion; and light
+red. Without the artistic drawbacks of constant white or the chemical
+defects of white lead, and retaining the advantages of both, Chinese
+white cannot but be considered as a most important addition. It is a
+matter of regret that this pigment is not equally efficacious in oil.</p>
+
+
+<h4>15. ZINC WHITE</h4>
+
+<p>Is either the anhydrous oxide, the hydrate oxide, or hydrated basic
+carbonate of zinc. It varies in opacity and colour according to the mode
+of manufacture, and the purity of the compound, but may always be relied
+upon as permanent. The whiteness of the best samples rivals that of
+white lead, and it is not tarnished like the latter by sulphurous
+vapours. In opacity it never equals white lead, and might perhaps serve
+advantageously as a glaze over that pigment, either alone or compounded
+with other colours; as well as act as a medium of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span> interposition between
+white lead and those colours which are injured by it, such as gamboge,
+crimson lake, &amp;c. When duly and skilfully prepared the colour and body
+of this pigment are sufficient to qualify it for a general use upon the
+palette in oil: in water it has been superseded by Chinese white.</p>
+
+<p>Occasionally, starch, chalk, white clay, and carbonate of baryta, are
+employed as adulterants; none of which, however, are <ins class="trans" title="was imimical">inimical</ins> to
+stability.</p>
+
+<p>As a pigment, zinc white may be said to be innoxious. As oxide of zinc
+does not readily form a saponaceous compound with fats or oil like white
+lead, the paint prepared with it and ordinary linseed oil does not dry
+or harden so rapidly. For the purpose of causing it to be more
+siccative, the oil was boiled with a large quantity of litharge, but by
+this method the white was liable to tarnish on meeting with foul air.
+Instead of litharge, experiments have led to the choice of salts of
+zinc, such as the chloride or sulphate, a small percentage of which, on
+being mixed with the oil or oxide, confers upon it the property of
+rapidly hardening. The same result is attained by employing an oil,
+dried by boiling with about five per cent of peroxide of manganese. In
+either case, a paint retaining its white colour permanently is produced.
+These agents might, with advantage, be more generally used in the place
+of litharge for rendering oils siccative. Many<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span> pigments which are not
+naturally affected by sulphurous emanations are apt to suffer if mixed
+with an oil made drying by means of lead.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<h4>16. <i>Cadmium White.</i></h4>
+
+<p>Provided the metal be freed from iron, which we have commonly found to
+be more or less present, a white of considerable beauty may be produced;
+either directly by precipitation as hydrated oxide or carbonate, or
+indirectly by exposing the brown anhydrous oxide to air and light&mdash;the
+latter mode yielding a product of greater opacity. However prepared,
+cadmium white is deficient in body, and apt to assume a yellow tint on
+meeting with an impure atmosphere.</p>
+
+
+<h4>17. <i>Pearl White</i></h4>
+
+<p>Is an insoluble basic nitrate of bismuth, a pearly white powder of loose
+texture, turning grey on exposure, and blackened by sulphuretted
+hydrogen. It is chiefly used as a cosmetic, but is said to injure the
+skin, rendering it yellow and leather-like; and it has been known to
+cause a spasmodic trembling of the face, ending in paralysis.</p>
+
+<p>Another preparation under this name, and now obsolete we believe as a
+pigment, was obtained<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span> from mother-of-pearl. It is described as
+exquisitely white, and of good body in water, but of little force in oil
+or varnish.</p>
+
+
+<h4>18. <i>Tin White</i></h4>
+
+<p>Resembles zinc white in some respects, but has less body and colour, and
+dries badly. According to its composition, it is liable to turn either
+black or a dull yellow in contact with sulphurous vapours.</p>
+
+
+<h4>19. <i>White Chalk</i></h4>
+
+<p>Is a well-known native carbonate of lime, employed by the artist only as
+a crayon, or for tracing his designs, for which purpose it is sawed into
+suitable lengths. White crayons and tracing chalks, to be good, must
+work and cut free from grit. From this material are prepared whitening
+and lime, which form the bases of many cheap pigments and colours, used
+in distemper, paper-staining, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>Besides those mentioned, there are other metallic whites varying in
+beauty and opacity, such as those of mercury, arsenic, and antimony; but
+none of them are of any value or reputation in painting, on account of
+their great disposition to change of colour, whether by light or foul
+air, both in water and oil.</p>
+
+<p>There are also other terrene whites, under<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span> equivocal names, among which
+are Morat or Modan white, Spanish white, Troys or Troy white, Rouen
+white, China white, and Satin white; the latter being a sulphate of lime
+and alumina, which dries with a glossy surface. The common oyster-shell
+contains a soft white in its thick part, and there is the white of
+egg-shells. There is, too, an endless variety of native earths, in
+addition to those prepared by art. The whole of them, however, are
+destitute of body in oil; and several, owing to their alkaline nature,
+are injurious to many colours in water, as well as to all colours which
+cannot be employed in fresco.</p>
+
+<p>Among the infinitude of white substances, the artist finds that there
+are but three white pigments&mdash;those of lead, zinc, and baryta. The first
+possesses the greatest opacity, while the second and third are most
+durable. The last, however, has so many objectionable qualities, that
+the number of eligible whites, may almost be said to be two&mdash;lead and
+zinc. Of these, the former is blackened by foul air, and in oil, the
+latter is wanting in body. In fact, there is but one white pigment which
+approaches perfection&mdash;Chinese white; and this is only a water-colour.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span><a name="chapter_8" id="chapter_8"></a><a href="#contents">CHAPTER VIII.</a></h2>
+
+<h3>ON THE PRIMARY, YELLOW.</h3>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Yellow</span> is the first of the primary or simple colours, nearest in
+relation to, and partaking most of the nature of, the neutral white; it
+is accordingly a most advancing colour, of great power in reflecting
+light. Compounded with the primary <i>red</i>, it constitutes the secondary
+<i>orange</i>, as well as its relatives, scarlet, and other warm colours.</p>
+
+<p>It is the archeus, or prime colour, of the tertiary <i>citrine</i>;
+characterises in like manner the endless number of semi-neutral colours
+called <i>brown</i>, and enters largely into the complex hues termed buff,
+bay, tawny, tan, dan, dun, drab, chestnut, roan, sorrel, hazel, auburn,
+isabela, fawn, <ins class="trans" title="was feuillemorte">feuillemort</ins>, &amp;c. Yellow is naturally associated with red
+in transient and prismatic colours, and is the principal power with it
+in representing the effects of warmth, heat, and fire. Combined with the
+primary <i>blue</i>, yellow furnishes all the variety of the secondary
+<i>green</i>, as well as, subordinately, the tertiaries <i>russet</i> and <i>olive</i>.
+It also enters in a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span> very subdued degree into cool, semi-neutral, and
+broken colours, and assists in minor proportion with blue and red in the
+composition of <i>black</i>.</p>
+
+<p>As a pigment, yellow is a tender delicate colour, easily defiled, when
+pure, by other colours. In painting it diminishes the power of the eye
+by its action in a strong light, at the same time becoming less distinct
+as a colour; while, on the contrary, it assists vision and becomes more
+distinct as a colour in a neutral somewhat declining light. These powers
+of colours upon vision require the particular attention of the
+colourist. To remedy the ill effect arising from the eyes having dwelt
+upon a colour, they should be either passed gradually to its opposite
+colour, and refreshed amid compound or neutral tints, or washed in the
+clear light of day. Hence, in viewing large collections of pictures,
+their colours will be more duly estimated by sometimes walking to the
+window, or by taking an occasional glance at a millboard, which may be
+carried in the hand, painted a cool gray.</p>
+
+<p>In a warm light, yellow becomes totally lost, but is less diminished
+than all other colours, except white, by distance. The stronger tones of
+any colour subdue its fainter hues in the same proportion as opposite
+colours and contrasts exalt them. The contrasting colours of yellow are
+a purple inclining to blue when the yellow leans to orange, and a purple
+inclining<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span> to red when the yellow tends to green, in the mean
+proportions of <i>thirteen</i> purple to <i>three</i> yellow, measured in surface
+or intensity. Being nearest to the neutral white in the natural scale of
+colours, yellow accords with it in conjunction; while, of all colours,
+except white, it contrasts black most powerfully. Yellow is discordant
+when standing alone with orange, unsupported by other colours.</p>
+
+<p>On account of the paucity of fine yellows among the ancients, we find
+that in many paintings and beautiful illuminated MSS. of old, glowing
+with vermilion and ultramarine, the place of yellow was supplied by
+gilding. Now, certainly, no such scarcity exists; of the three primary
+colours, good yellows being the most numerous. It may be observed of
+yellow pigments that their colour being primary and therefore simple,
+they cannot be composed by any mixture of other colours. The same remark
+of course applies to pigments which are red or blue.</p>
+
+
+<h4>20. AUREOLIN.</h4>
+
+<p>In these days a new pigment soon finds its level, standing or falling
+according to its merits. There are too many colours already on the
+palette for a fresh comer to have much chance, unless it possess some
+great distinguishing quality, or can take a place which has never been
+occupied. Such a void aureolin fills. This "magnificent<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span> yellow
+pigment," says the <i>Chemical News</i>, "supplies a desideratum hitherto in
+vain sought for by artists. It is the nearest approach to a perfect
+yellow in existence, and more closely resembles the purity of the
+prismatic spectrum than any other artificial colour. It is transparent,
+has great brilliancy and richness, both pure and in combination, and is
+very permanent, being entirely unaffected by exposure to sulphuretted
+hydrogen and other atmospheric impurities, or to the direct rays of the
+sun during an entire summer. Aureolin, with ultramarine and madder red,
+completes the triad of brilliant, permanent, and transparent primitive
+colours." The above only tallies with the statements of several
+scientific chemists and artists of note, statements which a prolonged
+personal experience of the colour enables us to endorse. To our
+knowledge, aureolin is quite uninjured by the severest tests to which a
+pigment can be subjected. We have found it bear with impunity, even in
+its lightest and faintest tints, the foulest gas and the brightest
+sunshine. Damp has no effect upon it; and in oil, water, or fresco, it
+is equally eligible. With all other colours aureolin mixes safely and
+readily, forming combinations of the utmost variety and value. It
+affords beautiful transparent tints, well defined, and of exceeding
+purity; the paler washes being at once clear and delicate, and admitting
+the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span> most subtle gradations of tone. The artistic properties of
+aureolin, however, will be best described by quoting the following
+extract from Mr. Aaron Penley's <i>English School of Painting in Water
+Colours</i>:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>"I have fully tested the qualifications of <i>Aureolin</i> for the
+Landscape Painter, and, without hesitation, pronounce it to be
+the most valuable addition to the 'colour box' since the
+introduction of Rose Madder. It has supplied a deficiency of a
+very important character. Hitherto, no Primitive Yellow has been
+quite satisfactory as to its persistence; so that the Aureolin
+will not only be regarded by the <i>artist</i> as a great boon in the
+production of his works, but it must also be considered as a
+<i>real</i> and <i>lasting benefit</i> to pictorial art in general. The
+permanence and unaltered purity of its lightest and faintest
+tints we are assured may be confidently relied upon, inasmuch as
+they have been fully established by the most severe tests to
+which colour can be subjected, by several of our ablest and most
+talented chemists. It is, therefore, needless to enlarge upon
+its merits, other than that I, for one, feel grateful for its
+introduction. Its uses are manifold, and may be considered
+available for every purpose requiring a Yellow of its character.
+As to Gray&mdash;perhaps it is not possible to obtain more delicately
+pure and transparent a&euml;rial tints than are to be pro<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span>duced from
+a combination of Cobalt, Rose Madder and Aureolin; all of which
+are of a light description and well suited for the
+representation of soft and thin effects of the atmosphere. These
+colours are each of them beautiful, and yield a most exquisite
+range of tones, which, as they mix together most kindly, render
+them desirable where purity and delicacy are sought. As to
+Foliage.&mdash;In speaking of Aureolin as adapted for the colouring
+of foliage and herbage, it is impossible to say too much in its
+praise. It imparts the vividness and freshness of nature to
+every colour with which it is combined&mdash;a quality of the highest
+order. As a colour for drapery it has no equal, and may be
+employed with perfect success, either by itself or with any of
+the other pigments.</p>
+
+<p>"The following table of compound tints will be found extremely
+useful:&mdash;</p>
+</div>
+
+<table summary="table of compound tints" style="width: 500px; font-size: 80%; margin-top: 2em;">
+<colgroup span="4">
+<col width="150px"></col>
+<col width="150px"></col>
+<col width="150px"></col>
+<col width="150px"></col>
+</colgroup>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb2">Aureolin.</td>
+<td class="tdb2 bl">Aureolin.</td>
+<td class="tdb2 bl">Aureolin.</td>
+<td class="tdb2 bl">Aureolin.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb2">Burnt Sienna.</td>
+<td class="tdb2 bl">Vandyke Brown.</td>
+<td class="tdb2 bl">Sepia.</td>
+<td class="tdb2 bl">Sepia, or Rose<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Madder.</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb2">Indigo, or French<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Blue.</span></td>
+<td class="tdb2 bl"> Indigo, or French<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Blue.</span></td>
+<td class="tdb2 bl">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="tdb2 bl">Cobalt.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb2">Aureolin.</td>
+<td class="tdb2 bl"> Aureolin.</td>
+<td class="tdb2 bl">Aureolin.</td>
+<td class="tdb2 bl">Aureolin.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb2">Indigo. </td>
+<td class="tdb2 bl">Oxide of<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chromium.</span></td>
+<td class="tdb2 bl">Emerald Green.</td>
+<td class="tdb2 bl">Light Red.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="tdb2 bl">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="tdb2 bl">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="tdb2 bl">Cobalt, or Indigo.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="4">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb2">Aureolin.</td>
+<td class="tdb2 bl"> Aureolin.</td>
+<td class="tdb2 bl">Aureolin.</td>
+<td class="tdb2 bl">Aureolin.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb2">Burnt Sienna.</td>
+<td class="tdb2 bl">Burnt Umber.</td>
+<td class="tdb2 bl">Brown Madder.</td>
+<td class="tdb2 bl">Rose Madder.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>"Aureolin, in combination with Cobalt and Sepia, or Rose Madder,
+gives most agreeable and delicate tints for distant trees, when
+under the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span> influence of a soft light, or hazy state of the
+atmosphere. Having most impartially and diligently tested the
+qualities of the Aureolin, I can and do most conscientiously
+recommend its adoption by all who practise water-colour
+painting."</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The foregoing sufficiently proves the value of aureolin in water, and
+similar flattering notices have been given of the colour in oil. Both in
+a chemical and artistic sense, therefore, this new primitive yellow
+merits the highest regard, and justly claims a foremost place among that
+little band of pigments which are without fear and without reproach.</p>
+
+<p>For mural decoration, aureolin is admirably adapted, but it cannot be
+used in enamel, the colour being destroyed by great heat.</p>
+
+
+<h4>CADMIUM YELLOWS.</h4>
+
+<p>Of these there are three tints, <i>Deep</i>, a so-called <i>Pale</i>, and <i>Lemon</i>.</p>
+
+
+<h4>21. DEEP CADMIUM.</h4>
+
+<p>Cadmium Yellow is comparatively a recent introduction, the metal itself
+not having been discovered till 1818. The cadmium yellows of commerce
+are (the chromate excepted) all sulphides, and therefore not affected by
+impure air. Until lately, they were not manufactured in England but
+imported from abroad, and as a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span> rule were sadly doctored. We have found
+in them a large proportion of orpiment, chromate of lead, &amp;c., together
+with quantities of soluble salt, extracted by boiling water. Owing to
+careless preparation, there was also present an unnecessary amount of
+dirt, which interfered as much with the purity of the colour, as
+sophistication lessened its stability. For these reasons, doubtless,
+cadmium yellows got to be regarded by some with disfavour and suspicion;
+and it may fairly be said that they did not attain their present
+popularity, until they became an article of home produce.</p>
+
+<p>Deep cadmium yellow, if genuine, may without hesitation be declared
+permanent, both with respect to foul gas, and exposure to light or air.
+The variety under notice is of extreme depth, inclining to orange,
+glowing, lustrous, and brilliant. It is not very transparent, but
+wonderfully clear and bright, of great power, and the most richly toned
+yellow known. For draperies it is particularly adapted, and for gorgeous
+sunsets is invaluable. It works and washes well, readily throws all
+other yellows into the shade when used alone, and combines admirably
+with Chinese white for the light touches of bright clouds or mountains.</p>
+
+<p>By admixture with white, cadmium gives a series of beautiful clear
+tints. When compounded with white lead, however, the colour has been
+stated to be destroyed. Theoretically, this might<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span> very well happen.
+Cadmium yellow is composed of cadmium and sulphur&mdash;white lead of lead
+and carbonic acid. If the former parted with some of its sulphur to the
+latter, sulphide of lead would result, which is black. Hence, the partly
+decomposed yellow and white would be mixed with black, and there would
+be formed a blackish-yellow or a yellowish-black. Again, if the cadmium
+parted with the whole of its sulphur to the lead, receiving in exchange
+the carbonic acid of the latter, a mixture of black sulphide of lead
+with white carbonate of cadmium would be furnished, the result being a
+grey. Perhaps the following rough diagram may serve to make our meaning
+plainer:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table summary="colour mix" style="width: 600px; font-size: 80%; margin-top: 2em;">
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb" style="vertical-align: top;">Cadmium Yellow</td>
+<td class="tdb" style="vertical-align: top; font-size: 2em;">{</td>
+<td class="tdb">Cadmium.<br />
+Sulphur.</td>
+<td class="tdb"><div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;"><img src="images/fig02.png" width="200" alt="admixture diagram" /></div></td>
+<td class="tdb">Carbonate of Cadmium (White.)</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<table summary="colour mix" style="width: 600px; font-size: 80%;">
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb" style="vertical-align: top;">White Lead</td>
+<td class="tdb" style="vertical-align: top; font-size: 2em;">{</td>
+<td class="tdb">Lead.<br />
+Carbonic Acid.</td>
+<td class="tdb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="tdb">Sulphide of Lead (Black.)</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p>Such is the theory of the reaction which might take place, but which, as
+far as our own experience goes, does not. Some deep cadmium yellow which
+we ourselves prepared was intimately mixed and ground with an equal
+quantity by weight of Cremnitz white, and an oil rub of the compound
+laid upon a tile. Having placed the latter on a shelf in the laboratory,
+we watched from week to week to see if any approach to blackness
+occurred, any diminution in the beauty of the tint; but could perceive
+none. Hence,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span> while admitting the possibility of the colour being
+damaged or destroyed in the case of an inferior and spurious article, we
+conclude that an unadulterated cadmium yellow, containing no free
+sulphur, neither injures, nor is injured by, white lead, and may safely
+be used therewith. At the same time, the artist should be warned to
+satisfy himself of the genuineness of his pigment, or otherwise to
+employ the white of zinc, at least as a medium of intervention.</p>
+
+<p>A good sample of cadmium yellow may rather advantageously than otherwise
+be compounded with white lead, for we have found that a mixture of equal
+parts by weight of the two will bear an atmosphere of sulphuretted
+hydrogen that completely blackens the white alone.</p>
+
+<p>With all the sulphides of cadmium a steel palette knife is best avoided.</p>
+
+
+<h4>22. PALE CADMIUM.</h4>
+
+<p>The cadmium yellow so-called, is not strictly pale, but pale only when
+compared with the preceding. It is, in fact, a full rich colour,
+brilliant and permanent, but without that tendency to orange which
+distinguishes the deep. For some purposes, when a warm tone is not
+required, such a tint is preferable. In water, especially, where
+delicacy of colouring can be carried to a greater degree of refinement
+than in oil, these differences of hue are important.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span> In the first
+medium the faint washes show with a clearness which is not so apparent
+in the last, and the most subtle gradation of tone tells with a force in
+some measure lost in oil. As a consequence, the colour of the lightest
+tints in the distance must be as true as that of the deepest shades in
+the foreground, and hence the warmth or coldness of the pale washes of a
+pigment should be duly considered.</p>
+
+<p>Pale cadmium yellow with or without aureolin, is adapted for golden
+sunsets, and yields with French blue a beautiful sea-green.</p>
+
+
+<h4><ins class="trans" title="number 23. has been omitted from original">24.</ins> LEMON CADMIUM.</h4>
+
+<p>Very pale cadmium yellows are not permanent, and lemon cadmiums are
+decidedly fugitive. Being, like the deep and 'pale' varieties,
+sulphides, they are of course unaltered by sulphurous gas; but they will
+not stand exposure to light and air, or even to light alone. Some which
+were submitted in an air-tight bottle to the action of light gradually
+whitened next the glass. Yet they were almost identical in composition
+with the deepest and most orange hues, and might have reasonably been
+presumed stable. Repeated experiments, however, both with samples of our
+own making and of others' manufacture, have shown that for a cadmium to
+be durable, it must be of a full, rich, comparatively deep yellow; and
+that any paler product than the 'pale' alluded to can<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span>not be depended
+on. It is true that a light or lemon tint will fade quicker in water
+than in oil, but a colour which is fugitive in the one vehicle cannot be
+regarded as eligible in the other. From a somewhat long acquaintance
+with cadmiums, we have derived the opinion that their stability rests
+much on the mode of preparation, and that an amount of heat is needed
+sufficient to make the sulphur <i>bite into</i> the base. This opinion,
+indeed, extends to all metallic sulphides, and our belief is, that if
+vermilions were made generally by wet processes, they would not be found
+the permanent pigments they undoubtedly are.</p>
+
+
+<h4>25. MUTRIE YELLOW.</h4>
+
+<p>Under this name a lemon sulphide of cadmium has lately appeared, to
+which the foregoing remarks are applicable. A water colour rub on
+exposure to air and light faded rapidly, no trace of yellow remaining in
+the pale wash. The sample which came under our notice contained a
+quantity of free sulphur.</p>
+
+<p>It is to be regretted that these lemon cadmiums are fugacious, so
+bright, so clear, are they, and of so pure a lemon tint can they be
+obtained. But as no beauty of colour compensates for want of durability,
+their place should be supplied by lemon yellow proper, or chromate of
+baryta.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span>26. CHROME YELLOWS,</h4>
+
+<p>Also called <i>Jaune Min&eacute;rale</i>, <i>Jaune de Cologne</i> or <i>Cologne Yellow</i>,
+<i>Pale Chrome</i>, and <i>Deep Chrome</i>, are chromates of lead, in which the
+latter metal more or less exists, according to the paleness or depth of
+the colour. Of modern introduction, they are distinguished for their
+brilliancy, their opacity and body, and their going cordially into tint
+with white, both in water and oil. Owing, however, to a harshness and
+hardness of tone for which they are peculiar, a coarse and disagreeable
+effect is apt to be produced by their use. In general, they do not
+accord with the modest hues of nature, nor harmonize well with the
+softer beauty of other colours. Rivalling the cadmiums in brightness,
+they are wanting in the mellow richness which belongs to the deeper
+varieties of those pigments, as well as in their permanency. Although
+they resist the sun's rays for a lengthened period, after some time they
+lose their original hue, whether employed alone or in tint, and may even
+become black in impure air. Upon several pigments they produce serious
+changes, ultimately destroying Prussian and Antwerp blues, when
+compounded therewith in the composition of greens, &amp;c. Ranging from
+lemon to deep yellow, in oil, provided the atmosphere be good, the
+chromes may be found comparatively durable; but, on<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span> the whole, the
+artist cannot trust to them his reputation as a colourist.</p>
+
+<p>The chromates are often mixed with sulphate of lead, as well as with the
+sulphates of baryta and lime. The presence of the first is especially
+objectionable, as increasing the tendency of the yellows to be blackened
+by foul gas. The sulphates of baryta and lime, however, are sometimes
+formed in the process of preparation, in which case they are rather an
+advantage than otherwise; inasmuch as they not only lend a softness to
+the colour, but decrease the proportion of leaden base, and consequently
+the tendency referred to. We may remark, indeed, with respect to
+pigments, that it is difficult in many instances to say where
+manufacture ends and adulteration begins. A substance may be present
+which, although not absolutely essential to the colour itself, has been
+legitimately employed to impart a desired quality, or a certain tint.</p>
+
+
+<h4>27. COLOGNE YELLOW</h4>
+
+<p>Is a cheap inferior chrome yellow, unfit for artistic purposes, and
+consists of twenty-five parts of chromate of lead, fifteen of sulphate
+of lead, and sixty of sulphate of lime.</p>
+
+
+<h4>28. JAUNE MINERALE</h4>
+
+<p>Is prepared in Paris, and differs in no essential particular from
+ordinary chromate of lead, except<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span> in the paleness of its colour. The
+chrome yellows have also obtained other names from places or persons,
+whence they have been brought or by whom they have been made. Another
+lead yellow, not a chromate, has likewise been called jaune min&eacute;rale.</p>
+
+
+<h4>29. CITRON YELLOW</h4>
+
+<p>Is chromate of zinc, a bright pale lemon-like yellow, slightly soluble
+in water. It is not affected by foul gas, but does not preserve its
+colour on exposure to light and air, or even when kept in a book. In
+contact with organic substances it is apt to turn green. Compounded,
+especially for foliage tints, this yellow is eligible; but if purity of
+hue be desired, it should certainly not be employed alone. In this
+chromate, as in many others, the affinity of the chromic acid to the
+base is small; the former is liable to separate from the latter, and, by
+deoxidation, to become converted into green oxide of chromium.</p>
+
+
+<h4>30. GALLSTONE</h4>
+
+<p>Is a deep-toned gorgeous yellow, affording richer tints than most other
+yellows, but it cannot be depended on for permanency, and therefore is
+seldom employed. Its colour is soon changed and destroyed by strong
+light, though not subject to alteration by impure air. In oil it is
+ineligible. A true gallstone is an animal<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span> calculus formed in the
+gall-bladder, chiefly of oxen; but the pigment sold under that name is
+often replaced by a substitute, resembling the original in colour, but
+of greater stability.</p>
+
+
+<h4>31. GAMBOGE,</h4>
+
+<p>Sometimes designated <i>Drop Gum</i>, and variously written <i>Gamboge</i>,
+<i>Camboge</i>, <i>Gamboage</i>, <i>Cambogia</i>, <i>Cambadium</i>, <i>Cambogium</i>,
+<i>Gambodium</i>, <i>Gambogium</i>, &amp;c., is the produce of several kinds of trees.
+The natives of the coast of Coromandel call the tree from which it is
+principally obtained Gokathu, which grows also in Ceylon and Siam. From
+the wounded leaves and young shoots the gamboge is collected in a liquid
+state and dried. Our indigenous herb Celandine yields abundantly, in the
+same manner, a beautiful yellow juice of the same properties as gamboge.
+Gamboge is of a gum-resinous nature and clear yellow colour. It is
+bright and transparent, but not of great depth, and in its deepest
+touches shines too much and verges upon brown. When properly used, it is
+more durable than generally reputed, both in water and oil; and
+conduces, when mixed with other colours, to their stability and keeping
+their place, on account of its gum and resin. It is deepened in some
+degree by ammoniacal and impure air, and somewhat weakened, but not
+easily discoloured, by the action of light. Time effects less change on
+this colour than on other<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span> bright vegetal yellows; but white lead and
+other metalline pigments injure, while terrene and alkaline substances
+redden it. In water it works remarkably well, and forms an opaque
+emulsion without grinding or preparation, by means of its natural gum;
+but is with difficulty employed in oil, &amp;c., in a dry condition. It
+dries well, however, in its natural state, and lasts in glazing when
+deprived of its gum. With regard to other colours it is perfectly
+innocent, and though a strong medicine, is not dangerous or deleterious
+in use. Gamboge has been employed as a yellow lake, precipitated upon an
+aluminous base; but a better way of preparing it is to form a paste of
+the colour in water, and mix it with lemon yellow, with which pigment
+being diffused it goes readily into oil or varnish. Glazed over other
+colours in water, its resin acts as a varnish which protects them; and
+under other colours its gum acts as a preparation which admits
+varnishing. It is injured by a less degree of heat than most pigments.</p>
+
+<p>In landscape, gamboge affords with indigo or Antwerp blue clear bright
+greens, and with sepia a very useful sober tint. For sunrise and sunset
+clouds, a mixture of gamboge and cadmium yellow will be found useful.</p>
+
+
+<h4>32. EXTRACT OF GAMBOGE</h4>
+
+<p>Is the colouring matter separated from its<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span> greenish gum and impurities
+by solution in alcohol, filtration and precipitation, by which it
+acquires a powdery texture, rendering it miscible in oil, &amp;c., and
+capable of being employed in glazing. At the same time it is improved in
+colour, and retains its original property of working well in water with
+gum. Gamboge is likewise soluble in caustic potash, forming a red
+liquid, from which it is thrown down by acids.</p>
+
+
+<h4>33. INDIAN YELLOW</h4>
+
+<p>Is a pigment long employed in India under the name <i>Purree</i>, but has not
+many years been introduced generally into painting in Europe. It is
+imported in the form of balls of a fetid odour, and is produced from the
+urine of the camel. It appears to be a urio-phosphate of lime, and is of
+a beautiful pure yellow colour and light powdery texture; of greater
+body and depth than gamboge, but inferior in these respects to
+gallstone. Indian yellow resists the sun's rays with singular power in
+water painting; yet in ordinary light and air, or even in a book, the
+beauty of its colour is not lasting. In oil it is exceedingly fugitive,
+both alone and in tint. Owing probably to its alkaline nature, it has an
+injurious effect upon cochineal lakes and carmine when used with them.
+The colour is not damaged by foul air, and, as lime does not destroy it,
+the pigment may be employed in fresco according to its powers.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span>Indian yellow washes and works extremely well, and is adapted for
+draperies and for compounding landscape greens&mdash;where permanency is not
+required. Blackness in the darkest shadows of the foliage will sometimes
+result from too great a use of indigo; should this evil exist, no colour
+is so fitted to regain the proper tone as Indian yellow employed
+thickly.</p>
+
+
+<h4>LAKES.</h4>
+
+<p>There are several pigments of this denomination, varying in colour and
+appearance according to the substances used and modes of preparation.
+Usually they are in the form of drops, and their colours are in general
+bright yellow, very transparent, and not liable to change in an impure
+atmosphere&mdash;qualities which would render them very valuable, were they
+not soon discoloured and even destroyed on exposure to air and light,
+both in water and oil. In the latter vehicle, they are bad driers, like
+most lakes, and they do not stand the action of white lead and other
+metallic pigments. If used, therefore, it should be as simple as
+possible. Of these lakes, the following are the best; but it must be
+borne in mind that, as not one of them is permanent, the compounds they
+afford are of necessity unstable.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span>34. YELLOW LAKE</h4>
+
+<p>Is a bright transparent yellow, a difficult drier, and liable to be
+destroyed by light. It affords beautiful foliage tints, and would, if it
+could be depended on, be of extreme value in what is called "glazing."</p>
+
+
+<h4>35. ITALIAN PINK,</h4>
+
+<p>Also called <i>English</i> and <i>Dutch Pink</i>, is an absurd name for a stronger
+and richer kind of yellow lake, warmer in tint and more powerful than
+the preceding. It is a rich transparent yellow, yielding a variety of
+fine foliage tints by admixture with indigo and sepia in different
+proportions. These three colours with burnt sienna will produce almost
+every variety of sunny foliage. It gives likewise good olive greens with
+lamp black.</p>
+
+
+<h4>36. QUERCITRON LAKE,</h4>
+
+<p>Or <i>Quercitron Yellow</i>, is what its name implies. It is dark in
+substance, in grains of a glossy fracture, perfectly transparent, and
+when ground is of a beautiful yellow colour. In painting it follows, and
+adds richness and depth to, gamboge in water, and goes well into
+varnish; but any lead used in rendering oils siccative, browns it, and
+for the same reason it is useless in tints.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span>37. LEMON YELLOW,</h4>
+
+<p>Or chromate of baryta, is exceedingly difficult to make well. Upon the
+mode of manufacture depend not only the beauty of the colour but its
+stability. If properly and carefully prepared, it is of a vivid lemon
+tint, deep or pale, very clear, very pure and permanent. It also washes
+well, and is entirely free from the slightest tinge of orange. This may
+be pronounced the only chromate which possesses durability, not being
+liable to change by damp or foul air, by the action of light or the
+steel palette-knife, or by mixture with white lead and other pigments,
+either in water or oil, in both of which it works pleasantly. Lemon
+yellow is chiefly adapted to points of high light, and has a peculiarly
+happy effect when glazed over greens in both modes of painting. In water
+it exceeds gamboge in brightness, and compounded therewith improves its
+beauty. This mixture also goes readily into oil; indeed it is the best
+and easiest way of rendering gamboge diffusible as an oil colour&mdash;simple
+emulsion of the gamboge in a little water, and trituration of the lemon
+yellow therewith, being all that is requisite for the purpose.</p>
+
+<p>Lemon yellow has not much power, and is semi-opaque. In distance, its
+light wash is used with great effect for cool sunny greens, for which a
+minute quantity of emerald green may be added<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span> to it. Being uninjured by
+lime, the colour is eligible in fresco and crayons.</p>
+
+
+<h4>38. MARS YELLOW,</h4>
+
+<p><i>Jaune de Mars</i>, <i>Jaune de Fer</i>, <i>Iron Yellow</i>, &amp;c., is an artificially
+prepared iron ochre, of the nature of sienna earth. In its general
+qualities it resembles the ochres, with the same eligibilities and
+exceptions, but is more transparent, as well as purer, clearer, richer,
+and brighter. Like them it is quite permanent. The colours of iron exist
+in endless variety in nature, and are capable of the same variation by
+art, from sienna yellow, through orange and red, to a species of purple,
+brown, and black, among which are useful and valuable distinctions. They
+were formerly introduced by the author, and have been received under the
+names of Mars yellow, Mars orange, Mars red, Mars violet, and Mars
+brown. All of them are brighter and purer than native ochres, and
+equally stable. When carefully prepared, these pigments dry well in
+proportion to their depth, are marked by a subdued richness rather than
+brilliancy, and have the general habits of sienna earths and ochres.
+Their faint washes possess the desirable quality of transparent
+clearness.</p>
+
+<p>We have occasionally found Mars yellow mixed with orpiment, or chromate
+of lead, for the purpose of brightening the colour.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span>39. NAPLES YELLOW</h4>
+
+<p>Was a compound of lead and antimony, anciently prepared at Naples under
+the name of <i>Giallolino</i>, and was variously of a pleasing light, warm
+yellow tint. It was opaque and of good body, not altered by the light of
+the sun, and might be used with comparative safety in oil or varnish,
+under the same management as the whites of lead. Like these, however, it
+was liable to change even to blackness by damp and impure air when
+employed in water. Iron was also destructive of the colour of this
+yellow, on which account great care was requisite, in grinding and using
+it, not to touch it with the common steel palette knife, but to compound
+its tints with a spatula of ivory or horn. For the same reason, it was
+apt to suffer in composition with ochres, Prussian and Antwerp blues,
+and other pigments of which iron was a principal or ingredient. Used
+pure or with white lead it was eligible in oil, in which it worked and
+dried well. It was also employed in enamel painting as it vitrified
+without change. In this state it was called <i>Giallolino di fornace</i>, and
+was introduced as a pigment for artists, under the erroneous conception
+that vitrification gives permanence to colours, when in truth it only
+increases the difficulty of levigation, and injures their texture for
+working.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span> We have spoken of Naples yellow in the past tense, because the
+pigment now sold as such is generally, or always, a compound colour, or
+manufactured with a zinc instead of a lead base. In either case the
+preceding remarks are not applicable to the present product, which is
+perfectly durable and trustworthy. The new Naples yellow presents an
+example of an old objectionable pigment being replaced by a different
+and superior preparation. However fugitive certain colours may have
+been, the fact of their once having had a place on the palette would
+seem to be sufficient recommendation to some. At any rate, they are
+still in occasional request, and we cannot but approve the pious fraud
+which offers under the same name a good substitute for a bad original.
+If an artist must needs demand a worthless pigment, he had better buy a
+colour like it that will stand, even if it be not what he asked for.</p>
+
+<p>The tints of Naples yellow are readily and accurately imitated by
+admixture of deep cadmium yellow and white.</p>
+
+
+<h4>40. ANTIMONY YELLOW,</h4>
+
+<p>As its name denotes, was likewise a preparation of that metal, of a
+deeper colour than Naples yellow, but similar in its properties. It was
+principally used in enamel and porcelain painting, and differed greatly
+in tint. One<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span> variety, brighter than the rest, is stated not to have
+been affected by foul air, and therefore could not have had a lead
+basis.</p>
+
+<h4>OCHRES,</h4>
+
+<p>Known as <i>Yellow Ochre</i>, <i>Brown Ochre</i>, <i>Roman Ochre</i>, <i>Transparent Gold
+Ochre</i>, <i>Oxford Ochre</i>, <i>Stone Ochre</i>, <i>Di Palito</i>, &amp;c., are native
+earths, consisting chiefly of silica and alumina in combination with
+iron, which latter forms the principal colouring matter. They are among
+the most ancient of pigments, and their permanency is proved by the
+state of the old pictures. In a box of colours found at Pompeii, and
+analyzed by Count Chaptal, he discovered yellow ochre purified by
+washing, which had preserved its original freshness. They may all be
+produced artificially in endless variety as they exist in nature, and
+are all converted by burning into reds or reddish-browns. Several ochres
+are found in the natural state of so very fine a quality, that they
+require no other preparation than that of being washed. Their colours
+may be imitated to a certain extent by means of iron alone, uncombined
+with silica and alumina; but such ferruginous preparations are not
+equally durable, and as their chemical action is stronger, they are more
+likely to affect those pigments which are damaged by iron. It often
+happens in colours that one component<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span> of weak stability, or powerful
+for evil, is strengthened and held in check by another; thus in the case
+of the ochres, the silica and alumina by keeping a tight hand on the
+iron, both ensure its safety, and prevent it injuring others.</p>
+
+
+<h4>41. YELLOW OCHRE,</h4>
+
+<p>Called also <i>Mineral Yellow</i>, is found in most countries, and abundantly
+in our own. It differs much both in constitution and colour, ranging
+from a tolerably bright though not vivid yellow to a brown-yellow, and
+is generally of a warm cast. Its natural variety is much increased by
+artificial dressing and compounding. The best yellow ochres possess no
+great force, but as far as they go are valuable pigments, particularly
+in fresco and distemper, being neither subject to change by ordinary
+light, nor sensibly affected by impure air, or the action of lime. By
+time, however, and the direct rays of the sun, they are somewhat
+darkened. Like other ochres, they may be safely used in admixture with
+pigments which are themselves permanent. With carmine and the cochineal
+lakes, or intense blue, the ochres are best not employed.</p>
+
+<p>The impunity with which yellow ochre bears foul gas is one of its many
+recommendations. No immediate effect whatever is produced by
+sulphuretted hydrogen, and only a slight dirty<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span> brown tint is imparted
+by its prolonged action. This discolouration a short exposure to air and
+light quickly removes. By keeping the ochre sufficiently long in contact
+with sulphide of ammonium a jet black is obtainable, but a rub of it in
+a moist unwashed state completely regains its yellow hue in a day or so.
+Hence, yellow ochre compounded with pigments which suffer from an impure
+atmosphere doubtless acts as a preservative agent.</p>
+
+<p>Yellow ochre is usually employed in the distance and middle ground of a
+landscape. It possesses a slight degree of turbidness, and is esteemed
+for this property, which is considered to give it a retiring quality. By
+admixture with Antwerp blue or indigo it affords a fine range of quiet
+greens, also a very serviceable yellowish drab with Vandyke brown. The
+ochre is valuable in warm skies, the sails of ships and boats, sandstone
+rocks and cliffs, buildings, hay, sheep, &amp;c. It does not compound kindly
+with any of the cold colours, and should therefore be used as a wash
+over others that are dry, when required to qualify their tints.</p>
+
+
+<h4>42. ROMAN OCHRE</h4>
+
+<p>Is rather deeper and more powerful than the preceding, as well as more
+transparent and cool in tint. In other respects it is similar, and forms
+with Antwerp blue and indigo a like<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span> excellent range of greens. We may
+observe, however, that as indigo is not a permanent pigment, the colours
+it yields by admixture cannot be durable as far as the blue is
+concerned. Roman ochre and brown madder are admirably adapted for red
+sails, and autumnal effects of foliage.</p>
+
+
+<h4>43. BROWN OCHRE,</h4>
+
+<p>Likewise known as <i>Spruce Ochre</i> and <i>Ocre de Rue</i>, or, more correctly
+<i>Ru</i>, is a dense, deep-toned brownish yellow, fine in sandy foregrounds.
+With Indian yellow it gives a dark autumnal tint of great richness, but
+stable only as respects the ochre. When mixed with other colours, it
+furnishes a series of rich yet sober tones of extensive use. It covers
+well, without being too opaque; and compounded with black and a little
+brown-red is good for backgrounds, &amp;c.</p>
+
+
+<h4>44. TRANSPARENT GOLD OCHRE</h4>
+
+<p>Resembles in a great degree Roman ochre, but is clearer in its tints,
+and more transparent. It is also brighter and much less opaque than
+yellow ochre. It approaches somewhat the character of clear bright raw
+sienna, though more pure and brilliant, serving for strong
+semi-transparent greens and sunny effects.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span>45. OXFORD OCHRE</h4>
+
+<p>Is a native pigment from the neighbourhood of Oxford, semi-opaque, of a
+warm yellow colour and soft argillaceous texture, absorbent of water and
+oil, in both of which it may be safely employed. It is one of the best
+of yellow ochres.</p>
+
+
+<h4>46. STONE OCHRE</h4>
+
+<p>Has been confounded with the last variety, to which, as well as to Roman
+ochre, it is frequently similar. True stone ochres are found in balls or
+globular masses of various sizes in the solid body of stones, lying near
+the surface of rocks among the quarries of Gloucestershire and
+elsewhere. These balls are smooth and compact, in general free from
+grit, and of a powdery fracture. They vary exceedingly in colour, from
+yellow to brown, murrey, and gray, but otherwise do not differ from
+ordinary ochres.</p>
+
+<p>In enamel they may be used for browns and dull reds.</p>
+
+
+<h4>47. DI PALITO</h4>
+
+<p>Is a light yellow ochre, with no special distinguishing quality, except
+that its tints are rather purer in colour than most ochres.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span>48. ORIENT YELLOW</h4>
+
+<p>Is an entirely new preparation of absolute permanence, and perfectly
+unexceptionable in all respects, both in water and oil. We can give it
+no higher praise than by saying it equals aureolin in stability, as well
+as in neither injuring, nor being injured by, other colours. Not
+possessed of the same amount of transparency, it is distinguished by
+greater richness and depth. Of a soft golden hue, lustrous and luminous,
+it resembles a brilliant and somewhat opaque Indian yellow. A gorgeous
+and durable substitute for that fugitive pigment is produced by
+compounding the orient with aureolin, or by using the latter as a glaze.
+Being more transparent than cadmiums and less obtrusive, the new yellow
+is adapted for mellow sunset and sunrise clouds, or for sunshine on
+distant mountains. With French blue it affords a beautiful sea green;
+and, mixed with aureolin, gives fine foliage tints. It is also eligible
+for draperies and illumination. For enamelling it is inadmissible, the
+colour being destroyed by great heat; but in fresco it may safely be
+employed.</p>
+
+<p>As in the case of aureolin, we have had a prolonged personal experience
+of this new yellow, an experience which justifies us in asserting that
+there is none more permanent. In the whole range of artistic colours
+there is no pigment less<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span> affected by chemical or physical agents. Acid
+and ammoniacal fumes, foul gases, and exposure to damp, air, light, or
+sunshine, equally fail to injure it. The perfect impunity with which it
+bears the action both of sulphuretted hydrogen and sulphide of ammonium
+is remarkable. The former gas may be continuously passed into the colour
+suspended in water, or a strong solution of the latter sulphide be
+poured upon it, and the yellow remains unchanged. Submitted to the
+direct rays of the sun during an entire summer, its lightest and
+faintest tints have preserved their original hue.</p>
+
+<p>In a preceding chapter we remarked that, provided the colour be stable,
+the more colour a pigment possesses the better. The "latent colour"
+there alluded to, is one of the advantages of orient yellow. The more it
+is looked into, the more colour is seen&mdash;there is no suspicion of a base
+coloured, the pigment is colour itself.</p>
+
+
+<h4>49. ORPIMENT,</h4>
+
+<p>Also called <i>King's Yellow</i>, <i>Chinese Yellow</i>, <i>Yellow Orpiment</i>, &amp;c.,
+was known in ancient times: the Romans called it <i>auri pigmentum</i> or
+gold colour, whence, by corruption, its present name is derived. It is
+found in the native state in China and elsewhere, the best quality being
+in masses, consisting of plates of a fine golden hue, inter<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span>mixed with
+portions of a vermilion or orange-red colour; the inferior kinds are
+yellow or greenish yellow. Of orpiment, or sulphuret of arsenic, which
+is produced artificially, there are two distinct varieties; one of a
+bright pure yellow tint, in which the sulphur predominates, and one of
+an orange hue, in which the arsenic is in excess. The former is the most
+lasting, but it is not durable in water, and still less so in oil,
+although not discoloured by impure air. Compounded with white lead it is
+soon destroyed, nor can it be mixed with any colours into which lead
+enters, such as chrome yellow, the old Naples yellow, &amp;c. The sulphur in
+combination with the arsenic, having less affinity for that metal than
+for lead, lets it go, and forms a sulphuret of lead of a dark greyish
+hue. Moreover, as orpiment is apt to deprive other pigments of their
+oxygen, and therefore to change and be changed by all pigments whose
+colour depends on that element&mdash;metallic pigments especially&mdash;it is
+probable that the orpiment after some time withdraws the oxygen from the
+lead; and this would be an additional cause for the darkening of the
+tint composed of the two colours. With sulphides or pigments containing
+sulphur, orpiment may be used with less danger. If employed at all,
+however, it had better be in a pure and unmixed state. We are far from
+recommending orpiment as an eligible colour, and it is highly
+poisonous.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Brick dust and yellow ochre are sometimes found as adulterants.</p>
+
+
+<h4>50. RAW SIENNA,</h4>
+
+<p>Known likewise as <i>Raw Sienna Earth</i>, <i>Terra di Sienna</i>, &amp;c., is a
+ferruginous native pigment, firm in substance, of a glossy fracture, and
+very absorbent. It is of rather an impure yellow colour, and much used
+in landscape, being very serviceable both in distance and foreground.
+Unless proper skill is exercised in its preparation, the sienna has the
+objection of being somewhat pasty in working. Being little liable to
+change by the action of either light, time, or impure air, it may safely
+be employed according to its powers, in oil, water, and other modes of
+practice. It possesses more body and transparency than the ochres; and
+by burning becomes deeper, orange-russet, as well as more transparent
+and drying.</p>
+
+<p>Raw sienna compounded with cobalt, indigo, or Prussian blue, and a very
+little bistre, yields good sea greens, that with indigo being the most
+fugitive. Alone, it is adapted for shipping, sails, baskets, decayed
+leaves, brooks and running streams.</p>
+
+
+<h4>51. STRONTIAN YELLOW,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">To justify its name, should be a chromate of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span> strontia, a compound very
+slightly soluble in water, and not more stable than the zinc chromate.
+The pigment, however, now sold as strontian yellow is usually formed by
+admixture, and contains no strontia whatever. Its absence cannot be
+considered a disadvantage, for the substitute possesses a durability to
+which the original could lay no claim. Other things being equal, we
+prefer an original pigment to one compounded, but a good mixture is
+decidedly better than a bad original. A light primrose, clear and
+delicate.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<p>The foregoing comprise those yellows more generally employed, advisedly
+or not, as the case may be. The following are for the most part not
+commercially obtainable, a remark that will apply in ensuing chapters to
+all numbered colours printed in italics. As a rule, these have become
+obsolete as pigments, or have never been introduced as such. The former
+could not well be omitted in a work of this kind, and the latter deserve
+notice as being at least suggestive. At present, many of them must be
+regarded as mere curiosities, being obtainable only from materials of
+excessive rarity. In time, however, the sources whence they are derived
+may possibly be found in greater abundance, and these now fancy products
+prove of value to the palette.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span> The new metal indium, for instance,
+furnishes a bright yellow sulphide, like that of cadmium. The colour
+could not be affected by foul air, and might possess other advantages
+which would render indium yellow a desirable pigment. With regard to
+those compounds available for artistic use, but which have not to our
+knowledge been adopted, several are quite ineligible. It may be thought
+that they are needlessly referred to, but they are mentioned as a
+warning and a guide. Strange preparations have been offered as pigments,
+and sometimes accepted, witness turbith mineral, iodine yellow, &amp;c. In
+these days of chemistry there is less chance for them, but they are
+continually submitted to one's notice, their merits being enlarged upon
+in proportion to their worthlessness. Through an exceptional ignorance
+they may still gain a place, and it has been deemed, therefore, not
+superfluous to allude to them. At the same time we do not pretend to
+exhaust the list, any more than we claim to note all substances
+possessing colour, but yet not admissible as pigments. Some there are
+which do not retain that colour on drying; others, whose preparation
+involves processes too nice, complicated, or expensive, for
+manufacturing purposes. There are many colours, again, which exist only
+on paper. We have too often found the imaginations of chemical writers
+far more vivid than the colours they describe. Gorgeous yellows turn<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span>
+out dingy drabs; dazzling scarlets dirty reds; and brilliant blues dusky
+slates. As respects colours, most books of science need revising.</p>
+
+
+<h4>52. <i>Arsenic Yellow</i>,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">Called also <i>Mineral Yellow</i>, has improperly been classed as an
+orpiment, from which it differs in not being a sulphide, and in
+containing lead. It is prepared from arsenic fluxed with litharge, and
+reduced to powder. It is much like orpiment in colour, dries better, and
+not being affected by lead, is less liable to change in tint. The
+presence of the litharge, however, renders it subject to be blackened by
+sulphuretted hydrogen. Of course it is poisonous.</p>
+
+
+<h4>53. <i>Bismuth Yellow</i>,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">Or chromate of bismuth, may be obtained either as a lemon or an orange
+yellow, sparingly soluble in water. The colour is not permanent, and
+turns greenish-brown even when excluded from light and air.</p>
+
+
+<h4>54. <i>Copper Yellow</i>,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">Or chromate of copper-potassa, is of a bright yellow tint, not insoluble
+in water. It is discoloured both by foul gas and exposure.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span>55. <i>Gelbin's Yellow</i>,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">Or chromate of lime, is a pale whitish yellow, poor in colour, partly
+soluble, and not at all to be depended on.</p>
+
+
+<h4>56. <i>Indium Yellow.</i></h4>
+
+<p>Whether the new metal indium will ever be found in sufficient quantity
+to render it practically useful remains to be seen. The most abundant
+source at present known is the Freiberg blende, 100,000 parts of which
+only yield from twenty-five to forty parts of indium. The metal is
+chiefly interesting in an artistic sense on account of its sulphide, a
+fine bright yellow resembling cadmium, and best obtained by
+precipitating an acetic acid solution with sulphuretted hydrogen, or
+sulphide of ammonium. In the latter, the yellow dissolves on being
+heated, but deposits again on cooling of a rather paler tint. With one
+modification, what was said in a former edition of this Treatise
+concerning cadmium yellow may be repeated of indium yellow. "The metal
+from which it is prepared being hitherto scarce, it has not been
+employed as a pigment, and its habits are not therefore ascertained."
+All we can tell is, that the colour does not suffer from impure air.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span>Indium is likewise distinguished by a straw-yellow oxide.</p>
+
+
+<h4>57. <i>Iodine Yellow</i>,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">Or iodide of lead, is one of those compounds whose presence on the
+palette should never have been allowed. Exceedingly brilliant, it is
+also utterly fugitive, destroyed by exposure or foul gas, and useless in
+admixture. We may state here that, whatever its colour, no pigment
+containing iodine can in the slightest degree be relied upon. One of the
+most unstable of substances, being slowly volatile even at common
+temperatures, iodine is or ought to be quite inadmissible as a
+constituent. Combined with lead, which is in itself objectionable, it
+forms a yellow possessing every bad quality.</p>
+
+
+<h4>58. <i>Iron Yellow</i>,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">Or oxalate of protoxide of iron, has very unadvisedly been recommended
+as a pigment. It is a bright pale yellow, but soon loses the beauty of
+its tint when submitted to air and light, becoming, by peroxidation, red
+and buffy. Even in a book the colour changes.</p>
+
+
+<h4>59. <i>Madder Yellow.</i></h4>
+
+<p>As our (the Editor's) experience of this product is somewhat at variance
+with that of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span> author, we subjoin his original statement. "Madder
+yellow is a preparation from the madder-root. The best is of a bright
+colour, resembling Indian yellow, but more powerful and transparent,
+though hardly equal to it in durability of hue; metallic, terrene, and
+alkaline substances acting on and reddening it as they do gamboge: even
+alone it has by time a natural tendency to become orange and foxy. We
+have produced it of various hues and tints, from an opaque and ochrous
+yellow, to a colour the most brilliant, transparent, and deep. Upon the
+whole, however, after an experience of many years, we do not consider
+them eligible pigments."</p>
+
+<p>While agreeing with Mr. Field as to the character given of these
+yellows, we must confess that we have never been able to obtain, nor
+have we ever seen, a "most brilliant" madder yellow. Colours bearing
+that name have come under our notice, but if their hue was pure and
+vivid, they have always proved to be falsely so called, the madder being
+conspicuous by its absence. What we have succeeded in producing, and the
+genuine samples we have met with, have been fawns, buffs, drabs, &amp;c.,
+decidedly "ochrous" yellows, and wanting in stability. It is certain
+that no true madder yellow, brilliant and pure, ranks as a pigment at
+the present day. A variety known as Cory's Yellow Madder may be briefly
+described as Cory's <i>Brown</i> Madder.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span>60. <i>Massicot</i>,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">Or <i>Masticot</i>, is a protoxide of lead, varying from the purest and most
+tender straw colour to a dull orange yellow, and known as Light, Yellow,
+and Golden Massicot. It has in painting all the properties of white
+lead, from which it may be prepared by gentle calcination in an open
+furnace. In tint with that pigment, however, it soon loses its colour
+and returns to white, probably extracting some carbonic acid therefrom.
+If used in an unmixed state, it is permanent in oil under the same
+conditions as white lead, but should not be employed in water, on
+account of its changing even to blackness by the action of damp or
+impure air. It is an admirable dryer, and has much the same effect as
+litharge in rendering oils siccative.</p>
+
+<p><i>Litharge</i> is merely fused massicot. Old writers speak of litharge of
+silver and litharge of gold, oxides of lead, pale and reddish yellow
+respectively. Commercial litharge, especially that which is foreign,
+contains sometimes a considerable proportion of oxide of copper and
+iron. The principal impurity, however, is generally silica, left
+undissolved on treating the litharge with nitric or acetic acid.
+Litharge is commonly used in preparing drying oils, which contain a
+greater or less amount of the oxide in the form of oleate of lead. Oils
+made siccative by means<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span> of litharge are therefore liable to be damaged
+by foul gas. It is a matter of congratulation that such injury is not
+lasting, and that the oil, like white lead, recovers its original colour
+on exposure to air and light. Some drying oil which we exposed on a tile
+to an atmosphere of sulphuretted hydrogen until it was completely
+blackened, regained its former yellow hue on being submitted for a day
+or so to air and light. Hence, although the employment of lead as a
+siccative is not desirable, its effects are not so deleterious as might
+be imagined.</p>
+
+
+<h4>61. <i>Patent Yellow</i>,</h4>
+
+<p class="no"><i>Turner's Yellow</i>, <i>Montpellier Yellow</i>, <i>Mineral Yellow</i>, <i>Cassel
+Yellow</i>, &amp;c., is a mixture of chloride and oxide of lead, obtainable
+either as a pale or a deep yellow. It is a hard, ponderous, sparkling
+substance, of a crystalline texture and bright colour; hardly inferior,
+when ground, to chrome yellow. Of an excellent body, and working well in
+oil and water, but soon injured both by the sun's light and impure air.
+A variety, mentioned by M&eacute;rim&eacute;e, in which bismuth and antimony are also
+used, is of greater durability.</p>
+
+
+<h4>62. <i>Platinum Yellow.</i></h4>
+
+<p>Our own opinion of this costly preparation is that the good qualities of
+the product do not<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span> justify its price. It may be obtained as a bright,
+rich, deep yellow, of considerable transparency; but the colour is acted
+upon by foul gas and exposure. Even in a book we have found it assume a
+dirty greyish cast, and a specimen which had been kept in a drawer,
+wrapped up in paper, became perfectly black in a few years. The presence
+of palladium interferes with the beauty of the original tint, but does
+not affect its stability.</p>
+
+
+<h4>63. <i>Thallium Yellow.</i></h4>
+
+<p>The new metal thallium yields in combination with chromic acid two
+yellow colours, a pale and an orange. They are not absolutely insoluble
+in water, and the sulphide of thallium being brown, would probably be
+damaged by impure air. But whatever their properties as pigments may be,
+their habitudes as such are not yet known. The present scarcity of the
+metal renders the colours produced from it mere scientific curiosities.</p>
+
+
+<h4>64. <i>Thwaites' Yellow.</i></h4>
+
+<p>Under this name chromate of cadmium was introduced some few years back.
+If well prepared, it is a fine soft powder of a very vivid light yellow
+colour. The compound is too soluble, however, to be of value, its
+washings even with cold water being continually tinged yellow. Hence it
+turns<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span> green after a time, and becomes otherwise discoloured. Like
+citron yellow and other chromates apt to assume a green cast, it should
+only be employed, if at all, when compounded for foliage tints, &amp;c. This
+want of durability is to be regretted, for a good sample of cadmium
+chrome is marked by exceeding beauty, unsurpassed for clearness and
+purity by any other yellow.</p>
+
+
+<h4>65. <i>Turbith Mineral</i>,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">Or <i>Queen's Yellow</i>, is a subsulphate of mercury, of a beautiful lemon
+yellow colour, but so liable to change by the action of light or impure
+air, that it cannot be used safely, and hardly deserves attention as a
+pigment.</p>
+
+
+<h4>66. <i>Uranium Yellow</i></h4>
+
+<p class="no">Can be produced of a pale or orange tint, differing in brightness and
+depth of colour according to the mode of preparation. It is fairly
+eligible as a pigment, and far superior to the many fugitive compounds
+which have from time to time appeared. Being very expensive, however,
+and not possessing the good qualities of its compeers lately introduced,
+uranium yellow has but little chance of being employed now.</p>
+
+
+<h4>67. <i>Yellow Carmine</i></h4>
+
+<p class="no">Is a rich transparent colour, somewhat resem<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span>bling an ochre compounded
+with Indian yellow. On exposure to light, it behaves much as a mixture
+of those pigments would do, the rich <i>yellowness</i> entirely disappearing,
+and the sober-coloured earth being left behind.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<p>From several metals besides those mentioned, yellows more or less vivid
+and durable may be obtained&mdash;from tin, nickel, cerium, molybdenum, &amp;c.;
+but we do not know that any one of them would be a really desirable
+addition. To justify its being brought out, a new pigment should own
+some special advantage, chemical or artistic, by which it may be
+distinguished from other colours. No purpose would be answered by
+crowding the palette with mere repetitions, even though they were
+stable. If, for instance, indium yellow were found exactly similar to
+that of cadmium, in colour, opacity, permanence, its presence would be
+quite superfluous. The mistake is often made of offering a fresh
+compound for a pigment when something as good or better, and cheaper may
+be, already exists. We remember a patient experimenter, who had produced
+a pink from cobalt, wondering why his colour should be so generally
+declined. The product was not wanting in either beauty or stability, but
+he forgot that the lakes of madder were far more beautiful, at least as
+durable, and much less expensive. We have said that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span> we do not join in
+the cry of there being too many pigments, or share the opinion that
+there is not room for more, but we do enforce the necessity of progress.
+Let us have as many good colours as possible, but let the new be
+superior to the old, and all be distinct from each other.</p>
+
+<p>As far as yellows are concerned, the palette possesses both variety and
+durability. Opaque or transparent, bright or subdued, deep or pale, it
+presents a sufficiency of permanent pigments. Most noteworthy are
+aureolin, the deep and 'pale' cadmiums, lemon yellow, Mars yellow, the
+modern Naples yellow, the ochres, orient yellow, and raw sienna. Whether
+used alone or in tint these are, if genuine, perfectly reliable, and
+comprise the list of those durable colours which may be called pigments
+of the first class.</p>
+
+<p>Among pigments of the second class, or the semi-stable, gamboge holds
+the foremost place, for although not strictly durable in itself, it
+conduces to the permanence of other colours. Chrome yellows, citron
+yellow, strontian yellow, and Thwaites' yellow, also belong to this
+division.</p>
+
+<p>As third class pigments, or the fugitive, must be ranked Mutrie yellow
+and other lemon cadmiums, the true gallstone, Indian yellow, the lakes,
+orpiment, Gelbin's yellow, massicot, patent yellow, and turbith mineral.</p>
+
+<p>It must not be forgotten, however, that these<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span> three classes are subject
+to modification. A durable pigment may be so adulterated as to descend
+to the second or even the third division, while a semi-stable or
+fugitive colour may be replaced by a permanent or comparatively
+permanent substitute, as in the case of strontian yellow and gallstone.
+It should likewise be remembered that pigments are apt to vary in
+stability according to the mode of their preparation; and that, as there
+are different degrees of permanence, there are different degrees of
+fugacity.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span><a name="chapter_9" id="chapter_9"></a><a href="#contents">CHAPTER IX.</a></h2>
+
+<h3>ON THE PRIMARY, RED.</h3>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Red</span> is the second and intermediate of the primary colours, standing
+between <i>yellow</i> and <i>blue</i>; and is also in like intermediate relation
+to <i>white</i> and <i>black</i>, or light and shade. Hence red is pre-eminent
+among colours, as well as the most positive of all, forming with yellow
+the secondary <i>orange</i> and its near relatives, scarlet, &amp;c.; and with
+blue, the secondary <i>purple</i> and its allies, crimson, &amp;c. It gives some
+degree of warmth to all colours, especially to those which partake of
+yellow.</p>
+
+<p>Red is the archeus, or principal colour in the tertiary <i>russet</i>; enters
+subordinately into the two other tertiaries, <i>citrine</i> and <i>olive</i>; goes
+largely into the composition of the various hues and shades of the
+semi-neutral <i>marrone</i> or chocolate, and its relations, puce, murrey,
+morelle, mordore, pompadour, &amp;c.; and is more or less present in
+<i>browns</i>, <i>grays</i>, and all broken colours. It is likewise the second
+power in harmonizing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span> and contrasting other colours, as well as in
+compounding <i>black</i> and all other neutrals, into which it enters in the
+proportion of five,&mdash;to blue, eight,&mdash;and yellow, three.</p>
+
+<p>Red is a colour of double power in this respect too; that, in union or
+connexion with yellow, it becomes hot and <i>advancing</i>; but mixed or
+combined with blue, cool and <i>retiring</i>. It is, however, more congenial
+with yellow than with blue, and thence partakes more of the character of
+the former in its effects of warmth, the influence of light and
+distance, and action on the eye, by which the power of vision is
+diminished on viewing this colour in a strong light. On the other hand,
+red appears to deepen in colour rapidly in a declining light as night
+comes on, or in shade. These qualities of red give it great importance,
+render it difficult of management, and require it to be generally kept
+subordinate in painting. It is therefore rarely used unbroken, as the
+ruling or predominating colour, or for toning a picture; on which
+account it will always seem detached or insulated, unless repeated and
+subordinated. Hence Nature is sparing with her red, employing it with as
+much reserve in the decoration of her works as she is profuse in
+lavishing green upon them. This latter is of all colours the most
+soothing to the eye, and the true contrasting or harmonizing equivalent
+of red, in the proportional quantity<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span> of eleven to five, according to
+surface or intensity: being, when the red inclines to scarlet or orange,
+a <i>blue</i>-green; and when it tends to crimson or purple, a
+<i>yellow</i>-green.</p>
+
+<p>Red breaks and diffuses with white with peculiar loveliness. It is
+discordant when standing with orange only, requiring to be joined or
+accompanied by their proper contrast, to resolve or harmonize the
+dissonance. In landscapes, &amp;c., abounding with hues allied to green, a
+red object properly placed as regards light, shade, or distance,
+conduces wonderfully to the life, beauty, harmony, and connexion of the
+colouring. Red is, indeed, the chief element of beauty in floral nature,
+the prime ornament of the green garb of the vegetal kingdom.</p>
+
+<p>Being the most <i>positive</i> of colours, and holding the middle station of
+the primaries, red contrasts and harmonizes with black and white, which
+are the <i>negative</i> powers or neutrals of colours, and the <ins class="trans" title="was extemes">extremes</ins> of
+the scale. Moreover, as red is less nearly allied to black or shade than
+to white or light, this harmony is most remarkable in the union or
+opposition of white and red, and this contrast most powerful in black
+and red.</p>
+
+<p>As a primary and simple colour, red cannot be composed by mixture of
+other colours. So much is it the instrument of beauty in nature and art
+in flesh, flowers, &amp;c., that good pigments of this genus are most
+indispensable. On the whole,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span> the palette cannot be considered so well
+furnished with reds as with yellows. Especially is there wanting a
+permanent transparent scarlet, a colour for which a prize of &pound;500 has
+for many years been offered by the Society of Arts.</p>
+
+
+<h4>68. CADMIUM RED.</h4>
+
+<p>The deep, pale, and lemon yellows which cadmium at first afforded, were
+followed by an orange, which has quite recently been succeeded by a red.
+This is a most vivid orange-scarlet, the red predominating, of exceeding
+depth, and intense fire. It is a simple original pigment, containing no
+base but cadmium, and possessing a large amount of latent colour. It is
+more orange in hue than vermilion, and has the advantages of flowing and
+drying well, of greater brilliancy, of retaining that brilliancy when
+dry, and of considerable transparency. Hence this red is preferably
+employed where opacity is to be avoided&mdash;in sunset clouds for instance.
+As day declines or by artificial light, the colour approaches very
+nearly to a deep pure scarlet; and the best substitute for a permanent
+transparent scarlet which has yet been obtained is furnished by
+admixture of cadmium red with madder carmine, or by using the latter as
+a glaze. Compounded with white, the red yields a series of fine flesh
+tints; and it mixes readily and safely with other colours. Without
+harshness or rankness, neither injured by an im<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span>pure atmosphere nor
+exposure to light and air, cadmium red is eligible in every department
+of art, enamel painting only excepted. In illumination, the red
+contrasted by viridian will be found most beautiful and effective.
+Seeing that previous to its introduction the number of bright reds, not
+being crimson, nor of a crimson cast, was limited to vermilions, pure
+scarlet, red chrome, and red lead, of which the first alone were
+permanent, there was room on the palette for a strictly durable and
+somewhat transparent pigment like cadmium red, with its many distinctive
+properties.</p>
+
+
+<h4>COCHINEAL LAKES.</h4>
+
+<p>Lake, a term derived from the <i>lac</i> or <i>lacca</i> of India, is the name of
+a number of transparent red and other coloured pigments of great beauty,
+prepared for the most part by precipitating coloured tinctures of dyeing
+drugs upon aluminous bases. Consequently, the lakes form a numerous
+class, both with respect to the variety of their appellations, and the
+substances whence they are produced. Those under notice are known as
+<i>Carmine</i>, <i>Crimson Lake</i>, <i>Scarlet Lake</i>, <i>Purple Lake</i>, <i>Chinese
+Lake</i>, <i>Florentine Lake</i>, <i>Hamburgh Lake</i>, <i>Roman Lake</i>, <i>Venetian
+Lake</i>, &amp;c., and are obtained from the "coccus cacti," an insect found on
+a species of cactus, from the juice of which it extracts its
+nourishment. This coccus is a native of Mexico,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span> where two kinds are
+recognised, under names which signify wild cochineal and fine cochineal.
+The latter may be considered a cultivated product, its food and wants
+being carefully attended to, while the former is left in a natural
+state, and is less valuable. Wild cochineal is distinguished by having a
+woolly downy coat, which is not the case with the fine cochineal. The
+females, of which there are from one hundred and fifty to two hundred
+for each male, are marked by the absence of wings, and constitute the
+commercial article. They are generally killed by immersion in boiling
+water, which causes them to swell to twice their natural size, and are
+then dried and packed for market. The insects shrivel in drying, and
+assume the form of irregular grains, fluted and concave. The best sorts
+have a silvery-grey colour, with a purplish reflection, and seem to be
+dusted with a white powder. This appearance is often given by means of
+heavy spar, carbonate of lead, Venice talc, &amp;c. A good lens, however,
+will mostly expose the fraud; or it may be detected by macerating the
+insect in water, and allowing the loosened pulverised particles to
+settle.</p>
+
+<p>Cochineal is a very rich colouring substance, yielding about half its
+weight of real colouring matter, which may be easily extracted by
+boiling in water. Dr. Warren De La Rue, who examined the living animal,
+states that on piercing the side<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span> of the insect a purplish-red fluid
+exuded, containing the colouring matter in minute granules. This
+colouring matter he succeeded in obtaining pure, in the form of a
+purple-brown friable mass, pulverizable to a fine red powder,
+transparent when viewed by the microscope, and soluble both in water and
+alcohol in all proportions. At temperatures above 136&deg; it decomposed,
+and by alkalies its colour was turned to purple. These facts account for
+the care required in drying cochineal lakes, and for their liability to
+change of hue when in contact with alkaline substances, as in mural
+decoration.</p>
+
+<p>The lakes of cochineal may be known from those of the dye-woods by their
+solubility in ammonia, a liquid which purples but does not dissolve the
+colours produced from the latter.</p>
+
+
+<h4>69. CARMINE.</h4>
+
+<p>A name once given only to the fine feculences of kermes and cochineal
+tinctures, now denotes generally any pigment which resembles them in
+beauty, richness of hue, and powdery texture. We have, therefore, blue
+and other coloured carmines, though the term is usually confined to the
+crimson and scarlet lakes of cochineal. As at present commonly
+understood, carmine is that preparation of cochineal which contains the
+most colouring matter and the least aluminous base. Hence it is the
+richest, deepest, most intense,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span> and most permanent. Although not to be
+classed as durable, yet by reason of its extreme depth, carmine is more
+stable than the weaker crimson, scarlet, and purple lakes. When
+well-made, pure, and employed alone and in body, it has been known to
+retain its colour for years, especially if protected by oil or varnish.
+In tint with white lead, however, it has no stability; and though little
+affected by impure air, in glazing it is soon discoloured and destroyed
+by the action of light. Of great power in its full touches, it possesses
+considerable clearness in the pale washes, and works admirably. In
+landscape, carmine is seldom used, the colour being chiefly valued in
+flower painting and illumination.</p>
+
+<p>It has been erroneously stated that the finest carmines cannot be made
+in England, owing to a want of clearness in the atmosphere and a
+scarcity of sunshine. For many years, however, they have been produced
+in this country, not only finer than any foreign preparations, but
+equally good in winter as in summer.</p>
+
+<p>Carmine is sometimes sophisticated with starch, vermilion, and with
+alumina not formed in the process of manufacture. Occasionally also, a
+portion of the animal matter of the cochineal from which it has been
+obtained is left mixed with it. These accidental or intentional
+impuri<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span>ties may mostly be detected by heating the carmine with liquid
+ammonia, which entirely dissolves the colouring matter and leaves the
+impurities in an insoluble state.</p>
+
+
+<h4>70. CRIMSON LAKE</h4>
+
+<p class="no">Is a cochineal pigment containing more aluminous base than carmine, and
+is consequently weaker in colour and less stable. Deficient in much of
+the depth and brilliancy which belong to the latter, it is more commonly
+employed and more generally useful. This lake is of service in mixing
+tints, to impart richness, in flower painting and illumination, and is,
+like all cochineal colours, of greater utility in water than in oil.
+With cobalt and gamboge it yields an excellent gray, and with cobalt
+alone a fine purple for heather. Distant hills may be strengthened with
+a tint of French blue and lake, and Vandyke brown with the crimson will
+be found admirable for a rich coloured foreground. Many other beautiful
+tints, unexceptionable in an artistic sense, are afforded by crimson
+lake on admixture. It should be remembered, however, that not one of
+them is permanent as far as the lake is concerned. All cochineal
+pigments are more or less affected by strong light, which weakens their
+tints, and in time deprives them of colour; and it is not by being
+compounded that a fugitive colour is rendered durable.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span>71. SCARLET LAKE</h4>
+
+<p class="no">Is prepared in the form of drops from cochineal, and is of a fine
+transparent red colour and excellent body, though, like other lakes, it
+dries slowly. Discoloured and destroyed by strong light both in water
+and oil, and not permanent in tint with white lead or in combination
+with other pigments, it possesses the common attributes of cochineal
+lakes. Yet when well prepared, used in sufficient body, and not unduly
+exposed, it has been found to last a lengthened period; but it ought
+never to be employed in glazing, nor at all in works that aim at high
+reputation and stability. It is in general tinted with vermilion, which
+has probably been mixed with lakes at all times to give their scarlet
+hue and add to their weight; for upon examining with a powerful lens
+some fine pictures of ancient masters, in which lake had been used in
+glazing, particles of vermilion were apparent, from which lake had
+evidently flown. Unfortunately, these lakes are injured by vermilion as
+they are by lead, so that glazings of cochineal over vermilion or lead
+are particularly apt to vanish. This effect is very remarkable in
+several pictures of Cuyp, where he has introduced a figure in red from
+which the shadows have disappeared, owing to their having been formed
+with lake over vermilion. The scarlet hue of this lake should properly
+be im<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span>parted to it during the process of manufacture, and not by
+subsequent mechanical admixture.</p>
+
+
+<h4>72. PURPLE LAKE</h4>
+
+<p class="no">Is a species of crimson lake with a purple cast, transparent and
+deep-toned, and useful in shadows: in other respects resembling that
+pigment. Red being its predominant colour, we have preferred classing
+this so-called purple among the reds, in spite of its name. On the whole
+it is more durable than crimson lake.</p>
+
+
+<h4>73. FLORENTINE LAKE</h4>
+
+<p class="no">Differs from scarlet lake only in the mode of preparation. Formerly the
+lake so called was extracted from the shreds of scarlet cloth. The same
+may be said of <i>Chinese Lake</i>.</p>
+
+
+<h4>74. HAMBURGH LAKE</h4>
+
+<p class="no">Is a lake of great power and depth of colour, purplish or inclining to
+crimson, which dries with extreme difficulty, but differs in no other
+essential respect from preceding cochineal lakes&mdash;an observation which
+applies to <i>Roman Lake</i>, <i>Venetian Lake</i>, and many others; none of
+which, however beautiful or reputed, is entitled to the character of
+stability either in hue, shade, or tint.</p>
+
+
+<h4>75. DRAGON'S BLOOD</h4>
+
+<p class="no">Is a resin brought from the East Indies. It is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span> of a warm
+semi-transparent, rather dull red colour, which is deepened by impure
+air, and darkened by light. There are two or three sorts, but that in
+drops is the best. White lead soon destroys it, and in oil it dries with
+extreme difficulty. It is sometimes used to colour varnishes and
+lackers, being soluble in oils and alcohol. Although it has been
+recommended as a pigment, dragon's blood does not merit the attention of
+the artist.</p>
+
+
+<h4>76. INDIAN LAKE,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">Likewise called <i>Lac Lake</i>. This is obtained from the lac or lacca of
+India, a resinous secretion which seems to depend upon the puncture of a
+small insect&mdash;<i>coccus ficus</i>&mdash;made for the sake of depositing its ova on
+the branches of several plants, found in Siam, Assam, and Bengal. The
+twigs soon become encrusted with a mammelated substance of a red colour
+more or less deep, nearly transparent, hard, and having a brilliant
+conchoidal fracture. The roughly-prepared coating is imported in two
+forms, called lac-lake and lac-dye, which contain about 50 per cent of
+colouring matter, combined with more or less resin, and with earthy
+matters, consisting chiefly of carbonate and sulphate of lime and
+silica.</p>
+
+<p>Indian lake is rich, transparent, and deep,&mdash;less brilliant and more
+durable than the colours<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span> of cochineal, but inferior in both respects to
+those of madder. Used thickly or in strong glazing, as a shadow colour,
+it is of great body and much permanence; but in thin glazing it changes
+and flies, as it also does in tint with white lead. In the properties of
+drying, &amp;c., it resembles other lakes. The pigment may be dispensed with
+in favour of madder lake and madder brown, whose combinations serve for
+every purpose to which it can be applied, and are stable.</p>
+
+<p>Lac appears to be the lake which has stood best in old pictures, and was
+probably employed by the Venetians, who had the trade of India when
+painting flourished at Venice.</p>
+
+
+<h4>MADDER LAKES.</h4>
+
+<p><i>Rubric Lakes</i>, or <i>Field's Lakes</i>, are derived from the root of "rubia
+tinctorum," a plant largely grown in France and Holland, whence the bulk
+of that used in England is obtained. The French madders are in a state
+of very fine powder, containing one half their weight of gum, sugar,
+salts, and other soluble substances, which water speedily dissolves.
+Madder roots in the unground state are imported from the Levant, and
+called Turkey roots. Good qualities of Turkey madder yield near sixty
+per cent of extractive matters, a term that includes everything
+removable by water and dilute alkalis: the woody fibre is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span> therefore
+about forty per cent. This is presuming the root to be genuine, for
+madder is often adulterated with brickdust, red ochre, red sand, clay,
+mahogany sawdust, logwood, sandal and japan-wood, and bran.</p>
+
+<p>Unlike cochineal, madder possesses several colouring matters; the
+question of which, despite the learned researches of Dr. Schunck and
+others, is far from settled yet. The following remarks embody our own
+experience of the root, simply as a pigment-producing product:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>Madder contains five colouring matters&mdash;yellow, red, orange, purple, and
+brown. Of these, the first colour is soluble in cold water. By washing
+the powdered root quickly with it by decantation, the yellow and brown
+are extracted in the form of an opaque liquid. If this be decanted and
+allowed to stand, the brown deposits, leaving a clear buffish-yellow
+supernatant liquor. In the root from which the extract was poured, the
+remaining three colours are left. On adding a strong boiling solution of
+alum, these are dissolved, yielding a fine red liquid. From this there
+can be thrown down, by the agency of different chemicals, a red, an
+orange, or a purple precipitate. Or, supposing the whole of the
+colouring matter to be deposited as a red lake, it is possible to
+convert this&mdash;also by the agency of different chemicals&mdash;either into
+orange or purple. Hence, for all practical purposes, madder contains but
+three<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span> colouring matters: a yellow, soluble in cold water; a brown, not
+soluble in, but capable of being extracted by cold water; and a red,
+soluble in boiling alum, and furnishing at will a purple or an orange.</p>
+
+<p>As was observed in the previous chapter, no good pigment is obtained
+from the yellow, of which the less there is present the better; but the
+brown affords a valued product, which will be duly noticed. It is
+essential to the purity of the reds, that the madder should be freed
+from both these colours; and it was probably due to insufficient aqueous
+washing of the root, that the old lakes were dull and muddy, mere
+brick-reds of ochrous hues. For many years, however, lakes have been
+prepared perfectly transparent, and literally as beautiful and pure in
+colour as the rose; qualities in which they are unrivalled by the lakes
+and carmine of cochineal. They have justly been considered as supplying
+a desideratum, and as among the most valuable acquisitions of the
+palette in modern times, since permanent transparent red and rose
+pigments were previously unknown. The red varieties range from rich
+crimson to a delicate rose, and are known as <i>Madder Carmine</i>, <i>Field's
+Carmine</i>, <i>Pink Madder</i>, <i>Rose Madder</i>, <i>Madder Lake</i>, and <i>Liquid
+Rubiate</i> or <i>Liquid Madder Lake</i>.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span>77. MADDER CARMINE,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">Or <i>Field's Carmine</i>, like that of cochineal, is the richest and deepest
+lake prepared, containing most colouring matter and least base. It
+differs from the paler products chiefly in transparency and intensity,
+and is the only durable carmine for painting either in water or oil; for
+both which it is qualified by texture without previous grinding. In
+common with the other reds of madder, its faint washes possess greater
+clearness than those of cochineal. This carmine is a difficult colour to
+make well, exceeding care and nicety being required to obtain the
+fullest tint: hence it is apt to vary in hue according to the skill of
+the manufacturer. Being expensive also, the price increasing according
+to depth of colour, the lake has been the most liable to adulteration,
+of all the reds of madder. M&eacute;rim&eacute;e states that samples were sent to him
+from Berlin, under the name of "carmine madder," which evidently owed
+their brightness to tincture of cochineal. It is certain that madder
+lakes have been imitated on the Continent with various success by those
+of lac, cochineal, and carthamus or safflower. The best we have seen is
+the <i>laque de garance</i>, which was tinged with the rouge of carthamus,
+and was of course inferior in durability. As, however, liquid ammonia
+and alkalis generally dissolve the colours of cochineal, lac, and
+safflower,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span> the test is simple. If the liquid remain uncoloured on
+adding ammonia to an assumed madder lake, in all probability the pigment
+is genuine.</p>
+
+
+<h4>78. ROSE MADDER.</h4>
+
+<p>The exquisite flowers of Bartholomew, Miss Mutrie, and others, give
+evidence of the beauty, purity, and stability of the reds of madder,
+both in water and oil. This variety, less intense than the preceding and
+without its carmine hue, is of a rich rose colour&mdash;a true rose&mdash;tending
+neither to crimson, scarlet, nor purple. Marked by a peculiar softness,
+and an unusual clearness in its pale washes, rose madder affords the
+most perfect carnation tints known. Not liable to change by the action
+of light, impure air, or admixture with white lead and other colours, it
+resembles all madder lakes in these respects. Like them, too, it is but
+a tardy dryer in oil unless thoroughly edulcorated, and does not work in
+water with the entire fulness and facility of cochineal pigments. When,
+therefore, permanence is of no consideration, the latter may still be
+preferred. In those works, however, where the hues and tints of nature
+are to be imitated with stability and pure effect, the rose colours of
+madder are become indispensable. They have this advantage, moreover,
+that they possess the property of ultramarine of improving in hue by
+time&mdash;their tendency being to their own specific prismatic red colour.
+As they are too beautiful and require<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span> saddening for the general use of
+the painter, the addition of manganese brown, cappagh brown, or burnt
+umber, adds to their powers, and improves their drying in oils; for
+which last purpose a little japanner's gold size may be likewise
+employed.</p>
+
+<p>In the light touches of bright clouds or mountains, where a mixture of
+cadmium yellow and Chinese white is used, rose madder is invaluable for
+glazing over such touches when dry, should they be required of a warmer
+hue. The red portion of sunset skies may be improved by a thin wash of
+this pigment, tinged perhaps with the above yellow, or with gamboge.
+Most serviceable landscape tints are afforded by admixture of rose
+madder with cobalt, Indian red, purple madder, yellow ochre, lamp black,
+&amp;c. In painting flesh, the lake cannot be dispensed with.</p>
+
+
+<h4>79. PINK MADDER</h4>
+
+<p class="no">Was a weaker preparation of the preceding, paler in hue and possessing
+less colour. It was formerly employed in miniature painting, but with
+the decline of that art became less and less used, until it may now be
+said to be obsolete. The name, however, still lives, but is applied to
+rose madder, which is indeed indifferently called <i>Rose Madder</i>, <i>Pink
+Madder</i>, or <i>Madder Lake</i>. Speaking of pink roses, Mrs. Duffield remarks
+that "the local colour is best imitated with pink madder," and the
+Messrs. Rowbotham observe<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span> "this heather may be best represented by
+cobalt and madder lake." In trade catalogues several names are often
+given, as in this instance, to one and the same pigment. The seeming
+superfluity is rendered necessary through some artists knowing a pigment
+by one name and some by another. Hence arises the value of a list of
+synonyms.</p>
+
+
+<h4>80. LIQUID RUBIATE,</h4>
+
+<p class="no"><i>Rose Rubiate</i>, or <i>Liquid Madder Lake</i>, is a concentrated tincture of
+madder of the most beautiful and perfect rose colour and transparency.
+It is used as a water colour only in its simple state, diluted with
+water, and with or without gum. In oil it dries by acting as a
+siccative. Mixed or ground with all other madder colours, with or
+without gum, it forms combinations which work freely in water, and
+produce the most charming and stable effects. The rubiate also furnishes
+a fine red ink, and is a durable stain for printing on cotton, &amp;c. To
+the tinting of maps and charts permanently, it is peculiarly suited.</p>
+
+
+<h4>81. MARS RED</h4>
+
+<p class="no">Or <i>Rouge de Mars</i>, is an artificial iron ochre, similar in subdued tint
+and permanence to the native earths. Its chemical affinities, however,
+are greater than those of the latter, and it therefore requires to be
+employed cautiously with pigments affected by iron. In this respect the
+red resembles<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span> its compeers, Mars yellow, Mars orange, Mars violet, and
+Mars brown, all of which are iron ochres artificially prepared.
+Possessing the richness and depth of Indian red, it is distinguished by
+the russet-orange hue of light red. Its pale washes are marked by
+considerable clearness. In keeping the Mars colours separate from the
+ochres, we have followed the plan of the author.</p>
+
+
+<h4>OCHRES</h4>
+
+<p class="no">Comprise <i>Red Ochre</i>, <i>Indian Red</i>, <i>Light Red</i>, <i>Venetian Red</i>,
+<i>English Red</i>, <i>Persian Red</i>, <i>Prussian Red</i>, <i>Spanish Red</i>, <i>Brown
+Red</i>, <i>Indian Ochre</i>, <i>Scarlet Ochre</i>, <i>Carnagione</i>, <i>Terra Puzzoli</i>,
+<i>English Vermilion</i>, <i>Spanish Brown</i>, <i>Majolica</i>, <i>Redding</i>, <i>Ruddle</i>,
+<i>Bole</i>, <i>Almagra</i>, <i>Sil Atticum</i>, <i>Terra Sinopica</i>, &amp;c. They are rather
+hues and tints than definite colours, or more properly belong to the
+tertiary, semi-neutral, and broken colours. As a rule they are native
+pigments, found in most countries, and very abundantly and fine in our
+own; but some are products of manufacture, and obtainable in the variety
+of nature by art.</p>
+
+<p>The colouring matter of these earths is the red oxide of iron, as that
+of the yellow ochres is the yellow oxide. All the yellow ochres are more
+or less reddened by being burnt, as yellow oxide of iron itself becomes
+red on calcination. It was observed in the fourth chapter that time has
+often the effect<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span> of fire, more or less intense; and hence it is that
+yellow ochres occasionally assume a buffish-red hue, by the gradual
+peroxidation of the iron. Similarly, if a yellow ochre be but partially
+calcined, the red so obtained is apt to deepen or darken. Especially do
+these changes take place when the iron oxides are not associated with an
+earthy base; when, in fact, the so-called ochres cannot be classed as
+such. In this case, too, as was lately remarked, the pigments are more
+chemically active, and more likely to affect those colours to which iron
+is inimical.</p>
+
+
+<h4>82. RED OCHRE</h4>
+
+<p class="no">Is a native earth; sometimes brown ochre burnt, and called <i>Brown Red</i>.
+It is less pure in hue and clear in its tints than light red, and is
+best reserved for dark and vigorous shades and touches. For draperies of
+a dusky red it is well suited, or even for the shadows of bright-red
+drapery. In dead colouring it is very valuable. Like all ochres, it is
+characterized by permanence in water, oil, crayons, and fresco; and is,
+like most of them, available in enamel-painting.</p>
+
+<p>Almagra, the Sil Atticum of the ancients, is a deep red ochre found in
+Andalusia; as is also their Terra Sinopica or Armenian Bole, dug
+originally in Cappadocia, and now found in New Jersey and elsewhere
+under the name of Bloodstone.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[148]</a></span>83. INDIAN RED,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">Once known as <i>Persian Red</i>, is brought from Bengal. It is a natural
+earth rich in peroxide of iron, of a purple russet hue and good body,
+and valued when fine for the clearness and soft lakey tone of its tints.
+In a crude state it is a coarse powder, full of extremely hard and
+brilliant particles of a dark appearance and sometimes magnetic. It is
+greatly improved by grinding and washing over, and is very permanent.
+Neither light, impure air, mixture with other colours, time, nor fire,
+effects any sensible change in it; but being opaque and not keeping its
+place well, it is unsuited for glazing. This pigment differs
+considerably in its hues, that which is most rosy being esteemed the
+best, and affording the purest tints. Inferior ochres were formerly
+substituted for Indian red, which procured it a variable character; but
+the colour being now obtained abundantly can in general be had genuine.
+It is a good drier.</p>
+
+<p>Mixed with Indian ink, it furnishes useful shadows; and compounded with
+cobalt or indigo, most serviceable grays. For sunsets, where deep purple
+lines are louring over the horizon's brink, a mixture of French blue
+with a little Indian red and lake is admirably adapted. In twilight and
+stormy clouds, in sails and buildings, in shade carnations of portraits
+and backgrounds, &amp;c., the red is often employed.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span>84. LIGHT RED</h4>
+
+<p class="no">Is an ochre of an orange-russet hue, chiefly valued for its tints. The
+principal yellow ochres afford this colour best, and the brighter and
+clearer the yellow ochre is from which it is prepared, the brighter will
+the red be, and the better flesh tints will it yield with white. Light
+red has the good properties common to ochres, dries capitally, and
+furnishes an excellent crayon. It is much used both in figure and
+landscape painting, giving fine grays with cobalt, and serviceable
+compounds with yellow ochre, indigo, lamp black, rose madder, Payne's
+grey, brown madder, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>Terra Puzzoli, a volcanic production, is a species of light red, as is
+the Carnagione of the Italians.</p>
+
+
+<h4>85. VENETIAN RED,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">Less known as <i>English Red</i>, <i>Prussian Red</i>, and <i>Scarlet Ochre</i>. True
+Venetian red, that is, the red of the Venetians, was probably brought
+from India, and similar to our modern Indian red. The Venetian red of
+the present day, however, is an artificial product, containing no earthy
+base, and therefore improperly classed among the ochres. It is prepared
+by calcining sulphate of iron, to which a little nitre may be
+advantageously added. The result is a peroxide of iron, resembling light
+red, but more powerful, and of a more scarlet hue. It is very permanent,
+but being a purely iron pigment, should be cautiously<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[150]</a></span> employed with
+colours affected by that metal. Though not bright, its tints are clear,
+and it mixes and works kindly with cobalt or French blue, affording fine
+pearly grays. Heightened by madder lake, it furnishes a glowing red,
+very useful in some descriptions of skies; and saddened by black, it
+gives low toned reds of good quality for buildings. With white it
+produces carnation tints nearly approaching to nature, and much employed
+by Titian, Vandyke, and others. Compounded with aureolin, Venetian red
+yields a clear orange of considerable transparency.</p>
+
+<p><i>Spanish Red</i> is an ochre differing little from the above.</p>
+
+
+<h4>86. PURE SCARLET,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">Or <i>Iodine Scarlet</i>, is an iodide of mercury, having the body and
+opacity of vermilion, and being as much inferior to it in permanence as
+it is superior in brilliancy. Of all artistic pigments, it is at once
+the most dazzling and the most fugitive, and should have no place on the
+palette. If used, it should be with an ivory knife, as iron and most
+metals change it to colours varying from yellow to black; hence it
+should never be compounded with metallic pigments. So sensitive, indeed,
+is it to the slightest touch of metal, that it has been known to turn to
+a dull brown merely by being washed over with a colour which had been
+taken out of its saucer with a penknife. In the cake, it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span> must be
+carefully kept wrapped up in paper, otherwise the presence of metal
+tubes or a knife in the colour-box may spoil it. By a foul atmosphere,
+the scarlet is soon utterly destroyed, and even metallized. In contact
+with the air, it quickly fades away; and has been found to vanish
+completely, when exposed to light alone. Employed in water, a thick
+glaze of gum-arabic or gamboge adds to its stability. As a landscape
+pigment, the colour is out of the general scale of nature; but in
+flower-painting its charms are almost irresistible. Nothing certainly
+can approach it as a colour for scarlet geraniums, but its beauty is
+almost as fleeting as the flowers.</p>
+
+
+<h4>87. RED CHROME,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">Also called <i>Scarlet Chrome</i>, is a bright chromate of lead of an
+orange-red colour, the red being predominant. Rank in tone, it is liable
+to the changes of the yellow chromes, though in a less degree. The
+recent introduction of cadmium red renders the use of this unnecessary.</p>
+
+
+<h4>88. RED LEAD,</h4>
+
+<p class="no"><i>Minium</i>, or <i>Saturnine Red</i>, is an ancient pigment, by some old writers
+confounded with cinnabar, and termed Sinoper or Synoper. It is an oxide
+of uncertain composition, prepared by subjecting massicot to the heat of
+a furnace with an expanded surface and free accession of air. Of a
+scarlet colour and fine hue, it is warmer<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[152]</a></span> than common vermilion, whose
+body and opacity it possesses, and with which it was once customary to
+mix it. Bright, but not so vivid as the iodide of mercury, it is more
+durable, although far less so than vermilion. When pure and alone, light
+does not affect its colour, which soon flies, however, on being mixed
+with white lead or any preparation of that metal. By impure air, red
+lead is blackened and ultimately metallized.</p>
+
+<p>On account of its extreme fugacity when compounded with white lead, this
+red cannot be used in tints; but employed, unmixed with other pigments,
+in simple varnish or oil not rendered drying by any metallic oxide, it
+may stand a long time under favourable circumstances. It is an excellent
+dryer in oil, and has often been used as a siccative with other colours,
+but it cannot safely be so employed except with the ochres, earths, and
+blacks in general. Oils, varnishes, and, in some measure, strong
+mucilages, are preventive of chemical action in the compounding of
+colours, by intervening and clothing the particles of pigments; and
+hence heterogeneous and injudicious tints and mixtures have sometimes
+stood well, but are not to be relied upon in practice. Altogether, red
+lead is a dangerous pigment in any but skilled hands, and has naturally
+had a variable character for permanence. It is frequently adulterated
+with earthy substances, such as brickdust, red ochre, and colcotha.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></span>VERMILIONS.</h4>
+
+<p>Vermilion is so called from the Italian word <i>vermiglio</i> (little worm,)
+given to the kermes or "coccus ilicis," which was used as a scarlet dye
+before the introduction of cochineal. It is a sulphuret of mercury,
+which previous to levigation is called Cinnabar; and is found native in
+quicksilver mines, as well as produced artificially. This is an ancient
+pigment, the <ins class="transgreek" title="[Greek: kinnabari]">&#954;&#953;&#957;&#957;&#940;&#946;&#945;&#961;&#953;</ins> of the Greeks, and the <i>minium</i>&mdash;a term
+now confined to red lead&mdash;of older writers. Pliny states that it was so
+esteemed by the Romans, as to have its price fixed by express law of
+state. Among other places, the natural product is met with in
+California, Spain, and Peru; and in China there is a native cinnabar so
+pure as only to require grinding to become very perfect vermilion.
+Whether the natural possesses any advantages over the artificial,
+appears to admit of doubt: Bouvier thought that the former blackened
+more than the latter, and others coincide with him. As, however, native
+vermilion has become commercially obsolete, the question of their
+comparative permanence is of little importance. Theoretically, it is
+difficult to assign a reason why there should be any difference between
+the two.</p>
+
+<p>Vermilion is capable of being made by both wet and dry processes, but
+the last are almost exclusively adopted on a scale, and are, we
+believe,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a></span> preferable. Our opinion, expressed with some diffidence, is,
+that pigments whose colour depends on the union of sulphur with a
+metal&mdash;such as vermilion and cadmium yellow&mdash;are more stable when the
+sulphur is forced to bite into the base. This can only be effected by a
+considerable degree of heat, far greater than can be obtained in any
+moist method. We hold that in pigments so produced, the sulphur is less
+liable to oxidation by air and light, and that therefore the colour
+better withstands exposure to those agents. Before now, vermilions have
+been taxed with fading in a strong light: supposing them genuine, it
+would be interesting to know by what mode they were manufactured.</p>
+
+<p>There are two kinds of vermilion in common use, European and Chinese, of
+which the first inclines to orange and the second to purple. These
+include the several varieties known as&mdash;<i>Vermilion</i>, <i>Deep Vermilion</i>,
+<i>Pale Vermilion</i>, <i>Scarlet Vermilion</i>, <i>Chinese Vermilion</i>, <i>Carmine
+Vermilion</i>, <i>Extract of Vermilion</i>, <i>Orange Vermilion</i>, and <i>Field's
+Orange Vermilion</i>.</p>
+
+
+<h4>89. VERMILION,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">Deep or pale, when well made and pure is of strict permanence, not
+sensibly affected by light, time, or foul air; and eligible either in
+water, oil, or fresco. For an enamel colour it is unsuited, being
+dissipated at a red heat, a test that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[155]</a></span> detects the presence of any
+non-volatile adulterant. The best vermilion is a powerful vivid colour,
+higher in tone than all reds, except the scarlet iodide of mercury. With
+this it should not be compounded, but with other pigments it may safely
+be used in admixture, as far as its own colour is concerned. Of great
+body, weight, and opacity, it is a somewhat slow drier; and does not
+retain that brilliancy when dry, which is peculiar to it while wet. A
+want of transparency, and not drying well, prevent its being so
+generally employed as would be desirable. Pictures should seem to be
+painted with colour, not with pigment, the material being lost amid the
+hues, tints, and shades; but with such compounds as vermilion, the art
+of concealing art becomes difficult indeed. The pigment is apt to
+predominate over the colour, and the painting to look mechanical rather
+than natural: particles are apparent where hues alone should be seen,
+and all sense of reality is destroyed. For these reasons, vermilion is a
+dangerous pigment in unskilled hands, needing an intimate acquaintance
+with its physical properties. The extreme weight or specific gravity of
+the red renders it liable to sink and separate when compounded with
+other colours; hence the heavier those mixed with it the better. Its
+almost equal opacity, too, and habit of washing up, militate against its
+use by young painters. With ex<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[156]</a></span>perience, however, and due care, this is
+a serviceable colour; yielding with white most delicate flesh tints, and
+in minute proportion with cobalt or French blue and white, tender a&euml;rial
+grays.</p>
+
+<p>Being cheaper than formerly, vermilion is not so much adulterated as it
+once was; although, even now, brickdust, orpiment, &amp;c. sometimes
+sophisticate it. The knavish practices to which the pigment has been
+subjected, have acquired it an ill-fame both with authors and artists.
+Vermilion has been charged with fading in the light, and with being
+blackened by impure air; but it was the custom to crimson the colour by
+means of lake, or tone it to a scarlet hue by red lead. With pigments as
+with persons, evil communications corrupt good manners&mdash;a motto that
+might be written with advantage on every palette.</p>
+
+
+<h4>90. SCARLET VERMILION</h4>
+
+<p class="no">Resembles the preceding in all respects, except in being more scarlet in
+its tint, and washing better; advantages which render it more useful
+when the tone is required to be very bright and pure. At one time, the
+Dutch alone in Europe possessed the secret of giving to vermilion a rich
+scarlet colour.</p>
+
+
+<h4>91. CHINESE VERMILION,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">Or <i>Carmine Vermilion</i>, partakes of a crimson<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[157]</a></span> hue, and is adapted,
+mixed with white, for the rose and lilac-tints of some complexions. Like
+other vermilions, however, the colour needs much nicety of management;
+and it must not be attempted to further enrich it by admixture of
+cochineal lakes. Those colours, as we have remarked, cannot safely be
+brought into contact with vermilion, either compounded or as a glaze.
+The reds of madder should be substituted for them.</p>
+
+
+<h4>92. EXTRACT OF VERMILION,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">A somewhat curious name for a metallic colour, was a peculiar
+preparation of the author, possessing in its time certain advantages
+over other vermilions, and especially distinguished by a more scarlet
+hue. Now, however, extract of vermilion and scarlet vermilion are
+synonymous terms.</p>
+
+
+<h4>93. ORANGE VERMILION</h4>
+
+<p class="no">Is rather more transparent than ordinary vermilion, with a clear but not
+bright orange hue. It also washes better, and is for landscape purposes
+more generally useful. Resembling red-lead in appearance, it is not
+subject to its changes, being perfectly durable in oil and water. A most
+powerful tinger of white, its tints are warmer than red-lead's,
+affording delicate carnations similar to those of Titian and Rubens.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[158]</a></span>
+This pigment&mdash;or, preferably, the succeeding variety&mdash;may be employed
+with excellent results in scumbling of flesh, for which Sir Joshua
+Reynolds improperly used the so-called red orpiment. It dries in simple
+linseed oil, but works with best effect in water with a considerable
+portion of gum. In speaking of sunset and sunrise clouds, Mr. Penley
+observes&mdash;"Orange vermilion if used so thin as to get rid of its
+opacity, is a fine tone; but it must be remembered that <i>transparency</i>
+is the character of the sunset or sunrise, and hence arises the
+difficulty of employing such opaque colour effectively." Before the
+introduction of cadmium red, this and the following pigment were the
+best and only unexceptionable orange-reds known. It is probable,
+however, that the new colour will in a great measure supersede these
+latter in cases where transparency is sought. Orange vermilion is often
+a mixture, in which case the yellow employed is apt to separate from the
+red and float on its surface.</p>
+
+
+<h4>94. FIELD'S ORANGE VERMILION</h4>
+
+<p class="no">Is a superior preparation to the preceding, being brighter, purer, and
+clearer. It possesses also, less opacity, and is not a compound. Both
+pigments are rather reds with an orange cast than strictly orange
+colours, and are therefore inserted in this chapter.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<h4><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[159]</a></span>95 <i>Antimony Red</i>,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">Or Mineral Kermes. We have obtained this colour ranging from light
+orange to deep carmine, of different degrees of brightness and
+stability. Some of the tints stood well in a book, but faded on exposure
+to light and air; and some even vanished when secluded from those
+agents. It has more than once been recommended as a pigment, but our
+experience is against its adoption by artists. The colour is not
+affected by sulphuretted hydrogen.</p>
+
+
+<h4>96. <i>Chica Red</i></h4>
+
+<p class="no">Is extracted from the leaves of a tree growing in central and southern
+America. A sample examined by Mr. O'Neill was in small irregular lumps,
+of a bright scarlet colour, adherent to the tongue like indigo, and
+taking a metallic polish of a greenish reflection, when rubbed against a
+hard smooth body, as the finger nail. So far it seems to be only
+employed by the Indians as a paint for their bodies, mixed up with fatty
+matters. It has doubtless been used in painting: for in the old churches
+of those parts of America there is a good deal of red colour, which
+remains brilliant and sound after a couple of centuries; and from the
+appearance of it, and such accounts as can be collected, it is probably
+this chica. A portion was forwarded to an eminent artist in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[160]</a></span> England, to
+ascertain whether it would be of any value as a pigment in the fine
+arts. His report is stated to have been unfavourable; and the chica,
+contained in a gourd labelled "Chica d'Andiguez," was then tested as to
+its capabilities for dyeing and printing. Fine and durable reds were
+found to be produced by it upon woollen, equal to those of cochineal. To
+mordanted calico the shades imparted were dull and heavy, but very
+solid. Chica is described as a very strong colouring matter, a small
+quantity dyeing a large amount of cloth, and as more nearly resembling
+lac lake than anything else.</p>
+
+<p>No information existing as to its price, or the quantity that could be
+obtained if it were wanted, chica remains in the state of an unapplied
+product. If it really possess, however, the durability assigned to it,
+this red is worth attention. With regard to the artist's disapproval,
+the chica sent him may not have been properly or sufficiently prepared
+to adapt it for a pigment.</p>
+
+
+<h4>97. <i>Coal-Tar Colours.</i></h4>
+
+<p>Our work might be considered incomplete without some allusion to the
+coal-tar colours, even though they are rather dyes than pigments, not
+possessing sufficient stability for the palette. To avoid repeated
+reference, we have preferred grouping them in this chapter, irrespective
+of hue. Consequently, yellow, red, blue, orange,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[161]</a></span> green, purple, brown,
+and black, will be all comprised under the heading of coal-tar colours.</p>
+
+<p>Previous to the year 1856 the colouring matters derived from coal-tar
+were practically unknown. Until then, that black evil-smelling substance
+was looked upon as almost worthless; but gradually the unsightly grub
+emerged into a beautiful butterfly, clothed first in mauve and next in
+magenta. After its long winter of neglect, there sprung from coal-tar
+the most vivid and varied hues, like flowers from the earth at spring.
+At a touch of the fairy wand of science, the waste land became a garden
+of tropic tints, and colour succeeded colour, until the whole gamut had
+been gone through. Never was transformation more dazzling or more
+complete. The once despised refuse was now a valued commercial
+product&mdash;indeed a trade in itself. Perfectly fascinated by the study,
+chemists threw themselves heart and soul into coal-tar, and coal-tar
+colours were to be seen everywhere.</p>
+
+<p>It were beside our purpose to enter into the various stages through
+which coal has to pass to become colour. Enough to state that to the
+introduction of gas-light we are indebted for the acquisition of
+coal-tar colours, the starting point for the production of mauve,
+magenta, &amp;c., being the manufacture of coal-gas. From the destructive
+distillation of coal, coal-tar oil results; and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[162]</a></span> from this are obtained
+the products which yield the colours in question. Among these products
+may be mentioned aniline, rosaniline, napthaline, chinoline, carbolic
+acid, picric acid, &amp;c., with their derivatives.</p>
+
+<p>Of the fifty-one compounds furnished by the distillation of coal,
+perhaps the most popularly associated with coal-tar colours is aniline,
+to which we will therefore confine ourselves. Discovered in 1826, this
+body was formerly prepared from indigo&mdash;in Spanish, <i>anil</i>, whence the
+name; but is now produced on a larger scale from benzol, a coal-tar
+product. As the source of mauve and magenta, aniline must be considered
+the parent of coal-tar colours generally. Little was known of it at one
+time except that on being mixed with a solution of chloride of lime
+there was formed a splendid purple liquid, which immediately gave place
+to a dingy reddish precipitate. From the investigation of this simple
+fact, however, by Mr. W. Perkin, there was created a new and important
+branch of chemical industry&mdash;the manufacture of coal-tar colours. The
+violet mauve led the way, followed by the red magenta, the blue azuline,
+the yellow phosphine, the green emeraldine, the orange aurine, by
+purple, and brown, and black. Such were the hues, with many intermediate
+tints and shades, which one reaction brought forth. The world rubbed its
+eyes with astonishment; and truly it seemed almost as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[163]</a></span> wonderful to
+produce the colours of the rainbow from a lump of coal, as to extract
+sunshine from cucumbers.</p>
+
+<p>The history of these colours reads more like a romance than a sober
+story, but to the artist it is of slight practical interest.
+Sufficiently stable as dyes, though they be, coal-tar colours are not
+adapted to the palette. Mauve, magenta, with a few others, hare been
+introduced as pigments and fairly tried, but a want of permanence has
+been fatal to their success. Mauve is more durable than magenta, and the
+rest vary in stability, but none of them have proved really fitted for
+artists' colours. Exposed to light and air, they all more or less fade,
+especially in thin washes; and they have mostly the objection of
+staining and permeating the paper or canvas on which they are employed.
+Used in body, some may be found eligible in portfolio illuminations and
+the like, where the brilliancy of their colours shows to advantage; but
+in landscapes and pictures of life, coal-tar pigments are best avoided.</p>
+
+<p>Cakes of red, blue, violet, and other hues, may be prepared for
+painting, by combining the colours with a mixture of starch and alumina,
+or with soap and alumina in a moist state&mdash;thus: 150 parts of white curd
+soap, dissolved in 1000 parts of hot water, are mixed with an alcoholic
+or a methylated spirit solution of six parts of the crystallized or
+solid coal-tar colour. To this are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[164]</a></span> added 250 parts by weight of washed
+gelatinous alumina. The whole is then well stirred, collected on a
+filter, drained, and dried. Several hues, tints, and shades may be
+obtained by compounding: for instance, an orange is produced on
+admixture of picric yellow with aniline red, or a green by adding the
+same yellow to aniline blue.</p>
+
+
+<h4>98. <i>Cobalt Reds.</i></h4>
+
+<p>There are obtainable from cobalt by different processes rose and red
+colours of more or less beauty and intensity, but all vastly inferior to
+those of madder, in whose absence alone they could gain a place on the
+palette. Durable as a rule, they are in general characterized by a fatal
+chalkiness, and poorness of hue. More expensive than the madder colours,
+and without their purity, delicacy, depth, or transparency, cobalt reds
+have often been offered as pigments, and as often declined. A colour may
+be good in itself, but if there is something better and at the same time
+cheaper, its introduction into commerce is out of the question.</p>
+
+
+<h4>99. <i>Copper Reds.</i></h4>
+
+<p>A somewhat finely coloured red oxide is produced by exposing to a white
+heat for twenty minutes, a mixture of certain proportions of blue
+vitriol, mono-carbonate of soda, and copper<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[165]</a></span> filings. The product,
+however, is affected by impure air, and is otherwise not so desirable as
+an iron oxide.</p>
+
+<p>An interesting account has lately been given by Professor Church of a
+new animal pigment, containing copper, found in the feathers of the
+violet plantain-eater and two species of Turacus, natives respectively
+of the Gold Coast, the Cape, and Natal. <i>Turacine</i>, the name proposed
+for it, is noticed here only because it is the first animal or vegetable
+pigment, with copper as an essential element, which has been hitherto
+isolated. The colour is extracted by solution in an alkali, and
+precipitation by an acid, and is changed on long exposure to air and
+moisture to a green hue. As the entire plumage of a bird yields not more
+than three grains of pigment, turacine must be looked upon as a mere
+curiosity.</p>
+
+
+<h4>100. <i>Ferrate of Baryta</i>,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">Produced by adding aqueous ferrate of potash to an excess of dilute
+solutions of baryta salts, has been described as carmine-coloured and
+permanent. We have not found it to be so&mdash;an experience which has
+evidently not been confined to ourselves; and we cannot help thinking
+that this is one of those errors which get copied from one chemical work
+into another, to the special confusion of students. It is but fair,
+however, to add that in Mr. Watts' Dictionary of Chemistry,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[166]</a></span> the latest
+and best work of the kind, this ferrate is said to become "brick-red
+after washing and drying at 100100&deg; C.," and to be only "tolerably stable."</p>
+
+
+<h4>101. <i>Gold Reds.</i></h4>
+
+<p>Many organic substances added to gold solutions throw down either the
+metallic gold or the red oxide, which then unites with the organic
+compound more or less decomposed and forms a red precipitate. Sugar,
+gum, the decoctions of cochineal, gamboge, fustic, turmeric, sumach,
+catechu, and Brazil wood, all afford red pulverulent colours. Boiled
+with sugar, gold solution gives first a light and then a dark red.
+Whatever their merits, the excessive costliness of these preparations
+renders them inadmissible as pigments. At one time, indeed, a gold
+compound known as <ins class="correction" title="purple of cassius read purple of Cassius">purple of Cassius</ins> was so employed, but this soon
+became obsolete on the introduction of madder purple.</p>
+
+
+<h4>102. <i>Iodine Pink.</i></h4>
+
+<p>There may be obtained from iodine and mercury a very pretty pink colour,
+analogous in composition to pure scarlet. It is apt to pass into the
+scarlet modification, and is in other respects even less to be depended
+on than that variety.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[167]</a></span>103. <i>Kermes Lake</i></h4>
+
+<p class="no">Is an ancient pigment, perhaps the earliest of the European lakes, and
+so called from the Arabic Alkermes. It is sometimes spelt <i>cermes</i>,
+whence probably cermosin and crimson, and kermine and carmine. In old
+books it is named vermilion, in allusion to the insect, or <i>vermes</i>,
+from which it is prepared. This insect is the "coccus ilicis," which
+feeds upon the leaves of the prickly oak in the south of Europe. Like
+the "coccus cacti," it is covered with a whitish dust, and yields a
+tinctorial matter soluble in water and alcohol. Kermes and the lac of
+India doubtless afforded the lakes of the Venetians, and appear to have
+been used by the earliest painters in oil of the school of Van Eyck. The
+former, under the appellation <ins class="transgreek" title="[Greek: kurno kokino]">&#954;&#973;&#961;&#957;&#959; &#954;&#972;&#954;&#953;&#957;&#959;</ins>, is said to be
+employed by the modern Greeks for dyeing their caps red.</p>
+
+<p>Some old specimens of this pigment which the author obtained were in
+drops of a powdery texture and crimson colour, warmer than cochineal
+lakes, and having less body and brilliancy. They worked well, however,
+and withstood the action of light better than the latter, though the sun
+ultimately discoloured and destroyed them. In other respects, they
+resembled the lakes of cochineal. As a colouring matter, kermes is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[168]</a></span> only
+about one-twelfth part as powerful as that substance.</p>
+
+
+<h4>104. <i>Lawson's Red.</i></h4>
+
+<p>In 1861 it was stated that Professor Lawson had prepared a new dye of
+great richness, in the laboratory of Queen's College, Canada, from an
+insect, a species of coccus, found the previous summer for the first
+time on a tree of the common black spruce (<i>Abies nigra</i>), in the
+neighbourhood of Kingston. Having been but recently observed, a
+sufficient quantity had not been obtained for a complete series of
+experiments as to its nature and uses; but the habits of the insect, as
+well as the properties of the dye, seemed to indicate that it might
+become of practical importance. In colour it closely resembled ordinary
+cochineal, but was rather more scarlet in hue. It was described as
+capable of being produced in temperate countries. The colouring matter
+had not then been thrown upon a base, nor do we know that it has since
+been introduced as a pigment. If it possessed greater stability than
+cochineal, with equal brilliancy and depth, this dye might form one of
+those colours of the future, to whose possible sources we would direct
+attention.</p>
+
+
+<h4>105. <i>Manganese Red.</i></h4>
+
+<p>Bisulphide of arsenic combines with basic<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[169]</a></span> metallic sulphides forming a
+class of sulphur-salts, called by Berzelius, hyposulpharsenites. The
+hyposulpharsenite of manganese is a dark red precipitate, uninjured by
+sulphuretted hydrogen, and so far applicable as a pigment. Containing
+arsenic, it would of course be poisonous; and would probably be found to
+fade on exposure to air and light.</p>
+
+
+<h4>106. <i>Murexide.</i></h4>
+
+<p>The red obtained from this substance created a great deal of interest
+among printers and dyers on its introduction in 1857, or thereabouts.
+For purity and brilliancy of shade it was not excelled by any other
+colour, but not being able to stand the effects of air and light, its
+employment was limited. We are not aware that <ins class="trans" title="was muroxide">murexide</ins> has yet been
+brought forward as a pigment, and judging from its character as a dye,
+it would scarcely enrich the palette. Dyes and pigments have much in
+common, and a fugitive dye cannot be expected to furnish a permanent
+pigment.</p>
+
+
+<p>Murexide is produced by the action of ammonia on alloxan, which is
+itself derived from the uric acid of guano by treatment with nitric
+acid, and was known nearly forty years back to stain the fingers and
+nails red. The first murexide sent into the market was a reddish-purple
+powder, dissolving in water with a fine purple tint, leaving<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[170]</a></span> a little
+residue undissolved. Owing to improvements in manufacture, it is now
+capable of being prepared almost chemically pure, and with that green
+metallic reflection peculiar to several coal-tar salts and the wings of
+certain insects. When sulphuretted hydrogen is passed through a
+concentrated solution of murexide, it is immediately decoloured; a fact
+which renders it likely that murexide pigments would be as liable to
+suffer from an impure atmosphere, as from exposure to light and air.</p>
+
+<p>When an alkaline solution of murexide is precipitated by an acid, a
+light shining powder results, called purpuric acid. This dissolves in
+alkalies, and combines with metalline bases to form various coloured
+compounds, termed <i>Purpurates</i>. Among them may be mentioned a red
+purpurate of lead, a purple-red and a rose-coloured purpurate of
+mercury, a purple-red purpurate of silver, a dark red-brown purpurate of
+strontia, a crystalline red purpurate of cobalt, a scarlet purpurate of
+platinum, a yellow purpurate of zinc, and a green purpurate of baryta.
+All of these, however, being more or less soluble in water, and owing
+their colours to murexide, would be ill adapted for pigments.</p>
+
+
+<h4>107. <i>Paille de Mil,</i></h4>
+
+<p class="no">Or African Cochineal, is a substance obtained from Africa. Whether it
+has received its name<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[171]</a></span> of cochineal from its appearance or origin is not
+clear, but it behaves more like galls and sumac than cochineal, though
+it does give a kind of red with alumina mordants. The colours it yields
+are deficient in brightness, and it has otherwise been reported
+unfavourably of.</p>
+
+
+<h4>108. <i>Peganum Harmala,</i></h4>
+
+<p class="no">The seeds of which afford a red colour, has been investigated by the
+French, but described as inferior to existing reds both in brilliancy
+and stability.</p>
+
+
+<h4>109. <i>Persulphomolybdates.</i></h4>
+
+<p>The metallic compounds formed by the combination of persulphomolybdic
+acid with a base are pulverulent, in many cases of a red colour, and for
+the most part insoluble in water. With barium, the acid furnishes a
+yellowish-red powder, insoluble in, but made denser by water, which
+imparts to it a cinnabar colour. With calcium it is said to yield a
+scarlet, sparingly soluble in water. With chromium, uranium, lead,
+platinum, and copper, it gives a dark red; that from the last metal
+turning brown when collected on a filter. It likewise produces reds with
+zinc, cadmium, iron, mercury, and tin; of which the last is slightly
+soluble in water.</p>
+
+<p>Molybdenum being a rare metal, and persulphomolybdate of potash, the
+salt used in the foregoing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[172]</a></span> reactions, difficult to prepare, it is
+unlikely that the colours named will rank among the pigments of this
+generation. Nevertheless, as we have observed before, such fancy
+products should not be altogether ignored, it being quite as well to
+have some knowledge of our resources, even though those resources be not
+at present available. All the rare metals afford coloured compounds:
+tantalum, niobium, pelopium, vanadium, tellurium, titanium, yttrium,
+lanthanum, didymium, glucinum, cerium, thorinum, zirconium, palladium,
+rhodium, iridium, ruthenium, osmium, indium, thallium, &amp;c.; and it is
+just possible that some of these may one day scrape acquaintance with
+the palette.</p>
+
+
+<h4>110. <i>Red Chalk</i>,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">The colouring matter of which is sesquioxide of iron, is used as a
+crayon. Some specimens are excessively hard, so much so that they are
+difficult to crush, even in an iron mortar; while others have the
+consistence of the softest iron-ochres. They vary too in tint from a
+fawn colour to the softest brick-red, occasionally being almost as
+bright as a mixture of equal weights of vermilion and Venetian red. The
+amount of iron oxide present has been found to range from four to
+thirty-seven per cent, according to the depth and hardness of the
+samples. When a specimen of red chalk tolerably rich, but not too<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[173]</a></span> rich,
+in iron oxide is finely powdered and strongly ignited, it offers a
+remarkable change of colour, becoming a dull sage-green. Perhaps this,
+if it were permanent, might prove useful in foliage tints.</p>
+
+
+<h4>111. <i>Red Precipitate</i>,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">Or mercuric oxide, may be obtained either of a brick-red or
+orange-yellow colour. It is destroyed by impure air, and on exposure to
+sunshine gradually turns black, being superficially decomposed into
+oxygen and metallic mercury or mercurous oxide.</p>
+
+
+<h4>112. <i>Rose Pink</i></h4>
+
+<p class="no">Is a coarse kind of lake, produced by dyeing chalk or whitening with
+decoction of Brazil wood, peachwood, sapan, bar, camwood, &amp;c. It is a
+pigment much used by paper-stainers, and in the commonest distemper
+painting, &amp;c., but is too perishable to merit the attention of the
+artist.</p>
+
+<p>Chevreul obtained a crystalline substance from Brazil wood, which he
+looked upon as the pure colouring matter, or as containing the pure
+colouring matter, and which gave red and crimson precipitates with many
+salts. Possibly some of these might prove more durable than the roughly
+made rose pink.</p>
+
+
+<h4>113. <i>Rouge</i>,</h4>
+
+<p>The rouge v&eacute;g&eacute;tale of the French, is a species<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[174]</a></span> of carmine, prepared
+from safflower or carthamus, which is the flower of a plant growing in
+the north of Africa, India, and other warm climates. Safflower yields
+two colours&mdash;a valueless yellow which dissolves in cold water, and about
+five per cent of red, insoluble in water but dissolved by alkalies. The
+red, or carthamin, furnishes a pigment of exquisite beauty, marked by
+richness, transparency, and free working. Its extreme fugacity, however,
+militates against its employment by artists. As a dye, its manner of
+fixing upon fibre is different from that of any other colouring matter;
+requiring no mordant, like madder or cochineal, and needing no solution,
+like indigo or anotta, but fixing at once as soon as the cloth is
+brought into contact with it. But even for a dye the colour is fugitive,
+fading after a few hours' exposure to sunshine, and sometimes being
+quite bleached in the course of a day. It is when combined with
+levigated talc to form the paint of the toilette that the red becomes
+most serviceable. Possessing a peculiar softness and velvety glow, rouge
+is an unrivalled&mdash;and a most harmless&mdash;aid to beauty.</p>
+
+<p><i>Chinese Rouge</i> and <i>Pink Saucers</i> have much of the qualities of, and
+appear to be also prepared from, the safflower.</p>
+
+
+<h4>114. <i>Rufigallic Red.</i></h4>
+
+<p>When a duly proportioned mixture of gallic<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[175]</a></span> acid and oil of vitriol is
+carefully and gradually heated to 140&deg;, a viscid wine-red liquid
+results. If this be poured into cold water, after cooling, a heavy
+brown-red granular precipitate is formed, soluble in 3333 parts of
+boiling water. It dissolves in potash-ley, and to fabrics impregnated
+with alum or iron mordants, imparts the same shades of colour as madder;
+the colours so produced withstanding soap but not chlorine.</p>
+
+<p>Whether brilliant lakes could be obtained from the potash solution of
+the red, and whether those reds would be stable, it might be worth while
+to ascertain.</p>
+
+
+<h4>115. <i>Sandal Red.</i></h4>
+
+<p class="no">We have kept this separate from other reds derived from woods, because
+it is said (by Professor H. Dussance) to be obtainable not only equal in
+beauty and brightness to carmine, but of greater permanence. The process
+of preparation is as follows:&mdash;The powdered root exhausted by alcohol
+gives a solution to which hydrated oxide of lead is added in excess. The
+combination of colouring matter and lead oxide is then collected on a
+filter, washed with alcohol, dried, dissolved in acetic acid, and mixed
+with a quantity of water. The red being insoluble therein is
+precipitated, while the acetate of lead remains dissolved. After being
+washed, the colour is dried at a low temperature. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[176]</a></span> Professor affirms
+that the red so produced is unaffected by sulphuretted hydrogen, or by
+light and air; and it is stated that the colour which was used to paint
+the carriages of the Emperor Napoleon, remained as bright at the end of
+nine years as when it was put on. Possessing such properties, it is
+curious that the red has never been&mdash;in this country at
+least&mdash;introduced as an artistic pigment, the more especially as
+seventeen years have elapsed since its discovery.</p>
+
+
+<h4>116. <i>Silver Red.</i></h4>
+
+<p>By adding monochromate of potash to an acid solution of nitrate of
+silver, a particularly fine ochre-red is obtained. It is, however, apt
+to be injured both by foul air and exposure.</p>
+
+
+<h4>117. <i>Sorgho Red.</i></h4>
+
+<p>Some nine years back there was found to be a carmine colouring matter in
+most parts of the Chinese sorgho, chiefly in the unpressed stem. The
+red, which is extracted in an impure state, is dissolved in weak
+potash-ley, thrown down by sulphuric acid, and washed with water. This
+purified product, soluble in alcohol, caustic alkalies, and dilute
+acids, has been employed in Austria, Baden, &amp;c., for the dyeing of silks
+and woollens with the common tin mordants. The colours produced from it
+are unchanged, they say, by warm soapsuds or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[177]</a></span> light. We do not know
+whether the red found its way to England, but it has certainly not
+appeared here as a pigment.</p>
+
+
+<h4>118. <i>Thallium Red.</i></h4>
+
+<p>The orange-yellow precipitate formed by mixing a neutral salt of
+protoxide of thallium with bichromate of potash, is converted by nitric
+acid into an orange-red. The latter compound, which is a terchromate, is
+almost insoluble in cold water, 2814 parts being required to dissolve
+it. If the colour be boiled in a large excess of moderately strong
+nitric acid it is dissolved, yielding magnificent cinnabar red crystals
+on the solution cooling. These crystals likewise seem to be the
+terchromate.</p>
+
+
+<h4>119. <i>Tin Pink.</i></h4>
+
+<p>By igniting strongly for some hours a mixture of stannic oxide, chalk,
+chromate of potash, and a little silica and alumina, a dingy red mass is
+obtained, which acquires a beautiful rose-red colour on being washed
+with water containing hydrochloric acid. For the same reason that the
+pinks of cobalt are superfluous as artistic pigments, this tin product
+is commercially ineligible. Having, however, the advantage of being
+cheap, and being probably durable, it would be well adapted for the
+common purposes of painting, in place of the fugitive rose pink.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[178]</a></span>120. <i>Ultramarine Red?</i></h4>
+
+<p>In Gmelin's Handbook of Chemistry it is remarked that "Hydrogen gas
+passed over ignited ultramarine, colours it light red, from formation of
+liver of sulphur, hydrosulphuric acid gas and water being evolved at the
+same time." On most carefully making the experiment with a sample of
+native blue (the variety referred to) we did not succeed in effecting
+this change: no alteration to red or even to purple took place, the only
+result being that the colour was entirely spoilt, having assumed a
+leaden slate-gray hue. At our request, the trial was kindly repeated by
+well-known chemists, who took every precaution to ensure success.
+Several specimens of ultramarine were acted upon, but in no case was a
+red or anything like a red obtained, the products ranging from a
+slate-gray to a drab-grey. Sufficient hydrosulphuric acid gas was
+evolved to blacken paper moistened with acetate of lead, a fact which
+proved that the blue had lost some of its sulphur. Seeing that not only
+no red was produced, but that no tendency to red was imparted, is it
+possible the change described by Gmelin occurred under exceptional
+circumstances? All conversant with chemical matters will admit that
+results are obtained occasionally which cannot be repeated, owing it may
+be to some slight difference in the materials employed, or some slight
+variation of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[179]</a></span> the process. Perhaps a link, considered of no importance
+at the time and overlooked, has been lost, and thus the whole chain of
+proceeding becomes useless. It is, therefore, within the bounds of
+probability that the red ultramarine of the great German chemist was
+furnished either by a peculiar specimen of blue, or by a modified form
+of the method he gives. We have noticed the subject at some length
+because if a red ultramarine, brilliant and durable, could be obtained,
+the colour might prove of value. A permanent artificial compound
+corresponding to French blue would certainly be an acquisition.</p>
+
+
+<h4>121. <i>Uranium Red.</i></h4>
+
+<p>By treating the yellow sulphite of uranium with a prolonged current of
+sulphuretted hydrogen, and saturating gradually with ammonia, a red
+finally results. This colour is insoluble in water, and it has the
+objection of remaining partially suspended for an almost indefinite
+time, colouring the liquid light red. The product is brighter and more
+beautiful while moist; when dried and powdered, its tone&mdash;slightly
+approaching vermilion&mdash;is duller. The colour may be obtained of several
+degrees of brilliancy, but, apart from the question of expense, it would
+be inadmissible in oil, the red gradually altering by contact therewith.
+The most persistent tint at length resembles burnt Sienna.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[180]</a></span>122. <i>Wongshy Red.</i></h4>
+
+<p>There was imported a few years ago from Batavia a new colouring
+principle, under the name of <i>wongshy</i>, and consisting of the
+seed-capsule of a species of gentian. The aqueous extract, freed from
+the pectin which it contains, yields with baryta- and lime-water yellow
+precipitates, from which acids separate the colouring matter of a
+vermilion hue. When thus prepared it is insoluble in water, and would so
+far be adapted for a pigment. The red has not, however, been employed as
+such, and we are unacquainted with its habitudes.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<p>The concluding remarks appended to the chapter on yellow apply equally
+to red, and indeed to all other colours. It is not assumed that the list
+is exhausted: there are other reds, but they are, like some we have
+mentioned, ineligible as pigments, either by reason of their fugacity,
+their costliness, the difficulty of producing them on a scale, or the
+sources whence they are derived being commercially unavailable. While
+endeavouring throughout the work to render complete the collection of
+pigments actually in use, it is our object to give a selection only of
+numbered italicised colours; ample enough, however, to include those
+which have become<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[181]</a></span> obsolete or nearly so, and full enough to afford some
+insight into our resources. The nearer we approach perfection, the more
+eager we are to arrive at it: the path before us, therefore, cannot fail
+to be of interest.</p>
+
+<p>Looking back, and noting those pigments commonly employed, we find that
+the reds like the yellows are divisible into three classes&mdash;the good,
+bad, and indifferent; or the permanent, the semi-stable, and the
+fugitive.</p>
+
+<p>Among permanent reds, rank cadmium red, madder reds, Mars red, the
+ochres, and vermilions.</p>
+
+<p>In the second or semi-stable class, must be placed cochineal lakes,
+Indian lake, and red chrome.</p>
+
+<p>To the third division, or the fugitive, belong dragon's blood, pure
+scarlet, red lead, and the coal-tar reds.</p>
+
+<p>With regard to the foregoing classification, it must be borne in mind
+that the properties and effects of pigments are much influenced by
+adventitious circumstances. Sometimes pigments are varied or altogether
+changed by the grounds on which they are employed, the vehicles in which
+they are used, the siccatives and colours with which they are mixed, and
+the varnishes by which they are covered. And as there is no exact and
+constant agreement in different specimens of like pigments, so there is
+no exact and con<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[182]</a></span>stant result in their use. Artists vary as much as the
+pigments they employ: some resemble the old masters in the delicacy with
+which they treat their colours, the cleanliness with which they surround
+them, and the care with which they compound them: in the hands of such
+artists pigments have every chance. Some, however, are characterized by
+a careless manipulation, a dirty mode of working, an utter disregard for
+all rules of admixture: with such painters the best colours may be
+ruined. And here, indeed, it may be asked, whether these latter are not
+more properly termed painters than artists, chiefly belonging as they do
+to that slap-dash school <ins class="correction" title="which manufactures read which manufactures pictures">which manufactures pictures</ins> simply to sell
+them. Duly subordinated, the commercial side of art has a value which it
+were affectation to ignore; but to paint merely for the present,
+heedless of the future, is to sink art to the level of a trade, not the
+most honest. For it is the purchaser who suffers from the want of
+thought bestowed on the materials, the sloppy manipulation, the careless
+compounding; sins of omission and commission that cause him, on finding
+his picture becoming chaos, to join the detractors of modern pigments.
+In classifying colours therefore, those also should be classified who
+use them:&mdash;into artists, whose love for art would render it more lasting
+than themselves; and into painters, whose motto is <i>Vita brevis est, Ars
+quoque</i>.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[183]</a></span><a name="chapter_10" id="chapter_10"></a><a href="#contents">CHAPTER X.</a></h2>
+
+<h3>ON THE PRIMARY, BLUE.</h3>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The</span> third and last of the primary or simple colours is <i>blue</i>, which
+bears the same relation to shade as yellow to light. Hence it is the
+most retiring and diffusive of all colours, except purple and black; and
+all colours have the power of throwing it back in painting, to a greater
+or less extent, in proportion to the intimacy of their relations to
+light&mdash;first white, then yellow, orange, red, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>Blue alone possesses entirely the quality technically called 'coldness'
+in colouring, and it communicates this property variously to all other
+colours with which it happens to be compounded. Most powerful in a
+strong light, it seems to become neutral and pale in a declining light,
+owing to its ruling affinity with black or shade, and its power of
+absorbing light. Consequently, the eye of the artist is liable to be
+deceived when painting with blue in too low a light, or toward the close
+of day, to the endangering of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[184]</a></span> warmth and harmony of his picture.
+Entering into combination with yellow in the composition of all
+<i>greens</i>, and with red in all <i>purples</i>, blue characterizes the tertiary
+<i>olive</i>, and is also the prime colour or archeus of the neutral <i>black</i>,
+&amp;c., as well as of the semi-neutral <i>gray</i>, &amp;c.: it therefore is changed
+in hue less than any other colour by mixture with black, as it is
+likewise by distance. Blue is present subordinately in all tertiary and
+broken colours, and being nearest in the scale to black, breaks and
+contrasts powerfully and agreeably with white, as in pale blues, skies,
+&amp;c. Being less active than the other primaries in reflecting light, it
+is sooner lost as a local colour by assimilation with distance. There is
+an ancient doctrine that the azure of the sky is a compound of light and
+darkness, and some have argued hence that blue is not a primary colour,
+but a mixture of black and white; but pure or <i>neutral</i> black and white
+compound in infinite shades, all of which are neutral also, or <i>grey</i>.
+It is true that a mixture of black and white is of a <i>cool</i> hue, because
+black is not a primary colour, but a compound of the three primary
+colours in which blue predominates, a predominance which is rendered
+more sensible when black is diluted with white. As to the colour of the
+sky, in which light and shade are combined, that is likewise neutral,
+and never blue except by contrast; thus, the more the light of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[185]</a></span> the sun
+partakes of a golden or orange hue, and the more parched and burnt the
+earth is, the bluer appears the sky, as in Italy and all hot countries.
+In England, where the sun is cooler, and a perpetual verdure reigns,
+infusing blue latently into the landscape, the sky is warmer and nearer
+to neutrality, partaking of a diversity of greys, which beautifully
+melodize with blue as their key, and harmonize with the light and
+landscape. Therefore the colour of the sky is always a contrast to the
+direct and reflected light of the scene: if this light were of a rose
+colour, the neutral of the sky would be converted into green, or if
+purple, the sky would become yellow. Similarly would it be in all cases,
+according to the laws of chromatic equivalence and contrast, as may be
+often seen in the openings of coloured clouds at the rising and setting
+of the sun.</p>
+
+<p>In art, blue is apt to be discordant in juxtaposition with green, and
+less so with purple, both which are cool colours; consequently blue
+requires its contrast, <i>orange</i>, in equal proportion whether of surface
+or intensity, to compensate or resolve its dissonances and correct its
+coldness. In nature, however, blue is not discordant with either green
+or purple, nor are any two colours (as we have said before) ever found
+so. On the palette of nature each <i>colour</i> is an example of <i>colouring</i>:
+no colour is too absolute or defined,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[186]</a></span> no perfectly pure blue appears
+beside a perfectly pure green. A blue flower nestled in its green leaves
+does not offend the nicest eye, but the blue and green are not blue and
+green alone. There is, perhaps, but a single gleam of pure colour in
+each: the rest is composed of such varied hues and tints and shades, so
+broken and blended and beautifully harmonized, that no jarring discord
+is possible. Hue melts into hue, tint into tint, shade into shade; and
+thus does the simplest weed teach a lesson in colouring the proudest
+painter may stoop to learn.</p>
+
+<p>We have spoken of blue, which is termed a cold colour, as retiring; and
+of yellow and red, which are called warm colours, as advancing. By this
+we must not be understood to mean that blue, as blue, expresses
+distance; or that yellow and red, as yellow and red, express nearness.
+Colours are advancing or retiring in their <i>quality</i>&mdash;as depth,
+delicacy, &amp;c., not in their hue. A blue object set side-by-side a yellow
+one will not look an inch farther off, but a red or orange cloud, in the
+upper sky, will always seem to be beyond a blue cloud close to us, as it
+is in reality. We grant that in certain objects, blue is a <i>sign</i> of
+distance, but that is not because blue, as a mere colour, is retiring;
+but because the mist in the air is blue, and therefore any warm colour
+which has not strength of light enough to pierce the mist is lost or
+subdued in its blue. Blue in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[187]</a></span> itself, however, is no more, on this
+account, retiring, than brown is retiring, because when stones are seen
+through brown water, the deeper they lie, the browner they appear.
+Neither blue nor yellow nor red possesses, as such, the smallest power
+of expressing either nearness or distance; they merely express
+themselves under the peculiar circumstances which render them at the
+moment, or in that place, signs of nearness or distance. Thus, purple in
+a violet is a sign of nearness, because the closer it is looked at the
+more purple is seen; but purple in a mountain is a sign of distance,
+because a mountain close at hand is not purple, but green or grey. It
+may, indeed, be generally assumed that a tender or pale colour will more
+or less denote distance, and a powerful or dark colour nearness; but
+even this is not always so. Heathery hills will usually give a pale and
+tender purple near, and an intense or dark purple far away: the rose
+colour of sunset on snow is pale on the snow at one's feet, but deep and
+full on the snow in the distance; and the green of a Swiss lake is pale
+in the clear waves on the beach, but intense as an emerald in the
+sunstreak, six miles from shore. And in any case, when the foreground is
+in strong light, with much water about it or white surface, casting
+intense reflections, all its colours may be perfectly delicate, pale,
+and faint; while the distance, when it is in shadow, may relieve the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[188]</a></span>
+whole foreground with deepest shades of purple, blue green, or
+ultramarine blue.</p>
+
+<p>There is one law, however, about distance, which has some claims to be
+considered constant, namely, that <ins class="trans" title="was dullness">dulness</ins> and heaviness of colour are
+more or less indicative of nearness. All distant colour is pure colour:
+it may not be bright, but it is clear and lovely, not opaque nor soiled;
+for the air and light coming between us and any earthy or imperfect
+colour, purify or harmonize it; hence a bad colourist is peculiarly
+incapable of expressing distance. It is not of course meant that bad
+colours are to be used in the foreground by way of making it come
+forward; but only that a failure in colour there will not put it out of
+its place. A failure in colour in the distance will at once do away with
+its remoteness; a dull-coloured foreground will still be a foreground,
+though coloured badly; but an ill-painted distance will not be merely a
+dull distance, it will be no distance at all.</p>
+
+
+<p>This seeming digression is not out of place, as it will enable the
+artist better to understand that it is in their quality, not in their
+hue, that colours are advancing or retiring; and that he must rely on
+the depth, delicacy, &amp;c., of his pigments, and not simply on their
+colours, to produce effects of distance.</p>
+
+<p>Of all colours, except black, blue contrasts white most powerfully. In
+all harmonious com<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[189]</a></span>binations of colours, whether of mixture or
+neighbourhood, blue is the natural, prime, or predominating power.
+Accordingly, blue is universally agreeable to the eye in due relation to
+the composition, and may more frequently be repeated therein, pure or
+unbroken, than either of the other primaries; whence the employment of
+ultramarine by some masters throughout the colouring of a picture.</p>
+
+<p>Blue pigments, like blue flowers, are more rare than those of the other
+primary colours. In permanent blues the palette is very deficient, the
+list being exhausted when the native and artificial ultramarines and the
+cobalts have been mentioned. That there is room for new blues, durable
+and distinct, cannot therefore be denied. A good addition has been made
+of late years in the German <i>Co&euml;lin</i>, known here as Cerulian Blue and
+C&oelig;ruleum. What is chiefly wanted, however, is a colour combining the
+wonderful depth, richness, and transparency of Prussian blue with the
+strict stability of ultramarine. A permanent Prussian blue would be the
+most valued gift the palette could receive.</p>
+
+
+<h4>COBALT BLUES</h4>
+
+<p class="no">comprise <i>Cerulian Blue</i> or <i>C&oelig;ruleum</i>, <i>Cobalt Blue</i>, <i>Smalt</i>,
+<i>Royal Blue</i>, <i>Dumont's Blue</i>, <i>Saxon Blue</i>, <i>Th&eacute;nard's Blue</i>,
+<i>Leithner's Blue</i>, <i>Hungary Blue</i>, <i>Dutch Ultramarine</i>, <i>Zaffre or
+Enamel Blue</i>,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[190]</a></span> <i>Vienna Blue</i>, <i>Paris Blue</i>, <i>Azure</i>, &amp;c., and are
+obtained by the action of heat on mixtures of earthy or metallic bases
+with cobalt. They are divisible into three classes&mdash;the stannic cerulian
+blue, the aluminous cobalt blues, and the siliceous smalts. Of these,
+the first possesses the least depth; the second hold a middle position;
+while the third are marked by exceeding richness. Although not to be
+ranked with ultramarine, the stannic and aluminous blues may be
+described as durable, or at least as durable rather than semi-stable.
+There are, as we have before observed, different degrees of permanence,
+and the blues in question are not readily affected. With regard to
+smalts, they are, as artist's pigments, inferior in stability to other
+blues of cobalt.</p>
+
+
+<h4>123. CERULIAN BLUE,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">or <i>C&oelig;ruleum</i>. Under the name Co&euml;lin there has of late years been
+imported from Germany the cobalt blue with a tin base to which reference
+has just been made. This comparatively new pigment&mdash;which likewise
+contains or is mixed with gypsum, silica, and sometimes magnesia&mdash;has
+the distinctive property of appearing a pure blue by artificial light,
+tending neither to green on the one hand nor to purple on the other.
+This advantage, added to its permanence, has conferred a popularity upon
+c&oelig;ruleum which its mere colour would scarcely have gained<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[191]</a></span> for it. A
+light and pleasing blue, with a greenish-grey cast by day, it possesses
+little depth or richness, and is far excelled in beauty by a good
+aluminous cobalt. A certain chalkiness, moreover, somewhat detracts from
+its transparency, and militates against its use in water. It is in oil,
+and as a night colour, that c&oelig;ruleum becomes of service, as our
+present system of lighting picture galleries by gas affects the purity
+of blues generally. If those galleries were illuminated by means of the
+electric light, we have it on the authority of Chevreul that all colours
+and shades would show as well as by day: the same purpose would be
+answered by the magnesium light. Some artificial lights are the ruin of
+colours; in the soda flame (alcohol and salt) for instance, yellow
+chromate of lead appears white, while red ochre and aniline blue appear
+black.</p>
+
+<p>Like other blues of cobalt, c&oelig;ruleum assumes a greenish obscurity in
+time, but like them it resists for a lengthened period both the action
+of light and impure air, although chemically it is more open to the
+influence of the latter, owing to its tin base. In admixture it may
+safely be employed, as well as in fresco or enamel. For stage skies,
+&amp;c., in high-art scenery, the blue is admirably adapted. Now that there
+are so many scene-painters who are artists&mdash;and so many artists who are
+scene-painters&mdash;in bringing Nature<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[192]</a></span> to the foot-lights the effect of gas
+on colours is of importance.</p>
+
+
+<h4>124. COBALT BLUE,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">to which the various appellations have been given of <i>Th&eacute;nard's Blue</i>,
+<i>Vienna Blue</i>, <i>Paris Blue</i>, <i>Azure</i>, <i>Cobalt-Ultramarine</i>, &amp;c., is the
+name now exclusively confined to that preparation of cobalt which has a
+base of alumina. It may, therefore, be not improperly called a blue
+lake, the colour of which is brought up by fire, in the manner of enamel
+blues. The discovery of this important pigment was made in 1802 by M.
+Th&eacute;nard, who obtained it by calcining a well-combined mixture of alumina
+and crystals of cobalt. There may be employed with the aluminous base,
+either the arseniate, the borate, or the phosphate of cobalt; but the
+latter in preference, as it produces the purest colour. The arseniate
+has always a violet tinge, more visible by <ins class="trans" title="was gaslight">gas-light</ins> than by day; while,
+on account of the arsenic, the blue is more apt to be greened by impure
+air, by reason of the formation of yellow sulphide of arsenic. The
+purity of the colour, however, does not altogether depend on the
+compound of cobalt used; in a great measure&mdash;as with other pigments&mdash;it
+rests on the purity of the materials. To obtain a perfect blue, neither
+inclining to purple nor green, the cobalt and alumina should be freed
+from iron, and the former, as much as possible,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[193]</a></span> from nickel also. With
+the absence of these and proper skill, a true and brilliant blue may be
+produced, almost rivalling the finest ultramarine. Apart, too, from its
+increased beauty, a cobalt blue containing no iron or nickel is of
+greater permanence than the ordinary products, being less liable to that
+greenness and obscurity which time confers.</p>
+
+<p>Though not possessing the body, transparency, and depth of ultramarine,
+nor its natural and modest hue, commercial cobalt blue works better in
+water than that pigment in general does; and is hence an acquisition to
+those who have not the management of the latter. Resisting the action of
+strong light and acids, its beauty declines by time, while impure air
+greens and ultimately blackens it. Nevertheless, these changes are not
+readily effected, especially in well made samples full of colour, and
+sometimes the green tone is mechanically imparted. What wheat is to a
+loaf, colour is to a pigment&mdash;it has to be ground and made up for use;
+in the one vehicle to be mixed with gums, in the other with oils. It
+often happens that colours have an antipathy to the latter, and refuse
+to compound kindly therewith. Occasionally this repugnance manifests
+itself in a few days, occasionally not for months. We know of a green
+which flatly declines to have anything to do with oils, sinking and
+separating therefrom in the course of a week, and leaving<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[194]</a></span> the clear oil
+on the top. Repeatedly have colours to be coaxed to behave themselves as
+pigments, coaxed not to 'run,' to work well, to dry well, &amp;c.; and in
+the humouring of their likes and dislikes the skill and patience of the
+artist-colourman are sometimes severely taxed. Given a colour, it might
+puzzle most chemists to convert it into a pigment; luckily Commerce
+lends her aid. Lasting success, it is true, does not always follow, and
+oils will rise to the surface now and then, giving green hues to blues,
+orange hues to reds, and buff hues to yellows. Hence changes of colour
+have been imputed before now to chemical alteration, when in reality the
+results have been physical, caused by the subsidence of the pigments,
+and the floating of the vehicles employed.</p>
+
+<p>Cobalt blue dries well in oil, does not injure or suffer injury from
+pigments in general, and may be used with a proper flux in enamel, as
+well as in fresco. It affords clear bright tints in skies and distances,
+but is apt to cause opacity if brought too near the foreground, and to
+assume a violet tinge by artificial light. With madder brown it yields a
+range of fine pearly neutrals; and with light red, in any proportion,
+gives beautiful cloud tints. In combination with aureolin and sepia, or
+rose madder, cobalt furnishes most agreeable and delicate tints for
+distant trees, when under the influence of a soft<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[195]</a></span> light, or hazy state
+of the atmosphere. In water-colour painting, cobalt is tolerably firm on
+paper, and consequently answers better for some purposes than French
+blue. In middle distances, if the cobalt possess a tendency to
+chalkiness, the addition of a little indigo is a good corrective,
+especially where the blue tone is required to be sombre and dark: it
+should, however, be observed that the change is but temporary, indigo
+being a fugitive pigment. In marine painting in water-colours, cobalt is
+most useful for the remotest parts of seas and headlands. When dry, it
+can be changed by going over it with a slight wash of vermilion or light
+red, whereby a prismatic character is realized. Any strength of tone can
+be obtained by repeating the washes, and should the colour be too
+powerful, it may be reduced by pouncing it with a soft wet sponge; or if
+too cold and blue, by a thin wash of burnt Sienna, merely the water
+stained.</p>
+
+<p>The blues of cobalt, on whatever base they may be prepared, are
+distinguished from native and artificial ultramarines by not being
+decolorised by acids.</p>
+
+
+<h4>125. SMALT,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">Invented about the year 1540, in Saxony, is a vitreous compound of
+cobalt and silica, in fact a blue glass. Since the fifteenth century,
+cobalt has been used in different parts of Europe to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[196]</a></span> tinge glass; and
+so intense is the colouring power of its oxide, that pure white glass is
+rendered sensibly blue by the addition of one thousandth part, while one
+twenty-thousandth part communicates a perceptible azure tint. In common
+with cobalt blue, the name <i>Azure</i> has sometimes been given to it.
+Varying exceedingly in quality and colour, the rougher kinds have been
+employed by the laundress, and in the making of porcelain, pottery,
+stained glass, encaustic tiles, &amp;c.; as well as to cover the yellow
+tinge of paper. For this last purpose, however, smalt is not perfectly
+adapted, the colour being difficult to lay on uniformly, and the paper
+when written on blunting the nibs of pens. Hence it has been superseded
+to a great extent by artificial ultramarine, the presence of which may
+be detected by the yellow spot which a drop of acid leaves on the paper.</p>
+
+<p>A coarse gritty texture is peculiar to smalt, whether it be the <i>Powder
+Blue</i> of the washtub and <i>Blue Sand</i> of the pottery, or the <i>Dumont's</i>
+and <i>Royal Blue</i> of the artist and high-class manufacturer. But the
+strict stability which is a feature in smalt when used for painting on
+glass and enamel does not follow it to the studio: both in water and oil
+its beauty soon decays, as is often the case with other vitrified
+pigments; nor is it in other respects eligible, being, notwithstanding
+its richness and depth, very inferior to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[197]</a></span> the cobalts preceding. It may
+seem a paradox that the same colour should be at once so durable and so
+fugitive, but we may briefly explain it by saying <i>when vitreous
+pigments are reduced to that extreme state of division which the palette
+requires, they lose the properties they possess in a less finely divided
+state</i>. The best smalt in lumps appears black, yields a blue powder on
+grinding, becomes paler on further grinding, and may be almost
+decolourised by continued and excessive grinding. Smalt, it has been
+stated, is merely a blue glass; and when a piece of blue glass, or a
+blue crystal of sulphate of copper, is reduced to the fineness of flour,
+the blue is lost. In vitrified and crystallised compounds, colour
+depends on cohesion: sufficiently separate the particles, and the colour
+more or less disappears. Not only, moreover, does grinding effect an
+optical change in vitreous pigments, but it imposes further alteration.
+That colour which was safe when locked up in a mass, crushed to minute
+atoms is no longer so: imbedded in glass or enamel it will endure for
+ages, but ground to impalpable powder becomes as liable to influence as
+though it had never been subjected to heat at all. To sum up, vitreous
+pigments are durable in a coarse or compact form, but are not more
+stable than others when reduced to extreme division. As far as regards
+artists' colours, therefore, vitrification does <i>not</i> impart
+permanence.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[198]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The grittiness to which we have referred is one of the defects of smalt,
+which cannot, consistently with preserving its colour be entirely freed
+from that drawback&mdash;an objection which pertains to vitreous pigments in
+general. Hence it does not wash well, and in mural decoration is
+sometimes applied to work by strewing the dry powdered colour upon a
+flat ground of white or blue oil paint immediately after the latter is
+laid on, whilst it yet remains wet. Of little body, it is a vivid and
+gorgeous blue; bright, deep, and transparent, bordering on the violet
+hue. It is chiefly employed in illumination and flower painting. The
+inferior kinds of smalt are occasionally adulterated with chalk.</p>
+
+
+<h4>126. CYANINE.</h4>
+
+<p>Beckmann is fully convinced that the <i>cyanus</i> of Theophrastus and the
+<i>c&oelig;ruleum</i> of Pliny were a blue copper earth. However that may be, in
+these days both names signify cobalt compounds, c&oelig;ruleum being a
+stannate of cobalt, and cyanine a mixture of cobalt and Prussian blue.
+Unlike the former, cyanine, being composed of two old colours, can lay
+no claim to originality. In the fourth chapter it was observed, "it is
+quite possible for the artist to multiply his pigments unnecessarily.
+Colours are sometimes brought out under new names which have no claim to
+be regarded as new colours, being,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[199]</a></span> indeed, mere mixtures. Compound
+pigments like these may most frequently be dispensed with, in favour of
+hues and tints composed extemporaneously of original colours upon the
+palette." Whether these remarks are applicable to cyanine or not is a
+question for artists to decide: in our opinion, with so many semi-stable
+original pigments, the introduction of semi-stable compounds is to be
+deprecated. Cyanine is a rich, deep, transparent blue, but its richness
+and depth, as well as to a great extent its transparency, depend upon
+Prussian blue, which is not strictly stable. Hence the peculiar
+properties of cyanine remain unchanged only so long as the Prussian blue
+itself, the pigment losing its colour by degrees on exposure to air and
+light, and gradually assuming the tint of the paler but more permanent
+cobalt. A mixture, be it remembered, necessarily partakes of the
+qualities of its constituents, and if one of these be fugitive, the
+compound cannot preserve its original hue.</p>
+
+<p>Within the last few years, a compound similar to cyanine has appeared,
+under the name of <i>Leitch's Blue</i>.</p>
+
+
+<h4>127. INDIGO,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">or <i>Indian Blue</i>, was known to the ancients under the name of <i>Indicum</i>,
+whence its present<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[200]</a></span> appellation. In modern Europe, it first came into
+extensive use in Italy; but about the middle of the sixteenth century,
+the Dutch began to import and employ it in considerable quantity.
+Present in the woad plant, which is a native of Great Britain, indigo is
+chiefly derived from a genus of leguminous plants called <i>Indigofera</i>,
+found in India, Africa, and America. The colouring matter of these is
+wholly in the cellular tissue of the leaves, as a secretion or juice;
+not, however, in the blue state in which one is accustomed to see
+indigo, but as a colourless substance, which continues white only so
+long as the tissue of the leaf remains perfect: when this is by any
+means destroyed, oxygen is absorbed from the atmosphere, and the
+principle becomes blue. The best indigo is so light as to swim upon
+water, but the commercial article seldom contains more than 5050 per cent.
+of blue colouring matter or true indigo, the remainder consisting of
+either accidental or intentional impurities.</p>
+
+<p>In painting, indigo is not nearly so bright as Prussian blue, but it is
+extremely powerful and transparent, and may be described as a Prussian
+blue in mourning. Of great body, it glazes and works well both in water
+and oil. Its relative permanence as a dye has obtained it a false
+character of extreme <ins class="trans" title="was durablity">durability</ins> as a pigment, a quality in which it is
+nevertheless<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[201]</a></span> very inferior even to Prussian blue. By impure air it is
+injured, and in glazing some specimens are firmer than others, but not
+durable; while in tint with white lead they are all fugitive. Employed
+in considerable body in shadow, it is more permanent, but in all
+respects Prussian blue is superior.</p>
+
+<p>Despite this want of stability, indigo is a favourite colour with many
+artists, who sacrifice by its use future permanence to present effect.
+It is so serviceable a pigment for so many purposes, especially in
+admixture, that its sin of fugacity is overlooked. Hence we find indigo
+constantly mentioned in works on painting, their authors forgetting or
+not caring to remember that wholesome axiom, a fugitive colour is not
+rendered durable by being compounded. Artistically, it is adapted for
+moonlights, and when mixed with a little lamp black, is well suited for
+night clouds, distant cliffs, &amp;c. With a little raw umber and madder it
+is used for water in night effects. With the addition of a little madder
+it forms a good gray; and with madder and burnt Sienna is useful for
+dark rocks, this combination, with raw Sienna, being also eligible for
+boats. For these and other mixed tints, however, Prussian blue saddened
+by black with a suspicion of green in it, is equally fitted, and is more
+permanent. Indeed, it would be perhaps justifiable to introduce such<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[202]</a></span> a
+compound, under the name say, of Factitious Indigo.</p>
+
+<p>Indigo in dust, or in small bits, is often adulterated with sand,
+pulverized slate, and other earthy substances. That indigo is best which
+is lightest, brightest, most copper-coloured, most fine-grained, and
+inodorous.</p>
+
+
+<h4>128. INTENSE BLUE</h4>
+
+<p class="no">is indigo refined by solution and precipitation. By this process, indigo
+becomes more durable, and, being separated from impurities, is rendered
+much more powerful, transparent, and deep. It washes and works admirably
+in water; in other respects it possesses the common properties of
+indigo. It is apt, however, to penetrate the paper on which it is
+employed, if not well freed by washing from the acid and saline matter
+used in its preparation. This is not always easily effected, and we
+cannot help thinking that in the manufacture of intense blue a dry
+method would be preferable. Indigo may, by cautious management, be
+volatilized, and therefore be most thoroughly purified without the aid
+of acids and alkalies. The best mode of subliming this substance is to
+mix one part of indigo with two parts of plaster of Paris, make the
+whole into a paste with water, spread it upon an iron plate, and, when
+quite dry, heat it by a spirit lamp.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[203]</a></span> The volatilization of the indigo
+is aided by the vapour of water disengaged from the gypsum, and the
+surface of the mass becomes covered with beautiful crystals of pure
+indigo, which may be readily removed by a thin spatula. At a higher
+temperature, charring and decomposition take place.</p>
+
+
+<h4>129. PRUSSIAN BLUE,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">otherwise called <i>Berlin Blue</i>, <i>Paris Blue</i>, <i>Prussiate of Iron</i>,
+<i>Ferrocyanide of Iron</i>, &amp;c., was accidentally discovered in 1710 by
+Diesbach, a colour-maker at Berlin. It is a compound of iron and
+cyanogen, of varying composition, formed by adding yellow prussiate of
+potash to a persalt of iron, or by oxidizing the precipitate obtained
+from the prussiate and a protosalt. The finest blue is furnished by
+sesquinitrate of iron, but the salt almost exclusively employed is the
+protosulphate, the freedom of which from copper is essential to the
+colour of the blue. As is the case with other pigments, Prussian blue
+differs considerably in colour, in depth, and in permanence, according
+to the purity of the materials, the mode of manufacture, and the absence
+of adulterants. Like smalt, it is known in the washtub as well as in the
+studio; and in the cheaper varieties, alumina, starch, chalk, oxide of
+iron, &amp;c., are often largely present.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[204]</a></span> A good unsophisticated sample in
+the dry state is intense blue, almost black, hard and brittle, much
+resembling in appearance the best indigo, and having a similar
+copper-red fracture. It does not effervesce with acids, as when
+adulterated with chalk; nor become pasty with boiling water, as when
+sophisticated with starch. Further, it feels light in the hand, adheres
+to the tongue, is inodorous, tasteless, not poisonous, and is insoluble
+in water. Forming a bulky mass while moist, Prussian blue shrinks to a
+comparatively small compass when well washed and dried by gentle heat;
+and, when once dried, being difficult to reduce again to the state of
+extreme division which it possessed while wet, it is frequently sold and
+used in paste for common purposes. We have said that a good sample of
+Prussian blue is insoluble in water, and for artistic use it should
+certainly be so, as otherwise it has a tendency to stain the fabric on
+which it is employed, a defect formerly very prevalent. All Prussian
+blues, however, are not insoluble, and these are not only liable to the
+drawback named, but are less to be depended on for permanence. Improper
+proportions, for instance, of sesquichloride of iron and
+potash-ferrocyanide will yield a blue which, when washed even with cold
+water, continually imparts to it a yellow or green colour, through the
+partial solution of the prussiate. All com<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[205]</a></span>mercial Prussian blue, and
+indeed that which is prepared by careful chemical processes, give up the
+ferrocyanide to boiling water, thereby colouring it greenish yellow; but
+a sample which parts with its prussiate to <i>cold</i> water is quite
+unfitted for the palette, for which the most perfect specimen is none
+too stable.</p>
+
+<p>In spite of the learned researches of Professor Williamson, whose name
+is as closely connected with the pigment as are the names of Schunck and
+De La Rue with madder and cochineal, Prussian blue is not yet entirely
+understood. Complex and uncertain in composition, uncertain too in its
+habitudes, our best course perhaps will be not to attempt a complete
+survey, but to state briefly those facts which bear on the artist's
+craft.</p>
+
+<p>Prussian blue is a colour of vast body and wonderful transparency, with
+a soft velvety richness, and of such intense depth as to appear black in
+its deepest washes. Notwithstanding it lasts a long time under
+favourable circumstances, its tints fade by the action of strong light;
+becoming white, according to Chevreul, in the direct rays of the sun,
+but regaining its blue colour in the dark; hence that subdued light
+which is favourable to all colours is particularly so to this blue. Its
+colour has the singular property of fluctuating, or of coming and going,
+under certain conditions; and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[206]</a></span> which it owes to the action and reaction
+by which it acquires or relinquishes oxygen alternately. It also becomes
+greenish sometimes by a <ins class="trans" title="was developement">development</ins> of the oxide of iron; and is
+purpled, darkened, or otherwise discoloured by damp or impure air. Time
+has a neutralizing tendency upon its colour, which forms tints of much
+beauty with white lead, though they are not equal either in purity,
+brilliancy, or permanence to those of cobalt and ultramarine. When
+carefully heated, Prussian blue gives off water and assumes a pale green
+hue; its colour, therefore, depending on the presence of water, must not
+be exposed to a high temperature. And as it is likewise injured or
+destroyed by alkalis, which decompose it into oxide of iron and a
+soluble prussiate, the blue should be avoided in fresco, on account of
+the lime; neither should it be employed with pigments of an alkaline
+nature, nor with hard water containing bicarbonate of lime in solution,
+but with clean rain or distilled water, either of which is preferable
+for colours generally.</p>
+
+<p>Prussian blue dries and glazes well in oil, but its great and principal
+use is in painting deep blues, in which its body helps to secure its
+permanence, and its transparency gives force to its depth. It is also
+valuable in compounding deep purples with lake, and is a powerful
+neutralizer and component of black, to the intensity of which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[207]</a></span> it adds
+considerably. Prussian blue borders slightly on green, a quality which
+militates against its use in skies and distances. In spite, however, of
+its want of, or deficiency in, durability, the old water-colour painters
+so employed it, neutralized by the addition of a little crimson lake. It
+is serviceable in mixed tints of greens, affording with light red a
+sea-green neutral. Dissolved in oxalic acid, the blue is available as an
+ink, or for tinting maps.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the preceding, there is a <i>Basic Prussian Blue</i>, formed by
+simply submitting to the air the bluish-white precipitate which falls on
+adding yellow prussiate of potash to green vitriol. This compound
+dissolves entirely by continued washing with water, yielding a beautiful
+deep blue solution, from which the colour may be thrown down in a solid
+form by the addition of any salt. Probably it was this basic
+preparation, so cheaply and easily made, that conferred upon Prussian
+blue the character of staining paper. In name, there is also another
+variety of this pigment, known as <i>Native Prussian Blue</i>; which is
+really a native phosphate of iron, occurring as a blue earthy powder, or
+as a white powder that becomes blue by exposure.</p>
+
+
+<h4>130. ANTWERP BLUE,</h4>
+
+<p><i>Haerlem Blue</i>, <i>Berlin Blue</i>, <i>Mineral Blue</i>, is a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[208]</a></span> lighter and
+somewhat brighter Prussian blue, with less depth and less permanence. It
+is a species of lake, having a considerable proportion of aluminous
+base, to which its paler tint is due. As the stability of Prussian blue
+rests in a great measure on the marvellous amount of latent colour the
+pigment contains, when its particles of colour are set farther apart by
+the intervention of the alumina, the permanence of its hue is
+endangered. It was remarked, with respect to vitrified pigments, that
+colour depends on cohesion. More or less, this holds good as regards all
+pigments; but not only, as was also observed, does colour rest on
+cohesion, in many instances durability depends likewise. It is only when
+a colour is stable in itself that its particles will bear separating:
+native ultramarine, for example, may be weakened almost to white, and
+will still preserve its hue. If, however, a colour be naturally
+fugitive, and rely chiefly on its extreme depth for what permanence it
+possesses, that colour cannot with impunity be paled: witness the
+cochineal lakes, which the deeper they are, the more durable they are
+found; and so it is with Prussian blue. Antwerp blue is distinguished
+from the latter by its more earthy fracture.</p>
+
+
+<p>131. TURNBULL'S BLUE,</p>
+
+<p class="no">Or <i>Ferricyanide of Iron</i>, is formed by adding the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[209]</a></span> red prussiate of
+potash to a protosalt of iron. This blue is lighter and more delicate
+than ordinary Prussian blue, and is believed to resist the action of
+alkalies longer. It is a question whether the common Prussian blue
+obtained by oxidizing the precipitate yielded by green vitriol and the
+yellow prussiate is not in reality this variety. However that may be,
+there is, as far as permanence goes, little or no difference between the
+two kinds.</p>
+
+
+<h4>ULTRAMARINES.</h4>
+
+<h4>ARTIFICIAL ULTRAMARINES</h4>
+
+<p class="no">comprise the varieties known as <i>French Ultramarine</i>, <i>French Blue</i>,
+<i>Brilliant Ultramarine</i>, <i>Factitious Ultramarine</i>, <i>Guimet's
+Ultramarine</i>, <i>New Blue</i>, <i>Permanent Blue</i>, <i>Gmelin's German
+Ultramarine</i>, <i>Bleu de Garance</i>, <i>Outremer de Guimet</i>, &amp;c. The
+unrivalled qualities of native ultramarine prepared from the lapis
+lazuli rendered it most desirable to obtain an artificial compound
+which, while possessing similar properties, could be produced in
+quantity, and at a less costly rate. In demolishing some furnaces
+employed in making soda, by means of decomposing sulphate of soda, some
+earth had been found impregnated with a light blue, which was proved to
+have so close a resemblance to ultramarine as to foster hopes of
+success. As a stimulus, there was offered a prize of six thousand francs
+or &pound;500 for the production of artificial ultramarine by the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[210]</a></span> <i>Soci&eacute;t&eacute;
+d'Encouragement</i> of Paris, which was won in 1828 by M. Guimet. It is
+fitting that the discoverer of a colour should excel in its manufacture,
+and to this day Guimet's ultramarine is the finest made. As an instance
+of how the researches of different men may, almost simultaneously, lead
+to the same results, it is curious that very shortly after the problem
+was also solved by Gmelin.</p>
+
+<p>The cause of the blue colour of ultramarine was long a matter of
+controversy, but was believed generally to be due to iron. When,
+however, the discovery of artificial ultramarine was made, this
+assumption was shown to be false, by the fact that a blue could be
+obtained with materials perfectly free from iron. The absolutely
+necessary constituents of ultramarine are silica, alumina, sulphur, and
+soda; and there is little doubt that the colouring matter consists of
+hyposulphite of soda and sulphide of sodium: it is certain that the blue
+colour is dependant on the soda, inasmuch as potash yields an analogous
+compound which is purely white. A number of substances, such as iron,
+lime, magnesia, and potash, may be present as impurities, and were, in
+part at least, purposely added to the earlier manufactures; but they are
+found to be superfluous. Nevertheless, as regards iron, it is probable
+that a very small portion, such as is usually contained in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[211]</a></span>
+ingredients, greatly facilitates the production of the blue, and may
+even be essential in some cases.</p>
+
+<p>The colour of ultramarine is brought out by successive heatings. Green
+portions, more or less in quantity, are often formed in the crucibles,
+especially on the first ignition. On repeated heating they pass into a
+blue tint. Artificial ultramarines are said to be seldom entirely freed
+from all traces of the green modification, and are therefore less
+beautiful than the natural varieties, having a shade of green or grey.
+This defect, however, is certainly not discernible in Guimet's products,
+which sometimes incline so much to purple as to require neutralizing
+with a little Prussian blue. Depth for depth, the artificial are darker
+and less azure than the natural varieties, but the superiority of the
+latter consists not so much in their greater purity of hue, although
+this is considerable, as in their far greater transparency. The finest
+French ultramarine is never so transparent as the native; it is
+brilliant, it is powerful, it is permanent, it is nearly&mdash;but only
+nearly&mdash;transparent. Possessing in a subdued degree the characteristics
+and qualities of the genuine, it works, washes, and dries well; and is
+useful either in figures, draperies, or landscape. Rivalling in depth,
+although not equalling in colour, the pure azure of native ultramarine,
+it answers to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[212]</a></span> the same acid tests, but is sometimes distinguished
+therefrom by the effervescence which ensues on the addition of an acid.
+Not a bubble escapes in such case from the natural blue; unless, indeed,
+as occasionally happens, it retain a portion of alkali, with which it
+may have been combined in the preparation, but from which it should have
+been freed. Darkened as a rule by fire, factitious ultramarine becomes
+dingy blue, and at last white, when strongly ignited for a long time;
+and is, like the true variety, <ins class="trans" title="was decolourized">decolourised</ins> by ignition in an atmosphere
+of hydrogen gas. At a high temperature, this effect is even produced by
+silica, whence the unfitness of ultramarine for painting on glass or
+porcelain; and simply by a prolonged red heat the blue is rendered
+white. Being unaffected by alkalis, it is eligible in mural decoration,
+and is particularly adapted to siliceous painting, on account of the
+silica and alumina which it contains, two substances with which a
+soluble silicate readily unites. If artificial ultramarine be mixed with
+a soluble silicate, for example silicate of potash, and be laid on a
+properly prepared ground, it will become so firmly fixed, says Mr.
+Barff, that no amount of washing nor the slow action of moisture will
+remove it, or affect its brilliancy. Judging from the behaviour of
+ultramarine, therefore, if the colours employed in siliceous painting
+contain silica and alumina, they should adhere<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[213]</a></span> as firmly to the surface
+on which they are placed; and this is really the case. It is possible to
+produce a mixed solution of aluminate and silicate of potash which will
+remain liquid for twenty-four hours. If, while in the liquid state,
+colours are saturated with this solution and allowed to dry, their
+particles will be very intimately mixed with silica and alumina
+chemically combined with potash. According to the author quoted, the
+admixture of silica and alumina does not interfere with the brilliancy
+or depth of the colours, and the method may be used for all those which
+are not injured by potash, and are in themselves adapted to the art.</p>
+
+<p>With respect to permanence, the finer varieties of artificial
+ultramarines may, undoubtedly, be pronounced stable; but, like all other
+colours, these blues are apt to vary in quality, and inferior kinds are
+liable to lose their purity in a measure, and become grayer. Moreover,
+they are made by different processes, and the mode adopted for the
+manufacture of a pigment not only tells upon the colour, but may
+influence to some extent its durability. From the following experiment
+of an ingenious artist and friend of the author, it is evident that the
+production of artificial ultramarine was not carried in its early days
+to that state of perfection at which it has now arrived. He took a
+picture, the sky of which had been recently painted in the ordinary<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[214]</a></span>
+manner with Prussian blue and white; and having painted over the clear
+part of the sky uniform portions with tints formed of the best
+factitious ultramarine, cobalt blue, and genuine ultramarine, so as to
+match the ground of the sky, and to disappear to the eye thereon by
+blending with the ground, when viewed at a moderate distance, he set the
+picture aside for some months. Upon examination, it appeared that the
+colour of these various blue pigments had taken different ways, and
+departed from the hue of the ground: the factitious ultramarine had
+<i>blackened</i>, the cobalt blue <i>greened</i>, the genuine ultramarine remained
+a <i>pure azure</i>, like a spot of light, while their ground, the Prussian
+blue sky, seemed by contrast with the ultramarine of a <i>grey</i> or <i>slate
+colour</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Other things being equal, those artificial ultramarines are most durable
+which possess the most colour; and all are, perhaps, most permanent in
+water. If used in that vehicle, care should be taken to employ a gum
+free from acid; also, whether in water or oil, not to compound the blue
+with a pigment which may possibly contain acid, such as constant white.
+Acid, as we have said, is the great test for ultramarine; whence if a
+sample be sophisticated with cobalt, its blue colour will not be
+entirely destroyed. With high-class artistic pigments, however,
+adulteration is the exception and not<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[215]</a></span> the rule. It is as a powder-blue
+for the washtub that ultramarine gets disguised, when it is ground up
+with soda-ash, chalk, gypsum, &amp;c., and sold sometimes under its own
+name, but more frequently as superfine Saxon smalts.</p>
+
+
+<h4>132. BRILLIANT ULTRAMARINE,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">lately called <i>Factitious Ultramarine</i>, is a specially fine preparation
+of M. Guimet, presenting the nearest approach to the natural product of
+any artificial ultramarine, both in transparency, purity of hue, and
+chemical characteristics. Equalling in depth and power the ordinary
+French ultramarine, it possesses greater clearness, beauty, and
+brightness; and has, in a subdued degree, that quality of light in it,
+and of the tint of air, which forms so distinguishing a feature in the
+native blue.</p>
+
+
+<h4>133. FRENCH ULTRAMARINE,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">or <i>French Blue</i>, is a rich deep colour, but less transparent and vivid
+than the preceding variety, which is preferable in unmixed tints. For
+compound hues, French blue is sufficiently well adapted, and is
+extremely useful. With aureolin and burnt Sienna, or Vandyke brown, it
+affords valuable autumn greens; and with lamp black, or lamp black and
+light red, good stormy clouds. A sombre gray for distant mountains is
+furnished by French blue and madder brown, with a very<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[216]</a></span> little gamboge;
+and a deep purple for sunsets, by the blue and purple madder, or Indian
+red and rose madder. With cadmium and orient yellows, sepia, viridian,
+and many other colours, this ultramarine is of service.</p>
+
+
+<h4>134. NEW BLUE</h4>
+
+<p class="no">Is confined to water-colour painting, and is an artificial ultramarine,
+holding a middle position between French blue and permanent blue, being
+less deep than the one and less pale than the other. It may be said to
+hover in tint between a rich ultramarine and cobalt.</p>
+
+<h4>135. PERMANENT BLUE</h4>
+
+<p class="no">Is a pale ultramarine, with a cobalt hue; and, in spite of its name,
+less permanence than belongs to the richer and deeper sorts. What
+Antwerp blue is to Prussian blue, this is to French blue&mdash;that is, as
+regards colour. With respect to durability, however, permanent and
+Antwerp blues cannot be compared; the former being a weakened variety of
+a stable, and the latter a weakened variety of a semi-fugitive, pigment.
+Hence permanent blue justifies its name, although that name would be
+more suited to the brilliant, or French, ultramarine.</p>
+
+
+<h4>136. GENUINE ULTRAMARINE,</h4>
+
+<p class="no"><i>Native Ultramarine</i>, <i>Natural Ultramarine</i>, <i>Real Ultramarine</i>, <i>True
+Ultramarine</i>, <i>Ultramarine</i>, <i>Pure</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[217]</a></span> <i>Ultramarine</i>, <i>Azure</i>, <i>Outremer</i>,
+<i>Lazuline</i>, <i>Lazulite Blue</i>, and <i>Lazurstein</i>. This most costly, most
+permanent, and most celebrated of all pigments, is obtained by isolating
+the blue colouring matter of the <i>lapis lazuli</i>, a stone chiefly brought
+from China, Thibet, and the shores of Lake Baikal. About the antiquity
+of the stone, and its colour, much has been written, and many
+conflicting statements have been made; but there is little doubt that
+our lapis lazuli was the sapphire of the ancients; and that the first
+certain mention of ultramarine occurs in a passage of Arethas, who lived
+in the eleventh century, and who, in his exposition of a verse in the
+book of Revelation, says, the sapphire is that stone of which
+<i>lazurium</i>, as we are told, is made. It has been common to confound
+ultramarine with the <i>cyanus</i> and <i>c&oelig;ruleum</i> of the ancients; but
+their cyanus, or Armenian blue, was a kind of mineral or mountain blue,
+tinged with copper; and their c&oelig;ruleum, although it may sometimes
+have been real ultramarine, was properly and in general a copper ochre.
+That ultramarine was known to the ancients there seems every
+probability, for it is certain they were acquainted with the stone; and
+modern travellers describe the brilliant blue painting still remaining
+in the ruins of temples of Upper Egypt as having all the appearance of
+ultramarine. Whether it is so or not, however, could only be proved by
+analysis; for,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[218]</a></span> be it recollected, although the colour had preserved its
+hue during so many centuries, it had been completely buried, and
+therefore most perfectly secluded from light and air. Mr. Layard, in his
+'Nineveh,' referring to some painted plaster, remarks that "The colours,
+particularly the blues and reds, were as brilliant and vivid when the
+earth was removed from them as they could originally have been; but, on
+exposure to the air, they faded rapidly." In all likelihood, these were
+of organic, or semi-organic, origin, prepared in some such manner as
+that mentioned by Pliny, who speaks of an earth which, when boiled with
+plants, acquired their blue colour, and was in some measure inflammable.
+As a pigment, cobalt was unknown to the ancients; but to these vegetable
+and copper blues of theirs, a third blue may perhaps be added.
+Experiments made upon blue tiles, found in a Roman tesselated
+foot-pavement at Montbeillard, showed that the colour was due to iron.
+M. Gmelin has proved that a blue tint can be imparted to glass and
+enamel by means of iron; and it is probable that the ancients were first
+induced by the blue slag of their smelting-houses to study the colouring
+of glass with iron; that in this art they acquired a dexterity not
+possessed at present, and that they employed their iron-smalt as a
+pigment, as we do our smalt of cobalt. To sum up, there are grounds for
+believing that the ancients were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[219]</a></span> acquainted with copper blues,
+vegetable blues, and iron blues; and that, consequently, the blue
+described by travellers as having all the appearance of ultramarine may,
+or may not, be that pigment.</p>
+
+<p>Lapis lazuli, or lazulite, is usually disseminated in a rock, which
+contains, among other substances, a fine white lazulite. In the <i>Mus&eacute;e
+Min&eacute;ralogique</i> of Paris are two splendid specimens of the stone, in
+which is seen the transition from the azure to the white. According to
+the quantity and quality of blue present, the lapis varies from an
+almost uniform tint of the deepest indigo-blue to grayish-white, dotted
+and streaked at intervals with pale blue. The exceeding beauty of good
+samples has caused the lazulite to be much sought after, both as a gem
+for adorning the person, and for inlaid works in ornamental decoration.
+In China the stone is highly esteemed, being worn by mandarins as badges
+of nobility conferred only by the Emperor; and in the apartments of a
+summer palace near St. Petersburg, the walls are covered with amber,
+interspersed with plates of this costly lapis. Besides the colouring
+principle of the lazulite, there are always more or less mica and iron
+pyrites, the latter a lustrous yellow bisulphide of iron, which has
+often been mistaken for pellets of gold. Having chosen portions of the
+stone most free from these impurities, it is simply requisite to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[220]</a></span> reduce
+them to an impalpable powder to obtain a blue pigment; and probably this
+was the original mode of preparing it before the discovery of the modern
+process. This curious method, which is mechanical rather than chemical,
+depends for its success on the character and proportions of the
+materials employed, as well as on the nicety of working. When well
+carried out, it perfectly isolates the blue from all extraneous matter,
+yielding the colour at first deep and rich, then lighter and paler, and
+lastly of that gray tint which is known by the name of Ultramarine Ash.
+The refuse, containing little or no blue, furnishes the useful pigment,
+Mineral Gray.</p>
+
+<p>The immense price of ultramarine&mdash;or, as it was at first called, azurrum
+ultramarinum, blue beyond-the-sea&mdash;was almost a prohibition to its use
+in former times. It is related that Charles I. presented to Mrs.
+Walpole, and possibly to Vandyke also, five hundred pounds worth of
+ultramarine, which lay in so small a compass as only to cover his hand.
+Even in these days, despite the introduction of artificial ultramarines,
+the native product continues costly, commanding in proportion to its
+intensity and brightness, from two to eight guineas an ounce. To say,
+however, that the merits of the blue at least equal its expense, is to
+give the genuine ultramarine no more than its due. It has, indeed, not
+earned its reputation upon slight pretensions, being, when of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[221]</a></span> fine
+quality, and skilfully prepared, of the most exquisitely beautiful blue,
+ranging from the utmost depth of shadow to the highest brilliancy of
+light and colour,&mdash;transparent in all its shades, and pure in all its
+tints. A true medial blue, when perfect, partaking neither of purple on
+the one hand, nor of green on the other, it sustains no injury either by
+damp and impure air, or by the intensest action of light, and is so
+eminently durable, that it remains unchanged in the oldest paintings.
+Drying well, working well in oil and fresco, ultramarine may be safely
+compounded with pigments generally, excepting only an acid sulphate of
+baryta or constant white. The blue has so much of the property of light
+in it, and of the tint of air&mdash;is so purely a sky-colour, and hence so
+singularly adapted to the direct and reflex light of the sky, and to
+become the antagonist of sunshine&mdash;that it is indispensable to the
+painter. Moreover, it is so pure, so true, so unchangeable in its tints
+and glazings, as to be no less essential in imitating the marvellous
+colouring of nature in flesh and flowers. To this may be added that it
+enters so admirably into purples, blacks, greens, grays, and broken
+hues, that it has justly obtained the character of clearing or carrying
+light and air into all colours, both in mixture and glazing, as well as
+gained a sort of claim to universality throughout a picture.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[222]</a></span>Nevertheless, ultramarine is not always entitled to the whole of this
+commendation. Frequently it is coarse in texture, in which case it is
+apparently more deep and valuable; yet such blue cannot be used with
+effect, nor ground fine without injuring its colour. Again, it is apt to
+be separated in an impure state from the lapis lazuli, which is an
+exceedingly varying and compound mineral, abounding with earthy and
+metallic parts in different states of oxidation and composition: hence
+ultramarine sometimes contains iron as a red oxide, when it has a purple
+cast; and sometimes the same metal as a yellow oxide, when it is of a
+green tone; while often it retains a portion of black sulphuret of iron,
+which imparts a dark and dusky hue. Occasionally, it is true, artists
+have preferred ultramarine for each of these tones; still are they
+imperfections which may account for various effects and defects of this
+pigment in painting. Growing deeper by age has been attributed to
+ultramarine; but it is only such specimens as would acquire depth in the
+fire that could be subject to the change; and it has been reasonably
+supposed that in pictures wherein other colours have faded, it may have
+taken this appearance by contrast. Ultramarine, prepared from calcined
+lapis, is not liable to so deepen; but this advantage may be purchased
+at some sacrifice of the vivid, warm, and pure azure colour of the blue
+produced from unburnt stone.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[223]</a></span> We have frequently found ultramarine to be
+darkened, dimmed, and somewhat purpled by ignition; and the same results
+ensue, in many instances, when the lazulite is calcined. In burning the
+stone, the sulphur of the pyrites is in a great measure expelled, and
+during its expulsion has probably a deteriorating influence on the
+beauty of the colour: our belief in this being so is strengthened by the
+fact that certain samples of ultramarine, ignited with sulphur, were not
+improved thereby. Similar effects are likewise caused by a careless or
+improper mode of treatment, for the finest lapis may yield dingy blues,
+containing particles of mica, metal, &amp;c., and possessing a dull green,
+black, or purple hue. Of course the perfection of the pigment is
+dependant to a large extent upon the quality of the stone itself.</p>
+
+<p>Though unexceptionable as an oil-colour, both in solid painting and
+glazing, it does not work so well as some other blues in water; nor is
+it, unless carefully prepared, so well adapted for mixed tints, on
+account of a gritty quality, of which no grinding will entirely divest
+it, and which causes it to separate from other pigments. When extremely
+fine in texture, however, or when a considerable portion of gum, which
+renders it transparent, can be employed to give connexion or adhesion
+while flowing, it becomes no less valuable in water than in oil; but
+when<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[224]</a></span> its vivid azure is to be preserved, as in illuminated manuscripts
+and missals, little gum must be used. The fine greens, purples, and
+grays of the old masters, are often unquestionably compounds of
+ultramarine; and formerly it was the only blue known in fresco. Pure
+ultramarine varies in shade from light to dark, and in hue from pale
+warm azure to the deepest cold blue.</p>
+
+<p>Native ultramarine consists of silica, alumina, sulphur, and soda; its
+colouring matter seeming to be due to hyposulphite of soda and sulphide
+of sodium. In these respects, as well as in that of being decolourised
+by acids, the natural product resembles the artificial. As a precious
+material, the former has been subject to adulteration; and it has been
+dyed, damped, and oiled to enrich its appearance; attempts of fraud,
+however, which may be easily detected. In the preceding edition of this
+work the author adds&mdash;"and the genuine may be as easily distinguished
+from the spurious by dropping a few particles of the pigment into
+lemon-juice, or any other acid, which almost instantly destroys the
+colour of the true ultramarine totally, and without effervescence." With
+this statement, so far as it pretends to be a test for the two kinds, we
+are not inclined to agree. Genuine ultramarine is always decolourised by
+acids; but it depends on the mode and nicety of its preparation whether
+it is decolourised without effervescence: that this is the case the
+author<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[225]</a></span> himself admits in his article on artificial ultramarine.
+Moreover, the "violent effervescence" which he describes as ensuing on
+the latter being dropped into an acid, does not of necessity take place:
+in M. Guimet's finest variety, the brilliant ultramarine, acid produces
+little or no effervescence. Seeing, therefore, that both sorts are
+decolourised by acids, and that both may or may not effervesce
+therewith, the acid test must be considered fallacious. Experiments made
+with different samples of each, showed that native ultramarines offered
+greater resistance to acid than the artificial, taking longer to
+decolourise; and that the residues of the first were in general of a
+purer white than those of the last. It was also found that the brilliant
+ultramarine, above referred to, was less readily decolourised than other
+French or German kinds.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<h4>137. <i>Blue Carmine.</i></h4>
+
+<p>In a former edition of this work there appeared the following:&mdash;"Blue
+carmine is a blue oxide of molybdenum, of which little is known as a
+substance or as a pigment. It is said to be of a beautiful blue colour,
+and durable in a strong light, but is subject to be changed in hue by
+other substances, and blackened by foul air: we may conjecture,
+therefore, that it is not of much value in painting." In his estimate of
+this colour<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[226]</a></span> the author was certainly right. It is formed when a
+solution of bichloride of molybdenum is poured into a saturated, or
+nearly saturated, solution of molybdate of ammonia. A blue precipitate
+falls, which is a molybdate of molybdic oxide, hydrated, and abundantly
+soluble in water. When dried, it furnishes a dark blue powder,
+resembling powdered indigo, having a bitter, rough, metallic taste, and
+reddening litmus strongly. The solubility of this hydrated oxide is
+alone fatal to its employment as a pigment. It may, indeed, be rendered
+comparatively insoluble in water by ignition; but the anhydrous oxide so
+obtained is nearly black, and as a colour worthless.</p>
+
+<p>A more eligible preparation is the molybdate of baryta, produced by
+mixing solutions of molybdate of potash and acetate of baryta. A white,
+flocculent precipitate results, which rapidly condenses to a crystalline
+powder, and turns blue on ignition. It is, however, a costly compound,
+of little merit, and not likely to come into use. It is insoluble in
+water.</p>
+
+
+<h4>138. <i>Blue Ochre</i>,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">which has been improperly called Native Prussian Blue, is a native
+hydrated phosphate of iron of rare occurrence, found with iron pyrites
+in Cornwall, and also in North America. What Indian red is to the colour
+red, and Oxford ochre to yellow, this pigment is to the colour blue,
+being sober<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[227]</a></span> and subdued rather than brilliant. It has the body of other
+ochres, more transparency, and is of considerable depth. Both in water
+and oil it works well, dries readily, and does not suffer in tint with
+white lead, nor change when exposed to the action of strong light, damp,
+or impure air. As far as its powers extend, therefore, it is an eligible
+pigment, though not generally employed nor easily procured; it may,
+however, be artificially prepared. Answering to similar acid tests as
+ultramarine, it is distinguished therefrom by assuming an olive-brown
+hue on exposure to a red heat.</p>
+
+
+<h4>139. <i>Cobalt Prussian Blue.</i></h4>
+
+<p>Gmelin states that yellow prussiate of potash yields with a solution of
+oxalate of sesquioxide of cobalt a blue resembling Prussian blue&mdash;that,
+in fact, there can be obtained a Prussian blue with a base of cobalt
+instead of iron. In the moist state, the similarity is sufficiently
+great, but when washed and dried, the product is, with us, a dingy slate
+colour. Possibly, if such a blue could be produced, it might exceed in
+permanence the ferro- and ferri-cyanides of iron. Of course the compound
+would be much more expensive.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Copper Blues</i></h4>
+
+<p class="no">are now seldom or never employed as artists'<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[228]</a></span> pigments. The following
+are the principal varieties:&mdash;</p>
+
+
+<h4>140. <i>Bice</i>,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">Blue Bice, Iris, Terre Bleu, was prepared, when true, from the Armenian
+stone, which is a calcareous kind of stone coloured with copper. It was
+of a light bright hue, but is completely superseded by pale ultramarine.
+The Persian lazur appears to have been a similar pigment, being a sort
+of copper ore, which, when the stone was pounded and sifted, furnished a
+fine paint, very bright and pleasant. It could not, however, stand the
+effects of the atmosphere like the Tartarian lazur or lapis lazuli, in
+the course of time becoming of a dark and dismal colour.</p>
+
+<p>Ground smalts, blue verditer, and other pigments, have passed under the
+name of bice.</p>
+
+
+<h4>141. <i>Blue Ashes</i>, or <i>Mountain Blue</i>,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">are both hydrated carbonates of copper, the first being artificially
+prepared, and the second found native in Cumberland. Neither is durable,
+especially in oil; and, as pigments, both are precisely of the character
+of verditer. By treating the natural malachite green with an alkali, it
+may be converted into blue.</p>
+
+
+<h4>142. <i>Blue Verditer</i>,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">or Verditer, is an oxide of copper, formed by precipitating nitrate of
+copper with lime. It is of a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[229]</a></span> beautiful light blue colour, little
+affected by light, but greened and ultimately blackened by time, damp,
+and impure air&mdash;changes which ensue even more rapidly in oil than in
+water. It is mostly confined to distemper painting and paper-staining.</p>
+
+
+<h4>143. <i>Egyptian Blue</i>,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">called by Vitruvius, C&oelig;ruleum, is frequently found on the walls of
+the temples in Egypt, as well as on the cases enclosing mummies. Count
+Chaptal, who analysed some of it discovered in 1809 in a shop at
+Pompeii, found that it was blue ashes, not prepared in the moist manner,
+but by calcination. He considers it a kind of frit, of a semi-vitreous
+nature; and this would appear to be the case from Sir H. Davy obtaining
+a similar colour by exposing to a strong heat, for two hours, a mixture
+of fifteen parts of carbonate of soda, twenty of powdered flints, and
+three of copper. The colour is very brilliant when first made, and
+retains its hue well in distemper and decorative painting; but it has
+the common defect of copper blues of turning green in oil, when ground
+impalpably for artistic use. One remarkable effect of this copper
+smalt&mdash;for it is nothing else&mdash;is, that by lamp-light it shows somewhat
+greenish, but shines by day with all the brightness of azure. M&eacute;rim&eacute;e
+believes that Paul Veronese employed this sort of blue in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[230]</a></span> many of his
+pictures where the skies have become green.</p>
+
+
+<h4>144. <i>Saunders Blue</i>,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">a corrupt name from <i>Cendres Bleues</i>, the original denomination probably
+of ultramarine ashes, is of two kinds, the natural and artificial. The
+first is a blue mineral found near copper mines, while the last is
+simply a verditer.</p>
+
+
+<h4>145. <i>Schweinfurt Blue</i>,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">or Reboulleau's Blue, is prepared by fusing together equal weights of
+ordinary arseniate of protoxide of copper and arseniate of potash, and
+adding one-fifth its weight of nitre to the fused mass. The result is,
+so to speak, a sort of blue Scheele's green, into which latter colour it
+soon passes when rubbed with oil.</p>
+
+
+<h4>146. <i>Cotton Seed Blue.</i></h4>
+
+<p>Cotton seed oil is bleached by treatment with either carbonate of soda
+or caustic lime. In both cases, a considerable residue is left after
+drawing off the bleached oil. This residue is treated with sulphuric
+acid, and distilled at a high temperature, when there is left a compact
+mass of a deep greenish-blue colour. On further treatment of this mass
+with strong sulphuric acid, the green tint disappears, and a very
+intense pure<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[231]</a></span> blue colour is produced. The blue mass is a mixture of the
+coloured substance with some sulphuric acid, sulphate of soda, and fats.
+The two former may be removed by washing with water; the latter by
+treatment with naptha. Alcohol now dissolves the blue colour, and water
+precipitates it from the solution chemically pure.</p>
+
+<p>This blue has not been introduced as a pigment; and of its permanence,
+and other attributes, we know nothing.</p>
+
+
+<h4>147. <i>Gold Blue.</i></h4>
+
+<p>Gold purple, under the name of Purple of Cassius, was once very well
+known: a like compound of tin and gold may be made to yield a blue.
+Resembling indigo, the colour is not remarkably brilliant, and, unless
+several precautions are carefully observed, is rather violet than blue.
+When obtained, the colour must be quickly washed by decantation, or it
+changes first to violet and then to purple. Its costliness, lack of
+brightness, and tendency to redden, are against its employment on the
+palette. In enamelling it would doubtless preserve its colour, and in
+exceptional cases might be useful.</p>
+
+
+<h4>148. <i>Iodine Blue.</i></h4>
+
+<p>It is curious that iodine, which gives a yellow with lead, should also
+afford a blue with the same metal. When a solution of iodine in aqueous<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[232]</a></span>
+soda (carbonate of soda is not so good) is added to nitrate or acetate
+of lead-oxide, a transient violet-red precipitate falls, which
+decomposes spontaneously under water, yielding iodine and a beautiful
+blue powder. The colour, however, is exceedingly fugitive, even the
+carbonic acid of the air separating iodine from it and forming a lead
+salt. Bearing in mind the scarlet iodide of mercury, iodine is capable
+of furnishing the three primary colours, distinguished alike by their
+brilliancy and fugacity.</p>
+
+
+<h4>149. <i>Iridium Blue.</i></h4>
+
+<p>The rare metal iridium affords a blue which is a mixture of the oxide
+and the sesquioxide. But being slightly soluble in water and
+decolourised by sulphuretted hydrogen, it would not, other
+considerations apart, be an acquisition.</p>
+
+
+<h4>150. <i>Manganese Blue.</i></h4>
+
+<p>An aqueous solution of permanganate of potash yields with baryta-water a
+violet mixture, which afterwards becomes colourless, and deposits a blue
+precipitate. This retains its colour after washing and drying, but
+cannot be recommended as a pigment, being liable to suffer in contact
+with organic substances, which deoxidize and decolourize the manganates
+and permanganates.</p>
+
+<h4><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[233]</a></span>151. <i>Platinum Blue.</i></h4>
+
+<p>With mercurous nitrate, the platinocyanide of potassium forms a thick
+smalt blue, and the platinidcyanide a dark blue precipitate. The
+compound is a mixture of platino- or platinidcyanide of mercury and
+mercurous nitrate. Upon the presence of the latter the colour seems to
+depend, for on washing with cold water containing nitric acid, the
+nitrate is not removed nor the blue affected; but boiling water extracts
+the nitrate and leaves a white residue. A blue containing mercurous
+nitrate must necessarily be injured by impure air, and be otherwise
+objectionable.</p>
+
+
+<h4>152. <i>Tungsten Blue</i></h4>
+
+<p class="no">is an oxide formed by the action of various deoxidizing agents on
+tungstic acid. It remains unaltered in the air at ordinary temperatures,
+is opaque, and of a blackish indigo-blue colour. As a pigment, there is
+little to recommend it.</p>
+
+
+<h4>153. <i>Wood-Tar Blue.</i></h4>
+
+<p>The colours obtained from coal-tar have become household words, and it
+is not impossible that those from wood-tar may be some day equally
+familiar. At present wood-tar is comparatively unexplored, but the fact
+that picamar furnishes a blue is at least as suggestive and hopeful as
+that transient purple colouration by which aniline was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[234]</a></span> once chiefly
+distinguished. As aniline is a product of coal-tar, so picamar is a
+product of wood-tar; and as the former gives a purple with
+hypochlorites, so the latter yields a blue with baryta-water. Both are
+distinguished by coloured tests, but there is this advantage in the
+picamar blue&mdash;it is comparatively permanent.</p>
+
+<p>Picamar blue is produced when a few drops of baryta-water are added to
+an alcoholic solution of impure picamar, or even to wood-tar oil
+deprived of its acid. The liquor instantly assumes a bright blue tint,
+which in a few minutes passes into an indigo colour. From <ins class="transgreek" title="[Greek: pitta]">&#960;&#953;&#964;&#964;&#945;</ins>
+pitch, and <ins class="transgreek" title="[Greek: kallos]">&#954;&#945;&#955;&#955;&#959;&#962;</ins> ornament, the blue is named <i>Pittacal</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The mode of separating pittacal has not been clearly described. Dumas
+states, that when precipitated in a flocculent state from its solutions,
+or obtained by evaporation, it closely resembles indigo, and, like it,
+acquires a coppery hue when rubbed. It is inodorous, tasteless, and not
+volatile; and is abundantly soluble in acetic acid, forming a red
+liquid, which, when saturated by an alkali, becomes of a bright blue. It
+is represented as a more delicate test of acid and alkalis than litmus.
+With acetate of lead, protochloride of tin, ammonio-sulphate of copper,
+and acetate of alumina, it yields a fine blue colour with a tint of
+violet, said not to be affected by air or light, and therefore
+recommended for dyeing.</p>
+
+<p>Like indigo, pittacal is believed to contain<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[235]</a></span> nitrogen, but its ultimate
+composition has not been accurately determined. Dumas considers it
+<ins class="trans" title="was indentical">identical</ins> with a blue product obtained in 1827 from coal-tar by MM.
+Barthe and Laurent. If this be the case, its greater stability over
+coal-tar blues and colours generally admits of doubt. That, however, has
+yet to be ascertained. Our object in noticing this blue has been
+two-fold: first, to direct attention to wood-tar as a possible source of
+colour; and secondly, to point to pittacal as a possible substitute for
+indigo, possessing greater durability.</p>
+
+
+<h4>154. <i>Zinc-Cobalt Blue.</i></h4>
+
+<p>Cobalt, as furnishing a blue colour, is usually associated with alumina,
+silica, or tin; and, as furnishing a green colour, with zinc. But there
+is obtainable a compound of zinc and cobalt which gives a blue not only
+free from green, but inclining rather to red. It is made by adding to a
+solution of ordinary phosphate of soda in excess a solution first of
+sulphate of zinc and then of sulphate of cobalt, and washing and
+igniting the precipitate. The result is a vitreous blue with a purple
+cast, of little body, and exceedingly difficult to grind. Altogether, it
+is not unlike smalt, over which it has no advantages as an artistic
+pigment either in colour or permanence. For tinting porcelain, however,
+it is admirably adapted, imparting thereto a very pure dark<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[236]</a></span> blue of
+extraordinary beauty. This blue is distinguished from smalt by
+dissolving in acetic acid.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<p>Compared with the wide range of yellows, or even with reds, the artist
+finds the number of his blues limited. The perfect native and excellent
+artificial ultramarines, the good blues of cobalt, the fair Prussian
+blue, and the doubtful indigo, are the four varieties he has for years
+been in the habit of using, and is still mainly dependent on. Our
+division, therefore, into permanent, semi-stable, and fugitive, is
+easily effected.</p>
+
+<p>In the front rank, pre-eminent among blues as among pigments generally,
+stands genuine ultramarine. Behind it, are the artificial ultramarines;
+and behind them again, cobalt and cerulian blue. To a greater or less
+extent, all these are durable.</p>
+
+<p>Among the semi-stable, must be classed cyanine or Leitch's blue, smalt,
+and Prussian blue.</p>
+
+<p>To the fugitive, belong indigo and the somewhat more permanent intense
+blue, Antwerp blue, and the copper blues.</p>
+
+<p>In this list of blues, which grace or disgrace the palette of the
+present day, there is one colour which, although not permanent, is
+almost indispensable. As yet, the chemist cannot in all cases lay down
+the law as to what pigments may or may not be employed. The painter who
+unne<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[237]</a></span>cessarily uses fugitive colours must have little love for his
+craft, and a poor opinion of the value of his work; but, even with the
+best intentions and the utmost self-esteem, the artist cannot always
+confine himself to strictly stable pigments. He has no right to use
+orpiment instead of cadmium yellow, or red lead instead of vermilion, or
+copper blue instead of cobalt: he has no business to employ indigo when
+Prussian blue saddened by black will answer his purpose; but&mdash;what
+pigment can he substitute for Prussian blue itself? None. In its
+wondrous depth, richness, and transparency, it stands alone: there is no
+yellow to compare with it, no red to equal it, no blue to rival it. In
+force and power it is a colour among colours, and transparent beyond
+them all. The great importance of transparent pigments is to unite with
+solid or opaque colours of their own hues, giving tone and atmosphere
+generally, together with beauty and life; to convert primary into
+secondary, and secondary into tertiary colours, with brilliancy; to
+deepen and enrich dark colours and shadows, and to impart force and tone
+to black itself. For such effects, no pigment can vie with Prussian
+blue. What purples it produces, what greens it gives, what a matchless
+range of grays; what velvety glow it confers, how it softens the
+harshness of colours, and how it subdues their glare. No; until the
+advent of a perfect palette, the artist can scarcely<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[238]</a></span> part with his
+Prussian blue; nor can the chemist, who has nothing better to offer,
+hold him to blame. It is for Art to copy Nature with the best materials
+she possesses: it is for Science to learn the secrets of Nature, and
+turn them to the benefit of Art.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[239]</a></span><a name="chapter_11" id="chapter_11"></a><a href="#contents">CHAPTER XI.</a></h2>
+
+<h3>ON THE SECONDARY, ORANGE.</h3>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Orange</span> is the first of the secondary colours in relation to light, being
+in all the variety of its hues composed of <i>yellow</i> and <i>red</i>. A true or
+perfect orange is such a compound of red and yellow as will neutralize a
+perfect blue in equal quantity either of surface or intensity; and the
+proportions of such compound are five of perfect red to three of perfect
+yellow. When orange inclines to red, it takes the names of <i>scarlet</i>,
+<i>poppy</i>, &amp;c.: in gold colour, &amp;c., it leans towards yellow. Combined
+with green it forms the tertiary <i>citrine</i>, and with purple the tertiary
+<i>russet</i>: it also furnishes a series of warm semi-neutral colours with
+black, and harmonizes in contact and variety of tints with white.</p>
+
+<p>Orange is an advancing colour in painting:&mdash;in nature it is effective at
+a great distance, acting powerfully on the eye, diminishing its
+sensibility in accordance with the strength of the light in which it is
+viewed. It is of the hue, and par<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[240]</a></span>takes of the vividness of sunshine, as
+it likewise does of all the powers of its components, red and yellow.
+Pre-eminently a <i>warm</i> colour, being the equal contrast of or antagonist
+to blue, to which the attribute of <i>coolness</i> peculiarly belongs, it is
+discordant when standing alone with yellow or with red, unresolved by
+their proper contrasts or harmonizing colours, purple and green. As an
+archeus or ruling colour, orange is one of the most agreeable keys in
+toning a picture, from the richness and warmth of its effects. If it
+predominate therein, for the colouring to be true, the violet and purple
+should be more or less red, the red more or less scarlet, the yellow
+more or less intense and orange, and the orange itself be intense and
+vivid. Further, the greens must lose some of their blue and consequently
+become yellower, the light blues be more or less light grey, and the
+deep indigo more or less marrone.</p>
+
+<p>Although the secondary colours are capable of being obtained by
+admixture of the primaries in an infinitude of hues, tints, and shades;
+yet simple original pigments of whatever class&mdash;whether secondary,
+tertiary, or semi-neutral&mdash;are, it has been said before, often superior
+to those compounded, both in a chemical and artistic sense. Hence a
+thoroughly good original orange is only of less value and importance
+than a thoroughly good original yellow, a green<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[241]</a></span> than a blue, or a
+purple than a red. To produce pure and permanent compound hues requires
+practice and knowledge, and we too often see in the works of painters
+combinations neither pleasing nor stable. Colours are associated with
+each other which do not mix kindly, and compounds formed of which one or
+both constituents are fugitive. As a consequence, mixed tints are
+frequently wanting in clearness, and, where they do not disappear
+altogether, resolve themselves into some primary colour; orange becoming
+red by a fading of the yellow, green yellow by a fading of the blue, and
+purple blue by a fading of the red. Again, with regard to compound
+tints, there is the danger of one colour <ins class="trans" title="was re-acting">reacting</ins> upon and injuring
+another, as in the case of greens obtained from chrome yellow and
+Prussian blue, where the former ultimately destroys the latter. Of
+course a mixture of two permanent pigments which do not react on each
+other will remain permanent; the green, for instance, furnished by
+aureolin and native ultramarine lasting as long as the ground itself. To
+produce, however, the effects desired, the artist does not always stop
+to consider the fitness and stability of his colours in compounding,
+even if he possess the needed acquaintance with their physical and
+chemical properties. At all times, therefore, but especially when such
+knowledge is slight, good orange, &amp;c., pigments are of more<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[242]</a></span> or less
+value, as by their use the employment of inferior mixtures is to a great
+extent avoided. In mingling primary with primary, if one colour does not
+compound well with the other, or is fugacious, the result is failure;
+but a secondary is not so easily affected by admixture: a green, for
+example, is seldom quite ruined by the injudicious addition of blue or
+yellow; and even if either of the latter be fugitive, the green will
+remain a green if originally durable. Thus the secondaries, if they are
+not already of the colour required, may be brightened or subdued,
+deepened or paled, with comparative impunity. The artist who, from long
+years of experience, knows exactly the properties and capabilities of
+the colours he employs, may in a measure dispense with secondary
+pigments, and obtain from the primaries mixed tints at once stable,
+beautiful, and pure; but even he must sometimes resort to them, as when
+a green like emerald or viridian is required, which no mixture of blue
+and yellow will afford. The primaries, by reason of their not being able
+to be composed of other colours, occupy the first place on the palette,
+and are of the first importance; but the secondaries are far too useful
+to be disregarded, and have a value of their own, which both veteran and
+tyro have cause to acknowledge.</p>
+
+<p>The list of original orange pigments was once so deficient, that in some
+old treatises on the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[243]</a></span> subject of colours, they are not even mentioned.
+This may have arisen, not merely from their paucity, but from the
+unsettled signification of the term orange, as well as from improperly
+calling these pigments reds, yellows, &amp;c. In these days, however, orange
+pigments are sufficiently numerous to merit a chapter to themselves;
+they indeed comprise some of the best colours on the palette.</p>
+
+
+<h4>155. BURNT SIENNA,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">or <i>Burnt Terra di Sienna</i>, is calcined raw Sienna, of a rich
+transparent brown-orange or orange-russet colour, richer, deeper, and
+more transparent than the raw earth. It also works and dries better, has
+in other respects the qualities of its parent colour, and is a most
+permanent and serviceable pigment in painting generally. For the warm
+tints in rocks, mud banks, and buildings, this colour is excellent. When
+mixed with blue it makes a good green; furnishing a bright green with
+cobalt, and one much more intense with Prussian blue. For the foresea,
+whether calm or broken by waves, it may be employed with a little
+madder; while compounded with a small portion of the latter and lamp
+black, it meets the hues of old posts, boats, and a variety of near
+objects, as the tints may be varied by modifying the proportions of the
+component colours. Used with white, it yields a range of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[244]</a></span> sunny tones;
+and with aureolin or French blue and aureolin will be found of service,
+the last compound giving a fine olive green. Similar but fugitive greens
+are afforded by admixture of burnt Sienna with indigo and yellow or
+Roman ochre, or raw Sienna; tints which may be saddened into olive
+neutrals by the addition of sepia, and rendered more durable by
+substituting for indigo Prussian blue and black. Mixed with viridian, it
+furnishes autumnal hues of the utmost richness, beauty, and permanence;
+and, alone, is valuable as a glaze over foliage and herbage. For the
+dark markings and divisions of stones a compound of Payne's gray and
+burnt Sienna will prove serviceable; while for red sails the Sienna,
+either by itself, with brown madder, or with Indian red, cannot be
+surpassed. For foregrounds, banks and roads, cattle and animals in
+general, burnt Sienna is equally eligible, both alone and compounded. It
+has a slight tendency to darken by time.</p>
+
+
+<h4>156. CADMIUM ORANGE</h4>
+
+<p class="no">was first introduced to the art-world at the International <ins class="trans" title="was Exibition">Exhibition</ins> of
+18621862, where it was universally admired for its extreme brilliancy and
+beauty, a brilliancy equalled by few of the colours with which it was
+associated, and a beauty devoid of coarseness. We remember well the
+power it possessed of attracting the eye from a distance;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[245]</a></span> and how, on
+near approach, it threw nearly all other pigments into the shade. It has
+in truth a lustrous luminosity not often to be met with, added to a
+total absence of rankness or harshness. A simple original colour,
+containing no base but cadmium, it is of perfect permanence, being
+uninjured by exposure to light, air or damp, by sulphuretted hydrogen,
+or by admixture. Having in common with cadmium sulphides a certain
+amount of transparency, it is invaluable for gorgeous sunsets and the
+like, either alone or compounded with aureolin. Of great depth and power
+in its full touches, the pale washes are marked by that clearness and
+delicacy which are so essential in painting skies. As day declines, and
+blue melts into green, green into orange, and orange into purple, the
+proper use of this pigment will produce effects both glowing and
+transparent. Transparency signifies the quality of being seen through or
+into; and in no better way can it be arrived at than by giving a number
+of thin washes of determined character, each lighter than the preceding
+one. With due care in preserving their forms, from the commencement to
+the termination, such washes of orange will furnish hues the softest and
+most aerial. For bits of bright drapery, a glaze over autumn leaves, and
+mural decoration, this colour is adapted; while in illumination it
+supplies a want formerly much felt. "With<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[246]</a></span> the exception of scarlet or
+bright orange," said Mr. Bradley, nine or ten years since, in his Manual
+of Illumination, "our colours are everything we could wish." As an
+original pigment, a permanent scarlet does not yet exist; but the
+brilliancy of cadmium orange cannot be disputed, nor its claim to be the
+only unexceptionable bright orange known. It even assists the formation
+of the other colour: remarks the author mentioned, "Brilliancy is
+obtained by gradation. Suppose a scarlet over-curling leaf, for example.
+The whole should be painted in pure orange, with the gentlest possible
+after-touch of vermilion towards the corner under the curl. When dry, a
+firm line&mdash;not wash&mdash;of carmine, (of madder, preferable.&mdash;<i>Ed.</i>), passed
+within the outline on the shade side only of the leaf, will give to the
+whole the look of a bright scarlet surface, but with an indescribable
+superadded charm, that no merely flat colour can possess." In the same
+branch of art, illumination, cadmium orange, opposed to viridian,
+presents a most dazzling contrast, especially if relieved by purple.</p>
+
+
+<h4>157. CHINESE ORANGE</h4>
+
+<p class="no">belongs to the coal-tar colours, and ought strictly to have been classed
+therewith. We have preferred, however, to keep it separate, because, as
+Chinese Orange, it was introduced as a pigment,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[247]</a></span> and has not been
+employed as a dye. In colour, it somewhat resembles burnt Sienna,
+enriched, reddened, brightened, and made more transparent, by admixture
+with crimson lake. From its behaviour, it would seem to be composed of
+yellow and red, such a compound as magenta and aniline yellow would
+afford. Its pale washes are uncertain, being apt to resolve themselves
+into red and yellow, of which the latter appears the most permanent;
+for, on exposure to light and air, the red more or less flies, leaving
+here a yellow, and there a reddish-yellow ground: in places both red and
+yellow disappear. Like all fugitive colours, it is comparatively stable
+when used in body; but even then it entirely loses its depth and
+richness, and in a great measure its redness, becoming faded and
+yellowish. In thin washes or glazing it is totally inadmissible; and,
+being neither a red, an orange, nor a brown, is unsuited to pure
+effects. Nevertheless, where it need not be unduly exposed; in portfolio
+illuminations, for instance, the richness, subdued brilliancy, and
+transparency of this pigment, justify its adoption. It is not affected
+by an impure atmosphere.</p>
+
+<p>Aniline colours may be adapted for oil painting by dissolving them in
+the strongest alcohol, saturating the solution with Dammar resin,
+filtering the tincture, and pouring the filtrate either on pure water or
+solution of common salt, stirring well all<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[248]</a></span> the time. The water or brine
+solution must be at least twenty times the bulk of the tincture. The
+colour after being collected on a filter, washed, and dried, can be
+ground with linseed oil, poppy oil, or oil varnishes.</p>
+
+
+<h4>158. CHROME ORANGE,</h4>
+
+<p class="no"><i>Orange Chrome</i>, or <i>Orange Chromate of Lead</i>, is a sub-chromate of lead
+of an orange-yellow colour, produced by the action of an alkali on
+chrome yellow. Like all the chromates of lead, it is characterized by
+power and brilliancy; but also by a rankness of tone, a want of
+permanence, and a tendency to injure organic pigments. By reason of its
+lead base it is subject to alteration by impure air, but is on the whole
+preferable to the chrome yellows, being liable in a somewhat less degree
+to their changes and affinities. As, however, a colour has no business
+to be used if a better can be procured, the recent introduction of
+cadmium orange renders all risk unnecessary.</p>
+
+
+<h4>159. MARS ORANGE,</h4>
+
+<p class="no"><i>Orange de Mars</i>, is a subdued orange of the burnt Sienna class, but
+without the brown tinge that distinguishes the latter. Marked by a
+special clearness and purity of tone, with much transparency, it affords
+bright sunny tints in its pale washes, and combines effectively with
+white.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[249]</a></span> Being an artificial iron ochre it is more chemically active than
+native ochres, and needs to be cautiously employed with pigments
+affected by iron, such as the lakes of cochineal and intense blue.</p>
+
+
+<h4>160. MIXED ORANGE.</h4>
+
+<p>Orange being a compound colour, the place of original orange pigments
+can be supplied by mixtures of yellow and red; either by glazing one
+over the other, by stippling, or by other modes of breaking and
+intermixing them, according to the nature of the work and the effect
+required. For reasons lately given, mixed pigments are apt to be
+inferior to the simple or homogeneous both in colour, working, and other
+properties; yet some pigments mix and combine more cordially and with
+better results than others; as is the case with liquid rubiate and
+gamboge. Generally speaking, the compounding of colours is easier in oil
+than in water; but in both vehicles trouble will be saved by beginning
+with the predominating colour, and adding the other or others to it.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps in this, our first chapter on the secondary colours, and
+consequently on colours that can be compounded, a few remarks on mixed
+tints from a chemical point of view will not be deemed superfluous.</p>
+
+<p>There are two ways, we take it, of looking at<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[250]</a></span> a picture&mdash;from a purely
+chemical, and from a purely artistic, point of view. Regarded in the
+first light, it matters little whether a painting be a work of genius or
+a daub, provided the pigments employed on it are good and properly
+compounded. The effects produced are lost sight of in a consideration of
+the materials, their permanence, fugacity, and conduct towards each
+other. Painting is essentially a chemical operation: with his pigments
+for reagents, the artist unwittingly performs reaction after reaction,
+not with the immediate results indeed of the chemist in his laboratory,
+but often as surely. As colour is added to colour, and mixture to
+mixture, acid meets alkali, metal animal, mineral vegetable, inorganic
+organic. With so close a union of opposite and opposing elements, the
+wonder is not so much that pictures sometimes perish, but that they ever
+live. It behoves the artist, then, not only to procure the best and most
+permanent pigments possible, but to compound them in such a manner that
+his mixed tints may be durable as well as beautiful. To effect or aid in
+effecting this, although he may not always be able to act upon them, the
+following axioms should be borne in mind:&mdash;</p>
+
+<ol class="sample">
+<li>If they do not react on each other, a permanent pigment added to a
+permanent pigment yields a permanent mixture.</li>
+
+<li>If they do react on each other, a permanent<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[251]</a></span> pigment added to a
+permanent pigment yields a semi-stable or fugitive mixture.</li>
+
+<li>A permanent pigment added to a semi-stable pigment yields a
+semi-stable mixture.</li>
+
+<li>A permanent pigment added to a fugitive pigment yields a fugitive
+mixture.<br /><br />
+
+Consequently&mdash;</li>
+
+<li>A permanent pigment may be rendered fugitive or semi-stable by
+improper compounding.</li>
+
+<li>A semi-stable or fugitive pigment is not rendered durable by being
+compounded.</li>
+
+<li>As a chain is only as strong as its weakest link, so a mixture is
+only as permanent as its least durable constituent.</li>
+</ol>
+
+<p>To give illustrations&mdash;</p>
+
+<ol class="sample">
+<li>Ultramarine added to Chinese white yields a permanent mixture.</li>
+
+<li>Ultramarine added to an acid constant white yields a semi-stable or
+fugitive mixture.</li>
+
+<li>Ultramarine added to Prussian blue yields a semi-stable mixture.</li>
+
+<li>Ultramarine added to indigo yields a fugitive mixture.</li>
+</ol>
+
+<p>Except in the second instance, where the blue is either partially or
+wholly destroyed&mdash;in time, be it remembered, not at once&mdash;according to
+the quantity and strength of the acid in the white, the ultramarine
+remains unchanged. Hence at first sight our third and fourth conclusions
+may<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[252]</a></span> appear wrong; inasmuch as, it may be argued, a blue mixture cannot
+be semi-stable or fugitive when blue is left. To this we reply, unless
+both constituents are fugitive, a mixture will always more or less
+possess colour; but, if even one constituent be semi-stable or fugitive,
+a mixture will slowly but surely lose <i>the</i> colour for which it was
+compounded, and be <i>as a mixture</i> semi-stable or fugitive.</p>
+
+<p>It need hardly be observed that the number of permanent orange, green,
+and purple hues which the artist can compound, depends mainly on the
+number of permanent yellows, reds, and blues at his disposal. In mixed
+orange, therefore, a selection of durable yellows and reds is of the
+first importance. It should, however, be remarked that mixed orange,
+more sober and less decided, is obtainable by the use of citrine and
+russet; in the former of which yellow predominates, and in the latter,
+red: consequently orange results when yellow is added to russet, red to
+citrine, or citrine to russet.</p>
+
+<table summary="permanent yellows and reds" style="width: 400px; margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 2em; font-size: 90%;">
+<colgroup span="2">
+<col width="200px"></col>
+<col width="200px"></col>
+</colgroup>
+<tr>
+<th class="tdb3 br">PERMANENT YELLOWS.</th>
+<th class="tdb3">PERMANENT REDS.</th>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb3 br">Aureolin.</td>
+<td class="tdb3">Cadmium Red.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb3 br">Cadmium, deep.</td>
+<td class="tdb3">Liquid Rubiate.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb3 br">Cadmium, pale.</td>
+<td class="tdb3">Madder Carmine.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb3 br">Lemon Yellow.</td>
+<td class="tdb3">Rose Madder.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb3 br">Mars Yellow.</td>
+<td class="tdb3">Mars Red.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb3 br">Naples Yellow, modern.</td>
+<td class="tdb3">Ochres.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb3 br">Ochres.</td>
+<td class="tdb3">Vermilions.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb3 br">Orient Yellow.</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb3 br">Raw Sienna.</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[253]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>None of these pigments react on each other, and from them can be
+produced the most durable mixed orange that yellow and red will afford.</p>
+
+
+<h4>161. NEUTRAL ORANGE,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">or <i>Penley's Neutral Orange</i>, is a permanent compound pigment composed
+of yellow ochre and the russet-marrone known as brown madder: it is
+chiefly valuable in water-colour. Paper, being white, is too opaque to
+paint upon, without some wash of colour being first passed over it;
+otherwise the light tones of the sky are apt to look crude and harsh. It
+must, therefore, be gone over with some desirable tint, that shall
+break, in a slight degree, the extreme brilliancy of the mere paper. For
+this purpose, a thin wash of the orange is to be put over the whole
+surface of the paper with a large flat brush, care being taken never to
+drive the colour too bare, <i>i.e.</i> never to empty the brush too closely,
+but always to replenish before more is actually required. This first
+wash of colour not only gives a tone to the paper, but secures the
+pencil sketch from being rubbed out.</p>
+
+<p>The reason why, in this compound, yellow ochre, as a yellow, is
+preferred to any of the others, is, that it is a broken yellow, that is,
+a yellow slightly altered by having another hue, such as red, or brown,
+in its composition. It is somewhat opaque too, and hence, from this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[254]</a></span>
+quality, is especially adapted for distances. Brown madder also is a
+subdued red, which, when in combination with the former, produces a
+neutral orange, partaking of the character of soft light. As a general
+rule, yellow ochre is to predominate in broad daylight, and brown madder
+in that which is more sombre and imperfect: hence the pigment can be
+yellowed or reddened, by the addition of one or the other. For a clear
+sunset, the neutral orange must be repeated, with a preponderance of
+ochre at the top, assisted by a little cadmium yellow near the sun; the
+madder being added downwards.</p>
+
+<p>In treating of distant mountains, a distinction is to be made between
+them and the clouds, the former requiring solidity, while the latter are
+only to be regarded as vapour and air. Mountains, being opaque bodies,
+are acted upon by atmosphere more or less, according to their position,
+their distance, and the state of the weather. To express this
+distinction, recourse must be had to an under tint, except where the
+tone is decidedly blue&mdash;an uncommon case. No mixture can give this with
+such truth as the neutral orange. A wash, therefore, should be passed
+over the mountains, with nearly all yellow in the high lights, or in the
+gleams of sunshine, and, on the contrary, almost all brown madder for
+the shadows. These two degrees of tone must be run into each other<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[255]</a></span>
+while the drawing is wet. A beautiful and soft under tone will thus be
+given to receive the greys.</p>
+
+
+<h4>162. ORANGE, OR BURNT ROMAN OCHRE,</h4>
+
+<p>called also <i>Spanish Ochre</i>, is a very bright yellow or Roman ochre
+burnt, by which operation it acquires warmth, colour, transparency, and
+depth. Moderately bright, it forms good flesh tints with white, dries
+and works well both in water and oil, and is a very good and eligible
+pigment. It may be used in enamel painting, and has all the properties
+of its original ochre in other respects.</p>
+
+<p>A redder hue is imparted by mixing the ochre with powdered nitre before
+ignition, the orange red being subsequently washed with hot water.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<h4>163. <i>Anotta</i>,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">Annotto, Annatto, Arnotto, Arnotta, Terra Orellana, Rocou, &amp;c., is met
+with in commerce under the names of cake anotta, and flag or roll
+anotta. The former, which comes almost exclusively from Cayenne, should
+be of a bright yellow colour: the latter, which is imported from the
+Brazils, is brown outside and red within. It is prepared from the pods
+of the <i>bixa orellana</i>, and appears generally to contain two colouring
+matters, a yellow and a red, which are apt to adhere to each other and
+produce orange. Anotta<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[256]</a></span> dissolves with difficulty in water, but readily
+in alcohol and alkaline solutions, from which last it may be thrown down
+as a lake by means of alum. Being, however, exceedingly fugitive and
+changeable, it is not fit for painting; but is chiefly employed in
+dyeing silk, and colouring varnishes and cheese. Very red cheese should
+be looked upon with suspicion, for although the admixture of anotta is
+in no way detrimental to health provided the drug be pure, it is
+commonly adulterated with red lead and ochre. Several instances are on
+record that Gloucester and other cheeses have been found contaminated
+with red lead, through having been coloured with anotta containing it,
+and that this contamination has produced serious consequences.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bixine</i> is a purified extract of anotta made in France, and used by
+dyers.</p>
+
+
+<h4>164. <i>Antimony Orange</i>,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">Golden Sulphur of Antimony, or Golden Yellow, is a hydro-sulphuret of
+antimony of an orange colour, which is destroyed by the action of strong
+light. It is a bad dryer in oil, injurious to many pigments, and in no
+respect eligible either in water or oil.</p>
+
+
+<h4>165. <i>Chromate of Mercury</i></h4>
+
+<p class="no">has been improperly classed as a red with vermilion, for though it is of
+a bright ochrous red<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[257]</a></span> in powder, when ground it becomes a bright
+ochre-orange, and affords with white very pure orange tints.
+Nevertheless it is a bad pigment, since light soon changes it to a deep
+russet colour, and foul air reduces it to extreme blackness.</p>
+
+
+<h4>166. <i>Damonico</i>,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">or Monicon, is an iron ochre, being a compound of raw Sienna and Roman
+ochre burnt, and having all their qualities. It is rather more russet in
+hue than the pigment known as orange or burnt Roman ochre, has
+considerable transparency, is rich and durable in colour, and furnishes
+good flesh tints. As in orange ochre, powdered nitre may be employed in
+its preparation. Notwithstanding its merits, it is obsolete or nearly
+so; doubtless because burnt Sienna mixed with burnt Roman ochre
+sufficiently answers the purpose.</p>
+
+
+<h4>167. <i>Gamboge Orange.</i></h4>
+
+<p>On adding acetate of lead to a potash solution of gamboge, a rich bright
+orange is precipitated, which may be washed on a filter till the
+washings are colourless, and preserves its hue with careful drying. The
+orange which we thus obtained stood well in a book, but it cannot be
+recommended as an artistic pigment. Perhaps in dyeing, the lead and
+gamboge solutions might be worth a trial.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[258]</a></span>168. <ins class="correction" title="for Laque Min&eacute;ral read Laque Min&eacute;rale"><i>Laque Min&eacute;rale</i></ins></h4>
+
+<p class="no">is a French pigment, a species of chromic orange, similar to the orange
+chromate of lead. This name is likewise given to orange oxide of iron.</p>
+
+
+<h4>169. <i>Madder Orange</i>,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">or Orange Lake. It has been said that the yellows so-called produced
+from madder are not remarkable for stability, differing therein from the
+reds, purples, russets, and browns. Like them, this 'orange' is of
+doubtful colour and permanence, and not to be met with, brilliant and
+pure, on the palette of to-day. The russet known as Rubens' madder has a
+tendency to orange.</p>
+
+
+<h4>170. <i>Orange Lead</i>,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">of a dull orange colour, is an orange protoxide of lead or massicot.
+Like litharge, it may be employed in the preparation of drying oils,
+and, being a better drier than white lead, may be substituted for it in
+mixing with pigments which need a siccative, as the bituminous earths.</p>
+
+<p>Minium sometimes leans to orange; and there is made from ceruse a
+peculiar red, <i>Mineral Orange</i>.</p>
+
+<h4><i>Orange Orpiment</i>,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">or Realgar, has also been called Red Orpiment,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[259]</a></span> improperly, since it is
+a brilliant orange, inclining to yellow. There are two kinds, a native
+and an artificial, of which the former is the <i>sandarac</i> of the
+ancients, and is rather redder than the latter. They possess the same
+qualities as pigments, and as such resemble yellow orpiment, to which
+the old painters gave the orange hue by heat, naming it alchemy and
+burnt orpiment. Orange orpiment contains more arsenic and less sulphur
+than the yellow, and is of course highly poisonous. It is often
+sophisticated with brickdust and yellow ochre.</p>
+
+
+<h4>172. <i>Thallium Orange</i></h4>
+
+<p class="no">is produced when bichromate of potash is added to a neutral salt of the
+protoxide of thallium, as an orange-yellow precipitate. The scarcity of
+the metal precludes their present introduction as pigments, but if the
+chromates of thallium were found to resist the action of light and air,
+and not to become green by deoxidation of the chromic acid, they might
+possibly prove fitted for the palette. It is a question whether their
+<i>very</i> slight solubility in water would be a fatal objection; and,
+although they would be liable to suffer from a foul atmosphere, we are
+inclined to think the effects would not be so lasting as in the
+chromates of lead. Like lead sulphide, the sulphide of thallium ranges
+from brown to brownish-black, or grey-black; and, like it too,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[260]</a></span> is
+subject to oxidation and consequent conversion into colourless sulphate.
+It is, however, much more readily oxidized than sulphate of lead; and
+hence the thallium chromates would doubtless soon regain their former
+hue on exposure to a strong light.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Crookes, who discovered this new metal in 1861, believes that the
+deep orange shade observable in some specimens of sulphide of cadmium is
+due to the presence of thallium. He has frequently found it, he says, in
+the dark-coloured varieties, and considers the variations of colour in
+cadmium sulphide to be owing to traces of thallium. That thallium
+affects the colour is most probable, but it is not necessarily the cause
+of the orange hue. The tint of cadmium sulphide is a mere matter of
+manufacture, seeing that from the same sample of metal there can be
+obtained lemon-yellow, pale yellow, deep yellow, orange-yellow, and
+orange-red. With deference to the opinion of a chemist so distinguished,
+we hold that thallium rather impairs the beauty of cadmium sulphide than
+imparts to it an orange shade, the thallium being likewise in the form
+of sulphide, and therefore more or less black. On chromate of cadmium,
+made with bichromate of potash, thallium would naturally confer an
+orange hue.</p>
+
+
+<h4>173. <i>Uranium Orange</i></h4>
+
+<p class="no">is obtainable by wet and dry methods as a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[261]</a></span> yellowish-red, or, when
+reduced to powder, an orange-yellow, uranate of baryta. It is an
+expensive preparation, superfluous as a pigment.</p>
+
+
+<h4>174. <i>Zinc Orange.</i></h4>
+
+<p>When hydrochloric acid and zinc are made to act on nitro-prusside of
+sodium, a corresponding zinc compound is formed of a deep orange colour,
+slightly soluble in water, and not permanent.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<p>For a secondary colour, orange is well represented on the modern
+palette, and can point to some pigments as good and durable as any to be
+found among the primaries. Burnt Sienna, cadmium orange, Mars orange,
+neutral orange, and orange or burnt Roman ochre, are all strictly
+permanent. The so-called orange vermilions were, it will be remembered,
+classed among the reds.</p>
+
+<p>As semi-stable, must be ranked chrome orange; and as fugitive, Chinese
+orange, orange orpiment, and orange lead.</p>
+
+<p>From the foregoing division, the predominance of eligible orange
+pigments over those less trustworthy is manifest. Unfortunately, with
+many painters it is not so manifest that their secondary and compound
+colours should receive as much attention as the primaries, and that it
+is their duty, not only to the art which they practice, but to the
+patrons for whom they practice<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[262]</a></span> it, that their orange and green and
+purple hues, should be as durable as their yellows, reds, and blues. For
+such, the introduction of a new permanent pigment is of little interest,
+unless its colour be primary; so wedded are they to that passion for
+compounding which the chemist views with dismay. With dismay, because he
+knows that the rules of mixture are severe, and cannot with impunity be
+altered; that, although disguised in oil or gum, each pigment is a
+chemical compound, with more or less of affinity and power, more or less
+likely to act or be acted upon. Because he knows that, except with the
+most experienced artists, compounding leads to confusion; and that in it
+the temptations to use semi-stable or fugitive colours are strong. Look
+at those tables of mixed tints of which artist-authors are so fond, and
+tell us whether they always bear scrutiny&mdash;surely not. Admirable,
+perfect as these tints may be in an artistic sense, how often is their
+beauty like the hectic flush of consumption, which carries with it the
+seeds of a certain death. Will that orange where Indian yellow figures
+ever see old age, or that green with indigo, or purple with cochineal
+lake? Will they not rather spread over the picture the Upas-tree of
+fugacity, and kill it as they die themselves!</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[263]</a></span><a name="chapter_12" id="chapter_12"></a><a href="#contents">CHAPTER XII.</a></h2>
+
+<h3>ON THE SECONDARY, GREEN.</h3>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Green</span>, which occupies the middle station in the natural scale of colours
+and in relation to light and shade, is the second of the secondary
+colours. It is composed of the extreme primaries, <i>yellow</i> and <i>blue</i>,
+and is most perfect in hue when constituted in the proportions of three
+of yellow to eight of blue of equal intensities; because such a green
+will exactly neutralize and contrast a perfect red in the ratio of
+eleven to five, either of space or power. Of all compound colours, green
+is the most effective, distinct, and striking, causing surprise and
+delight when first produced by a mixture of blue and yellow, so
+dissimilar to its constituents does it appear to the untutored eye.
+Compounded with orange, green converts it into the one extreme tertiary
+<i>citrine</i>; while mixed with purple, it becomes the other extreme
+tertiary <i>olive</i>: hence its relations and accordances are more general,
+and its contrasts more agreeable with all colours, than those of any
+other individual<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[264]</a></span> colour. Accordingly it has been adopted very wisely in
+nature as the common garb of the vegetal creation. It is, indeed, in
+every respect a central or medial colour, being the contrast,
+compensatory in the proportion of eleven to five, of the middle primary
+<i>red</i>, on the one hand, and of the middle tertiary <i>russet</i>, on the
+other; while, unlike the other secondaries, all its hues, whether
+tending to blue or yellow, are of the same denomination.</p>
+
+<p>These attributes of green, which render it so universally effective in
+contrasting colours, cause it also to become the least useful in
+compounding them, and the most apt to defile other colours in mixture.
+Nevertheless it forms valuable semi-neutrals of the olive class with
+<i>black</i>, for of such subdued tones are those greens by which the more
+vivid tints of nature are opposed. Accordingly, the various greens of
+foliage are always more or less semi-neutral in hue. As green is the
+most general colour of vegetal nature and principal in foliage; so red,
+its harmonizing colour, with compounds of red, is most general and
+principal in flowers. Purple flowers are commonly contrasted with
+centres or variegations of bright yellow, as blue flowers are with like
+relievings of orange; and there is a prevailing hue, or character, in
+the green colour of the foliage of almost every plant, by which it is
+harmonized with the colours of its flowers.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[265]</a></span>The chief discord of green is blue; and when they approximate or
+accompany each other, they require to be resolved by the opposition of
+warm colours. It is in this way that the warmth of distance and the
+horizon reconciles the azure of the sky with the greenness of a
+landscape. Its less powerful discord is yellow, which needs to be
+similarly resolved by a purple-red, or its principles. In tone, green is
+cool or warm, sedate or gay, either as it inclines to blue or to yellow;
+yet in its general effects it is cool, calm, temperate, and refreshing.
+Having little power in reflecting light, it is a retiring colour, and
+readily subdued by distance: for the same reason, it excites the retina
+less than most colours, and is cool and grateful to the eye. As a colour
+individually, green is eminently beautiful and agreeable, but it is more
+particularly so when contrasted by its compensating colour, red, as it
+often is in nature, even in the green leaves and young shoots of plants
+and trees. "The autumn only is called the painter's season," remarks
+Constable, "from the great richness of the colours of the dead and
+decaying foliage, and the peculiar tone and beauty of the skies; but the
+spring has, perhaps, more than an equal claim to his notice and
+admiration, and from causes not wholly dissimilar,&mdash;the great variety of
+tints and colours of the living foliage, accompanied by their flowers
+and blossoms. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[266]</a></span> beautiful and tender hues of the young leaves and
+buds are rendered more lovely by being contrasted, as they now are, with
+the sober russet browns of the stems from which they shoot, and which
+still show the drear remains of the season that is past."</p>
+
+<p>The number of pigments of any colour is in general proportioned to its
+importance; hence the variety of greens is very great, though the
+classes of those in common use are not very numerous. Of the three
+secondaries, green is the colour most often met with, and, consequently,
+the most often compounded: for this last reason, perhaps, the palette is
+somewhat deficient in really good original greens&mdash;more deficient than
+there is any necessity for.</p>
+
+
+<h4>CHROME OXIDES.</h4>
+
+<p>By numerous methods both wet and dry, oxides of chromium are obtainable
+pale and deep, bright and subdued, warm and cool, opaque and
+transparent: sometimes hydrated, in which case they cannot be employed
+in enamelling; and sometimes anhydrous, when they are admissible
+therein. But whatever their properties may be, chemical, physical, or
+artistic, they are all strictly stable. Neither giving nor receiving
+injury by admixture, equally unaffected by foul gas and exposure to
+light, air, or damp, these oxides are perfectly unexceptionable in every
+respect.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[267]</a></span> For the most part they are eligible in water and oil, drying
+well in the latter vehicle, and requiring in the former much gum. They
+have long been known as affording pure, natural, and durable tints; but,
+until within the last few years, have been rather fine than brilliant
+greens. Lately, however, processes have been devised, yielding them
+almost as bright, rich, and transparent, as the carmine of cochineal
+itself.</p>
+
+
+<h4>175. OXIDE OF CHROMIUM,</h4>
+
+<p class="no"><i>Opaque Oxide of Chromium</i>, <i>Green Oxide of Chromium</i>, <i>Chrome Oxide</i>,
+<i>True Chrome Green</i>, <i>Native Green</i>, <i>&amp;c.</i>, is found native in an impure
+state as Chrome Ochre, but is always artificially prepared for artistic
+use. Obtained anhydrous by dry modes, this is the only chrome oxide
+available in enamelling, and is the one seen on superior porcelain. It
+is a cold, sober sage green, deep-toned, opaque, and, although dull,
+agreeable to the eye. Its tints with white are peculiarly delicate and
+pleasing, possessing a silvery luminous quality, and giving the effect
+of atmosphere. Being very dense and powerful, it must be employed with
+care to avoid heaviness, and is preferably diluted with a large quantity
+of white, or compounded with transparent yellow. In the hands of a
+master, this gray-green furnishes lustrous hues with brown pink, Italian
+pink, and Indian yellow; three beautiful but<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[268]</a></span> fugitive pigments, of
+which the two last may be replaced by aureolin. Of this Mr. Penley
+observes, "as adapted for the colouring of foliage and herbage, it is
+impossible to say too much in its praise. It imparts the vividness and
+freshness of nature to every colour with which it is combined;" and he
+brackets oxide of chromium with aureolin as a compound hue "extremely
+useful." In flat tints, the oxide sometimes does not wash well in water.</p>
+
+
+<h4>176. TRANSPARENT OXIDE OF CHROMIUM</h4>
+
+<p class="no">being deficient in body, is only eligible in oil. A very pale
+greyish-white green in powder, it gives an agreeable yellowish green of
+some depth in oil, moderately bright, but not very pure or clear.</p>
+
+<p>We are acquainted with another transparent chrome oxide of far greater
+beauty, brightness, purity, and clearness than the above. Of a bluish
+green hue, a difficulty in getting it to mix with oil renders it at
+present unavailable.</p>
+
+
+<h4>177. VERONESE GREEN,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">or <i>French Veronese Green</i>, is a comparatively recent introduction,
+similar in colour and general properties to the following; beside which,
+however, it appears dull, muddy, and impure. It is often adulterated
+with arsenic to an enormous extent, which interferes with its
+transparency,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[269]</a></span> mars its beauty, and renders it of course rankly
+poisonous.</p>
+
+
+<h4>178. VIRIDIAN</h4>
+
+<p class="no">is a still later addition to the palette, and the only permanent green
+which can be described as gorgeous, being not unlike the richest velvet.
+Pure and clear as the emerald, it may be called the Prussian Blue of
+Greens, of such richness, depth, and transparency is it. In hue of a
+bluish-green, its deepest shades verge on black, while its light tints
+are marked by transparent clearness unsurpassed. No compound of blue and
+yellow will afford a green at once so beautiful and stable, so gifted
+with the quality of light, and therefore so suited for aerial and liquid
+effects. Used with aureolin, it gives foliage greens sparkling with
+sunshine; and, fitly compounded, will be found invaluable for the glassy
+liquidity of seas, in painting which it becomes incumbent to employ
+pigments more or less transparent. "The general failing in the
+representation of the sea is, that instead of appearing liquid and thin,
+it is made to bear the semblance of opacity and solidity. In order to
+convey the idea of transparency, some object is often placed floating on
+the wave, so as to give reflection; and it is strange that we find our
+greatest men having recourse to this stratagem. To say it is not true in
+all cases, is saying too much; but this we do<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[270]</a></span> assert, that as a general
+principle it is quite false, and we prove it in this way: water has its
+motion, more or less, from the power of the wind; it is acted upon in
+the mass, and thus divided into separate waves, and these individually
+have their surface ruffled, which renders them incapable of receiving
+reflection. The exception to this will be, where the heaving of the sea
+is the result of some gone-by storm, when the wind is hushed, and the
+surface becomes bright and glassy. In this state, reflections are
+distinctly seen. Another exception will be in the hollow portion of the
+waves, as they curl over, and dash upon the shore."</p>
+
+<p>As viridian, like the sea, is naturally "liquid and thin, bright and
+glassy," the extract we have quoted from Mr. Penley, points to this
+green as a pigment peculiarly adapted for marine painting; in which, it
+may be added, its perfect permanence and transparency will be
+appreciated in glazing. Its fitness for foliage has been remarked; but
+in draperies the colour will prove equally useful, and in illumination
+will be found unrivalled. In the last branch of art, indeed, viridian
+stands alone, not only through its soft rich brilliancy, but by the
+glowing contrast it presents with other colours: employed as a ground,
+it throws up the reds, &amp;c., opposed to it, in a marvellous manner. Like
+the three preceding oxides of chromium, viridian neither injures nor<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[271]</a></span> is
+injured by other pigments; is unaffected by light, damp, or impure air;
+and is admissible in fresco. In enamelling it cannot be used; the
+colour, depending on the water of hydration, being destroyed by a strong
+heat.</p>
+
+
+<h4>COPPER GREENS</h4>
+
+<p class="no">are commercially known as <i>Emerald Green</i>, <i>Malachite Green</i>, <i>Scheele's
+Green</i>, <i>Schweinfurt Green</i>, <i>Verdigris</i>, <i>Green Bice</i>, <i>Green
+Verditer</i>, <i>Brunswick Green</i>, <i>Vienna Green</i>, <i>Hungary Green</i>, <i>Green
+Lake</i>, <i>Mineral Green</i>, <i>Patent Green</i>, <i>Mountain Green</i>, <i>Marine
+Green</i>, <i>Saxon Green</i>, <i>French Green</i>, <i>African Green</i>, <i>Persian Green</i>,
+<i>Swedish Green</i>, <i>Olympian Green</i>, <i>Imperial Green</i>, <i>Mitis Green</i>,
+<i>Pickle Green</i>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>The general characteristics of these greens are brightness of colour,
+well suited to the purposes of house-painting, but seldom adapted to the
+modesty of nature in fine art; considerable permanence, except when
+exposed to the action of damp and impure air, which ultimately blacken
+most of them; and good body. They have a tendency to darken by time, dry
+well as a rule in oil, and are all more or less poisonous, even those
+not containing arsenic.</p>
+
+
+<h4>179. EMERALD GREEN,</h4>
+
+<p class="no"><i>Schweinfurt Green</i>, <i>Vienna Green</i>, <i>Imperial Green</i>, <i>Brunswick
+Green</i>, <i>Mitis Green</i>, &amp;c., is a cupric aceto-arsenite, prepared on the
+large scale by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[272]</a></span> mixing arsenious acid with acetate of copper and water.
+It differs from Scheele's Green, or cupric arsenite, in being lighter,
+more vivid, and more opaque. Powerfully reflective of light, it is
+perhaps the most durable pigment of its class, not sensibly affected by
+damp nor by that amount of impure air to which pictures are usually
+subject: indeed it may be ranked as permanent both in itself and when in
+tint with white. It works better in water than in oil, in which latter
+vehicle it dries with difficulty. Bearing the same relation to greens
+generally as Pure Scarlet bears to reds, its vivid hue is almost beyond
+the scale of other bright pigments, and immediately attracts the eye to
+any part of a painting in which it may be employed. Too violent in
+colour to be of much service, it has the effect, when properly placed,
+of toning down at once, by force of contrast, all the other greens in a
+picture. If discreetly used, it is occasionally of value in the drapery
+of a foreground figure, where a bright green may be demanded; or in a
+touch on a gaily painted boat or barge. When required, no mixture will
+serve as a substitute. Compounded with aureolin, it becomes softened and
+semi-transparent, yielding spring tints of extreme brilliancy and
+beauty.</p>
+
+
+<h4>180. SCHEELE'S GREEN,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">or <i>Swedish Green</i>, resembles the preceding variety<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[273]</a></span> in being a compound
+of copper and arsenic, and therefore rankly poisonous; but differs from
+it in containing no acetic acid, in possessing less opacity, and in
+having a darker shade. It is a cupric arsenite, with the common
+attributes of emerald green, under which name it is sometimes sold. Of
+similar stability, it must not be employed with the true Naples yellow
+or antimoniate of lead, by which it is soon destroyed.</p>
+
+<p>Upon the lavish use of this dangerous pigment in colouring toys,
+dresses, paper-hangings, artificial leaves, and even cheap
+confectionery, it is not our province to enlarge: the constant-recurring
+diseases and deaths, which, directly or indirectly, result from the
+employment of arsenical pigments, are such every-day facts that they are
+merely deplored and forgotten. With arsenic on our heads, our clothes,
+our papers, our sweets, our <ins class="trans" title="was childrens'">children's</ins> playthings, we are so accustomed
+to live&mdash;and die&mdash;in a world of poison, that familiarity with it has
+bred contempt. Into the fatal popularity, therefore, of arsenical
+colours for decorative purposes, we shall not further enter; but it
+behoves us to deprecate their presence, and the presence of all
+poisonous pigments, in colour-boxes for the young. It is one of the
+pleasures of childhood to suck anything attractive that comes in its
+way, openly if allowed, furtively otherwise: and as in early life we
+have a preference for brilliancy, so vivid a pigment as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[274]</a></span> Scheele's green
+is an object of special attention. Artistically, it matters little
+whether a pigment is noxious or not, but we hold that poison should not
+be put into the hands of the young; and indeed are of opinion that a box
+of colours is about the worst present a child can receive.</p>
+
+
+<h4>181. MALACHITE GREEN,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">or <i>Mountain Green</i>, is met with in Cumberland, and is also found in the
+mountains of Kernhausen, whence it is sometimes called <i>Hungary Green</i>.
+It is prepared from malachite, a beautiful copper ore employed by
+jewellers, and is a hydrated dicarbonate of copper, combined with a
+white earth, and often striated with veins of mountain blue, to which it
+bears the same relation that green verditer bears to blue verditer. The
+colour, which may be extracted from the stone by the process followed
+for native ultramarine, varies from emerald-green to grass-green, and
+inclines to grey. It has been held in great esteem by some, and
+considered strictly stable, on the assumption, probably, that a pigment
+obtained from a stone like ultramarine, and by the same method, could
+not be otherwise than permanent. That it is so, with respect to light
+and air, there is no denying; but the green, when separated from the ore
+and purified for artistic use, is merely a carbonate of copper, and
+therefore sub<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[275]</a></span>ject to the influence of damp and impure air, in common
+with other non-arsenical copper colours. As a pigment, native malachite
+green has the same composition, or very nearly the same, as that which
+can be artificially produced, and answers to the same tests. Water-rubs
+of the two varieties which we exposed to an atmosphere of sulphuretted
+hydrogen became equally blackened by the gas. Practically, there is
+little or no difference between them: both preserve their colour if kept
+from damp and foul air, both are injured by those agents, and both are
+liable to darken in time, especially when secluded from light. The
+artificial, however, can be obtained of a much finer colour than the
+natural, which it may be made to resemble by admixture with mineral
+gray. On the whole, they can scarcely be recommended for the palette,
+and are certainly inferior in durability to Scheele's and Schweinfurt
+greens. In fresco painting they have been pronounced admissible; but,
+apart from the question of damp, we should deem the conjunction of lime
+with carbonate of copper not favourable to permanence. By the action of
+alkalies, even the native green malachite may be converted into blue;
+and it becomes a question whether the dingy greenish-blue on some
+ancient monuments was not originally malachite green.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<h4><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[276]</a></span>182. VERDIGRIS,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">or <i>Viride &AElig;ris</i>, is of two kinds, common or impure, and crystallized or
+<i>Distilled Verdigris</i>, or, more properly, refined verdigris. The best is
+made at Montpellier in France, and is a sub-acetate of copper of a
+bright green colour inclining to blue. The least durable of the copper
+greens, it soon fades as a water-colour by the action of light, &amp;c., and
+becomes first white and ultimately black by damp and foul gas. In oil,
+verdigris is permanent with respect to light and air, but moisture and
+an impure atmosphere change its colour, and cause it to effloresce or
+rise to the surface through the oil. It dries rapidly, and is
+exceptionally useful with other greens or very dark colours. In varnish
+it stands better; but cannot be considered safe or eligible, either
+alone or compounded. Vinegar dissolves it, forming a solution used for
+tinting maps, and formerly much employed for colouring pickles, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>The painters, who lived at the time when the arts were restored in
+Italy, used this pigment; and the bright greens seen in some old
+pictures are made by glazings of verdigris. It is often largely
+adulterated with chalk and sulphate of copper.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[277]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h4>183. MIXED GREEN</h4>
+
+<p>Green, being a compound of blue and yellow, may be got by combining
+those colours in the several ways of working&mdash;by mixing, glazing,
+hatching, or otherwise blending them in the proportions of the various
+hues required. To obtain a <i>pure</i> green, which consists of blue and
+yellow only, a blue should be chosen tinged with yellow rather than with
+red, and a yellow tinged with blue. If either a blue or a yellow were
+taken, tinged with red, this latter colour would go to produce some grey
+in the compound, which would tarnish the green. The fine nature-like
+greens, which have lasted so well in some of the pictures of the Italian
+schools, appear to have been compounded of ultramarine, or ultramarine
+ashes and yellow. Whatever pigments are employed on a painting in the
+warm yellow hues of the foreground, and blue colouring of the distance
+and sky, are advantageous for forming the greens in landscape, &amp;c.,
+because they harmonize better both in colouring and chemically, and
+impart homogeneity to the whole: a principle conducive to a fine tone
+and durability of effect, and applicable to all mixed tints. In
+compounding colours, it is desirable not only that they should agree
+chemically, but that they should have, as far as possible, the same
+degree of durability. In these respects, aureolin and ultramarine,
+gam<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[278]</a></span>boge and Prussian blue, Indian yellow and indigo, are all judicious
+mixtures, although not all to be recommended.</p>
+
+
+<table summary="permanent yellows and blues" style="width: 420px; margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 2em; font-size: 90%;">
+<colgroup span="2">
+<col width="220px"></col>
+<col width="200px"></col>
+</colgroup>
+<tr>
+<th class="tdb3 br">PERMANENT YELLOWS.</th>
+<th class="tdb3">PERMANENT BLUES.</th>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb3 br">Aureolin.</td>
+<td class="tdb3">Cerulian Blue.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb3 br">Cadmium Yellow, pale.</td>
+<td class="tdb3">Cobalt Blue.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb3 br">Cadmium Yellow, deep.</td>
+<td class="tdb3">Genuine Ultramarine.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb3 br">Lemon Yellow.</td>
+<td class="tdb3">Brilliant Ultramarine.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb3 br">Mars Yellow.</td>
+<td class="tdb3">French Ultramarine.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb3 br">Naples Yellow, modern.</td>
+<td class="tdb3">New Blue.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb3 br">Ochres.</td>
+<td class="tdb3">Permanent Blue.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb3 br">Orient Yellow.</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb3 br">Raw Sienna.</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p>The foregoing yellows and blues are in no wise inimical to each other,
+and yield the best mixed greens, chemically considered, the palette can
+afford. In an artistic sense, we confess, the result is not so
+satisfactory: the list of blues, it must be admitted, being somewhat
+scant. Among the latter there is no pigment with the wonderful depth,
+richness, and transparency of Prussian blue, and none consequently which
+will furnish with yellow a green of similar quality. That the artist,
+therefore, will dispense with Prussian blue, it would be too much to
+expect. There is, however, less necessity for it since the introduction
+of viridian, a green resembling that which is produced by admixture of
+Prussian blue and yellow, and which may be varied in hue by being
+compounded with aureolin or ultramarine. Our object in this work is to
+give precedence to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[279]</a></span> the chemical rather than the artistic properties of
+pigments, to separate the strictly stable from the semi-stable, and the
+semi-stable from the fugitive. A colour or a mixture may be chemically
+bad but artistically good, and vice vers&acirc;; but the chemist looks upon no
+pigment or compound with favour unless it be perfectly permanent, and
+ignores its mere beauty when void of durability. Hence, all artistic
+considerations are set aside in our lists of permanent pigments: if it
+be possible to use them alone, so much the better for the permanence of
+painting; if not, so much the worse will it be, according to the degree
+of fugacity of the colours employed.</p>
+
+
+<h4>184. BRONZE,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">and the three succeeding varieties, are greens resembling each other in
+being semi-stable, and more or less transparent. Bronze is a species of
+Prussian green, of a dull blue-black hue. In its deep washes it appears
+a greenish-black with a coppery cast. It is used in ornamental work, and
+sometimes as a background tint for flower pieces.</p>
+
+
+<h4>185. CHROME GREENS,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">commonly so called, are compounds of chromate of lead and Prussian blue,
+a mixture which is also known as <i>Brunswick Green</i>. Fine bright greens,
+they are suited to the ordinary purposes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[280]</a></span> of mechanic painting, but are
+quite unfit for the artist's craft, chrome yellow reacting upon and
+ultimately destroying Prussian blue when mixed therewith. For the
+latter, cheap cobalts and ultramarines are preferably substituted,
+although they do not yield greens of like power and intensity.</p>
+
+<p>Under the names of English Green, Green Cinnabar, &amp;c., 'new' green
+pigments have been from time to time introduced, which have turned out
+mixtures of Prussian blue and chromate of lead; not made, however, by
+compounding the two, but directly by processes similar to the
+following:&mdash;A mixed solution of the acetates of lead and iron is added
+to a mixed solution of the yellow prussiate and chromate of potash, the
+necessary acetate of iron being obtained by precipitating a solution of
+acetate of lead by sulphate of iron, and filtering the supernatant
+liquid. Or; to a solution of Prussian blue in oxalic acid, first
+chromate of potash is added, and then acetate of lead.</p>
+
+<p>By the last process, superior and more permanent chrome greens may be
+produced, free from lead, by using chloride of barium or nitrate of
+bismuth in place of the acetate of lead. Chromate of baryta, or chromate
+of bismuth is then formed, neither of which acts on the Prussian blue.</p>
+
+<p>It should be added that where the latter pig<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[281]</a></span>ment is present, no green
+will serve for painting walls containing lime, as its action alters the
+tint of the Prussian blue.</p>
+
+
+<h4>186. HOOKER'S GREEN</h4>
+
+<p class="no">is a compound of Prussian blue and gamboge, two pigments possessing a
+like degree of stability, and perfectly innocuous to each other. It is a
+mixture more durable and more transparent than chrome greens made with
+chromate of lead. There are two varieties in common use&mdash;No. 11, a light
+grass green, in which the yellow predominates; and No. 22, a deeper and
+more powerful green, with a larger amount of blue.</p>
+
+
+<h4>187. PRUSSIAN GREEN,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">like the preceding, is composed of Prussian blue and gamboge; but
+contains a very great excess of the former, and is therefore a
+bluish-green of the utmost depth and transparency, verging on black in
+its deep washes. Yellow ochre may be employed instead of gamboge, but is
+not so eligible.</p>
+
+<p>A true Prussian green, which has been recommended as a pigment, can be
+produced as a simple original colour, with a base wholly of iron. It is
+got by partially decomposing the yellow oxalate of protoxide of iron
+with red prussiate of potash. We have made this green and given it a
+fair trial, but our verdict is decidedly against<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[282]</a></span> it. In colour it is
+far from being equal to a good compound of Prussian blue and gamboge,
+and it assumes a dirty buff-yellow on exposure to light and air, the
+film of blue on the oxalate more or less disappearing.</p>
+
+<p>Another Prussian green, with a base of cobalt, is obtained by
+precipitating the nitrate of that metal with yellow prussiate of potash.
+According to the mode adopted, and the degree of heat, either a light or
+dark green results; but this also is inferior in colour, and presents no
+advantage as to permanence.</p>
+
+
+<h4>188. SAP GREEN,</h4>
+
+<p class="no"><i>Verde Vessie</i>, or <i>Iris Green</i>, is a vegetal pigment prepared from the
+juice of the berries of the buckthorn, the green leaves of the woad, the
+blue flowers of the iris, &amp;c. It is usually preserved in bladders, and
+is thence sometimes called <i>Bladder Green</i>. When good, it is of a dark
+colour and glossy fracture, extremely transparent, and a fine natural
+yellowish green. This gummy juice, inspissated and formed into a cake,
+is occasionally employed in flower painting. It is, however, a very
+imperfect pigment, disposed to attract the moisture of the atmosphere,
+and to mildew; while, having little durability in water and less in oil,
+it is not eligible in the one and is totally useless in the other.</p>
+
+<p>Similar pigments, obtained from coffee-berries,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[283]</a></span> and named Venetian and
+Emerald Greens, are of a colder colour, equally defective and fugitive,
+and now obsolete.</p>
+
+
+<h4>189. TERRE VERTE,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">or <i>Green Earth</i>, is a sober bluish green with a grey cast. It is a
+species of ochre, containing silica, oxide of iron, magnesia, potash,
+and water. Not bright and of little power, it is a very durable pigment,
+being unaffected by strong light or impure air, and combining with other
+colours without injury. It has not much body, is semi-transparent, and
+dries well in oil. Veins of brownish or reddish ochre are often found
+mixed with terre verte, to the detriment of its colour; and there are
+varieties of this pigment with copper for their colouring matter, which,
+although generally brighter, are inferior in other respects, and not
+true terre vertes. Verona Green and Verdetto or Holy Green, are
+ferruginous native pigments of a warmer hue. These are met with in the
+Mendip Hills, France, Italy, and the island of Cyprus, and have been
+used as pigments from the earliest times. Rubens has availed himself
+much of terre verte, not in his landscapes merely, but likewise in the
+carnation tints in his figures of a dead Christ. It is evident that much
+of the glazing is done with this colour: it is, in fact, most useful in
+glazing; because, having only a thin substance,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[284]</a></span> it can be rendered pale
+by a small portion of white; although in the end it becomes darker by a
+concentration of its molecules. M&eacute;rim&eacute;e states that in the greater part
+of Alexander Veronese's works&mdash;in his Death of Cleopatra, in the Louvre,
+for instance&mdash;there are some demi-tints which are too green, and which
+it is certain were not so originally. Terre verte, therefore, must be
+employed with caution; and it would be well to ascertain beforehand
+whether a mineral colour will in time become darker than when first laid
+on the picture, by putting a drop of oil on the powder in its natural
+state. If the tone this gives to it be more intense than that which it
+acquires by being ground up, it may fairly be assumed that it will
+attain to the same degree of strength whenever, having completely dried,
+its molecules shall have re-united as closely as it is possible. Umber
+and terra di Sienna are of this class.</p>
+
+<p>In combination with Indian red and Naples yellow, terre verte forms a
+series of mild russet greens, of much use in middle distance.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+
+<h4>190. <i>Chrome Arseniate</i></h4>
+
+<p class="no">is an agreeable apple-green colour, prepared from arseniate of potash
+and salts of chromic oxide. It is durable, but possesses no advantages
+over the chrome oxides, and is of course poisonous.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[285]</a></span>191. <i>Cobalt Green</i>,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">Rinman's Green, Vert de Zinc or Zinc Green. True cobalt green is made by
+igniting a very large quantity of carbonate of zinc with a very small
+quantity of carbonate of cobalt. To give a green tint to an enormous
+proportion of the former, an inappreciable amount of the latter will
+suffice. Some samples which were analysed, consisted almost entirely of
+zinc, there being only two or three per cent. of cobalt present. This
+green presents an example of a pigment being chemically good and
+artistically bad, or at least indifferent. It is a moderately bright
+green, apt to vary in hue according to the mode of manufacture,
+permanent both alone and compounded, but so sadly deficient in body and
+power, as to have become almost obsolete. With other physical defects,
+and a colour inferior to the chrome oxides, cobalt green has never been
+a favourite with artists, though justly eulogised by chemists.</p>
+
+
+<h4>192. <i>Copper Borate</i></h4>
+
+<p class="no">is obtained by precipitating sulphate of copper with borax, washing the
+residue with cold water, and, after drying, igniting it, fusion being
+carefully avoided. In this manner, a pretty yellowish green is produced,
+which upon longer ignition assumes a dark green shade: the mass<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[286]</a></span> is
+levigated for use. The compound has the objection of being glassy, and
+possessing little body, but is preferable to verdigris as to permanence.</p>
+
+
+<h4>193. <i>Copper Chrome</i></h4>
+
+<p class="no">may be prepared by several methods, but the colour is in no case so fine
+as Scheele's or Schweinfurt green, nor is it as stable.</p>
+
+
+<h4>194. <i>Copper Stannate</i>,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">or Tin-Copper Green, equals in colour any of the copper greens free from
+arsenic. The cheapest way of making it is to heat 59 parts of tin in a
+Hessian crucible with 100100 parts nitrate of soda, and dissolve the mass
+when cold in a caustic alkali. To the clear solution, diluted with
+water, a cold solution of sulphate of copper is added: a reddish-yellow
+precipitate falls, which on being washed and dried, becomes a beautiful
+green. On the palette it would be superfluous, but for common purposes
+might be found of service.</p>
+
+
+<h4>195. <i>Elsner's Green</i></h4>
+
+<p class="no">is also a combination of tin and copper. It is made by adding to a
+solution of sulphate of copper a decoction of fustic, previously
+clarified by a solution of gelatine. To this mixture are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[287]</a></span> added ten or
+eleven per cent. of protochloride of tin, and lastly an excess of
+caustic potash or soda. The precipitate is then washed and dried,
+whereupon it takes a green colour tinged with blue, but without the
+brightness or durability of the preceding stannate.</p>
+
+
+<h4>196. <i>Green Bice</i>,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">or Green Verditer, is the same in substance as blue verditer, which is
+converted into green verditer by boiling. This pigment is one of the
+least eligible of copper greens.</p>
+
+
+<h4>197. <i>Green Ochre.</i></h4>
+
+<p>By partially decomposing yellow ochre with prussiate of potash, we have
+produced a fine dark blue-green, resembling Prussian green, of great
+depth and transparency. There are, however, difficulties in the process;
+and the results do not warrant us in pronouncing this green superior or
+equal to a mixture of the ochre and Prussian blue.</p>
+
+
+<h4>198. <i>Green Ultramarine</i></h4>
+
+<p class="no">is French or artificial ultramarine before the final roasting. It is a
+somewhat bright bluish-green, becoming a dull greenish-blue on continued
+exposure. Chemically, it is not a bad colour; but artists generally have
+decided against it.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[288]</a></span>199. <i>Manganese Green</i>,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">or Cassel Green. By several methods, manganate of baryta may be obtained
+either as an emerald-green, a bluish-green, or a pale green. The
+manganates, however, are decomposed by contact with organic matter; and
+hence the green would be liable to suffer from the vehicles employed, as
+well as by being compounded with animal or vegetal pigments.</p>
+
+
+<h4>200. <i>Mineral Green</i></h4>
+
+<p class="no">is the commercial name of <i>Green Lakes</i>, prepared from sulphate of
+copper. These vary in hue and shade, have all the properties of the
+common non-arsenical copper-greens, and, not being subject to change of
+colour by oxygen and light, stand the weather well, and are excellent
+for the use of the house-painter, &amp;c. Having a tendency to darken and
+blacken by time and foul air, they are not eligible in the nicer works
+of fine art.</p>
+
+<p>Another Mineral Green adopted in Germany as a substitute for the
+poisonous Schweinfurt green, is composed of chromate of lead, carbonate
+of copper, oxide of iron, and chalk. Valueless for the palette, it has
+not the beauty of Schweinfurt green, but is recommended as being free
+from arsenic. It is not, however, altogether<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">[289]</a></span> harmless, and should not
+be used in confectionery or the like.</p>
+
+
+<h4>201. <i>Molybdenum Green.</i></h4>
+
+<p class="no">A clear malachite green colour, when dried, is produced from molybdate
+of soda and potash-chrome-alum, or from the molybdate and alum with
+ammonia. Being more expensive than the chrome oxides and not better, its
+introduction, for use by artists, would be attended with no advantage.</p>
+
+<p>There is likewise obtainable a copper molybdate, by adding neutral
+molybdate of soda in excess to sulphate of copper. The precipitate is a
+very pale green colour, flocculent at first, but crystalline after
+washing. Like the chrome molybdate it would be superfluous as a pigment.</p>
+
+
+<h4>202. <i>Quinine Green</i></h4>
+
+<p class="no">is rather adapted for a dye than an artist-colour. It is furnished by
+acting on quinine with hypochlorite of lime, hydrochloric acid, and
+ammonia, successively. Thus prepared, the green resembles a resin,
+insoluble in water, but soluble in alcohol, and turned blue by acetic
+acid. Its alcoholic solution dyes silk green, and also woollen and
+cotton when mordanted with albumen.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">[290]</a></span>203. <i>Roman Green</i>,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">brought from Rome some years back by a President of the Royal Academy,
+appeared to be a mixture of Prussian blue and Dutch or Italian pink. It
+was a fugitive compound, which became blue in fading.</p>
+
+
+<h4>204. <i>Silicate of Baryta.</i></h4>
+
+<p>One part of silica heated to whiteness with three parts of baryta,
+yields a pale green solid mass, permanent, but deficient in colour when
+ground. It might be employed in enamelling.</p>
+
+
+<h4>205. <i>Titanium Green</i></h4>
+
+<p class="no">has been proposed as a substitute for the green arsenical pigments in
+common use; but, apart from its expense, the colour is very inferior to
+Scheele's green, &amp;c. Titanium green is a ferrocyanide of that metal,
+produced by adding yellow prussiate of potash to a solution of titanic
+acid in dilute hydrochloric acid, and heating the mixture to ebullition
+rapidly. The dark green precipitate is washed with water acidulated with
+hydrochloric acid, and dried with great care, since it decomposes at
+temperatures above 100100&deg;.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">[291]</a></span>206. <i>Uranium Green</i></h4>
+
+<p class="no">is an oxide of a deep dull green colour, inclining to olive, and nearly
+black when in lumps. A durable but unattractive preparation, equalled in
+permanence and far surpassed in beauty by many cheaper compounds.</p>
+
+
+<h4>207. <i>Vanadium Green</i></h4>
+
+<p class="no">falls when ferrocyanide of potassium is added to vanadic acid dissolved
+in a strong acid. It is a beautiful green precipitate, but at present
+simply a curiosity, owing to the rarity of the metal vanadium.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<p>Adopting our usual custom of separating the wheat from the chaff, we
+point to the opaque and transparent oxides of chromium, Veronese green,
+viridian, emerald green, Scheele's green, and terre verte, as more or
+less worthy of being dubbed durable.</p>
+
+<p>As semi-stable, malachite green, bronze, Hooker's green, and Prussian
+green, must be classed.</p>
+
+<p>Verdigris, chrome greens, and sap green, should be branded as fugitive:
+the chrome greens, because they are always commercially composed of
+chromate of lead and Prussian blue, two compounds which are semi-stable<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">[292]</a></span>
+in themselves, but become fugacious when compounded.</p>
+
+<p>A reference to the numbered italicised greens will show that there are
+many not known to the palette, which are nevertheless very greatly
+superior, as regards permanence, to some that disgrace it. Why these
+latter are suffered to hold their position is a mystery not easily
+explained: it is hard to reconcile the deplored degeneracy of modern
+pigments with the popularity of semi-stable and fugitive colours.
+Pictures do not stand, is the common cry; therefore, says the public,
+there are no good pigments now-a-days. To which we answer, newly built
+houses are constantly falling down; therefore there are no good bricks
+in these times. Of a truth, one conclusion is as reasonable as the
+other: in either case, if rotten materials be used, the result cannot be
+lasting; but in neither case does it follow, because such materials are
+employed, that there are no better obtainable. A well-built house
+implies a conscientious builder, and a well-painted picture implies a
+conscientious artist. It is because, we fear, that there are so few
+conscientious artists, that there are so few permanent paintings; not,
+certainly, because there are no good pigments. In this last belief,
+however, the public is encouraged by certain painters, who seek thereby
+to excuse their own shortcomings, forgetting that it is a bad work<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">[293]</a></span>man
+who finds fault with his tools. It has been well observed that when
+artists speak regrettingly of lost 'systems,' or pigments enjoyed by the
+medi&aelig;valists and unattainable now, it would be far better were they to
+make the best use of existing materials, and study their further
+<ins class="trans" title="was developement">development</ins>. There is no need for this cant cry of fugacity, which casts
+such a blight on modern art. Durable pigments are not yet obsolete, they
+have only to be employed and employed properly to furnish paintings
+equal in permanence to those of the old masters. "Titian," says Haydon,
+"got his colours from the colour shops on the Rialto, as we get ours
+from Brown's; and if Apelles or Titian were living now, they would paint
+just as good works with our brushes and colours as with their own."</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">[294]</a></span><a name="chapter_13" id="chapter_13"></a><a href="#contents">CHAPTER XIII.</a></h2>
+
+<h3>ON THE SECONDARY, PURPLE.</h3>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Purple</span>, the third and last of the secondary colours, is composed of
+<i>red</i> and <i>blue</i>, in the proportions of five of the former to eight of
+the latter; proportions which constitute a perfect purple, or one of
+such a hue as will neutralize and best contrast a perfect yellow, in the
+ratio of thirteen to three, either of surface or intensity. When mixed
+with its co-secondary colour, green, purple forms the tertiary <i>olive</i>;
+and, when compounded with the remaining secondary, orange, it
+constitutes in like manner the tertiary <i>russet</i>. Of the three secondary
+colours it is the coolest, as well as the nearest in relation to <i>black</i>
+or shade; in which respect, and in never being a warm colour, it
+resembles blue. In other respects also, purple partakes of the
+properties of blue, which is its archeus, or ruling colour; hence it is
+to the eye a retiring colour, that reflects light little, and loses
+rapidly in power in a declining light, and according to the distance at
+which it is viewed.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">[295]</a></span> By reason of its being the mean between black and
+blue it becomes the most retiring of all positive colours. Nature
+employs this hue beautifully in landscape, as a sub-dominant, in
+harmonizing the broad shadows of a bright sunshine ere the light sinks
+into deep orange or red. Girtin, who saw Nature as she is, and painted
+what he saw, delighted in this effect of sunlight and shadow. As a
+ruling colour, whether in flesh or otherwise, purple is commonly too
+cold, or verges on ghastliness, a fault which is to be as much avoided
+as the opposite extreme of viciousness in colouring, stigmatized as
+foxiness.</p>
+
+<p>Yet, next to green, purple is the most generally pleasing of the
+consonant colours; and has been celebrated as a regal or imperial
+colour, as much perhaps from its rarity in a pure state, as from its
+individual beauty. Romulus wore it in his trabea or royal mantle, and
+Tullus Hostilius, after having subdued the Tuscans, assumed the pretexta
+or long robe, broadly striped with purple. Under the Roman emperors, it
+became the peculiar emblem or symbol of majesty, and the wearing of it
+by any who were not of the Imperial family, was deemed a "treasonable
+usurpation," punishable by death. At the decline of the empire, the
+Tyrian purple was an important article of commerce, and got to be common
+in the clothing of the people. Pliny says, "Nepos Cornelius, who died in
+the reign of Augustus<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">[296]</a></span> C&aelig;sar, when I was a young man, assured me that
+the light violet purple had been formerly in great request, and that a
+pound of it usually fetched 100 denaria (about &pound;4 sterling): that soon
+after the tarentine or reddish purple came into fashion; and that this
+was followed by the Tyrian dibapha, which could not be bought for less
+than 1000 denaria (nearly &pound;40 sterling) the pound; which was its price
+when P. Lentulus Spinter was &AElig;dile, Cicero being then Consul. But
+afterwards, the double-dyed purple became less rare, &amp;c." The Tyrian
+purple alluded to was obtained from the purpur&aelig;, a species of shell-fish
+adhering to rocks and large stones in the sea adjoining Tyre. On
+account, probably, of its extreme costliness, it was frequently the
+custom to dye the cloth with a ground of kermes or alkanet, previous to
+applying the Tyrian purple. This imparted to the latter a crimson hue,
+and explains doubtless the term, double-dyed. The Greeks feigned the
+ancient purple to be the discovery of Hercules Tyrius, whose dog, eating
+by chance of the fish from which it was produced, returned to him with
+his mouth tinged with the dye. Alexander the Great is said to have found
+in the royal treasury, at the taking of Susa, purple to the enormous
+value of 5000 talents,<a name="FNanchor_A_1" id="FNanchor_A_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_A_1" class="fnanchor">[A]</a> which had<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">[297]</a></span> lain there one hundred and
+ninety-two years, and still preserved its freshness and beauty.</p>
+
+<p>When inclining to red, purple takes the name of <i>crimson</i>, &amp;c.; and when
+leaning to blue, the names of <i>violet</i>, <i>lilac</i>, <i>mauve</i>, <i>&amp;c.</i> Blue is
+a colour which it serves to mellow, or follows well into shade. The
+contrast or harmonizing colour of purple is yellow on the side of light
+and the primaries; while purple itself is the harmonizing contrast of
+the tertiary <i>citrine</i> on the side of shade, and less perfectly so of
+the semi-neutral <i>brown</i>. As the extreme primaries, blue and yellow,
+when either compounded or opposed, afford, though not the most perfect
+harmony, yet the most pleasing consonance of the primary colours; so the
+extremes, purple and orange, yield the most pleasing of the secondary
+consonances. This analogy extends likewise to the extreme tertiary and
+semi-neutral colours, while the mean or middle colours furnish the most
+agreeable contrasts or harmonies.</p>
+
+<p>In nature pure purple is not a common colour, and on the palette purple
+pigments are singularly few. They lie under a peculiar disadvantage as
+to apparent durability and beauty of colour, owing to the neutralizing
+power of yellowness in the grounds upon which they are laid; as well as
+to the general warm colour of light, and the yellow tendency of almost
+all vehicles and varnishes, by which the colour of purple is subdued.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">[298]</a></span>208. BURNT CARMINE</h4>
+
+<p class="no">is the carmine of cochineal partially charred till it resembles in
+colour the purple of gold, for which, in miniature and water-painting,
+it is substituted. It is a magnificent reddish purple of extreme
+richness and depth, eligible in flower-painting and the shadow of
+draperies. As it is generally impossible, however, to alter the nature
+of a pigment by merely changing its colour, burnt carmine is scarcely
+more permanent than the carmine from which it is produced. If used,
+therefore, it should be in body, and not in thin washes or as a glaze.
+Durable pigments are admissible in any form; but semi-stable pigments
+(gamboge excepted) should only be employed in body.</p>
+
+
+<h4>209. BURNT LAKE</h4>
+
+<p class="no">holds the same relation to crimson lake as burnt carmine to ordinary
+carmine; and is hence a weaker variety of the preceding, with less
+richness, and likewise less permanence.</p>
+
+
+<h4>210. INDIAN PURPLE</h4>
+
+<p class="no">is prepared by precipitating an extract of cochineal with sulphate of
+copper. It is a very deep-toned but rather cold and subdued purple,
+neither so red nor so brilliant as burnt carmine; and is chiefly of
+service in draperies. It is apt to lose its purple colour in a great
+measure on exposure<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">[299]</a></span> to light and air, and assume an inky blackness; a
+defect which becomes less apparent when the pigment is used in bulk.</p>
+
+
+<h4>211. MARS VIOLET,</h4>
+
+<p class="no"><i>Violet de Mars</i>, <i>Purple Ochre</i>, or <i>Mineral Purple</i>, is a dark ochre,
+native of the Forest of Dean in Gloucestershire. It is of a murrey or
+chocolate colour, and forms cool tints of a purple hue with white. It is
+of a darker colour than Indian red, which has also been classed among
+purples, but has a similar body and opacity, and generally resembles
+that pigment. It may be prepared artificially, and some natural red
+ochres burn to this colour. Being difficult and sometimes impossible to
+procure, Mars violet is often compounded; in which case it is liable to
+vary both in hue and stability. As, however, Indian red is always taken
+for its basis, the mixture is never wholly fugitive, nor exhibits any
+very glaring contrast on exposure.</p>
+
+
+<h4>212. MIXED PURPLE.</h4>
+
+<p>Purple being a secondary colour, composed of <i>blue</i> and <i>red</i>, it
+follows of course that any blue and red pigments, which are not
+chemically at variance, may be employed in producing mixed purples of
+any required hue, either by compounding or grinding them together ready
+for use, or by combining them in the various modes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">[300]</a></span> of operation in
+painting. In such compounding, the more perfect and permanent the
+original colours are, the more perfect and permanent will be the purple
+obtained. To produce a pure purple, neither the red nor the blue must
+contain or incline to yellow; while to compound a durable purple, both
+the red and the blue must be durable also. Ultramarine and the reds of
+madder yield beautiful and excellent purples, equally stable in water or
+oil, in glazing or tint, whether under the influence of light or impure
+air. Cobalt blue and madder red likewise afford good purples; and some
+of the finest and most delicate purples in ancient paintings appear to
+have been composed of ultramarine and vermilion, which furnish tints
+equally permanent, but less transparent than the above, and less easily
+compounded. Facility of use, and other advantages, are obtained at too
+great a sacrifice by the employment of perishable mixtures, such as the
+lakes of cochineal with indigo.</p>
+
+<table summary="permanent reds and blues" style="width: 400px; margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 2em; font-size: 90%;">
+<colgroup span="2">
+<col width="190px"></col>
+<col width="210px"></col>
+</colgroup>
+<tr>
+<th class="tdb3 br">PERMANENT REDS.</th>
+<th class="tdb3">PERMANENT BLUES.</th>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb3 br">Cadmium Red.</td>
+<td class="tdb3">Cerulian Blue.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb3 br">Liquid Rubiate.</td>
+<td class="tdb3">Cobalt Blue.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb3 br">Madder Carmine.</td>
+<td class="tdb3">Genuine Ultramarine.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb3 br">Rose Madder.</td>
+<td class="tdb3">Brilliant Ultramarine.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb3 br">Mars Red.</td>
+<td class="tdb3">French Ultramarine.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb3 br">Ochres.</td>
+<td class="tdb3">New Blue.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb3 br">Vermilions.</td>
+<td class="tdb3">Permanent Blue.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>It should be noted that all the above reds do not afford pure purples
+with blue; those which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">[301]</a></span> contain more or less yellow, as cadmium red and
+orange vermilion, furnish purples partaking more or less of olive, which
+is a compound of purple and green. To those reds may be added the russet
+Rubens Madder and the marrone Madder Brown, two pigments which are alike
+eligible for mixed purple and mixed orange. No purple, it will be
+remarked, equal in gorgeous richness to that produced from crimson lake
+and Prussian blue is obtainable from the colours given; just as no mixed
+green is of such depth and power if that blue be wanting as a
+constituent. But, as our compound tints are given rather as examples of
+durability than beauty, all semi-stable or fugitive mixtures are of
+necessity ignored.</p>
+
+
+<h4>213. PURPLE MADDER,</h4>
+
+<p class="no"><i>Field's Purple</i>, or <i>Purple Rubiate</i>, is the only durable organic
+purple the palette possesses. Marked by a soft subdued richness rather
+than by brilliancy, it leans somewhat towards marrone, and affords the
+greatest depth of shadow without coldness of tint. Unfortunately, in the
+whole range of artistic pigments there is no colour obtainable in such
+small quantity as madder purple; hence its scarcity and high price cause
+it to be confined to water-colour painting, in which the clearness and
+beauty of its delicate tones render it invaluable in every stage of a
+drawing. With raw Sienna and indigo or Prussian blue, subdued<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">[302]</a></span> by black,
+it gives beautiful shadow tints, and will be found useful in sky and
+other effects compounded with cobalt, rose madder, French blue and
+sepia, yellow ochre and cobalt, lamp black and cobalt, light red,
+Vandyke brown, burnt Sienna, or aureolin. With great transparency, body,
+and depth, it is pure and permanent in its tints, neither gives nor
+sustains injury on admixture, dries and glazes well in oil, works well,
+and is altogether most perfect and eligible. For fresco it is admirably
+adapted, being quite uninjured by lime.</p>
+
+<p>There is a lighter and slightly brighter sort, containing less colouring
+matter and more base, which has all the properties of the above with
+less intensity of colour. For the sake of cheapness, the purple is
+sometimes compounded in oil, generally of brown madder and a blue.
+Provided the latter be stable, transparent, and mix kindly, no greater
+objection can be taken to this than to the neutral orange of brown
+madder and yellow ochre.</p>
+
+
+<h4>214. VIOLET CARMINE</h4>
+
+<p class="no">is a brilliant bluish purple of much richness, employed in draperies and
+the like. It is prepared by precipitating an alcoholic extract of the
+root of the <i>Anchusa tinctoria</i>, commonly known as alkanet, a plant
+growing in the Levant, and some other warm countries. It was used by the
+ancients as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">[303]</a></span> a dye, or as a groundwork to those stuffs which were to be
+dyed purplish-red: the ladies in ancient times also employed it as a
+paint. Its colouring matter or <i>anchusin</i> has the character of a resin,
+and is dark-red, softened by heat, insoluble in water, soluble in
+alcohol and alkalis, and freely so in ether, fats, and volatile oils, to
+all of which it imparts a brilliant red hue. To obtain anchusin, all the
+soluble matters are first abstracted from the bruised root by water: it
+is then digested in a solution of carbonate of potash, from which it may
+be readily precipitated by an acid. Its alcoholic solution yields with
+different reagents crimson, flesh-coloured, blue, and violet
+precipitates, none of which, however, can be classed as durable. The
+variety under notice, violet carmine, resembles the other colours
+afforded by alkanet in not being able to withstand the action of light.
+On continued exposure, it loses its beauty and brightness, together with
+much of its colour, and, like Indian purple, assumes an inky blackness.
+Hence it is unsuited to permanently pure effects, and should only be
+used in body.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<h4>215. <i>Archil Purple.</i></h4>
+
+<p>Archil may be regarded as the English, cudbear as the Scotch, and litmus
+as the Dutch name for one and the same substance, extracted from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">[304]</a></span>
+several species of lichens by various processes. These lichens, which
+are principally collected on rocks adjacent to the sea, are cleaned and
+ground into a pulp with water, treated from time to time with ammoniacal
+liquor, and exposed with frequent agitation to the action of the
+atmosphere. Peculiar principles existing in the lichens are, by the
+joint instrumentality of the air, water, and ammonia, so changed as to
+generate colouring matter, which, when perfect, is expressed. Soluble in
+water and alcohol, this colouring principle yields by precipitation with
+chloride of calcium a compound known as 'Solid French Purple', a pigment
+more stable than the archil colours generally, but all too fugitive for
+the palette.</p>
+
+
+<h4>216. <i>Bismuth Purple.</i></h4>
+
+<p>A purple powder is capable of being produced from bismuth by passing
+chlorine gas through the hydrated oxide suspended in a saturated
+solution of potash. As soon as the oxide becomes brown-red, the mixture
+is boiled and the liquid decanted off at once, the residue being
+immediately washed first with alcohol and then with water. On the whole,
+the result is not, for an artistic pigment, worth the trouble involved
+in the preparation.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">[305]</a></span>217. <i>Burnt Madder</i></h4>
+
+<p>is obtained by carefully charring madder carmine until it becomes of the
+hue required. Bearing the same relation to madder carmine as burnt
+carmine to the carmine of cochineal, burnt madder is a permanent and
+perfectly unexceptionable pigment. By reason, probably, of its great
+price, it is not mentioned in trade catalogues, and must be held as
+commercially unknown.</p>
+
+
+<h4>218. <i>Cobalt Purples</i></h4>
+
+<p class="no">are obtainable ranging from the richest crimson purple to the most
+delicate violet. We have produced them by wet and dry methods, varying
+in brilliancy and beauty, but characterised generally by want of body,
+and frequently by a smalt-like grittiness. Chemically, good and stable
+colours, they are not received with favour on the palette, and certainly
+may be very well replaced by mixtures of cobalt blue and madder red.
+When a permanent compound is obtainable equal in colour to an original
+pigment, and superior in its physical attributes, no objection can
+fairly be taken to its artistic preference. There are other things to be
+considered in a pigment besides permanence, or even permanence and
+colour combined. The two together do not constitute a perfect pigment,
+that is, a material<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">[306]</a></span> of practical utility and value. In the last
+chapter, allusion was made to a green which possesses both the one and
+the other, and yet is&mdash;at present, at least&mdash;quite unfitted for artistic
+use. Hence, with a strong partiality for simple original pigments, we
+are bound to confess there are cases where mixtures are justifiably
+preferred. All we contend for is, that each constituent of such mixtures
+should be stable, and neither give nor receive injury by being
+compounded.</p>
+
+
+<h4>219. <i>Gold Purple</i>,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">Purple of Cassius, or Cassius's Purple Precipitate, was discovered in
+1683 by Cassius of Leyden. It is a compound of tin and gold, best formed
+by mixing aqueous perchloride of iron with aqueous protochloride of tin,
+till the colour of the liquid has a shade of green, and then adding this
+liquid, drop by drop, to a solution of perchloride of gold, which is
+free from nitric acid and very dilute: after twenty-four hours the
+purple is deposited. When recently prepared, the colour is brightened by
+boiling nitric acid. Not brilliant, but rich and powerful, this purple
+varies in hue according to the mode of manufacture from deep crimson to
+murrey or dark purple: it also differs in degrees of transparency.
+Working well in water, it is an excellent though costly pigment, once
+popular in miniatures, but at present rarely, if ever used, as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">[307]</a></span> purple
+madder is cheaper, and perfectly well supplies its place. Retaining its
+colour at a high red heat, it is now confined to enamel and porcelain
+painting, and to tinging glass of a fine red. If, whilst in its hydrated
+state, it be washed with ammonia, a bright purple liquid results, from
+which a violet colour, somewhat less expensive, can be produced, by
+combining the gold purple with alumina, and calcining the product in the
+same way that is practised with cobalt. This compound may be exposed to
+the action of the sun's rays for a year without being sensibly affected.</p>
+
+
+<h4>220. <i>Prussian Purple.</i></h4>
+
+<p>A prussiate of iron is obtainable of a violet hue, affording good shadow
+tints and clear pale washes. It has not, however, been introduced as a
+pigment, as ordinary Prussian blue tinged with red furnishes a similar
+colour.</p>
+
+
+<h4>221. <i>Sandal Wood Purple.</i></h4>
+
+<p>Sandal wood contains about 1616 per cent. of colouring matter, soluble
+with difficultly in water, but readily dissolved by alcohol. From the
+latter solution, chloride of tin throws down a purple, and sulphate of
+iron a deep violet precipitate; neither of which is remarkable for
+permanence.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">[308]</a></span>222. <i>Tin Violet.</i></h4>
+
+<p>By heating chromate of stannic oxide to bright redness, a dark violet
+mass is obtained, which is better adapted to enamel painting than to the
+palette. It communicates in glazings a variety of tints, from rose-red
+to violet.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<p>So scant is the number of good purples in common use, that there are but
+two which can be classed as durable, namely, purple madder and the true
+Mars violet.</p>
+
+<p>Foremost in the second group stands burnt carmine. As there are
+different degrees both of permanence and fugacity, so are there
+different degrees of semi-stability. Burnt carmine, burnt lake, Indian
+purple, and violet carmine, all belong to this division; but the first
+certainly is more permanent than the rest.</p>
+
+<p>Rich and beautiful as it is, purple madder cannot be called brilliant;
+while Mars violet is, of course, ochrous. Unlike green and orange,
+therefore, purple can point to no original pigment at once vivid and
+durable: as regards purple, brilliancy implies a semi-stability that
+borders more or less closely on fugacity. Until the advent of a perfect
+palette, however, brilliancy and semi-stability will doubtless hold
+their own. Their present popularity may be seen by a glance at the lists
+of artist-colours&mdash;lists compiled, be it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309">[309]</a></span> remembered, in obedience to
+the law of demand and supply. If art were really so much honoured as
+some of its disciples pretend, none but durable colours would be
+employed. In our opinion, if a picture be worth painting at all, it is
+worth painting with permanent pigments; but many evidently think
+otherwise. Deploring an error neither flattering to the craft they
+practise nor to themselves, we would urge such to bear in mind this
+axiom, semi-stable pigments become fugitive when used in thin washes.
+Even in body they do not preserve their primitive hue, but in glazing
+and the like, their colour altogether flies or is wholly destroyed.</p>
+
+<p>It is this semi-stability, recommended to the thoughtless and
+indifferent by the beauty which generally accompanies it, that is the
+bane of modern art. Even our greatest painters have yielded to its
+fascination. Who has not gazed upon one of Turner's fading pictures with
+still more of sadness than enjoyment, that anything so grand, so
+beautiful, so true, should slowly but surely be passing away? A feeling
+akin to pity is conjured up at the sight of the helpless wreck,
+abandoned amid the treacherous materials employed, and sinking deeper
+and deeper. Mournful, indeed, is that mighty ruin of mind amid matter;
+mournful the thought that in years to come, the monument sought for will
+not be found.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p style="text-indent: 0em;"><a name="Footnote_A_1" id="Footnote_A_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_A_1"><span class="label">[A]</span></a> A talent of money, <i>i.e.</i>, a talent's weight of silver, was
+equal to nearly &pound;244.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310">[310]</a></span><a name="chapter_14" id="chapter_14"></a><a href="#contents">CHAPTER XIV.</a></h2>
+
+<h3>ON THE TERTIARY, CITRINE.</h3>
+
+
+<p>Citrine, or the colour of the citron, is the first of the tertiary class
+of colours, or ultimate compounds of the primary triad, yellow, red, and
+blue; in which yellow is the archeus or predominating colour, and blue
+the extreme subordinate. For citrine being an immediate compound of the
+secondaries, <i>orange</i> and <i>green</i>, of both which yellow is a
+constituent, the latter colour is of double occurrence therein, while
+the other two primaries enter singly into its composition. The mean or
+middle hue comprehends eight blue, five red, and six yellow, of equal
+intensities.</p>
+
+<p>Hence citrine, according to its name, which is that of a class of
+colours and used commonly for a dark yellow, partakes in a subdued
+degree of all the powers of its archeus yellow. In estimating,
+therefore, its properties and effects in painting, it is to be regarded
+as participating of all the relations of yellow. By some this colour is
+improperly called brown, as almost all broken<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">[311]</a></span> colours are. The
+harmonizing contrast of citrine is a <i>deep purple</i>, which may be seen
+beautifully opposed to it in nature, when the green of summer declines.
+As autumn advances, citrine tends towards its orange hues, including the
+colours termed aurora, chamoise, and others before enumerated under the
+head of yellow. It is the most advancing of the tertiary colours, or
+nearest in relation to light; and is variously of a tender, modest,
+cheering character.</p>
+
+<p>To understand and relish the harmonious relations and expressive powers
+of the tertiary colours, require a cultivation of perception and a
+refinement of taste for which study and practice are needed. To a great
+extent the colourist, like the poet, is born not made; but although he
+must have an innate sense of the beautiful and the true, hard work
+alone, with his head, his eyes, and his hands, will enable him to learn
+and turn to account the complex beauties and relations of tertiary
+colours. They are at once less definite and less generally evident, but
+more delightful&mdash;more frequent in nature, though rarer in common art,
+than the like relations of the secondaries and primaries. There is very
+little pure colour in the world: now and then a gleam dazzles us, like a
+burst of sunshine through grey mists; but as a rule, nature prefers
+broken colours to absolute hues. Most pure in spring, most full in
+summer, most mellow in autumn,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">[312]</a></span> most sober in winter, her tints and
+shades of colour are always more or less interlaced, from white and the
+primaries to the semi-neutral and black.</p>
+
+<p>Of original citrine-coloured pigments there are only a few, unless we
+include several imperfect yellows which might not improperly be called
+citrines. The following are best entitled to this appellation:&mdash;</p>
+
+
+<h4>223. BROWN PINK,</h4>
+
+<p><i>Brown Stil de Grain</i>, <i>Citrine Lake</i>, or <i>Quercitron Lake</i> is usually
+prepared from the berries of Avignon (ramnus infectorius), better known
+as French, Persian, or Turkey berries; but a more durable and quicker
+drying species is obtained from the quercitron bark. If produced from
+the former, it must be branded as fugitive, but if from the latter, it
+may be termed semi-stable. In either case it is a lake, precipitated
+from the alkaline decoction by means of alum, in such proportions that
+the alkali shall not be more than half saturated. The excess of soda or
+potash employed imparts a brown hue; but the lake being in general an
+orange broken by green, falls into the class of citrine colours,
+sometimes inclining to greenness, and sometimes towards the warmth of
+orange. It works well both in water and oil, in the latter of which it
+is of great depth and transparency, but its tints with white lead<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">[313]</a></span> are
+very fugitive, and in thin glazing it does not stand: the berry variety
+dries badly. A fine rich colour, more beautiful than eligible, it is
+popular in landscape for foliage in foregrounds. Modified by admixture
+with burnt Sienna or gamboge, it yields a compound which, with the
+addition of a small quantity of indigo, gives a warm though not very
+durable green. In many of the Flemish pictures the foliage has become
+blue from the yellowish lake, with which the ultramarine was mixed,
+having faded.</p>
+
+<p>It has been remarked that the alteration made by time in semi-stable
+pigments is not so observable when they are employed in full body. Their
+use generally has been deprecated, but in shadows such vegetable colours
+as brown pink are sometimes of advantage, as they are transparent, lose
+part of their richness by the action of the air, and do not become
+black. Moreover, if mixed with pigments which have a tendency to darken,
+they mitigate it very much. This last, indeed, is the most legitimate
+purpose to which semi-stable pigments whose colour fades on exposure can
+be put.</p>
+
+
+<h4>224. MARS BROWN,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">or <i>Brun de Mars</i>, is either a natural or artificial ochre containing
+iron, or iron and manganese. Of much richness and strict permanence, it
+resembles raw umber in being a brown with a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314">[314]</a></span> citrine cast, but is
+generally marked by a flush of orange which is not so observable in the
+latter pigment.</p>
+
+
+<h4>225. MIXED CITRINE.</h4>
+
+<p>What has been before remarked of the mixed secondary colours is more
+particularly applicable to the tertiary, it being more difficult to
+select three homogeneous substances of equal powers as pigments than
+two, that shall unite and work together cordially. Hence the mixed
+tertiaries are still less perfect and pure than the secondaries; and as
+their hues are of extensive use in painting, original pigments of these
+colours are proportionably estimable to the artist. Nevertheless there
+are two evident principles of combination, of which he may avail himself
+in producing these colours in the various ways of working; the one being
+that of combining two original secondaries; and the other, of uniting
+the three primaries in such a manner that the archeus shall predominate.
+Thus in the case of citrine, either orange and green may be directly
+compounded; or yellow, red, and blue be so mixed that the yellow shall
+be in excess.</p>
+
+<p>These colours are, however, obtained in many instances with best and
+most permanent effect, not by the intimate combination of pigments upon
+the palette, but by intermingling them, in the manner of nature, on the
+canvas, so as to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">[315]</a></span> produce the appearance at a proper distance of a
+uniform colour. Thus composed is the <i>citrine</i> colour of fruit and
+foliage, on inspecting which we distinctly trace the stipplings of
+orange and green, or of yellow, red, and green. The truth and beauty
+resulting from such stipplings in art may be seen in the luscious
+fruit-pieces of the late W. Hunt, where the bloom on the plum, the down
+of the peach, &amp;c., are given with wondrous fidelity to nature. In the
+<i>russet</i> hues of autumn foliage, where purple and orange have broken or
+superseded the summer green, this interlacing of colour appears; and
+also in the <i>olive</i> foliage of the rose-tree, formed in the individual
+leaf by the ramification of purple in green. Besides the durable
+yellows, reds, and blues, the following orange and green pigments are
+eligible for mixed citrines. They may likewise, however, be safely and
+simply compounded by slight additions, to an original brown, of that
+primary or secondary tone which is requisite to give it the required
+hue.</p>
+
+
+<table summary="permanent orange and green" style="width: 460px; margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 2em; font-size: 90%;">
+<colgroup span="2">
+<col width="185px"></col>
+<col width="275px"></col>
+</colgroup>
+<tr>
+<th class="tdb3 br">PERMANENT ORANGE.</th>
+<th class="tdb3">PERMANENT GREEN.</th>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb3 br">Burnt Roman Ochre.</td>
+<td class="tdb3">Oxide of Chromium, opaque.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb3 br">Burnt Sienna.</td>
+<td class="tdb3">Oxide of Chromium, transparent.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb3 br">Cadmium Orange.</td>
+<td class="tdb3">Veronese Green.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb3 br">Mars Orange.</td>
+<td class="tdb3">Viridian.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb3 br">Neutral Orange.</td>
+<td class="tdb3">Emerald Green.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb3 br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="tdb3">Scheele's Green.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb3 br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="tdb3">Terre Verte.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+
+
+<h4>226. RAW UMBER,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">or Umber, is a natural ochre, chiefly composed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316">[316]</a></span> of oxide of manganese,
+oxide of iron, silica, and alumina. It is said to have been first
+brought from ancient Ombria, now Spoleto, in Italy. Found in England,
+and in most parts of the world, that which comes from Cyprus, under the
+name of Turkish or Levant umber, is the best. Of a quiet brown-citrine
+colour, semi-opaque, it dries rapidly, and injures no other good pigment
+with which it may be mixed. By time it grows darker, a disadvantage
+which may be obviated by compounding it with colours which pale on
+exposure. For light shadow tones and delicate grays it is extremely
+useful, and yields with blue most serviceable neutral greens. To mud
+walls, tints for stone, wood, gray rocks, baskets, yellow sails, and
+stormy seas, this citrine is suited. Some artists have painted on
+grounds primed with umber, but it has penetrated through the lighter
+parts of the work. M&eacute;rim&eacute;e states that there are several of Poussin's
+pictures so painted; that fine series, "The Seven Sacraments," being
+clearly among the number.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<h4>227. <i>Cassia Fistula</i></h4>
+
+<p class="no">is a native vegetal pigment, though it is more commonly employed as a
+medicinal drug. It is brought from the East and West Indies in a sort of
+cane, in which it is naturally produced. As a pigment it is deep,
+transparent, of an imperfect<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">[317]</a></span> citrine colour, inclining to dark green,
+and diffusible in water without grinding, like gamboge and sap green.
+Once sparingly used in water as a sort of substitute for bistre, it is
+not now to be met with on the palette.</p>
+
+
+<h4>228. <i>Citrine Brown.</i></h4>
+
+<p>From boiling, hot, or cold solutions of bichromate of potash and
+hyposulphite of soda in excess, we have obtained an agreeable
+citrine-brown colour, varying in hue and tint according to the mode of
+preparation and proportions of materials employed. It is a hydrated
+oxide of chromium which, when washed and carefully dried, yields a soft
+floury powder. Transparent, and affording clear, delicate pale washes,
+the oxide has not been introduced as a pigment; partly owing to certain
+physical objections, and partly to a tendency to greenness. This
+tendency is peculiar to all the brown chrome oxides of whatever hue,
+whether hydrated or anhydrous; and indeed distinguishes more or less
+nearly all the compounds of chromium. Green, in fact, is the natural
+colour of such compounds, the colour which they are constantly
+struggling to attain; and hence it is that the green oxides of chromium,
+being clothed in their native hue, are of such strict stability. The
+inclination to green which the citrine under notice possesses, may be
+seen by washing the precipitate with boiling<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318">[318]</a></span> water. It has been
+supposed that hydrated brown oxide of chromium is not a distinct
+compound of chromium and oxygen, but a feeble union of the green oxide
+with chromic acid. If this be the case, the citrine cast of the brown
+oxide is easily explained, as well as the gradual addition to its green
+by the deoxidation of the chromic acid.</p>
+
+<p>In mixed tints for autumn foliage and the like, the tendency to green of
+this citrine brown would be comparatively unimportant; but whether the
+oxide be adapted to the palette or not, we believe the colour might be
+utilized. In dyeing, for instance, the solutions of bichromate of potash
+and hyposulphite of soda would be worth a trial, the liquids of course
+being kept separate, and the brown washed with cold water. Various
+patterns could be printed with the bichromate on a ground previously
+treated with hyposulphite.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<p>Several other browns, and ochrous earths, partake of a citrine hue, such
+as Cassel Earth, Bistre, &amp;c. But in the confusion of names, infinity of
+tones and tints, and variations of individual pigments, it is impossible
+to arrive at an unexceptionable or universally satisfactory arrangement.
+We have therefore followed a middle and general course in distributing
+pigments under their proper heads.</p>
+
+<p>Of the three citrines in common use, Mars<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319">[319]</a></span> brown and raw umber are
+strictly stable; while brown pink, the purest original citrine the
+palette possesses, is either semi-stable or fugitive, according to the
+colouring substance used in its preparation.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_320" id="Page_320">[320]</a></span><a name="chapter_15" id="chapter_15"></a><a href="#contents">CHAPTER XV.</a></h2>
+
+<h3>ON THE TERTIARY, RUSSET.</h3>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Russet</span>, the second or middle tertiary colour, is, like citrine,
+constituted ultimately of the three primaries, red, yellow, and blue;
+but with this difference&mdash;instead of yellow as in citrine, the archeus
+or predominating colour in russet is red, to which yellow and blue are
+subordinates. For <i>orange</i> and <i>purple</i> being the immediate constituents
+of russet, and red being a component part of each of those colours, it
+follows that red enters doubly into russet, while yellow and blue appear
+but once therein. The proportions of its middle hue are eight blue, ten
+red, and three yellow, of equal intensities. Thus composed, russet takes
+the relations and powers of a subdued red; and many pigments and dyes of
+the latter denomination are strictly of the class of russet colours. In
+fact, nominal distinction of colours is only relative; the gradation
+from hue to hue, as from tint to tint, and shade to shade, being of such
+unlimited extent, that it is im<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321">[321]</a></span>possible to pronounce absolutely where
+one hue, tint, or shade ends, and another begins.</p>
+
+<p>The harmonizing, neutralizing, or contrasting colour of russet, is a
+<i>deep green</i>; or when the russet inclines to orange, a <i>gray</i> or
+<i>subdued blue</i>. These are often beautifully opposed in nature, being
+medial accordances or in equal relation to light, shade and other
+colours, and among the most agreeable to sense.</p>
+
+<p>Russet, as we have said, partakes of the relations of red, but it is a
+hue moderated in every respect, and qualified for greater breadth of
+display in the colouring of nature and art; less so, perhaps, than its
+fellow-tertiaries in proportion as it is individually more beautiful.
+The powers of beauty are ever most effective when least obtrusive; and
+its presence in colour should be chiefly evident to the eye that seeks
+it&mdash;not so much courting as being courted.</p>
+
+<p>Of the tertiary colours, russet is the most important to the artist; and
+there are many pigments classed as red, purple, &amp;c., which are of russet
+hues. But there are few true russets, and only one original pigment of
+that colour is now known on the palette, to wit&mdash;</p>
+
+
+<h4>229. RUBENS' MADDER,</h4>
+
+<p class="no"><i>Orange Russet</i>, <i>Russet Rubiate</i>, or <i>Field's Russet</i>. This is a very
+rich crimson russet with a flush of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_322" id="Page_322">[322]</a></span> orange; pure, transparent, and of a
+middle hue between orange and purple. Prepared from the madder root, it
+is not subject to change by the action of light, time, or mixture of
+other pigments. Although not so much employed as the marrone Madder
+Brown, it is serviceable both as a local and auxiliary colour in
+compounding and producing with yellow the glowing hues of autumnal
+foliage, &amp;c.; and with blue, the beautiful and endless variety of grays
+in skies, flesh, &amp;c. A good glazing colour, its thin washes afford fine
+flesh tints in water: as an oil pigment it dries indifferently, and
+requires to be forced by the addition of a little gold size or varnish.
+Cappah brown and burnt umber sadden it to the rich tones adapted for
+general use in shadows. So saddened, this lake meets admirably the dark
+centres of the upper petals of certain fancy geraniums, while alone its
+pale washes are equally well suited to the lower leaves.</p>
+
+
+<h4>230. MIXED RUSSET.</h4>
+
+<p>What has been remarked in the preceding chapter upon the production of
+mixed citrine colours, is likewise applicable to mixed russet. By the
+immediate method of producing it materially from its secondaries, good
+and durable colours are obtained by compounding the following orange and
+purple pigments&mdash;</p>
+
+
+
+
+<table summary="permanent orange and purple" style="width: 420px; margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 2em; font-size: 90%;">
+<colgroup span="2">
+<col width="200px"></col>
+<col width="220px"></col>
+</colgroup>
+<tr>
+<th class="tdb3 br"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_323" id="Page_323">[323]</a></span>PERMANENT ORANGE.</th>
+<th class="tdb3">PERMANENT PURPLE.</th>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb3 br">Burnt Roman Ochre.</td>
+<td class="tdb3">Mars Violet, true.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb3 br">Burnt Sienna.</td>
+<td class="tdb3">Purple Madder.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb3 br">Cadmium Orange.</td>
+<td class="tdb3">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb3 br">Mars Orange.</td>
+<td class="tdb3">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb3 br">Neutral Orange.</td>
+<td class="tdb3">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+
+<p>Many other less eligible duple and triple compounds of russet are
+obvious upon principle, and it may be produced by adding red in due
+predominance to some browns; but these, like most mixtures, are inferior
+to original pigments. To the orange colours there may be added cadmium
+red and the orange vermilions, pigments which were classed among the
+reds, but which contain sufficient yellow to render them adapted for
+either compound russets or compound citrines. And as of original purple
+pigments there are two only which are stable, such mixtures as madder
+red and French blue will help to swell the list of available permanent
+purples. Rubens' madder itself may be changed in hue by being first
+mixed with blue and then with orange.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<h4>231. <i>Prussiate of Copper</i></h4>
+
+<p class="no">differs chemically from Prussian blue only in having copper instead of
+iron for its basis. It varies in hue from russet to purple brown, is
+transparent and deep, but, being very liable to change in colour by the
+action of light and by other pigments, has never been much used, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_324" id="Page_324">[324]</a></span> is
+now obsolete. The compound has the objection of containing free
+prussiate of potash, not removable by continued washing&mdash;sometimes as
+much as five per cent.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<p>There are several other pigments which enter imperfectly into, or verge
+upon, the class of russet, which, having obtained the names of other
+classes to which they are allied, will be found under other heads; such
+are some of the ochres, as Indian red. Burnt carmine is often of the
+russet hue, or convertible to it by due additions of yellow or orange;
+as are burnt Sienna and various browns, by like additions of lake or
+other reds.</p>
+
+<p>The one pigment in this chapter known to the modern palette, Rubens'
+madder, is permanent.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_325" id="Page_325">[325]</a></span><a name="chapter_16" id="chapter_16"></a><a href="#contents">CHAPTER XVI.</a></h2>
+
+<h3>ON THE TERTIARY, OLIVE.</h3>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Olive</span> is the third and last of the tertiary colours, and nearest in
+relation to shade. Like its co-tertiaries, citrine and russet, it is
+composed of the three primaries, blue, red, and yellow; but is formed
+more directly of the secondaries, <i>purple</i> and <i>green</i>, in each of which
+blue is a constituent: hence blue occurs twice in the latter mode of
+forming olive, while red and blue enter therein singly and
+subordinately. Blue is, therefore, in every instance the archeus or
+predominating colour of olive; its perfect or middle hue comprehending
+sixteen of blue to five of red and three of yellow. It partakes in a
+proportionate measure of the powers, properties, and relations of its
+archeus: accordingly, the antagonist or harmonizing contrast of olive is
+a <i>deep orange</i>. Like blue, olive is a retiring colour, the most so of
+all the colours, being the penultimate of the scale, or nearest of all
+in relation to black, and last, theoretically, of the regular
+distinctions of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326">[326]</a></span> colours. Hence its importance in nature and painting is
+almost as great as that of black; it divides the office of clothing the
+face of creation with green and blue; with both which, as with black and
+grey, it enters into innumerable compounds and accordances, changing its
+name as either hue prevails, into green, gray, ashen, slate, &amp;c. Thus
+the olive hues of foliage are called green, and the purple hues of
+clouds are called gray, &amp;c.; but such terms are general only, and
+unequal to the infinite particularity of nature.</p>
+
+<p>This infinity, or endless variation of hue, tint, and relation, of which
+the tertiaries are susceptible, gives a boundless license to the revelry
+of taste, in which the genius of the pencil may display the most
+captivating harmonies of colouring, and the most chaste and delicate
+expressions; too subtle to be defined, too intricate to be easily
+understood, and often too exquisite to be felt by the untutored eye.
+Nature always melodizes by imperceptible gradations, while she
+harmonizes by distinct contrasts. At different seasons we have blossoms
+of all hues, variously subordinated; and when the time of flowers may be
+considered past, as if she had no further use for her fine colours, or
+were willing to display her ultimate skill and refinement, Nature
+lavishes the contents of her palette, not disorderly, but in multiplied
+relations, over all vegetal creation, in those rich and beautiful
+accordances of broken and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_327" id="Page_327">[327]</a></span> finishing colours with which autumn is
+decorated ere the year decays and sinks into olive darkness.</p>
+
+<p>As a rule, no colour exists in nature without gradation, which is to
+colours what curvature is to lines. The difference in mere beauty
+between a gradated and ungradated colour may be seen by laying an even
+tint of rose-colour on paper, and putting a rose leaf beside it. The
+victorious beauty of the rose, as compared with other flowers, depends
+wholly on the delicacy and quantity of its colour gradations, all other
+flowers being either less rich in gradation, not having so many folds of
+leaf; or less tender, being patched and veined instead of flushed. It is
+not enough, however, that colour should be gradated in painting by being
+made simply paler or darker at one place than another. Generally, colour
+changes as it diminishes, and is not only darker at one spot, but also
+purer at one spot than elsewhere; although it does not follow that
+either the darkest or the lightest spot should be the purest. Very often
+the two gradations more or less cross each other, one passing in one
+direction from paleness to darkness, another in another direction from
+purity to dulness; but there will almost always be both of them, however
+reconciled. Hence, every piece of blue, say, laid on should be quite
+pure only at some given spot, from which it must be gradated into blue<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328">[328]</a></span>
+less pure&mdash;greyish blue, or greenish blue, or purplish blue&mdash;over all
+the rest of the space it occupies. In Turner's largest oil pictures,
+there is not one spot of colour as large as a grain of wheat ungradated;
+and it will be found in practice that brilliancy of hue, vigour of
+light, and even the aspect of transparency in shade, are essentially
+dependent on this character alone; hardness, coldness, and opacity,
+resulting far more from equality of colour than from nature of colour.
+Given some mud off a city crossing, some ochre out of a gravel pit, a
+little whitening, and some coal-dust, and a luminous picture might be
+painted, if time were allowed to gradate the mud, and subdue the dust.
+But not with the red of the ruby, the blue of the gentian, snow for the
+light, and amber for the gold, could such a picture be produced, if the
+masses of those colours were kept unbroken in purity, and unvarying in
+depth.</p>
+
+<p>Olive being usually a compound colour both with the artist and mechanic,
+there are few olive pigments in commerce.</p>
+
+
+<h4>232. MIXED OLIVE</h4>
+
+<p class="no">may be compounded in several ways; directly, by mixing green and purple;
+or indirectly, by adding to blue a smaller proportion of yellow and red,
+or by breaking much blue with little orange. Cool black pigments,
+combined with yellow ochre,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_329" id="Page_329">[329]</a></span> afford eligible olives; hues which are
+called <i>green</i> in landscape, and <i>invisible green</i> in mechanic painting.
+It is to be noted that in producing these and other compound colours on
+the palette or canvass, those mixtures will most conduce to the harmony
+of the performance which are formed of pigments otherwise generally
+employed in the picture. Thus, presuming aureolin to be the principal
+yellow used, the same yellow should be chosen for compounding orange and
+green, or for obtaining indirectly citrine, russet, and olive.</p>
+
+<table summary="permanent green and purple" style="width: 470px; margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 2em; font-size: 90%;">
+<colgroup span="2">
+<col width="250px"></col>
+<col width="220px"></col>
+</colgroup>
+<tr>
+<th class="tdb3 br">PERMANENT GREEN.</th>
+<th class="tdb3">PERMANENT PURPLE.</th>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb3 br">Oxide of Chromium, opaque.</td>
+<td class="tdb3">Mars Violet, true.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb3 br">Oxide of Chromium, transparent.</td>
+<td class="tdb3">Purple Madder.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb3 br">Veronese Green.</td>
+<td class="tdb3">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb3 br">Viridian.</td>
+<td class="tdb3">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb3 br">Emerald Green.</td>
+<td class="tdb3">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb3 br">Scheele's Green.</td>
+<td class="tdb3">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb3 br">Terre Green.</td>
+<td class="tdb3">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p>As in the case of russet, there may be added to the two original
+purples, mixtures composed of durable reds and blues. There are so many
+ways of producing the tertiaries, that no difficulty can be found in
+compounding them with stable pigments. Each tertiary may be represented
+as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table summary="representation of tertiaries" style="width: 620px; margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 2em; font-size: 90%;">
+<colgroup span="5">
+<col width="200px"></col>
+<col width="10px"></col>
+<col width="200px"></col>
+<col width="10px"></col>
+<col width="200px"></col>
+</colgroup>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd"><span class="smcap">Citrine</span></td>
+<td class="tdd">=</td>
+<td class="tdb3">Orange</td>
+<td class="tdd">+</td>
+<td class="tdb3">Green.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd">"</td>
+<td class="tdd">=</td>
+<td class="tdb3">(Yellow + Red)</td>
+<td class="tdd">+</td>
+<td class="tdb3">(Yellow + Blue).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd">"</td>
+<td class="tdd">=</td>
+<td class="tdb3">2 Yellow + Red</td>
+<td class="tdd">+</td>
+<td class="tdb3">Blue.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_330" id="Page_330">[330]</a></span><span class="smcap">Russet</span></td>
+<td class="tdd">=</td>
+<td class="tdb3">Orange</td>
+<td class="tdd">+</td>
+<td class="tdb3">Purple.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd">"</td>
+<td class="tdd">=</td>
+<td class="tdb3">(Yellow + Red)</td>
+<td class="tdd">+</td>
+<td class="tdb3">(Red + Blue.)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd">"</td>
+<td class="tdd">=</td>
+<td class="tdb3">2 Red + Yellow</td>
+<td class="tdd">+</td>
+<td class="tdb3">Blue.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd"><span class="smcap">Olive</span></td>
+<td class="tdd">=</td>
+<td class="tdb3">Green</td>
+<td class="tdd">+</td>
+<td class="tdb3">Purple.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd">"</td>
+<td class="tdd">=</td>
+<td class="tdb3">(Yellow + Blue)</td>
+<td class="tdd">+</td>
+<td class="tdb3">(Red +Blue.)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd">"</td>
+<td class="tdd">=</td>
+<td class="tdb3">2 Blue + Yellow</td>
+<td class="tdd">+</td>
+<td class="tdb3">Red.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>From the above equations, and by consulting the lists given of permanent
+primary and secondary colours, the artist will at once see how easily
+and safely he may vary his mode of compounding the tertiaries.</p>
+
+
+<h4>233. OLIVE GREEN,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">sometimes called <i>Dewint's Green</i>, is an arbitrary compound, or mixed
+green, of a fine deep olive colour and sober richness. Advisedly or not,
+it is used in landscape, sketching, &amp;c.; but only in water, olive lake
+supplying its place in oil. Like many other compound pigments, it is
+either permanent, semi-stable, or fugitive, according to the
+constituents of which it is composed. Generally speaking, it is more
+beautiful than durable, and is often decidedly fugacious, fading on
+exposure. It is impossible for a writer to pronounce an absolute opinion
+on the stability of all mixtures sold in a separate form, inasmuch as
+the compounds of one firm may differ from those of another. We have
+before expressed our dislike to such pigments, and this uncertainty with
+regard to their composition serves to strengthen<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_331" id="Page_331">[331]</a></span> it. Nevertheless, as
+there are exceptions to every rule, it must be admitted that the palette
+possesses compounds always to be relied upon.</p>
+
+
+<h4>234. OLIVE LAKE</h4>
+
+<p class="no">is in commerce exclusively an oil colour. When true, it is a lake
+prepared from the green ebony, or laburnum, and is of considerable
+permanence, transparency, and depth, both in water and oil; in which
+latter vehicle it dries well. This variety, however, may be said to be
+obsolete; having given way to a mixture, usually semi-stable, and liable
+to blacken.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<h4>235. <i>Burnt Verdigris</i></h4>
+
+<p class="no">is what its name expresses, and is an olive-coloured oxide of copper
+deprived of acid. It dries remarkably well in oil, is more durable than
+the original verdigris, and is in other respects an improved and more
+eligible pigment, although not to be recommended.</p>
+
+
+<h4>236. <i>Olive Oxide of Chromium.</i></h4>
+
+<p>An olive oxide of this metal is obtainable, transparent, of strict
+stability, and altogether superior to any original or compound olive
+pigment as yet known. Eligible either in water or oil, it is admirably
+adapted for autumn foliage, where a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_332" id="Page_332">[332]</a></span> quiet, subdued, nature-like green
+is required. It has not, however, been introduced, partly because of its
+expense, and partly because a mixture of other pigments with the
+ordinary chrome oxides sufficiently answers the purpose. There are more
+good colours in the world than are dreamt of in the palette's
+philosophy, but either they are not wanted, or are too costly to sell.
+In a great measure, both art and science are dependent on commerce.</p>
+
+
+<h4>237. <i>Olive Rinman's Green.</i></h4>
+
+<p>A compound analogous to cobalt green may be made, of an olive hue, with
+more body, and equally stable.</p>
+
+
+<h4>238. <i>Olive Scheele's Green.</i></h4>
+
+<p>Cupric arsenite, when heated, gives off arsenious acid and water,
+leaving a residue of arsenide of copper and copper arseniate. A series
+of olive colours is so afforded, which are as durable as their original
+pigment, and might with advantage be substituted for the doubtful
+compounds at present in use.</p>
+
+
+<h4>239. <i>Olive Schweinfurt Green</i></h4>
+
+<p class="no">is likewise furnished by gentle calcination. It may be directly prepared
+by mixing boiling aqueous solutions of equal parts of crystallised
+verdigris and arsenious acid. An olive-green precipitate<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_333" id="Page_333">[333]</a></span> is immediately
+formed, which is apt, without due precaution, to pass into an emerald
+green. A durable copper colour.</p>
+
+
+<h4>240. <i>Olive Terre Verte.</i></h4>
+
+<p>We have obtained a very beautiful olive from terre verte by simply
+changing its hue. In oil, especially, the colour so produced would be
+found of service for autumn foliage, or richly painted foregrounds. A
+simple original pigment, consisting wholly of the earth, it resembles
+ordinary terre verte in being unaffected by strong light or impure air,
+and uninjured by admixture; but differs from it in not darkening by
+time. Semi-transparent, of sober richness and drying well in oil, it is,
+according to its powers, a perfectly unexceptionable colour, of strict
+stability.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<p>Of the two olive colours in common use, olive lake and olive green, the
+first is generally semi-stable, and apt to blacken; while the second is
+usually fugitive, and liable to fade: both are compounds. The palette,
+therefore, possesses no original olive pigment, good or bad. A glance at
+the numbered italicised olives will show that the doubtful mixtures
+referred to might with advantage be superseded. It is clear that the
+olive pigments which the palette does not know, are better than those
+with which it is acquainted.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_334" id="Page_334">[334]</a></span><a name="chapter_17" id="chapter_17"></a><a href="#contents">CHAPTER XVII.</a></h2>
+
+<h3>ON THE SEMI-NEUTRAL, BROWN.</h3>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">As</span> colour, according to the regular scale descending from white, ceases
+properly with the last of the tertiaries, olive, in theory the neutral
+black would here form a fitting conclusion. Practically, however, every
+coloured pigment, of every class or tribe, combines with black as it
+exists in pigments&mdash;not simply being deepened or lowered in tone
+thereby, but likewise defiled in colour, or changed in class. Hence
+there arises a new series or scale of coloured compounds, having black
+for their basis, which, though they differ not theoretically from the
+preceding order inverted, are yet in practice imperfect or impure. These
+broken compounds of black, or coloured blacks and greys, we have
+distinguished by the term, semi-neutral, and divided them into three
+classes: Brown, Marrone, and Gray. What tints are with respect to white,
+they are with regard to black, being, so to speak, black tints or
+shades.</p>
+
+<p>The first of the series is <span class="smcap">Brown</span>, a term which,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_335" id="Page_335">[335]</a></span> in its widest
+acceptation, has been used to include vulgarly every kind of dark broken
+colour, and is, in a more limited sense, the rather indefinite name of a
+very extensive class of colours of warm or tawny hues. Accordingly there
+are browns of every denomination except blue; to wit, yellow-brown,
+red-brown, orange-brown, purple-brown, citrine-brown, russet-brown, &amp;c.
+But there is no such thing as a blue-brown, nor, strictly, any other
+coloured brown in which blue predominates; such predominance of a cold
+colour at once carrying the compound into the class of gray, ashen, or
+slate. Brown comprises the hues called dun, hazel, auburn, feuillemort,
+mort d'ore, &amp;c.; several of which have been already mentioned as allied
+to the tertiary colours.</p>
+
+<p>The term <i>brown</i>, then, denotes rightly a warm broken colour, of which
+<i>yellow</i> is a chief constituent: hence brown is in some measure to shade
+what yellow is to light. Hence, also, proper quantities of either the
+three primaries, the three secondaries, or the three tertiaries, produce
+variously a brown mixture. Browns contribute to coolness and clearness
+by contrast when opposed to pure colours, and Rubens more especially
+appears to have employed them upon this principle; although the same may
+be said of Titian, Correggio, Paulo Veronese, and all the best
+colourists. Being a sort of intermedia between positive colours and
+neutrality, browns equally<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_336" id="Page_336">[336]</a></span> contrast colour and shade. This accounts for
+their vast importance in painting, and the necessity of preserving them
+distinct from other colours, to which they give foulness in mixture; and
+to this is due their use in backgrounds and in relieving of coloured
+objects.</p>
+
+<p>The tendency in the compounds of colours to run into brownness and
+warmth is one of the common natural properties of colours which
+occasions them to deteriorate or defile each other in mixture. Brown by
+consequence is synonymous with foul or dirty, as opposed to fair or
+clean; and hence brown, which is the nearest of the semi-neutrals in
+relation to light, is to be avoided in mixture with light colours. Yet
+is it an example of the wisdom of nature's Author that brown is
+rendered, like green, a prevailing hue, and in particular an earth
+colour, as a contrast which is harmonized by the blueness and coldness
+of the sky.</p>
+
+<p>This tendency will likewise explain the use of brown in harmonizing and
+<ins class="trans" title="was toneing">toning</ins>, as well as the great number of natural and artificial pigments
+and colours so called. It was the fertility and abundance of browns that
+caused our great landscape-colourist Wilson, when a friend went
+exultingly to tell him that he had discovered a new brown, to check him
+in his characteristic way, with&mdash;"I'm sorry for it: we have gotten too
+many of them already." Nevertheless, fine transparent browns are
+obviously very valuable.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_337" id="Page_337">[337]</a></span>If red or blue in excess be added to brown, it falls into the other
+semi-neutral classes, marrone or gray. The wide acceptation of the term
+brown has occasioned much confusion in the naming of colours, since
+broken colours in which red, &amp;c. predominate, have been improperly
+called brown. That term, therefore, should be confined to the
+semi-neutral colours, compounded of, or like in hue to, either the
+primary <i>yellow</i>, the secondary orange, or the tertiary <i>citrine</i>, with
+a <i>black</i>. The general contrast or harmonizing colour of such compounds
+will consequently be more or less purple or blue.</p>
+
+<p>The number of browns is great, as may be seen by the following list.
+This list, however, is good, and includes a considerable proportion of
+permanent pigments.</p>
+
+
+<h4>241. ASPHALTUM,</h4>
+
+<p class="no"><i>Asphalt</i>, <i>Bitumen</i>, <i>Mineral Pitch</i>, <i>Jew's Pitch</i>, <i>Antwerp Brown</i>,
+<i>Liquid Asphaltum</i>, &amp;c., is a sort of mineral pitch or tar which, rising
+liquid to the surface of the Lacus Asphaltites or Asphaltic Lake (the
+Dead Sea) concretes there by the natural action of the atmosphere and
+sun, and, floating in masses to the shores, is gathered by the Arabs.
+The French give it an additional name from the region of the lake, to
+wit, Bitumen of Judea; and with the English, from the same cause, it has
+the alias of Jew's pitch. Asphaltum<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_338" id="Page_338">[338]</a></span> is not so called, however, after
+the lake, as is asserted by a writer in the Encyclop&aelig;dia: it is just the
+reverse&mdash;Pliny says, "The Asphaltic lake produces nothing but bitumen
+(in Greek, asphaltos); and hence its name."</p>
+
+<p>A substance resembling asphalt is found at Neufch&acirc;tel in Switzerland,
+and in other parts of Europe. A specimen of the native bitumen, brought
+from Persia, and of which the author made trial, had a powerful scent of
+garlic when rubbed. In the fire it softened without flowing, and burnt
+with a lambent flame; did not dissolve by heat in turpentine, but ground
+easily as a pigment in pale drying oil, affording a fine deep
+transparent brown colour, resembling that of commercial asphaltum; dried
+firmly almost as soon as the drying-oil alone, and worked admirably both
+in water and oil. Asphaltum may be used as a permanent brown in water,
+for which purpose the native is superior to the artificial. The former,
+however, is now seldom to be met with, the varieties employed on the
+palette being the residua of various resinous and bituminous matters,
+distilled for the sake of their essential oils. These residua are all
+black and glossy like common pitch, which differs from them only in
+having been less acted upon by fire, and thence in being softer. At
+present asphaltum is prepared in excessive abundance as a product of the
+distillation of coal at the gas manufactories, and is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_339" id="Page_339">[339]</a></span> chiefly confined
+to oil-painting, being first dissolved in turpentine, which fits it for
+glazing and shading. Its fine brown colour and perfect transparency are
+lures to its free use with many artists, notwithstanding the certain
+destruction that awaits the work on which it is much employed, owing to
+its tendency to contract and crack by changes of temperature and the
+atmosphere; but for which, and a slight liability to blacken, it would
+be a most beautiful, durable, and eligible pigment. The solution of
+asphaltum in turpentine, united with drying oil by heat, or the bitumen
+torrefied and ground in linseed or drying-oil, acquires a firmer
+texture, but becomes less transparent and dries with difficulty. If
+common asphaltum, as usually prepared with turpentine, be used with some
+addition of Vandyke brown, umber, or Cappah brown ground in drying oil,
+it will gain body and solidity which will render it much less disposed
+to crack. Nevertheless, asphaltum is to be regarded in practice rather
+as a dark varnish than as a solid pigment, and all the faults of a bad
+varnish are to be guarded against in employing it.</p>
+
+<p>It is common to call the solution in turpentine <i>Asphaltum</i>, and the
+mixture with drying-oil <i>Bitumen</i>: the latter is likewise known as
+<i>Antwerp Brown</i>. A preparation for the use of water-colour artists is
+employed under the name of <i>Liquid Asphaltum</i>.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_340" id="Page_340">[340]</a></span>242. BISTRE</h4>
+
+<p>is extracted by watery solution from the soot of wood fires, whence it
+derives a strong pyroligneous scent. It is a very powerful
+citrine-brown, washes well, and has a clearness suited to architectural
+subjects. Its use is confined to water-colour painting, in which it was
+much employed by the old masters for tinting drawings and shading
+sketches, before the general application of Indian ink to such purposes.
+Of a wax-like texture, it is perfectly durable, but unfitted for oil,
+drying therein with the greatest difficulty.</p>
+
+<p>A substance of this kind collects at the back of fire-places in cottages
+where peat is the constant fuel burnt; which, purified by solution and
+evaporation, yields a fine bistre, similar to the Scotch. All kinds of
+bistre attract moisture from the atmosphere.</p>
+
+
+<h4>243. BONE BROWN</h4>
+
+<p class="no">and <i>Ivory Brown</i> are obtained by roasting bone and ivory until by
+partial charring they become of a brown colour throughout. Though much
+esteemed by some artists, they are not quite eligible pigments, being
+bad driers in oil, the only vehicle in which they are now used.
+Moreover, their lighter shades are not permanent either in water or oil
+when exposed to the action<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_341" id="Page_341">[341]</a></span> of strong light, or mixed in tint with white
+lead. The palest of these colours are the most opaque: the deepest are
+more durable, and most so when approaching black. Neither bone nor ivory
+brown is often employed, but the former may be occasionally applied in
+forming clear, silvery, warm grays, in combination with zinc white.</p>
+
+
+<h4>244. BURNT UMBER</h4>
+
+<p class="no">is what its name denotes, and has a deeper shade with a more russet hue
+than the raw umber. A quiet brown, it affords clear and warm shadows,
+but is apt to look rather turbid if used in great depth. It washes and
+works capitally in water, and dries quickly in oil, in which it is
+employed as a siccative. Perfectly stable in either vehicle, it may
+sometimes be substituted for Vandyke brown, is eligible in fresco, and
+invaluable in buildings. Where the lakes of madder require saddening,
+the addition of burnt umber increases their powers, and improves their
+drying in oil. It contains manganese and iron, and may be produced
+artificially. The old Italians called it <i>falsalo</i>.</p>
+
+
+<h4>245. CALEDONIAN BROWN</h4>
+
+<p class="no">is a permanent native pigment, the use of which is confined to oil. A
+magnificent orange-russet brown of considerable transparency, it is
+marked by great depth and richness, and will be found<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_342" id="Page_342">[342]</a></span> serviceable where
+a powerful brown of the burnt Sienna class is required.</p>
+
+
+<h4>246. CAPPAH BROWN,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">or <i>Cappagh Brown</i>, is likewise a colour peculiar to oil. It is a
+species of bog-earth or peat, mixed with manganese in various
+proportions, and found on the estate of Lord Audley at Cappagh, near
+Cork. The specimens in which the peat earth most abounds are of light
+weight, friable texture, and dark colour; while those which contain more
+of the metal are heavy and paler.</p>
+
+<p>As pigments, the peaty Cappah brown is the most transparent and rich in
+colour. A prompt drier in oil, its surface <ins class="correction" title="rivals read rivels">rivels</ins> during drying where it
+lies thick. The other and metallic sort is a more opaque, a lighter and
+warmer brown pigment, which dries rapidly and smoothly in a body or
+thick layer. The first may be regarded as a superior Vandyke brown, the
+second as a superior umber. The two extreme kinds should be
+distinguished as light and deep Cappah browns; the former excellent for
+dead colouring and grounds, the latter for glazing and graining. These
+pigments work well in oil and varnish; they do not, however, keep their
+place while drying in oil by fixing the oil, like the driers of lead,
+but run. Under the names of <i>Euchrome</i> and <i>Mineral Brown</i>, they have
+been introduced into commerce for civil and marine painting.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_343" id="Page_343">[343]</a></span>247. CASSEL EARTH,</h4>
+
+<p><i>Terre de Cassel</i>, or, corruptly, <i>Castle Earth</i>, is specially an oil
+pigment, similar to burnt umber but of a more russet hue. It is an earth
+containing bitumen, a substance which, with pit-coal, lignite or brown
+coal, jet, petroleum or rock oil, naphtha, &amp;c., is looked upon as a
+product of the decomposition of organic matter, beneath the surface of
+the earth, in situations where the conditions of contact with water, and
+almost total exclusion of atmospheric air, are fulfilled. Deposited at
+the bottom of seas, lakes, or rivers, and subsequently covered up by
+accumulations of clay and sand, the organic tissue undergoes a kind of
+fermentation by which the bodies in question are slowly produced. The
+true bitumens appear to have arisen from coal or lignite by the action
+of subterranean heat; and very closely resemble some of the products
+yielded by the destructive distillation of those bodies.</p>
+
+<p>Rich as is the tone of colour of Cassel earth, it is apt to lose this in
+some measure on exposure to light. M&eacute;rim&eacute;e remembers to have seen a
+head, the brown hair of which had been painted partly with the earth
+alone, and partly with a mixture of the earth and white; yet the hair
+where the white was employed was darker than that painted solely with
+the brown, the white<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_344" id="Page_344">[344]</a></span> having fixed the colour. To compensate for its
+thus fading, it should be mixed with pigments that are permanent, such
+as umber and lamp black. Like all bituminous earths, it needs the
+strongest drying oil. By calcination, a greater degree of intensity may
+be imparted to the colour, and perhaps a little more solidity. In
+landscapes it is of much service for the most vigorous portions of
+foregrounds and the trunks of trees, as well as for painting cavernous
+rocks or deep recesses in architecture. Compounded with burnt lake and a
+little Prussian blue, it gives a black the most profound.</p>
+
+
+<h4>248. CHALON'S BROWN</h4>
+
+<p class="no">is a water-colour pigment, transparent and inclining to red; deep, full,
+and very rich. On exposure to light it becomes less russet, but is
+otherwise strictly stable.</p>
+
+
+<h4>249. COLOGNE EARTH,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">incorrectly called <i>Cullen's Earth</i>, is a native bituminous earth,
+containing less bitumen than Cassel earth, and therefore drying more
+quickly. Darker than that variety, it is less transparent, and covers
+better. In its general qualities it resembles Vandyke brown, except that
+in combination with white, it affords a range of cooler brown tints.
+Useful for the shadows of buildings, it does not wash so well as sepia,
+and is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_345" id="Page_345">[345]</a></span> preferred occasionally on that account. By some it has been
+called durable, by others branded as fugacious. According to Bouvier,
+brown hair represented by this colour has been known to disappear in six
+months, all the brown vanishing, and nothing remaining but a few black
+lines of the sketch. As it is similar in composition to Cassel earth,
+the safest course would be to mix it with umber, and not to employ it
+alone. Calcined, it acquires a reddish hue.</p>
+
+
+<h4>250. INDELIBLE BROWN INK.</h4>
+
+<p>Although this cannot be classed as a pigment, yet, being very useful in
+water-colours, it may be proper to describe its qualities. The ink is a
+rich brown fluid, and, as its name imports, is indelibly fixed on the
+paper as soon as it is dry; thus allowing the artist to work or wash
+over it repeatedly, without its being disturbed. If diluted with water
+to its faintest tint, it still continues to retain its indelible
+properties undiminished. It is generally used with a reed pen, and
+employed chiefly in architectural details and outlines.</p>
+
+<p>Various brown inks, principally solutions of bistre and sepia, were
+adopted in sketching by Claude, Rembrandt, and many of the old masters.
+In modern times, a beautiful transparent brown for water-colour artists,
+known as <i>Liquid Prout's Brown</i>, has been extensively employed. This<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_346" id="Page_346">[346]</a></span>
+contains less fixative than the indelible ink, and is the vehicle with
+which nearly all Samuel Prout's drawings were executed.</p>
+
+
+<h4>251. LEITCH'S BROWN</h4>
+
+<p class="no">is a permanent pigment peculiar to water painting. A most beautiful
+olive brown, soft and rich, it is admirably adapted for autumnal foliage
+tints and the like, either alone or compounded with burnt Sienna or
+cadmium orange. Transparent and clear in its washes, this is a most
+serviceable colour in landscape generally.</p>
+
+
+<h4>252. MIXED BROWN</h4>
+
+<p class="no">can be produced in endless variety, either by adding a warm colour to
+black, such as yellow, orange, or citrine, or else by combining the
+three primaries, secondaries, or tertiaries in suitable proportions. By
+consulting the lists given of permanent pigments belonging to those
+classes, and by referring to the chapter on Black, it will be seen that
+no difficulty exists in obtaining durable mixed browns when required.
+For example, there may be formed from the primaries, a compound of
+aureolin, rose madder, and ultramarine; or from the secondaries, a
+mixture of cadmium orange, viridian, and madder purple. Of course, as
+with other mixed tints, the brown hue can be furnished not only by
+direct compounding of the colours on the palette, but by laying one
+colour<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_347" id="Page_347">[347]</a></span> over the other on the paper or canvass, or by stippling.</p>
+
+
+<h4>253. MUMMY,</h4>
+
+<p class="no"><i>Mummy Brown</i>, or <i>Egyptian Brown</i>, is a bituminous product mixed with
+animal remains, brought from the catacombs of Egypt, where liquid
+bitumen was employed three thousand years ago in embalming. By a slow
+chemical change, it has combined during so many ages with substances
+which give it, as a rule, a more solid and lasting texture than simple
+asphaltum. Generally resembling the latter in its other properties and
+uses as a pigment, mummy is often substituted for it, being less liable
+to crack or move on the canvass. It must be remembered, however, that
+mummy varies exceedingly both in its composition and qualities; and as
+from its very nature and origin nothing certain can be said of it, but
+little reliance should be placed on this brown. Mummy belongs to the
+class of pigments which are either good or bad, according as they turn
+out. On the whole, we agree with the American artist, who has been more
+than once quoted in these pages, that nothing is to be gained by
+smearing one's canvass with a part, perhaps, of the wife of Potiphar.
+With a preference for materials less frail and of a more sober
+character, we likewise hold with Bouvier, that it is not particularly
+pru<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_348" id="Page_348">[348]</a></span>dent to employ without necessity these crumbled remains of dead
+bodies, which must contain ammonia and particles of fat in a concrete
+state and so be more or less apt to injure the colours with which they
+may be united. The use of mummy is now confined to oil, in which, says
+Mr. Carmichael, a mixture of mummy and bitumen will dry and never crack.
+If this be the case, the compound would be preferable to either
+separate.</p>
+
+
+<h4>254. PRUSSIAN BROWN</h4>
+
+<p class="no">is an iron oxide, containing more or less alumina, and prepared by
+calcining an aluminous Prussian blue, or treating an aluminous
+ferrocyanide of peroxide of iron with an alkali. Possessing the nature
+and properties of burnt Sienna, it is transparent, permanent, and dries
+well in oil. Of an orange hue, it is neither so rich nor so powerful as
+that pigment, and is better employed as a glaze than in body.</p>
+
+
+<h4>255. SEPIA,</h4>
+
+<p class="no"><i>Liquid Sepia</i>, <i>Seppia</i>, or <i>Animal &AElig;thiops</i>, is named after the sepia
+or cuttle-fish, also called the ink-fish, from its affording a dark
+liquid, which was used as an ink and pigment by the ancients. All the
+species of cuttle-fish are provided with a dark-coloured fluid,
+sometimes quite black, which they emit to obscure the water, when it is
+wanted to favour their escape from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_349" id="Page_349">[349]</a></span> danger, or, by concealing their
+approach, to enable them with greater facility to seize their prey. The
+liquid consists of a mass of extremely minute carbonaceous particles,
+intermixed with an animal gelatine or glue, and is capable of being so
+widely spread, than an ounce of it will suffice to darken several
+thousand ounces of water. From this liquid, brought chiefly from the
+Adriatic, but likewise obtainable from our own coasts, is derived the
+pigment sepia, as well as, partially, the Indian ink of the Chinese.</p>
+
+<p>Sepia is a powerful dusky brown, of a fine texture, transparent, works
+admirably in water, combines cordially with other pigments, and is very
+permanent. It is much used as a water-colour, and for making drawings in
+the manner of bistre and Indian ink; but is not employed in oil, as it
+dries therein very reluctantly. Extremely clear in its pale tints, and
+perhaps the best washing colour known, sepia must be used with caution,
+or otherwise heaviness will be engendered in the shades, so strong is
+its colouring property. Mixed with indigo, or, preferably, Prussian blue
+and black, it is eligible for distant trees, for a general shadow tint
+in light backgrounds, and for the shade of white linen or white
+draperies. With madder red it forms a fine hue, somewhat resembling
+brown madder, and with crimson lake and indigo gives an artistically
+excellent black. Sometimes alone and sometimes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_350" id="Page_350">[350]</a></span> in combination with lamp
+black, or madder red and Prussian blue saddened by the black, it will be
+found useful in dark foreground boats, rocks, near buoys, sea-weed, &amp;c.
+Compounded with aureolin, sepia yields a series of beautiful and durable
+neutral greens for landscape; and mixed with Prussian blue, affords low
+olive greens, which may be deepened into very cool dark greens by the
+addition of black. For hills and mountains in mid-distance, sepia
+combined with cobalt and brown madder is of service; or, for the dark
+markings and divisions of stones in brooks and running streams, the same
+compound without the cobalt. Mixed with purple madder, it furnishes a
+fine tint for the stems and branches of trees; and with French blue and
+madder red gives a really good black. Compounds of sepia and yellow
+ochre, gamboge, raw Sienna, or cobalt and aureolin, are severally
+useful. A rich and strong brown is formed by the admixture of madder
+red, burnt Sienna, and sepia; a tint which may be modified by omitting
+the sepia or the Sienna, or reducing the proportions of either. For
+Dutch craft, this tint and its variations are of great value. A wash of
+sepia over green very agreeably subdues the force of the colour.</p>
+
+
+<h4>256. WARM SEPIA</h4>
+
+<p class="no">is the natural sepia warmed by mixture with other browns of a red hue,
+and is intended for draw<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_351" id="Page_351">[351]</a></span>ings where it would be difficult to keep the
+whole work of the same tint, unless the compound were made in the cake
+of colour.</p>
+
+
+<h4>257. ROMAN SEPIA</h4>
+
+<p class="no">is a preparation similar to the preceding, but with a yellow instead of
+a red cast.</p>
+
+
+<h4>258. VANDYKE BROWN.</h4>
+
+<p>This pigment, hardly less celebrated than the great painter whose name
+it bears, is a species of peat or bog-earth of a fine, deep,
+semi-transparent brown colour. The pigment so much esteemed and used by
+Vandyke is said to have been brought from Cassel; an assertion which
+seems to be justified by a comparison of Cassel earth with the browns of
+his pictures. Gilpin in his Essays on Picturesque Beauty, remarks that
+"In the tribe of browns&mdash;in oil-painting, one of the finest earths is
+known, at the colour shops, by the name of Castle-earth, or Vandyke's
+brown." The Vandyke brown of the present day is a bituminous ochre,
+purified by grinding and washing over. Apt to vary in hue, it is durable
+both in water and oil, but, like all bituminous earths, dries tardily as
+a rule in the latter vehicle. Clear in its pale tints, deep and glowing
+in shadows, in water it has sometimes the bad property of working up:
+for this reason, where it is necessary to lay on a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_352" id="Page_352">[352]</a></span> great body of it,
+the moist tube colour should be preferred to the cake. With madder red,
+the brown gives a fine tint, most useful as a warm shadow colour; and
+with Prussian blue, clear, very sober neutral greens for middle
+distances. In banks and roads, Vandyke brown is the general colour for
+dragging over the surface, to give roughness of texture: compounded with
+yellow ochre, it affords a good ground tint, and with purple madder a
+rich shadow colour. In sunrise and sunset clouds, a mixture of the brown
+with cobalt yields a cold neutral green, adapted for those clouds at the
+greatest distance from the sun. For foliage tints, aureolin, French
+blue, and Vandyke brown, will be found of service; or as a glaze over
+such tints, the yellow and the brown. With raw Sienna, brown madder,
+Payne's gray, gamboge, and Roman ochre, this brown is useful. In a
+water-colour winter scene, when the trees are denuded of foliage, the
+net work of the small branches at the tops of them may be prettily given
+with cobalt and Vandyke brown, used rather dry, and applied with a brush
+having its hairs spread out either by the fingers or by drawing them
+through a <ins class="trans" title="was fine tooth-comb">fine-tooth comb</ins> before working. Grass is likewise represented
+readily by this means, and so are small trees on the summit of a cliff
+or in like positions.</p>
+
+<p>The Campania Brown of the old Italian painters was a similar earth.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_353" id="Page_353">[353]</a></span>259. VERONA BROWN,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">a pigment peculiar to oil painting, is a native ferruginous earth. A
+citrine brown of great service in tender drab greens, it forms with
+terre verte and the madder lakes rich autumnal tints of much beauty and
+permanence.</p>
+
+
+<h4>260. YELLOW MADDER,</h4>
+
+<p class="no"><i>Cory's Yellow Madder</i>, or <i>Cory's Madder</i>, is classed among the browns
+for the same reason that Italian Pink was ranked among the yellows. It
+was stated in the eighth chapter that no true madder yellow, brilliant
+and pure, exists as a pigment at the present day, and certainly this
+preparation can lay no claim to the title. Except in name, it is an
+orange-brown of the burnt Sienna hue, and might therefore with more
+reason have been called Orange Madder. It is a good and permanent
+colour, rich and transparent, at present used only in oil, we believe,
+and chiefly as a glaze.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<h4>261. <i>Cadmium Brown</i>.</h4>
+
+<p>By igniting the white carbonate of cadmium, among other methods, a
+cinnamon-brown oxide is obtainable, of a very clear and beautiful colour
+if the process be well conducted. It is, however,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_354" id="Page_354">[354]</a></span> not eligible as a
+pigment, owing to the rapidity with which the oxide is acted upon by the
+air. In water, especially, we have found this brown so eagerly absorb
+carbonic acid from the atmosphere as to become in a few months once more
+a carbonate, and as purely white as before. The same result is
+observable when the powder is exposed: some shown at the International
+Exhibition of 1862, on a glass stand, had to be removed, its label
+marked 'Cadmium Brown' being at last found attached to a sample of
+cadmium white. In oil, the conversion takes place less readily, that
+vehicle having the property of protecting, to some extent, pigments from
+oxidation. It is curious that even in a book a water-rub of the brown
+slowly but surely changes to white.</p>
+
+
+<h4>262. <i>Catechu Browns.</i></h4>
+
+<p>Catechu is an extract of the Khair tree or <i>acacia catechu</i> of Bombay,
+Bengal, and other parts of India. With the exception of such earthy
+matters as are communicated to it during the preparation, or are added
+purposely as adulterants, catechu is entirely soluble both in water and
+alcohol. An aqueous solution has a reddish-brown colour, and gives the
+following results:&mdash;protosalts of iron thrown down olive-brown and
+persalts greenish-brown precipitates; salts of tin and lead yield
+brownish-yellow and brick-coloured deposits respectively; while acetate
+of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_355" id="Page_355">[355]</a></span> copper or bichromate of potash furnishes brown residues. To our
+knowledge, none of these have been introduced as pigments, but a brown
+prepared by Dr. Lyon Playfair some years back from the catechu bark has
+been described as exceedingly rich, transparent, and beautiful; and
+recommended for painting <i>if not too thinly applied</i>.</p>
+
+
+<h4>263. <i>Chrome Browns</i></h4>
+
+<p class="no">are produced by various methods of several hues, tints, and shades, both
+by wet and dry processes. We have obtained them by many methods, of
+different degrees of permanence. Some very intense in colour have stood
+well, while others paler and more delicate have gradually greened, but
+none possessed the strict stability of the green oxides. Presuming a
+paucity of browns, these preparations of chromium would be worth further
+attention; but, with the objection of being&mdash;for browns&mdash;somewhat
+expensive, they have the far more fatal objection of not being wanted.</p>
+
+
+<h4>264. <i>Copper Brown</i>,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">varying in hue, is obtainable, in the form of prussiate, &amp;c., but cannot
+be recommended, however made.</p>
+
+
+<h4>265. <i>French Prussian-Brown.</i></h4>
+
+<p>According to Bouvier, a colour similar to that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_356" id="Page_356">[356]</a></span> of bistre, and rivalling
+asphaltum in transparency, is produced by partially charring a
+moderately dark Prussian blue; neither one too intense, which gives a
+heavy and opaque brownish-red, nor one too aluminous and bright, which
+yields a feeble and yellowish tint. Yielding to a rapture we cannot
+wholly share, he describes its qualities in the warmest terms. In his
+opinion, it has the combined advantages of asphaltum, mummy, and raw
+Sienna, without their drawbacks. "I cannot," he says, "commend too
+highly the use of this charming bistre-tint: it is as beautiful and good
+in water as in oil, perfectly transparent, of a most harmonious tone,
+and dries better than any other colour suitable for glazing. Closely
+resembling asphaltum in tint as well as in transparency, this brown is
+preferable to it in every point of view." As the colour is very quickly
+and easily obtained, the artist can judge for himself of its proper
+value. M. Bouvier's process is, to place upon a clear fire a large iron
+spoon, into which, when red hot, some pieces of the Prussian blue are
+put about the size of a small nut: these soon begin to crackle, and
+throw off scales in proportion as they grow hot. The spoon is then
+removed, and allowed to cool: if suffered to remain too long on the
+fire, the right colour will not be produced. When the product is crushed
+small, some of it will be found blackish, and the rest of a yellowish
+brown: this is quite as it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_357" id="Page_357">[357]</a></span> should be. Chemically, the result is a
+mixture of oxide of iron and partly undecomposed or carbonised
+prussiate.</p>
+
+
+<h4>266. <i>Gambogiate of Iron.</i></h4>
+
+<p>Dr. Scoffern read a paper at the Meeting of the British Association of
+Science, in 1851, describing this combination as a rich brown, like
+asphaltum, but richer, as well as more durable in oil. It has not been,
+however, employed as a pigment, or at least is not at present.</p>
+
+
+<h4>267. <i>Hypocastanum</i>,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">or Chestnut Brown, is a brown lake prepared from the horse-chestnut.
+This now obsolete pigment is transparent and rich in colour, warmer than
+brown pink, and very durable both in water and oil; in the latter of
+which it dries moderately well.</p>
+
+
+<h4>268. <i>Iron Browns</i>,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">native or artificial, are well represented on the palette, but nothing
+would be easier than to increase their number. Of all metals, iron is
+the richest source of colour, capable of affording all colours with the
+exception of white. None of them, however, are so numerous as the
+browns, a description of which would fill this chapter. Suffice it to
+state they are obtainable of every<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_358" id="Page_358">[358]</a></span> hue, tint, and shade, and are
+generally permanent. They are made on a large scale and sold under
+various names for house-painting, &amp;c.</p>
+
+
+<h4>269. <i>Manganese Brown</i></h4>
+
+<p class="no">is an oxide of manganese, which is quite durable both in water and oil,
+and dries admirably in the latter. A fine, deep, semi-opaque brown of
+good body, it is deficient in transparency, but might be useful for
+glazing or lowering the tone of white without tinging it, and as a local
+colour in draperies, &amp;c.</p>
+
+
+<h4>270. <i>Nickel Brown.</i></h4>
+
+<p>A very pleasing yellowish brown is obtainable from nickel, bright and
+clear in its pale washes, and of some richness in oil. Unless thoroughly
+washed, it has a tendency to greenness in time.</p>
+
+
+<h4>271. <i>Ochre Browns.</i></h4>
+
+<p>The slight affinity of sulphur for yellow ochre, with its merely
+temporary effect thereon, was observed in the eighth chapter, where
+allusion was made to the action of sulphuretted hydrogen and sulphide of
+ammonium on the earth. Sulphur alone, and in the dry state, ignited with
+yellow or other native ochres converts them into browns, varying in hue,
+and of greater or less durability.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_359" id="Page_359">[359]</a></span> Those browns, however, which we have
+made by this process, although standing well in a book, have not
+withstood exposure to light and air. They have all become pale, whitish,
+or of a drab cast, evidently through the oxidation of the sulphur, or
+rather the sulphide of iron formed during the calcination. Practically,
+therefore, ochres have an antipathy to sulphur, moist or dry, by itself
+or in combination; and are, so to speak, the disinfectants of the
+palette. Ever waging war against sulphurous vapours, the native earths
+serve to protect a picture from the damaging influence of impure air,
+whether they be used alone, or employed in admixture with such pigments
+as are injured thereby.</p>
+
+
+<h4>272. <i>Purple Brown</i></h4>
+
+<p class="no">is a refuse manufacture from Indian red washings. A dull, heavy, coarse
+colour, it belongs to the class of common pigments which are
+unexceptionable for decorative painting, but scarcely suited to the
+higher branches of art. As this work professes simply to treat of
+artistic pigments, that have been, are, or might be, more than a passing
+reference to those colours exclusively adopted by house-painters, &amp;c.,
+would be out of place.</p>
+
+
+<h4>273. <i>Rubens' Brown</i>,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">still in use in the Netherlands under this appella<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_360" id="Page_360">[360]</a></span>tion, is an earth of
+a lighter colour and more ochrous texture than the Vandyke brown of
+English commerce: it is also of a warmer or more tawny hue than the
+latter pigment. Beautiful and durable, it works well both in water and
+oil, and much resembles the brown employed by Teniers.</p>
+
+
+<h4>274. <i>Uranium Brown.</i></h4>
+
+<p>Yellow, red, orange, green, have been previously noticed as being
+derived from uranium, and to this list of colours may now be added
+brown. A warm rich hue of the utmost intensity may be produced, which
+possesses considerable permanence, although not equal to that of uranium
+yellow.</p>
+
+
+<h4>275. <i>Zinc Brown.</i></h4>
+
+<p>A yellow-brown, so yellow that it might fairly have been classed with
+the ochrous colours of that denomination, is made by combining zinc with
+another metal by the aid of heat. Experience tells us that it is,
+chemically, a thoroughly good and stable pigment. Safely to be used in
+admixture, it is a clear, bright colour, affording good greens by
+compounding with blue. Of no great power, and semi-opaque, this
+yellow-brown or brown-yellow is superior to some of the pigments at
+present used, but is probably too<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_361" id="Page_361">[361]</a></span> much like them in hue and other
+properties to be of any special value.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<p>Besides the preceding, there are those browns of a citrine or russet
+cast which are elsewhere described, such as raw umber, madder brown, &amp;c.
+Moreover, there are numberless other varieties, obtainable from most of
+the metals, from many organic substances, and from a combination of the
+two. Of all colours, a 'new' brown is the most easily discovered:
+success may not be met with in seeking a yellow, red, or blue, or an
+orange, green, or purple; but it is strange if in the course of one's
+experiments a brown does not turn up. No difficulty, therefore, would
+have been found in greatly extending the present list; but it was felt
+that no advantage could have accrued by further multiplying the notices
+of a colour, with which we are already furnished so abundantly by nature
+and art, and which is capable of being produced in such profusion by
+admixture.</p>
+
+<p>With the exception of ivory and bone browns, and perhaps Cassel and
+Cologne earths, all the browns commonly employed may be considered more
+or less durable.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_362" id="Page_362">[362]</a></span><a name="chapter_18" id="chapter_18"></a><a href="#contents">CHAPTER XVIII.</a></h2>
+
+<h3>ON THE SEMI-NEUTRAL, MARRONE.</h3>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">We</span> have adopted the term <span class="smcap">marrone</span>, or <i>maroon</i> as it is sometimes called,
+for our second and middle semi-neutral, as applicable to a class of
+impure colours composed of black and red, black and purple, or black and
+russet, or of black and any other denomination in which red
+predominates. It is a mean between the warm, broken, semi-neutral
+<i>browns</i>, and the cold, semi-neutral <i>grays</i>. Marrone is practically to
+shade, what red is to light; and its relations to other colours are
+those of red, &amp;c., when we invert the scale from black to white. It is
+therefore a following, or shading, colour of red and its derivatives;
+and hence its accordances, contrasts, and expressions agree with those
+of red degraded; consequently red added to dark brown converts it into
+marrone if in sufficient quantity to prevail. In smaller proportions,
+red gives to lighter browns the names of bay, chestnut, sorrel, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>Owing to confused nomenclature, most of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_363" id="Page_363">[363]</a></span> colours and pigments of
+this class have been assigned to other denominations&mdash;puce, murrey,
+morelle, chocolate, columbine, pavonazzo, &amp;c., being variously ranked
+among reds, browns, and purples. This vagueness also accounts for
+pigments having been ranged under heads not suited to the names they
+bear, and explains why Brown Ochre has been classed among the yellows,
+Italian Pink among the same, Brown Pink among the citrines, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>As adapted to the walls of a picture gallery, marrone, more or less deep
+and inclined to crimson, is one of the best colours known. For the
+reason that each colour has its antagonist, and consequently may affect
+a picture well or ill, according to its tone or general hue, there can
+be no universally good colour for such a purpose. What suits one picture
+or style of painting may not suit another: with a blood-red sunset, for
+instance, or portrait with crimson drapery, marrone would be out of
+place. But as it is impossible to provide each picture with a separate
+background, all that can be done in large collections is to study the
+general effect, sacrificing the interests of the few to the good of the
+many. If cool-coloured landscapes predominate, with blue skies and green
+foliage, it will be found that the orange-yellow of the frames agreeably
+contrasts the former, and the crimson-marrone of walls as agreeably sets
+off the latter. If portraits<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_364" id="Page_364">[364]</a></span> and historic paintings prevail, which are
+in general of a warm advancing nature, then a modest green may prove
+eligible. And if engravings form the staple, the grey hue of the print
+is best opposed by a bright fawn colour. Where several rooms are devoted
+to pictures, a suitable wall colour is most easily secured by
+classifying the paintings as far as possible according to their general
+hue, and placing them in different chambers: in each there will be a
+prevailing character in the colouring of its pictures, and each can be
+painted or papered accordingly. However, whether this plan is adopted or
+not&mdash;and it may be objected to as involving a certain monotony&mdash;care
+should be taken to have a wall colour of some sort or other, that is, to
+let it be seen. Pictures crammed together kill each other: without a
+pin's point between them, a speck of wall space visible, much of the
+illusion is destroyed. "It is only," says Chevreul, "the intelligent
+connoisseur and amateur who, on seeing a picture exhibited in a gallery,
+experience all the effect which the artist has wished to produce;
+because they alone know the best point of view, and because, while their
+attention is fixed on the work they are observing, they alone end by no
+longer seeing the surrounding pictures, or even the frame of that one
+they contemplate." Amid a moving crowd of people, inseparable from
+nearly all public exhibitions, it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_365" id="Page_365">[365]</a></span> becomes difficult for the visitor,
+intelligent or otherwise, thus to concentrate his attention on one work.
+As far, therefore, as space will allow, paintings should be kept
+separate: larger rooms, or fewer pictures, are what is wanted.<a name="FNanchor_B_2" id="FNanchor_B_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_B_2" class="fnanchor">[B]</a></p>
+
+<p>From this digression, pardonable, let us hope, because in the interests
+of art, we will pass on to a consideration of marrone pigments.</p>
+
+
+<h4>276. BROWN MADDER</h4>
+
+<p class="no">is an exceedingly rich marrone or russet-marrone brown, bearing the same
+relation to the colour marrone that raw umber bears to the colour
+citrine. One of the most valuable products of the madder root, it has
+supplied a great desideratum, and in water especially is indispensable,
+both as a local and auxiliary colour. Of intense depth and transparency,
+if made with skill, it affords the richest description of shadows,
+either alone or compounded with blue, and the most delicate pale tints.
+Being quite permanent, a good drier, and working most kindly, it is a
+pigment which cannot be too strongly recommended to the landscape
+painter's notice. Containing a large proportion of red, it is eligible,
+with yellow or blue, for mixed orange or mixed purple of a subdued tone.
+It may be used to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_366" id="Page_366">[366]</a></span>
+lower red curtains or draperies, and for the darkest touches in flesh.
+Mixed with cobalt, it forms a fine shadow colour for distant objects;
+and with indigo or Prussian blue and black, is serviceable for the
+shades of those nearer the foreground. It is similarly useful when mixed
+with black, and will be found advantageous in rusty iron, as anchors,
+chains, &amp;c. For the deepest and richest parts of foregrounds it may be
+employed alone, as also for deep dark cracks and fissures, or strong
+markings in other near objects, as boats and figures. With French blue,
+or cobalt and white, a set of beautiful warm or cold grays may be
+obtained, in proportion as the brown or blue predominates. Compounded
+with blues and bright yellows such as aureolin, it gives fine autumnal
+russet greens. A good purple for soft aerial clouds is furnished by
+cobalt and brown madder, or for stormy clouds by the brown, Prussian
+blue, and black: an equally good slate colour is obtained from cobalt,
+sepia, and the brown. For glazing over foliage and herbage, a mixture of
+the madder with aureolin or gamboge is adapted; and for brooks and
+running streams compounds of this brown with raw Sienna, cobalt and raw
+Sienna, Vandyke brown, and French blue, will each be found useful. Black
+sails are well represented by burnt Sienna, French blue, and brown
+madder; and red sails by light red or burnt Sienna with the brown.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_367" id="Page_367">[367]</a></span>277. MIXED MARRONE.</h4>
+
+<p>Marrone is a retiring colour easily compounded in all its hues and
+shades by the mixture variously of red, and black or brown; or of any
+other warm colours in which red and black predominate. A reference to
+the permanent brown, black, and red or reddish pigments will show to
+what extent the colour marrone may safely be produced by admixture. In
+compounding marrone, the brown or black may be itself compounded, before
+the addition of the red, reddish-purple, or russet, requisite for its
+conversion.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<h4>278. <i>Chica Marrone</i>.</h4>
+
+<p>Chica, the red colouring principle alluded to in the ninth chapter, is
+extracted from the <i>Bignonia chica</i>, by boiling its leaves in water,
+decanting the decoction, and allowing it to cool, when a red matter
+falls down, which is formed into cakes and dried. Insoluble in cold
+water, it dissolves in alcohol and alkalies; is precipitated from
+alkaline solutions by acids without alteration; and is bleached by
+chlorine. Another variety of the same substance, obtained from Para in
+Brazil, and known as crajuru, carajuru, or caracuru, behaves in a
+similar manner. This is said to be superior to the former sort.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_368" id="Page_368">[368]</a></span>A chica pigment, brought from South America, and examined by the author,
+was of a soft powdery texture, and rich marrone colour. Somewhat
+resembling Rubens' madder in hue, it was equal in body and transparency
+to the carmine of cochineal, though by no means approaching it in
+beauty, or even in durability. Simply exposed to the light of a window,
+without sun, the colour was soon changed and destroyed. Conclusive
+evidence as this is that the sample submitted to Mr. Field was
+worthless, it remains to be seen whether all the colours to be derived
+from chica, by different modes and from different kinds, are equally
+valueless as pigments.</p>
+
+
+<h4>279. <i>Chocolate Lead</i>,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">or Marrone Red, is a pigment prepared by calcining oxide of lead with
+about a third of copper oxide, and reducing the compound to a uniform
+tint by levigation. It is of a chocolate hue, strong opaque body, and
+dries freely. Like all lead and copper colours, it is blackened by
+impure air.</p>
+
+
+<h4>280. <i>Cobalt Marrone.</i></h4>
+
+<p>There is obtainable from cobalt a very rich marrone brown, which, like
+many other colours, is more beautiful while moist than when dried.
+Permanent, if carefully made and most thoroughly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_369" id="Page_369">[369]</a></span> washed, it is an
+expensive compound, and must rank among those colours which are
+interesting in the laboratory but superfluous in the studio.</p>
+
+
+<h4>281. <i>Madder Marrone</i>,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">or Marrone Lake, was a preparation of madder, of great depth,
+transparency, and stability. Working well in water, glazing and drying
+in oil, and in every respect a good pigment, it was one of those colours
+which gradually&mdash;and often, as in this case, unfortunately&mdash;become
+obsolete, on account of their hues being easily given by admixture of
+other pigments. There was likewise a deeper kind, called Purple Black. A
+good madder marrone may be produced by adding to brown madder either
+rose madder, madder carmine, or Rubens' madder, with a slight portion of
+black or blue if required.</p>
+
+
+<h4>282. <i>Mars Marrone.</i></h4>
+
+<p>Under the heading of a New Marrone Pigment there appeared some months
+back in a chemical journal the following:&mdash;"The blood-red compound
+obtained by adding a soluble sulphocyanide to a salt of iron in solution
+can be made (apparently at least) to combine with resin thus: To a
+concentrated solution of sesquichloride of iron and sulphocyanide of
+potassium in ether, an etherial solution of common resin is added,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_370" id="Page_370">[370]</a></span> and
+the whole well shaken together. There is then mixed with it a
+sufficiency of water to cause a precipitate, when it will be found,
+after the mixture has stood a few hours, that the whole or nearly the
+whole of the red-coloured iron compound has united with the precipitated
+resin, forming the marrone-coloured pigment in question. When this
+coloured substance is finely powdered and mixed with water, the liquid
+is not the least coloured; whence it is inferred that the red iron
+compound has chemically united itself with the resin."</p>
+
+<p>The foregoing account is rather to be regarded as of scientific interest
+than of practical utility. The blood-red solution of sulphocyanide of
+iron is in itself not stable: when the red solution of this salt is so
+exposed to the sun, that the rays pass through the glass jar containing
+it, it is rendered colourless, but the colour is retained or restored
+when the rays pass directly from the air into the fluid; so that when a
+properly diluted solution is placed in a cylindrical glass vessel in
+direct sunshine, it loses colour in the morning till about eleven in the
+forenoon, when the rays beginning to fall upon the surface exposed to
+the air, gradually restore the colour, which attains its maximum about
+two o'clock. Moreover, the solution is immediately decolourised by
+sulphuretted hydrogen and other deoxidizing agents, as well as by
+alkalies and many acids. It is scarcely<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_371" id="Page_371">[371]</a></span> probable that the union of the
+red colouring matter with the resin would suffice to secure it from
+change; and there is little doubt that the new marrone pigment would be
+a chameleon colour.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<p>Failures in the process of burning carmines, and preparing the purple of
+gold, frequently afford good marrones. Compounds more or less of that
+hue are likewise furnished by copper, mercury, &amp;c. Some ochres incline
+to marrone when calcined: indeed we have remarked in many instances that
+the action of fire anticipates the effects of long continued time; and
+that several of the primary and secondary colours may, by different
+degrees of burning, be converted into their analogous secondary,
+tertiary, or semi-neutral colours.</p>
+
+<p>The one marrone or brown-marrone pigment at present employed, brown
+madder, is permanent.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p style="text-indent: 0em;"><a name="Footnote_B_2" id="Footnote_B_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_B_2"><span class="label">[B]</span></a> This was written previous to the opening of the new rooms
+of the Royal Academy at Burlington House. In these, among other
+improvements, the subject of wall space has been considered.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_372" id="Page_372">[372]</a></span><a name="chapter_19" id="chapter_19"></a><a href="#contents">CHAPTER XIX.</a></h2>
+
+<h3>ON THE SEMI-NEUTRAL, GRAY.</h3>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Of</span> the tribe of semi-neutral colours, <span class="smcap">GRAY</span> is third and last, being
+nearest in relation to black. In its common acceptation, and that in
+which we here use it, gray, as was observed in the third chapter,
+denotes a class of cool cinereous colours faint of hue; whence we have
+blue grays, olive grays, green grays, purple grays, and grays of all
+hues, in which blue predominates; but no yellow or red grays, the
+prevalence of such hues carrying the compounds into the classes of brown
+and marrone, of which gray is the natural opposite. In this sense the
+<i>semi-neutral</i> Gray is distinguished from the <i>neutral</i> Grey, which
+springs in an infinite series from the mixture of the neutral black and
+white. Between gray and grey, however, there is no intermediate, since
+where colour ends in the one, neutrality commences in the other, and
+vice vers&acirc;. Hence the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_373" id="Page_373">[373]</a></span> natural alliance of the semi-neutral
+gray&mdash;definable as a cool coloured grey&mdash;with black or shade; an
+alliance which is strengthened by the latent predominance of blue in the
+synthesis of black, so that in the tints resulting from the mixture of
+black and white, so much of that hue is developed as to give apparent
+colour to the tints. This explains why the tints of black and dark
+pigments are colder than their originals, so much so as in some
+instances to answer the purposes of positive colours. It accounts in
+some measure for the natural blueness of the sky, yet not wholly, for
+this is in part dependent, by contrast, upon the warm colour of sunshine
+to which it is opposed; for, if by any accident the light of nature
+should be rendered red, the colour of the sky would not appear purple,
+in consequence, but green. Again, if the sun shone green, the sky would
+not be green, but red inclined to purple; and so would it be with all
+colours, not according to the laws of composition, but of contrast;
+since, if it were otherwise, the golden rays of the sun would render a
+blue sky green.</p>
+
+<p>The grays are the natural cold correlatives, or contrasts, of the warm
+semi-neutral browns, as well as degradations of blue and its allies.
+Hence blue added to brown throws it into or toward the class of grays,
+and hence grays are equally abundant in nature and necessary in art: in
+both they<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_374" id="Page_374">[374]</a></span> comprehend a widely diffused and beautiful play of retiring
+colours in skies, distances, carnations, and the shadowings and
+reflections of pure light, &amp;c. Gray is, indeed, the colour of space, and
+has therefore the property of diffusing breadth in a picture, while it
+furnishes at the same time good connecting tints, or media, for
+harmonizing the general colouring. Consequently the grays are among the
+most essential hues of the art, though they must not be suffered to
+predominate where the subject or sentiment does not require it, lest
+they cast over the painting that gloom or leaden dulness reprobated by
+Sir Joshua Reynolds; yet in solemn works they are wonderfully effective,
+and proper ruling colours. Nature supplies these hues from the sky
+abundantly and effectively throughout landscape, and Rubens has employed
+them as generally to correct and give value to his colouring, with fine
+natural perception in this branch of his art: witness his works in the
+National Gallery, and in that of the Luxembourg.</p>
+
+<p>According to the foregoing relations, grays favour the effects and force
+of warm colours, which in their turn also give value to grays. It is
+hence that the tender gray distances of a landscape are assisted,
+enlivened, and kept in place by warm and forcible colouring in the
+foreground, gradually connected through intermediate objects and middle
+distances by demi-tints declining into<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_375" id="Page_375">[375]</a></span> gray; a union which secures full
+value to the colours and objects, and by reconciling opposites gives
+repose to the eye. As a general rule, it may be inferred that half of a
+picture should be of a neutral hue, to ensure the harmony of the
+colouring; or at least that a balance of colour and neutrality is quite
+as essential to the best effect of a painting as a like balance of light
+and shade.</p>
+
+
+<h4>283. MINERAL GRAY,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">or Mineral Gr<i>e</i>y, as it is often improperly spelt, is obtainable from
+the lapis lazuli, after the blue and ash have been worked out. So
+derived, it is a refuse article, worthless if the stone has been
+skilfully exhausted of its ultramarine. As this is now generally the
+case, the best mineral gray is no longer a waste product, but a lower
+species of ash, a pale whitish blue with a grey cast. Possessing the
+permanence of ultramarine, it may be regarded in colour as a very weak
+variety of that blue, diluted with a large quantity of white slightly
+tinged by black. A pigment peculiar to oil painting, it is admirably
+adapted to that gray semi-neutrality, the prevalence of which in nature
+has been just remarked. For misty mornings, cloudy skies, and the like,
+this gray will be found useful.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_376" id="Page_376">[376]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h4>284. MIXED GRAY</h4>
+
+<p>is formed by compounding black and blue, black and purple, black and
+olive, &amp;c.; and is likewise produced by adding blue in excess to madder
+brown, sepia, &amp;c., transparent mixtures which are much employed. It
+should be borne in mind that the semi-neutrals, like the secondaries and
+tertiaries, may be so compounded as to be permanent, semi-stable, or
+fugitive. The due remembrance of this cannot be too strongly insisted
+upon, seeing that in every picture the browns and grays are of frequent
+occurrence. These it is that lend such charm to the whole, flowing, as
+it were, like a quiet under-current of colour beneath the troubled
+surface of more decided hues. In the work of every true artist&mdash;between
+whom and the mere painter there is as much difference as between the
+poet and the poetaster&mdash;there is sentiment as well as colour, whether
+the subject be an exciting battle-scene or a bit of still life. This
+sentiment, as strongly felt as the colour is clearly seen, is imparted
+in no small degree by the skilful use of semi-neutrality, the
+compounding of which, as time goes on, will therefore affect a picture
+for good or for evil.</p>
+
+<p>Subjoined is an analysis of the three semi-neutrals, which serves partly
+to show in what great variety they may be obtained by admixture.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_377" id="Page_377">[377]</a></span></p>
+
+<table summary="semi-neutral admixtures" style="width: 550px; margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 2em; font-size: 90%;">
+<colgroup span="8">
+<col width="90px"></col>
+<col width="10px"></col>
+<col width="120px"></col>
+<col width="10px"></col>
+<col width="100px"></col>
+<col width="10px"></col>
+<col width="10px"></col>
+<col width="200px"></col>
+</colgroup>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd5">Brown</td>
+<td class="tdd5 padright">=</td>
+<td class="tdd5">Black</td>
+<td class="tdd5">+</td>
+<td class="tdd5">Yellow</td>
+<td class="tdd6" rowspan="3"><span style="font-size: 300%;">}</span></td>
+<td class="tdd5" colspan="2"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd5 padleft">"</td>
+<td class="tdd5 padright">=</td>
+<td class="tdd5 padleft">"</td>
+<td class="tdd5">+</td>
+<td class="tdd5">Orange</td>
+<td class="tdd5">+</td>
+<td class="tdd5">Red, Purple, &amp;c.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd5 padleft">"</td>
+<td class="tdd5 padright">=</td>
+<td class="tdd5 padleft">"</td>
+<td class="tdd5">+</td>
+<td class="tdd5">Citrine</td>
+<td class="tdd5" colspan="2"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd5 padleft">"</td>
+<td class="tdd5 padright">=</td>
+<td class="tdd5">2 Yellow</td>
+<td class="tdd5">+</td>
+<td class="tdd5">Red</td>
+<td class="tdd5">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="tdd5">+</td>
+<td class="tdd5">Blue</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd5 padleft">"</td>
+<td class="tdd5 padright">=</td>
+<td class="tdd5">2 Orange</td>
+<td class="tdd5">+</td>
+<td class="tdd5">Green</td>
+<td class="tdd5">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="tdd5">+</td>
+<td class="tdd5">Purple</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd5 padleft">"</td>
+<td class="tdd5 padright">=</td>
+<td class="tdd5">2 Citrine</td>
+<td class="tdd5">+</td>
+<td class="tdd5">Russett</td>
+<td class="tdd5">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="tdd5">+</td>
+<td class="tdd5">Olive</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd5">Marrone</td>
+<td class="tdd5 padright">=</td>
+<td class="tdd5">Black</td>
+<td class="tdd5">+</td>
+<td class="tdd5">Red</td>
+<td class="tdd5">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="tdd5">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="tdd5">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd5 padleft">"</td>
+<td class="tdd5 padright">=</td>
+<td class="tdd5 padleft">"</td>
+<td class="tdd5">+</td>
+<td class="tdd5">Purple-red</td>
+<td class="tdd5">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="tdd5">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="tdd5">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd5 padleft">"</td>
+<td class="tdd5 padright">=</td>
+<td class="tdd5 padleft">"</td>
+<td class="tdd5">+</td>
+<td class="tdd5">Russet</td>
+<td class="tdd5">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="tdd5">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="tdd5">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd5 padleft">"</td>
+<td class="tdd5 padright">=</td>
+<td class="tdd5">2 Red</td>
+<td class="tdd5" rowspan="3"><span style="font-size: 300%;">}</span></td>
+<td class="tdd5">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="tdd5">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="tdd5">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="tdd5">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd5 padleft">"</td>
+<td class="tdd5 padright">=</td>
+<td class="tdd5">2 Purple-red</td>
+<td class="tdd5" colspan="4">+ Dark Brown or Black</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd5 padleft">"</td>
+<td class="tdd5 padright">=</td>
+<td class="tdd5">2 Russet</td>
+<td class="tdd5" colspan="4"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd5">Gray</td>
+<td class="tdd5 padright">=</td>
+<td class="tdd5">Black</td>
+<td class="tdd5">+</td>
+<td class="tdd5">Blue</td>
+<td class="tdd5" rowspan="3"><span style="font-size: 300%;">}</span></td>
+<td class="tdd5"></td>
+<td class="tdd5">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd5 padleft">"</td>
+<td class="tdd5 padright">=</td>
+<td class="tdd5 padleft">"</td>
+<td class="tdd5">+</td>
+<td class="tdd5">Purple-blue</td>
+<td class="tdd5">+</td>
+<td class="tdd5">2 White</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd5 padleft">"</td>
+<td class="tdd5 padright">=</td>
+<td class="tdd5 padleft">"</td>
+<td class="tdd5">+</td>
+<td class="tdd5">Olive</td>
+<td class="tdd5">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="tdd5">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd5 padleft">"</td>
+<td class="tdd5 padright">=</td>
+<td class="tdd5">2 Blue</td>
+<td class="tdd5" rowspan="3"><span style="font-size: 300%;">}</span></td>
+<td class="tdd5">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="tdd5">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="tdd5">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="tdd5">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd5 padleft">"</td>
+<td class="tdd5 padright">=</td>
+<td class="tdd5">2 Purple-blue</td>
+<td class="tdd5" colspan="4">+ Light Brown, or Black + 2 White</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd5 padleft">"</td>
+<td class="tdd5 padright">=</td>
+<td class="tdd5">2 Olive</td>
+<td class="tdd5">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="tdd5">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="tdd5">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="tdd5">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>In the last division, the White has been added to remind the reader that
+grays are coloured greys, not coloured blacks; and are therefore faint
+of hue. This paleness, however, need not necessarily be produced by
+admixture with white: it can be gained by means of thin washes. As a
+pigment, gray may be to all appearance black in bulk.</p>
+
+
+<h4>285. NEUTRAL TINT,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">or, more correctly, <i>Semi</i>-Neutral Tint, is a compound shadow colour of
+a cool character. It is permanent, except that on exposure the gray is
+apt to become grey, a change which may be prevented by a slight addition
+of ultramarine ash. So protected, it becomes serviceable in landscape
+for the extreme distance, which, it may be laid down as a general
+principle, should be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_378" id="Page_378">[378]</a></span> painted rather cold than otherwise. Blue being the
+principal compound of atmosphere, it is of the utmost importance to
+obtain this in the first instance, particularly as, from its being only
+of a blue tint, not blue colour, it is so immediately altered and acted
+upon by subsequent washes; whereas, the blue tone once lost, it will be
+found very difficult to be recovered. Wherever a picture is wanting in
+air effect, the cause will, upon examination, be seen to rest entirely
+upon the absence of pure grays, bordering upon a bluish tone, not
+tending, be it observed, to brown or purple. A bluish gray, then, of
+rather a cold tone, such as the neutral tint, is recommended as the
+prevailing hue with which to begin the extreme distances; and, as a
+rule, it is better to pass with this over as much of the landscape as
+possible, and thus lay the foundation for a general atmosphere.</p>
+
+
+<h4>286. PAYNE'S GRAY</h4>
+
+<p class="no">resembles the preceding in being a compound colour and liable to assume
+a grey cast by time, but differs from it in having more lilac in its
+hue, and being therefore of a warmer tone. Giving by itself a clear
+violet shadow, it may be rendered more neutral by a small portion of
+burnt Sienna, an admixture which, whether the gray or Sienna
+<ins class="correction" title="predominate read predominates">predominates</ins>, affords useful tints. Compounded with light red or Vandyke
+brown, the gray is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_379" id="Page_379">[379]</a></span> good for shipping and sails, or the stems and
+branches of trees; while with gamboge or aureolin it is suited to glossy
+leaves in high light, also to very cold tones in foregrounds, herbage,
+&amp;c. Yellow ochre, light red, and Payne's gray form a mixture for banks
+and roads; the ochre, gray, and sepia, a most beautiful tint for stones;
+and brown madder and the gray, a fine shade for the black head and feet
+of cattle. Alone, the gray is serviceable for slate; and compounded with
+light red, for bricks or tiles in shadow.</p>
+
+
+<h4>287. ULTRAMARINE ASH</h4>
+
+<p class="no">is obtained from the stone after the richer and more intense blue has
+been extracted. Although not equal in beauty, and inferior in strength
+of colour to ultramarine, it is a valuable bye-product varying in shade
+from light to dark, and in hue from pale azure to cold blue. With a grey
+cast, it affords delicate and extremely tender tints, not so positive as
+ultramarine, but which, as water-colours, wash much better. It furnishes
+grays softer, purer, and more suited to the pearly tints of flesh,
+skies, distances, foliage, shadows of drapery, &amp;c. than those composed
+of other blues, with white and black, which the old masters were wont to
+employ. Ultramarine, however, produces the same effects when broken with
+black and white, and is thus sometimes carried throughout the colouring
+of a picture. The ash, compounded<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_380" id="Page_380">[380]</a></span> with lamp black, gives a soft cold
+gray for dark louring clouds, or for twilight away from the sun's
+influence. Alone it is adapted to very remote hills or mountains, and
+with orient yellow or aureolin to distant foliage.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<p>The native phosphate of iron, which has been already described in the
+tenth chapter under its name of Blue Ochre, might have been classed
+among the grays, being similar in colour to the deeper hues of
+ultramarine ashes. Powdered slate, slate clays, and several native
+earths, likewise rank with grays; but some of the earths we have tried
+are not durable, being apt to become brown by the oxidation of the iron
+they contain. It may be proper here to mention those other pigments,
+known as tints, which, being the result of the experience of accredited
+masters in their peculiar modes of practice, serve to facilitate the
+progress of their amateur pupils, while they are more or less eligible
+for artists. Such are <i>Harding's</i> and <i>Macpherson's Tints</i>, composed of
+pigments which associate cordially, and sold ready prepared in cakes and
+boxes for miniature and water painting.</p>
+
+<p>Of the four grays in use&mdash;mineral gray, ultramarine ash, neutral tint,
+and Payne's gray&mdash;the two first are quite unchangeable, and the others
+sufficiently stable to be classed as permanent.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_381" id="Page_381">[381]</a></span><a name="chapter_20" id="chapter_20"></a><a href="#contents">CHAPTER XX.</a></h2>
+
+<h3>ON THE NEUTRAL, GREY.</h3>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Grey</span> is the second and intermediate of the neutral colours, standing
+between <i>white</i> and <i>black</i>. True or normal grey is only obtainable by
+admixture of pure white with pure black, various proportions of which
+afford numerous tones of pure grey. In practice it may likewise be
+produced by a thin wash of black over white. The neutral gr<i>e</i>y differs
+from the semi-neutral gr<i>a</i>y in not being coloured by any primary,
+secondary, tertiary, or semi-neutral; hence any blue, purple, olive, or
+gray added to it, at once destroys the neutrality of grey, and converts
+it into gray. Thus easily defiled and changed in class, grey is rather a
+theoretical than a practical colour. To our knowledge, there has never
+been a true grey pigment, that is, one composed exclusively of pure
+white and pure black; the gr<i>a</i>ys known to the palette as Mineral Grey
+and Payne's Grey having been incorrectly named. Practically, the nearest
+approach to a normal grey is furnished<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_382" id="Page_382">[382]</a></span> by Black Lead, which forms grey
+tints of greater permanence and purity than the blacks in general use,
+and is now employed for this purpose with approved satisfaction by
+experienced artists.</p>
+
+<p>Being compounded of white and black, grey partakes in some measure of
+the qualities of both those colours&mdash;for colours, as a matter of
+convenience, they must be called; although white is often spoken of as
+no colour, and black as the complete extinction of all colour. With
+white predominant, grey is used, pure or coloured, for the general
+lights of a picture; just as, with black predominant, grey is employed,
+pure or coloured, for the shades. It helps to subdue the absolute white,
+and to make the absolute black conspicuous. Black and white are in some
+respects complementary to each other, and when in contact, appear to
+differ more from each other than when viewed separately: both show with
+best effect when harmonised by a medium of grey, normal or otherwise.
+The primary colours, also, gain in brilliancy and purity by the
+proximity of grey. With dark colours, such as blue and violet, and deep
+tones in general, grey forms assortments of analogous harmonies; while
+with the luminous colours, such as red, orange, yellow, and the light
+tints of green, it forms harmonies of contrast. Although grey never
+produces a bad effect in its assortments with two luminous colours, in
+most cases the association is dull and inferior to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_383" id="Page_383">[383]</a></span> black and white. The
+only instance in which grey associates with two such colours more
+happily than white is that with red and orange. Grey is inferior to both
+white and black with red and green, red and yellow, orange and yellow,
+orange and green, yellow and green; and is not so good as white with
+yellow and blue. In association with sombre colours, such as blue and
+violet, and with broken tones of luminous colours, grey gives rise to
+harmonies of analogy which have not the vigour of those with white; but
+if the colours do not combine well together, it has the advantage of
+separating them from each other. Associated with two colours, one
+sombre, the other luminous, grey will perhaps be better than white, if
+white produces too strong a contrast of tone: on the other hand, grey
+will be preferable to black, if that has the inconvenience of increasing
+too much the proportion of sombre colours. Grey associates more happily
+than black with orange and violet, green and blue, or green and violet.</p>
+
+
+<h4>288. MIXED GREY.</h4>
+
+<p>When a ray of solar light (a sunbeam) is passed through a prism of flint
+glass, and the image or 'prismatic spectrum' received upon a screen of
+white paper, it is found to consist of numerous rays of different
+colours, which are conveniently divided into six groups&mdash;red, orange,
+yellow,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_384" id="Page_384">[384]</a></span> green, blue, violet. Optically, the union of red, yellow, and
+blue, in proper proportions, constitutes white light; whether the rays
+of the three separate colours are mixed, or of one with the other two in
+combination: the same result ensues when red is mixed with green as if
+it were mixed with blue and yellow, because green is composed of blue
+and yellow. Consequently, any primary mixed with a secondary composed of
+the other two primaries, forms the complement of rays necessary to
+constitute or make up white light, and vice vers&acirc;.</p>
+
+<p>There is, however, a very great difference between the results arising
+from the mixture of the pure coloured rays of the spectrum, and those
+from material colours or pigments. When, by means of a convex lens, we
+reunite the coloured rays of the spectrum white light is reproduced; but
+when we mix coloured materials, blues, yellows, and reds, the compound
+is never white, but grey or black; even if these coloured pigments are
+taken in the exact proportions in which their colours exist in the
+spectrum. Ultramarine, our purest blue, reflects red rays as well as
+blue rays; aureolin, our purest yellow, reflects blue as well as yellow
+rays; and carmine reflects yellow as well as red rays. Now whenever the
+third primary colour is present in any mixture of coloured materials, it
+tends to form grey, by mixing with a sufficient quantity of the other<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_385" id="Page_385">[385]</a></span>
+coloured rays to neutralize it, and the presence of this grey breaks or
+tarnishes the pure colour. Hence it is that to obtain a pure green, a
+blue should be taken tinged with yellow rather than with red, and a
+yellow tinged with blue: if there were chosen either a blue or a yellow
+tinged with red, this latter colour would go to form some grey in the
+compound, which would tarnish the green. In like manner, to produce pure
+orange, neither the red nor the yellow must contain blue; and similarly
+with pure purple, neither the blue nor red should contain yellow.</p>
+
+<p>As regards pigments, then, a proper mixture of yellow, red, and blue; or
+of yellow and purple, red and green, or blue and orange; or of orange,
+green, and purple, affords black if sufficiently intense, and grey if
+sufficiently diluted. The black may be rendered grey by spreading a thin
+wash over a white ground, or by the direct addition of white. It must be
+remembered, however, that suitable proportions of the component colours
+are essential. When all three of the primaries, for example, are mixed
+together, colour is neutralised according as they are compounded of
+equal strength and in right quantities: if proper proportions are
+observed, pure black or normal grey results; but if not, there will be
+produced a coloured black or a coloured grey, an excess of one or two of
+the primaries giving rise to brown, marrone, or gray.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_386" id="Page_386">[386]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>A reference to the lists of permanent primary and secondary pigments
+will show to what extent durable greys can be compounded. As these
+pigments differ so widely in hue and other properties, no fixed rules
+can be given for their admixture: to ensure neutrality, practice and a
+correct eye are indispensable. Without perfect neutrality, difficult to
+attain and rarely to be met with, grey ceases to exist. In pure white,
+pure grey, and pure black, colour is, so to speak, conspicuous by its
+absence.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_387" id="Page_387">[387]</a></span><a name="chapter_21" id="chapter_21"></a><a href="#contents">CHAPTER XXI.</a></h2>
+
+<h3>ON THE NEUTRAL, BLACK.</h3>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Black</span> is the last and lowest in the series or scale of colours
+descending&mdash;the opposite extreme from white&mdash;the maximum of colour. To
+be perfect, it must be neutral with respect to colours individually, and
+absolutely transparent, or destitute of reflective power as regards
+light; its use in painting being to represent shade or depths, of which
+black is the element in a picture and in colours, as white is of light.</p>
+
+<p>As there is no perfectly pure and transparent black pigment, black
+deteriorates all colours in deepening them, as it does warm colours by
+partially neutralizing them, but it combines less injuriously with cold
+colours. Though black is the antagonist of white, yet added to it in
+minute portion, it in general renders white more neutral, solid, and
+local, with less of the character of light. Impure black is brown, but
+black in its purity is a cold colour, and communicates a coolness to all
+light colours; thus it <i>blues</i> white, <i>greens</i> yellow,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_388" id="Page_388">[388]</a></span> <i>purples</i> red,
+and <i>cools</i> blue. Hence the artist errs with ill effect who regards
+black as of nearest affinity to hot and brown colours, and will do well
+to keep in mind&mdash;"The glow of sunshine and the <i>cool</i> of shade."</p>
+
+<p>It is a fault of even some of our best colourists, as evinced by their
+pictures, to be too fond of black upon their palettes, and thence to
+infuse it needlessly into their tints and colours. With such it is a
+taste acquired from the study of old pictures; but in nature hardly any
+object above ground is black, or in daylight is rendered neutral
+thereby. Black, therefore, should be reserved for a local colour, or
+employed only in the under-painting properly called grounding and dead
+colouring. As a local colour, black has the effect of connecting or
+amassing surrounding objects, and is the most retiring of all colours, a
+property which it communicates to other colours in mixture. It heightens
+the effect of warm as well as light colours, by a double contrast when
+opposed to them, and in like manner subdues that of cold and deep
+colours. In mixture or glazing, however, these effects are reversed, by
+reason of the predominance of cold colour in the constitution of black.
+Having, therefore, the double office of colour and of shade, black is
+perhaps the most important of all colours to the artist, both as to its
+use and avoidance.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_389" id="Page_389">[389]</a></span>It may be laid down as a rule that the black must be conspicuous.
+However small a point of black may be, it ought to catch the eye,
+otherwise the work is too heavy in the shadow. All the ordinary shadows
+should be of some <i>colour</i>&mdash;never black, nor approaching black, they
+should be evidently and always of a luminous nature, and the black
+should look strange among them; never occurring except in a black
+object, or in small points indicative of intense shade in the very
+centre of masses of shadow. Shadows of absolutely negative grey,
+however, may be beautifully used with white, or with gold; but still
+though the black thus, in subdued strength, becomes spacious, it should
+always be conspicuous: the spectator should notice this grey neutrality
+with some wonder, and enjoy, all the more intensely on account of it,
+the gold colour and the white which it relieves. Of all the great
+colourists, Velasquez is the greatest master of the black chords: his
+black is more precious than other people's crimson. Yet it is not simply
+black and white that must be made valuable, rare worth must be given to
+each colour employed; but the white and black ought to separate
+themselves quaintly from the rest, while the other colours should be
+continually passing one into the other, being all plainly companions in
+the same gay world; while the white, black, and neutral grey should
+stand monkishly aloof in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_390" id="Page_390">[390]</a></span> midst of them. Crimson may be melted into
+purple, purple into blue, and blue into green, but none of them must be
+melted into black.</p>
+
+<p>All colours are comprehended in the synthesis of black, consequently the
+whole sedative power of colour is comprised in black. It is the same in
+the synthesis of white; and, with like relative consequence, white
+includes all the stimulating powers of colour in painting. It follows
+that a little white or black is equivalent to much colour, and hence
+their use as colours requires judgment and caution. By due attention to
+the synthesis of black, it may be rendered a harmonizing medium to all
+colours, to all which it lends brilliancy by its sedative effect on the
+eye, and its powers of contrast: nevertheless, we repeat, it must be
+introduced with caution when <i>hue</i> is of greater importance than shade.
+Even when employed as a shadow, without much judgment in its use, black
+is apt to appear as local colour rather than as privation of light; and
+black pigments obtained by charring have a tendency to rise and
+predominate over other hues, subduing the more delicate tints by their
+chemical bleaching power upon other colours, and their own disposition
+to turn brown or dusky. For these reasons deep and transparent colours,
+which have darkness in their constitution, are better adapted as a rule
+for producing the true natural and permanent effects of shade. Many
+pictures of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_391" id="Page_391">[391]</a></span> early masters, and especially of the Roman and
+Florentine schools, evince the truth of our remarks; and it is to be
+feared the high reputation of these works has betrayed their admirers
+into this defective employment of black.</p>
+
+<p>Black substances reflect a small quantity of white light, which receives
+the complementary of the colour contiguous to the black. By
+'complementary' is meant that colour which is required with another
+colour to form white light; thus, green is the complementary of red,
+blue of orange, and yellow of violet, or vice vers&acirc;; because green and
+red, blue and orange, and yellow and violet, each make up the full
+complement of rays necessary to form white light. Briefly digressing, we
+give the following mode of observing complementary colours:&mdash;Place a
+sheet of white paper on a table opposite to one of two windows admitting
+diffused daylight<a name="FNanchor_C_3" id="FNanchor_C_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_C_3" class="fnanchor">[C]</a> into a room; take a piece of coloured glass and so
+place it that the coloured light transmitted through it falls over the
+surface of the paper; then put an opaque object on the paper close to
+the coloured glass. The shadow of this object will not appear black or
+of the colour of the glass, as might be supposed, but of its
+complementary colour; thus if<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_392" id="Page_392">[392]</a></span> the glass is red, the colour of the
+shadow will be green, although the whole of the paper surrounding it
+appears red. Similarly, if the glass is blue, the shadow will appear
+orange; if it is green, the shadow will appear red; and so with other
+colours. It is absolutely essential, however, to the success of this
+experiment, that the paper be also illuminated with the white light
+admitted from the other window.</p>
+
+<p>It has been said that black substances reflect a small quantity of white
+light, which receives the complementary of the colour contiguous to the
+black. If this colour is deep, it gives rise to a luminous
+complementary, such as orange, or yellow, and enfeebles the black; while
+the other complementaries, such as violet or green, strengthen and
+purify it. In colours associated with black, if green is juxtaposed
+therewith, its complementary red, added to the black, makes it seem
+rusty. Those colours which best associate with black are orange, yellow,
+blue, and violet. It would be well to remember that black, being always
+deeper than the juxtaposed colour, entails contrast of tone, and tends
+to lower the tone of that colour.</p>
+
+<p>Most of the black pigments in use are obtained by charring, and owe
+their colour to the carbon they contain. As the objects of vegetal and
+animal nature may be blackened through every degree of impurity by the
+action of fire, black sub<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_393" id="Page_393">[393]</a></span>stances more or less fitted for pigments
+abound. The following are the chief native and artificial black
+pigments, or colours available as such:&mdash;</p>
+
+
+<h4>289. BLACK LEAD,</h4>
+
+<p class="no"><i>Plumbago</i>, or <i>Graphite</i>, contains in spite of its name no lead, being
+simply a species of carbon or charcoal. In most specimens iron is
+present, varying in quantity from a mere trace up to five per cent,
+together with silica and alumina. Sometimes manganese and titanic acid
+are likewise found. It is curious that carbon should occur in two
+distinct and very dissimilar forms&mdash;as diamond, and as graphite; one,
+white, hard, and transparent; the other, black, soft, and opaque: the
+artist, therefore, who uses a pigment of plumbago, paints with nothing
+more or less than a black diamond. The best graphite, the finest and
+most valuable for pencils, is yielded by the mine of Borrowdale, at the
+west end of Derwent Lake, in Cumberland, where it was first wrought
+during the reign of Elizabeth. A kind of irregular vein traverses the
+ancient slate-beds of that district, furnishing the carbon of an
+iron-grey colour, metallic lustre, and soft and greasy to the touch.
+Universally employed in the form of crayons, &amp;c. in sketching,
+designing, and drawing, until of late years it was not acknowledged as a
+pigment: yet its powers in this respect claim a place for it. As a
+water-colour, levigated in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_394" id="Page_394">[394]</a></span> gum in the usual manner, it may be
+effectively used with rapidity and freedom in the shading and finishing
+of pencil drawings, or as a substitute therein for Indian ink. Even in
+oil it may be employed occasionally, as it possesses remarkably the
+property of covering, forms very pure grey, dries quickly, injures no
+colour chemically, and endures for ever. These qualities render it the
+most eligible black for adding to white in minute quantity to preserve
+the neutrality of its tint.</p>
+
+<p>Although plumbago has usurped the name of Black Lead, there is another
+substance more properly entitled to this appellation, and which may be
+used in the same way, and with like effects as a pigment. This substance
+is the sulphide of lead, found native in the beautiful lead ore, or
+Galena, of Derbyshire. An artificial sulphide can be prepared by dry and
+wet processes, which is subject to gradual oxidation on exposure to the
+air, and consequent conversion into grey or white. Neither variety can
+be compared to graphite for permanence, although the native is
+preferable to the artificial.</p>
+
+<p>Plumbago, or the so-called Black Lead, is often adulterated to an
+enormous extent with lamp black.</p>
+
+
+<h4>290. BLUE BLACK,</h4>
+
+<p class="no"><i>Charcoal</i>, <i>Liege</i>, or <i>Vine Black</i>, is a well-burnt and levigated
+charcoal prepared from vine twigs,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_395" id="Page_395">[395]</a></span> of weaker body than ivory or lamp
+black, and consequently better suited to the grays and general mixed
+tints of landscape painting, in which it is not so likely to look black
+and sooty as the others may do. Of a cool neutral tint, it has, in
+common with all carbonaceous blacks, a preserving influence on white
+when duly mixed therewith; which it owes, chemically, to the bleaching
+power of carbon, and, chromatically, to the neutralizing and contrasting
+power of black with white. Compounded slightly with blue black, and
+washed over with zinc white, white lead may be exposed to any ordinary
+impure atmosphere with comparative impunity. It would be well for art if
+carbon had a like power upon the colour of oils, but of this it is
+deficient; and although chlorine destroys their colour temporarily, they
+re-acquire it at no very distant period.</p>
+
+<p>Alone, blue black is useful as a cool shade for white draperies; and
+compounded with cobalt, affords a good gray for louring clouds.</p>
+
+
+<h4>291. BRITISH INK</h4>
+
+<p class="no">is a compound black, preferred by some artists to Indian ink, on account
+of its not being liable to wash streaky, as the latter does: at the same
+time it is not so perfectly fixed on the paper as Indian ink.</p>
+
+
+<h4>292. INDIAN INK,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">sometimes called <i>China</i> or <i>Chinese Ink</i>, is chiefly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_396" id="Page_396">[396]</a></span> brought from
+China in oblong cakes, of a musky scent, ready prepared for painting in
+water. Varying considerably in body and colour, the best has a shining
+black fracture, is finely compact, and homogeneous when rubbed with
+water, in which, when largely diluted, it yields no precipitate. Without
+the least appearance of particles, its dry surface is covered with a
+pellicle of a metallic appearance. When dry on the paper, it resists the
+action of water, yet it will give way at once to that action, when it
+has been used and dried on marble or ivory, a fact which proves that the
+alummed paper forms a strong combination with the ink; possibly a
+compound of the latter on an aluminous base, might even be employed in
+oil. Different accounts are given of the mode of making this ink, the
+principal substance or colouring matter of which is a smoke black,
+having all the properties of our lamp black; the variety of its hues and
+texture seeming wholly to depend on the degree of burning and levigating
+it receives. From certain Chinese documents, we learn that the ink of
+Nan-king is the most esteemed; and among the many sorts imported into
+this country, we find those of the best quality are prepared with lamp
+black of the oil of Sesame; with which are combined camphor, and the
+juice of a plant named <b>Houng hoa</b> to give it brightness of tone.
+According to an analysis by M. Proust, the better kinds contain about
+two per<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_397" id="Page_397">[397]</a></span> cent. of camphor. By some, the pigment known as Sepia has been
+supposed to enter into their composition.</p>
+
+<p><i>Liquid Indian Ink</i> is a solution for architects, surveyors, &amp;c.</p>
+
+
+<h4>293. IVORY BLACK</h4>
+
+<p class="no">is ivory charred to blackness by strong heat in closed vessels.
+Differing chiefly through want of care or skill in preparing, when well
+made it is the richest and most transparent of all the blacks, a fine
+neutral colour perfectly durable and eligible both in water and oil.
+When insufficiently burnt, however, it is brown, and dries badly; or if
+too much burnt, it becomes cineritious, opaque, and faint in hue. With a
+slight tendency to brown in its pale washes, this full, silky black is
+serviceable where the sooty density of lamp black would be out of place.
+It is occasionally adulterated with bone black, a cheaper and inferior
+product.</p>
+
+<p>Being nothing more nor less than animal charcoal, ivory or bone black
+had best not be compounded with organic pigments, in water at least. It
+is well known that this charcoal possesses the singular property of
+completely absorbing the colour of almost any vegetal or animal
+solution, and of rendering quite limpid and colourless the water charged
+with it. If a solution of indigo in concentrated sulphuric acid be
+diluted with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_398" id="Page_398">[398]</a></span> water, and animal charcoal added in sufficient quantity,
+the solution will soon be deprived of colour. The more perfect the ivory
+or bone black, the more powerful is its action likely to be: either over
+or under calcined, animal charcoal is less energetic; in the former
+case, because it is less porous; in the latter, because the animal
+matter, not being wholly consumed, makes a kind of varnish in the
+charcoal which interferes with its acting. To a greater or less extent,
+gums, oils, and varnishes serve similarly as preventives, thereby
+decreasing the danger of employing these blacks in admixture; but, in
+the compounding of colours, nothing is gained by needless risk. To mix
+with organic pigments, therefore, blue or lamp blacks should be
+substituted for those of ivory or bone; that is, vegetal charcoal should
+be used instead of animal. It is a question whether even with inorganic
+pigments the adoption of the former in admixture would not be advisable.
+It was once the general opinion that the action of animal charcoal was
+limited to bodies of organic origin, but it has since been found that
+inorganic matters are likewise influenced. "Through its agency," says
+Graham, "even the iodine is separated from iodide of potassium;" whence
+probably pigments containing iodine would suffer by contact. The
+investigation of Weppen appears to prove that the action of the charcoal
+extends to all metallic<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_399" id="Page_399">[399]</a></span> salts; with the following, no doubt remains of
+this being so, to wit:&mdash;the sulphates of copper, zinc, chromium, and
+protoxide of iron; the nitrates of lead, nickel, silver, cobalt,
+suboxide and oxide of mercury; the protochlorides of tin and mercury;
+the acetates of lead and sesquioxide of iron; and the tartrate of
+antimony. Whether animal charcoal exercises any deleterious influence on
+pigments consisting of these metals, and, if so, how far and under what
+circumstances, can only be answered when our knowledge of the properties
+of pigments is greater than it now is. At present, perhaps, it is safer
+to choose vegetal charcoal for mixed tints, inasmuch as, although it
+shares the property of bleaching in a certain degree, it does not
+possess the same energy.</p>
+
+
+<h4>294. LAMP BLACK,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">or <i>Lamblack</i>, is a smoke black, being the soot procured by the burning
+of resins or resinous woods. It is a pure vegetal charcoal of fine
+texture, not quite so intense nor so transparent as the black made from
+ivory, but less brown in its pale tones. It has a very strong body that
+covers readily every underlay of colour, works well, but dries badly in
+oil. On emergency, it may be prepared extemporaneously for
+water-painting by holding a plate over the flame of a lamp or candle,
+and adding gum to the colour: the nearer the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_400" id="Page_400">[400]</a></span> plate is held to the wick
+of the lamp, the more abundant and warm will be the hue of the black
+obtained; at a greater distance it will be more effectually charred, and
+blacker.</p>
+
+<p>Mixed with French blue or cobalt, lamp black gives good cloudy grays,
+which are useful for the shadows of heavy storm clouds. With French blue
+and this black alone various beautiful stormy skies may be represented;
+the contrast of the blue causing the black to assume, if desired, a warm
+tone in shadows. For like purposes, the black with ultramarine ash
+affords a very soft hue, and with light red and cobalt in different
+proportions yields silvery tones most serviceable. To the dark marking
+of murky and dirty clouds, a compound of lamp black and light red is
+particularly suited; while a mixture of the black with cobalt and purple
+madder is adapted for slate-coloured sunset and sunrise clouds. French
+blue softened with a little lamp black is fitted for mountains or hills,
+very remote; and the same blue and black with rose madder meet their
+tints if nearer. In seas the black is useful with raw Sienna and other
+colours; while, whether in storm or calm, vessels and boats may be
+painted with tints of lamp black, madder brown, and burnt Sienna,
+varying in degrees of strength according to the distances. Lamp black
+alone, or with French blue, cobalt and purple madder, emerald green, or
+rose madder, is good for rocks; and for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_401" id="Page_401">[401]</a></span> dark foreground objects when
+mixed with madder lake and burnt Sienna. With aureolin the black
+furnishes a sober olive for foliage, and with rose madder a fine colour
+for the stems and branches of trees. Compounded with light red, it is
+suited to the first general tones of the ground for banks and roads; and
+with yellow ochre or madder red, to parts of buildings and cattle. A
+very eminent miniature painter recommends for hair tints, lamp black,
+Indian red, and burnt Sienna. Being a dense solid colour, this black
+must be used sparingly to avoid heaviness.</p>
+
+<p>Hitherto confined to painting and engraving, lamp black has lately
+refuted the assertion that there is nothing new under the sun by making
+its appearance in photography. By a method which combines the fidelity
+of that art with the permanence of prints, there is produced a species
+of photographic engraving, so to speak, having lamp black or carbon for
+its colouring matter. Indeed, in this 'Autotype' process, as it is
+called, any other durable pigment or pigments may be used, and a
+photographic picture thus obtained. In copying the works of artists,
+especially, the mode promises to be of value, inasmuch as by its agency
+the same pigments may be made the colouring matter of the reproduction
+as are employed in the original. If this be in sepia or bistre, the copy
+can be autotyped in those colours; or if a red chalk drawing be required
+to be multiplied, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_402" id="Page_402">[402]</a></span> proofs may be in red chalk, the copy when
+produced to the same scale being scarcely distinguishable from the
+original. In like manner, any single colour of the artist's palette is
+applicable without restriction or limitation, so that not only are every
+line and touch rendered absolutely, but the very pigment used in the
+original is found in the copy. Moreover, as the pigments are quite
+unchanged by the action of the other agents employed, the resulting
+colour of the print is determined once for all, just as the artist mixes
+those pigments on his palette for his picture. As extending the use of
+lamp black and permanent pigments in general, this brief digression on
+Autotypography may be pardoned in a treatise on colours.</p>
+
+
+<h4>295. MIXED BLACK.</h4>
+
+<p>Black is to be considered as a synthesis of the three primary colours,
+the three secondaries, or the three tertiaries, or of all these
+together; and, consequently, also of the three semi-neutrals, and may
+thus be composed of due proportions of either tribe or triad. All
+antagonistic colours, or contrasts, likewise afford the neutral black by
+composition; but in all the modes of producing black by compounding
+colours, blue is to be regarded as its archeus or predominating colour,
+and yellow as subordinate to red, in the proportions, when their hues
+are true, of eight blue,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_403" id="Page_403">[403]</a></span> five red, and three yellow. It is owing to
+this predominance of blue in the constitution of black, that it
+contributes by mixture to the pureness of hue in white colours, which
+usually incline to warmth, and that it produces the cool effect of
+blueness in glazing and tints, or however otherwise diluted or dilated.
+It accords with the principle here inculcated that in glass-founding the
+oxide of manganese, which gives the <i>red</i> hue, and that of cobalt, which
+furnishes the <i>blue</i>, are added to brown or <i>yellow</i> frit, to obtain a
+velvety black glass. Similarly the dyer proceeds to dye black upon a
+deep blue basis of indigo, with the ruddy colour of madder and the
+yellow of quercitron, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>Some of the best blacks and neutrals of the painter are those formed
+with colours of sufficient power and transparency upon the palette.
+Prussian blue and burnt lake afford a powerful though not very durable
+black; and compound blacks in which transparent pigments are employed
+will generally go deeper and harmonize better with other colours than
+any original black pigment alone. Hence lakes and deep blues, added to
+the common blacks, greatly increase their clearness and intensity: in
+mixture and glazing of the fine blacks of some old pictures, ultramarine
+has evidently been used. In this view, black altogether compounded of
+blue with red and yellow, each deep and transparent, and duly
+subordinated<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_404" id="Page_404">[404]</a></span> according to its powers, will give the most powerful and
+transparent blacks; although, like most other blacks, they dry badly in
+oil. Of course, as with all compound colours, it depends entirely on the
+pigments employed whether these mixed blacks are permanent or not: a
+compound black can very well pass through the stages of black to grey,
+gray, or dirty white, if each link in the chain of combination be not as
+strong as its fellows.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<h4>296. <i>Black Chalk</i></h4>
+
+<p class="no">is an indurated clay, of the texture of white chalk, and chiefly used
+for cutting into crayons. Fine specimens have been found near Bantry in
+Ireland, and in Wales, but the Italian has the most reputation. Crayons
+for sketching and drawing are also artificially prepared, which are
+deeper in colour and free from grit. Wood charcoal is likewise cut into
+crayons, that of soft woods, such as lime, poplar, &amp;c., being best
+adapted for the purpose.</p>
+
+
+<h4>297. <i>Black Ochre</i>,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">Earth Black, or Prussian Black, is a native earth, combined with iron
+and alluvial clay. It is found in most countries, and should be washed
+and exposed to the atmosphere before being employed.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_405" id="Page_405">[405]</a></span> Sea-coal, and
+other black mineral substances, have been and may be used as substitutes
+for the more perfect blacks, when the latter are not procurable, which
+now seldom or never happens.</p>
+
+
+<h4>298. <i>Bone Black</i>,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">obtained by charring, is similar to that of ivory, except that it is a
+little warmer in tone, having a reddish or orange tinge, and is a worse
+drier in oil. Like ivory black, it is very transparent. Immense
+quantities of bone black are consumed with sulphuric acid in the
+manufacture of shoe blacking.</p>
+
+
+<h4>299. <i>Coffee Black</i>,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">though little known and not on sale, has been strongly recommended by
+Bouvier as one of the best blacks that can be used. Soft without being
+greasy, light, almost impalpable, even before being ground, it gives
+tints of a very bluish gray when mixed with white, a quality precious
+for making the blues of the sketch, and dull greens. It is said to dry
+better than blue or vine black, and to combine admirably with other
+colours. De Montabert prefers calling it Coffee Brown, giving it as an
+exemplification of a bluish-brown, but probably this brown hue is owing
+to want of skill in its manufacture. We have not had personal experience
+of the colour, but there is no<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_406" id="Page_406">[406]</a></span> theoretical reason why a carbonaceous
+black should not be produced from coffee. The mode of proceeding is to
+calcine the berry in a covered vessel, and well wash the resulting
+charcoal with boiling water by decantation. In order to prevent the
+powder, which is of great lightness, from floating, it is made into
+paste with a few drops of alcohol before adding the water.</p>
+
+
+<h4>300. <i>Frankfort Black</i></h4>
+
+<p class="no">is said to be made of the lees of wine from which the tartar has been
+washed, by burning, in the manner of ivory black; although the inferior
+sort is merely the levigated charcoal of woods, of which the hardest,
+such as box and ebony, yield the best. Fine Frankfort black, though
+almost confined to copper-plate printing, is one of the best black
+pigments extant, being of a neutral colour, next in intensity to lamp
+black, and more powerful than that of ivory. Strong light has the effect
+of deepening its colour. It is probable that this was the black used by
+some of the Flemish painters, and that the pureness of the greys formed
+therewith is due to the property of charred substances of preventing
+discolourment.</p>
+
+
+<h4>301. <i>Manganese Black</i>,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">the common black oxide of that metal, is the best of all blacks for
+drying in oil without addi<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_407" id="Page_407">[407]</a></span>tion. It is also a colour of vast body and
+tingeing power. As a siccative, it might be advantageously employed with
+ivory black.</p>
+
+
+<h4>302. <i>Mineral Black</i></h4>
+
+<p class="no">is a native impure carbon of soft texture, found in Devonshire. Blacker
+than plumbago, and free from its metallic lustre, it is of a neutral
+colour, greyer and more opaque than ivory black, and forms pure neutral
+tints. Being perfectly durable, and drying well in oil, it is of value
+in dead colouring on account of its solid body, as a preparation for
+black and deep colours before glazing. It would likewise be the most
+permanent and best possible black for frescoes.</p>
+
+
+<h4>303. <i>Paper Black</i>,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">a pigment unknown to the modern palette, like most of our numbered
+italicised colours, is of the nature of blue or vine black. Very soft
+and of a fine bluish-gray, it is fitted for flesh, or for mixing with
+whites or yellows in landscapes.</p>
+
+
+<h4>304. <i>Peach Black</i>,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">or Almond Black, made by burning the stones of fruits, the shell of the
+cocoa-nut, &amp;c., is a violet-black, once much used by Parisian artists.
+Bouvier believes it to be a good black, but at the same time sensibly
+asks, of what use is it to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_408" id="Page_408">[408]</a></span> have a black of this cast, which can always
+be given by lake, without diminishing but rather increasing the
+intensity of the black it may be mixed with.</p>
+
+
+<h4>305. <i>Prussian Black.</i></h4>
+
+<p>The same Prussian blue which gives a brown when burnt in the open air,
+yields a black when calcined in a close crucible. Very intense, very
+soft and velvety, and very agreeable to work, this bluish-black dries
+much more promptly than most other blacks, and scarcely requires
+grinding. On account of its extreme division, however, it would probably
+be found more energetic as a decolourising agent in admixture with
+organic pigments than most carbonaceous blacks.</p>
+
+<p>Another Prussian black, containing copper, and made by a wet process, is
+obtained when a dilute solution of cupric sulphate and ferrous sulphate,
+in proper proportions, is mixed with a quantity of ferrocyanide of
+potassium not in excess. A very bulky deep black precipitate is formed,
+which is difficult to wash, and is deep black when dry. It is insoluble
+in water, and appears to be a compound <ins class="trans" title="was analagous">analogous</ins> to Prussian blue. As a
+pigment, this black is inferior to the preceding.</p>
+
+
+<h4>306. <i>Purple Black</i></h4>
+
+<p class="no">is, or rather was, a preparation of madder, of a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_409" id="Page_409">[409]</a></span> deep purple hue
+approaching black. Powerful and very transparent, it glazed and dried
+well in oil, and was a durable and eligible pigment. Its tints with
+white lead were of a purple cast.</p>
+
+<h4>307. <i>Spanish Black</i>,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">or Cork Black, is a soft black, obtained by charring cork, and differs
+not essentially from Frankfort black, except in being of a lighter and
+softer texture. "Some of my friends," says Bouvier, "call it <i>Beggars'
+Ultramarine</i>, because it produces, by combinations, tints almost as fine
+as ultramarine." A blue but not a velvet black, where intensity is
+required some other is to be preferred. For mixtures, however, it is
+stated to be admirable, and especially for linen, skies, distances, and
+the various broken tints of carnations, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<p>Besides those blacks which have been mentioned, there are others
+furnished by several of the metals and by many organic substances
+employed as dyes; but as the blacks in common use are all permanent, and
+have been found sufficient for every purpose, it is scarce needful to
+swell the list. Nor is it more needful, the Editor considers, to swell
+the book; lest his aim be defeated of reflecting in a <i>moderate</i>-sized
+mirror the palette as it is and might be at the present day. Arrived at
+age, as it were, in its twenty-first chapter, this treatise may fitly
+con<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_410" id="Page_410">[410]</a></span>clude with Black, the last of the series of colours. Let us hope the
+maxim of Sir Joshua Reynolds, that success in some degree was never
+denied to earnest work may apply here.</p>
+
+<p>Still, by way of finale, we would offer a few remarks. In no branch of
+the science, perhaps, is it more hazardous to commit oneself to a
+positive dictum than in the chemistry of colours, so liable are theory
+and practice to clash, and so often does the experience of one person or
+one time differ from that of another. He who has turned his attention to
+pigments, finds nearly every assertion must be qualified, for to nearly
+every rule there is some exception, and learns that theory alone may
+mislead. For example, a colour known to be fugacious may last, in
+certain cases, a surprisingly long time; while, on the contrary, a
+pigment permanent when used alone, may be rendered fugitive by improper
+compounding. Again, what holds good of a colour produced by one process,
+or employed in one vehicle or by one artist, may not be true of the same
+colour made by a different mode, or used in another vehicle or by
+another artist. It is because, then, colours are of every degree of
+durability, from the perfectly stable to the utterly fugitive, and
+because each one is liable to influence by every condition of time,
+place, and circumstance, that the chemist's theory is opposed as often
+to the painter's practice as the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_411" id="Page_411">[411]</a></span> experience of artists themselves
+varies. This may explain the charges of inconsistency and contradiction
+which have been brought against writers on pigments, faults that lie
+rather with the nature of the subject than with the authors.</p>
+
+<p>Even at the risk of being tiresome, we have throughout insisted on the
+choice of permanent pigments, not simply for use alone but for mixed
+tints. To quote Cennini, "I give you this advice, that you endeavour
+always to use ... good colours.... And if you say that a poor person
+cannot afford the expense, I answer, that if you work well (and give
+sufficient time to your works), and paint with good colours, you will
+acquire so much fame that from a poor person you will become a rich one;
+and your name will stand so high for using good colours, that if some
+masters receive a ducat for painting one figure, you will certainly be
+offered two, and your wishes will be fulfilled, according to the old
+proverb, 'good work, good pay.'" Of a truth, if man cannot dip his brush
+in the rainbow and paint with the aerial colours of the skies, he can at
+least select the best pigments that earth and the sea afford him;
+preferring, where he cannot get brilliancy and permanence combined,
+sobriety and permanence to brilliancy and fugacity. It must be the wish
+of every real artist to leave behind him a lasting record of his skill,
+a permanent panorama of those<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_412" id="Page_412">[412]</a></span> hues of nature which in life he loved so
+well. To effect this, genius alone is powerless: there must be first a
+proper choice of materials, and next a proper use of them. The painter's
+pigments are the bricks wherewith the mortar of his mind must be mixed,
+either to erect an edifice that shall endure for ages, or one which will
+quickly topple over like a house of cards. Now in nothing more than in
+painting is prevention better than cure&mdash;indeed cure may be said to be
+here out of the question: for good or for evil a picture once painted is
+painted for ever. Without a strong constitution there is no hope for it;
+no chemistry can strengthen the sickly frame, restore the faded colour,
+stop the ravages of consumption: Science stands helpless before dying
+Art.</p>
+
+<p>And yet, she sighs to think, it might have been otherwise. If durable
+pigments had been employed, if her counsel had been sought, this need
+not have been. In the history of modern art the use and abuse of colours
+would furnish a sad chapter, telling of gross ignorance, and a grosser
+indifference. Happily there is promise of a healthier state of things.
+When this comes, Art will be less shy to consult her sister: in the
+interests of both there should be closer union. Without waiting till the
+picture is finished&mdash;for then it will be too late&mdash;let her, if in doubt,
+frankly display the contents of her palette and ask advice. Now, not
+knowing what pigments are chosen or how they are used,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_413" id="Page_413">[413]</a></span> never standing
+by and watching the progress of the work, how can Science lend her aid?
+She would willingly, for she herself needs help: at present her
+knowledge is limited, not so much of the chemistry of colours as of the
+properties of pigments. She seeks to mix her pound of theory with an
+ounce of practice, and craves a warmer welcome to the studio. For any
+approximation to the truth to be arrived at, facts must be noted with
+the conditions under which they occur, not by one sister alone nor by
+the other alone, but by both. In future, Art and Science should go hand
+in hand, mutually dependent on each other, mutually trustful of each
+other, working with and for each other, earnestly and patiently.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p style="text-indent: 0em;"><a name="Footnote_C_3" id="Footnote_C_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_C_3"><span class="label">[C]</span></a> Light is either direct or diffused&mdash;direct, when the sun's
+rays fall upon any object; diffused, when ordinary daylight illumines
+objects with white light, causing them to appear of their peculiar
+colours.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_414" id="Page_414">[414]</a></span><a name="addendum" id="addendum"></a><a href="#contents">ADDENDUM.</a></h2>
+
+<p>With the present rapid progress of applied chemistry, an addendum in a
+work of this kind is quite excusable. Even while the book is being
+printed some fact may be <ins class="trans" title="was announceed">announced</ins> which the author or editor would wish
+to insert. In our case this has happened. Very recently there has been
+introduced in France as a pigment</p>
+
+
+<h4><a href="#Page_308"><b>308</b></a>. TUNGSTEN WHITE,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">or <i>Tungstate of Baryta</i>. "At the request of a landscape painter," says
+M. Sacc in a letter to M. Dumas, "I was induced to examine in succession
+all our insoluble white compounds, with regard to their adaptability to
+painting purposes. Tungstate of baryta answers perfectly, covers as well
+as white lead, and is as unalterable as zinc white. It has been employed
+by this artist for three months, and was found equally successful in oil
+or water colours, chromolithography, and even in making white
+impressions on a black ground. This harmless substitute for the
+injurious white lead is prepared on a large scale in Paris<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_415" id="Page_415">[415]</a></span> by M. E.
+Rousseau." We have not met with a sample of that gentleman's
+manufacture, but judging from our own specimens, made both by wet and
+dry processes, and carefully tried in water and oil, it would seem that
+a perfect white pigment has yet to be discovered. With us, at least,
+tungstate of baryta is far from having the body of white lead, and
+indeed is inferior in opacity to good zinc white. Unaffected by foul
+air, the tungstate appears to possess the common fault of all whites
+when compared with white lead&mdash;want of body, moreover it is a bad dryer.
+However, M. Rousseau's preparation may not be open to these objections,
+and we therefore reserve our final opinion of tungsten white. It is
+intended to publish from time to time a fresh edition of Field's
+Chromatography, and we hope in the next issue to give a more detailed
+and favourable account of the new pigment.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_416" id="Page_416">[416]</a></span></p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_417" id="Page_417">[417]</a></span><a name="index" id="index"></a><a href="#contents">INDEX.</a></h2>
+
+<div class="block" style="width: 100%; font-size: 90%; text-align: left;">
+
+<h5 style="text-align: left; text-indent: 5em;">A.</h5>
+
+<ul class="sample2">
+<li>Acacia catechu,  <a href="#Page_354"><b>354</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Academy,  Royal,  at Burlington House,  <a href="#Page_365"><b>365</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Acetate of lead,  as a siccative,  <a href="#Page_51"><b>51</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> improper use of,  <a href="#Page_52"><b>52</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Adulteration,  <a href="#Page_70"><b>70</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span><span style="padding-right: .5em;">of</span> Anotta,  <a href="#Page_256"><b>256</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 3.5em;">"</span>    Artificial Ultramarine,  <a href="#Page_214"><b>214</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 3.5em;">"</span>    Black Lead,  <a href="#Page_394"><b>394</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 3.5em;">"</span>    Cadmium Yellow,  <a href="#Page_88"><b>88</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 3.5em;">"</span>    Carmine,  <a href="#Page_134"><b>134</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 3.5em;">"</span>    Chrome Yellow,  <a href="#Page_94"><b>94</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 3.5em;">"</span>    Cochineal,  <a href="#Page_132"><b>132</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 3.5em;">"</span>    Genuine Ultramarine,  <a href="#Page_214"><b>214</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 3.5em;">"</span>    Indigo,  <a href="#Page_202"><b>202</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 3.5em;">"</span>    Ivory Black,  <a href="#Page_397"><b>397</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 3.5em;">"</span>    Madder,  <a href="#Page_140"><b>140</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 3.5em;">"</span>    Madder Carmine,  <a href="#Page_142"><b>142</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 3.5em;">"</span>    Mars Yellow,  <a href="#Page_102"><b>102</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 3.5em;">"</span>    Prussian Blue,  <a href="#Page_203"><b>203</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 3.5em;">"</span>    Red Lead,  <a href="#Page_152"><b>152</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 3.5em;">"</span>    Smalt,  <a href="#Page_198"><b>198</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 3.5em;">"</span>    Verdigris,  <a href="#Page_276"><b>276</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 3.5em;">"</span>    Vermilion,  <a href="#Page_156"><b>156</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 3.5em;">"</span>    Veronese Green,  <a href="#Page_268"><b>268</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 3.5em;">"</span>    White Lead,  <a href="#Page_70"><b>70</b></a>,  <a href="#Page_74"><b>74</b></a>,  <a href="#Page_75"><b>75</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 3.5em;">"</span>    Yellow and Orange Orpiment,  <a href="#Page_113"><b>113</b></a>,  <a href="#Page_259"><b>259</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 3.5em;">"</span>    Zinc White,  <a href="#Page_77"><b>77</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Advancing and retiring colours,  <a href="#Page_186"><b>186</b></a>-<a href="#Page_188"><b>188</b></a>.</li>
+
+
+<li>Advice,  Cennini's,  <a href="#Page_411"><b>411</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Aerial perspective,  <a href="#Page_22"><b>22</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>African cochineal,  <a href="#Page_170"><b>170</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   green,  <a href="#Page_271"><b>271</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Air and light,  action of,  on pigments,  <a href="#Page_39"><b>39</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Air effect,  want of,  <a href="#Page_378"><b>378</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Albumen,  <a href="#Page_50"><b>50</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Alchemy,  <a href="#Page_259"><b>259</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Alexander the Great,  <a href="#Page_296"><b>296</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   Veronese,  <a href="#Page_284"><b>284</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Alkanet,  <a href="#Page_302"><b>302</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Almagra,  <a href="#Page_147"><b>147</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Almond Black,  <a href="#Page_407"><b>407</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>American artist,  an,  <a href="#Page_347"><b>347</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Analysis of Brown,  <a href="#Page_377"><b>377</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    Citrine,  <a href="#Page_329"><b>329</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    Gray,  <a href="#Page_377"><b>377</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    Marrone,  <a href="#Page_377"><b>377</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    Olive,  <a href="#Page_330"><b>330</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    Russet,  <a href="#Page_330"><b>330</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Anchusa tinctoria,  <a href="#Page_302"><b>302</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ancients,  colouring of the,  <a href="#chapter_1"><b>3</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   colours of the,  <a href="#Page_5"><b>5</b></a>,  <a href="#Page_6"><b>6</b></a>,  <a href="#Page_218"><b>218</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Aniline,  <a href="#Page_162"><b>162</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> colours,  <a href="#Page_162"><b>162</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   cakes of,  <a href="#Page_163"><b>163</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   in oil,  <a href="#Page_247"><b>247</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Animal &AElig;thiops,  <a href="#Page_348"><b>348</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> charcoal,  <a href="#Page_397"><b>397</b></a>-<a href="#Page_399"><b>399</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> jelly,  <a href="#Page_50"><b>50</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Anotta,  <a href="#Page_255"><b>255</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Antimony,  Golden Sulphur of,  <a href="#Page_256"><b>256</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    Orange,  <a href="#Page_256"><b>256</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    Red,  <a href="#Page_159"><b>159</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    White,  <a href="#Page_79"><b>79</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    Yellow,  <a href="#Page_105"><b>105</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Antipathies of pigments,  <a href="#Page_193"><b>193</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Antwerp Blue,  <a href="#Page_207"><b>207</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    Brown,  <a href="#Page_339"><b>339</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Apelles,  <a href="#Page_7"><b>7</b></a>,  <a href="#Page_293"><b>293</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Archil,  <a href="#Page_303"><b>303</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Purple,  <a href="#Page_303"><b>303</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Arethas,  <a href="#Page_217"><b>217</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Armenian blue,  <a href="#Page_5"><b>5</b></a>,  <a href="#Page_217"><b>217</b></a>,  <a href="#Page_228"><b>228</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   bole,  <a href="#Page_147"><b>147</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   stone,  <a href="#Page_228"><b>228</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Arsenical pigments,  <a href="#Page_273"><b>273</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Arsenic green,  substitutes for,  <a href="#Page_288"><b>288</b></a>,  <a href="#Page_290"><b>290</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   white,  <a href="#Page_79"><b>79</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   yellow,  <a href="#Page_116"><b>116</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Art and Science,  <a href="#Page_238"><b>238</b></a>,  <a href="#Page_412"><b>412</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_418" id="Page_418">[418]</a></span>Artificial Ultramarine,  <a href="#Page_209"><b>209</b></a>-<a href="#Page_216"><b>216</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> acid pigments with,  <a href="#Page_214"><b>214</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> adulteration of,  <a href="#Page_215"><b>215</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> green in,  <a href="#Page_211"><b>211</b></a>.</li>
+
+
+
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> gum with,  <a href="#Page_214"><b>214</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Artificial Ultramarine,  in siliceous painting,  <a href="#Page_212"><b>212</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   origin of,  <a href="#Page_209"><b>209</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   prize for,  <a href="#Page_209"><b>209</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   test for,  <a href="#Page_212"><b>212</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Artists and painters,  <a href="#Page_182"><b>182</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Arts,  Society of,  <a href="#Page_130"><b>130</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ash,  Ultramarine,  <a href="#Page_379"><b>379</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ashes,  Blue,  <a href="#Page_228"><b>228</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Asphaltic Lake,  the,  <a href="#Page_337"><b>337</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Asphaltum and Asphalt,  <a href="#Page_337"><b>337</b></a>.</li>
+<li>   <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> Liquid,  <a href="#Page_339"><b>339</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Association of Science,  British,  <a href="#Page_357"><b>357</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Assyrians,  colouring and colours of,  <a href="#Page_6"><b>6</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Augustus C&aelig;sar,  <a href="#Page_295"><b>295</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Aureolin,  <a href="#Page_42"><b>42</b></a>,  <a href="#Page_47"><b>47</b></a>,  <a href="#Page_83"><b>83</b></a>-<a href="#Page_87"><b>87</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> Chemical News on,  <a href="#Page_84"><b>84</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> in admixture,  <a href="#Page_86"><b>86</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> Mr. Aaron Penley on,  <a href="#Page_85"><b>85</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> the purest yellow,  <a href="#Page_84"><b>84</b></a>,  <a href="#Page_384"><b>384</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Aurine,  <a href="#Page_162"><b>162</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Autotype process,  the,  <a href="#Page_401"><b>401</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Avignon,  berries of,  <a href="#Page_312"><b>312</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Axiom,  a wholesome,  <a href="#Page_201"><b>201</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Axioms for compounding,  <a href="#Page_250"><b>250</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Azuline,  <a href="#Page_162"><b>162</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Azure,  <a href="#Page_192"><b>192</b></a>,  <a href="#Page_196"><b>196</b></a>,  <a href="#Page_217"><b>217</b></a>.</li>
+
+</ul>
+
+
+
+<h5 style="text-align: left; text-indent: 5em;">B.</h5>
+
+
+
+<ul class="sample2">
+
+<li>Barff,  Mr.,  <a href="#Page_212"><b>212</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Barium and Bismuth chrome greens,  <a href="#Page_280"><b>280</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Barthe and Laurent,  MM.,  <a href="#Page_235"><b>235</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bartholomew,  Mr.,  <a href="#Page_143"><b>143</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Baryta,  Ferrate of,  <a href="#Page_165"><b>165</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> Silicate of,  <a href="#Page_290"><b>290</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Barytic White,  <a href="#Page_65"><b>65</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Beauty in Pigments,  <a href="#Page_46"><b>46</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Beeswax,  <a href="#Page_50"><b>50</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Berries,  French,  Persian,  and Turkey,  <a href="#Page_212"><b>212</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Berzelius,  <a href="#Page_169"><b>169</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bice,  Green,  <a href="#Page_187"><b>187</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bignonia chica,  <a href="#Page_367"><b>367</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bismuth Purple,  <a href="#Page_304"><b>304</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bixa Orellana,  <a href="#Page_255"><b>255</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bixine,  <a href="#Page_256"><b>256</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Black,  <a href="#Page_27"><b>27</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> ancient,  <a href="#Page_5"><b>5</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> as a colour,  <a href="#Page_387"><b>387</b></a>,  <a href="#Page_391"><b>391</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> as a pigment,  <a href="#Page_389"><b>389</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> colours with,  <a href="#Page_392"><b>392</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> on the Neutral,  <a href="#Page_387"><b>387</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li><span class="smcap">Black Pigments</span>:&mdash;</li>
+
+
+<li><ul class="sample2">
+<li>  Almond Black,  <a href="#Page_407"><b>407</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Beggars' Ultramarine,  <a href="#Page_409"><b>409</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Black Chalk,  <a href="#Page_404"><b>404</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Black Lead,  <a href="#Page_382"><b>382</b></a>,  <a href="#Page_393"><b>393</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Black Ochre,  <a href="#Page_404"><b>404</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Blue Black,  <a href="#Page_394"><b>394</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Bone Black,  <a href="#Page_405"><b>405</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  British Ink,  <a href="#Page_395"><b>395</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Charcoal Black,  <a href="#Page_394"><b>394</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Chinese Ink,  <a href="#Page_395"><b>395</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Coffee Black,  <a href="#Page_405"><b>405</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Copper Prussian Black,  <a href="#Page_408"><b>408</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Cork Black,  <a href="#Page_409"><b>409</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Earth Black,  <a href="#Page_404"><b>404</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Frankfort Black,  <a href="#Page_406"><b>406</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Galena,  <a href="#Page_394"><b>394</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Graphite,  <a href="#Page_393"><b>393</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Indian Ink,  <a href="#Page_395"><b>395</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Ivory Black,  <a href="#Page_397"><b>397</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Lamp Black,  <a href="#Page_399"><b>399</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Liege Black,  <a href="#Page_394"><b>394</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Manganese Black,  <a href="#Page_406"><b>406</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Mineral Black,  <a href="#Page_407"><b>407</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Mixed Black,  <a href="#Page_402"><b>402</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Paper Black,  <a href="#Page_407"><b>407</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Peach Black,  <a href="#Page_407"><b>407</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Plumbago,  <a href="#Page_393"><b>393</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Prussian Black,  <a href="#Page_404"><b>404</b></a>,  <a href="#Page_408"><b>408</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Purple Black,  <a href="#Page_408"><b>408</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Spanish Black,  <a href="#Page_409"><b>409</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Vine Black,  <a href="#Page_394"><b>394</b></a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+
+
+<li>Bladder Green,  <a href="#Page_282"><b>282</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Blanc d'Argent,  <a href="#Page_71"><b>71</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Blending of pigments,  <a href="#Page_37"><b>37</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Blood,  Dragon's,  <a href="#Page_137"><b>137</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bloodstone,  <a href="#Page_147"><b>147</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Blue,  <a href="#Page_28"><b>28</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> ancient,  <a href="#Page_5"><b>5</b></a>,  <a href="#Page_217"><b>217</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> Armenian,  <a href="#Page_5"><b>5</b></a>,  <a href="#Page_217"><b>217</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> as a colour,  <a href="#Page_183"><b>183</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> contrast of,  <a href="#Page_185"><b>185</b></a>,  <a href="#Page_188"><b>188</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> discordant,  <a href="#Page_185"><b>185</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> on the Primary,  <a href="#Page_183"><b>183</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li><span class="smcap">Blue Pigments</span>:&mdash;</li>
+
+
+
+<li><ul class="sample2">
+
+<li>  Antwerp Blue,  <a href="#Page_207"><b>207</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Artificial Ultramarines,  <a href="#Page_209"><b>209</b></a>-<a href="#Page_216"><b>216</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Azure,  <a href="#Page_192"><b>192</b></a>,  <a href="#Page_217"><b>217</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Basic Prussian Blue,  <a href="#Page_207"><b>207</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Berlin Blue,  <a href="#Page_203"><b>203</b></a>,  <a href="#Page_207"><b>207</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Bice,  <a href="#Page_228"><b>228</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Bleu de Garance,  <a href="#Page_209"><b>209</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Blue Ashes,  <a href="#Page_228"><b>228</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Blue Bice,  <a href="#Page_228"><b>228</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Blue Carmine,  <a href="#Page_228"><b>228</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Blue Ochre,  <a href="#Page_226"><b>226</b></a>,  <a href="#Page_380"><b>380</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Blue Sand,  <a href="#Page_196"><b>196</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Blue Verditer,  <a href="#Page_228"><b>228</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Brilliant Ultramarine,  <a href="#Page_215"><b>215</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Cerulian Blue,  or C&oelig;ruleum,  <a href="#Page_190"><b>190</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Cobalt Blue,  <a href="#Page_192"><b>192</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Cobalt Blues,  <a href="#Page_189"><b>189</b></a>-<a href="#Page_199"><b>199</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Cobalt Prussian Blue,  <a href="#Page_227"><b>227</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Cobalt Ultramarine,  <a href="#Page_192"><b>192</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Co&euml;lin,  <a href="#Page_190"><b>190</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_419" id="Page_419">[419]</a></span>Copper Blues,  <a href="#Page_227"><b>227</b></a>-<a href="#Page_230"><b>230</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>  Cotton Seed Blue,  <a href="#Page_230"><b>230</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Cyanine,  <a href="#Page_198"><b>198</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Dumont's Blue,  <a href="#Page_196"><b>196</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Dutch Ultramarine,  <a href="#Page_189"><b>189</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Enamel Blue,  <a href="#Page_189"><b>189</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Egyptian Blue,  <a href="#Page_229"><b>229</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Factitious Ultramarine,  <a href="#Page_215"><b>215</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Ferricyanide of Iron,  <a href="#Page_208"><b>208</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Ferrocyanide of Iron,  <a href="#Page_203"><b>203</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  French Blue,  <a href="#Page_215"><b>215</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  French Ultramarine,  <a href="#Page_215"><b>215</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Genuine Ultramarine,  <a href="#Page_216"><b>216</b></a>-<a href="#Page_225"><b>225</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Gmelin's German Ultramarine,  <a href="#Page_209"><b>209</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Gold Blue,  <a href="#Page_231"><b>231</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Guimet's Ultramarine,  <a href="#Page_209"><b>209</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Haerlem Blue,  <a href="#Page_207"><b>207</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Hungary Blue,  <a href="#Page_189"><b>189</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Indian Blue,  <a href="#Page_199"><b>199</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Indicum,  <a href="#Page_199"><b>199</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Indigo,  <a href="#Page_199"><b>199</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Intense Blue,  <a href="#Page_202"><b>202</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Iodine Blue,  <a href="#Page_231"><b>231</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Iridium Blue,  <a href="#Page_232"><b>232</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Iris,  <a href="#Page_228"><b>228</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Lazuline,  <a href="#Page_217"><b>217</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Lazulite Blue,  <a href="#Page_217"><b>217</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Lazurstein,  <a href="#Page_217"><b>217</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Leitch's Blue,  <a href="#Page_199"><b>199</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Leithner's Blue,  <a href="#Page_189"><b>189</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Manganese Blue,  <a href="#Page_232"><b>232</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Mineral Blue,  <a href="#Page_207"><b>207</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Mountain Blue,  <a href="#Page_228"><b>228</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Native Prussian Blue,  <a href="#Page_207"><b>207</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Native Ultramarine,  <a href="#Page_216"><b>216</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Natural Ultramarine,  <a href="#Page_216"><b>216</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  New Blue,  <a href="#Page_216"><b>216</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Outremer,  <a href="#Page_217"><b>217</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Outremer de Guimet,  <a href="#Page_209"><b>209</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Paris Blue,  <a href="#Page_192"><b>192</b></a>,  <a href="#Page_203"><b>203</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Permanent Blue,  <a href="#Page_216"><b>216</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Platinum Blue,  <a href="#Page_233"><b>233</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Powder Blue,  <a href="#Page_196"><b>196</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Prussian Blue,  <a href="#Page_203"><b>203</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Prussiate of Iron,  <a href="#Page_203"><b>203</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Pure Ultramarine,  <a href="#Page_217"><b>217</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Real Ultramarine,  <a href="#Page_216"><b>216</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Reboulleau's Blue,  <a href="#Page_230"><b>230</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Royal Blue,  <a href="#Page_196"><b>196</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Saunders' Blue,  <a href="#Page_230"><b>230</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Saxon Blue,  <a href="#Page_189"><b>189</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Schweinfurt Blue,  <a href="#Page_230"><b>230</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Smalt,  <a href="#Page_195"><b>195</b></a>-<a href="#Page_198"><b>198</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Terre Bleu,  <a href="#Page_228"><b>228</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Th&eacute;nard's Blue,  <a href="#Page_192"><b>192</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  True Ultramarine,  <a href="#Page_216"><b>216</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Tungsten Blue,  <a href="#Page_233"><b>233</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Turnbull's Blue,  <a href="#Page_208"><b>208</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Ultramarines,  <a href="#Page_209"><b>209</b></a>-<a href="#Page_225"><b>225</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Verditer,  <a href="#Page_228"><b>228</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Vienna Blue,  <a href="#Page_192"><b>192</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Wood-Tar Blue,  <a href="#Page_233"><b>233</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Zaffre,  <a href="#Page_189"><b>189</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Zinc-Cobalt Blue,  <a href="#Page_235"><b>235</b></a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Body White,  <a href="#Page_72"><b>72</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bole,  Armenian,  <a href="#Page_147"><b>147</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Borrowdale,  <a href="#Page_393"><b>393</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bouvier,  <a href="#Page_153"><b>153</b></a>,  <a href="#Page_345"><b>345</b></a>,  <a href="#Page_347"><b>347</b></a>,  <a href="#Page_355"><b>355</b></a>,  <a href="#Page_405"><b>405</b></a>,  <a href="#Page_407"><b>407</b></a>,  <a href="#Page_409"><b>409</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Box,  the painter's,  <a href="#Page_60"><b>60</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bradley,  Mr.,  <a href="#Page_246"><b>246</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>British School,  <a href="#Page_9"><b>9</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Broken colours,  <a href="#Page_16"><b>16</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bronze,  <a href="#Page_279"><b>279</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Brown,  <a href="#Page_28"><b>28</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> analysis of,  <a href="#Page_377"><b>377</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> as a colour,  <a href="#Page_335"><b>335</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> Citrine,  <a href="#Page_317"><b>317</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> contrast of,  <a href="#Page_337"><b>337</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> Liquid,  Prout's,  <a href="#Page_345"><b>345</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> Madder,  <a href="#Page_305"><b>305</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> Mars,  <a href="#Page_313"><b>313</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> on the Semi-Neutral,  <a href="#Page_334"><b>334</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li><span class="smcap">Brown Pigments</span>:&mdash;</li>
+
+
+
+<li><ul class="sample2">
+<li>  Animal &AElig;thiops,  <a href="#Page_348"><b>348</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Antwerp Brown,  <a href="#Page_339"><b>339</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Asphaltum or Asphalt,  <a href="#Page_337"><b>337</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Bistre,  <a href="#Page_340"><b>340</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Bitumen,  <a href="#Page_339"><b>339</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Bitumen of Judea,  <a href="#Page_337"><b>337</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Bone Brown,  <a href="#Page_340"><b>340</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Burnt Umber,  <a href="#Page_341"><b>341</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Cadmium Brown,  <a href="#Page_353"><b>353</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Caledonian Brown,  <a href="#Page_341"><b>341</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Campania Brown,  <a href="#Page_352"><b>352</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Cappah Brown,  <a href="#Page_342"><b>342</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Cassel Earth,  <a href="#Page_343"><b>343</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Castle Earth,  <a href="#Page_343"><b>343</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Catechu Browns,  <a href="#Page_374"><b>374</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Chalon's Brown,  <a href="#Page_344"><b>344</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Chestnut Brown,  <a href="#Page_357"><b>357</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Chrome Browns,  <a href="#Page_355"><b>355</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Cologne Earth,  <a href="#Page_344"><b>344</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Copper Brown,  <a href="#Page_355"><b>355</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Cory's Madder or Yellow Madder,  <a href="#Page_353"><b>353</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Cullen's Earth,  <a href="#Page_344"><b>344</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Egyptian Brown,  <a href="#Page_347"><b>347</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Euchrome,  <a href="#Page_342"><b>342</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  French Prussian Brown,  <a href="#Page_355"><b>355</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Gambogiate of Iron,  <a href="#Page_357"><b>357</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Hypocastanum,  <a href="#Page_357"><b>357</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Iron Browns,  <a href="#Page_357"><b>357</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Ivory Brown,  <a href="#Page_340"><b>340</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Jew's Pitch,  <a href="#Page_337"><b>337</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Leitch's Brown,  <a href="#Page_346"><b>346</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Manganese Brown,  <a href="#Page_358"><b>358</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Mineral Brown,  <a href="#Page_342"><b>342</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Mineral Pitch,  <a href="#Page_337"><b>337</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_420" id="Page_420">[420]</a></span>Mixed Brown,  <a href="#Page_346"><b>346</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>  Mummy,  <a href="#Page_347"><b>347</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Mummy Brown,  <a href="#Page_347"><b>347</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Nickel Brown,  <a href="#Page_358"><b>358</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Ochre Browns,  <a href="#Page_358"><b>358</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Prussian Brown,  <a href="#Page_348"><b>348</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Purple Brown,  <a href="#Page_359"><b>359</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Roman Sepia,  <a href="#Page_351"><b>351</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Rubens' Brown,  <a href="#Page_359"><b>359</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Sepia,  <a href="#Page_348"><b>348</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Terre de Cassel,  <a href="#Page_343"><b>343</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Uranium Brown,  <a href="#Page_360"><b>360</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Vandyke Brown,  <a href="#Page_351"><b>351</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Verona Brown,  <a href="#Page_353"><b>353</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Warm Sepia,  <a href="#Page_350"><b>350</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Yellow Madder,  <a href="#Page_353"><b>353</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Zinc Brown,  <a href="#Page_360"><b>360</b></a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Brown Pink,  <a href="#Page_312"><b>312</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> Red,  <a href="#Page_147"><b>147</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> Spanish,  <a href="#Page_146"><b>146</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> Stil de Grain,  <a href="#Page_312"><b>312</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Browns,  abundance of,  <a href="#Page_336"><b>336</b></a>,  <a href="#Page_361"><b>361</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Brun de Mars,  <a href="#Page_313"><b>313</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Brunswick Green,  <a href="#Page_271"><b>271</b></a>,  <a href="#Page_279"><b>279</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Brushes,  soap and alkali in,  <a href="#Page_52"><b>52</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Burlington House,  Royal Academy at,  <a href="#Page_365"><b>365</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Burnt Carmine,  <a href="#Page_298"><b>298</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> Lake,  <a href="#Page_298"><b>298</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> Madder,  <a href="#Page_305"><b>305</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> Orpiment,  <a href="#Page_259"><b>259</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> Roman Ochre,  <a href="#Page_255"><b>255</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> Sienna,  <a href="#Page_243"><b>243</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> Terra di Sienna,  <a href="#Page_243"><b>243</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> Verdigris,  <a href="#Page_331"><b>331</b></a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<h5 style="text-align: left; text-indent: 5em;">C.</h5>
+
+<ul class="sample2">
+
+<li>Cadmium Brown, <a href="#Page_353"><b>353</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Orange, <a href="#Page_36"><b>36</b></a>, <a href="#Page_42"><b>42</b></a>, <a href="#Page_244"><b>244</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Red, <a href="#Page_42"><b>42</b></a>, <a href="#Page_130"><b>130</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  White, <a href="#Page_78"><b>78</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Yellow, <a href="#Page_87"><b>87</b></a>, <a href="#Page_92"><b>92</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> adulteration of, <a href="#Page_88"><b>88</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> manufacture of, <a href="#Page_92"><b>92</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> when fugacious, <a href="#Page_92"><b>92</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> with White Lead, <a href="#Page_89"><b>89</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Caledonian Brown, <a href="#Page_341"><b>341</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Campania Brown, <a href="#Page_352"><b>352</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Camphor, <a href="#Page_396"><b>396</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cappah or Cappagh Brown, <a href="#Page_342"><b>342</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Carajuru, <a href="#Page_367"><b>367</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Carbolic acid, <a href="#Page_162"><b>162</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Carbon, <a href="#Page_393"><b>393</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Carmichael,  Mr., <a href="#Page_348"><b>348</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Carmine, <a href="#Page_133"><b>133</b></a>, <a href="#Page_135"><b>135</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  adulteration of, <a href="#Page_134"><b>134</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Blue, <a href="#Page_225"><b>225</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Burnt, <a href="#Page_298"><b>298</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Field's, <a href="#Page_142"><b>142</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Carmine,  Madder, <a href="#Page_142"><b>142</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  manufacture of, <a href="#Page_134"><b>134</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Vermilion, <a href="#Page_156"><b>156</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Violet, <a href="#Page_302"><b>302</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  with Indian Yellow, <a href="#Page_98"><b>98</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> White Lead, <a href="#Page_134"><b>134</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Carnac,  ruins at, <a href="#Page_4"><b>4</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Carnagione, <a href="#Page_149"><b>149</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Carthamus, <a href="#Page_174"><b>174</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cartoons at Hampton Court, <a href="#Page_10"><b>10</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cassel Earth, <a href="#Page_343"><b>343</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Green, <a href="#Page_288"><b>288</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Terre de, <a href="#Page_343"><b>343</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Yellow, <a href="#Page_121"><b>121</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cassius,  Purple of, <a href="#Page_306"><b>306</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cassius's Purple Precipitate, <a href="#Page_306"><b>306</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Castle Earth, <a href="#Page_343"><b>343</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Catechu Browns, <a href="#Page_354"><b>354</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Celandine, <a href="#Page_96"><b>96</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cendres Bleues, <a href="#Page_230"><b>230</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cennini,  advice of, <a href="#Page_411"><b>411</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cerulian Blue or C&oelig;ruleum, <a href="#Page_190"><b>190</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ceruse, <a href="#Page_74"><b>74</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Chalk,  Black, <a href="#Page_404"><b>404</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Green, <a href="#Page_173"><b>173</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Red, <a href="#Page_172"><b>172</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  White, <a href="#Page_79"><b>79</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Chalon's Brown, <a href="#Page_344"><b>344</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Chaptal,  Count, <a href="#Page_105"><b>105</b></a>, <a href="#Page_229"><b>229</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Charcoal,  animal, <a href="#Page_397"><b>397</b></a>, <a href="#Page_399"><b>399</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Black, <a href="#Page_394"><b>394</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  vegetal, <a href="#Page_398"><b>398</b></a>, <a href="#Page_406"><b>406</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Charles I., <a href="#Page_220"><b>220</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Charred blacks, <a href="#Page_390"><b>390</b></a>, <a href="#Page_395"><b>395</b></a>, <a href="#Page_406"><b>406</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cheese,  anotta in, <a href="#Page_256"><b>256</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Chemical News,  extract from, <a href="#Page_84"><b>84</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Chestnut Brown, <a href="#Page_357"><b>357</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Chevreul,  M., <a href="#Page_173"><b>173</b></a>, <a href="#Page_191"><b>191</b></a>, <a href="#Page_205"><b>205</b></a>, <a href="#Page_364"><b>364</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Chiaroscuro, <a href="#Page_15"><b>15</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Chica d'Andiguez, <a href="#Page_160"><b>160</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Marrone, <a href="#Page_367"><b>367</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Red, <a href="#Page_159"><b>159</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>China,  Mandarins of, <a href="#Page_219"><b>219</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  White, <a href="#Page_80"><b>80</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Chinese Ink, <a href="#Page_395"><b>395</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Lake, <a href="#Page_137"><b>137</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Orange, <a href="#Page_246"><b>246</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Rouge, <a href="#Page_174"><b>174</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Vermilion, <a href="#Page_156"><b>156</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  White, <a href="#Page_75"><b>75</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Yellow, <a href="#Page_111"><b>111</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Chinoline, <a href="#Page_162"><b>162</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Chocolate Lead, <a href="#Page_368"><b>368</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Chromate of Mercury, <a href="#Page_256"><b>256</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Chromates of lead,  organic pigments with, <a href="#Page_248"><b>248</b></a>, <a href="#Page_280"><b>280</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Chrome Arseniate, <a href="#Page_284"><b>284</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Browns, <a href="#Page_355"><b>355</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Green,  True, <a href="#Page_267"><b>267</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Greens, <a href="#Page_279"><b>279</b></a>-<a href="#Page_281"><b>281</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Ochre, <a href="#Page_267"><b>267</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_421" id="Page_421">[421]</a></span>Chrome Orange, <a href="#Page_248"><b>248</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   Oxide, <a href="#Page_267"><b>267</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   Oxides, <a href="#Page_266"><b>266</b></a>-<a href="#Page_271"><b>271</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   Red, <a href="#Page_151"><b>151</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   Scarlet, <a href="#Page_151"><b>151</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   Yellows, <a href="#Page_93"><b>93</b></a>-<a href="#Page_95"><b>95</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    adulteration of, <a href="#Page_94"><b>94</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Chromium,  Green Oxide of, <a href="#Page_267"><b>267</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     Opaque Oxide of, <a href="#Page_267"><b>267</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     Oxide of, <a href="#Page_267"><b>267</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     Transparent Oxide of, <a href="#Page_268"><b>268</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Church,  Professor, <a href="#Page_165"><b>165</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cicero, <a href="#Page_296"><b>296</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cinnabar, <a href="#Page_153"><b>153</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     Green, <a href="#Page_280"><b>280</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Citrine, <a href="#Page_28"><b>28</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     analysis of, <a href="#Page_329"><b>329</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     as a colour, <a href="#Page_310"><b>310</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     contrast of, <a href="#Page_311"><b>311</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     on the Tertiary, <a href="#Page_310"><b>310</b></a>.</li>
+
+
+
+<li><span class="smcap">Citrine Pigments</span>:&mdash;</li>
+<li><ul class="sample2">
+<li>Brown Pink, <a href="#Page_312"><b>312</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Brown Stil de Grain, <a href="#Page_312"><b>312</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Brun de Mars, <a href="#Page_313"><b>313</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Cassia Fistula, <a href="#Page_316"><b>316</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Citrine Brown, <a href="#Page_317"><b>317</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Citrine Lake, <a href="#Page_312"><b>312</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Mars Brown, <a href="#Page_313"><b>313</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Mixed Citrine, <a href="#Page_314"><b>314</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Quercitron Lake, <a href="#Page_312"><b>312</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Raw Umber, <a href="#Page_315"><b>315</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Umber, <a href="#Page_315"><b>315</b></a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+
+
+<li>Citron Yellow, <a href="#Page_95"><b>95</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Classes of Colours,  on, <a href="#Page_27"><b>27</b></a>-<a href="#Page_30"><b>30</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li><span class="smcap">Classified Pigments</span>:&mdash;</li>
+
+
+<li><ul class="sample2">
+<li>Black, <a href="#Page_409"><b>409</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Blue, <a href="#Page_236"><b>236</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Brown, <a href="#Page_361"><b>361</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Citrine, <a href="#Page_319"><b>319</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Gray, <a href="#Page_380"><b>380</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Green, <a href="#Page_291"><b>291</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Grey, <a href="#Page_386"><b>386</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Marrone, <a href="#Page_371"><b>371</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Olive, <a href="#Page_333"><b>333</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Orange, <a href="#Page_261"><b>261</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Purple, <a href="#Page_308"><b>308</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Red, <a href="#Page_181"><b>181</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Russet, <a href="#Page_324"><b>324</b></a>.</li>
+<li>White, <a href="#Page_80"><b>80</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Yellow, <a href="#Page_125"><b>125</b></a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+
+
+<li>Claude, <a href="#Page_345"><b>345</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cleanliness in painting, <a href="#Page_53"><b>53</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Coal-Tar Colours, <a href="#Page_160"><b>160</b></a>-<a href="#Page_164"><b>164</b></a>, <a href="#Page_247"><b>247</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>        cakes of, <a href="#Page_163"><b>163</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>        in oil, <a href="#Page_247"><b>247</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cobalt Blue, <a href="#Page_192"><b>192</b></a>.</li>
+<li>chalkiness in, <a href="#Page_195"><b>195</b></a>.</li>
+<li>manufacture of, <a href="#Page_192"><b>192</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    Blues, <a href="#Page_189"><b>189</b></a>-<a href="#Page_199"><b>199</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    Green, <a href="#Page_285"><b>285</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    Marrone, <a href="#Page_368"><b>368</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    Prussian Blue, <a href="#Page_227"><b>227</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>       <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   Green, <a href="#Page_282"><b>282</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    Purples, <a href="#Page_305"><b>305</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    Ultramarine, <a href="#Page_192"><b>192</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Coccus <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span><ins class="correction" title="was abies">(Abies</ins> nigra), <a href="#Page_168"><b>168</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   cacti, <a href="#Page_131"><b>131</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   ficus, <a href="#Page_138"><b>138</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   ilicis, <a href="#Page_153"><b>153</b></a>, <a href="#Page_167"><b>167</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cochineal, <a href="#Page_132"><b>132</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>      adulteration of, <a href="#Page_132"><b>132</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>      Dr. Warren de la Rue on, <a href="#Page_132"><b>132</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>      lake,  with Vermilion, <a href="#Page_136"><b>136</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>      Lakes, <a href="#Page_131"><b>131</b></a>-<a href="#Page_137"><b>137</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Co&euml;lin, <a href="#Page_190"><b>190</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>C&oelig;ruleum, <a href="#Page_190"><b>190</b></a>, <a href="#Page_198"><b>198</b></a>, <a href="#Page_217"><b>217</b></a>, <a href="#Page_229"><b>229</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Coffee Black, <a href="#Page_405"><b>405</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   Brown, <a href="#Page_405"><b>405</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cohesion and colour, <a href="#Page_197"><b>197</b></a>, <a href="#Page_208"><b>208</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     durability, <a href="#Page_197"><b>197</b></a>, <a href="#Page_208"><b>208</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cologne Earth, <a href="#Page_344"><b>344</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    Yellow, <a href="#Page_94"><b>94</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Colour and neutrality, <a href="#Page_375"><b>375</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   latent, <a href="#Page_58"><b>58</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   of extreme light objects, <a href="#Page_21"><b>21</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   of shadow, <a href="#Page_21"><b>21</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   on the Relations and Harmony of, <a href="#Page_13"><b>13</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Coloured rays,  mixture of, <a href="#Page_384"><b>384</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Colouring,  ancient, <a href="#chapter_1"><b>3</b></a>-<a href="#Page_7"><b>7</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>      false, <a href="#Page_20"><b>20</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>      importance of, <a href="#Page_10"><b>10</b></a>-<a href="#Page_12"><b>12</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>      on, <a href="#chapter_1"><b>3</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>      vicious, <a href="#Page_11"><b>11</b></a>-<a href="#Page_21"><b>21</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Colours,  ancient, <a href="#Page_5"><b>5</b></a>, <a href="#Page_6"><b>6</b></a>, <a href="#Page_218"><b>218</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    and Pigments Individually,  on, <a href="#Page_57"><b>57</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    broken, <a href="#Page_16"><b>16</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    classes of:&mdash;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>       Neutral, <a href="#Page_27"><b>27</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>       Primary, <a href="#Page_28"><b>28</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>       Secondary, <a href="#Page_28"><b>28</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>       Semi-Neutral, <a href="#Page_29"><b>29</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>       Tertiary, <a href="#Page_28"><b>28</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    complementary, <a href="#Page_391"><b>391</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    discordant, <a href="#Page_17"><b>17</b></a>, <a href="#Page_185"><b>185</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    entire, <a href="#Page_28"><b>28</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    extreme, <a href="#Page_28"><b>28</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    fugacity of ancient, <a href="#Page_6"><b>6</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    held in check, <a href="#Page_106"><b>106</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    hot and cold, <a href="#Page_20"><b>20</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    imaginary, <a href="#Page_115"><b>115</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    individual beauty of, <a href="#Page_57"><b>57</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    light and dark, <a href="#Page_30"><b>30</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    material,  mixture of, <a href="#Page_384"><b>384</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    mixture and compounding of, <a href="#Page_17"><b>17</b></a>-<a href="#Page_19"><b>19</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    not obtainable, <a href="#Page_114"><b>114</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    not pigments, <a href="#Page_305"><b>305</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    perspective of, <a href="#Page_22"><b>22</b></a>.</li>
+
+
+
+<li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_422" id="Page_422">[422]</a></span>Colours,  retiring or advancing, <a href="#Page_186"><b>186</b></a>-<a href="#Page_188"><b>188</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  superfluous, <a href="#Page_124"><b>124</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  unfitted for pigments, <a href="#Page_115"><b>115</b></a>, <a href="#Page_180"><b>180</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  vitrified, <a href="#Page_33"><b>33</b></a>, <a href="#Page_197"><b>197</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  with black, <a href="#Page_27"><b>27</b></a>, <a href="#Page_392"><b>392</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>colours, <a href="#Page_27"><b>27</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>grey, <a href="#Page_382"><b>382</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>white, <a href="#Page_27"><b>27</b></a>, <a href="#Page_63"><b>63</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Common pigments, <a href="#Page_359"><b>359</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Compounding colours,  on, <a href="#Page_242"><b>242</b></a>-<a href="#Page_252"><b>252</b></a>, <a href="#Page_277"><b>277</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Compound pigments, <a href="#Page_36"><b>36</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Constable, <a href="#Page_265"><b>265</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Constantinople, <a href="#Page_7"><b>7</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Constant White, <a href="#Page_65"><b>65</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   free acid in, <a href="#Page_66"><b>66</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Contrast of colour and neutrality, <a href="#Page_15"><b>15</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  gradations and extremes, <a href="#Page_19"><b>19</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  hues, <a href="#Page_13"><b>13</b></a>-<a href="#Page_15"><b>15</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  shades, <a href="#Page_15"><b>15</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  warmth and coolness, <a href="#Page_15"><b>15</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Copper Blues, <a href="#Page_227"><b>227</b></a>-<a href="#Page_230"><b>230</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Borate, <a href="#Page_285"><b>285</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Brown, <a href="#Page_355"><b>355</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Chrome, <a href="#Page_286"><b>286</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Greens, <a href="#Page_271"><b>271</b></a>-<a href="#Page_276"><b>276</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Prussian Black, <a href="#Page_408"><b>408</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Prussiate of, <a href="#Page_323"><b>323</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Reds, <a href="#Page_164"><b>164</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Smalt, <a href="#Page_220"><b>220</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Stannate, <a href="#Page_286"><b>286</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Yellow, <a href="#Page_116"><b>116</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cork Black, <a href="#Page_409"><b>409</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Correggio, <a href="#Page_8"><b>8</b></a>, <a href="#Page_335"><b>335</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cory's Madder or Yellow Madder, <a href="#Page_119"><b>119</b></a>, <a href="#Page_353"><b>353</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cotton Seed Blue, <a href="#Page_230"><b>230</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cremnitz or Crems White, <a href="#Page_72"><b>72</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Crimson Lake, <a href="#Page_135"><b>135</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Crookes,  Mr., <a href="#Page_260"><b>260</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Crowding of pictures, <a href="#Page_364"><b>364</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cudbear, <a href="#Page_303"><b>303</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cullen's Earth, <a href="#Page_344"><b>344</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cuttle Fish, <a href="#Page_348"><b>348</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cuyp, <a href="#Page_136"><b>136</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cyanine, <a href="#Page_198"><b>198</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cyanus, <a href="#Page_198"><b>198</b></a>, <a href="#Page_217"><b>217</b></a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+
+<h5 style="text-align: left; text-indent: 5em;">D.</h5>
+
+<ul class="sample2">
+
+<li>Damonico, <a href="#Page_257"><b>257</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Darkening of mineral colours, <a href="#Page_284"><b>284</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Davy,  Sir H., <a href="#Page_229"><b>229</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Dead Sea,  the, <a href="#Page_337"><b>337</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Deep Cadmium, <a href="#Page_87"><b>87</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> Chrome, <a href="#Page_93"><b>93</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> Vermilion, <a href="#Page_154"><b>154</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> Deoxidation of pigments, <a href="#Page_38"><b>38</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Detractors of modern pigments, <a href="#Page_43"><b>43</b></a>-<a href="#Page_45"><b>45</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Dewint's Green, <a href="#Page_330"><b>330</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Diagram, <a href="#Page_89"><b>89</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Diesbach,  M.<a href="#Page_203"><b>203</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Dilution of colour, <a href="#Page_34"><b>34</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Di Palito, <a href="#Page_109"><b>109</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Direct and diffused light, <a href="#Page_391"><b>391</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Discord of colours, <a href="#Page_17"><b>17</b></a>, <a href="#Page_185"><b>185</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Disinfectants of the palette, <a href="#Page_359"><b>359</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Distance,  law about, <a href="#Page_188"><b>188</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Distilled Verdigris, <a href="#Page_276"><b>276</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Distinction of colours, <a href="#Page_318"><b>318</b></a>, <a href="#Page_320"><b>320</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Dominichino, <a href="#Page_8"><b>8</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Dragon's Blood, <a href="#Page_137"><b>137</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   with White Lead, <a href="#Page_138"><b>138</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Drop Gum, <a href="#Page_96"><b>96</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Drying of pigments, <a href="#Page_50"><b>50</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  oils,  lead in, <a href="#Page_121"><b>121</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Duffield,  Mrs., <a href="#Page_144"><b>144</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Dumas,  M., <a href="#Page_234"><b>234</b></a>, <a href="#Page_414"><b>414</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Dumont's Blue, <a href="#Page_196"><b>196</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Durability of pigments, <a href="#Page_31"><b>31</b></a>-<a href="#Page_45"><b>45</b></a>, <a href="#Page_46"><b>46</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Dussance,  Professor H., <a href="#Page_175"><b>175</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Dutch Pink, <a href="#Page_100"><b>100</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Schools, <a href="#Page_8"><b>8</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  the, <a href="#Page_156"><b>156</b></a>, <a href="#Page_200"><b>200</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Ultramarine, <a href="#Page_189"><b>189</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  White, <a href="#Page_74"><b>74</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Dyeing,  brown for, <a href="#Page_318"><b>318</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  orange for, <a href="#Page_257"><b>257</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Dyes and pigments, <a href="#Page_169"><b>169</b></a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<h5 style="text-align: left; text-indent: 5em;">E.</h5>
+
+<ul class="sample2">
+
+<li>Earth Black, <a href="#Page_404"><b>404</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> Burnt Sienna, <a href="#Page_243"><b>243</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> Cassel,  or Castle, <a href="#Page_343"><b>343</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> Cologne, <a href="#Page_344"><b>344</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> Cullen's, <a href="#Page_344"><b>344</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> Green, <a href="#Page_283"><b>283</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> Raw Sienna, <a href="#Page_113"><b>113</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Egg-shells,  white of, <a href="#Page_80"><b>80</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Egypt,  catacombs of, <a href="#Page_347"><b>347</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  temples of Upper, <a href="#Page_5"><b>5</b></a>, <a href="#Page_217"><b>217</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Egyptian Blue, <a href="#Page_229"><b>229</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Brown, <a href="#Page_347"><b>347</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Egyptians,  the,  colouring and colours of, <a href="#chapter_1"><b>3</b></a>-<a href="#Page_5"><b>5</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Elizabeth,  Queen, <a href="#Page_393"><b>393</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Eisner's Green, <a href="#Page_286"><b>286</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Emerald Green, <a href="#Page_271"><b>271</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Emeraldine, <a href="#Page_162"><b>162</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Enamel Blue, <a href="#Page_189"><b>189</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  colours, <a href="#Page_33"><b>33</b></a>, <a href="#Page_197"><b>197</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>England,  climate and females of, <a href="#Page_9"><b>9</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>English Green, <a href="#Page_280"><b>280</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Pink, <a href="#Page_100"><b>100</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Red, <a href="#Page_149"><b>149</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Vermilion, <a href="#Page_146"><b>146</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Entire colours, <a href="#Page_28"><b>28</b></a>.</li>
+
+
+
+<li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_423" id="Page_423">[423]</a></span>Equations, <a href="#Page_329"><b>329</b></a>, <a href="#Page_330"><b>330</b></a>, <a href="#Page_377"><b>377</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Euchrome, <a href="#Page_342"><b>342</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Exhibition,  International,  of 1862, <a href="#Page_244"><b>244</b></a>, <a href="#Page_354"><b>354</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Experiment, <a href="#Page_213"><b>213</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Exposure of pigments, <a href="#Page_38"><b>38</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Extract of Gamboge, <a href="#Page_97"><b>97</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   Vermilion, <a href="#Page_157"><b>157</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Extreme colours, <a href="#Page_28"><b>28</b></a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<h5 style="text-align: left; text-indent: 5em;">F.</h5>
+
+<ul class="sample2">
+
+<li>Factitious Indigo,  proposed, <a href="#Page_202"><b>202</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Ultramarine, <a href="#Page_215"><b>215</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Falsalo, <a href="#Page_341"><b>341</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fast and fugitive,  pigments both, <a href="#Page_38"><b>38</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ferrate of Baryta, <a href="#Page_165"><b>165</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ferricyanide of Iron, <a href="#Page_208"><b>208</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ferrocyanide <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span><a href="#Page_203"><b>203</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Field's Carmine, <a href="#Page_142"><b>142</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Lakes, <a href="#Page_139"><b>139</b></a>-<a href="#Page_145"><b>145</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Orange Vermilion, <a href="#Page_158"><b>158</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Purple, <a href="#Page_301"><b>301</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Russet, <a href="#Page_321"><b>321</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fineness of texture in pigments, <a href="#Page_50"><b>50</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fire,  action of,  on pigments, <a href="#Page_371"><b>371</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> pigments affected by, <a href="#Page_40"><b>40</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fistula,  Cassia, <a href="#Page_316"><b>316</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Flake White, <a href="#Page_72"><b>72</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Flemish painters, <a href="#Page_406"><b>406</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Schools, <a href="#Page_8"><b>8</b></a>, <a href="#Page_37"><b>37</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  White, <a href="#Page_72"><b>72</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Florentine Lake, <a href="#Page_137"><b>137</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  painters and painting, <a href="#Page_7"><b>7</b></a>, <a href="#Page_8"><b>8</b></a>, <a href="#Page_10"><b>10</b></a>, <a href="#Page_391"><b>391</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Flower pieces,  background tint for, <a href="#Page_279"><b>279</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Foul air,  ochres with, <a href="#Page_359"><b>359</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Frankfort Black, <a href="#Page_406"><b>406</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>French berries, <a href="#Page_312"><b>312</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> Blue, <a href="#Page_215"><b>215</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> Green, <a href="#Page_271"><b>271</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> Prussian Brown, <a href="#Page_355"><b>355</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> Purple,  Solid, <a href="#Page_304"><b>304</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> Ultramarine, <a href="#Page_215"><b>215</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> Veronese Green, <a href="#Page_268"><b>268</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  White, <a href="#Page_71"><b>71</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fresco,  Prussian Blue in, <a href="#Page_206"><b>206</b></a>, <a href="#Page_281"><b>281</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fruit pieces of W. Hunt, <a href="#Page_315"><b>315</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fugacity of pigments, <a href="#Page_31"><b>31</b></a>-<a href="#Page_45"><b>45</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fugitive colours, <a href="#Page_34"><b>34</b></a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<h5 style="text-align: left; text-indent: 5em;">G.</h5>
+
+<ul class="sample2">
+
+<li>Gainsborough, <a href="#Page_20"><b>20</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Galena, <a href="#Page_394"><b>394</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Galleries,  picture, <a href="#Page_363"><b>363</b></a>-<a href="#Page_365"><b>365</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gallstone, <a href="#Page_95"><b>95</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gamboge, <a href="#Page_96"><b>96</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  as a glaze, <a href="#Page_97"><b>97</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  extract of, <a href="#Page_97"><b>97</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gamboge Orange, <a href="#Page_257"><b>257</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gambogiate of Iron, <a href="#Page_357"><b>357</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Garance,  Bleu de, <a href="#Page_209"><b>209</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gas,  effect of,  on colours, <a href="#Page_191"><b>191</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gelbin's Yellow, <a href="#Page_117"><b>117</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>General Qualities of Pigments,  on the, <a href="#Page_46"><b>46</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Genuine Ultramarine, <a href="#Page_216"><b>216</b></a>-<a href="#Page_225"><b>225</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     adulteration of, <a href="#Page_224"><b>224</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     colouring matter of, <a href="#Page_224"><b>224</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     defects in, <a href="#Page_222"><b>222</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     manufacture of, <a href="#Page_220"><b>220</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     price of, <a href="#Page_220"><b>220</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     properties of, <a href="#Page_221"><b>221</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     tests for, <a href="#Page_224"><b>224</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Giallolino, <a href="#Page_103"><b>103</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gilpin, <a href="#Page_351"><b>351</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Giovanni Bellini, <a href="#Page_7"><b>7</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Giulio Romano, <a href="#Page_11"><b>11</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Glazing of colours, <a href="#Page_18"><b>18</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gloucestershire, <a href="#Page_109"><b>109</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gmelin,  M., <a href="#Page_178"><b>178</b></a>, <a href="#Page_210"><b>210</b></a>, <a href="#Page_218"><b>218</b></a>, <a href="#Page_227"><b>227</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gmelin's German Ultramarine, <a href="#Page_209"><b>209</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gold Blue, <a href="#Page_231"><b>231</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> Purple, <a href="#Page_306"><b>306</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> Reds, <a href="#Page_166"><b>166</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> size,  japanner's, <a href="#Page_51"><b>51</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Golden Sulphur of Antimony, <a href="#Page_256"><b>256</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Yellow, <a href="#Page_256"><b>256</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gradation in art, <a href="#Page_328"><b>328</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   nature, <a href="#Page_326"><b>326</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Graham,  Mr., <a href="#Page_398"><b>398</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Graphite, <a href="#Page_393"><b>393</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gray, <a href="#Page_29"><b>29</b></a>, <a href="#Page_372"><b>372</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  analysis of, <a href="#Page_277"><b>277</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  and grey, <a href="#Page_29"><b>29</b></a>, <a href="#Page_372"><b>372</b></a>, <a href="#Page_381"><b>381</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  as a colour, <a href="#Page_372"><b>372</b></a>, <a href="#Page_374"><b>374</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  as a pigment, <a href="#Page_377"><b>377</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  contrast of, <a href="#Page_373"><b>373</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  on the Semi-Neutral, <a href="#Page_372"><b>372</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li><span class="smcap">Gray Pigments</span>:&mdash;</li>
+
+
+<li><ul class="sample2">
+<li>Mineral Gray, <a href="#Page_375"><b>375</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Mixed Gray, <a href="#Page_377"><b>377</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Neutral Tint, <a href="#Page_377"><b>377</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Payne's Gray, <a href="#Page_378"><b>378</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Ultramarine Ash, <a href="#Page_379"><b>379</b></a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Greeks,  colouring of the, <a href="#Page_7"><b>7</b></a>, <a href="#Page_8"><b>8</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> the, <a href="#Page_153"><b>153</b></a>, <a href="#Page_167"><b>167</b></a>, <a href="#Page_296"><b>296</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Green, <a href="#Page_28"><b>28</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  as a colour, <a href="#Page_263"><b>263</b></a>, <a href="#Page_265"><b>265</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  contrast of, <a href="#Page_263"><b>263</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Dewint's, <a href="#Page_330"><b>330</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  discordant, <a href="#Page_265"><b>265</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Olive, <a href="#Page_330"><b>330</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  on the Secondary, <a href="#Page_263"><b>263</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li><span class="smcap">Green Pigments</span>:&mdash;</li>
+
+
+<li><ul class="sample2">
+<li>African Green, <a href="#Page_271"><b>271</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Barium Chrome Green, <a href="#Page_280"><b>280</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_424" id="Page_424">[424]</a></span>Bismuth Chrome Green, <a href="#Page_280"><b>280</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Bladder Green, <a href="#Page_282"><b>282</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Bronze, <a href="#Page_279"><b>279</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Brunswick Green, <a href="#Page_271"><b>271</b></a>, <a href="#Page_279"><b>279</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Chrome Arseniate, <a href="#Page_284"><b>284</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Chrome Greens, <a href="#Page_279"><b>279</b></a>-<a href="#Page_281"><b>281</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Chrome Oxide, <a href="#Page_267"><b>267</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Chrome Oxides, <a href="#Page_266"><b>266</b></a>-<a href="#Page_271"><b>271</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Cobalt Green, <a href="#Page_285"><b>285</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Cobalt Prussian Green, <a href="#Page_282"><b>282</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Copper Borate, <a href="#Page_285"><b>285</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Copper Chrome, <a href="#Page_286"><b>286</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Copper Greens, <a href="#Page_271"><b>271</b></a>-<a href="#Page_276"><b>276</b></a>, <a href="#Page_285"><b>285</b></a>-<a href="#Page_287"><b>287</b></a>,   <a href="#Page_288"><b>288</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Copper Stannate, <a href="#Page_286"><b>286</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Distilled Verdigris, <a href="#Page_276"><b>276</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Elsner's Green, <a href="#Page_286"><b>286</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Emerald Green, <a href="#Page_271"><b>271</b></a>, <a href="#Page_283"><b>283</b></a>.</li>
+<li>English Green, <a href="#Page_280"><b>280</b></a>.</li>
+<li>French Green, <a href="#Page_271"><b>271</b></a>.</li>
+<li>French Veronese Green, <a href="#Page_268"><b>268</b></a>.</li>
+<li>German Mineral Green, <a href="#Page_288"><b>288</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Green Bice, <a href="#Page_287"><b>287</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Green Cinnabar, <a href="#Page_280"><b>280</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Green Earth, <a href="#Page_283"><b>283</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Green Lake, <a href="#Page_288"><b>288</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Green Ochre, <a href="#Page_287"><b>287</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Green Oxide of Chromium, <a href="#Page_267"><b>267</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Green Ultramarine, <a href="#Page_287"><b>287</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Green Verditer, <a href="#Page_287"><b>287</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Holy Green, <a href="#Page_283"><b>283</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Hooker's Green, <a href="#Page_281"><b>281</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Hungary Green, <a href="#Page_274"><b>274</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Imperial Green, <a href="#Page_271"><b>271</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Iris Green, <a href="#Page_282"><b>282</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Malachite Green, <a href="#Page_274"><b>274</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Manganese Green, <a href="#Page_288"><b>288</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Marine Green, <a href="#Page_271"><b>271</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Mineral Green, <a href="#Page_288"><b>288</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Mitis Green, <a href="#Page_271"><b>271</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Mixed Green, <a href="#Page_277"><b>277</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Molybdenum Green, <a href="#Page_289"><b>289</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Mountain Green, <a href="#Page_274"><b>274</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Native Green, <a href="#Page_267"><b>267</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Olympian Green, <a href="#Page_271"><b>271</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Opaque Oxide of Chromium, <a href="#Page_267"><b>267</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Oxide of Chromium, <a href="#Page_267"><b>267</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Patent Green, <a href="#Page_271"><b>271</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Persian Green, <a href="#Page_271"><b>271</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Pickle Green, <a href="#Page_276"><b>276</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Prussian Greens, <a href="#Page_281"><b>281</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Quinine Green, <a href="#Page_289"><b>289</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Rinman's Green, <a href="#Page_285"><b>285</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Roman Green, <a href="#Page_290"><b>290</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Sap Green, <a href="#Page_282"><b>282</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Saxon Green, <a href="#Page_271"><b>271</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Sheele's Green, <a href="#Page_272"><b>272</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Schweinfurt Green, <a href="#Page_271"><b>271</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Silicate of Baryta, <a href="#Page_290"><b>290</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Swedish Green, <a href="#Page_272"><b>272</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Terre Verte, <a href="#Page_283"><b>283</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Titanium Green, <a href="#Page_290"><b>290</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Transparent Oxide of Chromium,   <a href="#Page_268"><b>268</b></a>.</li>
+<li>True Chrome Green, <a href="#Page_267"><b>267</b></a>.</li>
+<li>True Prussian Green, <a href="#Page_281"><b>281</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Uranium Green, <a href="#Page_291"><b>291</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Vanadium Green, <a href="#Page_291"><b>291</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Venetian Green, <a href="#Page_283"><b>283</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Verde Vessie, <a href="#Page_282"><b>282</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Verdetto, <a href="#Page_283"><b>283</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Verdigris, <a href="#Page_276"><b>276</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Verona Green, <a href="#Page_283"><b>283</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Veronese Green, <a href="#Page_268"><b>268</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Vert de Zinc, <a href="#Page_285"><b>285</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Vienna Green, <a href="#Page_271"><b>271</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Viride &AElig;ris, <a href="#Page_276"><b>276</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Viridian, <a href="#Page_269"><b>269</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Zinc Green, <a href="#Page_285"><b>285</b></a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+
+
+<li>Green,  pure,  to obtain, <a href="#Page_277"><b>277</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Greens,  ancient, <a href="#Page_5"><b>5</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Grey, <a href="#Page_28"><b>28</b></a>-<a href="#Page_30"><b>30</b></a>, <a href="#Page_372"><b>372</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   and gray, <a href="#Page_29"><b>29</b></a>, <a href="#Page_381"><b>381</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   as a colour, <a href="#Page_381"><b>381</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   as a pigment, <a href="#Page_382"><b>382</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   colours with, <a href="#Page_382"><b>382</b></a>, <a href="#Page_383"><b>383</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   on the Neutral, <a href="#Page_381"><b>381</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li><span class="smcap">Grey Pigments</span>:&mdash;</li>
+
+
+<li><ul class="sample2">
+<li>Black Lead, <a href="#Page_382"><b>382</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Mixed Grey, <a href="#Page_384"><b>384</b></a>-<a href="#Page_386"><b>386</b></a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+
+
+<li>Grinding of pigments, <a href="#Page_37"><b>37</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Guido, <a href="#Page_8"><b>8</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Guimet,  M., <a href="#Page_210"><b>210</b></a>, <a href="#Page_215"><b>215</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   Outremer de, <a href="#Page_209"><b>209</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Guimet's Ultramarine, <a href="#Page_209"><b>209</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gum,  Drop, <a href="#Page_96"><b>96</b></a></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  tragacanth, <a href="#Page_66"><b>66</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gyges, <a href="#Page_7"><b>7</b></a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<h5 style="text-align: left; text-indent: 5em;">H.</h5>
+
+<ul class="sample2">
+
+
+<li>Haerlem Blue, <a href="#Page_207"><b>207</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hamburgh Lake, <a href="#Page_137"><b>137</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    White, <a href="#Page_74"><b>74</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hampton Court,  cartoons at, <a href="#Page_10"><b>10</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Harding's Tint, <a href="#Page_380"><b>380</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Harmony of colour, <a href="#Page_13"><b>13</b></a>-<a href="#Page_24"><b>24</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hatching of colours, <a href="#Page_18"><b>18</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Haydon, <a href="#Page_293"><b>293</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hercules Tyrius, <a href="#Page_296"><b>296</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Holy Green, <a href="#Page_283"><b>283</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hooker's Green, <a href="#Page_281"><b>281</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Houng hoa, <a href="#Page_396"><b>396</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hues, <a href="#Page_27"><b>27</b></a>, <a href="#Page_30"><b>30</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hungary Blue, <a href="#Page_189"><b>189</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    Green, <a href="#Page_274"><b>274</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hunt,  W., <a href="#Page_315"><b>315</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hypocastanum, <a href="#Page_357"><b>357</b></a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+
+<h5 style="text-align: left; text-indent: 5em;"> I.</h5>
+
+<ul class="sample2">
+
+
+
+<li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_425" id="Page_425">[425]</a></span>Illumination,  Cadmium Orange in, <a href="#Page_246"><b>246</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>             Coal-Tar Colours in, <a href="#Page_163"><b>163</b></a>, <a href="#Page_247"><b>247</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>             Manual of, <a href="#Page_246"><b>246</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>             Viridian in, <a href="#Page_270"><b>270</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Imperial Green, <a href="#Page_271"><b>271</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Indian Blue, <a href="#Page_199"><b>199</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>      Ink, <a href="#Page_349"><b>349</b></a>, <a href="#Page_395"><b>395</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>      Lake, <a href="#Page_138"><b>138</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>      Ochre, <a href="#Page_146"><b>146</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>      Purple, <a href="#Page_298"><b>298</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>      Red, <a href="#Page_148"><b>148</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>      Yellow, <a href="#Page_98"><b>98</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Indicum, <a href="#Page_199"><b>199</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Indigo, <a href="#Page_199"><b>199</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>      adulteration of, <a href="#Page_202"><b>202</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>      possible substitute for, <a href="#Page_235"><b>235</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>      proposed Factitious, <a href="#Page_202"><b>202</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Indigofera, <a href="#Page_200"><b>200</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Indium Yellow, <a href="#Page_117"><b>117</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Individually,  on Colours and Pigments, <a href="#Page_57"><b>57</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Ink,  blue, <a href="#Page_207"><b>207</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    British, <a href="#Page_395"><b>395</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    Chinese, <a href="#Page_395"><b>395</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    green, <a href="#Page_276"><b>276</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    Indelible Brown, <a href="#Page_345"><b>345</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    Indian, <a href="#Page_395"><b>395</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    Liquid Indian, <a href="#Page_397"><b>397</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    red, <a href="#Page_145"><b>145</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Inkfish,  the, <a href="#Page_348"><b>348</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Innoxious pigments, <a href="#Page_53"><b>53</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Intense Blue, <a href="#Page_202"><b>202</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>           manufacture of, <a href="#Page_202"><b>202</b></a>.</li>
+<li>International Exhibition of 1862, <a href="#Page_244"><b>244</b></a>, <a href="#Page_354"><b>354</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Invisible Green, <a href="#Page_329"><b>329</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Iodine, <a href="#Page_118"><b>118</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>      Blue, <a href="#Page_231"><b>231</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>      Pink, <a href="#Page_166"><b>166</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>      Scarlet, <a href="#Page_150"><b>150</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>      Yellow, <a href="#Page_118"><b>118</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Iridium Blue, <a href="#Page_232"><b>232</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Iris, <a href="#Page_228"><b>228</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    Green, <a href="#Page_282"><b>282</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Iron Browns, <a href="#Page_357"><b>357</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    Ferricyanide of, <a href="#Page_208"><b>208</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    Ferrocyanide of, <a href="#Page_203"><b>203</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    Gambogiate of, <a href="#Page_357"><b>357</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    pigments affected by, <a href="#Page_39"><b>39</b></a>, <a href="#Page_90"><b>90</b></a>, <a href="#Page_145"><b>145</b></a>, <a href="#Page_147"><b>147</b></a>, <a href="#Page_149"><b>149</b></a>, <a href="#Page_150"><b>150</b></a>, <a href="#Page_249"><b>249</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    Prussiate of, <a href="#Page_203"><b>203</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    Smalt, <a href="#Page_218"><b>218</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    Yellow, <a href="#Page_102"><b>102</b></a>, <a href="#Page_118"><b>118</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Italian Greens, <a href="#Page_276"><b>276</b></a>, <a href="#Page_277"><b>277</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>       Pink, <a href="#Page_100"><b>100</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Italics,  numbered colours in, <a href="#Page_114"><b>114</b></a>, <a href="#Page_407"><b>407</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Italy,  colouring in modern, <a href="#Page_8"><b>8</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Ivory Black, <a href="#Page_397"><b>397</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>            with Manganese Black, <a href="#Page_407"><b>407</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Ivory Brown, <a href="#Page_340"><b>340</b></a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<h5 style="text-align: left; text-indent: 5em;">J.</h5>
+
+<ul class="sample2">
+
+<li>Japanner's gold size, <a href="#Page_51"><b>51</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Jaune de Cologne, <a href="#Page_94"><b>94</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>       Fer, <a href="#Page_102"><b>102</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>       Mars, <a href="#Page_102"><b>102</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>       Min&eacute;rale, <a href="#Page_94"><b>94</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Jew's Pitch, <a href="#Page_337"><b>337</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Judea,  Bitumen of, <a href="#Page_337"><b>337</b></a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+
+
+<h5 style="text-align: left; text-indent: 5em;">K.</h5>
+
+<ul class="sample2">
+
+<li>Kermes, <a href="#Page_153"><b>153</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>       Lake, <a href="#Page_167"><b>167</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>       Mineral, <a href="#Page_159"><b>159</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Key of colouring, <a href="#Page_40"><b>40</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Khair tree,  the, <a href="#Page_354"><b>354</b></a>.</li>
+<li>King's Yellow, <a href="#Page_111"><b>111</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Knowledge of pigments, <a href="#Page_43"><b>43</b></a>, <a href="#Page_44"><b>44</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Kremnitz or Krems White, <a href="#Page_72"><b>72</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Kremser White, <a href="#Page_75"><b>75</b></a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<h5 style="text-align: left; text-indent: 5em;">L.</h5>
+
+<ul class="sample2">
+
+<li>Lac, <a href="#Page_138"><b>138</b></a>, <a href="#Page_167"><b>167</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    Lake, <a href="#Page_138"><b>138</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Lake,  Asphaltic,  the, <a href="#Page_337"><b>337</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     Burnt, <a href="#Page_198"><b>198</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     Chinese, <a href="#Page_137"><b>137</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     Citrine, <a href="#Page_312"><b>312</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     Crimson, <a href="#Page_135"><b>135</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     Drop, <a href="#Page_131"><b>131</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     Florentine, <a href="#Page_137"><b>137</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     Green, <a href="#Page_288"><b>288</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     Hamburgh, <a href="#Page_137"><b>137</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     Indian, <a href="#Page_138"><b>138</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     Kermes, <a href="#Page_167"><b>167</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     Liquid Madder, <a href="#Page_145"><b>145</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     Madder, <a href="#Page_144"><b>144</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     Marrone, <a href="#Page_369"><b>369</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     Olive, <a href="#Page_331"><b>331</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     Orange, <a href="#Page_258"><b>258</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     Purple, <a href="#Page_137"><b>137</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     Quercitron, <a href="#Page_100"><b>100</b></a>, <a href="#Page_312"><b>312</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     Roman, <a href="#Page_137"><b>137</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     Scarlet, <a href="#Page_136"><b>136</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     Venetian, <a href="#Page_137"><b>137</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     Yellow, <a href="#Page_100"><b>100</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Lakes,  Cochineal, <a href="#Page_131"><b>131</b></a>-<a href="#Page_137"><b>137</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>      Field's, <a href="#Page_139"><b>139</b></a>-<a href="#Page_145"><b>145</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>      Madder, <a href="#Page_139"><b>139</b></a>-<a href="#Page_145"><b>145</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>      Rubric, <a href="#Page_139"><b>139</b></a>-<a href="#Page_145"><b>145</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>      Yellow, <a href="#Page_99"><b>99</b></a>, <a href="#Page_100"><b>100</b></a>.</li>
+
+
+
+<li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_426" id="Page_426">[426]</a></span>Lamblack, <a href="#Page_399"><b>399</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Lamp Black, <a href="#Page_399"><b>399</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Lapis Lazuli, <a href="#Page_209"><b>209</b></a>, <a href="#Page_217"><b>217</b></a>, <a href="#Page_219"><b>219</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Laque de garance, <a href="#Page_142"><b>142</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   Min&eacute;rale, <a href="#Page_258"><b>258</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Latent colour, <a href="#Page_58"><b>58</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Lawson,  Professor, <a href="#Page_168"><b>168</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Lawson's Red, <a href="#Page_168"><b>168</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Layard,  Mr., <a href="#Page_6"><b>6</b></a>, <a href="#Page_218"><b>218</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Lazuline, <a href="#Page_217"><b>217</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Lazulite Blue, <a href="#Page_217"><b>217</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Lazur,  Persian and Tartarian, <a href="#Page_228"><b>228</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Lazurium, <a href="#Page_217"><b>217</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Lazurstein, <a href="#Page_217"><b>217</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Lead,  acetate or sugar of, <a href="#Page_50"><b>50</b></a>-<a href="#Page_52"><b>52</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   Black, <a href="#Page_382"><b>382</b></a>, <a href="#Page_393"><b>393</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   carbonate of, <a href="#Page_68"><b>68</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   Chocolate, <a href="#Page_368"><b>368</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   dicarbonate of, <a href="#Page_69"><b>69</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   hydrated oxide of, <a href="#Page_68"><b>68</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   in drying oils, <a href="#Page_121"><b>121</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   Orange, <a href="#Page_258"><b>258</b></a></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   oxychloride of, <a href="#Page_73"><b>73</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   pigments affected by, <a href="#Page_39"><b>39</b></a>, <a href="#Page_67"><b>67</b></a>, <a href="#Page_97"><b>97</b></a>, <a href="#Page_99"><b>99</b></a>, <a href="#Page_112"><b>112</b></a>, <a href="#Page_120"><b>120</b></a>, <a href="#Page_134"><b>134</b></a>, <a href="#Page_138"><b>138</b></a>, <a href="#Page_139"><b>139</b></a>, <a href="#Page_152"><b>152</b></a>, <a href="#Page_201"><b>201</b></a>, <a href="#Page_206"><b>206</b></a>, <a href="#Page_248"><b>248</b></a>, <a href="#Page_280"><b>280</b></a>, <a href="#Page_312"><b>312</b></a>, <a href="#Page_341"><b>341</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   pigments,  avoidance of, <a href="#Page_67"><b>67</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   Red, <a href="#Page_151"><b>151</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   Sulphate of, <a href="#Page_72"><b>72</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   White, <a href="#Page_67"><b>67</b></a>-<a href="#Page_70"><b>70</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   Whites, <a href="#Page_67"><b>67</b></a>-<a href="#Page_75"><b>75</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Leitch's Blue, <a href="#Page_199"><b>199</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>      Brown, <a href="#Page_346"><b>346</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Leithner's Blue, <a href="#Page_189"><b>189</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Lemon Cadmium, <a href="#Page_91"><b>91</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   Yellow, <a href="#Page_101"><b>101</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Leonardo da Vinci, <a href="#Page_8"><b>8</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Leyden,  Cassius of, <a href="#Page_306"><b>306</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Lichens, <a href="#Page_304"><b>304</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Liege Black, <a href="#Page_394"><b>394</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Light and air,  pigments affected by, <a href="#Page_91"><b>91</b></a>, <a href="#Page_92"><b>92</b></a>, <a href="#Page_95"><b>95</b></a>, <a href="#Page_97"><b>97</b></a>, <a href="#Page_98"><b>98</b></a>, <a href="#Page_99"><b>99</b></a>, <a href="#Page_112"><b>112</b></a>, <a href="#Page_124"><b>124</b></a>, <a href="#Page_134"><b>134</b></a>, <a href="#Page_135"><b>135</b></a>, <a href="#Page_136"><b>136</b></a>, <a href="#Page_139"><b>139</b></a>, <a href="#Page_151"><b>151</b></a>, <a href="#Page_163"><b>163</b></a>, <a href="#Page_199"><b>199</b></a>, <a href="#Page_201"><b>201</b></a>, <a href="#Page_205"><b>205</b></a>, <a href="#Page_208"><b>208</b></a>, <a href="#Page_247"><b>247</b></a>, <a href="#Page_276"><b>276</b></a>, <a href="#Page_282"><b>282</b></a>, <a href="#Page_298"><b>298</b></a>, <a href="#Page_303"><b>303</b></a>, <a href="#Page_313"><b>313</b></a>, <a href="#Page_330"><b>330</b></a>, <a href="#Page_340"><b>340</b></a>, <a href="#Page_343"><b>343</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Light,  direct and diffused, <a href="#Page_391"><b>391</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    electric,  the, <a href="#Page_191"><b>191</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    magnesium,  the, <a href="#Page_191"><b>191</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    Red, <a href="#Page_149"><b>149</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Likes and dislikes of pigments, <a href="#Page_194"><b>194</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Lime,  pigments affected by, <a href="#Page_40"><b>40</b></a>, <a href="#Page_97"><b>97</b></a>, <a href="#Page_98"><b>98</b></a>, <a href="#Page_206"><b>206</b></a>, <a href="#Page_275"><b>275</b></a>, <a href="#Page_281"><b>281</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    with Prussian Blue, <a href="#Page_206"><b>206</b></a>, <a href="#Page_281"><b>281</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Linear perspective, <a href="#Page_22"><b>22</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Linseed oil with White Lead, <a href="#Page_69"><b>69</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Liquid Asphaltum, <a href="#Page_339"><b>339</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    Indian Ink, <a href="#Page_397"><b>397</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    Madder Lake, <a href="#Page_145"><b>145</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    Prout's Brown, <a href="#Page_345"><b>345</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    Rubiate, <a href="#Page_145"><b>145</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Lists of Permanent Pigments:&mdash;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Blue, <a href="#Page_278"><b>278</b></a>, <a href="#Page_300"><b>300</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Green, <a href="#Page_315"><b>315</b></a>, <a href="#Page_329"><b>329</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Orange, <a href="#Page_315"><b>315</b></a>, <a href="#Page_323"><b>323</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Purple, <a href="#Page_323"><b>323</b></a>, <a href="#Page_329"><b>329</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Red, <a href="#Page_253"><b>253</b></a>, <a href="#Page_300"><b>300</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Yellow, <a href="#Page_252"><b>252</b></a>, <a href="#Page_278"><b>278</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Litharge, <a href="#Page_51"><b>51</b></a>, <a href="#Page_120"><b>120</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Litmus, <a href="#Page_303"><b>303</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Local colour, <a href="#Page_24"><b>24</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Lombard School, <a href="#Page_8"><b>8</b></a>.</li>
+<li>London White, <a href="#Page_73"><b>73</b></a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<h5 style="text-align: left; text-indent: 5em;">M.</h5>
+
+<ul class="sample2">
+
+<li>Macpherson's Tint, <a href="#Page_380"><b>380</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Madder, <a href="#Page_139"><b>139</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     adulteration of, <a href="#Page_140"><b>140</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     Brown, <a href="#Page_365"><b>365</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     Burnt, <a href="#Page_305"><b>305</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     Carmine, <a href="#Page_142"><b>142</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>      <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     adulteration of, <a href="#Page_142"><b>142</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     colouring matters of, <a href="#Page_140"><b>140</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     Cory's or Cory's Yellow, <a href="#Page_119"><b>119</b></a>, <a href="#Page_353"><b>353</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     Dr. Schunck on, <a href="#Page_140"><b>140</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     Lake, <a href="#Page_144"><b>144</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     Lakes, <a href="#Page_139"><b>139</b></a>-<a href="#Page_145"><b>145</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>      <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   manufacture of, <a href="#Page_141"><b>141</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     Liquid Lake, <a href="#Page_145"><b>145</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     Orange, <a href="#Page_258"><b>258</b></a>, <a href="#Page_353"><b>353</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     Pink, <a href="#Page_144"><b>144</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     Purple, <a href="#Page_301"><b>301</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     reds in oil, <a href="#Page_144"><b>144</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     Rose, <a href="#Page_143"><b>143</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     Rubens', <a href="#Page_321"><b>321</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     Yellow, <a href="#Page_118"><b>118</b></a>, <a href="#Page_353"><b>353</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Magenta, <a href="#Page_162"><b>162</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Majolica, <a href="#Page_146"><b>146</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Malachite Green, <a href="#Page_274"><b>274</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Manganese as a siccative, <a href="#Page_51"><b>51</b></a>, <a href="#Page_77"><b>77</b></a>, <a href="#Page_406"><b>406</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     Black, <a href="#Page_406"><b>406</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     Blue, <a href="#Page_232"><b>232</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     Brown, <a href="#Page_358"><b>358</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     Green, <a href="#Page_288"><b>288</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     Red, <a href="#Page_168"><b>168</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Manufacture of Cadmium Yellow, <a href="#Page_92"><b>92</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>         Carmine, <a href="#Page_134"><b>134</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>         Cobalt Blue, <a href="#Page_192"><b>192</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>         Intense Blue, <a href="#Page_202"><b>202</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>         Vermilion, <a href="#Page_92"><b>92</b></a>, <a href="#Page_153"><b>153</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Marine Green, <a href="#Page_271"><b>271</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Marrone, <a href="#Page_28"><b>28</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>      analysis of, <a href="#Page_377"><b>377</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>      as a colour, <a href="#Page_362"><b>362</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>      contrasts of, <a href="#Page_362"><b>362</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>      for walls of picture galleries, <a href="#Page_363"><b>363</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>      on the Semi-Neutral, <a href="#Page_362"><b>362</b></a>.</li>
+
+
+<li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_427" id="Page_427">[427]</a></span><span class="smcap">Marrone Pigments</span>:&mdash;</li>
+<li><ul class="sample2">
+<li>Brown Madder, <a href="#Page_365"><b>365</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Chica Marrone, <a href="#Page_367"><b>367</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Chocolate Lead, <a href="#Page_368"><b>368</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Cobalt Marrone, <a href="#Page_368"><b>368</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Madder Marrone, <a href="#Page_369"><b>369</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Marrone Lake, <a href="#Page_369"><b>369</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Marrone Red, <a href="#Page_368"><b>368</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Mars Marrone, <a href="#Page_369"><b>369</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Mixed Marrone, <a href="#Page_367"><b>367</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Purple Black, <a href="#Page_369"><b>369</b></a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Mars Brown, <a href="#Page_313"><b>313</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Brun de, <a href="#Page_313"><b>313</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  colours named after, <a href="#Page_102"><b>102</b></a>, <a href="#Page_146"><b>146</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Orange, <a href="#Page_248"><b>248</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Red, <a href="#Page_145"><b>145</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Rouge de, <a href="#Page_145"><b>145</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Violet, <a href="#Page_290"><b>290</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Violet de, <a href="#Page_290"><b>290</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Yellow, <a href="#Page_102"><b>102</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Massicot, <a href="#Page_120"><b>120</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Mastic varnish, <a href="#Page_50"><b>50</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Mauve, <a href="#Page_163"><b>163</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Mercury,  Chromate of, <a href="#Page_256"><b>256</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  marrone, <a href="#Page_371"><b>371</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  white, <a href="#Page_79"><b>79</b></a>.</li>
+<li>M&eacute;rim&eacute;e, <a href="#Page_121"><b>121</b></a>, <a href="#Page_142"><b>142</b></a>, <a href="#Page_229"><b>229</b></a>, <a href="#Page_284"><b>284</b></a>, <a href="#Page_316"><b>316</b></a>,  <a href="#Page_343"><b>343</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Metallic whites, <a href="#Page_79"><b>79</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Metals,  rare, <a href="#Page_172"><b>172</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Michael Angelo, <a href="#Page_8"><b>8</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Mineral Black, <a href="#Page_407"><b>407</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Blue, <a href="#Page_207"><b>207</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Brown, <a href="#Page_342"><b>342</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  colours,  darkening of, <a href="#Page_284"><b>284</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Gray, <a href="#Page_375"><b>375</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Green, <a href="#Page_288"><b>288</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Green,  German, <a href="#Page_288"><b>288</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Kermes, <a href="#Page_159"><b>159</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Orange, <a href="#Page_258"><b>258</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Pitch, <a href="#Page_337"><b>337</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Purple, <a href="#Page_290"><b>290</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Turbith, <a href="#Page_123"><b>123</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Yellow, <a href="#Page_106"><b>106</b></a>, <a href="#Page_116"><b>116</b></a>, <a href="#Page_121"><b>121</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Min&eacute;rale,  Jaune, <a href="#Page_94"><b>94</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Laque, <a href="#Page_258"><b>258</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Miniature painter,  a, <a href="#Page_401"><b>401</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Minium, <a href="#Page_151"><b>151</b></a>, <a href="#Page_153"><b>153</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Mitis Green, <a href="#Page_271"><b>271</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Mixed Colours:&mdash;
+<span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Black, <a href="#Page_402"><b>402</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Brown, <a href="#Page_346"><b>346</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Citrine, <a href="#Page_314"><b>314</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Gray, <a href="#Page_377"><b>377</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Green, <a href="#Page_277"><b>277</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Grey, <a href="#Page_384"><b>384</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Marrone, <a href="#Page_367"><b>367</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Olive, <a href="#Page_328"><b>328</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Orange, <a href="#Page_249"><b>249</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Purple, <a href="#Page_290"><b>290</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Russet, <a href="#Page_322"><b>322</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Mixed tints,  on, <a href="#Page_249"><b>249</b></a>-<a href="#Page_252"><b>252</b></a>, <a href="#Page_262"><b>262</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Mixture,  a, <a href="#Page_199"><b>199</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  of Bitumen and Mummy,  <a href="#Page_348"><b>348</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  of coloured rays, <a href="#Page_384"><b>384</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  of material colours, <a href="#Page_384"><b>384</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  unnecessary, <a href="#Page_35"><b>35</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Modan or Morat White, <a href="#Page_80"><b>80</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Modern pigments, <a href="#Page_41"><b>41</b></a>-<a href="#Page_45"><b>45</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  detractors of, <a href="#Page_43"><b>43</b></a>-<a href="#Page_45"><b>45</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  inferior, <a href="#Page_41"><b>41</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  superior, <a href="#Page_42"><b>42</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Molybdenum Green, <a href="#Page_289"><b>289</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Monicon, <a href="#Page_257"><b>257</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Montabert,  De, <a href="#Page_405"><b>405</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Montbeillard,  Roman pavement at,  <a href="#Page_218"><b>218</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Montpellier Yellow, <a href="#Page_121"><b>121</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Mountain Blue, <a href="#Page_228"><b>228</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Green, <a href="#Page_274"><b>274</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Mountains, <a href="#Page_254"><b>254</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Mummy, <a href="#Page_347"><b>347</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Brown, <a href="#Page_347"><b>347</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  and Bitumen,  mixed, <a href="#Page_348"><b>348</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Murexide, <a href="#Page_169"><b>169</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Mus&eacute;e Min&eacute;ralogique,  of Paris,  <a href="#Page_219"><b>219</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Mutrie,  Miss, <a href="#Page_143"><b>143</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Yellow, <a href="#Page_92"><b>92</b></a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<h5 style="text-align: left; text-indent: 5em;">N.</h5>
+
+<ul class="sample2">
+
+
+<li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_428" id="Page_428">[428]</a></span>Naphthaline, <a href="#Page_162"><b>162</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Naples Yellow,  modern, <a href="#Page_104"><b>104</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  old, <a href="#Page_103"><b>103</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Napoleon,  Emperor, <a href="#Page_176"><b>176</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Native Bitumen, <a href="#Page_338"><b>338</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Green, <a href="#Page_267"><b>267</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Prussian Blue, <a href="#Page_207"><b>207</b></a>, <a href="#Page_226"><b>226</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Ultramarine, <a href="#Page_216"><b>216</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Natural Ultramarine, <a href="#Page_216"><b>216</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Nature,  colour in, <a href="#Page_311"><b>311</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  gradation in, <a href="#Page_326"><b>326</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  palette of, <a href="#Page_185"><b>185</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  study of, <a href="#Page_24"><b>24</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Negative colours, <a href="#Page_28"><b>28</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Nepos Cornelius, <a href="#Page_295"><b>295</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Neutral colours, <a href="#Page_27"><b>27</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Orange,  Penley's, <a href="#Page_253"><b>253</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Tint, <a href="#Page_377"><b>377</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Neutrality and colour, <a href="#Page_375"><b>375</b></a>, <a href="#Page_376"><b>376</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Neutrals,  colour as applied to the,  <a href="#Page_62"><b>62</b></a>.</li>
+<li>New Blue, <a href="#Page_216"><b>216</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  pigments, <a href="#Page_41"><b>41</b></a>-<a href="#Page_45"><b>45</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Nickel Brown, <a href="#Page_358"><b>358</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Nineveh, <a href="#Page_6"><b>6</b></a>, <a href="#Page_218"><b>218</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Nottingham White, <a href="#Page_73"><b>73</b></a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+
+<h5 style="text-align: left; text-indent: 5em;">O.</h5>
+
+<ul class="sample2">
+
+
+<li>Objectionable pigments,  substitutes for, <a href="#Page_96"><b>96</b></a>, <a href="#Page_104"><b>104</b></a>, <a href="#Page_114"><b>114</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Ochre,  Black, <a href="#Page_404"><b>404</b></a>
+<span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   Blue, <a href="#Page_226"><b>226</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   Brown, <a href="#Page_108"><b>108</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   Browns, <a href="#Page_358"><b>358</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   Burnt Roman, <a href="#Page_255"><b>255</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   Chrome, <a href="#Page_267"><b>267</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   Green, <a href="#Page_287"><b>287</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   Indian, <a href="#Page_148"><b>148</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   Orange, <a href="#Page_255"><b>255</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   Oxford, <a href="#Page_109"><b>109</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   Purple, <a href="#Page_290"><b>290</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   Red, <a href="#Page_147"><b>147</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   Roman, <a href="#Page_107"><b>107</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   Scarlet, <a href="#Page_149"><b>149</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   Spanish, <a href="#Page_255"><b>255</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   Spruce, <a href="#Page_108"><b>108</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   Stone, <a href="#Page_109"><b>109</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   Transparent Gold, <a href="#Page_108"><b>108</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   Yellow, <a href="#Page_106"><b>106</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Ochres and foul air, <a href="#Page_359"><b>359</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   Red, <a href="#Page_146"><b>146</b></a>-<a href="#Page_150"><b>150</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   Yellow, <a href="#Page_105"><b>105</b></a>-<a href="#Page_109"><b>109</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Ocre de Ru, <a href="#Page_108"><b>108</b></a></li>
+<li>Oil,  coal-tar colours in, <a href="#Page_247"><b>247</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   water-colour cakes in, <a href="#Page_50"><b>50</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Oils, <a href="#Page_33"><b>33</b></a>, <a href="#Page_152"><b>152</b></a>, <a href="#Page_194"><b>194</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Olive, <a href="#Page_28"><b>28</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>      analysis of, <a href="#Page_330"><b>330</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>      as a colour, <a href="#Page_325"><b>325</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>      contrast of, <a href="#Page_325"><b>325</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>      on the Tertiary, <a href="#Page_325"><b>325</b></a>.</li>
+
+
+<li><span class="smcap">Olive Pigments</span>:&mdash;</li>
+<li><ul class="sample2">
+<li>Burnt Verdigris, <a href="#Page_331"><b>331</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Dewint's Green, <a href="#Page_330"><b>330</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Mixed Olive, <a href="#Page_328"><b>328</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Olive Green, <a href="#Page_330"><b>330</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Olive Lake, <a href="#Page_331"><b>331</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Olive Oxide of Chromium, <a href="#Page_331"><b>331</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Olive Rinman's Green, <a href="#Page_332"><b>332</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Olive Scheele's Green, <a href="#Page_332"><b>332</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Olive Schweinfurt Green, <a href="#Page_332"><b>332</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Olive Terre Verte, <a href="#Page_333"><b>333</b></a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+
+<li>Olive purples, <a href="#Page_301"><b>301</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Olympian Green, <a href="#Page_271"><b>271</b></a>.</li>
+<li>O'Neill,  Mr., <a href="#Page_159"><b>159</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Opacity of pigments, <a href="#Page_48"><b>48</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Orange, <a href="#Page_28"><b>28</b></a>,
+<span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>      as a colour, <a href="#Page_239"><b>239</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>      as an archeus, <a href="#Page_240"><b>240</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>      contrast of, <a href="#Page_240"><b>240</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>      discordant, <a href="#Page_240"><b>240</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>      on the Secondary, <a href="#Page_239"><b>239</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li><span class="smcap">Orange Pigments</span>:&mdash;</li>
+<li><ul class="sample2">
+<li>Anotta, <a href="#Page_255"><b>255</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Antimony Orange, <a href="#Page_256"><b>256</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Bixine, <a href="#Page_256"><b>256</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Burnt Roman Ochre, <a href="#Page_255"><b>255</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Burnt Sienna, <a href="#Page_243"><b>243</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Burnt Terra di Sienna, <a href="#Page_243"><b>243</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Cadmium Orange, <a href="#Page_36"><b>36</b></a>, <a href="#Page_244"><b>244</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Chinese Orange, <a href="#Page_246"><b>246</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Chromate of Mercury, <a href="#Page_256"><b>256</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Chrome Orange, <a href="#Page_248"><b>248</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Damonico, <a href="#Page_257"><b>257</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Gamboge Orange, <a href="#Page_257"><b>257</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Golden Sulphur of Antimony, <a href="#Page_256"><b>256</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Golden Yellow, <a href="#Page_256"><b>256</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Laque Min&eacute;rale, <a href="#Page_258"><b>258</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Madder Orange, <a href="#Page_258"><b>258</b></a>, <a href="#Page_353"><b>353</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Mars Orange, <a href="#Page_248"><b>248</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Mineral Orange, <a href="#Page_248"><b>248</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Mixed Orange, <a href="#Page_249"><b>249</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Monicon, <a href="#Page_257"><b>257</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Neutral Orange, <a href="#Page_253"><b>253</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Orange Chrome, <a href="#Page_248"><b>248</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Orange Chromate of Lead, <a href="#Page_248"><b>248</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Orange de Mars, <a href="#Page_248"><b>248</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Orange Lake, <a href="#Page_258"><b>258</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Orange Lead, <a href="#Page_258"><b>258</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Orange Ochre, <a href="#Page_255"><b>255</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Orange Orpiment, <a href="#Page_258"><b>258</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Penley's Neutral Orange, <a href="#Page_253"><b>253</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Realgar, <a href="#Page_258"><b>258</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Red Orpiment, <a href="#Page_258"><b>258</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Rocou, <a href="#Page_255"><b>255</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Spanish Ochre, <a href="#Page_255"><b>255</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Terra Orellana, <a href="#Page_255"><b>255</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Thallium Orange, <a href="#Page_259"><b>259</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Uranium Orange, <a href="#Page_260"><b>260</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Zinc Orange, <a href="#Page_261"><b>261</b></a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Orange Russet, <a href="#Page_321"><b>321</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>      Vermilion, <a href="#Page_157"><b>157</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>      Field's, <a href="#Page_158"><b>158</b></a>.</li>
+
+
+<li>Order of Colours:&mdash;</li>
+<li><ul class="sample2">
+<li>White, <a href="#Page_62"><b>62</b></a>-<a href="#Page_80"><b>80</b></a>, <a href="#Page_414"><b>414</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Yellow, <a href="#Page_81"><b>81</b></a>-<a href="#Page_126"><b>126</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Red, <a href="#Page_127"><b>127</b></a>-<a href="#Page_182"><b>182</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Blue, <a href="#Page_183"><b>183</b></a>-<a href="#Page_238"><b>238</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Orange, <a href="#Page_239"><b>239</b></a>-<a href="#Page_262"><b>262</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Green, <a href="#Page_263"><b>263</b></a>-<a href="#Page_293"><b>293</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Purple, <a href="#Page_294"><b>294</b></a>-<a href="#Page_309"><b>309</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Citrine, <a href="#Page_310"><b>310</b></a>-<a href="#Page_319"><b>319</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Russet, <a href="#Page_320"><b>320</b></a>-<a href="#Page_324"><b>324</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Olive, <a href="#Page_325"><b>325</b></a>-<a href="#Page_333"><b>333</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Brown, <a href="#Page_334"><b>334</b></a>-<a href="#Page_361"><b>361</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Marrone, <a href="#Page_362"><b>362</b></a>-<a href="#Page_371"><b>371</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Gray, <a href="#Page_372"><b>372</b></a>-<a href="#Page_380"><b>380</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Grey, <a href="#Page_381"><b>381</b></a>-<a href="#Page_386"><b>386</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Black, <a href="#Page_387"><b>387</b></a>-<a href="#Page_413"><b>413</b></a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+
+<li>Organic pigments with lead chromates, <a href="#Page_248"><b>248</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Orient Yellow, <a href="#Page_42"><b>42</b></a>, <a href="#Page_110"><b>110</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Original pigments, <a href="#Page_35"><b>35</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>       importance of, <a href="#Page_240"><b>240</b></a>-<a href="#Page_242"><b>242</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Orpiment Yellow, <a href="#Page_111"><b>111</b></a>-<a href="#Page_113"><b>113</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Outremer, <a href="#Page_217"><b>217</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Outremer de Guimet, <a href="#Page_209"><b>209</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_429" id="Page_429">[429]</a></span>Oxford Ochre, <a href="#Page_109"><b>109</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Oxidation of pigments, <a href="#Page_38"><b>38</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Oxide,  Chrome, <a href="#Page_267"><b>267</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  of Chromium,  Green, <a href="#Page_267"><b>267</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Opaque, <a href="#Page_267"><b>267</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Transparent, <a href="#Page_268"><b>268</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Oxychloride of Lead, <a href="#Page_73"><b>73</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Oxygenated water, <a href="#Page_69"><b>69</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Oyster-shell,  white of, <a href="#Page_80"><b>80</b></a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<h5 style="text-align: left; text-indent: 5em;">P.</h5>
+
+<ul class="sample2">
+
+
+<li>Paille de Mil, <a href="#Page_170"><b>170</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Painting,  siliceous, <a href="#Page_212"><b>212</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Pale Cadmium, <a href="#Page_90"><b>90</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> Chrome, <a href="#Page_93"><b>93</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> Vermilion, <a href="#Page_154"><b>154</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> washes of a pigment, <a href="#Page_91"><b>91</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Palette,  disinfectants of the, <a href="#Page_359"><b>359</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  motto for the, <a href="#Page_156"><b>156</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  setting the, <a href="#Page_23"><b>23</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Palette-knife,  avoidance of a steel, <a href="#Page_39"><b>39</b></a>, <a href="#Page_50"><b>50</b></a>, <a href="#Page_90"><b>90</b></a>, <a href="#Page_103"><b>103</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Palladium, <a href="#Page_122"><b>122</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Paper Black, <a href="#Page_407"><b>407</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Smalt and Ultramarine in, <a href="#Page_196"><b>196</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  to give a tone to, <a href="#Page_253"><b>253</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Paris Blue, <a href="#Page_192"><b>192</b></a>, <a href="#Page_203"><b>203</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Paris,  Mus&eacute;e Min&eacute;ralogique at, <a href="#Page_219"><b>219</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Soci&eacute;t&eacute; d'Encouragement of, <a href="#Page_210"><b>210</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Particular colour,  predilection for a, <a href="#Page_58"><b>58</b></a>, <a href="#Page_59"><b>59</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Patent Green, <a href="#Page_271"><b>271</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Yellow, <a href="#Page_121"><b>121</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Pattison's White, <a href="#Page_73"><b>73</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Paul Veronese, <a href="#Page_229"><b>229</b></a>, <a href="#Page_335"><b>335</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Payne's Gray, <a href="#Page_378"><b>378</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Peach Black, <a href="#Page_407"><b>407</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Pearl White, <a href="#Page_78"><b>78</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Peganum Harmala, <a href="#Page_171"><b>171</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Penley,  Mr. Aaron, <a href="#Page_85"><b>85</b></a>-<a href="#Page_87"><b>87</b></a>, <a href="#Page_158"><b>158</b></a>, <a href="#Page_268"><b>268</b></a>, <a href="#Page_270"><b>270</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Penley's Neutral Orange, <a href="#Page_253"><b>253</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Perfect pigment,  a, <a href="#Page_46"><b>46</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Perkin,  Mr. W., <a href="#Page_162"><b>162</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Permanent Blue, <a href="#Page_216"><b>216</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   pigments, <a href="#Page_252"><b>252</b></a>, <a href="#Page_278"><b>278</b></a>, <a href="#Page_300"><b>300</b></a>, <a href="#Page_315"><b>315</b></a>, <a href="#Page_323"><b>323</b></a>, <a href="#Page_329"><b>329</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   White, <a href="#Page_65"><b>65</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Peroxidized pigments, <a href="#Page_38"><b>38</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Persian berries, <a href="#Page_312"><b>312</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Green, <a href="#Page_271"><b>271</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  lazur, <a href="#Page_228"><b>228</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Red, <a href="#Page_148"><b>148</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Perspective,  aerial, <a href="#Page_22"><b>22</b></a>, <a href="#Page_23"><b>23</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   linear, <a href="#Page_22"><b>22</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   of colours, <a href="#Page_22"><b>22</b></a>, <a href="#Page_23"><b>23</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Persulphomolybdates, <a href="#Page_171"><b>171</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Philocles, <a href="#Page_7"><b>7</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Phosphine, <a href="#Page_162"><b>162</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Photography,  lamp black in, <a href="#Page_401"><b>401</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   pigments generally in, <a href="#Page_401"><b>401</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Pickle Green, <a href="#Page_276"><b>276</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Picric acid, <a href="#Page_162"><b>162</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Picture galleries, <a href="#Page_363"><b>363</b></a>-<a href="#Page_365"><b>365</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Pictures and pigments, <a href="#Page_292"><b>292</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Pigment and colour, <a href="#Page_31"><b>31</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Pigments,  action of fire and time on<a href="#Page_31"><b>31</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  adulteration of, <a href="#Page_70"><b>70</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  apt to vary, <a href="#Page_126"><b>126</b></a>, <a href="#Page_181"><b>181</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  beauty in, <a href="#Page_46"><b>46</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  blending of, <a href="#Page_37"><b>37</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  common, <a href="#Page_359"><b>359</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  compound, <a href="#Page_36"><b>36</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  drying of, <a href="#Page_50"><b>50</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  fineness of texture in, <a href="#Page_50"><b>50</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  grinding of, <a href="#Page_37"><b>37</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  individual beauty of, <a href="#Page_58"><b>58</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  innoxious, <a href="#Page_53"><b>53</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  on the Durability and Fugacity of, <a href="#Page_31"><b>31</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  on the General Qualities of, <a href="#Page_46"><b>46</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  opacity and transparency of, <a href="#Page_48"><b>48</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  past and present, <a href="#Page_293"><b>293</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  rays from, <a href="#Page_384"><b>384</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  truth of hue in, <a href="#Page_47"><b>47</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  vehicles with, <a href="#Page_48"><b>48</b></a>-<a href="#Page_53"><b>53</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  working well, <a href="#Page_49"><b>49</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Pink,  Brown, <a href="#Page_313"><b>313</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Dutch, <a href="#Page_100"><b>100</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  English, <a href="#Page_100"><b>100</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Italian, <a href="#Page_100"><b>100</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Madder, <a href="#Page_144"><b>144</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Rose, <a href="#Page_173"><b>173</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Saucers, <a href="#Page_174"><b>174</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Pitch,  Jew's, <a href="#Page_337"><b>337</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Mineral, <a href="#Page_337"><b>337</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Pittacal, <a href="#Page_234"><b>234</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Platinum Blue, <a href="#Page_233"><b>233</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Yellow, <a href="#Page_121"><b>121</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Playfair,  Dr. Lyon, <a href="#Page_355"><b>355</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Pliny, <a href="#Page_7"><b>7</b></a>, <a href="#Page_153"><b>153</b></a>, <a href="#Page_198"><b>198</b></a>, <a href="#Page_218"><b>218</b></a>, <a href="#Page_295"><b>295</b></a>, <a href="#Page_338"><b>338</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Plumbago, <a href="#Page_393"><b>393</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Polygnotus, <a href="#Page_9"><b>9</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Pompeii, <a href="#Page_105"><b>105</b></a>, <a href="#Page_229"><b>229</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Porcelain,  blue for, <a href="#Page_235"><b>235</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  green for, <a href="#Page_267"><b>267</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Poussin, <a href="#Page_11"><b>11</b></a>, <a href="#Page_316"><b>316</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Powder Blue, <a href="#Page_196"><b>196</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Power of pigments,  individual, <a href="#Page_59"><b>59</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Powers of colours, <a href="#Page_82"><b>82</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Practice of Sir J. Reynolds, <a href="#Page_37"><b>37</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Precipitate,  Red, <a href="#Page_173"><b>173</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Prevention and cure, <a href="#Page_412"><b>412</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Price,  Dr. D. S., <a href="#Page_69"><b>69</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_430" id="Page_430">[430]</a></span>Primary colours, <a href="#Page_28"><b>28</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Principles of practice, <a href="#Page_35"><b>35</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Process,  Autotype, <a href="#Page_401"><b>401</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Protoxide,  pigments in the state of, <a href="#Page_37"><b>37</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Proust,  M., <a href="#Page_396"><b>396</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Prout,  Samuel, <a href="#Page_346"><b>346</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Prout's Brown,  Liquid, <a href="#Page_345"><b>345</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Prussian Black, <a href="#Page_404"><b>404</b></a>, <a href="#Page_408"><b>408</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   Copper, <a href="#Page_408"><b>408</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Prussian Blue, <a href="#Page_203"><b>203</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> adulteration of, <a href="#Page_203"><b>203</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> character of, <a href="#Page_237"><b>237</b></a>, <a href="#Page_278"><b>278</b></a>, <a href="#Page_301"><b>301</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> Cobalt, <a href="#Page_227"><b>227</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> manufacture of, <a href="#Page_203"><b>203</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> Native, <a href="#Page_207"><b>207</b></a>, <a href="#Page_226"><b>226</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> want of a permanent, <a href="#Page_189"><b>189</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> with alkalies, <a href="#Page_206"><b>206</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Prussian Brown, <a href="#Page_348"><b>348</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> French, <a href="#Page_255"><b>255</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Greens, <a href="#Page_281"><b>281</b></a>, <a href="#Page_282"><b>282</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Red, <a href="#Page_149"><b>149</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Prussiate of Copper, <a href="#Page_323"><b>323</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   Iron, <a href="#Page_203"><b>203</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Pure Scarlet, <a href="#Page_150"><b>150</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Ultramarine, <a href="#Page_216"><b>216</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Purple, <a href="#Page_28"><b>28</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  as a colour, <a href="#Page_295"><b>295</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  as a pigment, <a href="#Page_297"><b>297</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Black, <a href="#Page_369"><b>369</b></a>, <a href="#Page_408"><b>408</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Brown, <a href="#Page_359"><b>359</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  contrast of, <a href="#Page_294"><b>294</b></a>, <a href="#Page_297"><b>297</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Lake, <a href="#Page_137"><b>137</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  on the Secondary, <a href="#Page_294"><b>294</b></a>.</li>
+
+
+<li><span class="smcap">Purple Pigments</span>:&mdash;</li>
+<li><ul class="sample2">
+<li>Archil Purple, <a href="#Page_303"><b>303</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Bismuth Purple, <a href="#Page_304"><b>304</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Burnt Carmine, <a href="#Page_298"><b>298</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Burnt Lake, <a href="#Page_298"><b>298</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Burnt Madder, <a href="#Page_305"><b>305</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Cassius's Purple Precipitate, <a href="#Page_306"><b>306</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Cobalt Purples, <a href="#Page_305"><b>305</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Field's Purple, <a href="#Page_301"><b>301</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Gold Purple, <a href="#Page_306"><b>306</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Indian Purple, <a href="#Page_298"><b>298</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Mars Violet, <a href="#Page_290"><b>290</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Mauve, <a href="#Page_163"><b>163</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Mineral Purple, <a href="#Page_290"><b>290</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Mixed Purple, <a href="#Page_290"><b>290</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Prussian Purple, <a href="#Page_307"><b>307</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Purple Madder, <a href="#Page_301"><b>301</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Purple Ochre, <a href="#Page_290"><b>290</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Purple of Cassius, <a href="#Page_306"><b>306</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Purple Rubiate, <a href="#Page_301"><b>301</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Sandal Wood Purple, <a href="#Page_307"><b>307</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Solid French Purple, <a href="#Page_304"><b>304</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Tin Violet, <a href="#Page_308"><b>308</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Violet Carmine, <a href="#Page_302"><b>302</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Violet de Mars, <a href="#Page_290"><b>290</b></a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+
+<li>Purple,  pure, <a href="#Page_300"><b>300</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Tyrian, <a href="#Page_295"><b>295</b></a>, <a href="#Page_296"><b>296</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Purpurates, <a href="#Page_170"><b>170</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Purree, <a href="#Page_98"><b>98</b></a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+
+
+<h5 style="text-align: left; text-indent: 5em;">Q.</h5>
+
+<ul class="sample2">
+
+<li>Qualities of Pigments,  on the General, <a href="#Page_46"><b>46</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Queen's Yellow, <a href="#Page_123"><b>123</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Quercitron Lake, <a href="#Page_100"><b>100</b></a>, <a href="#Page_312"><b>312</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Yellow, <a href="#Page_100"><b>100</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Quinine Green, <a href="#Page_289"><b>289</b></a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<h5 style="text-align: left; text-indent: 5em;">R.</h5>
+
+<ul class="sample2">
+
+<li>Ramnus infectorius, <a href="#Page_315"><b>315</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Raphael, <a href="#Page_8"><b>8</b></a>, <a href="#Page_9"><b>9</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Rare Metals, <a href="#Page_172"><b>172</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Raw Sienna, <a href="#Page_113"><b>113</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Umber, <a href="#Page_315"><b>315</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Rays from pigments, <a href="#Page_384"><b>384</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Real Ultramarine, <a href="#Page_216"><b>216</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Realgar, <a href="#Page_258"><b>258</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Reboulleau's Blue, <a href="#Page_230"><b>230</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Red, <a href="#Page_28"><b>28</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  as a colour, <a href="#Page_128"><b>128</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  contrasts of, <a href="#Page_128"><b>128</b></a>, <a href="#Page_129"><b>129</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  discordant, <a href="#Page_129"><b>129</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Marrone, <a href="#Page_368"><b>368</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  on the Primary, <a href="#Page_127"><b>127</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Orpiment, <a href="#Page_258"><b>258</b></a>.</li>
+
+
+
+<li><span class="smcap">Red Pigments</span>:&mdash;</li>
+<li><ul class="sample2">
+<li>Almagra, <a href="#Page_147"><b>147</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Antimony Red, <a href="#Page_159"><b>159</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Armenian Bole, <a href="#Page_147"><b>147</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Bloodstone, <a href="#Page_147"><b>147</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Brown Red, <a href="#Page_147"><b>147</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Cadmium Red, <a href="#Page_130"><b>130</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Carmine, <a href="#Page_133"><b>133</b></a>-<a href="#Page_135"><b>135</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Carmine Vermilion, <a href="#Page_156"><b>156</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Carnagione, <a href="#Page_149"><b>149</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Chica Red, <a href="#Page_159"><b>159</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Chinese Lake, <a href="#Page_137"><b>137</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Chinese Rouge, <a href="#Page_174"><b>174</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Chinese Vermilion, <a href="#Page_156"><b>156</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Coal-Tar Colours, <a href="#Page_160"><b>160</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Cobalt Reds, <a href="#Page_164"><b>164</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Cochineal Lakes, <a href="#Page_131"><b>131</b></a>-<a href="#Page_137"><b>137</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Copper Reds, <a href="#Page_164"><b>164</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Crimson Lake, <a href="#Page_135"><b>135</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Deep Vermilion, <a href="#Page_154"><b>154</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Dragon's Blood, <a href="#Page_137"><b>137</b></a>.</li>
+<li>English Red, <a href="#Page_149"><b>149</b></a>.</li>
+<li>English Vermilion, <a href="#Page_146"><b>146</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Extract of Vermilion, <a href="#Page_157"><b>157</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Ferrate of Baryta, <a href="#Page_165"><b>165</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Field's Carmine, <a href="#Page_142"><b>142</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Field's Lakes, <a href="#Page_139"><b>139</b></a>-<a href="#Page_145"><b>145</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Field's Orange Vermilion, <a href="#Page_158"><b>158</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Florentine Lake, <a href="#Page_137"><b>137</b></a>.</li>
+
+
+<li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_431" id="Page_431">[431]</a></span>Gold Reds, <a href="#Page_166"><b>166</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Hamburgh Lake, <a href="#Page_137"><b>137</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Indian Lake, <a href="#Page_138"><b>138</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Indian Ochre, <a href="#Page_146"><b>146</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Indian Red, <a href="#Page_148"><b>148</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Iodine Pink, <a href="#Page_166"><b>166</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Iodine Scarlet, <a href="#Page_150"><b>150</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Kermes Lake, <a href="#Page_167"><b>167</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Lac Lake, <a href="#Page_138"><b>138</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Lawson's Red, <a href="#Page_168"><b>168</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Light Red, <a href="#Page_149"><b>149</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Liquid Madder Lake, <a href="#Page_145"><b>145</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Liquid Rubiate, <a href="#Page_145"><b>145</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Madder Carmine, <a href="#Page_142"><b>142</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Madder Lake, <a href="#Page_144"><b>144</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Madder Lakes, <a href="#Page_139"><b>139</b></a>-<a href="#Page_145"><b>145</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Magenta, <a href="#Page_160"><b>160</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Majolica, <a href="#Page_146"><b>146</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Manganese Red, <a href="#Page_168"><b>168</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Mars Red, <a href="#Page_145"><b>145</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Mineral Kermes, <a href="#Page_159"><b>159</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Minium, <a href="#Page_151"><b>151</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Murexide, <a href="#Page_169"><b>169</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Ochres, <a href="#Page_146"><b>146</b></a>-<a href="#Page_150"><b>150</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Orange Vermilion, <a href="#Page_157"><b>157</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Paille de Mil, <a href="#Page_170"><b>170</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Pale Vermilion, <a href="#Page_154"><b>154</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Peganum Harmala, <a href="#Page_171"><b>171</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Persian Red, <a href="#Page_148"><b>148</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Persulphomolybdates, <a href="#Page_171"><b>171</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Pink Madder, <a href="#Page_144"><b>144</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Pink Saucers, <a href="#Page_174"><b>174</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Prussian Red, <a href="#Page_149"><b>149</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Pure Scarlet, <a href="#Page_150"><b>150</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Purple Lake, <a href="#Page_137"><b>137</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Red Chalk, <a href="#Page_172"><b>172</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Red Chrome, <a href="#Page_151"><b>151</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Red Lead, <a href="#Page_151"><b>151</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Red Ochre, <a href="#Page_147"><b>147</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Red Precipitate, <a href="#Page_173"><b>173</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Redding, <a href="#Page_146"><b>146</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Roman Lake, <a href="#Page_137"><b>137</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Rose Madder, <a href="#Page_143"><b>143</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Rose Pink, <a href="#Page_173"><b>173</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Rose Rubiate, <a href="#Page_145"><b>145</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Rouge, <a href="#Page_173"><b>173</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Rouge de Mars, <a href="#Page_145"><b>145</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Rubric Lakes, <a href="#Page_139"><b>139</b></a>-<a href="#Page_145"><b>145</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Rufigallic Red, <a href="#Page_174"><b>174</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Sandal Red, <a href="#Page_175"><b>175</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Saturnine Red, <a href="#Page_151"><b>151</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Scarlet Chrome, <a href="#Page_151"><b>151</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Scarlet Lake, <a href="#Page_136"><b>136</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Scarlet Ochre, <a href="#Page_149"><b>149</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Scarlet Vermilion, <a href="#Page_156"><b>156</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Sil Atticum, <a href="#Page_147"><b>147</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Silver Red, <a href="#Page_176"><b>176</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Sinoper, <a href="#Page_151"><b>151</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Sorgho Red, <a href="#Page_176"><b>176</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Spanish Brown, <a href="#Page_146"><b>146</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Spanish Red, <a href="#Page_150"><b>150</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Terra Puzzoli, <a href="#Page_149"><b>149</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Terra Sinopica, <a href="#Page_147"><b>147</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Thallium Red, <a href="#Page_177"><b>177</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Tin Pink, <a href="#Page_177"><b>177</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Ultramarine Red, <a href="#Page_178"><b>178</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Uranium Red, <a href="#Page_179"><b>179</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Venetian Lake, <a href="#Page_137"><b>137</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Venetian Red, <a href="#Page_149"><b>149</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Vermilion, <a href="#Page_154"><b>154</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Vermilions, <a href="#Page_153"><b>153</b></a>-<a href="#Page_158"><b>158</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Wongshy Red, <a href="#Page_180"><b>180</b></a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+
+
+<li>Reds,  ancient, <a href="#Page_5"><b>5</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Relations of colour, <a href="#Page_13"><b>13</b></a>-<a href="#Page_24"><b>24</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Relative durability of colour, <a href="#Page_32"><b>32</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Rembrandt, <a href="#Page_11"><b>11</b></a>, <a href="#Page_345"><b>345</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Revelation,  Book of, <a href="#Page_217"><b>217</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Reynolds,  Sir Joshua, <a href="#Page_10"><b>10</b></a>, <a href="#Page_35"><b>35</b></a>, <a href="#Page_37"><b>37</b></a>, <a href="#Page_158"><b>158</b></a>, <a href="#Page_374"><b>374</b></a>, <a href="#Page_410"><b>410</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Rinman's Green, <a href="#Page_285"><b>285</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    Olive, <a href="#Page_332"><b>332</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Rocou, <a href="#Page_255"><b>255</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Roman Green, <a href="#Page_290"><b>290</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Lake, <a href="#Page_137"><b>137</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Ochre, <a href="#Page_107"><b>107</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> Burnt, <a href="#Page_255"><b>255</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  painters and painting, <a href="#Page_7"><b>7</b></a>, <a href="#Page_8"><b>8</b></a>, <a href="#Page_10"><b>10</b></a>, <a href="#Page_391"><b>391</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Sepia, <a href="#Page_351"><b>351</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  White, <a href="#Page_74"><b>74</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Romans,  the, <a href="#Page_153"><b>153</b></a>, <a href="#Page_295"><b>295</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Romulus, <a href="#Page_295"><b>295</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Rosaniline, <a href="#Page_162"><b>162</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Rose,  the, <a href="#Page_327"><b>327</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Rousseau,  M. E., <a href="#Page_414"><b>414</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Rowbotham,  Messrs., <a href="#Page_144"><b>144</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Royal Academy at Burlington House, <a href="#Page_365"><b>365</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Blue, <a href="#Page_196"><b>196</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Rubens, <a href="#Page_11"><b>11</b></a>, <a href="#Page_37"><b>37</b></a>, <a href="#Page_64"><b>64</b></a>, <a href="#Page_157"><b>157</b></a>, <a href="#Page_283"><b>283</b></a>, <a href="#Page_334"><b>334</b></a>, <a href="#Page_374"><b>374</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Brown, <a href="#Page_359"><b>359</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Madder, <a href="#Page_321"><b>321</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Rubia tinctorum, <a href="#Page_139"><b>139</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Rubiate,  Purple, <a href="#Page_301"><b>301</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Rue,  Dr. Warren de la, <a href="#Page_132"><b>132</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Ruskin,  Mr., <a href="#Page_13"><b>13</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Russet, <a href="#Page_28"><b>28</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  analysis of, <a href="#Page_330"><b>330</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  as a colour, <a href="#Page_320"><b>320</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  contrast of, <a href="#Page_321"><b>321</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  on the Tertiary, <a href="#Page_320"><b>320</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li><span class="smcap">Russet Pigments</span>:&mdash;</li>
+<li><ul class="sample2">
+<li>Field's Russet, <a href="#Page_321"><b>321</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Mixed Russet, <a href="#Page_322"><b>322</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Orange Russet, <a href="#Page_321"><b>321</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Prussiate of Copper, <a href="#Page_323"><b>323</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Rubens' Madder, <a href="#Page_321"><b>321</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Russet Rubiate, <a href="#Page_321"><b>321</b></a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+</ul>
+
+<h5 style="text-align: left; text-indent: 5em;">S.</h5>
+
+<ul class="sample2">
+
+
+
+<li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_432" id="Page_432">[432]</a></span>Sacc,  M., <a href="#Page_414"><b>414</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Safflower, <a href="#Page_174"><b>174</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Samuel Prout, <a href="#Page_346"><b>346</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Sandal Red, <a href="#Page_175"><b>175</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Wood Purple, <a href="#Page_307"><b>307</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Sandarac, <a href="#Page_259"><b>259</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Sap Green, <a href="#Page_282"><b>282</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Satin White, <a href="#Page_80"><b>80</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Saturnine Red, <a href="#Page_151"><b>151</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Saucers,  Pink, <a href="#Page_174"><b>174</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Saunders Blue, <a href="#Page_230"><b>230</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Saxon Blue, <a href="#Page_189"><b>189</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Green, <a href="#Page_271"><b>271</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Smalts, <a href="#Page_215"><b>215</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Scarlet Chrome, <a href="#Page_151"><b>151</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Iodine, <a href="#Page_150"><b>150</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Lake, <a href="#Page_136"><b>136</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Ochre, <a href="#Page_149"><b>149</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Pure, <a href="#Page_150"><b>150</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  transparent,  a,  reward for, <a href="#Page_130"><b>130</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  substitute for, <a href="#Page_130"><b>130</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Vermilion, <a href="#Page_156"><b>156</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Scheele's Green, <a href="#Page_272"><b>272</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Olive, <a href="#Page_332"><b>332</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Schools of painting, <a href="#Page_8"><b>8</b></a>-<a href="#Page_10"><b>10</b></a>, <a href="#Page_37"><b>37</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Schunck,  Dr., <a href="#Page_140"><b>140</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Schweinfurt Blue, <a href="#Page_230"><b>230</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Green, <a href="#Page_271"><b>271</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Olive, <a href="#Page_332"><b>332</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Scoffern,  Dr., <a href="#Page_357"><b>357</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Sea,  the Dead, <a href="#Page_337"><b>337</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  transparency of the, <a href="#Page_269"><b>269</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Secondary colours, <a href="#Page_28"><b>28</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  pigments, <a href="#Page_242"><b>242</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Semi-Neutral colours, <a href="#Page_29"><b>29</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  the term, <a href="#Page_334"><b>334</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Semi-stability,  on, <a href="#Page_308"><b>308</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Semi-stable pigments, <a href="#Page_298"><b>298</b></a>, <a href="#Page_313"><b>313</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Sepia, <a href="#Page_348"><b>348</b></a>, <a href="#Page_397"><b>397</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Liquid, <a href="#Page_348"><b>348</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Roman, <a href="#Page_350"><b>350</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Warm, <a href="#Page_351"><b>351</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Shades, <a href="#Page_21"><b>21</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Shadow,  colour of, <a href="#Page_27"><b>27</b></a>, <a href="#Page_30"><b>30</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Siccatives, <a href="#Page_51"><b>51</b></a>-<a href="#Page_53"><b>53</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Sienna,  Burnt, <a href="#Page_243"><b>243</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Raw, <a href="#Page_113"><b>113</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Terra di, <a href="#Page_113"><b>113</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Sil Atticum, <a href="#Page_147"><b>147</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Silicate of Baryta, <a href="#Page_290"><b>290</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Siliceous painting,  Ultramarine in, <a href="#Page_212"><b>212</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Silver Red, <a href="#Page_176"><b>176</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  White, <a href="#Page_71"><b>71</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Sinoper, <a href="#Page_151"><b>151</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Slate Clays, <a href="#Page_380"><b>380</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  powdered, <a href="#Page_380"><b>380</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Smalt, <a href="#Page_195"><b>195</b></a>-<a href="#Page_198"><b>198</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  adulteration of, <a href="#Page_198"><b>198</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Copper, <a href="#Page_229"><b>229</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Smalt,  grinding of, <a href="#Page_197"><b>197</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  in mural decoration, <a href="#Page_198"><b>198</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  in paper, <a href="#Page_196"><b>196</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Iron, <a href="#Page_218"><b>218</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Soap and alkali in brushes, <a href="#Page_52"><b>52</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Soci&eacute;t&eacute; d'Encouragement of Paris, <a href="#Page_210"><b>210</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Society of Arts, <a href="#Page_130"><b>130</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Soda flame, <a href="#Page_191"><b>191</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Solid French Purple, <a href="#Page_304"><b>304</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Sorgho Red, <a href="#Page_176"><b>176</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Sources of pigments, <a href="#Page_60"><b>60</b></a>.</li>
+<li>South America,  chica from, <a href="#Page_368"><b>368</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Spanish Black, <a href="#Page_409"><b>409</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Brown, <a href="#Page_146"><b>146</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Ochre, <a href="#Page_255"><b>255</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Red, <a href="#Page_150"><b>150</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Schools, <a href="#Page_8"><b>8</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  White, <a href="#Page_80"><b>80</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Spence,  Mr., <a href="#Page_68"><b>68</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Spruce Ochre, <a href="#Page_108"><b>108</b></a>.</li>
+<li>St. Petersburg,  palace at, <a href="#Page_219"><b>219</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Starch, <a href="#Page_66"><b>66</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Stil de Grain,  Brown, <a href="#Page_312"><b>312</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Stippling, <a href="#Page_315"><b>315</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Stone,  Armenian, <a href="#Page_228"><b>228</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  lapis lazuli, <a href="#Page_217"><b>217</b></a>, <a href="#Page_219"><b>219</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  malachite, <a href="#Page_274"><b>274</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Ochre, <a href="#Page_109"><b>109</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Strontian Yellow, <a href="#Page_113"><b>113</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Sulphate of Lead, <a href="#Page_72"><b>72</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  zinc, <a href="#Page_51"><b>51</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Sulphide of cadmium,  thallium in, <a href="#Page_260"><b>260</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Sulphur and ochres, <a href="#Page_359"><b>359</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Sulphuretted  hydrogen,   pigments affected by, <a href="#Page_39"><b>39</b></a>, <a href="#Page_67"><b>67</b></a>, <a href="#Page_69"><b>69</b></a>, <a href="#Page_73"><b>73</b></a>, <a href="#Page_78"><b>78</b></a>, <a href="#Page_79"><b>79</b></a>, <a href="#Page_93"><b>93</b></a>, <a href="#Page_103"><b>103</b></a>, <a href="#Page_120"><b>120</b></a>, <a href="#Page_151"><b>151</b></a>, <a href="#Page_152"><b>152</b></a>, <a href="#Page_229"><b>229</b></a>, <a href="#Page_248"><b>248</b></a>, <a href="#Page_275"><b>275</b></a>, <a href="#Page_276"><b>276</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Susa, <a href="#Page_296"><b>296</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Swedish Green, <a href="#Page_272"><b>272</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Synonyms,  value of, <a href="#Page_145"><b>145</b></a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<h5 style="text-align: left; text-indent: 5em;">T.</h5>
+
+<ul class="sample2">
+
+
+<li>Talent of money, <a href="#Page_296"><b>296</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Teniers, <a href="#Page_360"><b>360</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Terra di Sienna, <a href="#Page_113"><b>113</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Burnt, <a href="#Page_243"><b>243</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Orellana, <a href="#Page_255"><b>255</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Puzzoli, <a href="#Page_149"><b>149</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Sinopica, <a href="#Page_147"><b>147</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Terre Bleu, <a href="#Page_228"><b>228</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Verte, <a href="#Page_283"><b>283</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> Olive, <a href="#Page_333"><b>333</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Terrene whites, <a href="#Page_66"><b>66</b></a>, <a href="#Page_80"><b>80</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Tertiary colours, <a href="#Page_28"><b>28</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  on, <a href="#Page_311"><b>311</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Thallium,  in sulphide of cadmium, <a href="#Page_260"><b>260</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Orange, <a href="#Page_259"><b>259</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Red, <a href="#Page_177"><b>177</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Yellow, <a href="#Page_122"><b>122</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Thebes,  mausoleum at, <a href="#chapter_1"><b>3</b></a>.</li>
+
+
+
+<li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_433" id="Page_433">[433]</a></span>Th&eacute;nard,  M., <a href="#Page_69"><b>69</b></a>, <a href="#Page_192"><b>192</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Th&eacute;nard's Blue, <a href="#Page_192"><b>192</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Theophrastus, <a href="#Page_198"><b>198</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Theory and practice, <a href="#Page_410"><b>410</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Thwaites' Yellow, <a href="#Page_122"><b>122</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Time,  pigments affected by, <a href="#Page_40"><b>40</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Tin Pink, <a href="#Page_177"><b>177</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Violet, <a href="#Page_308"><b>308</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  White, <a href="#Page_79"><b>79</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Tin-Copper Green, <a href="#Page_286"><b>286</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Tint,  Harding's, <a href="#Page_380"><b>380</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Macpherson's, <a href="#Page_380"><b>380</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Neutral, <a href="#Page_377"><b>377</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Tintoret, <a href="#Page_8"><b>8</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Tints, <a href="#Page_27"><b>27</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Titanium Green, <a href="#Page_290"><b>290</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Titian, <a href="#Page_7"><b>7</b></a>, <a href="#Page_8"><b>8</b></a>, <a href="#Page_9"><b>9</b></a>, <a href="#Page_11"><b>11</b></a>, <a href="#Page_37"><b>37</b></a>, <a href="#Page_150"><b>150</b></a>, <a href="#Page_157"><b>157</b></a>, <a href="#Page_293"><b>293</b></a>, <a href="#Page_334"><b>334</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Transparency of pigments, <a href="#Page_48"><b>48</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   to obtain, <a href="#Page_245"><b>245</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Transparent Gold Ochre, <a href="#Page_108"><b>108</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   Oxide of Chromium, <a href="#Page_268"><b>268</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   pigments,  use of, <a href="#Page_237"><b>237</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Troy White, <a href="#Page_80"><b>80</b></a>.</li>
+<li>True Chrome Green, <a href="#Page_267"><b>267</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Prussian Green, <a href="#Page_281"><b>281</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Ultramarine, <a href="#Page_216"><b>216</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Truth of hue in pigments, <a href="#Page_47"><b>47</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Tullus Hostilius, <a href="#Page_295"><b>295</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Tungsten Blue, <a href="#Page_233"><b>233</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  White, <a href="#Page_414"><b>414</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Turacine, <a href="#Page_165"><b>165</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Turbith Mineral, <a href="#Page_123"><b>123</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Turkey Berries, <a href="#Page_312"><b>312</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Turnbull's Blue, <a href="#Page_208"><b>208</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Turner, <a href="#Page_309"><b>309</b></a>, <a href="#Page_328"><b>328</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Turner's Yellow, <a href="#Page_121"><b>121</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Tyrian Purple, <a href="#Page_295"><b>295</b></a>, <a href="#Page_296"><b>296</b></a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<h5 style="text-align: left; text-indent: 5em;">U.</h5>
+
+<ul class="sample2">
+
+<li>Ultramarine,  Artificial, <a href="#Page_209"><b>209</b></a>-<a href="#Page_216"><b>216</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  acid pigments with, <a href="#Page_214"><b>214</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  adulteration of, <a href="#Page_215"><b>215</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  experiment with, <a href="#Page_213"><b>213</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  green in, <a href="#Page_211"><b>211</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  gum with, <a href="#Page_214"><b>214</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  in siliceous painting, <a href="#Page_212"><b>212</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  test for, <a href="#Page_212"><b>212</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Ultramarine Ash, <a href="#Page_379"><b>379</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Beggars', <a href="#Page_409"><b>409</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Brilliant, <a href="#Page_215"><b>215</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Cobalt, <a href="#Page_192"><b>192</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Dutch, <a href="#Page_189"><b>189</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Factitious, <a href="#Page_215"><b>215</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  French, <a href="#Page_215"><b>215</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Ultramarine,  Genuine, <a href="#Page_216"><b>216</b></a>-<a href="#Page_225"><b>225</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    adulteration of, <a href="#Page_224"><b>224</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    colouring matter of, <a href="#Page_224"><b>224</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    defects in, <a href="#Page_222"><b>222</b></a>, <a href="#Page_223"><b>223</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    manufacture of, <a href="#Page_220"><b>220</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    price of, <a href="#Page_220"><b>220</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    properties of, <a href="#Page_221"><b>221</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    tests for, <a href="#Page_224"><b>224</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Ultramarine,  Gmelin's German, <a href="#Page_209"><b>209</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Green, <a href="#Page_287"><b>287</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Guimet's, <a href="#Page_209"><b>209</b></a>-<a href="#Page_211"><b>211</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Native, <a href="#Page_216"><b>216</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Natural, <a href="#Page_216"><b>216</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Pure, <a href="#Page_217"><b>217</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Real, <a href="#Page_216"><b>216</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Red, <a href="#Page_178"><b>178</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  True, <a href="#Page_216"><b>216</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Umber, <a href="#Page_315"><b>315</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Burnt, <a href="#Page_341"><b>341</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  grounds primed with, <a href="#Page_316"><b>316</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Raw, <a href="#Page_315"><b>315</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Unnecessary mixture, <a href="#Page_35"><b>35</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Uranium Brown, <a href="#Page_360"><b>360</b></a>, </li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Green, <a href="#Page_291"><b>291</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Orange, <a href="#Page_260"><b>260</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Red, <a href="#Page_179"><b>179</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Yellow, <a href="#Page_123"><b>123</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Ure,  Dr., <a href="#Page_73"><b>73</b></a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<h5 style="text-align: left; text-indent: 5em;">V.</h5>
+
+<ul class="sample2">
+
+<li>Vanadium Green, <a href="#Page_291"><b>291</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Vandyke, <a href="#Page_11"><b>11</b></a>, <a href="#Page_150"><b>150</b></a>, <a href="#Page_220"><b>220</b></a>, <a href="#Page_351"><b>351</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Brown, <a href="#Page_351"><b>351</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Van Eyck, <a href="#Page_167"><b>167</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Varnishes, <a href="#Page_33"><b>33</b></a>, <a href="#Page_152"><b>152</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Vegetal charcoal, <a href="#Page_398"><b>398</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Vehicles with pigments, <a href="#Page_48"><b>48</b></a>-<a href="#Page_53"><b>53</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Velasquez, <a href="#Page_389"><b>389</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Venetian Green, <a href="#Page_283"><b>283</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Lake, <a href="#Page_137"><b>137</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  painters,  painting,  and pigments, <a href="#Page_7"><b>7</b></a>, <a href="#Page_8"><b>8</b></a>, <a href="#Page_34"><b>34</b></a>, <a href="#Page_37"><b>37</b></a>, <a href="#Page_139"><b>139</b></a>, <a href="#Page_167"><b>167</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Red, <a href="#Page_149"><b>149</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  White, <a href="#Page_75"><b>75</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Verde Vessie, <a href="#Page_282"><b>282</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Verdetto, <a href="#Page_283"><b>283</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Verdigris, <a href="#Page_51"><b>51</b></a>, <a href="#Page_276"><b>276</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Burnt, <a href="#Page_331"><b>331</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Distilled, <a href="#Page_276"><b>276</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Verditer,  Blue, <a href="#Page_228"><b>228</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Green, <a href="#Page_287"><b>287</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Vermilion, <a href="#Page_153"><b>153</b></a>-<a href="#Page_158"><b>158</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   adulteration of, <a href="#Page_156"><b>156</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   Carmine, <a href="#Page_156"><b>156</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   Chinese,  and English, <a href="#Page_156"><b>156</b></a>, <a href="#Page_146"><b>146</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   Deep, <a href="#Page_154"><b>154</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   European and Chinese, <a href="#Page_154"><b>154</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   Extract of, <a href="#Page_157"><b>157</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   Field's Orange, <a href="#Page_158"><b>158</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   manufacture of, <a href="#Page_154"><b>154</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   Orange, <a href="#Page_157"><b>157</b></a>.</li>
+
+
+
+<li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_434" id="Page_434">[434]</a></span>Vermilion Pale, <a href="#Page_154"><b>154</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>      Scarlet, <a href="#Page_156"><b>156</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>      with cochineal lake, <a href="#Page_136"><b>136</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>      with iodide of mercury, <a href="#Page_155"><b>155</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Verona Brown, <a href="#Page_353"><b>353</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   Green, <a href="#Page_283"><b>283</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Veronese Green, <a href="#Page_268"><b>268</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     French, <a href="#Page_268"><b>268</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Vert de Zinc, <a href="#Page_285"><b>285</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Vicious extremes in colouring, <a href="#Page_59"><b>59</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Vienna Blue, <a href="#Page_192"><b>192</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   Green, <a href="#Page_271"><b>271</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   White, <a href="#Page_72"><b>72</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Vine Black, <a href="#Page_394"><b>394</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Violet,  Carmine, <a href="#Page_302"><b>302</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    de Mars, <a href="#Page_290"><b>290</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    Mars, <a href="#Page_290"><b>290</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    Tin, <a href="#Page_308"><b>308</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Viride &AElig;ris, <a href="#Page_276"><b>276</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Viridian, <a href="#Page_42"><b>42</b></a>, <a href="#Page_269"><b>269</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Vision,  derangement of, <a href="#Page_59"><b>59</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Vitrification and permanence, <a href="#Page_197"><b>197</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Vitrified colours, <a href="#Page_33"><b>33</b></a>, <a href="#Page_103"><b>103</b></a>, <a href="#Page_197"><b>197</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Vitruvius, <a href="#Page_229"><b>229</b></a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<h5 style="text-align: left; text-indent: 5em;">W.</h5>
+
+<ul class="sample2">
+
+<li>Wall colour for picture galleries, <a href="#Page_363"><b>363</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  space in    <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>        <a href="#Page_364"><b>364</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Walpole,  Mrs., <a href="#Page_220"><b>220</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Warm Sepia, <a href="#Page_350"><b>350</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Water-colour cakes in oil, <a href="#Page_50"><b>50</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Watts,  Mr., <a href="#Page_165"><b>165</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Weppen, <a href="#Page_398"><b>398</b></a>.</li>
+<li>White, <a href="#Page_27"><b>27</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    as a colour, <a href="#Page_62"><b>62</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    as a pigment, <a href="#Page_64"><b>64</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    Chalk, <a href="#Page_79"><b>79</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    colour as applied to, <a href="#Page_62"><b>62</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Whitelac varnish, <a href="#Page_50"><b>50</b></a>.</li>
+<li>White Lead, <a href="#Page_67"><b>67</b></a>-<a href="#Page_70"><b>70</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  adulteration of, <a href="#Page_70"><b>70</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  colour restored in, <a href="#Page_69"><b>69</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  hydrated oxide in, <a href="#Page_68"><b>68</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  loss of opacity in, <a href="#Page_68"><b>68</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  use of, <a href="#Page_70"><b>70</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  with Blue Black, <a href="#Page_395"><b>395</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Bone Brown, <a href="#Page_341"><b>341</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Brown Pink, <a href="#Page_312"><b>312</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Cadmium Yellow, <a href="#Page_89"><b>89</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Carmine, <a href="#Page_134"><b>134</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Dragon's Blood, <a href="#Page_138"><b>138</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Gamboge, <a href="#Page_97"><b>97</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Indian Lake, <a href="#Page_139"><b>139</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Indigo, <a href="#Page_201"><b>201</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Massicot, <a href="#Page_120"><b>120</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Orpiment, <a href="#Page_112"><b>112</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Prussian Blue, <a href="#Page_206"><b>206</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Red Lead, <a href="#Page_152"><b>152</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Yellow Lakes, <a href="#Page_99"><b>99</b></a>.</li>
+<li>White,  on the Neutral, <a href="#Page_62"><b>62</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    perfect, <a href="#Page_62"><b>62</b></a>, <a href="#Page_64"><b>64</b></a>.</li>
+
+
+
+<li><span class="smcap">White Pigments</span>:&mdash;</li>
+<li><ul class="sample2">
+<li>Antimony White, <a href="#Page_79"><b>79</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Arsenic White, <a href="#Page_79"><b>79</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Barytic White, <a href="#Page_65"><b>65</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Blanc d'Argent, <a href="#Page_71"><b>71</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Body White, <a href="#Page_72"><b>72</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Cadmium White, <a href="#Page_78"><b>78</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Ceruse, <a href="#Page_74"><b>74</b></a>.</li>
+<li>China White, <a href="#Page_80"><b>80</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Chinese White, <a href="#Page_75"><b>75</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Constant White, <a href="#Page_65"><b>65</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Cremnitz or Kremnitz White, <a href="#Page_72"><b>72</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Crems or Krems White, <a href="#Page_72"><b>72</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Dutch White, <a href="#Page_74"><b>74</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Flake White, <a href="#Page_72"><b>72</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Flemish White, <a href="#Page_72"><b>72</b></a>.</li>
+<li>French White, <a href="#Page_71"><b>71</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Hamburgh White, <a href="#Page_74"><b>74</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Kremser White, <a href="#Page_75"><b>75</b></a>.</li>
+<li>London White, <a href="#Page_73"><b>73</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Mercury White, <a href="#Page_79"><b>79</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Modan or Morat White, <a href="#Page_80"><b>80</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Nottingham White, <a href="#Page_73"><b>73</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Oxychloride of Lead, <a href="#Page_73"><b>73</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Pattison's White, <a href="#Page_73"><b>73</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Pearl White, <a href="#Page_78"><b>78</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Permanent White, <a href="#Page_65"><b>65</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Roman White, <a href="#Page_74"><b>74</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Rouen White, <a href="#Page_80"><b>80</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Satin White, <a href="#Page_80"><b>80</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Silver White, <a href="#Page_71"><b>71</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Spanish White, <a href="#Page_80"><b>80</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Sulphate of Lead, <a href="#Page_72"><b>72</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Tin White, <a href="#Page_79"><b>79</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Tungsten White, <a href="#Page_414"><b>414</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Troy White, <a href="#Page_80"><b>80</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Venetian White, <a href="#Page_75"><b>75</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Vienna White, <a href="#Page_72"><b>72</b></a>.</li>
+<li>White Lead, <a href="#Page_67"><b>67</b></a>-<a href="#Page_70"><b>70</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Zinc White, <a href="#Page_76"><b>76</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Zinc Whites, <a href="#Page_75"><b>75</b></a>-<a href="#Page_78"><b>78</b></a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+
+<li>White,  properties of, <a href="#Page_62"><b>62</b></a>-<a href="#Page_64"><b>64</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    use of, <a href="#Page_64"><b>64</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Whites,  classified, <a href="#Page_80"><b>80</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     in old pictures, <a href="#Page_65"><b>65</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Williamson,  Professor, <a href="#Page_205"><b>205</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Wilson, <a href="#Page_336"><b>336</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Winter scene,  a water-colour, <a href="#Page_352"><b>352</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Wongshy Red, <a href="#Page_180"><b>180</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Wood-Tar Blue, <a href="#Page_233"><b>233</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Working well in pigments, <a href="#Page_49"><b>49</b></a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<h5 style="text-align: left; text-indent: 5em;">Y.</h5>
+
+<ul class="sample2">
+
+<li>Yellow, <a href="#Page_28"><b>28</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    as a colour, <a href="#Page_82"><b>82</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    contrasts of, <a href="#Page_82"><b>82</b></a>, <a href="#Page_83"><b>83</b></a>.</li>
+
+
+
+<li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_435" id="Page_435">[435]</a></span>Yellow,  discordant, <a href="#Page_83"><b>83</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     Golden, <a href="#Page_256"><b>256</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     Madder,  Cory's, <a href="#Page_353"><b>353</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     on the Primary, <a href="#Page_81"><b>81</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li><span class="smcap">Yellow Pigments</span>:&mdash;</li>
+
+<li><ul class="sample2">
+<li>Antimony Yellow, <a href="#Page_105"><b>105</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Arsenic Yellow, <a href="#Page_116"><b>116</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Aureolin, <a href="#Page_83"><b>83</b></a>-<a href="#Page_87"><b>87</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Bismuth Yellow, <a href="#Page_116"><b>116</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Brown Ochre, <a href="#Page_108"><b>108</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Cadmium Yellows, <a href="#Page_87"><b>87</b></a>-<a href="#Page_92"><b>92</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Cassel Yellow, <a href="#Page_121"><b>121</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Chinese Yellow, <a href="#Page_111"><b>111</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Chrome Yellows, <a href="#Page_93"><b>93</b></a>-<a href="#Page_95"><b>95</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Citron Yellow, <a href="#Page_95"><b>95</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Cologne Yellow, <a href="#Page_94"><b>94</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Copper Yellow, <a href="#Page_116"><b>116</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Deep Cadmium, <a href="#Page_87"><b>87</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Deep Chrome, <a href="#Page_93"><b>93</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Di Palito, <a href="#Page_109"><b>109</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Drop Gum, <a href="#Page_96"><b>96</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Dutch Pink, <a href="#Page_100"><b>100</b></a>.</li>
+<li>English Pink, <a href="#Page_100"><b>100</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Extract of Gamboge, <a href="#Page_97"><b>97</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Gallstone, <a href="#Page_95"><b>95</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Gamboge, <a href="#Page_96"><b>96</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Gelbin's Yellow, <a href="#Page_117"><b>117</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Giallolino, <a href="#Page_103"><b>103</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Indian Yellow, <a href="#Page_98"><b>98</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Indium Yellow, <a href="#Page_117"><b>117</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Iodine Yellow, <a href="#Page_118"><b>118</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Iron Yellow, <a href="#Page_102"><b>102</b></a>, <a href="#Page_118"><b>118</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Italian Pink, <a href="#Page_100"><b>100</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Jaune de Cologne, <a href="#Page_94"><b>94</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Jaune de Fer, <a href="#Page_102"><b>102</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Jaune de Mars, <a href="#Page_102"><b>102</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Jaune Min&eacute;rale, <a href="#Page_94"><b>94</b></a>.</li>
+<li>King's Yellow, <a href="#Page_111"><b>111</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Lakes, <a href="#Page_99"><b>99</b></a>, <a href="#Page_100"><b>100</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Lemon Cadmium, <a href="#Page_91"><b>91</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Lemon Yellow, <a href="#Page_101"><b>101</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Litharge, <a href="#Page_120"><b>120</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Madder Yellow, <a href="#Page_118"><b>118</b></a>, <a href="#Page_353"><b>353</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Mars Yellow, <a href="#Page_102"><b>102</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Massicot, <a href="#Page_120"><b>120</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Mineral Yellow, <a href="#Page_106"><b>106</b></a>, <a href="#Page_116"><b>116</b></a>, <a href="#Page_121"><b>121</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Montpellier Yellow, <a href="#Page_121"><b>121</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Mutrie Yellow, <a href="#Page_92"><b>92</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Naples Yellow, <a href="#Page_103"><b>103</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Ochres, <a href="#Page_105"><b>105</b></a>-<a href="#Page_109"><b>109</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Ocre de Ru, <a href="#Page_108"><b>108</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Orient Yellow, <a href="#Page_110"><b>110</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Orpiment or Yellow Orpiment, <a href="#Page_111"><b>111</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Oxford Ochre, <a href="#Page_109"><b>109</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Pale Cadmium, <a href="#Page_90"><b>90</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Pale Chrome, <a href="#Page_93"><b>93</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Patent Yellow, <a href="#Page_121"><b>121</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Platinum Yellow, <a href="#Page_121"><b>121</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Purree, <a href="#Page_98"><b>98</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Queen's Yellow, <a href="#Page_123"><b>123</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Quercitron Lake,  or Yellow, <a href="#Page_100"><b>100</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Raw Sienna, <a href="#Page_113"><b>113</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Roman Ochre, <a href="#Page_107"><b>107</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Spruce Ochre, <a href="#Page_108"><b>108</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Stone Ochre, <a href="#Page_109"><b>109</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Strontian Yellow, <a href="#Page_113"><b>113</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Terra di Sienna, <a href="#Page_113"><b>113</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Thallium Yellow, <a href="#Page_122"><b>122</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Thwaites' Yellow, <a href="#Page_122"><b>122</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Transparent Gold Ochre, <a href="#Page_108"><b>108</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Turbith Yellow, <a href="#Page_123"><b>123</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Turner's Yellow, <a href="#Page_121"><b>121</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Uranium Yellow, <a href="#Page_123"><b>123</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Yellow Carmine, <a href="#Page_123"><b>123</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Yellow Lake, <a href="#Page_100"><b>100</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Yellow Ochre, <a href="#Page_106"><b>106</b></a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Yellows,  ancient, <a href="#Page_5"><b>5</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>      classified, <a href="#Page_125"><b>125</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>      former paucity of, <a href="#Page_83"><b>83</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>      various, <a href="#Page_124"><b>124</b></a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<h5 style="text-align: left; text-indent: 5em;">Z.</h5>
+
+<ul class="sample2">
+
+<li>Zaffre, <a href="#Page_189"><b>189</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Zeuxis and Apelles, <a href="#Page_7"><b>7</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Zinc Brown, <a href="#Page_360"><b>360</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Cobalt Blue, <a href="#Page_235"><b>235</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Green, <a href="#Page_285"><b>285</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Orange, <a href="#Page_261"><b>261</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  siccatives, <a href="#Page_51"><b>51</b></a>, <a href="#Page_77"><b>77</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Vert de, <a href="#Page_285"><b>285</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  White, <a href="#Page_76"><b>76</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   adulteration of, <a href="#Page_77"><b>77</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   over White Lead, <a href="#Page_76"><b>76</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Whites, <a href="#Page_75"><b>75</b></a>-<a href="#Page_78"><b>78</b></a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+
+<table summary="errata" style="width: 450px; font-size: 90%;">
+<colgroup span="4">
+<col width="10px"></col>
+<col width="10px"></col>
+<col width="10px"></col>
+<col width="420px"></col>
+</colgroup>
+<tr>
+<th colspan="4" style="padding-bottom: 2em; padding-top: 2em;">ERRATA</th>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd">Page</td>
+<td class="tda2">16</td>
+<td class="tdb"><i>for</i></td>
+<td class="tdb4">inharmonious <i>read</i> harmonious</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd">"</td>
+<td class="tda2">35</td>
+<td class="tdb"><i>for</i></td>
+<td class="tdb4">There prevails <i>read</i> There prevail</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd">"</td>
+<td class="tda2">48</td>
+<td class="tdb"><i>for</i></td>
+<td class="tdb4">as whiteness, or light do, <i>read</i> as whiteness or light does</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd">"</td>
+<td class="tda2">166</td>
+<td class="tdb"><i>for</i></td>
+<td class="tdb4">purple of cassius <i>read</i> purple of Cassius</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd">"</td>
+<td class="tda2">182</td>
+<td class="tdb"><i>for</i></td>
+<td class="tdb4">which manufactures <i>read</i> which manufactures pictures</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd">"</td>
+<td class="tda2">258</td>
+<td class="tdb"><i>for</i></td>
+<td class="tdb4"><i>Laque Min&eacute;ral</i> <i>read</i> <i>Laque Min&eacute;rale</i></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd">"</td>
+<td class="tda2">342</td>
+<td class="tdb"><i>for</i></td>
+<td class="tdb4">rivals <i>read</i> rivels</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd">"</td>
+<td class="tda2">378</td>
+<td class="tdb"><i>for</i></td>
+<td class="tdb4">predominate <i>read</i> predominates</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<h5>THE END.</h5>
+
+<h6>
+LONDON:<br />
+Printed by A. Schulze, 13, Poland Street.<br />
+</h6>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<table summary="transcriber note" style="width: 510px; font-size: 80%;">
+<colgroup span="3">
+<col width="10px"></col>
+<col width="150px"></col>
+<col width="350px"></col>
+</colgroup>
+<tr>
+<th colspan="3" style="padding-bottom: 2em; padding-top: 2em;">Transcriber's Notes</th>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3" style="padding-bottom: 2em;"><ins class="transgreek" title="greek text shown with dashed marrone line below">Greek characters</ins> may not be visible in all browser on all computers. <ins class="correction" title="dashed blue line below">The errata</ins> above and <ins class="trans" title="dashed green line below">the following</ins> have been corrected in the text:</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd">Page</td>
+<td class="tda2"><a href="#Page_vi">vi</a></td>
+<td class="tdb4">Semi-neutral changed to Semi-Neutral</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd">"</td>
+<td class="tda2"><a href="#Page_10">10</a></td>
+<td class="tdb4">life less changed to lifeless</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd">"</td>
+<td class="tda2"><a href="#Page_17">17</a></td>
+<td class="tdb4">sun-rise changed to sunrise</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd">"</td>
+<td class="tda2"><a href="#Page_20">20</a></td>
+<td class="tdb4">in the the changed to in the</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd">"</td>
+<td class="tda2"><a href="#Page_22">22</a></td>
+<td class="tdb4">perpective changed to perspective</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd">"</td>
+<td class="tda2"><a href="#Page_29">29</a></td>
+<td class="tdb4">marone changed to marrone</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd">"</td>
+<td class="tda2"><a href="#Page_69">69</a></td>
+<td class="tdb4">di-carbonate changed to dicarbonate</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd">"</td>
+<td class="tda2"><a href="#Page_73">73</a></td>
+<td class="tdb4">hydrogren changed to hydrogen</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd">"</td>
+<td class="tda2"><a href="#Page_77">77</a></td>
+<td class="tdb4">imimical changed to inimical</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd">"</td>
+<td class="tda2"><a href="#Page_81">81</a></td>
+<td class="tdb4">feuillemorte changed to feuillemort</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd">"</td>
+<td class="tda2"><a href="#Page_91">91</a></td>
+<td class="tdb4">Item numbering has been left consistent with the omission of item no. 23</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd">"</td>
+<td class="tda2"><a href="#Page_129">129</a></td>
+<td class="tdb4">extemes changed to extremes</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd">"</td>
+<td class="tda2"><a href="#Page_169">169</a></td>
+<td class="tdb4">muroxide changed to murexide</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd">"</td>
+<td class="tda2"><a href="#Page_188">188</a></td>
+<td class="tdb4">dullness changed to dulness</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd">"</td>
+<td class="tda2"><a href="#Page_192">192</a></td>
+<td class="tdb4">gaslight changed to gas-light</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd">"</td>
+<td class="tda2"><a href="#Page_200">200</a></td>
+<td class="tdb4">durablity changed to durability</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd">"</td>
+<td class="tda2"><a href="#Page_206">206</a> and <a href="#Page_293">293</a></td>
+<td class="tdb4">developement changed to development</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd">"</td>
+<td class="tda2"><a href="#Page_212">212</a></td>
+<td class="tdb4">decolorized changed to decolourised</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd">"</td>
+<td class="tda2"><a href="#Page_235">235</a></td>
+<td class="tdb4">indentical changed to identical</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd">"</td>
+<td class="tda2"><a href="#Page_241">241</a></td>
+<td class="tdb4">re-acting changed to reacting</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd">"</td>
+<td class="tda2"><a href="#Page_250">250</a></td>
+<td class="tdb4">Exibition changed to Exhibition</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd">"</td>
+<td class="tda2"><a href="#Page_273">273</a></td>
+<td class="tdb4">childrens' changed to children's</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd">"</td>
+<td class="tda2"><a href="#Page_336">336</a></td>
+<td class="tdb4">toneing changed to toning</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd">"</td>
+<td class="tda2"><a href="#Page_352">352</a></td>
+<td class="tdb4">fine tooth-comb changed to fine-tooth comb</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd">"</td>
+<td class="tda2"><a href="#Page_408">408</a></td>
+<td class="tdb4">analagous changed to analogous</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd">"</td>
+<td class="tda2"><a href="#Page_414">414</a></td>
+<td class="tdb4">announceed changed to announced</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd">"</td>
+<td class="tda2"><a href="#Page_421">421</a></td>
+<td class="tdb4">abies changed to Abies</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">Inconsistencies in the use of analyse/analyze, harmonise/harmonize and neutralise/neutralize have been retained as in the original text, as have the use of a&euml;rial and aerial.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+</div>
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diff --git a/20915-h/images/fig01.png b/20915-h/images/fig01.png
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Field's Chromatography, by George Field
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
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+
+
+Title: Field's Chromatography
+       or Treatise on Colours and Pigments as Used by Artists
+
+Author: George Field
+
+Editor: Thomas Salter
+
+Release Date: March 27, 2007 [EBook #20915]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
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+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FIELD'S CHROMATOGRAPHY ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Barbara Tozier, Bill Tozier, Jacqueline Jeremy
+and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+_SALTER'S EDITION._
+
+FIELD'S CHROMATOGRAPHY;
+
+OR,
+
+TREATISE ON COLOURS AND PIGMENTS
+
+AS USED BY ARTISTS.
+
+_AN ENTIRELY NEW AND PRACTICAL EDITION_;
+
+REVISED, REWRITTEN, AND BROUGHT DOWN TO THE PRESENT TIME.
+
+BY
+
+THOMAS W. SALTER, F.C.S.
+
+
+Ars probat artificem.
+
+LONDON:
+
+WINSOR AND NEWTON, 38, RATHBONE PLACE,
+
+Manufacturing Artists' Colourmen by Special Appointment
+to Her Majesty, and Their Royal Highnesses the Prince and
+Princess of Wales.
+
+[The Right of Translation is reserved.]
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+PART I.
+ON COLOURS AND COLOURING.
+
+Chapter.                                                        Page.
+
+    I.--On Colouring                                               3
+
+   II.--On the Relations and Harmonies of Colours                 13
+
+
+PART II.
+ON COLOURS AND PIGMENTS GENERALLY.
+
+  III.--On Classes of Colours                                     27
+
+   IV.--On the Durability and Fugacity of Pigments                31
+
+    V.--On the General Qualities of Pigments                      46
+
+
+PART III.
+ON COLOURS AND PIGMENTS INDIVIDUALLY.
+
+   VI.--On Colours and Pigments individually                      57
+
+  VII.--On the Neutral, White                                     62
+
+ VIII.--On the Primary, Yellow                                    81
+
+   IX.--On the Primary, Red                                      127
+
+    X.--On the Primary, Blue                                     183
+
+   XI.--On the Secondary, Orange                                 239
+
+  XII.--On the Secondary, Green                                  263
+
+ XIII.--On the Secondary, Purple                                 294
+
+  XIV.--On the Tertiary, Citrine                                 310
+
+   XV.--On the Tertiary, Russet                                  320
+
+  XVI.--On the Tertiary, Olive                                   325
+
+ XVII.--On the Semi-Neutral, Brown                               334
+
+XVIII.--On the Semi-Neutral, Marrone                             362
+
+  XIX.--On the Semi-Neutral, Gray                                372
+
+   XX.--On the Neutral, Grey                                     381
+
+  XXI.--On the Neutral, Black                                    387
+
+        Addendum                                                 414
+
+        Index                                                    417
+
+
+
+
+NOTICE.
+
+
+Among the works consulted in this Edition are the following, from most
+of which extracts have been taken:
+
+    Bancroft's Philosophy of Colours.
+
+    Brande's Manual of Chemistry.
+
+    Chemical News.
+
+    Chevreul on Colour.
+
+    Fownes' Manual of Chemistry.
+
+    Gmelin's Handbook of Chemistry.
+
+    Handbooks on Art.
+
+    Liebig and Kopp's Annual Report of the Progress of Chemistry.
+
+    Mérimée's Painting in Oil.
+
+    Muspratt's Dictionary of Chemistry.
+
+    Normandy's Commercial Handbook of Chemical Analysis.
+
+    O'Neill's Chemistry of Calico Printing.
+
+    Quarterly Journal of the Chemical Society.
+
+    Ruskin's Elements of Drawing.
+
+    Watts' Dictionary of Chemistry.
+
+
+
+
+PART I.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+ON COLOURS AND COLOURING.
+
+
+
+
+CHROMATOGRAPHY;
+
+OR,
+
+A TREATISE ON COLOURS AND PIGMENTS.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+ON COLOURING.
+
+
+How early, and to what extent, colouring may have attained the rank of
+science among the ancients, are questions not easily set at rest; but
+that some progress had been made, even at a very remote period, is
+proved by the magnificent tombs of the Egyptian kings at Thebes, where
+the walls of the royal mausoleum are described as being covered with
+paintings so fresh and perfect, as to require neither restoration nor
+improvement. So far from this, indeed, that with all care in copying, it
+was difficult to equal the brilliancy of the originals, which, as far as
+colours went, threw all others in the background. And yet, in spite of
+the scale having comprised pure vermilion, ochres, and indigo, it was
+not gaudy, owing to the judicious balance of the colours, and the
+artful management of the black. Nor was there an ornament throughout the
+dresses, wherein the red, yellow, and blue, were not so employed as to
+produce a delicious harmony.
+
+Moreover, it is stated that in one painting eighty feet high and
+proportionably broad, which was divided into two ranges of gigantic
+figures, these were glowing with most exquisite colours, suited to the
+drapery and naked parts; and in which the azure, yellow, green, &c.,
+were as well preserved as though they had been laid on yesterday. Again,
+an apartment was discovered among the stupendous ruins at Carnac, on the
+site of ancient Thebes, one hundred paces wide and sixty deep,
+completely crowded with pillars, which, together with the ceiling, roof,
+and walls, were decorated with figures in basso-relievo, and
+hieroglyphics--all marvellously beautiful and finely painted, and as
+fresh, splendid and glorious, after so many ages, as if they had just
+been finished.
+
+In various accounts these colourings of the Egyptians are described in
+the warmest terms of admiration. The most charming are undoubtedly those
+on the tombs and temples: others of less merit have been found on the
+cases and cloths of mummies, and on papyrus rolls; but it is to the
+patterns on the walls and ceilings of their houses that they seem to
+have been most partial, and paid the most attention. The ordinary
+colours employed by them were red, yellow, green, and blue. Of the last
+there were two tints; black also was common. For white, the finely
+prepared stone-coloured ground was deemed sufficient. These colours were
+occasionally modified by mixture with chalk; but were always, or nearly
+always, applied singly, in an unmixed state. With regard to their
+composition, chemical analysis has shown several of the _blues_ to be
+oxide of copper with a small proportion of iron; none containing cobalt.
+There is little doubt, however, that the most brilliant specimens--those
+which retain all their original force and beauty in the temples of Upper
+Egypt after an exposure of three thousand years, consist of
+ultramarine--the celebrated Armenian blue, possibly, of the ancients.
+The _reds_ seem for the most part to be composed of oxide of iron mixed
+with lime, and were probably limited to iron earths and ochres, with a
+native cinnabar or vermilion. The _yellows_ are said to have been, in
+many cases, vegetable colours; but it is likely earths and ochres were
+their chief source. The _greens_ consist of yellow mixed with copper
+blue. The bluish-green which sometimes appears on Egyptian antiquities,
+is merely a faded blue. The _blacks_ are both of vegetable and mineral
+origin, having been obtained from a variety of substances in a variety
+of ways.
+
+But, as shown by Layard in his discoveries at Nineveh, a knowledge of
+colouring was not confined to the Egyptians; it was likewise possessed
+by the Assyrians. The painted ornaments of the latter are stated to have
+been remarkably elegant; and although the colours were limited to blue,
+red, white, yellow, and black, yet they were arranged with so much taste
+and skill, and the contrasts were so judiciously preserved, that the
+combinations were in general agreeable to the eye. The pale
+yellowish-white ground on which the designs were painted, resembled the
+tint on the walls of Egyptian monuments, and a strong well-defined black
+outline was found to be as peculiar a feature in Assyrian as in Egyptian
+painting, black frequently combining with white alone, or alternating
+with other colours. As far as they have been analysed, the pigments
+employed were mineral, the brightest being a blue derived from copper.
+No traces of vegetable colours have been found; it is presumed that they
+existed, but being subject to more rapid decay than the mineral
+pigments, they have disappeared. That all the colours, indeed, employed
+by the ancients were not permanent, was proved by the fact of certain
+blues and reds, brilliant and vivid when the earth was removed from
+them, fading rapidly when exposed to the air.
+
+From Philocles, the Egyptian, and Gyges, a Lydian, both of whom,
+according to Pliny, acquired the knowledge of the art of painting in
+Egypt, the Greeks obtained the knowledge of their _Ars Chromatica_,
+which they are said to have carried by gradual advances during several
+centuries, from the monochromatic of their earlier painters, to the
+perfection of colouring under Zeuxis and Apelles, 450 to 350 B.C.
+Unfortunately, not long after, or about 300 B.C., art rapidly
+deteriorated; the invasion of the Romans commenced; and the principles
+of light, shade, and colours in painting as understood by the Greeks,
+together with their valuable treatises on the subject were lost. The
+early Roman and Florentine painters, so eminent in other respects, were
+almost destitute of those principles, and of truly refined feeling for
+the effects of colouring.
+
+The partial restoration of this branch seems to have been coeval with
+the earliest practice of painting in oil. The glory of it belongs to the
+Venetians, to whom the art of painting passed with the last remains of
+the Greek schools after the capture of Constantinople at the beginning
+of the thirteenth century. Giovanni Bellini laid the foundation of
+colouring, and Titian carried it to its highest practical perfection.
+From the Venetian it extended to the Lombard, Flemish, and Spanish
+schools. In the practice of these, however, there was perhaps as much of
+instinct as principle, colouring still remaining to be established in
+its perfection as a science.
+
+According to the true, natural, and philosophical classification of
+painting, there are but three principal classes or schools; viz.: the
+gross and _material_ which is content with mere nature, and to which
+belong the Dutch and Flemish schools; the _sensible_, which aims at
+refined and select nature, and accords with the Venetian school; and the
+_intellectual_, which aspires to the ideal in beauty, grandeur, and
+sublimity, and corresponds with the Greek, Roman, and Florentine
+schools. Modern art as founded upon the _intellectual_ school of the
+ancient Greeks, became grand, scientific, and severe in the practice of
+Michael Angelo, and Leonardo da Vinci; graceful, beautiful and
+expressive in Raphael, Correggio, Dominichino, and Guido; and, aiming at
+_sensible_ perfection, it attained harmony of colouring and effect in
+the works of Titian and Tintoret; but it sunk into grossness and
+sensuality while perfecting itself _materially_ among the Flemish and
+Dutch.
+
+In the practice of the individual in painting, as well as in all
+revolutions of pictorial art, in ancient Greece as in modern Italy,
+colouring in its perfection has been the last attainment of excellence
+in every school. It has been justly observed, indeed, that for near
+three hundred years, since painting was revived, we could hardly reckon
+six painters that had been good colourists, among the thousands who had
+laboured to become such. But there is reason to hope that as Zeuxis
+succeeded and excelled Polygnotus, and Titian Raphael, the artists of
+Britain will transcend all preceding schools in the chromatic department
+of painting. It is even probable that they may surpass them in all other
+branches, and in every mode and application of the art, as they have
+already more particularly done in an original and unrivalled use of
+water-colours.
+
+Happily, too, there has arisen among us a school of colouring that
+confirms this expectation, strengthened as it is, by the suitableness of
+our climate to perfect vision. For in it we have that mean degree of
+light which is best adapted to the distinguishing of colours, a
+boundless diversity of hue in nature relieved by those fine effects of
+light and shade which are denied to more vertical suns, besides those
+beauties of complexion and feature in our females peculiar to England;
+respects in which at least our country is not unfavourable to art.
+
+Even now it is urged by some to the _disparagement_ of the British
+school, that it excels in colouring; as if this were incompatible with
+any other excellence, or as if nature, the great prototype of art, ever
+dispensed with it. The graphic branches of painting, owe everything to
+colour, which, if it does not constitute a picture, is its flesh and
+blood. Without it, the finest performances remain lifeless skeletons,
+and yield no pleasure. Painting is the art of representing visible
+things by light, shade, form, and colour; but of these, colour--and
+colour alone--is the immediate object which attracts the eye. Colouring
+is, therefore, the first requisite--the one thing imparting warmth and
+life--the chief quality engaging attention; in short, the best
+introduction to a picture, and that which continues to give it value so
+long as it is regarded. It is a power, too, which is with the most
+difficulty retained, being the first to leave the artist himself, and
+the first to quit a school on its decline. Graphic art without
+colouring, is as food without flavour; and it was the deficiency of
+colouring in the great works of the Roman and Florentine schools that
+caused Sir Joshua Reynolds to confess a certain want of attraction in
+them. To relish and estimate truly their greatness, required, he said, a
+forced and often-repeated attention, and "it was only those persons
+incapable of appreciating such divine performances, who made pretensions
+to instantaneous raptures on first beholding them." Gainsborough also,
+with a candour similar to that of Reynolds, upon viewing the cartoons at
+Hampton Court, acknowledged that their beauty was of a class he could
+neither appreciate nor enjoy.
+
+Colouring, then, is a necessity; but there is in it a vicious extreme;
+that in which it is rendered so principal as, by want of subordination,
+to overlay the subject. There is also a negative excellence which
+consists in not always employing pleasing tints, but of sometimes taking
+advantage of the effects to be derived from impure hues, as Poussin did
+in his "Deluge." In this work, neither black nor white, blue, red, nor
+yellow appears; the whole mass being, with little variation, of a sombre
+grey, the true resemblance of a dark and humid atmosphere, by which
+every object is rendered indistinct and almost colourless. This absence
+of colour, however, is a merit, and not a fault. Vandyke employed such
+means with admirable effect in the background of a Crucifixion, and in
+his Pieta; and the Phaëton of Giulio Romano is celebrated for a
+suffusion of smothered red, which powerfully excites the idea of a world
+on fire.
+
+Of the rank and value of this department of painting, there will be, as
+there has been, difference of judgment and opinion, as there is variety
+in the powers of the eye and understanding. But take from Rubens,
+Rembrandt, Titian, and other distinguished masters, the estimation of
+their colouring, and we fear all that is left to them would hardly
+preserve their names from oblivion. Art cannot, indeed, attain its
+appropriate end, that of pleasing, without excellence in colouring. It
+is colour which the true artist most loves, and it is colouring in all
+its complex and high relations, that he ever seeks to attain. Looking
+above, and around, and beneath him, with the intelligent eye of the
+colourist, he finds a boundless source of never-ceasing enjoyment. With
+harmonies and accordances lost to the untutored gaze, colour meets him
+in every stone he treads on--in the mineral, vegetable, and animal
+creation--in the heavens, sea, and earth. For him, in truth, colour is
+as equally diffused as light, spreading itself over the entire face of
+nature, and clothing the whole world with beauty.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+ON THE RELATIONS AND HARMONY OF COLOUR.
+
+
+Assured as we must be of the importance of colouring as a branch of art,
+colours in all their bearings become interesting to the artist, and on
+their use and arrangement his reputation as a colourist must depend.
+
+Colour, remarks Ruskin, is wholly _relative_; each hue throughout a work
+is altered by every touch added in other places. Thus, to place white
+beside a colour is to heighten its tone; to set black beside a colour is
+to weaken its tone; while to put grey beside a colour, is to render it
+more brilliant. If a dark colour be placed near a different, but lighter
+colour, the tone of the first is heightened, while that of the second is
+lowered. An important consequence of this principle is, that the first
+effect may neutralize the second, or even destroy it altogether. What
+was cold before, becomes warm when a colder colour is set near it, and
+what was in harmony before, becomes discordant as other colours are put
+beside it. For example, to place a light blue beside a yellow, tinges
+it orange, and consequently heightens its tone. Again, there are some
+blues so dark relatively to the yellow that they weaken it, and not only
+hide the orange tint, but even cause sensitive eyes to feel that the
+yellow is rather green than orange--a very natural result when it is
+considered that the paler the yellow becomes, the more it tends to
+appear green.
+
+We learn from these relations of colours, why dapplings of two or more
+produce effects in painting so much more clear and brilliant than
+uniform tints obtained by compounding the same colours: and why
+hatchings, or a touch of their contrasts, thrown as it were by accident
+upon local tints, have the same effect. We see, too, why colours mixed
+deteriorate each other, which they do more--in many cases--by
+imperfectly neutralizing or subduing each other chromatically, than by
+any chemical action. Finally, we are impressed with the necessity, not
+only of using colours pure, but of using pure colours; although pure
+colouring and brilliancy differ as much from crudeness and harshness, as
+tone and harmony from murkiness and monotony.
+
+The powers of colours in contrasting each other agree with their
+correlative powers of light and shade, and are to be distinguished from
+their powers individually on the eye, which are those of light alone.
+Thus, although orange and blue are equal powers with respect to each
+other, as regards the eye they are totally different and opposed. Orange
+is a luminous colour, and has a powerfully irritating effect, while blue
+is a shadowy colour, possessing a soothing quality--and it is the same,
+in various degrees, with other colours.
+
+There are yet further modes of contrast or antagonism in colouring,
+which claim the attention and engage the skill of the colourist. Of the
+contrast of _hues_, upon which depend the brilliancy, force, and harmony
+of colouring, we have just spoken; but there is, secondly, the contrast
+of _shades_. To this belong all the powers of chiaroscuro, by which term
+the painter denotes the harmonious effects of light and shade; and
+though they form the simplest part of colouring, yet they cannot be
+separated from it--light and shade, the chiaroscuro, being a distinct
+and important branch of painting. A third mode of contrast in colouring
+is that of _warmth_ and _coolness_, upon which depend the toning and
+general effect of a picture. Fourthly, there is the contrast of _colour_
+and _neutrality_, the chromatic and achromatic, or hue and shade. By the
+right management of this, local colours acquire value, gradation,
+keeping, and connection: whence come breadth, aërial perspective, and
+the due distribution of greys and shadows in a picture.
+
+This principle of contrast applies even to _individual colours_, and
+conduces greatly to good colouring. It may be carried with advantage
+into the variety of hue and tint in the same colour, not only as regards
+light and shade, but likewise with respect to warmth and coolness, as
+well as to colour and neutrality. Hence the judicious landscape-painter
+knows how to avail himself of warmth and coolness in the juxtaposition
+of his greens, in addition to their lightness and darkness, or
+brilliancy and brokenness, in producing the most beautiful and varied
+effects; effects which spring in other cases from a like management of
+blue, white, &c. These powers of a colour upon itself are highly
+important to the artist, and lead to that gratification from fine
+colouring, which a good eye ever enjoys.
+
+In landscape we see nature employing broken colours in harmonious
+consonance and variety, while, equally true to picturesque relations,
+she uses also broken forms and figures, in conjoint harmony with
+colours; occasionally throwing into the composition a regular form, or a
+primary colour, for the sake of animation and contrast. And if we
+inspect her works more closely, we shall find that they have no uniform
+tints. Whether in the animal, vegetable or mineral creation--flesh or
+foliage, earth or sky, flower or stone--however uniform the colour may
+appear at a distance, it will, when examined nearly, be found to
+consist of a variety of hues and shades, compounded with harmony and
+intelligence.
+
+It is for this reason that no two colours are ever found discordant in
+nature, however much so they may be in art. Blue and green have been
+termed discordant, and in painting they may undoubtedly be made so. Yet
+those are two colours which nature seems to intend never to be
+separated, and never to be felt, either of them, in its full beauty,
+without the other--a blue sky through green leaves, or a blue wave with
+green lights through it, being precisely the loveliest things, next to
+clouds at sunrise, in this coloured world of ours. A good eye for colour
+will soon discover how constantly nature puts green and purple together,
+purple and scarlet, green and blue, yellow and neutral grey, and the
+like; and how she strikes these colour-concords for general tones,
+before working into them with innumerable subordinate ones.
+
+Upon the more intimate union, or the blending and gradience of contrasts
+from one to another mutually, depend some of the most fascinating
+effects of colouring. The practical principle employed in producing them
+is important, and consists in the blending and gradating by _mixture_,
+while we avoid the _compounding_ of contrasting colours. That is, the
+colours must be kept distinct in the act of blending them, or otherwise
+they will run into dusky neutrality and defile each other. This is the
+case in blending and gradating from green to red, or from hue to
+hue--from blue to orange, or to and from coldness and warmth--from
+yellow to purple, or to and from advancing and retiring colours. It is
+the same in light and shade, or white and black, which _mix_ with
+clearness. Now, there are only two ways in which this distinctness in
+union of contrasts can be effected in practice: the one is by hatching
+or breaking them together in mixture, without compounding them
+uniformly; and the other is by glazing, in which the colours unite and
+penetrate mutually, without monotonous composition.
+
+The former process may be said to be the carrying out of the principle
+of separate colours to the utmost possible refinement, by using atoms of
+colour in juxtaposition, instead of in large spaces. And it is to be
+noted, in filling up minute interstices of this kind, that if the colour
+with which they are filled be wanted to show brightly, a rather positive
+point of it had better be put, with a little white left beside or round
+it in the interstice. This plan is preferable to laying a pale tint of
+the colour over the whole interstice. Yellow or orange, for instance,
+will hardly show, if pale, in small spaces; but they show brightly in
+free touches, however small, with white beside them. The latter mode is
+founded on the fact, that if a dark colour be laid first, and a little
+blue or white body-colour struck lightly over it, a more beautiful gray
+will be obtained than by mixing the colour and the blue or white.
+Similarly, if over a solid and perfectly dry touch of vermilion there be
+quickly washed a little very wet carmine, a much more brilliant red will
+be produced than by mixing the two colours.
+
+Transparency and opacity constitute another contrast of colouring, the
+former of which belongs to shade and blackness, the latter to light and
+whiteness. Even contrast has its contrast, for _gradations_ or
+_intermedia_ are opposed to contrasts or _extremes_; and, upon the right
+management of contrasts and gradations depend the harmony and melody,
+the tone, effect, and general expression of a picture. Thus, painting is
+an affair of judicious contrasting so far as regards colour, if even it
+be not such altogether.
+
+Colour, it has already been observed, is wholly _relative_. In
+contrasting, therefore, any colour, if we wish it to have light or
+brilliancy, we cast its opposite into the shade; if we would have it
+warm, we cool its antagonist; and if transparent, we oppose it by an
+opaque contrary, and _vice versâ_: indeed, in practice, all these must
+be in some measure combined.
+
+Such are some of the powers of contrast in colouring alone, and such is
+the diversity of art upon which skill in colouring depends. It must not
+be forgotten, however, that contrasts or extremes, whether of light and
+shade, or of colours, become violent and offensive when they are not
+reconciled by the interposition of their media, or intermediates, which
+partake of both extremes of the contrasts. Thus blue and orange in
+contrast become reconciled, softened in effect, and harmonized, when a
+broken colour composed of the two intervenes. The same may be said of
+other colours, shades, and contrasts.
+
+Seeing that the management and mastery of colours are to a great extent
+dependent on the same principles as light and shade, it might become a
+point of good discipline, after acquiring the use of black and white in
+the chiaroscuro, to paint designs in contrast; that is, with two
+contrasting colours only, in conjunction with black and white--for
+example, with blue and orange, before attempting the whole. Indeed,
+black can be dispensed with in these cases, because it may be
+compounded, since the neutral grey and third colours always arise from
+the compounding of contrasting colours. In this way, even flesh may be
+painted--for instance, with red and green alone, as Gainsborough is said
+at one period to have done.
+
+Some artists have produced pictures in the above hot and cold colours
+only; which, although captivating to the eye, and true in theory with
+respect to colour, light and shade, are generally false in practice with
+regard to nature, which rarely employs such extreme accordances.
+Colouring like this, therefore, is more beautiful than true. It is as
+though a painter were to execute a landscape in the full light of day,
+as he saw it looking through a prism, so that every object glowed with
+rainbow hues. Such a picture would present a beautiful fairy scene, and
+be true as regards colours, but as respects nature, it would be false.
+
+Colour, and what in painting is called transparency, belong chiefly to
+shade. It has been a common error to ascribe those properties to light
+only, and hence many have employed a uniform shade tint, regarding
+shadows as simply darkness, blackness, or the mere absence of light;
+when, in truth, shadows are infinitely varied by colour, and always so
+by the colours of the lights which produce them. But while we incline
+attention toward the relation of colour to shade, both light and shade
+being strictly co-essential to colour, a vicious extreme must be
+avoided. For although, as transparent, colour inclines to shade, and, as
+opaque, it partakes of light; yet the general tendency of colour is to
+transparency and shade, all colour being a departure from light. Hence
+it becomes a maxim, which he who aspires to good colouring must never
+lose sight of, that _the colour of shadow is always transparent, and
+only that of extreme light objects opaque_. It follows, that white is to
+be kept as much as possible out of shadow, and black, for the same
+reason, out of colour. In their stead, whenever it is necessary to
+cover, opaque tints may be employed, glazed over with transparent
+colours. Such practice would also be more favourable to durability of
+the tones of pictures, than the shades and tints produced with black and
+white. The hues and shadows of nature are in no ordinary case either
+black or white, which, except as local colours, are always poor and
+frigid. The perfection of colouring is to combine harmony with
+brilliancy, unity with variety, and freshness with force, without
+violating the laws of nature.
+
+With regard to the _perspective of colours_, or the manner in which they
+affect the eye, according to position and distance, it is a branch of
+aërial perspective or the perspective of light and shade. This is
+distinguished from linear perspective, or the perspective of drawing, as
+drawing is from colouring; and they have progressed alike in the art.
+The most ancient painters seem to have known little of either; and
+linear perspective was established as science before the aërial, as
+drawing and composition preceded colouring.
+
+The perspective of colours depends upon their powers to reflect the
+elements of light, powers which are by no means uniform. Accordingly,
+blue is lost in the distance before red, and yellow is seen at a point
+at which red would disappear; yet blue preserves its hue better than
+yellow, because colours are cooled in the distance. In this respect,
+the compound colours partake of the powers of their components, in
+obedience to a general rule, by which local colours closely connected
+with black are first lost in the distance, and those nearly related to
+white disappear last. The same may be said of local light and shade, the
+latter of which is totally lost at great distances; and it is for this
+reason the shadowed side of the moon is not generally seen. These powers
+of colours are, however, varied by mist, air, altitude, and mixture,
+which produce evanescence; and by contrast, which preserves the force of
+colours by distinguishing them. Colours do not decline in force so much
+by height as by horizontal distance, because the upper atmosphere is
+less dense and clouded with vapour: and hence it is that mountains of
+great elevation appear much nearer than they really are. From all these
+circumstances, it is evident that a simple scumbling or uniform
+degradation of local colours will not effect a true perspective--for
+this will be the aërial of light and shade only--but such a
+subordination of hues and tints, as the various powers of colours
+require, and as is always observable in nature.
+
+In furnishing or _setting the palette_ philosophically and upon
+principle, it is necessary to supply it with pure blue, red, and yellow;
+to oppose to these an orange, of a hue that will neutralise the
+blue--green, of a hue that will neutralise the red--and purple, of a hue
+that will neutralise the yellow; and so on to black and white, which
+will neutralise each other. As in nature, the general colour of the sky
+is blue, and the colour of light is always opposite to that of the sky
+and shade, so the white which is to represent light should be tinged
+with the orange of the palette sufficiently to neutralise the
+predominant coldness of black. Pure neutral white may thus be reserved
+as a "local" colour, which is a technical term for the _natural_ colour
+of an object, unvaried by distance, reflection, or anything interfering
+with distinct vision; although, properly speaking, local colours are
+subject to all the relations and effects of the places they occupy in a
+composition--whether of light, shade, reflection, or distance.
+
+From what we have said, it will be seen that the relations and harmony
+of colours form a complex subject, requiring constant and careful study;
+one, indeed, into which he who would become a colourist must enter heart
+and soul. For as colouring is the beginning and end of a painter's
+craft, so colour in all its aspects must be the chief lesson of his
+life. And this lesson can only be learnt, by ever watching with a loving
+eye those wondrous colourings of nature, in which there is nothing
+inharmonious or out of place.
+
+
+
+
+PART II.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+ON COLOURS AND PIGMENTS GENERALLY.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+ON CLASSES OF COLOURS.
+
+
+By mixing his _colours with white_, the artist obtains his _tints_. By
+mixing _colours with colours_, he produces compound colours, or _hues_.
+And by mixing _colours or tints with black_, he gets _shades_. It is a
+common error to confound these distinctions.
+
+The above classification of colours enables us to understand the
+simplicity of relation which exists among an infinity of tints, hues,
+and shades of colour. Also, it is calculated to give precision to
+language respecting colours, the nomenclature of which has too often
+been vague and uncertain.
+
+There are five classes of colours, viz.:--the _Neutral_, the _Primary_,
+the _Secondary_, the _Tertiary_, and the _Semi-neutral_.
+
+_Neutral Colours_ are three only, _white_, _black_, and grey. According
+to the laws of Optics, the two first comprise all other colours
+synthetically, and afford them all by analysis. These are sometimes
+called "extreme" colours, grey being their intermediate.
+
+_Primary Colours_ are three only, _yellow_, _red_, and _blue_. They are
+such as yield others by being compounded, but are not themselves capable
+of being produced by composition of other colours. By way of
+distinction, they are occasionally designated "entire" colours.
+
+_Secondary Colours_, are three only, _orange_, _green_, and _purple_.
+Each of these is composed of, or can be resolved into, two primaries.
+Thus, orange is composed of red and yellow; green, of yellow and blue;
+and purple, of blue and red.
+
+_Tertiary Colours_ are three only, _citrine_, _russet_, and _olive_.
+Each of these is composed of, or can be resolved into, either two
+secondary colours, or the three primaries. Thus, citrine consists of
+green and orange, or of a predominant yellow with blue and red; russet
+is compounded of orange and purple, or of a predominant red with blue
+and yellow; and olive is composed of purple and green, or of a
+predominant blue with yellow and red.
+
+The last three genera of colours comprehend in an orderly gradation all
+those which are _positive_ or definite; and the three colours of each
+genus, united or compounded in such subordination that neither of them
+predominates to the eye, constitute the _negative_ or neutral colours,
+of which _black_ and _white_ have been stated to be the opposed
+extremes, and _greys_ their intermediates. Thus black and white are
+constituted of, and comprise latently, the principles of all colours,
+and accompany them in their depth and brilliancy as shade and light.
+
+_Semi-neutral Colours_ belong to a class of which _brown_, _marrone_,
+and _gray_ may be considered types. They are so called, because they
+comprehend all the combinations of the primary, secondary, and tertiary
+colours, with the neutral _black_. Of the various combinations of black,
+those in which yellow, orange, or citrine predominates, have obtained
+the name of brown, &c. A second class in which the compounds of black
+are of a predominant red, purple, or russet hue, comprises marrone,
+chocolate, &c. And a third class, in which the combinations of black
+have a predominating hue of blue, green, or olive, includes gray, slate,
+&c.
+
+While treating of the classes of colours, it may not be out of place to
+note here the difference between gray as spelt with an _a_, and grey as
+spelt with an _e_, the two names being occasionally confounded. _Gray_
+is semi-neutral, and denotes a class of cool cinereous colours, faint of
+hue; whence we have blue grays, olive grays, green grays, purple grays,
+and grays of all hues in which blue predominates; but no yellow or red
+grays, the predominance of such hues carrying the compounds into the
+classes of brown and marrone, of which gray is the natural opposite.
+_Grey_ is neutral, and is composed of or can be resolved into black and
+white alone, from a mixture of which two colours it springs in an
+infinite series.
+
+It must be observed that each colour may comprehend an indefinite series
+of _shades_ between the extremes of light and dark, as each compound
+colour also may comprise a similar series of _hues_ between the extremes
+of the colours composing it. And as the relations of colours have been
+deduced regularly, from white or light to black or shade; so the same
+may be done, inversely, from black to white. On this plan the
+tertiaries, olive, russet, and citrine, take the place of the primaries,
+blue, red, and yellow; while the secondaries still retain their
+intermediate station and relation to both.
+
+Thus, _russet and olive_ compose or unite in _dark purple_; _citrine and
+olive_ in _dark green_; _russet and citrine_ in _dark orange_. The
+tertiaries have, therefore, the same order of relation to black that the
+primaries have to white; and we have black primaries, secondaries, and
+tertiaries, inversely, as we have white primaries, secondaries, and
+tertiaries, directly. In other words, we have light and dark colours in
+all classes.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+ON THE DURABILITY AND EVANESCENCE OF PIGMENTS.
+
+
+Pigments may be defined as colours in a solid or insoluble state,
+prepared for the artists' use. Hitherto, we have treated of colours in
+the abstract sense, as appealing to the eye only: we have now to
+consider them as material bodies.
+
+As colour itself is relative, so is durability of colour relative. For
+the reason that all material substances are changeable and in perpetual
+action and reaction, no pigment is so permanent as that nothing will
+alter its colour. On the other hand, none is so fugitive as not to last
+under some favouring circumstances. Time, of long or short continuance,
+has often the effect of fire, more or less intense. Indeed, it is some
+sort of criterion of the stability and changes of colour in pigments,
+that time and fire are apt to produce similar effects thereon. Thus, if
+fire deepen, or cool, or warm a colour, so may time; if it vary its
+hues, so may time; if it destroy a colour altogether, so may time
+ultimately. The power of time, however, varies extremely with regard to
+the period in which it produces those effects, that are instantly
+accomplished by fire.
+
+That there is no absolute but only relative durability of colour may be
+proved from the most celebrated pigments. For instance, the colour of
+native ultramarine, which will endure a hundred centuries under ordinary
+circumstances, may be at once destroyed by a drop of lemon juice; and
+the generally fugitive and changeable carmine of cochineal will, when
+secluded from light and air, continue fifty years or more; while fire or
+time, which merely deepen the former colour, will completely dissipate
+the latter. Again, there have been works of art in which the white of
+lead has retained its freshness for ages in a pure atmosphere, but has
+been changed to blackness after a few days' or even hours' exposure to
+foul air. These and other peculiarities of colours will be noticed, when
+we come to speak of pigments individually; not for the purpose of
+destroying the artist's confidence, but as a caution, and a guide to the
+availing himself of their powers properly.
+
+It is, therefore, the lasting under the usual conditions of painting,
+and the common circumstances to which works of art are exposed, that
+entitles a colour to the character of permanency; and it is the
+not-so-enduring which attaches to it rightly the opposite character of
+evanescence: while a pigment may obtain a false repute for either, by
+accidental preservation or destruction under unusually favourable or
+fatal circumstances.
+
+Many have imagined that colours vitrified by intense heat are
+consequently durable when levigated for painting in oil or water. Had
+this been the case, the artist need not have looked farther for the
+furnishing of his palette than to a supply of well-burnt and levigated
+enamel pigments. But though such colours for the most part stand well
+when fluxed on glass, or in the glazing of enamel, they are nearly,
+without exception, subject to the most serious changes when ground to
+the degree of fineness necessary to their application as pigments, and
+become liable to all the chemical changes and affinities of the
+substances which compose them. These remarks even apply in a measure to
+native products, such as coloured earths and metallic ores.
+
+Others have not unreasonably supposed that when pigments are locked up
+in varnishes and oils, they are safe from all possibility of change. The
+assumption would be more warranted if we had an impenetrable
+varnish--and even that would not resist the action of light, however
+well it might exclude the influence of air and moisture. But, in fact,
+varnishes and oils themselves yield to changes of temperature, to the
+action of a humid atmosphere, and to other influences: their protection
+of colour from change is therefore far from perfect.
+
+Want of attention to the unceasing mutability of all chemical
+substances, as well as to their reciprocal actions, has occasioned those
+changes of colour to be ascribed to fugitiveness of the pigment, which
+belong to the affinities of other substances with which it has been
+improperly mixed and applied. It is thus that the best pigments have
+suffered in reputation under the injudicious processes of the painter;
+although, owing to a desultory practice, the effects and results have
+not been uniform. If a colour be not extremely permanent, dilution will
+render it in some measure more weak and fugitive; and this occurs in
+several ways--by a too free use of the vehicle; by complex mixture in
+the formation of tints; by distribution, in glazing or lackering, of
+colours upon the lights downward, or scumbling colours upon the shades
+upward; or by a mixed mode very common among the Venetian painters, in
+which opaque pigments are combined, as umber and lake.
+
+The fugitive colours do less injury in the shadows than in the lights of
+a picture, because they are employed pure, and in greater body in
+shadows, and are therefore less liable to decay by the action of light,
+and by mixture. Through partially fading, moreover, they balance any
+tendency to darken, to which the dead colouring of earthy and metallic
+pigments is disposed.
+
+The foregoing circumstances, added to the variableness of pigments by
+nature, preparation, and sophistication, have often rendered their
+effects equivocal, and their powers questionable. These considerations
+enforce the expediency of using colours as pure and free from
+unnecessary mixture as possible; for simplicity of composition and
+management is equally a maxim of good mechanism, good chemistry, and
+good colouring. Accordingly, in respect to the latter, Sir Joshua
+Reynolds remarks, "Two colours mixed together will not preserve the
+brightness of either of them single, nor will three be as bright as two:
+of this observation, simple as it is, an artist who wishes to colour
+bright will know the value."
+
+There prevail, notwithstanding, two principles of practice on the
+palette, opposed to each other--the one, simple; the other, multiple.
+The first is that of having as few pigments as possible; and consists,
+when carried to the extreme, in employing the three primary colours
+only. The second is that of having a number of pigments; and consists,
+also when carried to the extreme, of employing as many, if possible, as
+there are hues and shades of colour.
+
+On the former plan, every tint requires to be compounded; on the latter,
+one pigment supplies the place of two or more. Now, the more pigments
+are mixed, the more they are deteriorated in colour, attenuated, and
+chemically set at variance. Original pigments, that is, such as are not
+made up of two or more colours, are purer in hue and generally more
+durable than those compounded. Hence pure intermediate tints in single,
+permanent, original pigments, are to be preferred to pigments
+compounded, often to the dilution and injury of their colours. Cadmium
+Orange, for instance, which is _naturally_ an orange pigment and not
+composed of red and yellow, is superior to many mixtures of those
+colours in a chemical sense, and to all such mixtures in an artistic
+sense. At the same time, it is quite possible for the artist to multiply
+his pigments unnecessarily. Colours are sometimes brought out under new
+names which have no claim to be regarded as new colours, being, indeed,
+mere mixtures. Compound pigments like these may most frequently be
+dispensed with, in favour of hues and tints composed extemporaneously of
+original colours upon the palette.
+
+It may be inferred from the foregoing that, between the modes of
+employing as few pigments as possible, and of having as many as there
+are hues and shades of colour, a middle course is the best. But,
+whatever the practice adopted, permanent _original_ pigments should be
+used as often as the case will admit; it being borne in mind, that a
+pigment may be compound, although its colour may be primary. As a rule,
+the less colours are mixed, the purer, brighter, and more lasting they
+will be found.
+
+To the practice of producing tints and hues by _grinding_ pigments
+together, instead of _blending_ them on the palette, may be attributed
+some of the peculiarities of the tints and textures of the Flemish
+school; they being, perhaps, results of intimate combination from
+grinding, and consequently of a more powerful chemical action among the
+ingredients compounded. This method has, in a great measure, fallen into
+disuse, and undoubtedly it conduced to foulness when the colours of the
+pigments ground were not pure and true, and did not assimilate well in
+mixture chemically.
+
+The superiority of Rubens and the Flemings, and of Titian and the
+Venetian school, in colouring and effect, is due in a considerable
+degree to their sketching their designs in colours experimentally with a
+full palette. This practice, as derived from Reynolds, is common with
+the best masters of our own school, who, in executing their works,
+resort also to nature, with an improved knowledge of colours and
+colouring. Such attention to colouring and effect, from the first study
+and ground of a picture to the finishing, contributes a beauty to the
+painting no superinduced colouring can accomplish.
+
+The durability of colour in substances is to a great extent dependent
+upon the condition in which they exist chemically. If pigments, for
+example, be in a state which chemists have termed _pro_toxide, they are
+liable to absorb oxygen on exposure to light, air, or moisture, and
+becoming what is called _per_oxidized, may, by consequence, change or
+fade. In like manner, lakes and carmines thrown down upon a base, may
+owe some of their fugacity to the oxidation of that base, as well as to
+the natural infirmity of their colouring matter. On the other hand,
+pigments and bases are subject to _de_oxidation, or to a loss of oxygen,
+in which case the colour is apt to deepen. Pigments generally are more
+affected by oxidation and fading in a water vehicle, and by deoxidation
+and darkening in one of oil.
+
+A principal test of permanency in pigments is the impunity with which
+they bear exposure to light and air, an artistic proof of their
+stability the mere chemist is apt to neglect. Provided the colour remain
+unaffected by sulphuretted hydrogen, &c., he seldom hesitates to
+pronounce it safe. But a pigment may be fast in one sense and fugitive
+in another, believed in by the laboratory, and found wanting by the
+studio. It has happened before now that the same colour has been dubbed
+durable and the reverse, by the man of science and the man of art. The
+former, we take it, looks upon a pigment as a coloured substance of a
+certain composition, possessing maybe an acid and a base, either, or
+neither, or both of which, gases and other reagents may injure or
+destroy. The latter views a colour chiefly as part and parcel of his
+picture--that picture which _may_ meet with foul exhalations, but _must_
+be exposed to light and air. And he too often thinks as little of the
+effects of an impure atmosphere or injudicious admixture, as the chemist
+considers the action of air and light.
+
+With the exception of madder, those colours mostly affected by _light
+and air_ are of organic origin, such as gallstone, Indian yellow, and
+the yellow dye-wood lakes; the red and purple lakes of cochineal;
+indigo; and sap green. To these may be added the semi-organic Prussian
+blue; and the inorganic yellows and orange of arsenic.
+
+The pigments liable to injury from _sulphuretted hydrogen_, &c., are
+notably those obtained from lead and copper; and that treacherous
+compound of iodine and mercury, known as pure scarlet.
+
+Many colours are apt to change from the action of white _lead_ and other
+lead pigments, &c., principally those which are altered by light and
+air.
+
+Many, too, cannot safely come into contact with iron, or ferruginous
+pigments; especially the yellows of arsenic, the lakes of cochineal, and
+the blues and greens of copper. With these an iron palette knife is best
+avoided, one of ivory or horn being used instead. The latter, indeed, is
+preferable in all cases, several pigments being slightly affected by
+iron, cadmium yellow among the number.
+
+Numerous colours are likewise injured by _lime_ and _fire_, and cannot
+therefore be employed in fresco, or enamel painting.
+
+Of substances which may act deleteriously on colours, there remain the
+_vehicles and varnishes_ with which they are mixed. Many of these have
+been blamed, and often with justice, for their injurious effects on
+pigments. The reputation of the most permanent colour may be ruined, if
+the vehicle, &c., employed with it be untrustworthy. The presence of
+lead, for instance, in such materials renders them liable to be
+blackened by foul air, and by consequence the pigments used therewith.
+
+Time produces in many cases a mellow and harmonious change in pictures,
+but occasionally alterations altogether unfavourable. To ensure the
+former and prevent the latter, the attention of the artist in the course
+of his colouring should be to the employment of such pigments and
+colours as are prone to adapt themselves, in changing, to the intended
+key of his colouring, and the right effect of his picture. Thus, if he
+design a cool effect, ultramarine has a tendency through time to
+predominate and aid the natural key of blue. He will, therefore,
+compromise the permanence of this effect, if in such case he employ a
+declining or changeable blue, or if he introduce such reds and yellows
+as have a tendency to warmth or foxiness, by which the colouring of
+many pictures has been destroyed. In a glowing or warm key, the case is
+in some measure reversed--not wholly so, for it is observable that those
+pictures have best preserved their colouring and harmony in which the
+blue has been most lasting, by the pigment counteracting the change of
+colour in the vehicle, and that suffusion of dusky yellow which time is
+wont to bestow upon pictures even of the best complexion.
+
+Unless introduced and guaranteed by houses of acknowledged reputation,
+newly discovered pigments are to be used with caution. Good colours have
+ever been prized with so true an estimation of their value, that to
+produce such, after so many ages of research is no ordinary
+accomplishment. But too many resplendent pigments, fruits of the
+fecundity of modern chemistry, have been found deficient. The yellow and
+orange chromates of lead, for instance, withstanding as they do the
+action of the sunbeam, become by time, foul air, and the influence of
+other pigments, inferior to the ochres. So the dazzling scarlet of
+iodine and mercury must yield the palm of excellence to the more sober
+vermilion, being a chameleon colour, subject to the most sudden and
+opposite changes. And the blues of cobalt, as always tending to
+greenness and obscurity, cannot rank beside ultramarine.
+
+We are far from asserting, however, that all modern pigments are
+inferior, or that pigments should be looked upon with suspicion because
+they are modern. Several most valuable colours have lately claimed
+attention, notably the permanent transparent yellow called _Aureolin_.
+Seeing that, until its introduction, a yellow combining transparency
+with a perfect stability was unknown to the palette, the importance of
+such an addition, so long wanted and wished for, cannot be overrated.
+Equal in beauty and durability with the preceding, but possessing
+greater richness and depth, and of a semi-opacity, another yellow of the
+highest order merits regard, _Orient Yellow_, distinguished for its
+lustrous golden hue, resembling a bright Indian yellow. Dazzling in
+brilliancy, and absolute in permanency. _Cadmium Red_ next attracts
+notice. This new aspirant for artistic fame is a most vivid
+orange-scarlet, the latter colour predominating, of intense fire, but
+with no approach to rankness or harshness, yielding delicate pale
+washes, and blending happily with white in the formation of flesh tints.
+With it may be coupled _Cadmium Orange_, a colour equally brilliant and
+stable, and equally without rankness or harshness, but of a true orange
+hue, admirably adapted for sunsets and the like. Last of all the fresh
+pigments of whose thorough durability there is _no_ doubt, comes the
+splendid _Viridian_, a green nothing but fire will change, and no
+mixture of blue and yellow will afford. Clear, bright, and transparent
+as the emerald, it rivals velvet in its soft gorgeous richness. With
+this and Aureolin a series of beautiful foliage tints may be formed,
+sparkling with sunshine, as it were.
+
+Other colours there are which have been brought forward within the last
+few years, not possessing the absolute permanency of the five foregoing,
+but equal, or superior, to many formerly used. It were folly, therefore,
+and a silly conservatism on the part of the artist to limit himself to
+such pigments only as were employed by his forefathers, especially as
+their merits were often more than doubtful. New colours, it is true,
+have to be _learnt_, for each pigment has its own peculiar habitudes,
+chemical, physical, artistic; but if they be good and durable, no amount
+of time and study spent upon them is thrown away. To think less of the
+quality of one's materials than of the effects which can be produced
+with them is mistaken policy; and to be content with that quality when
+better can be had, shows no real love of art, but rather indolence and
+apathy.
+
+Perhaps one reason why freshly introduced pigments have not as fair a
+chance as they are entitled to, is due to the fashion which prevails of
+exclaiming against the fugacity of modern colours. If their detractors
+would confine themselves to certain colours, there could be no denial;
+but to assert, as is often done, that the cause of modern pictures not
+standing is owing to modern pigments generally, is unjust. It is not
+the materials which should be blamed, but those who use them. The fact
+is, that the artist's knowledge has not increased in proportion to the
+greater variety of colours at his command. In the early periods of art,
+when the palette was chiefly confined to native pigments, the painter
+could not very well go wrong. Now-a-days but too many, wanting the skill
+of the old masters, seek to make amends for it by brilliancy of
+colouring: with imperfect knowledge of their materials the result is
+obvious. The palette, we admit, wants weeding; not only of the bad new
+colours, but of the bad old colours. This, however, must be a work of
+time, and depend, not upon the colourman--for where there is a demand
+there will be a supply--but upon the artists themselves. To this end an
+increased acquaintance with the properties of pigments is required,
+whereby they may be able to choose the fast from the fugitive. It may be
+fairly assumed that the painter will be assisted in his task by the
+progress of chemical science, which will doubtless add from time to time
+to the list of stable pigments. We have heard it remarked that there are
+too many colours already--to which we reply, there are not too many good
+colours, and scarcely can be. The more crowded the palette is with
+reliable pigments, the more likely are the worthless to be pushed from
+their places. In our opinion, there is ample room for fresh colours,
+provided they be durable; and we have as little sympathy with the
+stereotyped cry of there being too many, as with the fashionable
+unbelief in modern pigments. Certainly, the artist who seeks for
+permanence among the whites, reds, or blues, will not be troubled with a
+superfluity. Certainly, too, colours are as good as ever they were, and
+better--better made, better ground, better prepared for use. But, fast
+and fugitive, pigments are more numerous, and for that reason need more
+careful selection.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+ON THE GENERAL QUALITIES OF PIGMENTS.
+
+
+The general attributes of a perfect pigment are beauty of colour,
+comprehending pureness and richness, brilliancy and intensity, delicacy
+and depth,--truth of hue--transparency or opacity, well-working,
+crispness, setting up, or keeping its place, and desiccation, or drying
+well. To all of these must be superadded _durability_ when used, a
+quality to which the health and vitality of a picture belong, and one so
+essential that all other properties put together without it are of no
+esteem with the artist who merits reputation. We have, therefore, given
+it a previous distinct consideration.
+
+It must be observed that no pigment possesses all the foregoing
+qualifications in perfection, some being naturally at variance or
+opposed; nor is there any, perhaps, that cannot boast excellence in one
+or more of them.
+
+_Beauty_ commonly comprises in the same pigment delicacy, purity, and
+brilliancy; or depth, richness, and intensity. Delicacy and depth in
+the beauty of colours are at variance in the production of all pigments,
+so that perfect success in producing the one is attended with more or
+less of failure in the other, and when they are united--as they
+occasionally are--it is with some sacrifice of both. Hence the judicious
+artist purveys for his palette at least two pigments of each colour, one
+eminent for delicate beauty, the other for richness and depth.
+
+_Truth of hue_ is a relative quality in all colours, except the extreme
+primaries, in the relations of which, blue, being of nearest affinity to
+black or shade, has properly but one other relation, in which it
+inclines to red and becomes purple-blue: it is, therefore, faulty or
+false, when, tending to yellow, it becomes of a green hue. But red,
+which is of equal affinity to light and shade, has two relations, by one
+of which it verges upon blue and becomes a purple-red or crimson; and by
+the other it leans to yellow, and becomes an orange-red or scarlet,
+neither of which is individually false or discordant. Yet yellow, which
+is of nearest affinity to white or light, has strictly but one true
+relation, by which it inclines to red, and becomes a warm or orange
+yellow, for by uniting with blue it becomes a defective green-yellow.
+The best example of true yellow in a pigment, tending neither to red nor
+blue, is furnished by _Aureolin_, alluded to in the last chapter. The
+secondary and tertiary colours, having all duplex relations, may
+incline without default to either of their relatives.
+
+_Transparency_ is an essential property of all glazing pigments, and
+adds greatly to the value of dark or shading colours; indeed it is the
+prime quality upon which depth and darkness depend, as whiteness, or
+light, does upon opacity or reflecting power. _Opacity_ is, therefore,
+the antagonist of transparency, and qualifies pigments to cover in
+dead-colouring, or solid painting, as well as to combine with
+transparent colours in forming tints; and hence it is that
+semi-transparent pigments are suited in a mean degree both for dead
+colouring and for finishing. As excellencies, therefore, transparency
+and opacity are relative only--the first being as indispensable to shade
+in all its gradations, as the latter is to light. With regard to
+transparent and opaque colours generally, it is worthy of attention in
+the practice of the oil-painter, that the best effects of the former are
+produced when they are used with a resinous varnish; as opaque pigments
+are best employed in oil, and the two become united with best effect in
+a mixture of these vehicles. The natural and artificial powers, or depth
+and brilliancy, of every colour lie within the extremes of black and
+white; hence it follows that the most powerful effects of transparent
+colours are obtained by glazing them over black and white. As, however,
+few transparent pigments have sufficient body, or tinging power for
+this, it is often necessary to glaze them over tints, or deep opaque
+colours of the required hues. There is a charm in transparent colours
+which frequently leads to an undue use thereof in glazing; but glazing,
+scumbling, and their combined process must be employed with discretion,
+according to the objects and effects of a picture.
+
+_Working well_ is a quality which depends principally upon fineness of
+texture, and what is called _body_ in colours; yet every pigment has its
+peculiarities in respect to working both in water and oil, and these
+must become matter of every artist's special experience. Some of the
+best pigments are most difficult of management, while some ineligible
+colours are rich in body and free in working. Accidental circumstances,
+however, may influence all pigments in these respects, according to the
+painter's particular mode of operation, and his vehicle; upon the
+affinities of colours with which depend their general faculties of
+working--such as keeping their place, crispness or setting up, and
+drying well. These latter, with other properties and accidents of
+pigments, will be particularly considered in treating of their
+individual characters; but it may be remarked that crispness or setting
+up, as well as keeping their place and form in which they are applied,
+are contrary to the nature of many pigments, and depend in painting with
+them upon a gelatinous mixture of their vehicle. For example, mastic
+and other resinous varnishes impart this texture to oils which have been
+rendered drying by the acetate, or sugar of lead:--simple water, also
+albumen, and animal jelly made of glue and isinglass, give the same
+quality to oils and colours; and bees-wax has a similar effect in pure
+oils. Whitelac varnish, and other spirit varnishes, rubbed into the
+colours on the palette likewise enable them to keep their place very
+effectually in most instances. This is important, because glazing cannot
+be performed except with a vehicle which keeps its place, or with
+pigments which lend this property to the vehicle, as some lakes and
+transparent colours do.
+
+_Fineness of texture_ is produced by extreme grinding and levigation.
+Pigments ground in water in the state of a thick paste, are miscible in
+oil and dry therein firmly; and in case of utility or necessity, any
+water-colour in cake, being rubbed off thick in water may be diffused in
+oil, the gum acting as a medium of union between the two. Thus, pigments
+which cannot otherwise be employed in oil, or varnish, may be forced
+into the service and add to the resources of the oil-painter, care being
+taken to use the palette-knife, if of steel, with caution.
+
+_Desiccation or drying._ The well-known additions of the acetate, or
+sugar of lead, litharge, and sulphate of zinc, either mechanically
+ground, or in solution, for light colours; and japanner's gold size, or
+oils boiled upon litharge, for lakes; or, in some cases, manganese and
+verdigris for dark colours, are resorted to when the pigments or
+vehicles are not sufficiently good dryers alone. It would be well if
+lead and copper could be banished from the list of siccatives
+altogether: assuredly, no artist with any regard for the permanent
+texture of his work should employ them except in extreme cases, and in
+the smallest possible quantity. The best of pigments may be ruined by
+their injudicious use, and obtain a character for fugacity which they in
+no way deserve. It requires attention that an excess of dryer renders
+oil saponaceous, is inimical to drying, and is otherwise injurious. Some
+colours dry badly from not being sufficiently edulcorated or washed.
+Sulphate of zinc, as a siccative, is less powerful than acetate of lead,
+but is far preferable in a chemical sense. It is supposed erroneously to
+set the colours running; which is not positively the case, though it
+will not retain those disposed to move, because it wants the property
+the acetate of lead possesses, of gelatinizing the mixture of oil and
+varnish. These two dryers should not be employed together, since they
+counteract and decompose each other, forming two new substances--acetate
+of zinc, which is a bad siccative, and sulphate of lead, which is
+insoluble and opaque. The inexperienced ought here to be guarded against
+the highly improper practice of some artists, who strew their pictures
+while wet with acetate of lead, or use that substance in some other
+mode, without grinding or solution; which, though it may promote present
+drying, will ultimately effloresce on the surface of the work, throw off
+the colour in sandy spots, and expose the paintings to peculiar risk
+from the damaging influence of impure air.
+
+It is not always that ill drying is to be attributed to the pigments or
+vehicles, the states of the weather and atmosphere have great influence
+thereon. The direct rays of the sun are powerfully active in rendering
+oils and colours siccative, and were probably resorted to before dryers
+were--not always wisely--added to oils, particularly in the warm climate
+of Italy. The ground may also advance or retard drying, because some
+pigments united by mixing or glazing, become either more or less
+siccative by their conjunction. Many other accidental circumstances may
+likewise affect drying; and among these none is to be more guarded
+against by the artist than the presence of soap and alkali, too often
+left in the washing of his brushes, and which, besides other bad
+results, decompose and are decomposed by acetate of lead and most
+siccatives. In such cases desiccation is retarded, streaks and patches
+are formed on the painting, and the odium of ill drying falls upon some
+unlucky pigment. To free brushes from this disadvantage, they should be
+cleansed with linseed oil and turpentine. Dryers should be added to
+colours only at the time of using them, because they exercise their
+drying property while chemically combining with the oils employed,
+during which the latter become thick or fatten. Too much of the
+siccative will, as before noticed, often retard drying.
+
+The various affinities of pigments occasion each to have its more or
+less appropriate dryer; and it would be a matter of useful experience if
+the habits of every colour in this respect were ascertained. It is
+probable that siccatives of less power generally than the compounds of
+lead and copper might come into use in particular cases, such as the
+oxides of manganese, to which umber and the Cappagh browns owe their
+drying quality.
+
+To other good attributes of pigments, it would be well if we could in
+all cases add the property of being _innoxious_. As this, however,
+cannot be, and colours are by no means to be sacrificed on that account,
+cleanliness and avoiding the habit of putting the brush unnecessarily to
+the mouth, so common in water-painting, are sufficient guards against
+any possibly pernicious effects from the use of any pigment. No colour
+which is not imbibed by the stomach will in the slightest degree injure
+the health of the artist.
+
+
+
+
+
+PART III.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+ON COLOURS AND PIGMENTS INDIVIDUALLY.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+ON COLOURS AND PIGMENTS INDIVIDUALLY.
+
+
+Having briefly discussed the relations and attributes of colours and
+pigments generally, we come to their powers and properties
+individually--a subject pregnant with materials and of unlimited
+connexions, every substance in nature and art possessing colour, the
+first quality of pigments.
+
+With regard to _colours_ individually, it is a general law of their
+relations, confirmed by nature and the impressions of sense, that those
+colours which lie nearest in nature to light have their greatest beauty
+in their lightest tints: and that those which tend similarly towards
+shade are most beautiful in their greatest depth or fulness, a rule of
+course applying to black and white particularly. Thus, the most
+beautiful yellow, like white, is that which is lightest and most vivid;
+blue is most beautiful when deep and rich; while red is of greatest
+beauty when of intermediate depth, or somewhat inclined to light; and
+their compounds partake of these relations. We speak here only of the
+individual beauty of colours, and not of that relative beauty by which
+every tint, hue, and shade of colour become pleasing, or otherwise
+according to space, place, and reference; for this latter beauty belongs
+to the general nature and harmony of colours.
+
+In respect to _pigments_ individually, it may be observed that--other
+things being equal--those pigments are the most beautiful which possess
+the most colour, whether they be light or dark, opaque or transparent,
+bright or subdued. There are some which exhibit all their colour at a
+glance: there are others that the more they are looked into the more
+colour they are found to have--containing, as they do, an amount of
+_latent colour_, not immediately apparent. Apart from the beauty which a
+wealth of colour imparts, those pigments imbued with it are, as a rule,
+the most permanent. And not unnaturally so, for the more colour there is
+present, the longer it takes to be affected, either by exposure or
+impure air. Colour within colour, therefore, not only lends charm to a
+pigment, but contributes to its safety.
+
+There is often a vicious predilection of some artists in favour of a
+particular colour, from which many of our best colourists have not been
+totally free, and which arises from organic defect, or mental
+association. Such predilection is greatly to be guarded against by the
+colourist, who is every way surrounded by dangers. On the one hand,
+there is fear lest he fall into whiteness or chalkiness; on the other,
+into blackness or gloom: in front he may run into fire and foxiness, or
+he may slide backward into cold and leaden dulness: all of which are
+extremes he must avoid. There are also other important prejudices to
+which the eye is liable in regard to colours individually, that demand
+his particular attention. These are occasioned by the various specific
+powers of single colours acting on the eye according to their masses and
+the activity of light, or the length of time they are viewed. By
+consequence, vision becomes over-stimulated, unequally exhausted, and
+endued, even before it is fatigued, with a spectrum which not only
+clouds the colour itself, but gives a false brilliancy by contrast to
+surrounding hues, so as totally or partially to throw the eye off its
+balance, and mislead the judgment. This derangement of the organ may be
+caused by a powerful tint on the palette, a mass of drapery, the colour
+of a wall, the light of a room, or other accidental circumstance; and
+the remedy is to refresh the eye with a new object--of nature, if
+possible--or to give it rest. The powers of colours in these respects,
+as well as of pigments individually, together with their reciprocal
+action and influence chemically, will be adverted to under their
+distinct heads.
+
+The attention of the artist to the individual powers of pigments,
+although it may be of less concern than the attention to general effect
+in colouring, is by no means less necessary in practice. For he who
+would excel in colouring must study it from several points of view, in
+respect to the whole and the parts of a picture, as regards mind and
+body, and concerning itself alone. To this end, is needed a knowledge of
+his pigments individually.
+
+If nature has arrayed herself in all the colours of the rainbow, she has
+not been niggardly in offering man the materials wherewith to copy them.
+The mineral, animal, vegetable kingdom--each helps him to realize,
+however faintly, her many manifold beauties: to give some idea, however
+slight, of that glorious flood of colour, which light lets loose upon
+the world. Metal, ore, earth, stone; root, plant, flower, fruit; beast,
+fish, insect--in turn aid the arduous task. The painter's box is a very
+museum of curiosities, from every part of the universe. For it, the
+mines yield their treasures, as well as the depths of the sea: to it
+come Arab camel, and English ox, cuttle-fish and crawling coccus: in it
+the Indian indigo lies next the madder of France, and the gaudy
+vermilion of China brightens the mummy of Egypt. Varied, indeed, are the
+sources whence we derive our pigments; and if they still leave much to
+desire, improvement is clearly manifest. Slowly but surely, year by
+year, we are advancing. With the growth of science, the exhaustless
+stores of creation, will there at last be attained--step by step, though
+it be--that summit of the artist's hopes, a perfect palette?
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+ON THE NEUTRAL, WHITE.
+
+
+The term "colour" is equivocal when applied to the neutrals, yet the
+artist is bound to consider them as colours; for a thing cannot but be
+that of which it is composed, and neutrals are composed of, or
+comprehend, all colours.
+
+With regard to colour, then, _white_ in a perfect state should be
+neutral in hue, and absolutely opaque; that white being the best which
+reflects light most brilliantly. This property in white is called
+_body_; by which in other pigments, especially those that are
+transparent, is meant _tingeing power_. White, besides its uses as a
+colour, is the instrument of light in painting, and compounds when pure
+with all colours, without changing their class. Yet it dilutes and cools
+all colours except blue, which is specifically cold; and, though it does
+not change nor defile any colour, it is changed and defiled by all
+colours. This pureness of white, if it be not in some degree broken or
+tinged, will cast down or degrade every other colour in a picture, and
+itself become harsh and crude. Hence the lowness of tone which has been
+thought a necessity in painting, but is such only because our other
+colours do not approach to the purity of white. Had we all necessary
+colours thus relatively pure as white, colouring in painting might be
+carried up to the full brilliancy of nature; and, in fact, more progress
+has already been made in that respect, than the prejudice for dulness is
+disposed to tolerate.
+
+Locally, white is the most advancing of all colours in a picture, and
+produces the effect of throwing others back in different degrees,
+according to their specific retiring and advancing powers. These latter,
+however, are not absolute qualities of colours, but depend on the
+relations of light and shade, which are variously appropriate to all
+colours. Hence it is that a white object rightly adapted, appears to
+detach, distribute, and put in keeping; as well as to give relief,
+decision, distinctness, and distance to every thing around it: hence,
+too, the use and requirement of a white or light object, in each
+separate group of a composition. White itself is advanced or brought
+forward, unless indeed white surround a dark object, in which case they
+retire together. In mixture, white communicates these properties to its
+tints, and harmonizes in conjunction with, or in opposition to all
+colours; but lies nearest in series to yellow, and remotest from blue,
+of which, next to black, it is the most thorough contrast. It is
+correlative with black, which is the opposite extreme of neutrality.
+
+Perfect white is opaque, and perfect black transparent; hence when added
+to black in minute proportion, white gives it solidity; and from a like
+small proportion of black combined with white, the latter acquires
+locality as a colour, and better preserves its hue in painting. Both
+white and black communicate these properties to other colours, in
+proportion to their lightness or depth; while they cool each other in
+mixture, and equally contrast each other when opposed. These extremes of
+the chromatic scale are each in its way most easily denied, as green,
+the mean of the scale, is the greatest defiler of all colours. Rubens
+regarded white as the nourishment of light, and the poison of shadow.
+
+In a picture, white should not be merely glittering or brilliant, but
+tender as well as bright. The eye should seek it for rest, brilliant
+though it may be; and feel it as a space of strange heavenly paleness in
+the midst of the flushing of the colours. This effect can only be
+reached by general depth of middle tint, by the perfect absence of any
+white, save where it is needed, and by keeping the white itself subdued
+by grey, except at a few points of chief lustre.
+
+White, as a pigment, is of more extensive use than any other colour in
+oil painting and fresco, owing to its local quality, its representing
+light, and its entering into composition with all colours in the
+formation of tints. The old masters have been supposed by some to
+possess whites superior to our own, but this may be questioned. The
+pureness of whites in some celebrated old pictures is rather to be
+attributed to a proper method of using, careful preservation of the
+work, and in many instances to the introduction of ultramarine or a
+permanent cold colour into the white--such as plumbago--helped also by
+judicious contrast.
+
+Notwithstanding white pigments are tolerably numerous, a thoroughly
+unexceptionable white is still a desideratum--one combining the perfect
+opacity or body of white lead with the perfect permanency of zinc white.
+The nearest approach to it that has yet been made, is Chinese white,
+which possesses in a great measure the property of the former, and,
+being a preparation of zinc, has wholly that of the latter.
+Unfortunately Chinese white is a water-colour pigment only, not
+retaining its several advantages, stability excepted, when employed in
+oil.
+
+1. CONSTANT WHITE,
+
+Also called _Permanent white_, and _Barytic white_, is, when well
+prepared, of superior body in water, but has less opacity in oil. It
+works in a somewhat unsatisfactory and unpleasant manner, and is
+considerably lower in its tone while wet than when dry, a fault which
+subjects even an experienced artist to great uncertainty where he uses
+it in compound tints. The semi-transparency of the white, while wet,
+prevents his judging of the true tint until his colour has dried, when
+he frequently finds it harsh and chalky, and out of tone with the rest
+of his painting. As little gum as possible should be employed with it,
+gum being inimical to its body, or whiteness. The best way of preparing
+this pigment, as well as other terrene whites, so as to preserve their
+opacity, is to grind them in simple water, and to add towards the end of
+the grinding sufficient only of clear _cold_ jelly of gum tragacanth as
+will connect them into a body, and attach them to the paper in painting.
+Cold starch will answer the same purpose.
+
+Constant white is a sulphate of baryta, found native and known under the
+name of heavy-spar, or prepared artificially by adding sulphuric acid,
+or a soluble sulphate, to a solution of a barytic salt. In the first
+mode, if the white be not well purified from free acid, it is apt to act
+injuriously on some pigments. Sulphate of baryta is often used for the
+purpose of adulterating white lead, the native salt being ground to fine
+powder, and washed with dilute sulphuric acid, by which its colour is
+improved, and a little oxide of iron probably dissolved out. Whether
+native or artificial, the compound is quite unaffected by impure air,
+and is not poisonous.
+
+
+LEAD WHITES
+
+Comprise and are known under the names of:--_White lead_, _Flake white_
+and _Body-white_, _Cremnitz_, or _Kremnitz_, _Crems_ or _Krems white_,
+_London_ and _Nottingham white_, _Flemish white_, _Pattison's white_,
+_Blanc d'argent_ or _Silver white_, _Ceruse_, _Dutch white_, _French
+white_, _Venetian white_, _Hamburgh white_, _Kremser white_, _Sulphate
+of lead_, &c.
+
+The heaviest and whitest of these are the best, and in point of colour
+and body, are superior to all other whites. When pure and properly
+applied in oil and varnish, they are comparatively safe and durable,
+drying well without addition; but excess of oil discolours them, and in
+water-painting they are changeable even to blackness. Upon all vegetable
+lakes, except those of madder, they have a destructive effect; and are
+injurious to gamboge, as well as to those almost obsolete pigments, red
+and orange leads, king's and patent yellow, massicot, and orpiment. With
+ultramarine, however, red and orange vermilions, yellow and orange
+chromes, yellow and orange and red cadmiums, aureolin, the ochres,
+viridian and other oxides of chromium, Indian red &c., they compound
+with little or no injury. Lead colours must not be employed in
+water-colour or crayon painting, distemper, or fresco. The whites of
+lead are carbonates of that metal, with two exceptions:--Flemish white
+or the sulphate, and Pattison's white or the oxychloride. In using all
+pigments of which lead is the basis, cleanliness is essential to health.
+
+White lead, by which we must be understood to mean the carbonate, always
+contains when commercially prepared a certain proportion of hydrated
+oxide. The less of the latter there is present, the better does the
+white cover, and the less liable is it to turn brown. The products
+formed by precipitation have proved to be inferior in body: otherwise,
+pure mono-carbonate of lead-oxide, obtained by mixing solutions of
+carbonate of potash and a lead-salt, might be best adapted for a
+pigment. However, such a carbonate has been lately produced by Mr.
+Spence's process of passing carbonic acid gas into a caustic soda or
+potash solution of lead, and for this white an opacity is claimed equal
+to that of the ordinary compound.
+
+Great as is the opacity of white lead, it is apt to lose that property
+in some measure in course of time, and become more or less transparent.
+If, over a series of dry oil-colour rubs of varied hues, there were
+brushed sufficient white lead paint to utterly obscure them, after some
+years those rubs would indistinctly appear, and by degrees become more
+and more visible, until at last their forms--if not their very
+colours--could be recognised. From this it would seem that white lead
+must slowly but surely part with some of its carbonic acid, and be at
+length converted into dicarbonate, a compound possessing less carbonic
+acid, and less coating power.
+
+Impure air, or sulphuretted hydrogen, browns or blackens white lead,
+converting it partially or wholly into sulphide. It would appear from
+the recent investigations of Dr. D. S. Price, that white lead is less
+liable to be thus affected, when the pictures in which it is used are
+exposed to a strong light; also, that when such pictures have so
+suffered, a like exposure will restore them. We have ourselves noticed
+the rapidity with which an oil rub of white lead that has been damaged
+by foul gas, regains its former whiteness when submitted to air and
+sunshine. The action of drying oils has been likewise proved to be very
+powerful upon sulphide of lead, an exposure to light for a few days only
+being sufficient to change a surface of it, coated with a thin layer of
+boiled linseed oil, into a white one. Probably, these agents may have a
+similar effect upon other pigments injured by sulphuretted hydrogen, and
+many of the colours in paintings may be restored by treating them with
+boiled linseed oil, and submitting them to a strong light. That the
+result is due to oxidation, there can be no doubt. Indeed, the eminent
+French chemist, M. Thénard, was consulted some years back upon the means
+of bringing to their original whiteness the black spots which had formed
+upon a valuable drawing, by the changing of the white lead, and
+employed for that purpose oxygenated water. He had ascertained its power
+of converting the black sulphide of lead into the white sulphate, and,
+by touching the spots with a brush dipped in the fluid, soon succeeded
+in restoring the drawing to its primitive state. Here, again, the use of
+the agent might doubtless be extended to other colours, to which foul
+air is inimical.
+
+In oil painting white lead is essential in the ground, in dead
+colouring, in the formation of tints of all colours, and in scumbling,
+either alone or mixed with other pigments. It is also the best local
+white, when neutralized with ultramarine or black; and it is the true
+representative of light, when warmed with Naples yellow, or orange
+vermilion or cadmium, or with a mixture of the yellow and either of the
+orange pigments, according to the light.
+
+Ordinary white lead is often mixed with considerable quantities of heavy
+spar, gypsum, or chalk. These injure it in body and brightness, dispose
+it to dry more slowly, keep its place less firmly, and discolour the oil
+with which it is applied, as well as prevent it dissolving completely in
+boiling dilute potash-ley, a test by which pure white lead may be known.
+
+The adulteration of pigments, which we have in some instances found
+practised to a large extent abroad, is comparatively unfrequent in our
+own country, so far at least as regards the superior class of colours
+employed by artists. As a rule, such colours when manufactured in
+England may be fairly assumed to be genuine; and certainly the
+respectable colourmen of the present day are not in the habit of
+sophisticating them. We must bear testimony, indeed, to the zeal with
+which they purvey, regardless of necessary expense, the choicest and
+most perfect materials. This should be a matter of congratulation to the
+painter, who must of necessity rely on the faith and honesty of his
+colour-dealer; for if he were ever so good a chemist, it would be
+impossible for him to analyse each pigment before proceeding to use it.
+The fault must rest with himself, therefore, if, through a mistaken
+economy, he do not frequent the best houses and pay the best prices. Of
+a surety, the colours of the artist are not among those things in which
+quality can, or should, be sacrificed to cheapness.
+
+2. BLANC D'ARGENT, OR SILVER WHITE.
+
+These are false appellations of a white lead, called also _French
+white_. It is brought from Paris in the form of drops, is exquisitely
+white, but of less body than flake white, and has all the properties of
+the best white leads. Being subject to the same changes, it is unfit
+for general use as a water-colour, though good in oil or varnish.
+
+3. CREMNITZ WHITE,
+
+Known likewise as _Kremnitz_, _Crems_, or _Krems white_, is a carbonate
+of lead which derives its names from Kremnitz in Hungary, or Crems or
+Krems in Austria. It is also called _Vienna white_, being brought from
+Vienna in cakes of a cubical form. Cremnitz white is the brightest white
+that is used in oil: it possesses rather less body than flake white,
+because the particles are finer. When newly prepared, it gives out a
+strong smell of vinegar.
+
+4. FLAKE WHITE,
+
+Called, when levigated, _Body white_, is an English white lead in the
+form of scales or plates, sometimes grey on the surface. It takes its
+name from its figure, is occasionally equal to Crems white in colour,
+and generally surpasses in body all other white leads. In composition,
+it is a mixture of protocarbonate and hydrated oxide of lead, the latter
+decreasing the opacity of the product according to the greater
+proportion in which it is present.
+
+5. FLEMISH WHITE, OR SULPHATE OF LEAD
+
+Is an exceedingly white precipitate from any solution of lead by
+sulphuric acid, much resembling the blanc d'argent. It is inferior,
+however, both in body and permanence to the ordinary carbonate. Hence,
+white lead which has more or less been converted by sulphuretted
+hydrogen into sulphide, and again been converted into sulphate by
+oxidation, with a view to restoring its colour, becomes peculiarly
+liable to the influence of impure air.
+
+6. LONDON AND NOTTINGHAM WHITES.
+
+The best of these do not essentially differ from each other, nor from
+the white leads of other manufactories. The latter variety, being
+prepared from flake white, is usually the greyer of the two.
+
+7. PATTISON'S WHITE, OR OXYCHLORIDE OF LEAD
+
+Is a mixture of chloride and oxide of lead, formed by precipitating a
+solution of chloride of lead with soda, potash, lime, or baryta, in the
+caustic or hydrated state. It would appear that when the oxychloride is
+used as a paint, the oxide contained in it gives rise to an oleate of
+lead, and, in consequence of this saponaceous matter, is capable of
+spreading over an extended surface. The product has been described as
+possessing properties which are superior to those of white lead,
+inasmuch as it does not so readily blacken as the latter body. Dr. Ure,
+however, found that water removes the chloride of lead from the paint
+compounded of this article, and, consequently, that it is not so
+effectual as the carbonate. As an artist's pigment, a partially soluble
+compound of lead can decidedly not be eligible.
+
+8. ROMAN WHITE
+
+Is of the purest white colour, and differs only from blanc d'argent in
+the warm flesh tint of the external surface of the large square masses
+in which it is commonly prepared.
+
+Besides the foregoing, there are other white leads, generally foreign,
+cheaper, and adulterated. Many of these are mixed with a small quantity
+of charcoal, indigo, or Prussian blue, so that the dead yellowish shade
+which they present may be enlivened to a brighter hue. Among them may be
+named--
+
+9. CERUSE.
+
+A French variety, not necessarily, but not unfrequently, mixed with
+different chalky earths in various proportions; and the following
+Belgian kinds:
+
+10. DUTCH WHITE,
+
+Containing three fourths of sulphate of baryta.
+
+11. HAMBURGH WHITE.
+
+A mixture of two parts of heavy spar and one of the plumbous compound.
+
+12. KREMSER WHITE,
+
+Differing from the rest in being unadulterated.
+
+13. VENETIAN WHITE
+
+Composed of heavy spar and the carbonate in equal proportions.
+
+
+ZINC WHITES.
+
+14. CHINESE WHITE.
+
+The introduction, in 1834, of this peculiar preparation of oxide of zinc
+has proved an incalculable boon to water-colour painters, who formerly
+had no white which combined perfect permanency with good body in
+working. Its invention obviated the necessity for using white lead, a
+pigment which, though it may be employed with comparative safety in oil,
+is quite unfitted for water. Since the period of its production, Chinese
+white has been generally preferred by water-colour artists, as being the
+most eligible in their peculiar department. Previous to that period, the
+complaints of whites changing were of constant occurrence; but in no
+instance has any picture, in which this white has been used, suffered
+from its employment. To the colour of oxide of zinc, sulphuretted
+hydrogen is altogether harmless; sulphide of zinc being itself white.
+The variety under notice works and washes well, possesses no pasty or
+clogging properties, and is prepared beautifully white. Moreover, it has
+the desirable quality of dense body; so much so, that, as the painter
+works, his effects remain unaltered by the drying of the colour. It may
+likewise be safely mixed with all other pigments, the following blending
+very satisfactorily with the white for opaque lights--cadmium yellow,
+orange, and red; gamboge; aureolin; yellow ochre; vermilion; and light
+red. Without the artistic drawbacks of constant white or the chemical
+defects of white lead, and retaining the advantages of both, Chinese
+white cannot but be considered as a most important addition. It is a
+matter of regret that this pigment is not equally efficacious in oil.
+
+15. ZINC WHITE
+
+Is either the anhydrous oxide, the hydrate oxide, or hydrated basic
+carbonate of zinc. It varies in opacity and colour according to the mode
+of manufacture, and the purity of the compound, but may always be relied
+upon as permanent. The whiteness of the best samples rivals that of
+white lead, and it is not tarnished like the latter by sulphurous
+vapours. In opacity it never equals white lead, and might perhaps serve
+advantageously as a glaze over that pigment, either alone or compounded
+with other colours; as well as act as a medium of interposition between
+white lead and those colours which are injured by it, such as gamboge,
+crimson lake, &c. When duly and skilfully prepared the colour and body
+of this pigment are sufficient to qualify it for a general use upon the
+palette in oil: in water it has been superseded by Chinese white.
+
+Occasionally, starch, chalk, white clay, and carbonate of baryta, are
+employed as adulterants; none of which, however, are inimical to
+stability.
+
+As a pigment, zinc white may be said to be innoxious. As oxide of zinc
+does not readily form a saponaceous compound with fats or oil like white
+lead, the paint prepared with it and ordinary linseed oil does not dry
+or harden so rapidly. For the purpose of causing it to be more
+siccative, the oil was boiled with a large quantity of litharge, but by
+this method the white was liable to tarnish on meeting with foul air.
+Instead of litharge, experiments have led to the choice of salts of
+zinc, such as the chloride or sulphate, a small percentage of which, on
+being mixed with the oil or oxide, confers upon it the property of
+rapidly hardening. The same result is attained by employing an oil,
+dried by boiling with about five per cent of peroxide of manganese. In
+either case, a paint retaining its white colour permanently is produced.
+These agents might, with advantage, be more generally used in the place
+of litharge for rendering oils siccative. Many pigments which are not
+naturally affected by sulphurous emanations are apt to suffer if mixed
+with an oil made drying by means of lead.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+16. _Cadmium White._
+
+Provided the metal be freed from iron, which we have commonly found to
+be more or less present, a white of considerable beauty may be produced;
+either directly by precipitation as hydrated oxide or carbonate, or
+indirectly by exposing the brown anhydrous oxide to air and light--the
+latter mode yielding a product of greater opacity. However prepared,
+cadmium white is deficient in body, and apt to assume a yellow tint on
+meeting with an impure atmosphere.
+
+17. _Pearl White_
+
+Is an insoluble basic nitrate of bismuth, a pearly white powder of loose
+texture, turning grey on exposure, and blackened by sulphuretted
+hydrogen. It is chiefly used as a cosmetic, but is said to injure the
+skin, rendering it yellow and leather-like; and it has been known to
+cause a spasmodic trembling of the face, ending in paralysis.
+
+Another preparation under this name, and now obsolete we believe as a
+pigment, was obtained from mother-of-pearl. It is described as
+exquisitely white, and of good body in water, but of little force in oil
+or varnish.
+
+18. _Tin White_
+
+Resembles zinc white in some respects, but has less body and colour, and
+dries badly. According to its composition, it is liable to turn either
+black or a dull yellow in contact with sulphurous vapours.
+
+19. _White Chalk_
+
+Is a well-known native carbonate of lime, employed by the artist only as
+a crayon, or for tracing his designs, for which purpose it is sawed into
+suitable lengths. White crayons and tracing chalks, to be good, must
+work and cut free from grit. From this material are prepared whitening
+and lime, which form the bases of many cheap pigments and colours, used
+in distemper, paper-staining, &c.
+
+Besides those mentioned, there are other metallic whites varying in
+beauty and opacity, such as those of mercury, arsenic, and antimony; but
+none of them are of any value or reputation in painting, on account of
+their great disposition to change of colour, whether by light or foul
+air, both in water and oil.
+
+There are also other terrene whites, under equivocal names, among which
+are Morat or Modan white, Spanish white, Troys or Troy white, Rouen
+white, China white, and Satin white; the latter being a sulphate of lime
+and alumina, which dries with a glossy surface. The common oyster-shell
+contains a soft white in its thick part, and there is the white of
+egg-shells. There is, too, an endless variety of native earths, in
+addition to those prepared by art. The whole of them, however, are
+destitute of body in oil; and several, owing to their alkaline nature,
+are injurious to many colours in water, as well as to all colours which
+cannot be employed in fresco.
+
+Among the infinitude of white substances, the artist finds that there
+are but three white pigments--those of lead, zinc, and baryta. The first
+possesses the greatest opacity, while the second and third are most
+durable. The last, however, has so many objectionable qualities, that
+the number of eligible whites, may almost be said to be two--lead and
+zinc. Of these, the former is blackened by foul air, and in oil, the
+latter is wanting in body. In fact, there is but one white pigment which
+approaches perfection--Chinese white; and this is only a water-colour.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+ON THE PRIMARY, YELLOW.
+
+
+Yellow is the first of the primary or simple colours, nearest in
+relation to, and partaking most of the nature of, the neutral white; it
+is accordingly a most advancing colour, of great power in reflecting
+light. Compounded with the primary _red_, it constitutes the secondary
+_orange_, as well as its relatives, scarlet, and other warm colours.
+
+It is the archeus, or prime colour, of the tertiary _citrine_;
+characterises in like manner the endless number of semi-neutral colours
+called _brown_, and enters largely into the complex hues termed buff,
+bay, tawny, tan, dan, dun, drab, chestnut, roan, sorrel, hazel, auburn,
+isabela, fawn, feuillemort, &c. Yellow is naturally associated with red
+in transient and prismatic colours, and is the principal power with it
+in representing the effects of warmth, heat, and fire. Combined with the
+primary _blue_, yellow furnishes all the variety of the secondary
+_green_, as well as, subordinately, the tertiaries _russet_ and _olive_.
+It also enters in a very subdued degree into cool, semi-neutral, and
+broken colours, and assists in minor proportion with blue and red in the
+composition of _black_.
+
+As a pigment, yellow is a tender delicate colour, easily defiled, when
+pure, by other colours. In painting it diminishes the power of the eye
+by its action in a strong light, at the same time becoming less distinct
+as a colour; while, on the contrary, it assists vision and becomes more
+distinct as a colour in a neutral somewhat declining light. These powers
+of colours upon vision require the particular attention of the
+colourist. To remedy the ill effect arising from the eyes having dwelt
+upon a colour, they should be either passed gradually to its opposite
+colour, and refreshed amid compound or neutral tints, or washed in the
+clear light of day. Hence, in viewing large collections of pictures,
+their colours will be more duly estimated by sometimes walking to the
+window, or by taking an occasional glance at a millboard, which may be
+carried in the hand, painted a cool gray.
+
+In a warm light, yellow becomes totally lost, but is less diminished
+than all other colours, except white, by distance. The stronger tones of
+any colour subdue its fainter hues in the same proportion as opposite
+colours and contrasts exalt them. The contrasting colours of yellow are
+a purple inclining to blue when the yellow leans to orange, and a purple
+inclining to red when the yellow tends to green, in the mean
+proportions of _thirteen_ purple to _three_ yellow, measured in surface
+or intensity. Being nearest to the neutral white in the natural scale of
+colours, yellow accords with it in conjunction; while, of all colours,
+except white, it contrasts black most powerfully. Yellow is discordant
+when standing alone with orange, unsupported by other colours.
+
+On account of the paucity of fine yellows among the ancients, we find
+that in many paintings and beautiful illuminated MSS. of old, glowing
+with vermilion and ultramarine, the place of yellow was supplied by
+gilding. Now, certainly, no such scarcity exists; of the three primary
+colours, good yellows being the most numerous. It may be observed of
+yellow pigments that their colour being primary and therefore simple,
+they cannot be composed by any mixture of other colours. The same remark
+of course applies to pigments which are red or blue.
+
+20. AUREOLIN.
+
+In these days a new pigment soon finds its level, standing or falling
+according to its merits. There are too many colours already on the
+palette for a fresh comer to have much chance, unless it possess some
+great distinguishing quality, or can take a place which has never been
+occupied. Such a void aureolin fills. This "magnificent yellow
+pigment," says the _Chemical News_, "supplies a desideratum hitherto in
+vain sought for by artists. It is the nearest approach to a perfect
+yellow in existence, and more closely resembles the purity of the
+prismatic spectrum than any other artificial colour. It is transparent,
+has great brilliancy and richness, both pure and in combination, and is
+very permanent, being entirely unaffected by exposure to sulphuretted
+hydrogen and other atmospheric impurities, or to the direct rays of the
+sun during an entire summer. Aureolin, with ultramarine and madder red,
+completes the triad of brilliant, permanent, and transparent primitive
+colours." The above only tallies with the statements of several
+scientific chemists and artists of note, statements which a prolonged
+personal experience of the colour enables us to endorse. To our
+knowledge, aureolin is quite uninjured by the severest tests to which a
+pigment can be subjected. We have found it bear with impunity, even in
+its lightest and faintest tints, the foulest gas and the brightest
+sunshine. Damp has no effect upon it; and in oil, water, or fresco, it
+is equally eligible. With all other colours aureolin mixes safely and
+readily, forming combinations of the utmost variety and value. It
+affords beautiful transparent tints, well defined, and of exceeding
+purity; the paler washes being at once clear and delicate, and admitting
+the most subtle gradations of tone. The artistic properties of
+aureolin, however, will be best described by quoting the following
+extract from Mr. Aaron Penley's _English School of Painting in Water
+Colours_:--
+
+    "I have fully tested the qualifications of _Aureolin_ for the
+    Landscape Painter, and, without hesitation, pronounce it to be
+    the most valuable addition to the 'colour box' since the
+    introduction of Rose Madder. It has supplied a deficiency of a
+    very important character. Hitherto, no Primitive Yellow has been
+    quite satisfactory as to its persistence; so that the Aureolin
+    will not only be regarded by the _artist_ as a great boon in the
+    production of his works, but it must also be considered as a
+    _real_ and _lasting benefit_ to pictorial art in general. The
+    permanence and unaltered purity of its lightest and faintest
+    tints we are assured may be confidently relied upon, inasmuch as
+    they have been fully established by the most severe tests to
+    which colour can be subjected, by several of our ablest and most
+    talented chemists. It is, therefore, needless to enlarge upon
+    its merits, other than that I, for one, feel grateful for its
+    introduction. Its uses are manifold, and may be considered
+    available for every purpose requiring a Yellow of its character.
+    As to Gray--perhaps it is not possible to obtain more delicately
+    pure and transparent aërial tints than are to be produced from
+    a combination of Cobalt, Rose Madder and Aureolin; all of which
+    are of a light description and well suited for the
+    representation of soft and thin effects of the atmosphere. These
+    colours are each of them beautiful, and yield a most exquisite
+    range of tones, which, as they mix together most kindly, render
+    them desirable where purity and delicacy are sought. As to
+    Foliage.--In speaking of Aureolin as adapted for the colouring
+    of foliage and herbage, it is impossible to say too much in its
+    praise. It imparts the vividness and freshness of nature to
+    every colour with which it is combined--a quality of the highest
+    order. As a colour for drapery it has no equal, and may be
+    employed with perfect success, either by itself or with any of
+    the other pigments.
+
+    "The following table of compound tints will be found extremely
+    useful:--
+
+    Aureolin.     | Aureolin.         | Aureolin.    | Aureolin.
+    Burnt Sienna. | Vandyke Brown.    | Sepia.       | Sepia, or Rose
+    Indigo, or    | Indigo, or French |              |   Madder.
+      French Blue.|   Blue.           |              | Cobalt.
+
+    Aureolin.     | Aureolin.         | Aureolin.    | Aureolin.
+    Indigo.       | Oxide of Chromium.| Emerald      | Light Red.
+                  |                   |   Green.     | Cobalt, or
+                  |                   |              |   Indigo.
+
+    Aureolin.     | Aureolin.         | Aureolin.    | Aureolin.
+    Burnt Sienna. | Burnt Umber.      | Brown Madder.| Rose Madder.
+
+    "Aureolin, in combination with Cobalt and Sepia, or Rose Madder,
+    gives most agreeable and delicate tints for distant trees, when
+    under the influence of a soft light, or hazy state of the
+    atmosphere. Having most impartially and diligently tested the
+    qualities of the Aureolin, I can and do most conscientiously
+    recommend its adoption by all who practise water-colour
+    painting."
+
+The foregoing sufficiently proves the value of aureolin in water, and
+similar flattering notices have been given of the colour in oil. Both in
+a chemical and artistic sense, therefore, this new primitive yellow
+merits the highest regard, and justly claims a foremost place among that
+little band of pigments which are without fear and without reproach.
+
+For mural decoration, aureolin is admirably adapted, but it cannot be
+used in enamel, the colour being destroyed by great heat.
+
+
+CADMIUM YELLOWS.
+
+Of these there are three tints, _Deep_, a so-called _Pale_, and _Lemon_.
+
+21. DEEP CADMIUM.
+
+Cadmium Yellow is comparatively a recent introduction, the metal itself
+not having been discovered till 1818. The cadmium yellows of commerce
+are (the chromate excepted) all sulphides, and therefore not affected by
+impure air. Until lately, they were not manufactured in England but
+imported from abroad, and as a rule were sadly doctored. We have found
+in them a large proportion of orpiment, chromate of lead, &c., together
+with quantities of soluble salt, extracted by boiling water. Owing to
+careless preparation, there was also present an unnecessary amount of
+dirt, which interfered as much with the purity of the colour, as
+sophistication lessened its stability. For these reasons, doubtless,
+cadmium yellows got to be regarded by some with disfavour and suspicion;
+and it may fairly be said that they did not attain their present
+popularity, until they became an article of home produce.
+
+Deep cadmium yellow, if genuine, may without hesitation be declared
+permanent, both with respect to foul gas, and exposure to light or air.
+The variety under notice is of extreme depth, inclining to orange,
+glowing, lustrous, and brilliant. It is not very transparent, but
+wonderfully clear and bright, of great power, and the most richly toned
+yellow known. For draperies it is particularly adapted, and for gorgeous
+sunsets is invaluable. It works and washes well, readily throws all
+other yellows into the shade when used alone, and combines admirably
+with Chinese white for the light touches of bright clouds or mountains.
+
+By admixture with white, cadmium gives a series of beautiful clear
+tints. When compounded with white lead, however, the colour has been
+stated to be destroyed. Theoretically, this might very well happen.
+Cadmium yellow is composed of cadmium and sulphur--white lead of lead
+and carbonic acid. If the former parted with some of its sulphur to the
+latter, sulphide of lead would result, which is black. Hence, the partly
+decomposed yellow and white would be mixed with black, and there would
+be formed a blackish-yellow or a yellowish-black. Again, if the cadmium
+parted with the whole of its sulphur to the lead, receiving in exchange
+the carbonic acid of the latter, a mixture of black sulphide of lead
+with white carbonate of cadmium would be furnished, the result being a
+grey. Perhaps the following rough diagram may serve to make our meaning
+plainer:--
+
+
+  Cadmium Yellow {Cadmium.    __________ Carbonate of Cadmium (White.)
+                 {Sulphur.             /
+                           \          /
+                            \        /
+                             \      /
+                              \    /
+                               \  /
+                                \/
+                                /\
+                           ____/__\
+  White Lead {Lead.           /          Sulphide of Lead (Black.)
+             {Carbonic Acid.
+
+Such is the theory of the reaction which might take place, but which, as
+far as our own experience goes, does not. Some deep cadmium yellow which
+we ourselves prepared was intimately mixed and ground with an equal
+quantity by weight of Cremnitz white, and an oil rub of the compound
+laid upon a tile. Having placed the latter on a shelf in the laboratory,
+we watched from week to week to see if any approach to blackness
+occurred, any diminution in the beauty of the tint; but could perceive
+none. Hence, while admitting the possibility of the colour being
+damaged or destroyed in the case of an inferior and spurious article, we
+conclude that an unadulterated cadmium yellow, containing no free
+sulphur, neither injures, nor is injured by, white lead, and may safely
+be used therewith. At the same time, the artist should be warned to
+satisfy himself of the genuineness of his pigment, or otherwise to
+employ the white of zinc, at least as a medium of intervention.
+
+A good sample of cadmium yellow may rather advantageously than otherwise
+be compounded with white lead, for we have found that a mixture of equal
+parts by weight of the two will bear an atmosphere of sulphuretted
+hydrogen that completely blackens the white alone.
+
+With all the sulphides of cadmium a steel palette knife is best avoided.
+
+22. PALE CADMIUM.
+
+The cadmium yellow so-called, is not strictly pale, but pale only when
+compared with the preceding. It is, in fact, a full rich colour,
+brilliant and permanent, but without that tendency to orange which
+distinguishes the deep. For some purposes, when a warm tone is not
+required, such a tint is preferable. In water, especially, where
+delicacy of colouring can be carried to a greater degree of refinement
+than in oil, these differences of hue are important. In the first
+medium the faint washes show with a clearness which is not so apparent
+in the last, and the most subtle gradation of tone tells with a force in
+some measure lost in oil. As a consequence, the colour of the lightest
+tints in the distance must be as true as that of the deepest shades in
+the foreground, and hence the warmth or coldness of the pale washes of a
+pigment should be duly considered.
+
+Pale cadmium yellow with or without aureolin, is adapted for golden
+sunsets, and yields with French blue a beautiful sea-green.
+
+24. LEMON CADMIUM.
+
+Very pale cadmium yellows are not permanent, and lemon cadmiums are
+decidedly fugitive. Being, like the deep and 'pale' varieties,
+sulphides, they are of course unaltered by sulphurous gas; but they will
+not stand exposure to light and air, or even to light alone. Some which
+were submitted in an air-tight bottle to the action of light gradually
+whitened next the glass. Yet they were almost identical in composition
+with the deepest and most orange hues, and might have reasonably been
+presumed stable. Repeated experiments, however, both with samples of our
+own making and of others' manufacture, have shown that for a cadmium to
+be durable, it must be of a full, rich, comparatively deep yellow; and
+that any paler product than the 'pale' alluded to cannot be depended
+on. It is true that a light or lemon tint will fade quicker in water
+than in oil, but a colour which is fugitive in the one vehicle cannot be
+regarded as eligible in the other. From a somewhat long acquaintance
+with cadmiums, we have derived the opinion that their stability rests
+much on the mode of preparation, and that an amount of heat is needed
+sufficient to make the sulphur _bite into_ the base. This opinion,
+indeed, extends to all metallic sulphides, and our belief is, that if
+vermilions were made generally by wet processes, they would not be found
+the permanent pigments they undoubtedly are.
+
+25. MUTRIE YELLOW.
+
+Under this name a lemon sulphide of cadmium has lately appeared, to
+which the foregoing remarks are applicable. A water colour rub on
+exposure to air and light faded rapidly, no trace of yellow remaining in
+the pale wash. The sample which came under our notice contained a
+quantity of free sulphur.
+
+It is to be regretted that these lemon cadmiums are fugacious, so
+bright, so clear, are they, and of so pure a lemon tint can they be
+obtained. But as no beauty of colour compensates for want of durability,
+their place should be supplied by lemon yellow proper, or chromate of
+baryta.
+
+26. CHROME YELLOWS,
+
+Also called _Jaune Minérale_, _Jaune de Cologne_ or _Cologne Yellow_,
+_Pale Chrome_, and _Deep Chrome_, are chromates of lead, in which the
+latter metal more or less exists, according to the paleness or depth of
+the colour. Of modern introduction, they are distinguished for their
+brilliancy, their opacity and body, and their going cordially into tint
+with white, both in water and oil. Owing, however, to a harshness and
+hardness of tone for which they are peculiar, a coarse and disagreeable
+effect is apt to be produced by their use. In general, they do not
+accord with the modest hues of nature, nor harmonize well with the
+softer beauty of other colours. Rivalling the cadmiums in brightness,
+they are wanting in the mellow richness which belongs to the deeper
+varieties of those pigments, as well as in their permanency. Although
+they resist the sun's rays for a lengthened period, after some time they
+lose their original hue, whether employed alone or in tint, and may even
+become black in impure air. Upon several pigments they produce serious
+changes, ultimately destroying Prussian and Antwerp blues, when
+compounded therewith in the composition of greens, &c. Ranging from
+lemon to deep yellow, in oil, provided the atmosphere be good, the
+chromes may be found comparatively durable; but, on the whole, the
+artist cannot trust to them his reputation as a colourist.
+
+The chromates are often mixed with sulphate of lead, as well as with the
+sulphates of baryta and lime. The presence of the first is especially
+objectionable, as increasing the tendency of the yellows to be blackened
+by foul gas. The sulphates of baryta and lime, however, are sometimes
+formed in the process of preparation, in which case they are rather an
+advantage than otherwise; inasmuch as they not only lend a softness to
+the colour, but decrease the proportion of leaden base, and consequently
+the tendency referred to. We may remark, indeed, with respect to
+pigments, that it is difficult in many instances to say where
+manufacture ends and adulteration begins. A substance may be present
+which, although not absolutely essential to the colour itself, has been
+legitimately employed to impart a desired quality, or a certain tint.
+
+27. COLOGNE YELLOW
+
+Is a cheap inferior chrome yellow, unfit for artistic purposes, and
+consists of twenty-five parts of chromate of lead, fifteen of sulphate
+of lead, and sixty of sulphate of lime.
+
+28. JAUNE MINERALE
+
+Is prepared in Paris, and differs in no essential particular from
+ordinary chromate of lead, except in the paleness of its colour. The
+chrome yellows have also obtained other names from places or persons,
+whence they have been brought or by whom they have been made. Another
+lead yellow, not a chromate, has likewise been called jaune minérale.
+
+29. CITRON YELLOW
+
+Is chromate of zinc, a bright pale lemon-like yellow, slightly soluble
+in water. It is not affected by foul gas, but does not preserve its
+colour on exposure to light and air, or even when kept in a book. In
+contact with organic substances it is apt to turn green. Compounded,
+especially for foliage tints, this yellow is eligible; but if purity of
+hue be desired, it should certainly not be employed alone. In this
+chromate, as in many others, the affinity of the chromic acid to the
+base is small; the former is liable to separate from the latter, and, by
+deoxidation, to become converted into green oxide of chromium.
+
+30. GALLSTONE
+
+Is a deep-toned gorgeous yellow, affording richer tints than most other
+yellows, but it cannot be depended on for permanency, and therefore is
+seldom employed. Its colour is soon changed and destroyed by strong
+light, though not subject to alteration by impure air. In oil it is
+ineligible. A true gallstone is an animal calculus formed in the
+gall-bladder, chiefly of oxen; but the pigment sold under that name is
+often replaced by a substitute, resembling the original in colour, but
+of greater stability.
+
+31. GAMBOGE,
+
+Sometimes designated _Drop Gum_, and variously written _Gamboge_,
+_Camboge_, _Gamboage_, _Cambogia_, _Cambadium_, _Cambogium_,
+_Gambodium_, _Gambogium_, &c., is the produce of several kinds of trees.
+The natives of the coast of Coromandel call the tree from which it is
+principally obtained Gokathu, which grows also in Ceylon and Siam. From
+the wounded leaves and young shoots the gamboge is collected in a liquid
+state and dried. Our indigenous herb Celandine yields abundantly, in the
+same manner, a beautiful yellow juice of the same properties as gamboge.
+Gamboge is of a gum-resinous nature and clear yellow colour. It is
+bright and transparent, but not of great depth, and in its deepest
+touches shines too much and verges upon brown. When properly used, it is
+more durable than generally reputed, both in water and oil; and
+conduces, when mixed with other colours, to their stability and keeping
+their place, on account of its gum and resin. It is deepened in some
+degree by ammoniacal and impure air, and somewhat weakened, but not
+easily discoloured, by the action of light. Time effects less change on
+this colour than on other bright vegetal yellows; but white lead and
+other metalline pigments injure, while terrene and alkaline substances
+redden it. In water it works remarkably well, and forms an opaque
+emulsion without grinding or preparation, by means of its natural gum;
+but is with difficulty employed in oil, &c., in a dry condition. It
+dries well, however, in its natural state, and lasts in glazing when
+deprived of its gum. With regard to other colours it is perfectly
+innocent, and though a strong medicine, is not dangerous or deleterious
+in use. Gamboge has been employed as a yellow lake, precipitated upon an
+aluminous base; but a better way of preparing it is to form a paste of
+the colour in water, and mix it with lemon yellow, with which pigment
+being diffused it goes readily into oil or varnish. Glazed over other
+colours in water, its resin acts as a varnish which protects them; and
+under other colours its gum acts as a preparation which admits
+varnishing. It is injured by a less degree of heat than most pigments.
+
+In landscape, gamboge affords with indigo or Antwerp blue clear bright
+greens, and with sepia a very useful sober tint. For sunrise and sunset
+clouds, a mixture of gamboge and cadmium yellow will be found useful.
+
+32. EXTRACT OF GAMBOGE
+
+Is the colouring matter separated from its greenish gum and impurities
+by solution in alcohol, filtration and precipitation, by which it
+acquires a powdery texture, rendering it miscible in oil, &c., and
+capable of being employed in glazing. At the same time it is improved in
+colour, and retains its original property of working well in water with
+gum. Gamboge is likewise soluble in caustic potash, forming a red
+liquid, from which it is thrown down by acids.
+
+33. INDIAN YELLOW
+
+Is a pigment long employed in India under the name _Purree_, but has not
+many years been introduced generally into painting in Europe. It is
+imported in the form of balls of a fetid odour, and is produced from the
+urine of the camel. It appears to be a urio-phosphate of lime, and is of
+a beautiful pure yellow colour and light powdery texture; of greater
+body and depth than gamboge, but inferior in these respects to
+gallstone. Indian yellow resists the sun's rays with singular power in
+water painting; yet in ordinary light and air, or even in a book, the
+beauty of its colour is not lasting. In oil it is exceedingly fugitive,
+both alone and in tint. Owing probably to its alkaline nature, it has an
+injurious effect upon cochineal lakes and carmine when used with them.
+The colour is not damaged by foul air, and, as lime does not destroy it,
+the pigment may be employed in fresco according to its powers.
+
+Indian yellow washes and works extremely well, and is adapted for
+draperies and for compounding landscape greens--where permanency is not
+required. Blackness in the darkest shadows of the foliage will sometimes
+result from too great a use of indigo; should this evil exist, no colour
+is so fitted to regain the proper tone as Indian yellow employed
+thickly.
+
+
+LAKES.
+
+There are several pigments of this denomination, varying in colour and
+appearance according to the substances used and modes of preparation.
+Usually they are in the form of drops, and their colours are in general
+bright yellow, very transparent, and not liable to change in an impure
+atmosphere--qualities which would render them very valuable, were they
+not soon discoloured and even destroyed on exposure to air and light,
+both in water and oil. In the latter vehicle, they are bad driers, like
+most lakes, and they do not stand the action of white lead and other
+metallic pigments. If used, therefore, it should be as simple as
+possible. Of these lakes, the following are the best; but it must be
+borne in mind that, as not one of them is permanent, the compounds they
+afford are of necessity unstable.
+
+34. YELLOW LAKE
+
+Is a bright transparent yellow, a difficult drier, and liable to be
+destroyed by light. It affords beautiful foliage tints, and would, if it
+could be depended on, be of extreme value in what is called "glazing."
+
+35. ITALIAN PINK,
+
+Also called _English_ and _Dutch Pink_, is an absurd name for a stronger
+and richer kind of yellow lake, warmer in tint and more powerful than
+the preceding. It is a rich transparent yellow, yielding a variety of
+fine foliage tints by admixture with indigo and sepia in different
+proportions. These three colours with burnt sienna will produce almost
+every variety of sunny foliage. It gives likewise good olive greens with
+lamp black.
+
+36. QUERCITRON LAKE,
+
+Or _Quercitron Yellow_, is what its name implies. It is dark in
+substance, in grains of a glossy fracture, perfectly transparent, and
+when ground is of a beautiful yellow colour. In painting it follows, and
+adds richness and depth to, gamboge in water, and goes well into
+varnish; but any lead used in rendering oils siccative, browns it, and
+for the same reason it is useless in tints.
+
+37. LEMON YELLOW,
+
+Or chromate of baryta, is exceedingly difficult to make well. Upon the
+mode of manufacture depend not only the beauty of the colour but its
+stability. If properly and carefully prepared, it is of a vivid lemon
+tint, deep or pale, very clear, very pure and permanent. It also washes
+well, and is entirely free from the slightest tinge of orange. This may
+be pronounced the only chromate which possesses durability, not being
+liable to change by damp or foul air, by the action of light or the
+steel palette-knife, or by mixture with white lead and other pigments,
+either in water or oil, in both of which it works pleasantly. Lemon
+yellow is chiefly adapted to points of high light, and has a peculiarly
+happy effect when glazed over greens in both modes of painting. In water
+it exceeds gamboge in brightness, and compounded therewith improves its
+beauty. This mixture also goes readily into oil; indeed it is the best
+and easiest way of rendering gamboge diffusible as an oil colour--simple
+emulsion of the gamboge in a little water, and trituration of the lemon
+yellow therewith, being all that is requisite for the purpose.
+
+Lemon yellow has not much power, and is semi-opaque. In distance, its
+light wash is used with great effect for cool sunny greens, for which a
+minute quantity of emerald green may be added to it. Being uninjured by
+lime, the colour is eligible in fresco and crayons.
+
+38. MARS YELLOW,
+
+_Jaune de Mars_, _Jaune de Fer_, _Iron Yellow_, &c., is an artificially
+prepared iron ochre, of the nature of sienna earth. In its general
+qualities it resembles the ochres, with the same eligibilities and
+exceptions, but is more transparent, as well as purer, clearer, richer,
+and brighter. Like them it is quite permanent. The colours of iron exist
+in endless variety in nature, and are capable of the same variation by
+art, from sienna yellow, through orange and red, to a species of purple,
+brown, and black, among which are useful and valuable distinctions. They
+were formerly introduced by the author, and have been received under the
+names of Mars yellow, Mars orange, Mars red, Mars violet, and Mars
+brown. All of them are brighter and purer than native ochres, and
+equally stable. When carefully prepared, these pigments dry well in
+proportion to their depth, are marked by a subdued richness rather than
+brilliancy, and have the general habits of sienna earths and ochres.
+Their faint washes possess the desirable quality of transparent
+clearness.
+
+We have occasionally found Mars yellow mixed with orpiment, or chromate
+of lead, for the purpose of brightening the colour.
+
+39. NAPLES YELLOW
+
+Was a compound of lead and antimony, anciently prepared at Naples under
+the name of _Giallolino_, and was variously of a pleasing light, warm
+yellow tint. It was opaque and of good body, not altered by the light of
+the sun, and might be used with comparative safety in oil or varnish,
+under the same management as the whites of lead. Like these, however, it
+was liable to change even to blackness by damp and impure air when
+employed in water. Iron was also destructive of the colour of this
+yellow, on which account great care was requisite, in grinding and using
+it, not to touch it with the common steel palette knife, but to compound
+its tints with a spatula of ivory or horn. For the same reason, it was
+apt to suffer in composition with ochres, Prussian and Antwerp blues,
+and other pigments of which iron was a principal or ingredient. Used
+pure or with white lead it was eligible in oil, in which it worked and
+dried well. It was also employed in enamel painting as it vitrified
+without change. In this state it was called _Giallolino di fornace_, and
+was introduced as a pigment for artists, under the erroneous conception
+that vitrification gives permanence to colours, when in truth it only
+increases the difficulty of levigation, and injures their texture for
+working. We have spoken of Naples yellow in the past tense, because the
+pigment now sold as such is generally, or always, a compound colour, or
+manufactured with a zinc instead of a lead base. In either case the
+preceding remarks are not applicable to the present product, which is
+perfectly durable and trustworthy. The new Naples yellow presents an
+example of an old objectionable pigment being replaced by a different
+and superior preparation. However fugitive certain colours may have
+been, the fact of their once having had a place on the palette would
+seem to be sufficient recommendation to some. At any rate, they are
+still in occasional request, and we cannot but approve the pious fraud
+which offers under the same name a good substitute for a bad original.
+If an artist must needs demand a worthless pigment, he had better buy a
+colour like it that will stand, even if it be not what he asked for.
+
+The tints of Naples yellow are readily and accurately imitated by
+admixture of deep cadmium yellow and white.
+
+40. ANTIMONY YELLOW,
+
+As its name denotes, was likewise a preparation of that metal, of a
+deeper colour than Naples yellow, but similar in its properties. It was
+principally used in enamel and porcelain painting, and differed greatly
+in tint. One variety, brighter than the rest, is stated not to have
+been affected by foul air, and therefore could not have had a lead
+basis.
+
+
+OCHRES,
+
+Known as _Yellow Ochre_, _Brown Ochre_, _Roman Ochre_, _Transparent Gold
+Ochre_, _Oxford Ochre_, _Stone Ochre_, _Di Palito_, &c., are native
+earths, consisting chiefly of silica and alumina in combination with
+iron, which latter forms the principal colouring matter. They are among
+the most ancient of pigments, and their permanency is proved by the
+state of the old pictures. In a box of colours found at Pompeii, and
+analyzed by Count Chaptal, he discovered yellow ochre purified by
+washing, which had preserved its original freshness. They may all be
+produced artificially in endless variety as they exist in nature, and
+are all converted by burning into reds or reddish-browns. Several ochres
+are found in the natural state of so very fine a quality, that they
+require no other preparation than that of being washed. Their colours
+may be imitated to a certain extent by means of iron alone, uncombined
+with silica and alumina; but such ferruginous preparations are not
+equally durable, and as their chemical action is stronger, they are more
+likely to affect those pigments which are damaged by iron. It often
+happens in colours that one component of weak stability, or powerful
+for evil, is strengthened and held in check by another; thus in the case
+of the ochres, the silica and alumina by keeping a tight hand on the
+iron, both ensure its safety, and prevent it injuring others.
+
+41. YELLOW OCHRE,
+
+Called also _Mineral Yellow_, is found in most countries, and abundantly
+in our own. It differs much both in constitution and colour, ranging
+from a tolerably bright though not vivid yellow to a brown-yellow, and
+is generally of a warm cast. Its natural variety is much increased by
+artificial dressing and compounding. The best yellow ochres possess no
+great force, but as far as they go are valuable pigments, particularly
+in fresco and distemper, being neither subject to change by ordinary
+light, nor sensibly affected by impure air, or the action of lime. By
+time, however, and the direct rays of the sun, they are somewhat
+darkened. Like other ochres, they may be safely used in admixture with
+pigments which are themselves permanent. With carmine and the cochineal
+lakes, or intense blue, the ochres are best not employed.
+
+The impunity with which yellow ochre bears foul gas is one of its many
+recommendations. No immediate effect whatever is produced by
+sulphuretted hydrogen, and only a slight dirty brown tint is imparted
+by its prolonged action. This discolouration a short exposure to air and
+light quickly removes. By keeping the ochre sufficiently long in contact
+with sulphide of ammonium a jet black is obtainable, but a rub of it in
+a moist unwashed state completely regains its yellow hue in a day or so.
+Hence, yellow ochre compounded with pigments which suffer from an impure
+atmosphere doubtless acts as a preservative agent.
+
+Yellow ochre is usually employed in the distance and middle ground of a
+landscape. It possesses a slight degree of turbidness, and is esteemed
+for this property, which is considered to give it a retiring quality. By
+admixture with Antwerp blue or indigo it affords a fine range of quiet
+greens, also a very serviceable yellowish drab with Vandyke brown. The
+ochre is valuable in warm skies, the sails of ships and boats, sandstone
+rocks and cliffs, buildings, hay, sheep, &c. It does not compound kindly
+with any of the cold colours, and should therefore be used as a wash
+over others that are dry, when required to qualify their tints.
+
+42. ROMAN OCHRE
+
+Is rather deeper and more powerful than the preceding, as well as more
+transparent and cool in tint. In other respects it is similar, and forms
+with Antwerp blue and indigo a like excellent range of greens. We may
+observe, however, that as indigo is not a permanent pigment, the colours
+it yields by admixture cannot be durable as far as the blue is
+concerned. Roman ochre and brown madder are admirably adapted for red
+sails, and autumnal effects of foliage.
+
+43. BROWN OCHRE,
+
+Likewise known as _Spruce Ochre_ and _Ocre de Rue_, or, more correctly
+_Ru_, is a dense, deep-toned brownish yellow, fine in sandy foregrounds.
+With Indian yellow it gives a dark autumnal tint of great richness, but
+stable only as respects the ochre. When mixed with other colours, it
+furnishes a series of rich yet sober tones of extensive use. It covers
+well, without being too opaque; and compounded with black and a little
+brown-red is good for backgrounds, &c.
+
+44. TRANSPARENT GOLD OCHRE
+
+Resembles in a great degree Roman ochre, but is clearer in its tints,
+and more transparent. It is also brighter and much less opaque than
+yellow ochre. It approaches somewhat the character of clear bright raw
+sienna, though more pure and brilliant, serving for strong
+semi-transparent greens and sunny effects.
+
+45. OXFORD OCHRE
+
+Is a native pigment from the neighbourhood of Oxford, semi-opaque, of a
+warm yellow colour and soft argillaceous texture, absorbent of water and
+oil, in both of which it may be safely employed. It is one of the best
+of yellow ochres.
+
+46. STONE OCHRE
+
+Has been confounded with the last variety, to which, as well as to Roman
+ochre, it is frequently similar. True stone ochres are found in balls or
+globular masses of various sizes in the solid body of stones, lying near
+the surface of rocks among the quarries of Gloucestershire and
+elsewhere. These balls are smooth and compact, in general free from
+grit, and of a powdery fracture. They vary exceedingly in colour, from
+yellow to brown, murrey, and gray, but otherwise do not differ from
+ordinary ochres.
+
+In enamel they may be used for browns and dull reds.
+
+47. DI PALITO
+
+Is a light yellow ochre, with no special distinguishing quality, except
+that its tints are rather purer in colour than most ochres.
+
+48. ORIENT YELLOW
+
+Is an entirely new preparation of absolute permanence, and perfectly
+unexceptionable in all respects, both in water and oil. We can give it
+no higher praise than by saying it equals aureolin in stability, as well
+as in neither injuring, nor being injured by, other colours. Not
+possessed of the same amount of transparency, it is distinguished by
+greater richness and depth. Of a soft golden hue, lustrous and luminous,
+it resembles a brilliant and somewhat opaque Indian yellow. A gorgeous
+and durable substitute for that fugitive pigment is produced by
+compounding the orient with aureolin, or by using the latter as a glaze.
+Being more transparent than cadmiums and less obtrusive, the new yellow
+is adapted for mellow sunset and sunrise clouds, or for sunshine on
+distant mountains. With French blue it affords a beautiful sea green;
+and, mixed with aureolin, gives fine foliage tints. It is also eligible
+for draperies and illumination. For enamelling it is inadmissible, the
+colour being destroyed by great heat; but in fresco it may safely be
+employed.
+
+As in the case of aureolin, we have had a prolonged personal experience
+of this new yellow, an experience which justifies us in asserting that
+there is none more permanent. In the whole range of artistic colours
+there is no pigment less affected by chemical or physical agents. Acid
+and ammoniacal fumes, foul gases, and exposure to damp, air, light, or
+sunshine, equally fail to injure it. The perfect impunity with which it
+bears the action both of sulphuretted hydrogen and sulphide of ammonium
+is remarkable. The former gas may be continuously passed into the colour
+suspended in water, or a strong solution of the latter sulphide be
+poured upon it, and the yellow remains unchanged. Submitted to the
+direct rays of the sun during an entire summer, its lightest and
+faintest tints have preserved their original hue.
+
+In a preceding chapter we remarked that, provided the colour be stable,
+the more colour a pigment possesses the better. The "latent colour"
+there alluded to, is one of the advantages of orient yellow. The more it
+is looked into, the more colour is seen--there is no suspicion of a base
+coloured, the pigment is colour itself.
+
+49. ORPIMENT,
+
+Also called _King's Yellow_, _Chinese Yellow_, _Yellow Orpiment_, &c.,
+was known in ancient times: the Romans called it _auri pigmentum_ or
+gold colour, whence, by corruption, its present name is derived. It is
+found in the native state in China and elsewhere, the best quality being
+in masses, consisting of plates of a fine golden hue, intermixed with
+portions of a vermilion or orange-red colour; the inferior kinds are
+yellow or greenish yellow. Of orpiment, or sulphuret of arsenic, which
+is produced artificially, there are two distinct varieties; one of a
+bright pure yellow tint, in which the sulphur predominates, and one of
+an orange hue, in which the arsenic is in excess. The former is the most
+lasting, but it is not durable in water, and still less so in oil,
+although not discoloured by impure air. Compounded with white lead it is
+soon destroyed, nor can it be mixed with any colours into which lead
+enters, such as chrome yellow, the old Naples yellow, &c. The sulphur in
+combination with the arsenic, having less affinity for that metal than
+for lead, lets it go, and forms a sulphuret of lead of a dark greyish
+hue. Moreover, as orpiment is apt to deprive other pigments of their
+oxygen, and therefore to change and be changed by all pigments whose
+colour depends on that element--metallic pigments especially--it is
+probable that the orpiment after some time withdraws the oxygen from the
+lead; and this would be an additional cause for the darkening of the
+tint composed of the two colours. With sulphides or pigments containing
+sulphur, orpiment may be used with less danger. If employed at all,
+however, it had better be in a pure and unmixed state. We are far from
+recommending orpiment as an eligible colour, and it is highly
+poisonous.
+
+Brick dust and yellow ochre are sometimes found as adulterants.
+
+50. RAW SIENNA,
+
+Known likewise as _Raw Sienna Earth_, _Terra di Sienna_, &c., is a
+ferruginous native pigment, firm in substance, of a glossy fracture, and
+very absorbent. It is of rather an impure yellow colour, and much used
+in landscape, being very serviceable both in distance and foreground.
+Unless proper skill is exercised in its preparation, the sienna has the
+objection of being somewhat pasty in working. Being little liable to
+change by the action of either light, time, or impure air, it may safely
+be employed according to its powers, in oil, water, and other modes of
+practice. It possesses more body and transparency than the ochres; and
+by burning becomes deeper, orange-russet, as well as more transparent
+and drying.
+
+Raw sienna compounded with cobalt, indigo, or Prussian blue, and a very
+little bistre, yields good sea greens, that with indigo being the most
+fugitive. Alone, it is adapted for shipping, sails, baskets, decayed
+leaves, brooks and running streams.
+
+51. STRONTIAN YELLOW,
+
+To justify its name, should be a chromate of strontia, a compound very
+slightly soluble in water, and not more stable than the zinc chromate.
+The pigment, however, now sold as strontian yellow is usually formed by
+admixture, and contains no strontia whatever. Its absence cannot be
+considered a disadvantage, for the substitute possesses a durability to
+which the original could lay no claim. Other things being equal, we
+prefer an original pigment to one compounded, but a good mixture is
+decidedly better than a bad original. A light primrose, clear and
+delicate.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The foregoing comprise those yellows more generally employed, advisedly
+or not, as the case may be. The following are for the most part not
+commercially obtainable, a remark that will apply in ensuing chapters to
+all numbered colours printed in italics. As a rule, these have become
+obsolete as pigments, or have never been introduced as such. The former
+could not well be omitted in a work of this kind, and the latter deserve
+notice as being at least suggestive. At present, many of them must be
+regarded as mere curiosities, being obtainable only from materials of
+excessive rarity. In time, however, the sources whence they are derived
+may possibly be found in greater abundance, and these now fancy products
+prove of value to the palette. The new metal indium, for instance,
+furnishes a bright yellow sulphide, like that of cadmium. The colour
+could not be affected by foul air, and might possess other advantages
+which would render indium yellow a desirable pigment. With regard to
+those compounds available for artistic use, but which have not to our
+knowledge been adopted, several are quite ineligible. It may be thought
+that they are needlessly referred to, but they are mentioned as a
+warning and a guide. Strange preparations have been offered as pigments,
+and sometimes accepted, witness turbith mineral, iodine yellow, &c. In
+these days of chemistry there is less chance for them, but they are
+continually submitted to one's notice, their merits being enlarged upon
+in proportion to their worthlessness. Through an exceptional ignorance
+they may still gain a place, and it has been deemed, therefore, not
+superfluous to allude to them. At the same time we do not pretend to
+exhaust the list, any more than we claim to note all substances
+possessing colour, but yet not admissible as pigments. Some there are
+which do not retain that colour on drying; others, whose preparation
+involves processes too nice, complicated, or expensive, for
+manufacturing purposes. There are many colours, again, which exist only
+on paper. We have too often found the imaginations of chemical writers
+far more vivid than the colours they describe. Gorgeous yellows turn
+out dingy drabs; dazzling scarlets dirty reds; and brilliant blues dusky
+slates. As respects colours, most books of science need revising.
+
+52. _Arsenic Yellow_,
+
+Called also _Mineral Yellow_, has improperly been classed as an
+orpiment, from which it differs in not being a sulphide, and in
+containing lead. It is prepared from arsenic fluxed with litharge, and
+reduced to powder. It is much like orpiment in colour, dries better, and
+not being affected by lead, is less liable to change in tint. The
+presence of the litharge, however, renders it subject to be blackened by
+sulphuretted hydrogen. Of course it is poisonous.
+
+53. _Bismuth Yellow_,
+
+Or chromate of bismuth, may be obtained either as a lemon or an orange
+yellow, sparingly soluble in water. The colour is not permanent, and
+turns greenish-brown even when excluded from light and air.
+
+54. _Copper Yellow_,
+
+Or chromate of copper-potassa, is of a bright yellow tint, not insoluble
+in water. It is discoloured both by foul gas and exposure.
+
+55. _Gelbin's Yellow_,
+
+Or chromate of lime, is a pale whitish yellow, poor in colour, partly
+soluble, and not at all to be depended on.
+
+56. _Indium Yellow._
+
+Whether the new metal indium will ever be found in sufficient quantity
+to render it practically useful remains to be seen. The most abundant
+source at present known is the Freiberg blende, 100,000 parts of which
+only yield from twenty-five to forty parts of indium. The metal is
+chiefly interesting in an artistic sense on account of its sulphide, a
+fine bright yellow resembling cadmium, and best obtained by
+precipitating an acetic acid solution with sulphuretted hydrogen, or
+sulphide of ammonium. In the latter, the yellow dissolves on being
+heated, but deposits again on cooling of a rather paler tint. With one
+modification, what was said in a former edition of this Treatise
+concerning cadmium yellow may be repeated of indium yellow. "The metal
+from which it is prepared being hitherto scarce, it has not been
+employed as a pigment, and its habits are not therefore ascertained."
+All we can tell is, that the colour does not suffer from impure air.
+
+Indium is likewise distinguished by a straw-yellow oxide.
+
+57. _Iodine Yellow_,
+
+Or iodide of lead, is one of those compounds whose presence on the
+palette should never have been allowed. Exceedingly brilliant, it is
+also utterly fugitive, destroyed by exposure or foul gas, and useless in
+admixture. We may state here that, whatever its colour, no pigment
+containing iodine can in the slightest degree be relied upon. One of the
+most unstable of substances, being slowly volatile even at common
+temperatures, iodine is or ought to be quite inadmissible as a
+constituent. Combined with lead, which is in itself objectionable, it
+forms a yellow possessing every bad quality.
+
+58. _Iron Yellow_,
+
+Or oxalate of protoxide of iron, has very unadvisedly been recommended
+as a pigment. It is a bright pale yellow, but soon loses the beauty of
+its tint when submitted to air and light, becoming, by peroxidation, red
+and buffy. Even in a book the colour changes.
+
+59. _Madder Yellow._
+
+As our (the Editor's) experience of this product is somewhat at variance
+with that of the author, we subjoin his original statement. "Madder
+yellow is a preparation from the madder-root. The best is of a bright
+colour, resembling Indian yellow, but more powerful and transparent,
+though hardly equal to it in durability of hue; metallic, terrene, and
+alkaline substances acting on and reddening it as they do gamboge: even
+alone it has by time a natural tendency to become orange and foxy. We
+have produced it of various hues and tints, from an opaque and ochrous
+yellow, to a colour the most brilliant, transparent, and deep. Upon the
+whole, however, after an experience of many years, we do not consider
+them eligible pigments."
+
+While agreeing with Mr. Field as to the character given of these
+yellows, we must confess that we have never been able to obtain, nor
+have we ever seen, a "most brilliant" madder yellow. Colours bearing
+that name have come under our notice, but if their hue was pure and
+vivid, they have always proved to be falsely so called, the madder being
+conspicuous by its absence. What we have succeeded in producing, and the
+genuine samples we have met with, have been fawns, buffs, drabs, &c.,
+decidedly "ochrous" yellows, and wanting in stability. It is certain
+that no true madder yellow, brilliant and pure, ranks as a pigment at
+the present day. A variety known as Cory's Yellow Madder may be briefly
+described as Cory's _Brown_ Madder.
+
+60. _Massicot_,
+
+Or _Masticot_, is a protoxide of lead, varying from the purest and most
+tender straw colour to a dull orange yellow, and known as Light, Yellow,
+and Golden Massicot. It has in painting all the properties of white
+lead, from which it may be prepared by gentle calcination in an open
+furnace. In tint with that pigment, however, it soon loses its colour
+and returns to white, probably extracting some carbonic acid therefrom.
+If used in an unmixed state, it is permanent in oil under the same
+conditions as white lead, but should not be employed in water, on
+account of its changing even to blackness by the action of damp or
+impure air. It is an admirable dryer, and has much the same effect as
+litharge in rendering oils siccative.
+
+_Litharge_ is merely fused massicot. Old writers speak of litharge of
+silver and litharge of gold, oxides of lead, pale and reddish yellow
+respectively. Commercial litharge, especially that which is foreign,
+contains sometimes a considerable proportion of oxide of copper and
+iron. The principal impurity, however, is generally silica, left
+undissolved on treating the litharge with nitric or acetic acid.
+Litharge is commonly used in preparing drying oils, which contain a
+greater or less amount of the oxide in the form of oleate of lead. Oils
+made siccative by means of litharge are therefore liable to be damaged
+by foul gas. It is a matter of congratulation that such injury is not
+lasting, and that the oil, like white lead, recovers its original colour
+on exposure to air and light. Some drying oil which we exposed on a tile
+to an atmosphere of sulphuretted hydrogen until it was completely
+blackened, regained its former yellow hue on being submitted for a day
+or so to air and light. Hence, although the employment of lead as a
+siccative is not desirable, its effects are not so deleterious as might
+be imagined.
+
+61. _Patent Yellow_,
+
+_Turner's Yellow_, _Montpellier Yellow_, _Mineral Yellow_, _Cassel
+Yellow_, &c., is a mixture of chloride and oxide of lead, obtainable
+either as a pale or a deep yellow. It is a hard, ponderous, sparkling
+substance, of a crystalline texture and bright colour; hardly inferior,
+when ground, to chrome yellow. Of an excellent body, and working well in
+oil and water, but soon injured both by the sun's light and impure air.
+A variety, mentioned by Mérimée, in which bismuth and antimony are also
+used, is of greater durability.
+
+62. _Platinum Yellow._
+
+Our own opinion of this costly preparation is that the good qualities of
+the product do not justify its price. It may be obtained as a bright,
+rich, deep yellow, of considerable transparency; but the colour is acted
+upon by foul gas and exposure. Even in a book we have found it assume a
+dirty greyish cast, and a specimen which had been kept in a drawer,
+wrapped up in paper, became perfectly black in a few years. The presence
+of palladium interferes with the beauty of the original tint, but does
+not affect its stability.
+
+63. _Thallium Yellow._
+
+The new metal thallium yields in combination with chromic acid two
+yellow colours, a pale and an orange. They are not absolutely insoluble
+in water, and the sulphide of thallium being brown, would probably be
+damaged by impure air. But whatever their properties as pigments may be,
+their habitudes as such are not yet known. The present scarcity of the
+metal renders the colours produced from it mere scientific curiosities.
+
+64. _Thwaites' Yellow._
+
+Under this name chromate of cadmium was introduced some few years back.
+If well prepared, it is a fine soft powder of a very vivid light yellow
+colour. The compound is too soluble, however, to be of value, its
+washings even with cold water being continually tinged yellow. Hence it
+turns green after a time, and becomes otherwise discoloured. Like
+citron yellow and other chromates apt to assume a green cast, it should
+only be employed, if at all, when compounded for foliage tints, &c. This
+want of durability is to be regretted, for a good sample of cadmium
+chrome is marked by exceeding beauty, unsurpassed for clearness and
+purity by any other yellow.
+
+65. _Turbith Mineral_,
+
+Or _Queen's Yellow_, is a subsulphate of mercury, of a beautiful lemon
+yellow colour, but so liable to change by the action of light or impure
+air, that it cannot be used safely, and hardly deserves attention as a
+pigment.
+
+66. _Uranium Yellow_
+
+Can be produced of a pale or orange tint, differing in brightness and
+depth of colour according to the mode of preparation. It is fairly
+eligible as a pigment, and far superior to the many fugitive compounds
+which have from time to time appeared. Being very expensive, however,
+and not possessing the good qualities of its compeers lately introduced,
+uranium yellow has but little chance of being employed now.
+
+67. _Yellow Carmine_
+
+Is a rich transparent colour, somewhat resembling an ochre compounded
+with Indian yellow. On exposure to light, it behaves much as a mixture
+of those pigments would do, the rich _yellowness_ entirely disappearing,
+and the sober-coloured earth being left behind.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+From several metals besides those mentioned, yellows more or less vivid
+and durable may be obtained--from tin, nickel, cerium, molybdenum, &c.;
+but we do not know that any one of them would be a really desirable
+addition. To justify its being brought out, a new pigment should own
+some special advantage, chemical or artistic, by which it may be
+distinguished from other colours. No purpose would be answered by
+crowding the palette with mere repetitions, even though they were
+stable. If, for instance, indium yellow were found exactly similar to
+that of cadmium, in colour, opacity, permanence, its presence would be
+quite superfluous. The mistake is often made of offering a fresh
+compound for a pigment when something as good or better, and cheaper may
+be, already exists. We remember a patient experimenter, who had produced
+a pink from cobalt, wondering why his colour should be so generally
+declined. The product was not wanting in either beauty or stability, but
+he forgot that the lakes of madder were far more beautiful, at least as
+durable, and much less expensive. We have said that we do not join in
+the cry of there being too many pigments, or share the opinion that
+there is not room for more, but we do enforce the necessity of progress.
+Let us have as many good colours as possible, but let the new be
+superior to the old, and all be distinct from each other.
+
+As far as yellows are concerned, the palette possesses both variety and
+durability. Opaque or transparent, bright or subdued, deep or pale, it
+presents a sufficiency of permanent pigments. Most noteworthy are
+aureolin, the deep and 'pale' cadmiums, lemon yellow, Mars yellow, the
+modern Naples yellow, the ochres, orient yellow, and raw sienna. Whether
+used alone or in tint these are, if genuine, perfectly reliable, and
+comprise the list of those durable colours which may be called pigments
+of the first class.
+
+Among pigments of the second class, or the semi-stable, gamboge holds
+the foremost place, for although not strictly durable in itself, it
+conduces to the permanence of other colours. Chrome yellows, citron
+yellow, strontian yellow, and Thwaites' yellow, also belong to this
+division.
+
+As third class pigments, or the fugitive, must be ranked Mutrie yellow
+and other lemon cadmiums, the true gallstone, Indian yellow, the lakes,
+orpiment, Gelbin's yellow, massicot, patent yellow, and turbith mineral.
+
+It must not be forgotten, however, that these three classes are subject
+to modification. A durable pigment may be so adulterated as to descend
+to the second or even the third division, while a semi-stable or
+fugitive colour may be replaced by a permanent or comparatively
+permanent substitute, as in the case of strontian yellow and gallstone.
+It should likewise be remembered that pigments are apt to vary in
+stability according to the mode of their preparation; and that, as there
+are different degrees of permanence, there are different degrees of
+fugacity.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+ON THE PRIMARY, RED.
+
+
+Red is the second and intermediate of the primary colours, standing
+between _yellow_ and _blue_; and is also in like intermediate relation
+to _white_ and _black_, or light and shade. Hence red is pre-eminent
+among colours, as well as the most positive of all, forming with yellow
+the secondary _orange_ and its near relatives, scarlet, &c.; and with
+blue, the secondary _purple_ and its allies, crimson, &c. It gives some
+degree of warmth to all colours, especially to those which partake of
+yellow.
+
+Red is the archeus, or principal colour in the tertiary _russet_; enters
+subordinately into the two other tertiaries, _citrine_ and _olive_; goes
+largely into the composition of the various hues and shades of the
+semi-neutral _marrone_ or chocolate, and its relations, puce, murrey,
+morelle, mordore, pompadour, &c.; and is more or less present in
+_browns_, _grays_, and all broken colours. It is likewise the second
+power in harmonizing and contrasting other colours, as well as in
+compounding _black_ and all other neutrals, into which it enters in the
+proportion of five,--to blue, eight,--and yellow, three.
+
+Red is a colour of double power in this respect too; that, in union or
+connexion with yellow, it becomes hot and _advancing_; but mixed or
+combined with blue, cool and _retiring_. It is, however, more congenial
+with yellow than with blue, and thence partakes more of the character of
+the former in its effects of warmth, the influence of light and
+distance, and action on the eye, by which the power of vision is
+diminished on viewing this colour in a strong light. On the other hand,
+red appears to deepen in colour rapidly in a declining light as night
+comes on, or in shade. These qualities of red give it great importance,
+render it difficult of management, and require it to be generally kept
+subordinate in painting. It is therefore rarely used unbroken, as the
+ruling or predominating colour, or for toning a picture; on which
+account it will always seem detached or insulated, unless repeated and
+subordinated. Hence Nature is sparing with her red, employing it with as
+much reserve in the decoration of her works as she is profuse in
+lavishing green upon them. This latter is of all colours the most
+soothing to the eye, and the true contrasting or harmonizing equivalent
+of red, in the proportional quantity of eleven to five, according to
+surface or intensity: being, when the red inclines to scarlet or orange,
+a _blue_-green; and when it tends to crimson or purple, a
+_yellow_-green.
+
+Red breaks and diffuses with white with peculiar loveliness. It is
+discordant when standing with orange only, requiring to be joined or
+accompanied by their proper contrast, to resolve or harmonize the
+dissonance. In landscapes, &c., abounding with hues allied to green, a
+red object properly placed as regards light, shade, or distance,
+conduces wonderfully to the life, beauty, harmony, and connexion of the
+colouring. Red is, indeed, the chief element of beauty in floral nature,
+the prime ornament of the green garb of the vegetal kingdom.
+
+Being the most _positive_ of colours, and holding the middle station of
+the primaries, red contrasts and harmonizes with black and white, which
+are the _negative_ powers or neutrals of colours, and the extremes of
+the scale. Moreover, as red is less nearly allied to black or shade than
+to white or light, this harmony is most remarkable in the union or
+opposition of white and red, and this contrast most powerful in black
+and red.
+
+As a primary and simple colour, red cannot be composed by mixture of
+other colours. So much is it the instrument of beauty in nature and art
+in flesh, flowers, &c., that good pigments of this genus are most
+indispensable. On the whole, the palette cannot be considered so well
+furnished with reds as with yellows. Especially is there wanting a
+permanent transparent scarlet, a colour for which a prize of £500 has
+for many years been offered by the Society of Arts.
+
+68. CADMIUM RED.
+
+The deep, pale, and lemon yellows which cadmium at first afforded, were
+followed by an orange, which has quite recently been succeeded by a red.
+This is a most vivid orange-scarlet, the red predominating, of exceeding
+depth, and intense fire. It is a simple original pigment, containing no
+base but cadmium, and possessing a large amount of latent colour. It is
+more orange in hue than vermilion, and has the advantages of flowing and
+drying well, of greater brilliancy, of retaining that brilliancy when
+dry, and of considerable transparency. Hence this red is preferably
+employed where opacity is to be avoided--in sunset clouds for instance.
+As day declines or by artificial light, the colour approaches very
+nearly to a deep pure scarlet; and the best substitute for a permanent
+transparent scarlet which has yet been obtained is furnished by
+admixture of cadmium red with madder carmine, or by using the latter as
+a glaze. Compounded with white, the red yields a series of fine flesh
+tints; and it mixes readily and safely with other colours. Without
+harshness or rankness, neither injured by an impure atmosphere nor
+exposure to light and air, cadmium red is eligible in every department
+of art, enamel painting only excepted. In illumination, the red
+contrasted by viridian will be found most beautiful and effective.
+Seeing that previous to its introduction the number of bright reds, not
+being crimson, nor of a crimson cast, was limited to vermilions, pure
+scarlet, red chrome, and red lead, of which the first alone were
+permanent, there was room on the palette for a strictly durable and
+somewhat transparent pigment like cadmium red, with its many distinctive
+properties.
+
+
+COCHINEAL LAKES.
+
+Lake, a term derived from the _lac_ or _lacca_ of India, is the name of
+a number of transparent red and other coloured pigments of great beauty,
+prepared for the most part by precipitating coloured tinctures of dyeing
+drugs upon aluminous bases. Consequently, the lakes form a numerous
+class, both with respect to the variety of their appellations, and the
+substances whence they are produced. Those under notice are known as
+_Carmine_, _Crimson Lake_, _Scarlet Lake_, _Purple Lake_, _Chinese
+Lake_, _Florentine Lake_, _Hamburgh Lake_, _Roman Lake_, _Venetian
+Lake_, &c., and are obtained from the "coccus cacti," an insect found on
+a species of cactus, from the juice of which it extracts its
+nourishment. This coccus is a native of Mexico, where two kinds are
+recognised, under names which signify wild cochineal and fine cochineal.
+The latter may be considered a cultivated product, its food and wants
+being carefully attended to, while the former is left in a natural
+state, and is less valuable. Wild cochineal is distinguished by having a
+woolly downy coat, which is not the case with the fine cochineal. The
+females, of which there are from one hundred and fifty to two hundred
+for each male, are marked by the absence of wings, and constitute the
+commercial article. They are generally killed by immersion in boiling
+water, which causes them to swell to twice their natural size, and are
+then dried and packed for market. The insects shrivel in drying, and
+assume the form of irregular grains, fluted and concave. The best sorts
+have a silvery-grey colour, with a purplish reflection, and seem to be
+dusted with a white powder. This appearance is often given by means of
+heavy spar, carbonate of lead, Venice talc, &c. A good lens, however,
+will mostly expose the fraud; or it may be detected by macerating the
+insect in water, and allowing the loosened pulverised particles to
+settle.
+
+Cochineal is a very rich colouring substance, yielding about half its
+weight of real colouring matter, which may be easily extracted by
+boiling in water. Dr. Warren De La Rue, who examined the living animal,
+states that on piercing the side of the insect a purplish-red fluid
+exuded, containing the colouring matter in minute granules. This
+colouring matter he succeeded in obtaining pure, in the form of a
+purple-brown friable mass, pulverizable to a fine red powder,
+transparent when viewed by the microscope, and soluble both in water and
+alcohol in all proportions. At temperatures above 136° it decomposed,
+and by alkalies its colour was turned to purple. These facts account for
+the care required in drying cochineal lakes, and for their liability to
+change of hue when in contact with alkaline substances, as in mural
+decoration.
+
+The lakes of cochineal may be known from those of the dye-woods by their
+solubility in ammonia, a liquid which purples but does not dissolve the
+colours produced from the latter.
+
+69. CARMINE.
+
+A name once given only to the fine feculences of kermes and cochineal
+tinctures, now denotes generally any pigment which resembles them in
+beauty, richness of hue, and powdery texture. We have, therefore, blue
+and other coloured carmines, though the term is usually confined to the
+crimson and scarlet lakes of cochineal. As at present commonly
+understood, carmine is that preparation of cochineal which contains the
+most colouring matter and the least aluminous base. Hence it is the
+richest, deepest, most intense, and most permanent. Although not to be
+classed as durable, yet by reason of its extreme depth, carmine is more
+stable than the weaker crimson, scarlet, and purple lakes. When
+well-made, pure, and employed alone and in body, it has been known to
+retain its colour for years, especially if protected by oil or varnish.
+In tint with white lead, however, it has no stability; and though little
+affected by impure air, in glazing it is soon discoloured and destroyed
+by the action of light. Of great power in its full touches, it possesses
+considerable clearness in the pale washes, and works admirably. In
+landscape, carmine is seldom used, the colour being chiefly valued in
+flower painting and illumination.
+
+It has been erroneously stated that the finest carmines cannot be made
+in England, owing to a want of clearness in the atmosphere and a
+scarcity of sunshine. For many years, however, they have been produced
+in this country, not only finer than any foreign preparations, but
+equally good in winter as in summer.
+
+Carmine is sometimes sophisticated with starch, vermilion, and with
+alumina not formed in the process of manufacture. Occasionally also, a
+portion of the animal matter of the cochineal from which it has been
+obtained is left mixed with it. These accidental or intentional
+impurities may mostly be detected by heating the carmine with liquid
+ammonia, which entirely dissolves the colouring matter and leaves the
+impurities in an insoluble state.
+
+70. CRIMSON LAKE
+
+Is a cochineal pigment containing more aluminous base than carmine, and
+is consequently weaker in colour and less stable. Deficient in much of
+the depth and brilliancy which belong to the latter, it is more commonly
+employed and more generally useful. This lake is of service in mixing
+tints, to impart richness, in flower painting and illumination, and is,
+like all cochineal colours, of greater utility in water than in oil.
+With cobalt and gamboge it yields an excellent gray, and with cobalt
+alone a fine purple for heather. Distant hills may be strengthened with
+a tint of French blue and lake, and Vandyke brown with the crimson will
+be found admirable for a rich coloured foreground. Many other beautiful
+tints, unexceptionable in an artistic sense, are afforded by crimson
+lake on admixture. It should be remembered, however, that not one of
+them is permanent as far as the lake is concerned. All cochineal
+pigments are more or less affected by strong light, which weakens their
+tints, and in time deprives them of colour; and it is not by being
+compounded that a fugitive colour is rendered durable.
+
+71. SCARLET LAKE
+
+Is prepared in the form of drops from cochineal, and is of a fine
+transparent red colour and excellent body, though, like other lakes, it
+dries slowly. Discoloured and destroyed by strong light both in water
+and oil, and not permanent in tint with white lead or in combination
+with other pigments, it possesses the common attributes of cochineal
+lakes. Yet when well prepared, used in sufficient body, and not unduly
+exposed, it has been found to last a lengthened period; but it ought
+never to be employed in glazing, nor at all in works that aim at high
+reputation and stability. It is in general tinted with vermilion, which
+has probably been mixed with lakes at all times to give their scarlet
+hue and add to their weight; for upon examining with a powerful lens
+some fine pictures of ancient masters, in which lake had been used in
+glazing, particles of vermilion were apparent, from which lake had
+evidently flown. Unfortunately, these lakes are injured by vermilion as
+they are by lead, so that glazings of cochineal over vermilion or lead
+are particularly apt to vanish. This effect is very remarkable in
+several pictures of Cuyp, where he has introduced a figure in red from
+which the shadows have disappeared, owing to their having been formed
+with lake over vermilion. The scarlet hue of this lake should properly
+be imparted to it during the process of manufacture, and not by
+subsequent mechanical admixture.
+
+72. PURPLE LAKE
+
+Is a species of crimson lake with a purple cast, transparent and
+deep-toned, and useful in shadows: in other respects resembling that
+pigment. Red being its predominant colour, we have preferred classing
+this so-called purple among the reds, in spite of its name. On the whole
+it is more durable than crimson lake.
+
+73. FLORENTINE LAKE
+
+Differs from scarlet lake only in the mode of preparation. Formerly the
+lake so called was extracted from the shreds of scarlet cloth. The same
+may be said of _Chinese Lake_.
+
+74. HAMBURGH LAKE
+
+Is a lake of great power and depth of colour, purplish or inclining to
+crimson, which dries with extreme difficulty, but differs in no other
+essential respect from preceding cochineal lakes--an observation which
+applies to _Roman Lake_, _Venetian Lake_, and many others; none of
+which, however beautiful or reputed, is entitled to the character of
+stability either in hue, shade, or tint.
+
+75. DRAGON'S BLOOD
+
+Is a resin brought from the East Indies. It is of a warm
+semi-transparent, rather dull red colour, which is deepened by impure
+air, and darkened by light. There are two or three sorts, but that in
+drops is the best. White lead soon destroys it, and in oil it dries with
+extreme difficulty. It is sometimes used to colour varnishes and
+lackers, being soluble in oils and alcohol. Although it has been
+recommended as a pigment, dragon's blood does not merit the attention of
+the artist.
+
+76. INDIAN LAKE,
+
+Likewise called _Lac Lake_. This is obtained from the lac or lacca of
+India, a resinous secretion which seems to depend upon the puncture of a
+small insect--_coccus ficus_--made for the sake of depositing its ova on
+the branches of several plants, found in Siam, Assam, and Bengal. The
+twigs soon become encrusted with a mammelated substance of a red colour
+more or less deep, nearly transparent, hard, and having a brilliant
+conchoidal fracture. The roughly-prepared coating is imported in two
+forms, called lac-lake and lac-dye, which contain about 50 per cent of
+colouring matter, combined with more or less resin, and with earthy
+matters, consisting chiefly of carbonate and sulphate of lime and
+silica.
+
+Indian lake is rich, transparent, and deep,--less brilliant and more
+durable than the colours of cochineal, but inferior in both respects to
+those of madder. Used thickly or in strong glazing, as a shadow colour,
+it is of great body and much permanence; but in thin glazing it changes
+and flies, as it also does in tint with white lead. In the properties of
+drying, &c., it resembles other lakes. The pigment may be dispensed with
+in favour of madder lake and madder brown, whose combinations serve for
+every purpose to which it can be applied, and are stable.
+
+Lac appears to be the lake which has stood best in old pictures, and was
+probably employed by the Venetians, who had the trade of India when
+painting flourished at Venice.
+
+
+MADDER LAKES.
+
+_Rubric Lakes_, or _Field's Lakes_, are derived from the root of "rubia
+tinctorum," a plant largely grown in France and Holland, whence the bulk
+of that used in England is obtained. The French madders are in a state
+of very fine powder, containing one half their weight of gum, sugar,
+salts, and other soluble substances, which water speedily dissolves.
+Madder roots in the unground state are imported from the Levant, and
+called Turkey roots. Good qualities of Turkey madder yield near sixty
+per cent of extractive matters, a term that includes everything
+removable by water and dilute alkalis: the woody fibre is therefore
+about forty per cent. This is presuming the root to be genuine, for
+madder is often adulterated with brickdust, red ochre, red sand, clay,
+mahogany sawdust, logwood, sandal and japan-wood, and bran.
+
+Unlike cochineal, madder possesses several colouring matters; the
+question of which, despite the learned researches of Dr. Schunck and
+others, is far from settled yet. The following remarks embody our own
+experience of the root, simply as a pigment-producing product:--
+
+Madder contains five colouring matters--yellow, red, orange, purple, and
+brown. Of these, the first colour is soluble in cold water. By washing
+the powdered root quickly with it by decantation, the yellow and brown
+are extracted in the form of an opaque liquid. If this be decanted and
+allowed to stand, the brown deposits, leaving a clear buffish-yellow
+supernatant liquor. In the root from which the extract was poured, the
+remaining three colours are left. On adding a strong boiling solution of
+alum, these are dissolved, yielding a fine red liquid. From this there
+can be thrown down, by the agency of different chemicals, a red, an
+orange, or a purple precipitate. Or, supposing the whole of the
+colouring matter to be deposited as a red lake, it is possible to
+convert this--also by the agency of different chemicals--either into
+orange or purple. Hence, for all practical purposes, madder contains but
+three colouring matters: a yellow, soluble in cold water; a brown, not
+soluble in, but capable of being extracted by cold water; and a red,
+soluble in boiling alum, and furnishing at will a purple or an orange.
+
+As was observed in the previous chapter, no good pigment is obtained
+from the yellow, of which the less there is present the better; but the
+brown affords a valued product, which will be duly noticed. It is
+essential to the purity of the reds, that the madder should be freed
+from both these colours; and it was probably due to insufficient aqueous
+washing of the root, that the old lakes were dull and muddy, mere
+brick-reds of ochrous hues. For many years, however, lakes have been
+prepared perfectly transparent, and literally as beautiful and pure in
+colour as the rose; qualities in which they are unrivalled by the lakes
+and carmine of cochineal. They have justly been considered as supplying
+a desideratum, and as among the most valuable acquisitions of the
+palette in modern times, since permanent transparent red and rose
+pigments were previously unknown. The red varieties range from rich
+crimson to a delicate rose, and are known as _Madder Carmine_, _Field's
+Carmine_, _Pink Madder_, _Rose Madder_, _Madder Lake_, and _Liquid
+Rubiate_ or _Liquid Madder Lake_.
+
+77. MADDER CARMINE,
+
+Or _Field's Carmine_, like that of cochineal, is the richest and deepest
+lake prepared, containing most colouring matter and least base. It
+differs from the paler products chiefly in transparency and intensity,
+and is the only durable carmine for painting either in water or oil; for
+both which it is qualified by texture without previous grinding. In
+common with the other reds of madder, its faint washes possess greater
+clearness than those of cochineal. This carmine is a difficult colour to
+make well, exceeding care and nicety being required to obtain the
+fullest tint: hence it is apt to vary in hue according to the skill of
+the manufacturer. Being expensive also, the price increasing according
+to depth of colour, the lake has been the most liable to adulteration,
+of all the reds of madder. Mérimée states that samples were sent to him
+from Berlin, under the name of "carmine madder," which evidently owed
+their brightness to tincture of cochineal. It is certain that madder
+lakes have been imitated on the Continent with various success by those
+of lac, cochineal, and carthamus or safflower. The best we have seen is
+the _laque de garance_, which was tinged with the rouge of carthamus,
+and was of course inferior in durability. As, however, liquid ammonia
+and alkalis generally dissolve the colours of cochineal, lac, and
+safflower, the test is simple. If the liquid remain uncoloured on
+adding ammonia to an assumed madder lake, in all probability the pigment
+is genuine.
+
+78. ROSE MADDER.
+
+The exquisite flowers of Bartholomew, Miss Mutrie, and others, give
+evidence of the beauty, purity, and stability of the reds of madder,
+both in water and oil. This variety, less intense than the preceding and
+without its carmine hue, is of a rich rose colour--a true rose--tending
+neither to crimson, scarlet, nor purple. Marked by a peculiar softness,
+and an unusual clearness in its pale washes, rose madder affords the
+most perfect carnation tints known. Not liable to change by the action
+of light, impure air, or admixture with white lead and other colours, it
+resembles all madder lakes in these respects. Like them, too, it is but
+a tardy dryer in oil unless thoroughly edulcorated, and does not work in
+water with the entire fulness and facility of cochineal pigments. When,
+therefore, permanence is of no consideration, the latter may still be
+preferred. In those works, however, where the hues and tints of nature
+are to be imitated with stability and pure effect, the rose colours of
+madder are become indispensable. They have this advantage, moreover,
+that they possess the property of ultramarine of improving in hue by
+time--their tendency being to their own specific prismatic red colour.
+As they are too beautiful and require saddening for the general use of
+the painter, the addition of manganese brown, cappagh brown, or burnt
+umber, adds to their powers, and improves their drying in oils; for
+which last purpose a little japanner's gold size may be likewise
+employed.
+
+In the light touches of bright clouds or mountains, where a mixture of
+cadmium yellow and Chinese white is used, rose madder is invaluable for
+glazing over such touches when dry, should they be required of a warmer
+hue. The red portion of sunset skies may be improved by a thin wash of
+this pigment, tinged perhaps with the above yellow, or with gamboge.
+Most serviceable landscape tints are afforded by admixture of rose
+madder with cobalt, Indian red, purple madder, yellow ochre, lamp black,
+&c. In painting flesh, the lake cannot be dispensed with.
+
+79. PINK MADDER
+
+Was a weaker preparation of the preceding, paler in hue and possessing
+less colour. It was formerly employed in miniature painting, but with
+the decline of that art became less and less used, until it may now be
+said to be obsolete. The name, however, still lives, but is applied to
+rose madder, which is indeed indifferently called _Rose Madder_, _Pink
+Madder_, or _Madder Lake_. Speaking of pink roses, Mrs. Duffield remarks
+that "the local colour is best imitated with pink madder," and the
+Messrs. Rowbotham observe "this heather may be best represented by
+cobalt and madder lake." In trade catalogues several names are often
+given, as in this instance, to one and the same pigment. The seeming
+superfluity is rendered necessary through some artists knowing a pigment
+by one name and some by another. Hence arises the value of a list of
+synonyms.
+
+80. LIQUID RUBIATE,
+
+_Rose Rubiate_, or _Liquid Madder Lake_, is a concentrated tincture of
+madder of the most beautiful and perfect rose colour and transparency.
+It is used as a water colour only in its simple state, diluted with
+water, and with or without gum. In oil it dries by acting as a
+siccative. Mixed or ground with all other madder colours, with or
+without gum, it forms combinations which work freely in water, and
+produce the most charming and stable effects. The rubiate also furnishes
+a fine red ink, and is a durable stain for printing on cotton, &c. To
+the tinting of maps and charts permanently, it is peculiarly suited.
+
+81. MARS RED
+
+Or _Rouge de Mars_, is an artificial iron ochre, similar in subdued tint
+and permanence to the native earths. Its chemical affinities, however,
+are greater than those of the latter, and it therefore requires to be
+employed cautiously with pigments affected by iron. In this respect the
+red resembles its compeers, Mars yellow, Mars orange, Mars violet, and
+Mars brown, all of which are iron ochres artificially prepared.
+Possessing the richness and depth of Indian red, it is distinguished by
+the russet-orange hue of light red. Its pale washes are marked by
+considerable clearness. In keeping the Mars colours separate from the
+ochres, we have followed the plan of the author.
+
+
+OCHRES
+
+Comprise _Red Ochre_, _Indian Red_, _Light Red_, _Venetian Red_,
+_English Red_, _Persian Red_, _Prussian Red_, _Spanish Red_, _Brown
+Red_, _Indian Ochre_, _Scarlet Ochre_, _Carnagione_, _Terra Puzzoli_,
+_English Vermilion_, _Spanish Brown_, _Majolica_, _Redding_, _Ruddle_,
+_Bole_, _Almagra_, _Sil Atticum_, _Terra Sinopica_, &c. They are rather
+hues and tints than definite colours, or more properly belong to the
+tertiary, semi-neutral, and broken colours. As a rule they are native
+pigments, found in most countries, and very abundantly and fine in our
+own; but some are products of manufacture, and obtainable in the variety
+of nature by art.
+
+The colouring matter of these earths is the red oxide of iron, as that
+of the yellow ochres is the yellow oxide. All the yellow ochres are more
+or less reddened by being burnt, as yellow oxide of iron itself becomes
+red on calcination. It was observed in the fourth chapter that time has
+often the effect of fire, more or less intense; and hence it is that
+yellow ochres occasionally assume a buffish-red hue, by the gradual
+peroxidation of the iron. Similarly, if a yellow ochre be but partially
+calcined, the red so obtained is apt to deepen or darken. Especially do
+these changes take place when the iron oxides are not associated with an
+earthy base; when, in fact, the so-called ochres cannot be classed as
+such. In this case, too, as was lately remarked, the pigments are more
+chemically active, and more likely to affect those colours to which iron
+is inimical.
+
+82. RED OCHRE
+
+Is a native earth; sometimes brown ochre burnt, and called _Brown Red_.
+It is less pure in hue and clear in its tints than light red, and is
+best reserved for dark and vigorous shades and touches. For draperies of
+a dusky red it is well suited, or even for the shadows of bright-red
+drapery. In dead colouring it is very valuable. Like all ochres, it is
+characterized by permanence in water, oil, crayons, and fresco; and is,
+like most of them, available in enamel-painting.
+
+Almagra, the Sil Atticum of the ancients, is a deep red ochre found in
+Andalusia; as is also their Terra Sinopica or Armenian Bole, dug
+originally in Cappadocia, and now found in New Jersey and elsewhere
+under the name of Bloodstone.
+
+83. INDIAN RED,
+
+Once known as _Persian Red_, is brought from Bengal. It is a natural
+earth rich in peroxide of iron, of a purple russet hue and good body,
+and valued when fine for the clearness and soft lakey tone of its tints.
+In a crude state it is a coarse powder, full of extremely hard and
+brilliant particles of a dark appearance and sometimes magnetic. It is
+greatly improved by grinding and washing over, and is very permanent.
+Neither light, impure air, mixture with other colours, time, nor fire,
+effects any sensible change in it; but being opaque and not keeping its
+place well, it is unsuited for glazing. This pigment differs
+considerably in its hues, that which is most rosy being esteemed the
+best, and affording the purest tints. Inferior ochres were formerly
+substituted for Indian red, which procured it a variable character; but
+the colour being now obtained abundantly can in general be had genuine.
+It is a good drier.
+
+Mixed with Indian ink, it furnishes useful shadows; and compounded with
+cobalt or indigo, most serviceable grays. For sunsets, where deep purple
+lines are louring over the horizon's brink, a mixture of French blue
+with a little Indian red and lake is admirably adapted. In twilight and
+stormy clouds, in sails and buildings, in shade carnations of portraits
+and backgrounds, &c., the red is often employed.
+
+84. LIGHT RED
+
+Is an ochre of an orange-russet hue, chiefly valued for its tints. The
+principal yellow ochres afford this colour best, and the brighter and
+clearer the yellow ochre is from which it is prepared, the brighter will
+the red be, and the better flesh tints will it yield with white. Light
+red has the good properties common to ochres, dries capitally, and
+furnishes an excellent crayon. It is much used both in figure and
+landscape painting, giving fine grays with cobalt, and serviceable
+compounds with yellow ochre, indigo, lamp black, rose madder, Payne's
+grey, brown madder, &c.
+
+Terra Puzzoli, a volcanic production, is a species of light red, as is
+the Carnagione of the Italians.
+
+85. VENETIAN RED,
+
+Less known as _English Red_, _Prussian Red_, and _Scarlet Ochre_. True
+Venetian red, that is, the red of the Venetians, was probably brought
+from India, and similar to our modern Indian red. The Venetian red of
+the present day, however, is an artificial product, containing no earthy
+base, and therefore improperly classed among the ochres. It is prepared
+by calcining sulphate of iron, to which a little nitre may be
+advantageously added. The result is a peroxide of iron, resembling light
+red, but more powerful, and of a more scarlet hue. It is very permanent,
+but being a purely iron pigment, should be cautiously employed with
+colours affected by that metal. Though not bright, its tints are clear,
+and it mixes and works kindly with cobalt or French blue, affording fine
+pearly grays. Heightened by madder lake, it furnishes a glowing red,
+very useful in some descriptions of skies; and saddened by black, it
+gives low toned reds of good quality for buildings. With white it
+produces carnation tints nearly approaching to nature, and much employed
+by Titian, Vandyke, and others. Compounded with aureolin, Venetian red
+yields a clear orange of considerable transparency.
+
+_Spanish Red_ is an ochre differing little from the above.
+
+86. PURE SCARLET,
+
+Or _Iodine Scarlet_, is an iodide of mercury, having the body and
+opacity of vermilion, and being as much inferior to it in permanence as
+it is superior in brilliancy. Of all artistic pigments, it is at once
+the most dazzling and the most fugitive, and should have no place on the
+palette. If used, it should be with an ivory knife, as iron and most
+metals change it to colours varying from yellow to black; hence it
+should never be compounded with metallic pigments. So sensitive, indeed,
+is it to the slightest touch of metal, that it has been known to turn to
+a dull brown merely by being washed over with a colour which had been
+taken out of its saucer with a penknife. In the cake, it must be
+carefully kept wrapped up in paper, otherwise the presence of metal
+tubes or a knife in the colour-box may spoil it. By a foul atmosphere,
+the scarlet is soon utterly destroyed, and even metallized. In contact
+with the air, it quickly fades away; and has been found to vanish
+completely, when exposed to light alone. Employed in water, a thick
+glaze of gum-arabic or gamboge adds to its stability. As a landscape
+pigment, the colour is out of the general scale of nature; but in
+flower-painting its charms are almost irresistible. Nothing certainly
+can approach it as a colour for scarlet geraniums, but its beauty is
+almost as fleeting as the flowers.
+
+87. RED CHROME,
+
+Also called _Scarlet Chrome_, is a bright chromate of lead of an
+orange-red colour, the red being predominant. Rank in tone, it is liable
+to the changes of the yellow chromes, though in a less degree. The
+recent introduction of cadmium red renders the use of this unnecessary.
+
+88. RED LEAD,
+
+_Minium_, or _Saturnine Red_, is an ancient pigment, by some old writers
+confounded with cinnabar, and termed Sinoper or Synoper. It is an oxide
+of uncertain composition, prepared by subjecting massicot to the heat of
+a furnace with an expanded surface and free accession of air. Of a
+scarlet colour and fine hue, it is warmer than common vermilion, whose
+body and opacity it possesses, and with which it was once customary to
+mix it. Bright, but not so vivid as the iodide of mercury, it is more
+durable, although far less so than vermilion. When pure and alone, light
+does not affect its colour, which soon flies, however, on being mixed
+with white lead or any preparation of that metal. By impure air, red
+lead is blackened and ultimately metallized.
+
+On account of its extreme fugacity when compounded with white lead, this
+red cannot be used in tints; but employed, unmixed with other pigments,
+in simple varnish or oil not rendered drying by any metallic oxide, it
+may stand a long time under favourable circumstances. It is an excellent
+dryer in oil, and has often been used as a siccative with other colours,
+but it cannot safely be so employed except with the ochres, earths, and
+blacks in general. Oils, varnishes, and, in some measure, strong
+mucilages, are preventive of chemical action in the compounding of
+colours, by intervening and clothing the particles of pigments; and
+hence heterogeneous and injudicious tints and mixtures have sometimes
+stood well, but are not to be relied upon in practice. Altogether, red
+lead is a dangerous pigment in any but skilled hands, and has naturally
+had a variable character for permanence. It is frequently adulterated
+with earthy substances, such as brickdust, red ochre, and colcotha.
+
+
+VERMILIONS.
+
+Vermilion is so called from the Italian word _vermiglio_ (little worm,)
+given to the kermes or "coccus ilicis," which was used as a scarlet dye
+before the introduction of cochineal. It is a sulphuret of mercury,
+which previous to levigation is called Cinnabar; and is found native in
+quicksilver mines, as well as produced artificially. This is an ancient
+pigment, the [Greek: kinnabari] of the Greeks, and the _minium_--a term
+now confined to red lead--of older writers. Pliny states that it was so
+esteemed by the Romans, as to have its price fixed by express law of
+state. Among other places, the natural product is met with in
+California, Spain, and Peru; and in China there is a native cinnabar so
+pure as only to require grinding to become very perfect vermilion.
+Whether the natural possesses any advantages over the artificial,
+appears to admit of doubt: Bouvier thought that the former blackened
+more than the latter, and others coincide with him. As, however, native
+vermilion has become commercially obsolete, the question of their
+comparative permanence is of little importance. Theoretically, it is
+difficult to assign a reason why there should be any difference between
+the two.
+
+Vermilion is capable of being made by both wet and dry processes, but
+the last are almost exclusively adopted on a scale, and are, we
+believe, preferable. Our opinion, expressed with some diffidence, is,
+that pigments whose colour depends on the union of sulphur with a
+metal--such as vermilion and cadmium yellow--are more stable when the
+sulphur is forced to bite into the base. This can only be effected by a
+considerable degree of heat, far greater than can be obtained in any
+moist method. We hold that in pigments so produced, the sulphur is less
+liable to oxidation by air and light, and that therefore the colour
+better withstands exposure to those agents. Before now, vermilions have
+been taxed with fading in a strong light: supposing them genuine, it
+would be interesting to know by what mode they were manufactured.
+
+There are two kinds of vermilion in common use, European and Chinese, of
+which the first inclines to orange and the second to purple. These
+include the several varieties known as--_Vermilion_, _Deep Vermilion_,
+_Pale Vermilion_, _Scarlet Vermilion_, _Chinese Vermilion_, _Carmine
+Vermilion_, _Extract of Vermilion_, _Orange Vermilion_, and _Field's
+Orange Vermilion_.
+
+89. VERMILION,
+
+Deep or pale, when well made and pure is of strict permanence, not
+sensibly affected by light, time, or foul air; and eligible either in
+water, oil, or fresco. For an enamel colour it is unsuited, being
+dissipated at a red heat, a test that detects the presence of any
+non-volatile adulterant. The best vermilion is a powerful vivid colour,
+higher in tone than all reds, except the scarlet iodide of mercury. With
+this it should not be compounded, but with other pigments it may safely
+be used in admixture, as far as its own colour is concerned. Of great
+body, weight, and opacity, it is a somewhat slow drier; and does not
+retain that brilliancy when dry, which is peculiar to it while wet. A
+want of transparency, and not drying well, prevent its being so
+generally employed as would be desirable. Pictures should seem to be
+painted with colour, not with pigment, the material being lost amid the
+hues, tints, and shades; but with such compounds as vermilion, the art
+of concealing art becomes difficult indeed. The pigment is apt to
+predominate over the colour, and the painting to look mechanical rather
+than natural: particles are apparent where hues alone should be seen,
+and all sense of reality is destroyed. For these reasons, vermilion is a
+dangerous pigment in unskilled hands, needing an intimate acquaintance
+with its physical properties. The extreme weight or specific gravity of
+the red renders it liable to sink and separate when compounded with
+other colours; hence the heavier those mixed with it the better. Its
+almost equal opacity, too, and habit of washing up, militate against its
+use by young painters. With experience, however, and due care, this is
+a serviceable colour; yielding with white most delicate flesh tints, and
+in minute proportion with cobalt or French blue and white, tender aërial
+grays.
+
+Being cheaper than formerly, vermilion is not so much adulterated as it
+once was; although, even now, brickdust, orpiment, &c. sometimes
+sophisticate it. The knavish practices to which the pigment has been
+subjected, have acquired it an ill-fame both with authors and artists.
+Vermilion has been charged with fading in the light, and with being
+blackened by impure air; but it was the custom to crimson the colour by
+means of lake, or tone it to a scarlet hue by red lead. With pigments as
+with persons, evil communications corrupt good manners--a motto that
+might be written with advantage on every palette.
+
+90. SCARLET VERMILION
+
+Resembles the preceding in all respects, except in being more scarlet in
+its tint, and washing better; advantages which render it more useful
+when the tone is required to be very bright and pure. At one time, the
+Dutch alone in Europe possessed the secret of giving to vermilion a rich
+scarlet colour.
+
+91. CHINESE VERMILION,
+
+Or _Carmine Vermilion_, partakes of a crimson hue, and is adapted,
+mixed with white, for the rose and lilac-tints of some complexions. Like
+other vermilions, however, the colour needs much nicety of management;
+and it must not be attempted to further enrich it by admixture of
+cochineal lakes. Those colours, as we have remarked, cannot safely be
+brought into contact with vermilion, either compounded or as a glaze.
+The reds of madder should be substituted for them.
+
+92. EXTRACT OF VERMILION,
+
+A somewhat curious name for a metallic colour, was a peculiar
+preparation of the author, possessing in its time certain advantages
+over other vermilions, and especially distinguished by a more scarlet
+hue. Now, however, extract of vermilion and scarlet vermilion are
+synonymous terms.
+
+93. ORANGE VERMILION
+
+Is rather more transparent than ordinary vermilion, with a clear but not
+bright orange hue. It also washes better, and is for landscape purposes
+more generally useful. Resembling red-lead in appearance, it is not
+subject to its changes, being perfectly durable in oil and water. A most
+powerful tinger of white, its tints are warmer than red-lead's,
+affording delicate carnations similar to those of Titian and Rubens.
+This pigment--or, preferably, the succeeding variety--may be employed
+with excellent results in scumbling of flesh, for which Sir Joshua
+Reynolds improperly used the so-called red orpiment. It dries in simple
+linseed oil, but works with best effect in water with a considerable
+portion of gum. In speaking of sunset and sunrise clouds, Mr. Penley
+observes--"Orange vermilion if used so thin as to get rid of its
+opacity, is a fine tone; but it must be remembered that _transparency_
+is the character of the sunset or sunrise, and hence arises the
+difficulty of employing such opaque colour effectively." Before the
+introduction of cadmium red, this and the following pigment were the
+best and only unexceptionable orange-reds known. It is probable,
+however, that the new colour will in a great measure supersede these
+latter in cases where transparency is sought. Orange vermilion is often
+a mixture, in which case the yellow employed is apt to separate from the
+red and float on its surface.
+
+94. FIELD'S ORANGE VERMILION
+
+Is a superior preparation to the preceding, being brighter, purer, and
+clearer. It possesses also, less opacity, and is not a compound. Both
+pigments are rather reds with an orange cast than strictly orange
+colours, and are therefore inserted in this chapter.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+95. _Antimony Red_,
+
+Or Mineral Kermes. We have obtained this colour ranging from light
+orange to deep carmine, of different degrees of brightness and
+stability. Some of the tints stood well in a book, but faded on exposure
+to light and air; and some even vanished when secluded from those
+agents. It has more than once been recommended as a pigment, but our
+experience is against its adoption by artists. The colour is not
+affected by sulphuretted hydrogen.
+
+96. _Chica Red_
+
+Is extracted from the leaves of a tree growing in central and southern
+America. A sample examined by Mr. O'Neill was in small irregular lumps,
+of a bright scarlet colour, adherent to the tongue like indigo, and
+taking a metallic polish of a greenish reflection, when rubbed against a
+hard smooth body, as the finger nail. So far it seems to be only
+employed by the Indians as a paint for their bodies, mixed up with fatty
+matters. It has doubtless been used in painting: for in the old churches
+of those parts of America there is a good deal of red colour, which
+remains brilliant and sound after a couple of centuries; and from the
+appearance of it, and such accounts as can be collected, it is probably
+this chica. A portion was forwarded to an eminent artist in England, to
+ascertain whether it would be of any value as a pigment in the fine
+arts. His report is stated to have been unfavourable; and the chica,
+contained in a gourd labelled "Chica d'Andiguez," was then tested as to
+its capabilities for dyeing and printing. Fine and durable reds were
+found to be produced by it upon woollen, equal to those of cochineal. To
+mordanted calico the shades imparted were dull and heavy, but very
+solid. Chica is described as a very strong colouring matter, a small
+quantity dyeing a large amount of cloth, and as more nearly resembling
+lac lake than anything else.
+
+No information existing as to its price, or the quantity that could be
+obtained if it were wanted, chica remains in the state of an unapplied
+product. If it really possess, however, the durability assigned to it,
+this red is worth attention. With regard to the artist's disapproval,
+the chica sent him may not have been properly or sufficiently prepared
+to adapt it for a pigment.
+
+97. _Coal-Tar Colours._
+
+Our work might be considered incomplete without some allusion to the
+coal-tar colours, even though they are rather dyes than pigments, not
+possessing sufficient stability for the palette. To avoid repeated
+reference, we have preferred grouping them in this chapter, irrespective
+of hue. Consequently, yellow, red, blue, orange, green, purple, brown,
+and black, will be all comprised under the heading of coal-tar colours.
+
+Previous to the year 1856 the colouring matters derived from coal-tar
+were practically unknown. Until then, that black evil-smelling substance
+was looked upon as almost worthless; but gradually the unsightly grub
+emerged into a beautiful butterfly, clothed first in mauve and next in
+magenta. After its long winter of neglect, there sprung from coal-tar
+the most vivid and varied hues, like flowers from the earth at spring.
+At a touch of the fairy wand of science, the waste land became a garden
+of tropic tints, and colour succeeded colour, until the whole gamut had
+been gone through. Never was transformation more dazzling or more
+complete. The once despised refuse was now a valued commercial
+product--indeed a trade in itself. Perfectly fascinated by the study,
+chemists threw themselves heart and soul into coal-tar, and coal-tar
+colours were to be seen everywhere.
+
+It were beside our purpose to enter into the various stages through
+which coal has to pass to become colour. Enough to state that to the
+introduction of gas-light we are indebted for the acquisition of
+coal-tar colours, the starting point for the production of mauve,
+magenta, &c., being the manufacture of coal-gas. From the destructive
+distillation of coal, coal-tar oil results; and from this are obtained
+the products which yield the colours in question. Among these products
+may be mentioned aniline, rosaniline, napthaline, chinoline, carbolic
+acid, picric acid, &c., with their derivatives.
+
+Of the fifty-one compounds furnished by the distillation of coal,
+perhaps the most popularly associated with coal-tar colours is aniline,
+to which we will therefore confine ourselves. Discovered in 1826, this
+body was formerly prepared from indigo--in Spanish, _anil_, whence the
+name; but is now produced on a larger scale from benzol, a coal-tar
+product. As the source of mauve and magenta, aniline must be considered
+the parent of coal-tar colours generally. Little was known of it at one
+time except that on being mixed with a solution of chloride of lime
+there was formed a splendid purple liquid, which immediately gave place
+to a dingy reddish precipitate. From the investigation of this simple
+fact, however, by Mr. W. Perkin, there was created a new and important
+branch of chemical industry--the manufacture of coal-tar colours. The
+violet mauve led the way, followed by the red magenta, the blue azuline,
+the yellow phosphine, the green emeraldine, the orange aurine, by
+purple, and brown, and black. Such were the hues, with many intermediate
+tints and shades, which one reaction brought forth. The world rubbed its
+eyes with astonishment; and truly it seemed almost as wonderful to
+produce the colours of the rainbow from a lump of coal, as to extract
+sunshine from cucumbers.
+
+The history of these colours reads more like a romance than a sober
+story, but to the artist it is of slight practical interest.
+Sufficiently stable as dyes, though they be, coal-tar colours are not
+adapted to the palette. Mauve, magenta, with a few others, hare been
+introduced as pigments and fairly tried, but a want of permanence has
+been fatal to their success. Mauve is more durable than magenta, and the
+rest vary in stability, but none of them have proved really fitted for
+artists' colours. Exposed to light and air, they all more or less fade,
+especially in thin washes; and they have mostly the objection of
+staining and permeating the paper or canvas on which they are employed.
+Used in body, some may be found eligible in portfolio illuminations and
+the like, where the brilliancy of their colours shows to advantage; but
+in landscapes and pictures of life, coal-tar pigments are best avoided.
+
+Cakes of red, blue, violet, and other hues, may be prepared for
+painting, by combining the colours with a mixture of starch and alumina,
+or with soap and alumina in a moist state--thus: 150 parts of white curd
+soap, dissolved in 1000 parts of hot water, are mixed with an alcoholic
+or a methylated spirit solution of six parts of the crystallized or
+solid coal-tar colour. To this are added 250 parts by weight of washed
+gelatinous alumina. The whole is then well stirred, collected on a
+filter, drained, and dried. Several hues, tints, and shades may be
+obtained by compounding: for instance, an orange is produced on
+admixture of picric yellow with aniline red, or a green by adding the
+same yellow to aniline blue.
+
+98. _Cobalt Reds._
+
+There are obtainable from cobalt by different processes rose and red
+colours of more or less beauty and intensity, but all vastly inferior to
+those of madder, in whose absence alone they could gain a place on the
+palette. Durable as a rule, they are in general characterized by a fatal
+chalkiness, and poorness of hue. More expensive than the madder colours,
+and without their purity, delicacy, depth, or transparency, cobalt reds
+have often been offered as pigments, and as often declined. A colour may
+be good in itself, but if there is something better and at the same time
+cheaper, its introduction into commerce is out of the question.
+
+99. _Copper Reds._
+
+A somewhat finely coloured red oxide is produced by exposing to a white
+heat for twenty minutes, a mixture of certain proportions of blue
+vitriol, mono-carbonate of soda, and copper filings. The product,
+however, is affected by impure air, and is otherwise not so desirable as
+an iron oxide.
+
+An interesting account has lately been given by Professor Church of a
+new animal pigment, containing copper, found in the feathers of the
+violet plantain-eater and two species of Turacus, natives respectively
+of the Gold Coast, the Cape, and Natal. _Turacine_, the name proposed
+for it, is noticed here only because it is the first animal or vegetable
+pigment, with copper as an essential element, which has been hitherto
+isolated. The colour is extracted by solution in an alkali, and
+precipitation by an acid, and is changed on long exposure to air and
+moisture to a green hue. As the entire plumage of a bird yields not more
+than three grains of pigment, turacine must be looked upon as a mere
+curiosity.
+
+100. _Ferrate of Baryta_,
+
+Produced by adding aqueous ferrate of potash to an excess of dilute
+solutions of baryta salts, has been described as carmine-coloured and
+permanent. We have not found it to be so--an experience which has
+evidently not been confined to ourselves; and we cannot help thinking
+that this is one of those errors which get copied from one chemical work
+into another, to the special confusion of students. It is but fair,
+however, to add that in Mr. Watts' Dictionary of Chemistry, the latest
+and best work of the kind, this ferrate is said to become "brick-red
+after washing and drying at 100° C.," and to be only "tolerably stable."
+
+101. _Gold Reds._
+
+Many organic substances added to gold solutions throw down either the
+metallic gold or the red oxide, which then unites with the organic
+compound more or less decomposed and forms a red precipitate. Sugar,
+gum, the decoctions of cochineal, gamboge, fustic, turmeric, sumach,
+catechu, and Brazil wood, all afford red pulverulent colours. Boiled
+with sugar, gold solution gives first a light and then a dark red.
+Whatever their merits, the excessive costliness of these preparations
+renders them inadmissible as pigments. At one time, indeed, a gold
+compound known as purple of Cassius was so employed, but this soon
+became obsolete on the introduction of madder purple.
+
+102. _Iodine Pink._
+
+There may be obtained from iodine and mercury a very pretty pink colour,
+analogous in composition to pure scarlet. It is apt to pass into the
+scarlet modification, and is in other respects even less to be depended
+on than that variety.
+
+103. _Kermes Lake_
+
+Is an ancient pigment, perhaps the earliest of the European lakes, and
+so called from the Arabic Alkermes. It is sometimes spelt _cermes_,
+whence probably cermosin and crimson, and kermine and carmine. In old
+books it is named vermilion, in allusion to the insect, or _vermes_,
+from which it is prepared. This insect is the "coccus ilicis," which
+feeds upon the leaves of the prickly oak in the south of Europe. Like
+the "coccus cacti," it is covered with a whitish dust, and yields a
+tinctorial matter soluble in water and alcohol. Kermes and the lac of
+India doubtless afforded the lakes of the Venetians, and appear to have
+been used by the earliest painters in oil of the school of Van Eyck. The
+former, under the appellation [Greek: kurno kokino], is said to be
+employed by the modern Greeks for dyeing their caps red.
+
+Some old specimens of this pigment which the author obtained were in
+drops of a powdery texture and crimson colour, warmer than cochineal
+lakes, and having less body and brilliancy. They worked well, however,
+and withstood the action of light better than the latter, though the sun
+ultimately discoloured and destroyed them. In other respects, they
+resembled the lakes of cochineal. As a colouring matter, kermes is only
+about one-twelfth part as powerful as that substance.
+
+104. _Lawson's Red._
+
+In 1861 it was stated that Professor Lawson had prepared a new dye of
+great richness, in the laboratory of Queen's College, Canada, from an
+insect, a species of coccus, found the previous summer for the first
+time on a tree of the common black spruce (_Abies nigra_), in the
+neighbourhood of Kingston. Having been but recently observed, a
+sufficient quantity had not been obtained for a complete series of
+experiments as to its nature and uses; but the habits of the insect, as
+well as the properties of the dye, seemed to indicate that it might
+become of practical importance. In colour it closely resembled ordinary
+cochineal, but was rather more scarlet in hue. It was described as
+capable of being produced in temperate countries. The colouring matter
+had not then been thrown upon a base, nor do we know that it has since
+been introduced as a pigment. If it possessed greater stability than
+cochineal, with equal brilliancy and depth, this dye might form one of
+those colours of the future, to whose possible sources we would direct
+attention.
+
+105. _Manganese Red._
+
+Bisulphide of arsenic combines with basic metallic sulphides forming a
+class of sulphur-salts, called by Berzelius, hyposulpharsenites. The
+hyposulpharsenite of manganese is a dark red precipitate, uninjured by
+sulphuretted hydrogen, and so far applicable as a pigment. Containing
+arsenic, it would of course be poisonous; and would probably be found to
+fade on exposure to air and light.
+
+106. _Murexide._
+
+The red obtained from this substance created a great deal of interest
+among printers and dyers on its introduction in 1857, or thereabouts.
+For purity and brilliancy of shade it was not excelled by any other
+colour, but not being able to stand the effects of air and light, its
+employment was limited. We are not aware that murexide has yet been
+brought forward as a pigment, and judging from its character as a dye,
+it would scarcely enrich the palette. Dyes and pigments have much in
+common, and a fugitive dye cannot be expected to furnish a permanent
+pigment.
+
+Murexide is produced by the action of ammonia on alloxan, which is
+itself derived from the uric acid of guano by treatment with nitric
+acid, and was known nearly forty years back to stain the fingers and
+nails red. The first murexide sent into the market was a reddish-purple
+powder, dissolving in water with a fine purple tint, leaving a little
+residue undissolved. Owing to improvements in manufacture, it is now
+capable of being prepared almost chemically pure, and with that green
+metallic reflection peculiar to several coal-tar salts and the wings of
+certain insects. When sulphuretted hydrogen is passed through a
+concentrated solution of murexide, it is immediately decoloured; a fact
+which renders it likely that murexide pigments would be as liable to
+suffer from an impure atmosphere, as from exposure to light and air.
+
+When an alkaline solution of murexide is precipitated by an acid, a
+light shining powder results, called purpuric acid. This dissolves in
+alkalies, and combines with metalline bases to form various coloured
+compounds, termed _Purpurates_. Among them may be mentioned a red
+purpurate of lead, a purple-red and a rose-coloured purpurate of
+mercury, a purple-red purpurate of silver, a dark red-brown purpurate of
+strontia, a crystalline red purpurate of cobalt, a scarlet purpurate of
+platinum, a yellow purpurate of zinc, and a green purpurate of baryta.
+All of these, however, being more or less soluble in water, and owing
+their colours to murexide, would be ill adapted for pigments.
+
+107. _Paille de Mil,_
+
+Or African Cochineal, is a substance obtained from Africa. Whether it
+has received its name of cochineal from its appearance or origin is not
+clear, but it behaves more like galls and sumac than cochineal, though
+it does give a kind of red with alumina mordants. The colours it yields
+are deficient in brightness, and it has otherwise been reported
+unfavourably of.
+
+108. _Peganum Harmala,_
+
+The seeds of which afford a red colour, has been investigated by the
+French, but described as inferior to existing reds both in brilliancy
+and stability.
+
+109. _Persulphomolybdates._
+
+The metallic compounds formed by the combination of persulphomolybdic
+acid with a base are pulverulent, in many cases of a red colour, and for
+the most part insoluble in water. With barium, the acid furnishes a
+yellowish-red powder, insoluble in, but made denser by water, which
+imparts to it a cinnabar colour. With calcium it is said to yield a
+scarlet, sparingly soluble in water. With chromium, uranium, lead,
+platinum, and copper, it gives a dark red; that from the last metal
+turning brown when collected on a filter. It likewise produces reds with
+zinc, cadmium, iron, mercury, and tin; of which the last is slightly
+soluble in water.
+
+Molybdenum being a rare metal, and persulphomolybdate of potash, the
+salt used in the foregoing reactions, difficult to prepare, it is
+unlikely that the colours named will rank among the pigments of this
+generation. Nevertheless, as we have observed before, such fancy
+products should not be altogether ignored, it being quite as well to
+have some knowledge of our resources, even though those resources be not
+at present available. All the rare metals afford coloured compounds:
+tantalum, niobium, pelopium, vanadium, tellurium, titanium, yttrium,
+lanthanum, didymium, glucinum, cerium, thorinum, zirconium, palladium,
+rhodium, iridium, ruthenium, osmium, indium, thallium, &c.; and it is
+just possible that some of these may one day scrape acquaintance with
+the palette.
+
+110. _Red Chalk_,
+
+The colouring matter of which is sesquioxide of iron, is used as a
+crayon. Some specimens are excessively hard, so much so that they are
+difficult to crush, even in an iron mortar; while others have the
+consistence of the softest iron-ochres. They vary too in tint from a
+fawn colour to the softest brick-red, occasionally being almost as
+bright as a mixture of equal weights of vermilion and Venetian red. The
+amount of iron oxide present has been found to range from four to
+thirty-seven per cent, according to the depth and hardness of the
+samples. When a specimen of red chalk tolerably rich, but not too rich,
+in iron oxide is finely powdered and strongly ignited, it offers a
+remarkable change of colour, becoming a dull sage-green. Perhaps this,
+if it were permanent, might prove useful in foliage tints.
+
+111. _Red Precipitate_,
+
+Or mercuric oxide, may be obtained either of a brick-red or
+orange-yellow colour. It is destroyed by impure air, and on exposure to
+sunshine gradually turns black, being superficially decomposed into
+oxygen and metallic mercury or mercurous oxide.
+
+112. _Rose Pink_
+
+Is a coarse kind of lake, produced by dyeing chalk or whitening with
+decoction of Brazil wood, peachwood, sapan, bar, camwood, &c. It is a
+pigment much used by paper-stainers, and in the commonest distemper
+painting, &c., but is too perishable to merit the attention of the
+artist.
+
+Chevreul obtained a crystalline substance from Brazil wood, which he
+looked upon as the pure colouring matter, or as containing the pure
+colouring matter, and which gave red and crimson precipitates with many
+salts. Possibly some of these might prove more durable than the roughly
+made rose pink.
+
+113. _Rouge_,
+
+The rouge végétale of the French, is a species of carmine, prepared
+from safflower or carthamus, which is the flower of a plant growing in
+the north of Africa, India, and other warm climates. Safflower yields
+two colours--a valueless yellow which dissolves in cold water, and about
+five per cent of red, insoluble in water but dissolved by alkalies. The
+red, or carthamin, furnishes a pigment of exquisite beauty, marked by
+richness, transparency, and free working. Its extreme fugacity, however,
+militates against its employment by artists. As a dye, its manner of
+fixing upon fibre is different from that of any other colouring matter;
+requiring no mordant, like madder or cochineal, and needing no solution,
+like indigo or anotta, but fixing at once as soon as the cloth is
+brought into contact with it. But even for a dye the colour is fugitive,
+fading after a few hours' exposure to sunshine, and sometimes being
+quite bleached in the course of a day. It is when combined with
+levigated talc to form the paint of the toilette that the red becomes
+most serviceable. Possessing a peculiar softness and velvety glow, rouge
+is an unrivalled--and a most harmless--aid to beauty.
+
+_Chinese Rouge_ and _Pink Saucers_ have much of the qualities of, and
+appear to be also prepared from, the safflower.
+
+114. _Rufigallic Red._
+
+When a duly proportioned mixture of gallic acid and oil of vitriol is
+carefully and gradually heated to 140°, a viscid wine-red liquid
+results. If this be poured into cold water, after cooling, a heavy
+brown-red granular precipitate is formed, soluble in 3333 parts of
+boiling water. It dissolves in potash-ley, and to fabrics impregnated
+with alum or iron mordants, imparts the same shades of colour as madder;
+the colours so produced withstanding soap but not chlorine.
+
+Whether brilliant lakes could be obtained from the potash solution of
+the red, and whether those reds would be stable, it might be worth while
+to ascertain.
+
+115. _Sandal Red._
+
+We have kept this separate from other reds derived from woods, because
+it is said (by Professor H. Dussance) to be obtainable not only equal in
+beauty and brightness to carmine, but of greater permanence. The process
+of preparation is as follows:--The powdered root exhausted by alcohol
+gives a solution to which hydrated oxide of lead is added in excess. The
+combination of colouring matter and lead oxide is then collected on a
+filter, washed with alcohol, dried, dissolved in acetic acid, and mixed
+with a quantity of water. The red being insoluble therein is
+precipitated, while the acetate of lead remains dissolved. After being
+washed, the colour is dried at a low temperature. The Professor affirms
+that the red so produced is unaffected by sulphuretted hydrogen, or by
+light and air; and it is stated that the colour which was used to paint
+the carriages of the Emperor Napoleon, remained as bright at the end of
+nine years as when it was put on. Possessing such properties, it is
+curious that the red has never been--in this country at
+least--introduced as an artistic pigment, the more especially as
+seventeen years have elapsed since its discovery.
+
+116. _Silver Red._
+
+By adding monochromate of potash to an acid solution of nitrate of
+silver, a particularly fine ochre-red is obtained. It is, however, apt
+to be injured both by foul air and exposure.
+
+117. _Sorgho Red._
+
+Some nine years back there was found to be a carmine colouring matter in
+most parts of the Chinese sorgho, chiefly in the unpressed stem. The
+red, which is extracted in an impure state, is dissolved in weak
+potash-ley, thrown down by sulphuric acid, and washed with water. This
+purified product, soluble in alcohol, caustic alkalies, and dilute
+acids, has been employed in Austria, Baden, &c., for the dyeing of silks
+and woollens with the common tin mordants. The colours produced from it
+are unchanged, they say, by warm soapsuds or light. We do not know
+whether the red found its way to England, but it has certainly not
+appeared here as a pigment.
+
+118. _Thallium Red._
+
+The orange-yellow precipitate formed by mixing a neutral salt of
+protoxide of thallium with bichromate of potash, is converted by nitric
+acid into an orange-red. The latter compound, which is a terchromate, is
+almost insoluble in cold water, 2814 parts being required to dissolve
+it. If the colour be boiled in a large excess of moderately strong
+nitric acid it is dissolved, yielding magnificent cinnabar red crystals
+on the solution cooling. These crystals likewise seem to be the
+terchromate.
+
+119. _Tin Pink._
+
+By igniting strongly for some hours a mixture of stannic oxide, chalk,
+chromate of potash, and a little silica and alumina, a dingy red mass is
+obtained, which acquires a beautiful rose-red colour on being washed
+with water containing hydrochloric acid. For the same reason that the
+pinks of cobalt are superfluous as artistic pigments, this tin product
+is commercially ineligible. Having, however, the advantage of being
+cheap, and being probably durable, it would be well adapted for the
+common purposes of painting, in place of the fugitive rose pink.
+
+120. _Ultramarine Red?_
+
+In Gmelin's Handbook of Chemistry it is remarked that "Hydrogen gas
+passed over ignited ultramarine, colours it light red, from formation of
+liver of sulphur, hydrosulphuric acid gas and water being evolved at the
+same time." On most carefully making the experiment with a sample of
+native blue (the variety referred to) we did not succeed in effecting
+this change: no alteration to red or even to purple took place, the only
+result being that the colour was entirely spoilt, having assumed a
+leaden slate-gray hue. At our request, the trial was kindly repeated by
+well-known chemists, who took every precaution to ensure success.
+Several specimens of ultramarine were acted upon, but in no case was a
+red or anything like a red obtained, the products ranging from a
+slate-gray to a drab-grey. Sufficient hydrosulphuric acid gas was
+evolved to blacken paper moistened with acetate of lead, a fact which
+proved that the blue had lost some of its sulphur. Seeing that not only
+no red was produced, but that no tendency to red was imparted, is it
+possible the change described by Gmelin occurred under exceptional
+circumstances? All conversant with chemical matters will admit that
+results are obtained occasionally which cannot be repeated, owing it may
+be to some slight difference in the materials employed, or some slight
+variation of the process. Perhaps a link, considered of no importance
+at the time and overlooked, has been lost, and thus the whole chain of
+proceeding becomes useless. It is, therefore, within the bounds of
+probability that the red ultramarine of the great German chemist was
+furnished either by a peculiar specimen of blue, or by a modified form
+of the method he gives. We have noticed the subject at some length
+because if a red ultramarine, brilliant and durable, could be obtained,
+the colour might prove of value. A permanent artificial compound
+corresponding to French blue would certainly be an acquisition.
+
+121. _Uranium Red._
+
+By treating the yellow sulphite of uranium with a prolonged current of
+sulphuretted hydrogen, and saturating gradually with ammonia, a red
+finally results. This colour is insoluble in water, and it has the
+objection of remaining partially suspended for an almost indefinite
+time, colouring the liquid light red. The product is brighter and more
+beautiful while moist; when dried and powdered, its tone--slightly
+approaching vermilion--is duller. The colour may be obtained of several
+degrees of brilliancy, but, apart from the question of expense, it would
+be inadmissible in oil, the red gradually altering by contact therewith.
+The most persistent tint at length resembles burnt Sienna.
+
+122. _Wongshy Red._
+
+There was imported a few years ago from Batavia a new colouring
+principle, under the name of _wongshy_, and consisting of the
+seed-capsule of a species of gentian. The aqueous extract, freed from
+the pectin which it contains, yields with baryta- and lime-water yellow
+precipitates, from which acids separate the colouring matter of a
+vermilion hue. When thus prepared it is insoluble in water, and would so
+far be adapted for a pigment. The red has not, however, been employed as
+such, and we are unacquainted with its habitudes.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The concluding remarks appended to the chapter on yellow apply equally
+to red, and indeed to all other colours. It is not assumed that the list
+is exhausted: there are other reds, but they are, like some we have
+mentioned, ineligible as pigments, either by reason of their fugacity,
+their costliness, the difficulty of producing them on a scale, or the
+sources whence they are derived being commercially unavailable. While
+endeavouring throughout the work to render complete the collection of
+pigments actually in use, it is our object to give a selection only of
+numbered italicised colours; ample enough, however, to include those
+which have become obsolete or nearly so, and full enough to afford some
+insight into our resources. The nearer we approach perfection, the more
+eager we are to arrive at it: the path before us, therefore, cannot fail
+to be of interest.
+
+Looking back, and noting those pigments commonly employed, we find that
+the reds like the yellows are divisible into three classes--the good,
+bad, and indifferent; or the permanent, the semi-stable, and the
+fugitive.
+
+Among permanent reds, rank cadmium red, madder reds, Mars red, the
+ochres, and vermilions.
+
+In the second or semi-stable class, must be placed cochineal lakes,
+Indian lake, and red chrome.
+
+To the third division, or the fugitive, belong dragon's blood, pure
+scarlet, red lead, and the coal-tar reds.
+
+With regard to the foregoing classification, it must be borne in mind
+that the properties and effects of pigments are much influenced by
+adventitious circumstances. Sometimes pigments are varied or altogether
+changed by the grounds on which they are employed, the vehicles in which
+they are used, the siccatives and colours with which they are mixed, and
+the varnishes by which they are covered. And as there is no exact and
+constant agreement in different specimens of like pigments, so there is
+no exact and constant result in their use. Artists vary as much as the
+pigments they employ: some resemble the old masters in the delicacy with
+which they treat their colours, the cleanliness with which they surround
+them, and the care with which they compound them: in the hands of such
+artists pigments have every chance. Some, however, are characterized by
+a careless manipulation, a dirty mode of working, an utter disregard for
+all rules of admixture: with such painters the best colours may be
+ruined. And here, indeed, it may be asked, whether these latter are not
+more properly termed painters than artists, chiefly belonging as they do
+to that slap-dash school which manufactures pictures simply to sell
+them. Duly subordinated, the commercial side of art has a value which it
+were affectation to ignore; but to paint merely for the present,
+heedless of the future, is to sink art to the level of a trade, not the
+most honest. For it is the purchaser who suffers from the want of
+thought bestowed on the materials, the sloppy manipulation, the careless
+compounding; sins of omission and commission that cause him, on finding
+his picture becoming chaos, to join the detractors of modern pigments.
+In classifying colours therefore, those also should be classified who
+use them:--into artists, whose love for art would render it more lasting
+than themselves; and into painters, whose motto is _Vita brevis est, Ars
+quoque_.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+ON THE PRIMARY, BLUE.
+
+
+The third and last of the primary or simple colours is _blue_, which
+bears the same relation to shade as yellow to light. Hence it is the
+most retiring and diffusive of all colours, except purple and black; and
+all colours have the power of throwing it back in painting, to a greater
+or less extent, in proportion to the intimacy of their relations to
+light--first white, then yellow, orange, red, &c.
+
+Blue alone possesses entirely the quality technically called 'coldness'
+in colouring, and it communicates this property variously to all other
+colours with which it happens to be compounded. Most powerful in a
+strong light, it seems to become neutral and pale in a declining light,
+owing to its ruling affinity with black or shade, and its power of
+absorbing light. Consequently, the eye of the artist is liable to be
+deceived when painting with blue in too low a light, or toward the close
+of day, to the endangering of the warmth and harmony of his picture.
+Entering into combination with yellow in the composition of all
+_greens_, and with red in all _purples_, blue characterizes the tertiary
+_olive_, and is also the prime colour or archeus of the neutral _black_,
+&c., as well as of the semi-neutral _gray_, &c.: it therefore is changed
+in hue less than any other colour by mixture with black, as it is
+likewise by distance. Blue is present subordinately in all tertiary and
+broken colours, and being nearest in the scale to black, breaks and
+contrasts powerfully and agreeably with white, as in pale blues, skies,
+&c. Being less active than the other primaries in reflecting light, it
+is sooner lost as a local colour by assimilation with distance. There is
+an ancient doctrine that the azure of the sky is a compound of light and
+darkness, and some have argued hence that blue is not a primary colour,
+but a mixture of black and white; but pure or _neutral_ black and white
+compound in infinite shades, all of which are neutral also, or _grey_.
+It is true that a mixture of black and white is of a _cool_ hue, because
+black is not a primary colour, but a compound of the three primary
+colours in which blue predominates, a predominance which is rendered
+more sensible when black is diluted with white. As to the colour of the
+sky, in which light and shade are combined, that is likewise neutral,
+and never blue except by contrast; thus, the more the light of the sun
+partakes of a golden or orange hue, and the more parched and burnt the
+earth is, the bluer appears the sky, as in Italy and all hot countries.
+In England, where the sun is cooler, and a perpetual verdure reigns,
+infusing blue latently into the landscape, the sky is warmer and nearer
+to neutrality, partaking of a diversity of greys, which beautifully
+melodize with blue as their key, and harmonize with the light and
+landscape. Therefore the colour of the sky is always a contrast to the
+direct and reflected light of the scene: if this light were of a rose
+colour, the neutral of the sky would be converted into green, or if
+purple, the sky would become yellow. Similarly would it be in all cases,
+according to the laws of chromatic equivalence and contrast, as may be
+often seen in the openings of coloured clouds at the rising and setting
+of the sun.
+
+In art, blue is apt to be discordant in juxtaposition with green, and
+less so with purple, both which are cool colours; consequently blue
+requires its contrast, _orange_, in equal proportion whether of surface
+or intensity, to compensate or resolve its dissonances and correct its
+coldness. In nature, however, blue is not discordant with either green
+or purple, nor are any two colours (as we have said before) ever found
+so. On the palette of nature each _colour_ is an example of _colouring_:
+no colour is too absolute or defined, no perfectly pure blue appears
+beside a perfectly pure green. A blue flower nestled in its green leaves
+does not offend the nicest eye, but the blue and green are not blue and
+green alone. There is, perhaps, but a single gleam of pure colour in
+each: the rest is composed of such varied hues and tints and shades, so
+broken and blended and beautifully harmonized, that no jarring discord
+is possible. Hue melts into hue, tint into tint, shade into shade; and
+thus does the simplest weed teach a lesson in colouring the proudest
+painter may stoop to learn.
+
+We have spoken of blue, which is termed a cold colour, as retiring; and
+of yellow and red, which are called warm colours, as advancing. By this
+we must not be understood to mean that blue, as blue, expresses
+distance; or that yellow and red, as yellow and red, express nearness.
+Colours are advancing or retiring in their _quality_--as depth,
+delicacy, &c., not in their hue. A blue object set side-by-side a yellow
+one will not look an inch farther off, but a red or orange cloud, in the
+upper sky, will always seem to be beyond a blue cloud close to us, as it
+is in reality. We grant that in certain objects, blue is a _sign_ of
+distance, but that is not because blue, as a mere colour, is retiring;
+but because the mist in the air is blue, and therefore any warm colour
+which has not strength of light enough to pierce the mist is lost or
+subdued in its blue. Blue in itself, however, is no more, on this
+account, retiring, than brown is retiring, because when stones are seen
+through brown water, the deeper they lie, the browner they appear.
+Neither blue nor yellow nor red possesses, as such, the smallest power
+of expressing either nearness or distance; they merely express
+themselves under the peculiar circumstances which render them at the
+moment, or in that place, signs of nearness or distance. Thus, purple in
+a violet is a sign of nearness, because the closer it is looked at the
+more purple is seen; but purple in a mountain is a sign of distance,
+because a mountain close at hand is not purple, but green or grey. It
+may, indeed, be generally assumed that a tender or pale colour will more
+or less denote distance, and a powerful or dark colour nearness; but
+even this is not always so. Heathery hills will usually give a pale and
+tender purple near, and an intense or dark purple far away: the rose
+colour of sunset on snow is pale on the snow at one's feet, but deep and
+full on the snow in the distance; and the green of a Swiss lake is pale
+in the clear waves on the beach, but intense as an emerald in the
+sunstreak, six miles from shore. And in any case, when the foreground is
+in strong light, with much water about it or white surface, casting
+intense reflections, all its colours may be perfectly delicate, pale,
+and faint; while the distance, when it is in shadow, may relieve the
+whole foreground with deepest shades of purple, blue green, or
+ultramarine blue.
+
+There is one law, however, about distance, which has some claims to be
+considered constant, namely, that dulness and heaviness of colour are
+more or less indicative of nearness. All distant colour is pure colour:
+it may not be bright, but it is clear and lovely, not opaque nor soiled;
+for the air and light coming between us and any earthy or imperfect
+colour, purify or harmonize it; hence a bad colourist is peculiarly
+incapable of expressing distance. It is not of course meant that bad
+colours are to be used in the foreground by way of making it come
+forward; but only that a failure in colour there will not put it out of
+its place. A failure in colour in the distance will at once do away with
+its remoteness; a dull-coloured foreground will still be a foreground,
+though coloured badly; but an ill-painted distance will not be merely a
+dull distance, it will be no distance at all.
+
+This seeming digression is not out of place, as it will enable the
+artist better to understand that it is in their quality, not in their
+hue, that colours are advancing or retiring; and that he must rely on
+the depth, delicacy, &c., of his pigments, and not simply on their
+colours, to produce effects of distance.
+
+Of all colours, except black, blue contrasts white most powerfully. In
+all harmonious combinations of colours, whether of mixture or
+neighbourhood, blue is the natural, prime, or predominating power.
+Accordingly, blue is universally agreeable to the eye in due relation to
+the composition, and may more frequently be repeated therein, pure or
+unbroken, than either of the other primaries; whence the employment of
+ultramarine by some masters throughout the colouring of a picture.
+
+Blue pigments, like blue flowers, are more rare than those of the other
+primary colours. In permanent blues the palette is very deficient, the
+list being exhausted when the native and artificial ultramarines and the
+cobalts have been mentioned. That there is room for new blues, durable
+and distinct, cannot therefore be denied. A good addition has been made
+of late years in the German _Coëlin_, known here as Cerulian Blue and
+Coeruleum. What is chiefly wanted, however, is a colour combining the
+wonderful depth, richness, and transparency of Prussian blue with the
+strict stability of ultramarine. A permanent Prussian blue would be the
+most valued gift the palette could receive.
+
+
+COBALT BLUES
+
+comprise _Cerulian Blue_ or _Coeruleum_, _Cobalt Blue_, _Smalt_,
+_Royal Blue_, _Dumont's Blue_, _Saxon Blue_, _Thénard's Blue_,
+_Leithner's Blue_, _Hungary Blue_, _Dutch Ultramarine_, _Zaffre or
+Enamel Blue_, _Vienna Blue_, _Paris Blue_, _Azure_, &c., and are
+obtained by the action of heat on mixtures of earthy or metallic bases
+with cobalt. They are divisible into three classes--the stannic cerulian
+blue, the aluminous cobalt blues, and the siliceous smalts. Of these,
+the first possesses the least depth; the second hold a middle position;
+while the third are marked by exceeding richness. Although not to be
+ranked with ultramarine, the stannic and aluminous blues may be
+described as durable, or at least as durable rather than semi-stable.
+There are, as we have before observed, different degrees of permanence,
+and the blues in question are not readily affected. With regard to
+smalts, they are, as artist's pigments, inferior in stability to other
+blues of cobalt.
+
+123. CERULIAN BLUE,
+
+or _Coeruleum_. Under the name Coëlin there has of late years been
+imported from Germany the cobalt blue with a tin base to which reference
+has just been made. This comparatively new pigment--which likewise
+contains or is mixed with gypsum, silica, and sometimes magnesia--has
+the distinctive property of appearing a pure blue by artificial light,
+tending neither to green on the one hand nor to purple on the other.
+This advantage, added to its permanence, has conferred a popularity upon
+coeruleum which its mere colour would scarcely have gained for it. A
+light and pleasing blue, with a greenish-grey cast by day, it possesses
+little depth or richness, and is far excelled in beauty by a good
+aluminous cobalt. A certain chalkiness, moreover, somewhat detracts from
+its transparency, and militates against its use in water. It is in oil,
+and as a night colour, that coeruleum becomes of service, as our
+present system of lighting picture galleries by gas affects the purity
+of blues generally. If those galleries were illuminated by means of the
+electric light, we have it on the authority of Chevreul that all colours
+and shades would show as well as by day: the same purpose would be
+answered by the magnesium light. Some artificial lights are the ruin of
+colours; in the soda flame (alcohol and salt) for instance, yellow
+chromate of lead appears white, while red ochre and aniline blue appear
+black.
+
+Like other blues of cobalt, coeruleum assumes a greenish obscurity in
+time, but like them it resists for a lengthened period both the action
+of light and impure air, although chemically it is more open to the
+influence of the latter, owing to its tin base. In admixture it may
+safely be employed, as well as in fresco or enamel. For stage skies,
+&c., in high-art scenery, the blue is admirably adapted. Now that there
+are so many scene-painters who are artists--and so many artists who are
+scene-painters--in bringing Nature to the foot-lights the effect of gas
+on colours is of importance.
+
+124. COBALT BLUE,
+
+to which the various appellations have been given of _Thénard's Blue_,
+_Vienna Blue_, _Paris Blue_, _Azure_, _Cobalt-Ultramarine_, &c., is the
+name now exclusively confined to that preparation of cobalt which has a
+base of alumina. It may, therefore, be not improperly called a blue
+lake, the colour of which is brought up by fire, in the manner of enamel
+blues. The discovery of this important pigment was made in 1802 by M.
+Thénard, who obtained it by calcining a well-combined mixture of alumina
+and crystals of cobalt. There may be employed with the aluminous base,
+either the arseniate, the borate, or the phosphate of cobalt; but the
+latter in preference, as it produces the purest colour. The arseniate
+has always a violet tinge, more visible by gas-light than by day; while,
+on account of the arsenic, the blue is more apt to be greened by impure
+air, by reason of the formation of yellow sulphide of arsenic. The
+purity of the colour, however, does not altogether depend on the
+compound of cobalt used; in a great measure--as with other pigments--it
+rests on the purity of the materials. To obtain a perfect blue, neither
+inclining to purple nor green, the cobalt and alumina should be freed
+from iron, and the former, as much as possible, from nickel also. With
+the absence of these and proper skill, a true and brilliant blue may be
+produced, almost rivalling the finest ultramarine. Apart, too, from its
+increased beauty, a cobalt blue containing no iron or nickel is of
+greater permanence than the ordinary products, being less liable to that
+greenness and obscurity which time confers.
+
+Though not possessing the body, transparency, and depth of ultramarine,
+nor its natural and modest hue, commercial cobalt blue works better in
+water than that pigment in general does; and is hence an acquisition to
+those who have not the management of the latter. Resisting the action of
+strong light and acids, its beauty declines by time, while impure air
+greens and ultimately blackens it. Nevertheless, these changes are not
+readily effected, especially in well made samples full of colour, and
+sometimes the green tone is mechanically imparted. What wheat is to a
+loaf, colour is to a pigment--it has to be ground and made up for use;
+in the one vehicle to be mixed with gums, in the other with oils. It
+often happens that colours have an antipathy to the latter, and refuse
+to compound kindly therewith. Occasionally this repugnance manifests
+itself in a few days, occasionally not for months. We know of a green
+which flatly declines to have anything to do with oils, sinking and
+separating therefrom in the course of a week, and leaving the clear oil
+on the top. Repeatedly have colours to be coaxed to behave themselves as
+pigments, coaxed not to 'run,' to work well, to dry well, &c.; and in
+the humouring of their likes and dislikes the skill and patience of the
+artist-colourman are sometimes severely taxed. Given a colour, it might
+puzzle most chemists to convert it into a pigment; luckily Commerce
+lends her aid. Lasting success, it is true, does not always follow, and
+oils will rise to the surface now and then, giving green hues to blues,
+orange hues to reds, and buff hues to yellows. Hence changes of colour
+have been imputed before now to chemical alteration, when in reality the
+results have been physical, caused by the subsidence of the pigments,
+and the floating of the vehicles employed.
+
+Cobalt blue dries well in oil, does not injure or suffer injury from
+pigments in general, and may be used with a proper flux in enamel, as
+well as in fresco. It affords clear bright tints in skies and distances,
+but is apt to cause opacity if brought too near the foreground, and to
+assume a violet tinge by artificial light. With madder brown it yields a
+range of fine pearly neutrals; and with light red, in any proportion,
+gives beautiful cloud tints. In combination with aureolin and sepia, or
+rose madder, cobalt furnishes most agreeable and delicate tints for
+distant trees, when under the influence of a soft light, or hazy state
+of the atmosphere. In water-colour painting, cobalt is tolerably firm on
+paper, and consequently answers better for some purposes than French
+blue. In middle distances, if the cobalt possess a tendency to
+chalkiness, the addition of a little indigo is a good corrective,
+especially where the blue tone is required to be sombre and dark: it
+should, however, be observed that the change is but temporary, indigo
+being a fugitive pigment. In marine painting in water-colours, cobalt is
+most useful for the remotest parts of seas and headlands. When dry, it
+can be changed by going over it with a slight wash of vermilion or light
+red, whereby a prismatic character is realized. Any strength of tone can
+be obtained by repeating the washes, and should the colour be too
+powerful, it may be reduced by pouncing it with a soft wet sponge; or if
+too cold and blue, by a thin wash of burnt Sienna, merely the water
+stained.
+
+The blues of cobalt, on whatever base they may be prepared, are
+distinguished from native and artificial ultramarines by not being
+decolorised by acids.
+
+125. SMALT,
+
+Invented about the year 1540, in Saxony, is a vitreous compound of
+cobalt and silica, in fact a blue glass. Since the fifteenth century,
+cobalt has been used in different parts of Europe to tinge glass; and
+so intense is the colouring power of its oxide, that pure white glass is
+rendered sensibly blue by the addition of one thousandth part, while one
+twenty-thousandth part communicates a perceptible azure tint. In common
+with cobalt blue, the name _Azure_ has sometimes been given to it.
+Varying exceedingly in quality and colour, the rougher kinds have been
+employed by the laundress, and in the making of porcelain, pottery,
+stained glass, encaustic tiles, &c.; as well as to cover the yellow
+tinge of paper. For this last purpose, however, smalt is not perfectly
+adapted, the colour being difficult to lay on uniformly, and the paper
+when written on blunting the nibs of pens. Hence it has been superseded
+to a great extent by artificial ultramarine, the presence of which may
+be detected by the yellow spot which a drop of acid leaves on the paper.
+
+A coarse gritty texture is peculiar to smalt, whether it be the _Powder
+Blue_ of the washtub and _Blue Sand_ of the pottery, or the _Dumont's_
+and _Royal Blue_ of the artist and high-class manufacturer. But the
+strict stability which is a feature in smalt when used for painting on
+glass and enamel does not follow it to the studio: both in water and oil
+its beauty soon decays, as is often the case with other vitrified
+pigments; nor is it in other respects eligible, being, notwithstanding
+its richness and depth, very inferior to the cobalts preceding. It may
+seem a paradox that the same colour should be at once so durable and so
+fugitive, but we may briefly explain it by saying _when vitreous
+pigments are reduced to that extreme state of division which the palette
+requires, they lose the properties they possess in a less finely divided
+state_. The best smalt in lumps appears black, yields a blue powder on
+grinding, becomes paler on further grinding, and may be almost
+decolourised by continued and excessive grinding. Smalt, it has been
+stated, is merely a blue glass; and when a piece of blue glass, or a
+blue crystal of sulphate of copper, is reduced to the fineness of flour,
+the blue is lost. In vitrified and crystallised compounds, colour
+depends on cohesion: sufficiently separate the particles, and the colour
+more or less disappears. Not only, moreover, does grinding effect an
+optical change in vitreous pigments, but it imposes further alteration.
+That colour which was safe when locked up in a mass, crushed to minute
+atoms is no longer so: imbedded in glass or enamel it will endure for
+ages, but ground to impalpable powder becomes as liable to influence as
+though it had never been subjected to heat at all. To sum up, vitreous
+pigments are durable in a coarse or compact form, but are not more
+stable than others when reduced to extreme division. As far as regards
+artists' colours, therefore, vitrification does _not_ impart
+permanence.
+
+The grittiness to which we have referred is one of the defects of smalt,
+which cannot, consistently with preserving its colour be entirely freed
+from that drawback--an objection which pertains to vitreous pigments in
+general. Hence it does not wash well, and in mural decoration is
+sometimes applied to work by strewing the dry powdered colour upon a
+flat ground of white or blue oil paint immediately after the latter is
+laid on, whilst it yet remains wet. Of little body, it is a vivid and
+gorgeous blue; bright, deep, and transparent, bordering on the violet
+hue. It is chiefly employed in illumination and flower painting. The
+inferior kinds of smalt are occasionally adulterated with chalk.
+
+126. CYANINE.
+
+Beckmann is fully convinced that the _cyanus_ of Theophrastus and the
+_coeruleum_ of Pliny were a blue copper earth. However that may be, in
+these days both names signify cobalt compounds, coeruleum being a
+stannate of cobalt, and cyanine a mixture of cobalt and Prussian blue.
+Unlike the former, cyanine, being composed of two old colours, can lay
+no claim to originality. In the fourth chapter it was observed, "it is
+quite possible for the artist to multiply his pigments unnecessarily.
+Colours are sometimes brought out under new names which have no claim to
+be regarded as new colours, being, indeed, mere mixtures. Compound
+pigments like these may most frequently be dispensed with, in favour of
+hues and tints composed extemporaneously of original colours upon the
+palette." Whether these remarks are applicable to cyanine or not is a
+question for artists to decide: in our opinion, with so many semi-stable
+original pigments, the introduction of semi-stable compounds is to be
+deprecated. Cyanine is a rich, deep, transparent blue, but its richness
+and depth, as well as to a great extent its transparency, depend upon
+Prussian blue, which is not strictly stable. Hence the peculiar
+properties of cyanine remain unchanged only so long as the Prussian blue
+itself, the pigment losing its colour by degrees on exposure to air and
+light, and gradually assuming the tint of the paler but more permanent
+cobalt. A mixture, be it remembered, necessarily partakes of the
+qualities of its constituents, and if one of these be fugitive, the
+compound cannot preserve its original hue.
+
+Within the last few years, a compound similar to cyanine has appeared,
+under the name of _Leitch's Blue_.
+
+127. INDIGO,
+
+or _Indian Blue_, was known to the ancients under the name of _Indicum_,
+whence its present appellation. In modern Europe, it first came into
+extensive use in Italy; but about the middle of the sixteenth century,
+the Dutch began to import and employ it in considerable quantity.
+Present in the woad plant, which is a native of Great Britain, indigo is
+chiefly derived from a genus of leguminous plants called _Indigofera_,
+found in India, Africa, and America. The colouring matter of these is
+wholly in the cellular tissue of the leaves, as a secretion or juice;
+not, however, in the blue state in which one is accustomed to see
+indigo, but as a colourless substance, which continues white only so
+long as the tissue of the leaf remains perfect: when this is by any
+means destroyed, oxygen is absorbed from the atmosphere, and the
+principle becomes blue. The best indigo is so light as to swim upon
+water, but the commercial article seldom contains more than 50 per cent.
+of blue colouring matter or true indigo, the remainder consisting of
+either accidental or intentional impurities.
+
+In painting, indigo is not nearly so bright as Prussian blue, but it is
+extremely powerful and transparent, and may be described as a Prussian
+blue in mourning. Of great body, it glazes and works well both in water
+and oil. Its relative permanence as a dye has obtained it a false
+character of extreme durability as a pigment, a quality in which it is
+nevertheless very inferior even to Prussian blue. By impure air it is
+injured, and in glazing some specimens are firmer than others, but not
+durable; while in tint with white lead they are all fugitive. Employed
+in considerable body in shadow, it is more permanent, but in all
+respects Prussian blue is superior.
+
+Despite this want of stability, indigo is a favourite colour with many
+artists, who sacrifice by its use future permanence to present effect.
+It is so serviceable a pigment for so many purposes, especially in
+admixture, that its sin of fugacity is overlooked. Hence we find indigo
+constantly mentioned in works on painting, their authors forgetting or
+not caring to remember that wholesome axiom, a fugitive colour is not
+rendered durable by being compounded. Artistically, it is adapted for
+moonlights, and when mixed with a little lamp black, is well suited for
+night clouds, distant cliffs, &c. With a little raw umber and madder it
+is used for water in night effects. With the addition of a little madder
+it forms a good gray; and with madder and burnt Sienna is useful for
+dark rocks, this combination, with raw Sienna, being also eligible for
+boats. For these and other mixed tints, however, Prussian blue saddened
+by black with a suspicion of green in it, is equally fitted, and is more
+permanent. Indeed, it would be perhaps justifiable to introduce such a
+compound, under the name say, of Factitious Indigo.
+
+Indigo in dust, or in small bits, is often adulterated with sand,
+pulverized slate, and other earthy substances. That indigo is best which
+is lightest, brightest, most copper-coloured, most fine-grained, and
+inodorous.
+
+128. INTENSE BLUE
+
+is indigo refined by solution and precipitation. By this process, indigo
+becomes more durable, and, being separated from impurities, is rendered
+much more powerful, transparent, and deep. It washes and works admirably
+in water; in other respects it possesses the common properties of
+indigo. It is apt, however, to penetrate the paper on which it is
+employed, if not well freed by washing from the acid and saline matter
+used in its preparation. This is not always easily effected, and we
+cannot help thinking that in the manufacture of intense blue a dry
+method would be preferable. Indigo may, by cautious management, be
+volatilized, and therefore be most thoroughly purified without the aid
+of acids and alkalies. The best mode of subliming this substance is to
+mix one part of indigo with two parts of plaster of Paris, make the
+whole into a paste with water, spread it upon an iron plate, and, when
+quite dry, heat it by a spirit lamp. The volatilization of the indigo
+is aided by the vapour of water disengaged from the gypsum, and the
+surface of the mass becomes covered with beautiful crystals of pure
+indigo, which may be readily removed by a thin spatula. At a higher
+temperature, charring and decomposition take place.
+
+129. PRUSSIAN BLUE,
+
+otherwise called _Berlin Blue_, _Paris Blue_, _Prussiate of Iron_,
+_Ferrocyanide of Iron_, &c., was accidentally discovered in 1710 by
+Diesbach, a colour-maker at Berlin. It is a compound of iron and
+cyanogen, of varying composition, formed by adding yellow prussiate of
+potash to a persalt of iron, or by oxidizing the precipitate obtained
+from the prussiate and a protosalt. The finest blue is furnished by
+sesquinitrate of iron, but the salt almost exclusively employed is the
+protosulphate, the freedom of which from copper is essential to the
+colour of the blue. As is the case with other pigments, Prussian blue
+differs considerably in colour, in depth, and in permanence, according
+to the purity of the materials, the mode of manufacture, and the absence
+of adulterants. Like smalt, it is known in the washtub as well as in the
+studio; and in the cheaper varieties, alumina, starch, chalk, oxide of
+iron, &c., are often largely present. A good unsophisticated sample in
+the dry state is intense blue, almost black, hard and brittle, much
+resembling in appearance the best indigo, and having a similar
+copper-red fracture. It does not effervesce with acids, as when
+adulterated with chalk; nor become pasty with boiling water, as when
+sophisticated with starch. Further, it feels light in the hand, adheres
+to the tongue, is inodorous, tasteless, not poisonous, and is insoluble
+in water. Forming a bulky mass while moist, Prussian blue shrinks to a
+comparatively small compass when well washed and dried by gentle heat;
+and, when once dried, being difficult to reduce again to the state of
+extreme division which it possessed while wet, it is frequently sold and
+used in paste for common purposes. We have said that a good sample of
+Prussian blue is insoluble in water, and for artistic use it should
+certainly be so, as otherwise it has a tendency to stain the fabric on
+which it is employed, a defect formerly very prevalent. All Prussian
+blues, however, are not insoluble, and these are not only liable to the
+drawback named, but are less to be depended on for permanence. Improper
+proportions, for instance, of sesquichloride of iron and
+potash-ferrocyanide will yield a blue which, when washed even with cold
+water, continually imparts to it a yellow or green colour, through the
+partial solution of the prussiate. All commercial Prussian blue, and
+indeed that which is prepared by careful chemical processes, give up the
+ferrocyanide to boiling water, thereby colouring it greenish yellow; but
+a sample which parts with its prussiate to _cold_ water is quite
+unfitted for the palette, for which the most perfect specimen is none
+too stable.
+
+In spite of the learned researches of Professor Williamson, whose name
+is as closely connected with the pigment as are the names of Schunck and
+De La Rue with madder and cochineal, Prussian blue is not yet entirely
+understood. Complex and uncertain in composition, uncertain too in its
+habitudes, our best course perhaps will be not to attempt a complete
+survey, but to state briefly those facts which bear on the artist's
+craft.
+
+Prussian blue is a colour of vast body and wonderful transparency, with
+a soft velvety richness, and of such intense depth as to appear black in
+its deepest washes. Notwithstanding it lasts a long time under
+favourable circumstances, its tints fade by the action of strong light;
+becoming white, according to Chevreul, in the direct rays of the sun,
+but regaining its blue colour in the dark; hence that subdued light
+which is favourable to all colours is particularly so to this blue. Its
+colour has the singular property of fluctuating, or of coming and going,
+under certain conditions; and which it owes to the action and reaction
+by which it acquires or relinquishes oxygen alternately. It also becomes
+greenish sometimes by a development of the oxide of iron; and is
+purpled, darkened, or otherwise discoloured by damp or impure air. Time
+has a neutralizing tendency upon its colour, which forms tints of much
+beauty with white lead, though they are not equal either in purity,
+brilliancy, or permanence to those of cobalt and ultramarine. When
+carefully heated, Prussian blue gives off water and assumes a pale green
+hue; its colour, therefore, depending on the presence of water, must not
+be exposed to a high temperature. And as it is likewise injured or
+destroyed by alkalis, which decompose it into oxide of iron and a
+soluble prussiate, the blue should be avoided in fresco, on account of
+the lime; neither should it be employed with pigments of an alkaline
+nature, nor with hard water containing bicarbonate of lime in solution,
+but with clean rain or distilled water, either of which is preferable
+for colours generally.
+
+Prussian blue dries and glazes well in oil, but its great and principal
+use is in painting deep blues, in which its body helps to secure its
+permanence, and its transparency gives force to its depth. It is also
+valuable in compounding deep purples with lake, and is a powerful
+neutralizer and component of black, to the intensity of which it adds
+considerably. Prussian blue borders slightly on green, a quality which
+militates against its use in skies and distances. In spite, however, of
+its want of, or deficiency in, durability, the old water-colour painters
+so employed it, neutralized by the addition of a little crimson lake. It
+is serviceable in mixed tints of greens, affording with light red a
+sea-green neutral. Dissolved in oxalic acid, the blue is available as an
+ink, or for tinting maps.
+
+Besides the preceding, there is a _Basic Prussian Blue_, formed by
+simply submitting to the air the bluish-white precipitate which falls on
+adding yellow prussiate of potash to green vitriol. This compound
+dissolves entirely by continued washing with water, yielding a beautiful
+deep blue solution, from which the colour may be thrown down in a solid
+form by the addition of any salt. Probably it was this basic
+preparation, so cheaply and easily made, that conferred upon Prussian
+blue the character of staining paper. In name, there is also another
+variety of this pigment, known as _Native Prussian Blue_; which is
+really a native phosphate of iron, occurring as a blue earthy powder, or
+as a white powder that becomes blue by exposure.
+
+130. ANTWERP BLUE,
+
+_Haerlem Blue_, _Berlin Blue_, _Mineral Blue_, is a lighter and
+somewhat brighter Prussian blue, with less depth and less permanence. It
+is a species of lake, having a considerable proportion of aluminous
+base, to which its paler tint is due. As the stability of Prussian blue
+rests in a great measure on the marvellous amount of latent colour the
+pigment contains, when its particles of colour are set farther apart by
+the intervention of the alumina, the permanence of its hue is
+endangered. It was remarked, with respect to vitrified pigments, that
+colour depends on cohesion. More or less, this holds good as regards all
+pigments; but not only, as was also observed, does colour rest on
+cohesion, in many instances durability depends likewise. It is only when
+a colour is stable in itself that its particles will bear separating:
+native ultramarine, for example, may be weakened almost to white, and
+will still preserve its hue. If, however, a colour be naturally
+fugitive, and rely chiefly on its extreme depth for what permanence it
+possesses, that colour cannot with impunity be paled: witness the
+cochineal lakes, which the deeper they are, the more durable they are
+found; and so it is with Prussian blue. Antwerp blue is distinguished
+from the latter by its more earthy fracture.
+
+131. TURNBULL'S BLUE,
+
+Or _Ferricyanide of Iron_, is formed by adding the red prussiate of
+potash to a protosalt of iron. This blue is lighter and more delicate
+than ordinary Prussian blue, and is believed to resist the action of
+alkalies longer. It is a question whether the common Prussian blue
+obtained by oxidizing the precipitate yielded by green vitriol and the
+yellow prussiate is not in reality this variety. However that may be,
+there is, as far as permanence goes, little or no difference between the
+two kinds.
+
+
+ULTRAMARINES.
+
+ARTIFICIAL ULTRAMARINES
+
+comprise the varieties known as _French Ultramarine_, _French Blue_,
+_Brilliant Ultramarine_, _Factitious Ultramarine_, _Guimet's
+Ultramarine_, _New Blue_, _Permanent Blue_, _Gmelin's German
+Ultramarine_, _Bleu de Garance_, _Outremer de Guimet_, &c. The
+unrivalled qualities of native ultramarine prepared from the lapis
+lazuli rendered it most desirable to obtain an artificial compound
+which, while possessing similar properties, could be produced in
+quantity, and at a less costly rate. In demolishing some furnaces
+employed in making soda, by means of decomposing sulphate of soda, some
+earth had been found impregnated with a light blue, which was proved to
+have so close a resemblance to ultramarine as to foster hopes of
+success. As a stimulus, there was offered a prize of six thousand francs
+or £500 for the production of artificial ultramarine by the _Société
+d'Encouragement_ of Paris, which was won in 1828 by M. Guimet. It is
+fitting that the discoverer of a colour should excel in its manufacture,
+and to this day Guimet's ultramarine is the finest made. As an instance
+of how the researches of different men may, almost simultaneously, lead
+to the same results, it is curious that very shortly after the problem
+was also solved by Gmelin.
+
+The cause of the blue colour of ultramarine was long a matter of
+controversy, but was believed generally to be due to iron. When,
+however, the discovery of artificial ultramarine was made, this
+assumption was shown to be false, by the fact that a blue could be
+obtained with materials perfectly free from iron. The absolutely
+necessary constituents of ultramarine are silica, alumina, sulphur, and
+soda; and there is little doubt that the colouring matter consists of
+hyposulphite of soda and sulphide of sodium: it is certain that the blue
+colour is dependant on the soda, inasmuch as potash yields an analogous
+compound which is purely white. A number of substances, such as iron,
+lime, magnesia, and potash, may be present as impurities, and were, in
+part at least, purposely added to the earlier manufactures; but they are
+found to be superfluous. Nevertheless, as regards iron, it is probable
+that a very small portion, such as is usually contained in the
+ingredients, greatly facilitates the production of the blue, and may
+even be essential in some cases.
+
+The colour of ultramarine is brought out by successive heatings. Green
+portions, more or less in quantity, are often formed in the crucibles,
+especially on the first ignition. On repeated heating they pass into a
+blue tint. Artificial ultramarines are said to be seldom entirely freed
+from all traces of the green modification, and are therefore less
+beautiful than the natural varieties, having a shade of green or grey.
+This defect, however, is certainly not discernible in Guimet's products,
+which sometimes incline so much to purple as to require neutralizing
+with a little Prussian blue. Depth for depth, the artificial are darker
+and less azure than the natural varieties, but the superiority of the
+latter consists not so much in their greater purity of hue, although
+this is considerable, as in their far greater transparency. The finest
+French ultramarine is never so transparent as the native; it is
+brilliant, it is powerful, it is permanent, it is nearly--but only
+nearly--transparent. Possessing in a subdued degree the characteristics
+and qualities of the genuine, it works, washes, and dries well; and is
+useful either in figures, draperies, or landscape. Rivalling in depth,
+although not equalling in colour, the pure azure of native ultramarine,
+it answers to the same acid tests, but is sometimes distinguished
+therefrom by the effervescence which ensues on the addition of an acid.
+Not a bubble escapes in such case from the natural blue; unless, indeed,
+as occasionally happens, it retain a portion of alkali, with which it
+may have been combined in the preparation, but from which it should have
+been freed. Darkened as a rule by fire, factitious ultramarine becomes
+dingy blue, and at last white, when strongly ignited for a long time;
+and is, like the true variety, decolourised by ignition in an atmosphere
+of hydrogen gas. At a high temperature, this effect is even produced by
+silica, whence the unfitness of ultramarine for painting on glass or
+porcelain; and simply by a prolonged red heat the blue is rendered
+white. Being unaffected by alkalis, it is eligible in mural decoration,
+and is particularly adapted to siliceous painting, on account of the
+silica and alumina which it contains, two substances with which a
+soluble silicate readily unites. If artificial ultramarine be mixed with
+a soluble silicate, for example silicate of potash, and be laid on a
+properly prepared ground, it will become so firmly fixed, says Mr.
+Barff, that no amount of washing nor the slow action of moisture will
+remove it, or affect its brilliancy. Judging from the behaviour of
+ultramarine, therefore, if the colours employed in siliceous painting
+contain silica and alumina, they should adhere as firmly to the surface
+on which they are placed; and this is really the case. It is possible to
+produce a mixed solution of aluminate and silicate of potash which will
+remain liquid for twenty-four hours. If, while in the liquid state,
+colours are saturated with this solution and allowed to dry, their
+particles will be very intimately mixed with silica and alumina
+chemically combined with potash. According to the author quoted, the
+admixture of silica and alumina does not interfere with the brilliancy
+or depth of the colours, and the method may be used for all those which
+are not injured by potash, and are in themselves adapted to the art.
+
+With respect to permanence, the finer varieties of artificial
+ultramarines may, undoubtedly, be pronounced stable; but, like all other
+colours, these blues are apt to vary in quality, and inferior kinds are
+liable to lose their purity in a measure, and become grayer. Moreover,
+they are made by different processes, and the mode adopted for the
+manufacture of a pigment not only tells upon the colour, but may
+influence to some extent its durability. From the following experiment
+of an ingenious artist and friend of the author, it is evident that the
+production of artificial ultramarine was not carried in its early days
+to that state of perfection at which it has now arrived. He took a
+picture, the sky of which had been recently painted in the ordinary
+manner with Prussian blue and white; and having painted over the clear
+part of the sky uniform portions with tints formed of the best
+factitious ultramarine, cobalt blue, and genuine ultramarine, so as to
+match the ground of the sky, and to disappear to the eye thereon by
+blending with the ground, when viewed at a moderate distance, he set the
+picture aside for some months. Upon examination, it appeared that the
+colour of these various blue pigments had taken different ways, and
+departed from the hue of the ground: the factitious ultramarine had
+_blackened_, the cobalt blue _greened_, the genuine ultramarine remained
+a _pure azure_, like a spot of light, while their ground, the Prussian
+blue sky, seemed by contrast with the ultramarine of a _grey_ or _slate
+colour_.
+
+Other things being equal, those artificial ultramarines are most durable
+which possess the most colour; and all are, perhaps, most permanent in
+water. If used in that vehicle, care should be taken to employ a gum
+free from acid; also, whether in water or oil, not to compound the blue
+with a pigment which may possibly contain acid, such as constant white.
+Acid, as we have said, is the great test for ultramarine; whence if a
+sample be sophisticated with cobalt, its blue colour will not be
+entirely destroyed. With high-class artistic pigments, however,
+adulteration is the exception and not the rule. It is as a powder-blue
+for the washtub that ultramarine gets disguised, when it is ground up
+with soda-ash, chalk, gypsum, &c., and sold sometimes under its own
+name, but more frequently as superfine Saxon smalts.
+
+132. BRILLIANT ULTRAMARINE,
+
+lately called _Factitious Ultramarine_, is a specially fine preparation
+of M. Guimet, presenting the nearest approach to the natural product of
+any artificial ultramarine, both in transparency, purity of hue, and
+chemical characteristics. Equalling in depth and power the ordinary
+French ultramarine, it possesses greater clearness, beauty, and
+brightness; and has, in a subdued degree, that quality of light in it,
+and of the tint of air, which forms so distinguishing a feature in the
+native blue.
+
+133. FRENCH ULTRAMARINE,
+
+or _French Blue_, is a rich deep colour, but less transparent and vivid
+than the preceding variety, which is preferable in unmixed tints. For
+compound hues, French blue is sufficiently well adapted, and is
+extremely useful. With aureolin and burnt Sienna, or Vandyke brown, it
+affords valuable autumn greens; and with lamp black, or lamp black and
+light red, good stormy clouds. A sombre gray for distant mountains is
+furnished by French blue and madder brown, with a very little gamboge;
+and a deep purple for sunsets, by the blue and purple madder, or Indian
+red and rose madder. With cadmium and orient yellows, sepia, viridian,
+and many other colours, this ultramarine is of service.
+
+134. NEW BLUE
+
+Is confined to water-colour painting, and is an artificial ultramarine,
+holding a middle position between French blue and permanent blue, being
+less deep than the one and less pale than the other. It may be said to
+hover in tint between a rich ultramarine and cobalt.
+
+135. PERMANENT BLUE
+
+Is a pale ultramarine, with a cobalt hue; and, in spite of its name,
+less permanence than belongs to the richer and deeper sorts. What
+Antwerp blue is to Prussian blue, this is to French blue--that is, as
+regards colour. With respect to durability, however, permanent and
+Antwerp blues cannot be compared; the former being a weakened variety of
+a stable, and the latter a weakened variety of a semi-fugitive, pigment.
+Hence permanent blue justifies its name, although that name would be
+more suited to the brilliant, or French, ultramarine.
+
+136. GENUINE ULTRAMARINE,
+
+_Native Ultramarine_, _Natural Ultramarine_, _Real Ultramarine_, _True
+Ultramarine_, _Ultramarine_, _Pure _Ultramarine_, _Azure_, _Outremer_,
+_Lazuline_, _Lazulite Blue_, and _Lazurstein_. This most costly, most
+permanent, and most celebrated of all pigments, is obtained by isolating
+the blue colouring matter of the _lapis lazuli_, a stone chiefly brought
+from China, Thibet, and the shores of Lake Baikal. About the antiquity
+of the stone, and its colour, much has been written, and many
+conflicting statements have been made; but there is little doubt that
+our lapis lazuli was the sapphire of the ancients; and that the first
+certain mention of ultramarine occurs in a passage of Arethas, who lived
+in the eleventh century, and who, in his exposition of a verse in the
+book of Revelation, says, the sapphire is that stone of which
+_lazurium_, as we are told, is made. It has been common to confound
+ultramarine with the _cyanus_ and _coeruleum_ of the ancients; but
+their cyanus, or Armenian blue, was a kind of mineral or mountain blue,
+tinged with copper; and their coeruleum, although it may sometimes
+have been real ultramarine, was properly and in general a copper ochre.
+That ultramarine was known to the ancients there seems every
+probability, for it is certain they were acquainted with the stone; and
+modern travellers describe the brilliant blue painting still remaining
+in the ruins of temples of Upper Egypt as having all the appearance of
+ultramarine. Whether it is so or not, however, could only be proved by
+analysis; for, be it recollected, although the colour had preserved its
+hue during so many centuries, it had been completely buried, and
+therefore most perfectly secluded from light and air. Mr. Layard, in his
+'Nineveh,' referring to some painted plaster, remarks that "The colours,
+particularly the blues and reds, were as brilliant and vivid when the
+earth was removed from them as they could originally have been; but, on
+exposure to the air, they faded rapidly." In all likelihood, these were
+of organic, or semi-organic, origin, prepared in some such manner as
+that mentioned by Pliny, who speaks of an earth which, when boiled with
+plants, acquired their blue colour, and was in some measure inflammable.
+As a pigment, cobalt was unknown to the ancients; but to these vegetable
+and copper blues of theirs, a third blue may perhaps be added.
+Experiments made upon blue tiles, found in a Roman tesselated
+foot-pavement at Montbeillard, showed that the colour was due to iron.
+M. Gmelin has proved that a blue tint can be imparted to glass and
+enamel by means of iron; and it is probable that the ancients were first
+induced by the blue slag of their smelting-houses to study the colouring
+of glass with iron; that in this art they acquired a dexterity not
+possessed at present, and that they employed their iron-smalt as a
+pigment, as we do our smalt of cobalt. To sum up, there are grounds for
+believing that the ancients were acquainted with copper blues,
+vegetable blues, and iron blues; and that, consequently, the blue
+described by travellers as having all the appearance of ultramarine may,
+or may not, be that pigment.
+
+Lapis lazuli, or lazulite, is usually disseminated in a rock, which
+contains, among other substances, a fine white lazulite. In the _Musée
+Minéralogique_ of Paris are two splendid specimens of the stone, in
+which is seen the transition from the azure to the white. According to
+the quantity and quality of blue present, the lapis varies from an
+almost uniform tint of the deepest indigo-blue to grayish-white, dotted
+and streaked at intervals with pale blue. The exceeding beauty of good
+samples has caused the lazulite to be much sought after, both as a gem
+for adorning the person, and for inlaid works in ornamental decoration.
+In China the stone is highly esteemed, being worn by mandarins as badges
+of nobility conferred only by the Emperor; and in the apartments of a
+summer palace near St. Petersburg, the walls are covered with amber,
+interspersed with plates of this costly lapis. Besides the colouring
+principle of the lazulite, there are always more or less mica and iron
+pyrites, the latter a lustrous yellow bisulphide of iron, which has
+often been mistaken for pellets of gold. Having chosen portions of the
+stone most free from these impurities, it is simply requisite to reduce
+them to an impalpable powder to obtain a blue pigment; and probably this
+was the original mode of preparing it before the discovery of the modern
+process. This curious method, which is mechanical rather than chemical,
+depends for its success on the character and proportions of the
+materials employed, as well as on the nicety of working. When well
+carried out, it perfectly isolates the blue from all extraneous matter,
+yielding the colour at first deep and rich, then lighter and paler, and
+lastly of that gray tint which is known by the name of Ultramarine Ash.
+The refuse, containing little or no blue, furnishes the useful pigment,
+Mineral Gray.
+
+The immense price of ultramarine--or, as it was at first called, azurrum
+ultramarinum, blue beyond-the-sea--was almost a prohibition to its use
+in former times. It is related that Charles I. presented to Mrs.
+Walpole, and possibly to Vandyke also, five hundred pounds worth of
+ultramarine, which lay in so small a compass as only to cover his hand.
+Even in these days, despite the introduction of artificial ultramarines,
+the native product continues costly, commanding in proportion to its
+intensity and brightness, from two to eight guineas an ounce. To say,
+however, that the merits of the blue at least equal its expense, is to
+give the genuine ultramarine no more than its due. It has, indeed, not
+earned its reputation upon slight pretensions, being, when of fine
+quality, and skilfully prepared, of the most exquisitely beautiful blue,
+ranging from the utmost depth of shadow to the highest brilliancy of
+light and colour,--transparent in all its shades, and pure in all its
+tints. A true medial blue, when perfect, partaking neither of purple on
+the one hand, nor of green on the other, it sustains no injury either by
+damp and impure air, or by the intensest action of light, and is so
+eminently durable, that it remains unchanged in the oldest paintings.
+Drying well, working well in oil and fresco, ultramarine may be safely
+compounded with pigments generally, excepting only an acid sulphate of
+baryta or constant white. The blue has so much of the property of light
+in it, and of the tint of air--is so purely a sky-colour, and hence so
+singularly adapted to the direct and reflex light of the sky, and to
+become the antagonist of sunshine--that it is indispensable to the
+painter. Moreover, it is so pure, so true, so unchangeable in its tints
+and glazings, as to be no less essential in imitating the marvellous
+colouring of nature in flesh and flowers. To this may be added that it
+enters so admirably into purples, blacks, greens, grays, and broken
+hues, that it has justly obtained the character of clearing or carrying
+light and air into all colours, both in mixture and glazing, as well as
+gained a sort of claim to universality throughout a picture.
+
+Nevertheless, ultramarine is not always entitled to the whole of this
+commendation. Frequently it is coarse in texture, in which case it is
+apparently more deep and valuable; yet such blue cannot be used with
+effect, nor ground fine without injuring its colour. Again, it is apt to
+be separated in an impure state from the lapis lazuli, which is an
+exceedingly varying and compound mineral, abounding with earthy and
+metallic parts in different states of oxidation and composition: hence
+ultramarine sometimes contains iron as a red oxide, when it has a purple
+cast; and sometimes the same metal as a yellow oxide, when it is of a
+green tone; while often it retains a portion of black sulphuret of iron,
+which imparts a dark and dusky hue. Occasionally, it is true, artists
+have preferred ultramarine for each of these tones; still are they
+imperfections which may account for various effects and defects of this
+pigment in painting. Growing deeper by age has been attributed to
+ultramarine; but it is only such specimens as would acquire depth in the
+fire that could be subject to the change; and it has been reasonably
+supposed that in pictures wherein other colours have faded, it may have
+taken this appearance by contrast. Ultramarine, prepared from calcined
+lapis, is not liable to so deepen; but this advantage may be purchased
+at some sacrifice of the vivid, warm, and pure azure colour of the blue
+produced from unburnt stone. We have frequently found ultramarine to be
+darkened, dimmed, and somewhat purpled by ignition; and the same results
+ensue, in many instances, when the lazulite is calcined. In burning the
+stone, the sulphur of the pyrites is in a great measure expelled, and
+during its expulsion has probably a deteriorating influence on the
+beauty of the colour: our belief in this being so is strengthened by the
+fact that certain samples of ultramarine, ignited with sulphur, were not
+improved thereby. Similar effects are likewise caused by a careless or
+improper mode of treatment, for the finest lapis may yield dingy blues,
+containing particles of mica, metal, &c., and possessing a dull green,
+black, or purple hue. Of course the perfection of the pigment is
+dependant to a large extent upon the quality of the stone itself.
+
+Though unexceptionable as an oil-colour, both in solid painting and
+glazing, it does not work so well as some other blues in water; nor is
+it, unless carefully prepared, so well adapted for mixed tints, on
+account of a gritty quality, of which no grinding will entirely divest
+it, and which causes it to separate from other pigments. When extremely
+fine in texture, however, or when a considerable portion of gum, which
+renders it transparent, can be employed to give connexion or adhesion
+while flowing, it becomes no less valuable in water than in oil; but
+when its vivid azure is to be preserved, as in illuminated manuscripts
+and missals, little gum must be used. The fine greens, purples, and
+grays of the old masters, are often unquestionably compounds of
+ultramarine; and formerly it was the only blue known in fresco. Pure
+ultramarine varies in shade from light to dark, and in hue from pale
+warm azure to the deepest cold blue.
+
+Native ultramarine consists of silica, alumina, sulphur, and soda; its
+colouring matter seeming to be due to hyposulphite of soda and sulphide
+of sodium. In these respects, as well as in that of being decolourised
+by acids, the natural product resembles the artificial. As a precious
+material, the former has been subject to adulteration; and it has been
+dyed, damped, and oiled to enrich its appearance; attempts of fraud,
+however, which may be easily detected. In the preceding edition of this
+work the author adds--"and the genuine may be as easily distinguished
+from the spurious by dropping a few particles of the pigment into
+lemon-juice, or any other acid, which almost instantly destroys the
+colour of the true ultramarine totally, and without effervescence." With
+this statement, so far as it pretends to be a test for the two kinds, we
+are not inclined to agree. Genuine ultramarine is always decolourised by
+acids; but it depends on the mode and nicety of its preparation whether
+it is decolourised without effervescence: that this is the case the
+author himself admits in his article on artificial ultramarine.
+Moreover, the "violent effervescence" which he describes as ensuing on
+the latter being dropped into an acid, does not of necessity take place:
+in M. Guimet's finest variety, the brilliant ultramarine, acid produces
+little or no effervescence. Seeing, therefore, that both sorts are
+decolourised by acids, and that both may or may not effervesce
+therewith, the acid test must be considered fallacious. Experiments made
+with different samples of each, showed that native ultramarines offered
+greater resistance to acid than the artificial, taking longer to
+decolourise; and that the residues of the first were in general of a
+purer white than those of the last. It was also found that the brilliant
+ultramarine, above referred to, was less readily decolourised than other
+French or German kinds.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+137. _Blue Carmine._
+
+In a former edition of this work there appeared the following:--"Blue
+carmine is a blue oxide of molybdenum, of which little is known as a
+substance or as a pigment. It is said to be of a beautiful blue colour,
+and durable in a strong light, but is subject to be changed in hue by
+other substances, and blackened by foul air: we may conjecture,
+therefore, that it is not of much value in painting." In his estimate of
+this colour the author was certainly right. It is formed when a
+solution of bichloride of molybdenum is poured into a saturated, or
+nearly saturated, solution of molybdate of ammonia. A blue precipitate
+falls, which is a molybdate of molybdic oxide, hydrated, and abundantly
+soluble in water. When dried, it furnishes a dark blue powder,
+resembling powdered indigo, having a bitter, rough, metallic taste, and
+reddening litmus strongly. The solubility of this hydrated oxide is
+alone fatal to its employment as a pigment. It may, indeed, be rendered
+comparatively insoluble in water by ignition; but the anhydrous oxide so
+obtained is nearly black, and as a colour worthless.
+
+A more eligible preparation is the molybdate of baryta, produced by
+mixing solutions of molybdate of potash and acetate of baryta. A white,
+flocculent precipitate results, which rapidly condenses to a crystalline
+powder, and turns blue on ignition. It is, however, a costly compound,
+of little merit, and not likely to come into use. It is insoluble in
+water.
+
+138. _Blue Ochre_,
+
+which has been improperly called Native Prussian Blue, is a native
+hydrated phosphate of iron of rare occurrence, found with iron pyrites
+in Cornwall, and also in North America. What Indian red is to the colour
+red, and Oxford ochre to yellow, this pigment is to the colour blue,
+being sober and subdued rather than brilliant. It has the body of other
+ochres, more transparency, and is of considerable depth. Both in water
+and oil it works well, dries readily, and does not suffer in tint with
+white lead, nor change when exposed to the action of strong light, damp,
+or impure air. As far as its powers extend, therefore, it is an eligible
+pigment, though not generally employed nor easily procured; it may,
+however, be artificially prepared. Answering to similar acid tests as
+ultramarine, it is distinguished therefrom by assuming an olive-brown
+hue on exposure to a red heat.
+
+139. _Cobalt Prussian Blue._
+
+Gmelin states that yellow prussiate of potash yields with a solution of
+oxalate of sesquioxide of cobalt a blue resembling Prussian blue--that,
+in fact, there can be obtained a Prussian blue with a base of cobalt
+instead of iron. In the moist state, the similarity is sufficiently
+great, but when washed and dried, the product is, with us, a dingy slate
+colour. Possibly, if such a blue could be produced, it might exceed in
+permanence the ferro- and ferri-cyanides of iron. Of course the compound
+would be much more expensive.
+
+
+_Copper Blues_
+
+are now seldom or never employed as artists' pigments. The following
+are the principal varieties:--
+
+140. _Bice_,
+
+Blue Bice, Iris, Terre Bleu, was prepared, when true, from the Armenian
+stone, which is a calcareous kind of stone coloured with copper. It was
+of a light bright hue, but is completely superseded by pale ultramarine.
+The Persian lazur appears to have been a similar pigment, being a sort
+of copper ore, which, when the stone was pounded and sifted, furnished a
+fine paint, very bright and pleasant. It could not, however, stand the
+effects of the atmosphere like the Tartarian lazur or lapis lazuli, in
+the course of time becoming of a dark and dismal colour.
+
+Ground smalts, blue verditer, and other pigments, have passed under the
+name of bice.
+
+141. _Blue Ashes_, or _Mountain Blue_,
+
+are both hydrated carbonates of copper, the first being artificially
+prepared, and the second found native in Cumberland. Neither is durable,
+especially in oil; and, as pigments, both are precisely of the character
+of verditer. By treating the natural malachite green with an alkali, it
+may be converted into blue.
+
+142. _Blue Verditer_,
+
+or Verditer, is an oxide of copper, formed by precipitating nitrate of
+copper with lime. It is of a beautiful light blue colour, little
+affected by light, but greened and ultimately blackened by time, damp,
+and impure air--changes which ensue even more rapidly in oil than in
+water. It is mostly confined to distemper painting and paper-staining.
+
+143. _Egyptian Blue_,
+
+called by Vitruvius, Coeruleum, is frequently found on the walls of
+the temples in Egypt, as well as on the cases enclosing mummies. Count
+Chaptal, who analysed some of it discovered in 1809 in a shop at
+Pompeii, found that it was blue ashes, not prepared in the moist manner,
+but by calcination. He considers it a kind of frit, of a semi-vitreous
+nature; and this would appear to be the case from Sir H. Davy obtaining
+a similar colour by exposing to a strong heat, for two hours, a mixture
+of fifteen parts of carbonate of soda, twenty of powdered flints, and
+three of copper. The colour is very brilliant when first made, and
+retains its hue well in distemper and decorative painting; but it has
+the common defect of copper blues of turning green in oil, when ground
+impalpably for artistic use. One remarkable effect of this copper
+smalt--for it is nothing else--is, that by lamp-light it shows somewhat
+greenish, but shines by day with all the brightness of azure. Mérimée
+believes that Paul Veronese employed this sort of blue in many of his
+pictures where the skies have become green.
+
+144. _Saunders Blue_,
+
+a corrupt name from _Cendres Bleues_, the original denomination probably
+of ultramarine ashes, is of two kinds, the natural and artificial. The
+first is a blue mineral found near copper mines, while the last is
+simply a verditer.
+
+145. _Schweinfurt Blue_,
+
+or Reboulleau's Blue, is prepared by fusing together equal weights of
+ordinary arseniate of protoxide of copper and arseniate of potash, and
+adding one-fifth its weight of nitre to the fused mass. The result is,
+so to speak, a sort of blue Scheele's green, into which latter colour it
+soon passes when rubbed with oil.
+
+146. _Cotton Seed Blue._
+
+Cotton seed oil is bleached by treatment with either carbonate of soda
+or caustic lime. In both cases, a considerable residue is left after
+drawing off the bleached oil. This residue is treated with sulphuric
+acid, and distilled at a high temperature, when there is left a compact
+mass of a deep greenish-blue colour. On further treatment of this mass
+with strong sulphuric acid, the green tint disappears, and a very
+intense pure blue colour is produced. The blue mass is a mixture of the
+coloured substance with some sulphuric acid, sulphate of soda, and fats.
+The two former may be removed by washing with water; the latter by
+treatment with naptha. Alcohol now dissolves the blue colour, and water
+precipitates it from the solution chemically pure.
+
+This blue has not been introduced as a pigment; and of its permanence,
+and other attributes, we know nothing.
+
+147. _Gold Blue._
+
+Gold purple, under the name of Purple of Cassius, was once very well
+known: a like compound of tin and gold may be made to yield a blue.
+Resembling indigo, the colour is not remarkably brilliant, and, unless
+several precautions are carefully observed, is rather violet than blue.
+When obtained, the colour must be quickly washed by decantation, or it
+changes first to violet and then to purple. Its costliness, lack of
+brightness, and tendency to redden, are against its employment on the
+palette. In enamelling it would doubtless preserve its colour, and in
+exceptional cases might be useful.
+
+148. _Iodine Blue._
+
+It is curious that iodine, which gives a yellow with lead, should also
+afford a blue with the same metal. When a solution of iodine in aqueous
+soda (carbonate of soda is not so good) is added to nitrate or acetate
+of lead-oxide, a transient violet-red precipitate falls, which
+decomposes spontaneously under water, yielding iodine and a beautiful
+blue powder. The colour, however, is exceedingly fugitive, even the
+carbonic acid of the air separating iodine from it and forming a lead
+salt. Bearing in mind the scarlet iodide of mercury, iodine is capable
+of furnishing the three primary colours, distinguished alike by their
+brilliancy and fugacity.
+
+149. _Iridium Blue._
+
+The rare metal iridium affords a blue which is a mixture of the oxide
+and the sesquioxide. But being slightly soluble in water and
+decolourised by sulphuretted hydrogen, it would not, other
+considerations apart, be an acquisition.
+
+150. _Manganese Blue._
+
+An aqueous solution of permanganate of potash yields with baryta-water a
+violet mixture, which afterwards becomes colourless, and deposits a blue
+precipitate. This retains its colour after washing and drying, but
+cannot be recommended as a pigment, being liable to suffer in contact
+with organic substances, which deoxidize and decolourize the manganates
+and permanganates.
+
+151. _Platinum Blue._
+
+With mercurous nitrate, the platinocyanide of potassium forms a thick
+smalt blue, and the platinidcyanide a dark blue precipitate. The
+compound is a mixture of platino- or platinidcyanide of mercury and
+mercurous nitrate. Upon the presence of the latter the colour seems to
+depend, for on washing with cold water containing nitric acid, the
+nitrate is not removed nor the blue affected; but boiling water extracts
+the nitrate and leaves a white residue. A blue containing mercurous
+nitrate must necessarily be injured by impure air, and be otherwise
+objectionable.
+
+152. _Tungsten Blue_
+
+is an oxide formed by the action of various deoxidizing agents on
+tungstic acid. It remains unaltered in the air at ordinary temperatures,
+is opaque, and of a blackish indigo-blue colour. As a pigment, there is
+little to recommend it.
+
+153. _Wood-Tar Blue._
+
+The colours obtained from coal-tar have become household words, and it
+is not impossible that those from wood-tar may be some day equally
+familiar. At present wood-tar is comparatively unexplored, but the fact
+that picamar furnishes a blue is at least as suggestive and hopeful as
+that transient purple colouration by which aniline was once chiefly
+distinguished. As aniline is a product of coal-tar, so picamar is a
+product of wood-tar; and as the former gives a purple with
+hypochlorites, so the latter yields a blue with baryta-water. Both are
+distinguished by coloured tests, but there is this advantage in the
+picamar blue--it is comparatively permanent.
+
+Picamar blue is produced when a few drops of baryta-water are added to
+an alcoholic solution of impure picamar, or even to wood-tar oil
+deprived of its acid. The liquor instantly assumes a bright blue tint,
+which in a few minutes passes into an indigo colour. From [Greek: pitta]
+pitch, and [Greek: kallos] ornament, the blue is named _Pittacal_.
+
+The mode of separating pittacal has not been clearly described. Dumas
+states, that when precipitated in a flocculent state from its solutions,
+or obtained by evaporation, it closely resembles indigo, and, like it,
+acquires a coppery hue when rubbed. It is inodorous, tasteless, and not
+volatile; and is abundantly soluble in acetic acid, forming a red
+liquid, which, when saturated by an alkali, becomes of a bright blue. It
+is represented as a more delicate test of acid and alkalis than litmus.
+With acetate of lead, protochloride of tin, ammonio-sulphate of copper,
+and acetate of alumina, it yields a fine blue colour with a tint of
+violet, said not to be affected by air or light, and therefore
+recommended for dyeing.
+
+Like indigo, pittacal is believed to contain nitrogen, but its ultimate
+composition has not been accurately determined. Dumas considers it
+identical with a blue product obtained in 1827 from coal-tar by MM.
+Barthe and Laurent. If this be the case, its greater stability over
+coal-tar blues and colours generally admits of doubt. That, however, has
+yet to be ascertained. Our object in noticing this blue has been
+two-fold: first, to direct attention to wood-tar as a possible source of
+colour; and secondly, to point to pittacal as a possible substitute for
+indigo, possessing greater durability.
+
+154. _Zinc-Cobalt Blue._
+
+Cobalt, as furnishing a blue colour, is usually associated with alumina,
+silica, or tin; and, as furnishing a green colour, with zinc. But there
+is obtainable a compound of zinc and cobalt which gives a blue not only
+free from green, but inclining rather to red. It is made by adding to a
+solution of ordinary phosphate of soda in excess a solution first of
+sulphate of zinc and then of sulphate of cobalt, and washing and
+igniting the precipitate. The result is a vitreous blue with a purple
+cast, of little body, and exceedingly difficult to grind. Altogether, it
+is not unlike smalt, over which it has no advantages as an artistic
+pigment either in colour or permanence. For tinting porcelain, however,
+it is admirably adapted, imparting thereto a very pure dark blue of
+extraordinary beauty. This blue is distinguished from smalt by
+dissolving in acetic acid.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Compared with the wide range of yellows, or even with reds, the artist
+finds the number of his blues limited. The perfect native and excellent
+artificial ultramarines, the good blues of cobalt, the fair Prussian
+blue, and the doubtful indigo, are the four varieties he has for years
+been in the habit of using, and is still mainly dependent on. Our
+division, therefore, into permanent, semi-stable, and fugitive, is
+easily effected.
+
+In the front rank, pre-eminent among blues as among pigments generally,
+stands genuine ultramarine. Behind it, are the artificial ultramarines;
+and behind them again, cobalt and cerulian blue. To a greater or less
+extent, all these are durable.
+
+Among the semi-stable, must be classed cyanine or Leitch's blue, smalt,
+and Prussian blue.
+
+To the fugitive, belong indigo and the somewhat more permanent intense
+blue, Antwerp blue, and the copper blues.
+
+In this list of blues, which grace or disgrace the palette of the
+present day, there is one colour which, although not permanent, is
+almost indispensable. As yet, the chemist cannot in all cases lay down
+the law as to what pigments may or may not be employed. The painter who
+unnecessarily uses fugitive colours must have little love for his
+craft, and a poor opinion of the value of his work; but, even with the
+best intentions and the utmost self-esteem, the artist cannot always
+confine himself to strictly stable pigments. He has no right to use
+orpiment instead of cadmium yellow, or red lead instead of vermilion, or
+copper blue instead of cobalt: he has no business to employ indigo when
+Prussian blue saddened by black will answer his purpose; but--what
+pigment can he substitute for Prussian blue itself? None. In its
+wondrous depth, richness, and transparency, it stands alone: there is no
+yellow to compare with it, no red to equal it, no blue to rival it. In
+force and power it is a colour among colours, and transparent beyond
+them all. The great importance of transparent pigments is to unite with
+solid or opaque colours of their own hues, giving tone and atmosphere
+generally, together with beauty and life; to convert primary into
+secondary, and secondary into tertiary colours, with brilliancy; to
+deepen and enrich dark colours and shadows, and to impart force and tone
+to black itself. For such effects, no pigment can vie with Prussian
+blue. What purples it produces, what greens it gives, what a matchless
+range of grays; what velvety glow it confers, how it softens the
+harshness of colours, and how it subdues their glare. No; until the
+advent of a perfect palette, the artist can scarcely part with his
+Prussian blue; nor can the chemist, who has nothing better to offer,
+hold him to blame. It is for Art to copy Nature with the best materials
+she possesses: it is for Science to learn the secrets of Nature, and
+turn them to the benefit of Art.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI.
+
+ON THE SECONDARY, ORANGE.
+
+
+Orange is the first of the secondary colours in relation to light, being
+in all the variety of its hues composed of _yellow_ and _red_. A true or
+perfect orange is such a compound of red and yellow as will neutralize a
+perfect blue in equal quantity either of surface or intensity; and the
+proportions of such compound are five of perfect red to three of perfect
+yellow. When orange inclines to red, it takes the names of _scarlet_,
+_poppy_, &c.: in gold colour, &c., it leans towards yellow. Combined
+with green it forms the tertiary _citrine_, and with purple the tertiary
+_russet_: it also furnishes a series of warm semi-neutral colours with
+black, and harmonizes in contact and variety of tints with white.
+
+Orange is an advancing colour in painting:--in nature it is effective at
+a great distance, acting powerfully on the eye, diminishing its
+sensibility in accordance with the strength of the light in which it is
+viewed. It is of the hue, and partakes of the vividness of sunshine, as
+it likewise does of all the powers of its components, red and yellow.
+Pre-eminently a _warm_ colour, being the equal contrast of or antagonist
+to blue, to which the attribute of _coolness_ peculiarly belongs, it is
+discordant when standing alone with yellow or with red, unresolved by
+their proper contrasts or harmonizing colours, purple and green. As an
+archeus or ruling colour, orange is one of the most agreeable keys in
+toning a picture, from the richness and warmth of its effects. If it
+predominate therein, for the colouring to be true, the violet and purple
+should be more or less red, the red more or less scarlet, the yellow
+more or less intense and orange, and the orange itself be intense and
+vivid. Further, the greens must lose some of their blue and consequently
+become yellower, the light blues be more or less light grey, and the
+deep indigo more or less marrone.
+
+Although the secondary colours are capable of being obtained by
+admixture of the primaries in an infinitude of hues, tints, and shades;
+yet simple original pigments of whatever class--whether secondary,
+tertiary, or semi-neutral--are, it has been said before, often superior
+to those compounded, both in a chemical and artistic sense. Hence a
+thoroughly good original orange is only of less value and importance
+than a thoroughly good original yellow, a green than a blue, or a
+purple than a red. To produce pure and permanent compound hues requires
+practice and knowledge, and we too often see in the works of painters
+combinations neither pleasing nor stable. Colours are associated with
+each other which do not mix kindly, and compounds formed of which one or
+both constituents are fugitive. As a consequence, mixed tints are
+frequently wanting in clearness, and, where they do not disappear
+altogether, resolve themselves into some primary colour; orange becoming
+red by a fading of the yellow, green yellow by a fading of the blue, and
+purple blue by a fading of the red. Again, with regard to compound
+tints, there is the danger of one colour reacting upon and injuring
+another, as in the case of greens obtained from chrome yellow and
+Prussian blue, where the former ultimately destroys the latter. Of
+course a mixture of two permanent pigments which do not react on each
+other will remain permanent; the green, for instance, furnished by
+aureolin and native ultramarine lasting as long as the ground itself. To
+produce, however, the effects desired, the artist does not always stop
+to consider the fitness and stability of his colours in compounding,
+even if he possess the needed acquaintance with their physical and
+chemical properties. At all times, therefore, but especially when such
+knowledge is slight, good orange, &c., pigments are of more or less
+value, as by their use the employment of inferior mixtures is to a great
+extent avoided. In mingling primary with primary, if one colour does not
+compound well with the other, or is fugacious, the result is failure;
+but a secondary is not so easily affected by admixture: a green, for
+example, is seldom quite ruined by the injudicious addition of blue or
+yellow; and even if either of the latter be fugitive, the green will
+remain a green if originally durable. Thus the secondaries, if they are
+not already of the colour required, may be brightened or subdued,
+deepened or paled, with comparative impunity. The artist who, from long
+years of experience, knows exactly the properties and capabilities of
+the colours he employs, may in a measure dispense with secondary
+pigments, and obtain from the primaries mixed tints at once stable,
+beautiful, and pure; but even he must sometimes resort to them, as when
+a green like emerald or viridian is required, which no mixture of blue
+and yellow will afford. The primaries, by reason of their not being able
+to be composed of other colours, occupy the first place on the palette,
+and are of the first importance; but the secondaries are far too useful
+to be disregarded, and have a value of their own, which both veteran and
+tyro have cause to acknowledge.
+
+The list of original orange pigments was once so deficient, that in some
+old treatises on the subject of colours, they are not even mentioned.
+This may have arisen, not merely from their paucity, but from the
+unsettled signification of the term orange, as well as from improperly
+calling these pigments reds, yellows, &c. In these days, however, orange
+pigments are sufficiently numerous to merit a chapter to themselves;
+they indeed comprise some of the best colours on the palette.
+
+155. BURNT SIENNA,
+
+or _Burnt Terra di Sienna_, is calcined raw Sienna, of a rich
+transparent brown-orange or orange-russet colour, richer, deeper, and
+more transparent than the raw earth. It also works and dries better, has
+in other respects the qualities of its parent colour, and is a most
+permanent and serviceable pigment in painting generally. For the warm
+tints in rocks, mud banks, and buildings, this colour is excellent. When
+mixed with blue it makes a good green; furnishing a bright green with
+cobalt, and one much more intense with Prussian blue. For the foresea,
+whether calm or broken by waves, it may be employed with a little
+madder; while compounded with a small portion of the latter and lamp
+black, it meets the hues of old posts, boats, and a variety of near
+objects, as the tints may be varied by modifying the proportions of the
+component colours. Used with white, it yields a range of sunny tones;
+and with aureolin or French blue and aureolin will be found of service,
+the last compound giving a fine olive green. Similar but fugitive greens
+are afforded by admixture of burnt Sienna with indigo and yellow or
+Roman ochre, or raw Sienna; tints which may be saddened into olive
+neutrals by the addition of sepia, and rendered more durable by
+substituting for indigo Prussian blue and black. Mixed with viridian, it
+furnishes autumnal hues of the utmost richness, beauty, and permanence;
+and, alone, is valuable as a glaze over foliage and herbage. For the
+dark markings and divisions of stones a compound of Payne's gray and
+burnt Sienna will prove serviceable; while for red sails the Sienna,
+either by itself, with brown madder, or with Indian red, cannot be
+surpassed. For foregrounds, banks and roads, cattle and animals in
+general, burnt Sienna is equally eligible, both alone and compounded. It
+has a slight tendency to darken by time.
+
+156. CADMIUM ORANGE
+
+was first introduced to the art-world at the International Exhibition of
+1862, where it was universally admired for its extreme brilliancy and
+beauty, a brilliancy equalled by few of the colours with which it was
+associated, and a beauty devoid of coarseness. We remember well the
+power it possessed of attracting the eye from a distance; and how, on
+near approach, it threw nearly all other pigments into the shade. It has
+in truth a lustrous luminosity not often to be met with, added to a
+total absence of rankness or harshness. A simple original colour,
+containing no base but cadmium, it is of perfect permanence, being
+uninjured by exposure to light, air or damp, by sulphuretted hydrogen,
+or by admixture. Having in common with cadmium sulphides a certain
+amount of transparency, it is invaluable for gorgeous sunsets and the
+like, either alone or compounded with aureolin. Of great depth and power
+in its full touches, the pale washes are marked by that clearness and
+delicacy which are so essential in painting skies. As day declines, and
+blue melts into green, green into orange, and orange into purple, the
+proper use of this pigment will produce effects both glowing and
+transparent. Transparency signifies the quality of being seen through or
+into; and in no better way can it be arrived at than by giving a number
+of thin washes of determined character, each lighter than the preceding
+one. With due care in preserving their forms, from the commencement to
+the termination, such washes of orange will furnish hues the softest and
+most aerial. For bits of bright drapery, a glaze over autumn leaves, and
+mural decoration, this colour is adapted; while in illumination it
+supplies a want formerly much felt. "With the exception of scarlet or
+bright orange," said Mr. Bradley, nine or ten years since, in his Manual
+of Illumination, "our colours are everything we could wish." As an
+original pigment, a permanent scarlet does not yet exist; but the
+brilliancy of cadmium orange cannot be disputed, nor its claim to be the
+only unexceptionable bright orange known. It even assists the formation
+of the other colour: remarks the author mentioned, "Brilliancy is
+obtained by gradation. Suppose a scarlet over-curling leaf, for example.
+The whole should be painted in pure orange, with the gentlest possible
+after-touch of vermilion towards the corner under the curl. When dry, a
+firm line--not wash--of carmine, (of madder, preferable.--_Ed._), passed
+within the outline on the shade side only of the leaf, will give to the
+whole the look of a bright scarlet surface, but with an indescribable
+superadded charm, that no merely flat colour can possess." In the same
+branch of art, illumination, cadmium orange, opposed to viridian,
+presents a most dazzling contrast, especially if relieved by purple.
+
+157. CHINESE ORANGE
+
+belongs to the coal-tar colours, and ought strictly to have been classed
+therewith. We have preferred, however, to keep it separate, because, as
+Chinese Orange, it was introduced as a pigment, and has not been
+employed as a dye. In colour, it somewhat resembles burnt Sienna,
+enriched, reddened, brightened, and made more transparent, by admixture
+with crimson lake. From its behaviour, it would seem to be composed of
+yellow and red, such a compound as magenta and aniline yellow would
+afford. Its pale washes are uncertain, being apt to resolve themselves
+into red and yellow, of which the latter appears the most permanent;
+for, on exposure to light and air, the red more or less flies, leaving
+here a yellow, and there a reddish-yellow ground: in places both red and
+yellow disappear. Like all fugitive colours, it is comparatively stable
+when used in body; but even then it entirely loses its depth and
+richness, and in a great measure its redness, becoming faded and
+yellowish. In thin washes or glazing it is totally inadmissible; and,
+being neither a red, an orange, nor a brown, is unsuited to pure
+effects. Nevertheless, where it need not be unduly exposed; in portfolio
+illuminations, for instance, the richness, subdued brilliancy, and
+transparency of this pigment, justify its adoption. It is not affected
+by an impure atmosphere.
+
+Aniline colours may be adapted for oil painting by dissolving them in
+the strongest alcohol, saturating the solution with Dammar resin,
+filtering the tincture, and pouring the filtrate either on pure water or
+solution of common salt, stirring well all the time. The water or brine
+solution must be at least twenty times the bulk of the tincture. The
+colour after being collected on a filter, washed, and dried, can be
+ground with linseed oil, poppy oil, or oil varnishes.
+
+158. CHROME ORANGE,
+
+_Orange Chrome_, or _Orange Chromate of Lead_, is a sub-chromate of lead
+of an orange-yellow colour, produced by the action of an alkali on
+chrome yellow. Like all the chromates of lead, it is characterized by
+power and brilliancy; but also by a rankness of tone, a want of
+permanence, and a tendency to injure organic pigments. By reason of its
+lead base it is subject to alteration by impure air, but is on the whole
+preferable to the chrome yellows, being liable in a somewhat less degree
+to their changes and affinities. As, however, a colour has no business
+to be used if a better can be procured, the recent introduction of
+cadmium orange renders all risk unnecessary.
+
+159. MARS ORANGE,
+
+_Orange de Mars_, is a subdued orange of the burnt Sienna class, but
+without the brown tinge that distinguishes the latter. Marked by a
+special clearness and purity of tone, with much transparency, it affords
+bright sunny tints in its pale washes, and combines effectively with
+white. Being an artificial iron ochre it is more chemically active than
+native ochres, and needs to be cautiously employed with pigments
+affected by iron, such as the lakes of cochineal and intense blue.
+
+160. MIXED ORANGE.
+
+Orange being a compound colour, the place of original orange pigments
+can be supplied by mixtures of yellow and red; either by glazing one
+over the other, by stippling, or by other modes of breaking and
+intermixing them, according to the nature of the work and the effect
+required. For reasons lately given, mixed pigments are apt to be
+inferior to the simple or homogeneous both in colour, working, and other
+properties; yet some pigments mix and combine more cordially and with
+better results than others; as is the case with liquid rubiate and
+gamboge. Generally speaking, the compounding of colours is easier in oil
+than in water; but in both vehicles trouble will be saved by beginning
+with the predominating colour, and adding the other or others to it.
+
+Perhaps in this, our first chapter on the secondary colours, and
+consequently on colours that can be compounded, a few remarks on mixed
+tints from a chemical point of view will not be deemed superfluous.
+
+There are two ways, we take it, of looking at a picture--from a purely
+chemical, and from a purely artistic, point of view. Regarded in the
+first light, it matters little whether a painting be a work of genius or
+a daub, provided the pigments employed on it are good and properly
+compounded. The effects produced are lost sight of in a consideration of
+the materials, their permanence, fugacity, and conduct towards each
+other. Painting is essentially a chemical operation: with his pigments
+for reagents, the artist unwittingly performs reaction after reaction,
+not with the immediate results indeed of the chemist in his laboratory,
+but often as surely. As colour is added to colour, and mixture to
+mixture, acid meets alkali, metal animal, mineral vegetable, inorganic
+organic. With so close a union of opposite and opposing elements, the
+wonder is not so much that pictures sometimes perish, but that they ever
+live. It behoves the artist, then, not only to procure the best and most
+permanent pigments possible, but to compound them in such a manner that
+his mixed tints may be durable as well as beautiful. To effect or aid in
+effecting this, although he may not always be able to act upon them, the
+following axioms should be borne in mind:--
+
+1. If they do not react on each other, a permanent pigment added to a
+permanent pigment yields a permanent mixture.
+
+2. If they do react on each other, a permanent pigment added to a
+permanent pigment yields a semi-stable or fugitive mixture.
+
+3. A permanent pigment added to a semi-stable pigment yields a
+semi-stable mixture.
+
+4. A permanent pigment added to a fugitive pigment yields a fugitive
+mixture.
+
+Consequently--
+
+5. A permanent pigment may be rendered fugitive or semi-stable by
+improper compounding.
+
+6. A semi-stable or fugitive pigment is not rendered durable by being
+compounded.
+
+7. As a chain is only as strong as its weakest link, so a mixture is
+only as permanent as its least durable constituent.
+
+To give illustrations--
+
+1. Ultramarine added to Chinese white yields a permanent mixture.
+
+2. Ultramarine added to an acid constant white yields a semi-stable or
+fugitive mixture.
+
+3. Ultramarine added to Prussian blue yields a semi-stable mixture.
+
+4. Ultramarine added to indigo yields a fugitive mixture.
+
+Except in the second instance, where the blue is either partially or
+wholly destroyed--in time, be it remembered, not at once--according to
+the quantity and strength of the acid in the white, the ultramarine
+remains unchanged. Hence at first sight our third and fourth conclusions
+may appear wrong; inasmuch as, it may be argued, a blue mixture cannot
+be semi-stable or fugitive when blue is left. To this we reply, unless
+both constituents are fugitive, a mixture will always more or less
+possess colour; but, if even one constituent be semi-stable or fugitive,
+a mixture will slowly but surely lose _the_ colour for which it was
+compounded, and be _as a mixture_ semi-stable or fugitive.
+
+It need hardly be observed that the number of permanent orange, green,
+and purple hues which the artist can compound, depends mainly on the
+number of permanent yellows, reds, and blues at his disposal. In mixed
+orange, therefore, a selection of durable yellows and reds is of the
+first importance. It should, however, be remarked that mixed orange,
+more sober and less decided, is obtainable by the use of citrine and
+russet; in the former of which yellow predominates, and in the latter,
+red: consequently orange results when yellow is added to russet, red to
+citrine, or citrine to russet.
+
+    PERMANENT YELLOWS.     | PERMANENT REDS.
+                           |
+    Aureolin.              | Cadmium Red.
+    Cadmium, deep.         | Liquid Rubiate.
+    Cadmium, pale.         | Madder Carmine.
+    Lemon Yellow.          | Rose Madder.
+    Mars Yellow.           | Mars Red.
+    Naples Yellow, modern. | Ochres.
+    Ochres.                | Vermilions.
+    Orient Yellow.         |
+    Raw Sienna.            |
+
+None of these pigments react on each other, and from them can be
+produced the most durable mixed orange that yellow and red will afford.
+
+161. NEUTRAL ORANGE,
+
+or _Penley's Neutral Orange_, is a permanent compound pigment composed
+of yellow ochre and the russet-marrone known as brown madder: it is
+chiefly valuable in water-colour. Paper, being white, is too opaque to
+paint upon, without some wash of colour being first passed over it;
+otherwise the light tones of the sky are apt to look crude and harsh. It
+must, therefore, be gone over with some desirable tint, that shall
+break, in a slight degree, the extreme brilliancy of the mere paper. For
+this purpose, a thin wash of the orange is to be put over the whole
+surface of the paper with a large flat brush, care being taken never to
+drive the colour too bare, _i.e._ never to empty the brush too closely,
+but always to replenish before more is actually required. This first
+wash of colour not only gives a tone to the paper, but secures the
+pencil sketch from being rubbed out.
+
+The reason why, in this compound, yellow ochre, as a yellow, is
+preferred to any of the others, is, that it is a broken yellow, that is,
+a yellow slightly altered by having another hue, such as red, or brown,
+in its composition. It is somewhat opaque too, and hence, from this
+quality, is especially adapted for distances. Brown madder also is a
+subdued red, which, when in combination with the former, produces a
+neutral orange, partaking of the character of soft light. As a general
+rule, yellow ochre is to predominate in broad daylight, and brown madder
+in that which is more sombre and imperfect: hence the pigment can be
+yellowed or reddened, by the addition of one or the other. For a clear
+sunset, the neutral orange must be repeated, with a preponderance of
+ochre at the top, assisted by a little cadmium yellow near the sun; the
+madder being added downwards.
+
+In treating of distant mountains, a distinction is to be made between
+them and the clouds, the former requiring solidity, while the latter are
+only to be regarded as vapour and air. Mountains, being opaque bodies,
+are acted upon by atmosphere more or less, according to their position,
+their distance, and the state of the weather. To express this
+distinction, recourse must be had to an under tint, except where the
+tone is decidedly blue--an uncommon case. No mixture can give this with
+such truth as the neutral orange. A wash, therefore, should be passed
+over the mountains, with nearly all yellow in the high lights, or in the
+gleams of sunshine, and, on the contrary, almost all brown madder for
+the shadows. These two degrees of tone must be run into each other
+while the drawing is wet. A beautiful and soft under tone will thus be
+given to receive the greys.
+
+162. ORANGE, OR BURNT ROMAN OCHRE,
+
+called also _Spanish Ochre_, is a very bright yellow or Roman ochre
+burnt, by which operation it acquires warmth, colour, transparency, and
+depth. Moderately bright, it forms good flesh tints with white, dries
+and works well both in water and oil, and is a very good and eligible
+pigment. It may be used in enamel painting, and has all the properties
+of its original ochre in other respects.
+
+A redder hue is imparted by mixing the ochre with powdered nitre before
+ignition, the orange red being subsequently washed with hot water.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+163. _Anotta_,
+
+Annotto, Annatto, Arnotto, Arnotta, Terra Orellana, Rocou, &c., is met
+with in commerce under the names of cake anotta, and flag or roll
+anotta. The former, which comes almost exclusively from Cayenne, should
+be of a bright yellow colour: the latter, which is imported from the
+Brazils, is brown outside and red within. It is prepared from the pods
+of the _bixa orellana_, and appears generally to contain two colouring
+matters, a yellow and a red, which are apt to adhere to each other and
+produce orange. Anotta dissolves with difficulty in water, but readily
+in alcohol and alkaline solutions, from which last it may be thrown down
+as a lake by means of alum. Being, however, exceedingly fugitive and
+changeable, it is not fit for painting; but is chiefly employed in
+dyeing silk, and colouring varnishes and cheese. Very red cheese should
+be looked upon with suspicion, for although the admixture of anotta is
+in no way detrimental to health provided the drug be pure, it is
+commonly adulterated with red lead and ochre. Several instances are on
+record that Gloucester and other cheeses have been found contaminated
+with red lead, through having been coloured with anotta containing it,
+and that this contamination has produced serious consequences.
+
+_Bixine_ is a purified extract of anotta made in France, and used by
+dyers.
+
+164. _Antimony Orange_,
+
+Golden Sulphur of Antimony, or Golden Yellow, is a hydro-sulphuret of
+antimony of an orange colour, which is destroyed by the action of strong
+light. It is a bad dryer in oil, injurious to many pigments, and in no
+respect eligible either in water or oil.
+
+165. _Chromate of Mercury_
+
+has been improperly classed as a red with vermilion, for though it is of
+a bright ochrous red in powder, when ground it becomes a bright
+ochre-orange, and affords with white very pure orange tints.
+Nevertheless it is a bad pigment, since light soon changes it to a deep
+russet colour, and foul air reduces it to extreme blackness.
+
+166. _Damonico_,
+
+or Monicon, is an iron ochre, being a compound of raw Sienna and Roman
+ochre burnt, and having all their qualities. It is rather more russet in
+hue than the pigment known as orange or burnt Roman ochre, has
+considerable transparency, is rich and durable in colour, and furnishes
+good flesh tints. As in orange ochre, powdered nitre may be employed in
+its preparation. Notwithstanding its merits, it is obsolete or nearly
+so; doubtless because burnt Sienna mixed with burnt Roman ochre
+sufficiently answers the purpose.
+
+167. _Gamboge Orange._
+
+On adding acetate of lead to a potash solution of gamboge, a rich bright
+orange is precipitated, which may be washed on a filter till the
+washings are colourless, and preserves its hue with careful drying. The
+orange which we thus obtained stood well in a book, but it cannot be
+recommended as an artistic pigment. Perhaps in dyeing, the lead and
+gamboge solutions might be worth a trial.
+
+168. _Laque Minérale_
+
+is a French pigment, a species of chromic orange, similar to the orange
+chromate of lead. This name is likewise given to orange oxide of iron.
+
+169. _Madder Orange_,
+
+or Orange Lake. It has been said that the yellows so-called produced
+from madder are not remarkable for stability, differing therein from the
+reds, purples, russets, and browns. Like them, this 'orange' is of
+doubtful colour and permanence, and not to be met with, brilliant and
+pure, on the palette of to-day. The russet known as Rubens' madder has a
+tendency to orange.
+
+170. _Orange Lead_,
+
+of a dull orange colour, is an orange protoxide of lead or massicot.
+Like litharge, it may be employed in the preparation of drying oils,
+and, being a better drier than white lead, may be substituted for it in
+mixing with pigments which need a siccative, as the bituminous earths.
+
+Minium sometimes leans to orange; and there is made from ceruse a
+peculiar red, _Mineral Orange_.
+
+
+_Orange Orpiment_,
+
+or Realgar, has also been called Red Orpiment, improperly, since it is
+a brilliant orange, inclining to yellow. There are two kinds, a native
+and an artificial, of which the former is the _sandarac_ of the
+ancients, and is rather redder than the latter. They possess the same
+qualities as pigments, and as such resemble yellow orpiment, to which
+the old painters gave the orange hue by heat, naming it alchemy and
+burnt orpiment. Orange orpiment contains more arsenic and less sulphur
+than the yellow, and is of course highly poisonous. It is often
+sophisticated with brickdust and yellow ochre.
+
+172. _Thallium Orange_
+
+is produced when bichromate of potash is added to a neutral salt of the
+protoxide of thallium, as an orange-yellow precipitate. The scarcity of
+the metal precludes their present introduction as pigments, but if the
+chromates of thallium were found to resist the action of light and air,
+and not to become green by deoxidation of the chromic acid, they might
+possibly prove fitted for the palette. It is a question whether their
+_very_ slight solubility in water would be a fatal objection; and,
+although they would be liable to suffer from a foul atmosphere, we are
+inclined to think the effects would not be so lasting as in the
+chromates of lead. Like lead sulphide, the sulphide of thallium ranges
+from brown to brownish-black, or grey-black; and, like it too, is
+subject to oxidation and consequent conversion into colourless sulphate.
+It is, however, much more readily oxidized than sulphate of lead; and
+hence the thallium chromates would doubtless soon regain their former
+hue on exposure to a strong light.
+
+Mr. Crookes, who discovered this new metal in 1861, believes that the
+deep orange shade observable in some specimens of sulphide of cadmium is
+due to the presence of thallium. He has frequently found it, he says, in
+the dark-coloured varieties, and considers the variations of colour in
+cadmium sulphide to be owing to traces of thallium. That thallium
+affects the colour is most probable, but it is not necessarily the cause
+of the orange hue. The tint of cadmium sulphide is a mere matter of
+manufacture, seeing that from the same sample of metal there can be
+obtained lemon-yellow, pale yellow, deep yellow, orange-yellow, and
+orange-red. With deference to the opinion of a chemist so distinguished,
+we hold that thallium rather impairs the beauty of cadmium sulphide than
+imparts to it an orange shade, the thallium being likewise in the form
+of sulphide, and therefore more or less black. On chromate of cadmium,
+made with bichromate of potash, thallium would naturally confer an
+orange hue.
+
+173. _Uranium Orange_
+
+is obtainable by wet and dry methods as a yellowish-red, or, when
+reduced to powder, an orange-yellow, uranate of baryta. It is an
+expensive preparation, superfluous as a pigment.
+
+174. _Zinc Orange._
+
+When hydrochloric acid and zinc are made to act on nitro-prusside of
+sodium, a corresponding zinc compound is formed of a deep orange colour,
+slightly soluble in water, and not permanent.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+For a secondary colour, orange is well represented on the modern
+palette, and can point to some pigments as good and durable as any to be
+found among the primaries. Burnt Sienna, cadmium orange, Mars orange,
+neutral orange, and orange or burnt Roman ochre, are all strictly
+permanent. The so-called orange vermilions were, it will be remembered,
+classed among the reds.
+
+As semi-stable, must be ranked chrome orange; and as fugitive, Chinese
+orange, orange orpiment, and orange lead.
+
+From the foregoing division, the predominance of eligible orange
+pigments over those less trustworthy is manifest. Unfortunately, with
+many painters it is not so manifest that their secondary and compound
+colours should receive as much attention as the primaries, and that it
+is their duty, not only to the art which they practice, but to the
+patrons for whom they practice it, that their orange and green and
+purple hues, should be as durable as their yellows, reds, and blues. For
+such, the introduction of a new permanent pigment is of little interest,
+unless its colour be primary; so wedded are they to that passion for
+compounding which the chemist views with dismay. With dismay, because he
+knows that the rules of mixture are severe, and cannot with impunity be
+altered; that, although disguised in oil or gum, each pigment is a
+chemical compound, with more or less of affinity and power, more or less
+likely to act or be acted upon. Because he knows that, except with the
+most experienced artists, compounding leads to confusion; and that in it
+the temptations to use semi-stable or fugitive colours are strong. Look
+at those tables of mixed tints of which artist-authors are so fond, and
+tell us whether they always bear scrutiny--surely not. Admirable,
+perfect as these tints may be in an artistic sense, how often is their
+beauty like the hectic flush of consumption, which carries with it the
+seeds of a certain death. Will that orange where Indian yellow figures
+ever see old age, or that green with indigo, or purple with cochineal
+lake? Will they not rather spread over the picture the Upas-tree of
+fugacity, and kill it as they die themselves!
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII.
+
+ON THE SECONDARY, GREEN.
+
+
+Green, which occupies the middle station in the natural scale of colours
+and in relation to light and shade, is the second of the secondary
+colours. It is composed of the extreme primaries, _yellow_ and _blue_,
+and is most perfect in hue when constituted in the proportions of three
+of yellow to eight of blue of equal intensities; because such a green
+will exactly neutralize and contrast a perfect red in the ratio of
+eleven to five, either of space or power. Of all compound colours, green
+is the most effective, distinct, and striking, causing surprise and
+delight when first produced by a mixture of blue and yellow, so
+dissimilar to its constituents does it appear to the untutored eye.
+Compounded with orange, green converts it into the one extreme tertiary
+_citrine_; while mixed with purple, it becomes the other extreme
+tertiary _olive_: hence its relations and accordances are more general,
+and its contrasts more agreeable with all colours, than those of any
+other individual colour. Accordingly it has been adopted very wisely in
+nature as the common garb of the vegetal creation. It is, indeed, in
+every respect a central or medial colour, being the contrast,
+compensatory in the proportion of eleven to five, of the middle primary
+_red_, on the one hand, and of the middle tertiary _russet_, on the
+other; while, unlike the other secondaries, all its hues, whether
+tending to blue or yellow, are of the same denomination.
+
+These attributes of green, which render it so universally effective in
+contrasting colours, cause it also to become the least useful in
+compounding them, and the most apt to defile other colours in mixture.
+Nevertheless it forms valuable semi-neutrals of the olive class with
+_black_, for of such subdued tones are those greens by which the more
+vivid tints of nature are opposed. Accordingly, the various greens of
+foliage are always more or less semi-neutral in hue. As green is the
+most general colour of vegetal nature and principal in foliage; so red,
+its harmonizing colour, with compounds of red, is most general and
+principal in flowers. Purple flowers are commonly contrasted with
+centres or variegations of bright yellow, as blue flowers are with like
+relievings of orange; and there is a prevailing hue, or character, in
+the green colour of the foliage of almost every plant, by which it is
+harmonized with the colours of its flowers.
+
+The chief discord of green is blue; and when they approximate or
+accompany each other, they require to be resolved by the opposition of
+warm colours. It is in this way that the warmth of distance and the
+horizon reconciles the azure of the sky with the greenness of a
+landscape. Its less powerful discord is yellow, which needs to be
+similarly resolved by a purple-red, or its principles. In tone, green is
+cool or warm, sedate or gay, either as it inclines to blue or to yellow;
+yet in its general effects it is cool, calm, temperate, and refreshing.
+Having little power in reflecting light, it is a retiring colour, and
+readily subdued by distance: for the same reason, it excites the retina
+less than most colours, and is cool and grateful to the eye. As a colour
+individually, green is eminently beautiful and agreeable, but it is more
+particularly so when contrasted by its compensating colour, red, as it
+often is in nature, even in the green leaves and young shoots of plants
+and trees. "The autumn only is called the painter's season," remarks
+Constable, "from the great richness of the colours of the dead and
+decaying foliage, and the peculiar tone and beauty of the skies; but the
+spring has, perhaps, more than an equal claim to his notice and
+admiration, and from causes not wholly dissimilar,--the great variety of
+tints and colours of the living foliage, accompanied by their flowers
+and blossoms. The beautiful and tender hues of the young leaves and
+buds are rendered more lovely by being contrasted, as they now are, with
+the sober russet browns of the stems from which they shoot, and which
+still show the drear remains of the season that is past."
+
+The number of pigments of any colour is in general proportioned to its
+importance; hence the variety of greens is very great, though the
+classes of those in common use are not very numerous. Of the three
+secondaries, green is the colour most often met with, and, consequently,
+the most often compounded: for this last reason, perhaps, the palette is
+somewhat deficient in really good original greens--more deficient than
+there is any necessity for.
+
+
+CHROME OXIDES.
+
+By numerous methods both wet and dry, oxides of chromium are obtainable
+pale and deep, bright and subdued, warm and cool, opaque and
+transparent: sometimes hydrated, in which case they cannot be employed
+in enamelling; and sometimes anhydrous, when they are admissible
+therein. But whatever their properties may be, chemical, physical, or
+artistic, they are all strictly stable. Neither giving nor receiving
+injury by admixture, equally unaffected by foul gas and exposure to
+light, air, or damp, these oxides are perfectly unexceptionable in every
+respect. For the most part they are eligible in water and oil, drying
+well in the latter vehicle, and requiring in the former much gum. They
+have long been known as affording pure, natural, and durable tints; but,
+until within the last few years, have been rather fine than brilliant
+greens. Lately, however, processes have been devised, yielding them
+almost as bright, rich, and transparent, as the carmine of cochineal
+itself.
+
+175. OXIDE OF CHROMIUM,
+
+_Opaque Oxide of Chromium_, _Green Oxide of Chromium_, _Chrome Oxide_,
+_True Chrome Green_, _Native Green_, _&c._, is found native in an impure
+state as Chrome Ochre, but is always artificially prepared for artistic
+use. Obtained anhydrous by dry modes, this is the only chrome oxide
+available in enamelling, and is the one seen on superior porcelain. It
+is a cold, sober sage green, deep-toned, opaque, and, although dull,
+agreeable to the eye. Its tints with white are peculiarly delicate and
+pleasing, possessing a silvery luminous quality, and giving the effect
+of atmosphere. Being very dense and powerful, it must be employed with
+care to avoid heaviness, and is preferably diluted with a large quantity
+of white, or compounded with transparent yellow. In the hands of a
+master, this gray-green furnishes lustrous hues with brown pink, Italian
+pink, and Indian yellow; three beautiful but fugitive pigments, of
+which the two last may be replaced by aureolin. Of this Mr. Penley
+observes, "as adapted for the colouring of foliage and herbage, it is
+impossible to say too much in its praise. It imparts the vividness and
+freshness of nature to every colour with which it is combined;" and he
+brackets oxide of chromium with aureolin as a compound hue "extremely
+useful." In flat tints, the oxide sometimes does not wash well in water.
+
+176. TRANSPARENT OXIDE OF CHROMIUM
+
+being deficient in body, is only eligible in oil. A very pale
+greyish-white green in powder, it gives an agreeable yellowish green of
+some depth in oil, moderately bright, but not very pure or clear.
+
+We are acquainted with another transparent chrome oxide of far greater
+beauty, brightness, purity, and clearness than the above. Of a bluish
+green hue, a difficulty in getting it to mix with oil renders it at
+present unavailable.
+
+177. VERONESE GREEN,
+
+or _French Veronese Green_, is a comparatively recent introduction,
+similar in colour and general properties to the following; beside which,
+however, it appears dull, muddy, and impure. It is often adulterated
+with arsenic to an enormous extent, which interferes with its
+transparency, mars its beauty, and renders it of course rankly
+poisonous.
+
+178. VIRIDIAN
+
+is a still later addition to the palette, and the only permanent green
+which can be described as gorgeous, being not unlike the richest velvet.
+Pure and clear as the emerald, it may be called the Prussian Blue of
+Greens, of such richness, depth, and transparency is it. In hue of a
+bluish-green, its deepest shades verge on black, while its light tints
+are marked by transparent clearness unsurpassed. No compound of blue and
+yellow will afford a green at once so beautiful and stable, so gifted
+with the quality of light, and therefore so suited for aerial and liquid
+effects. Used with aureolin, it gives foliage greens sparkling with
+sunshine; and, fitly compounded, will be found invaluable for the glassy
+liquidity of seas, in painting which it becomes incumbent to employ
+pigments more or less transparent. "The general failing in the
+representation of the sea is, that instead of appearing liquid and thin,
+it is made to bear the semblance of opacity and solidity. In order to
+convey the idea of transparency, some object is often placed floating on
+the wave, so as to give reflection; and it is strange that we find our
+greatest men having recourse to this stratagem. To say it is not true in
+all cases, is saying too much; but this we do assert, that as a general
+principle it is quite false, and we prove it in this way: water has its
+motion, more or less, from the power of the wind; it is acted upon in
+the mass, and thus divided into separate waves, and these individually
+have their surface ruffled, which renders them incapable of receiving
+reflection. The exception to this will be, where the heaving of the sea
+is the result of some gone-by storm, when the wind is hushed, and the
+surface becomes bright and glassy. In this state, reflections are
+distinctly seen. Another exception will be in the hollow portion of the
+waves, as they curl over, and dash upon the shore."
+
+As viridian, like the sea, is naturally "liquid and thin, bright and
+glassy," the extract we have quoted from Mr. Penley, points to this
+green as a pigment peculiarly adapted for marine painting; in which, it
+may be added, its perfect permanence and transparency will be
+appreciated in glazing. Its fitness for foliage has been remarked; but
+in draperies the colour will prove equally useful, and in illumination
+will be found unrivalled. In the last branch of art, indeed, viridian
+stands alone, not only through its soft rich brilliancy, but by the
+glowing contrast it presents with other colours: employed as a ground,
+it throws up the reds, &c., opposed to it, in a marvellous manner. Like
+the three preceding oxides of chromium, viridian neither injures nor is
+injured by other pigments; is unaffected by light, damp, or impure air;
+and is admissible in fresco. In enamelling it cannot be used; the
+colour, depending on the water of hydration, being destroyed by a strong
+heat.
+
+
+COPPER GREENS
+
+are commercially known as _Emerald Green_, _Malachite Green_, _Scheele's
+Green_, _Schweinfurt Green_, _Verdigris_, _Green Bice_, _Green
+Verditer_, _Brunswick Green_, _Vienna Green_, _Hungary Green_, _Green
+Lake_, _Mineral Green_, _Patent Green_, _Mountain Green_, _Marine
+Green_, _Saxon Green_, _French Green_, _African Green_, _Persian Green_,
+_Swedish Green_, _Olympian Green_, _Imperial Green_, _Mitis Green_,
+_Pickle Green_, &c.
+
+The general characteristics of these greens are brightness of colour,
+well suited to the purposes of house-painting, but seldom adapted to the
+modesty of nature in fine art; considerable permanence, except when
+exposed to the action of damp and impure air, which ultimately blacken
+most of them; and good body. They have a tendency to darken by time, dry
+well as a rule in oil, and are all more or less poisonous, even those
+not containing arsenic.
+
+179. EMERALD GREEN,
+
+_Schweinfurt Green_, _Vienna Green_, _Imperial Green_, _Brunswick
+Green_, _Mitis Green_, &c., is a cupric aceto-arsenite, prepared on the
+large scale by mixing arsenious acid with acetate of copper and water.
+It differs from Scheele's Green, or cupric arsenite, in being lighter,
+more vivid, and more opaque. Powerfully reflective of light, it is
+perhaps the most durable pigment of its class, not sensibly affected by
+damp nor by that amount of impure air to which pictures are usually
+subject: indeed it may be ranked as permanent both in itself and when in
+tint with white. It works better in water than in oil, in which latter
+vehicle it dries with difficulty. Bearing the same relation to greens
+generally as Pure Scarlet bears to reds, its vivid hue is almost beyond
+the scale of other bright pigments, and immediately attracts the eye to
+any part of a painting in which it may be employed. Too violent in
+colour to be of much service, it has the effect, when properly placed,
+of toning down at once, by force of contrast, all the other greens in a
+picture. If discreetly used, it is occasionally of value in the drapery
+of a foreground figure, where a bright green may be demanded; or in a
+touch on a gaily painted boat or barge. When required, no mixture will
+serve as a substitute. Compounded with aureolin, it becomes softened and
+semi-transparent, yielding spring tints of extreme brilliancy and
+beauty.
+
+180. SCHEELE'S GREEN,
+
+or _Swedish Green_, resembles the preceding variety in being a compound
+of copper and arsenic, and therefore rankly poisonous; but differs from
+it in containing no acetic acid, in possessing less opacity, and in
+having a darker shade. It is a cupric arsenite, with the common
+attributes of emerald green, under which name it is sometimes sold. Of
+similar stability, it must not be employed with the true Naples yellow
+or antimoniate of lead, by which it is soon destroyed.
+
+Upon the lavish use of this dangerous pigment in colouring toys,
+dresses, paper-hangings, artificial leaves, and even cheap
+confectionery, it is not our province to enlarge: the constant-recurring
+diseases and deaths, which, directly or indirectly, result from the
+employment of arsenical pigments, are such every-day facts that they are
+merely deplored and forgotten. With arsenic on our heads, our clothes,
+our papers, our sweets, our children's playthings, we are so accustomed
+to live--and die--in a world of poison, that familiarity with it has
+bred contempt. Into the fatal popularity, therefore, of arsenical
+colours for decorative purposes, we shall not further enter; but it
+behoves us to deprecate their presence, and the presence of all
+poisonous pigments, in colour-boxes for the young. It is one of the
+pleasures of childhood to suck anything attractive that comes in its
+way, openly if allowed, furtively otherwise: and as in early life we
+have a preference for brilliancy, so vivid a pigment as Scheele's green
+is an object of special attention. Artistically, it matters little
+whether a pigment is noxious or not, but we hold that poison should not
+be put into the hands of the young; and indeed are of opinion that a box
+of colours is about the worst present a child can receive.
+
+181. MALACHITE GREEN,
+
+or _Mountain Green_, is met with in Cumberland, and is also found in the
+mountains of Kernhausen, whence it is sometimes called _Hungary Green_.
+It is prepared from malachite, a beautiful copper ore employed by
+jewellers, and is a hydrated dicarbonate of copper, combined with a
+white earth, and often striated with veins of mountain blue, to which it
+bears the same relation that green verditer bears to blue verditer. The
+colour, which may be extracted from the stone by the process followed
+for native ultramarine, varies from emerald-green to grass-green, and
+inclines to grey. It has been held in great esteem by some, and
+considered strictly stable, on the assumption, probably, that a pigment
+obtained from a stone like ultramarine, and by the same method, could
+not be otherwise than permanent. That it is so, with respect to light
+and air, there is no denying; but the green, when separated from the ore
+and purified for artistic use, is merely a carbonate of copper, and
+therefore subject to the influence of damp and impure air, in common
+with other non-arsenical copper colours. As a pigment, native malachite
+green has the same composition, or very nearly the same, as that which
+can be artificially produced, and answers to the same tests. Water-rubs
+of the two varieties which we exposed to an atmosphere of sulphuretted
+hydrogen became equally blackened by the gas. Practically, there is
+little or no difference between them: both preserve their colour if kept
+from damp and foul air, both are injured by those agents, and both are
+liable to darken in time, especially when secluded from light. The
+artificial, however, can be obtained of a much finer colour than the
+natural, which it may be made to resemble by admixture with mineral
+gray. On the whole, they can scarcely be recommended for the palette,
+and are certainly inferior in durability to Scheele's and Schweinfurt
+greens. In fresco painting they have been pronounced admissible; but,
+apart from the question of damp, we should deem the conjunction of lime
+with carbonate of copper not favourable to permanence. By the action of
+alkalies, even the native green malachite may be converted into blue;
+and it becomes a question whether the dingy greenish-blue on some
+ancient monuments was not originally malachite green.
+
+182. VERDIGRIS,
+
+or _Viride Æris_, is of two kinds, common or impure, and crystallized or
+_Distilled Verdigris_, or, more properly, refined verdigris. The best is
+made at Montpellier in France, and is a sub-acetate of copper of a
+bright green colour inclining to blue. The least durable of the copper
+greens, it soon fades as a water-colour by the action of light, &c., and
+becomes first white and ultimately black by damp and foul gas. In oil,
+verdigris is permanent with respect to light and air, but moisture and
+an impure atmosphere change its colour, and cause it to effloresce or
+rise to the surface through the oil. It dries rapidly, and is
+exceptionally useful with other greens or very dark colours. In varnish
+it stands better; but cannot be considered safe or eligible, either
+alone or compounded. Vinegar dissolves it, forming a solution used for
+tinting maps, and formerly much employed for colouring pickles, &c.
+
+The painters, who lived at the time when the arts were restored in
+Italy, used this pigment; and the bright greens seen in some old
+pictures are made by glazings of verdigris. It is often largely
+adulterated with chalk and sulphate of copper.
+
+183. MIXED GREEN
+
+Green, being a compound of blue and yellow, may be got by combining
+those colours in the several ways of working--by mixing, glazing,
+hatching, or otherwise blending them in the proportions of the various
+hues required. To obtain a _pure_ green, which consists of blue and
+yellow only, a blue should be chosen tinged with yellow rather than with
+red, and a yellow tinged with blue. If either a blue or a yellow were
+taken, tinged with red, this latter colour would go to produce some grey
+in the compound, which would tarnish the green. The fine nature-like
+greens, which have lasted so well in some of the pictures of the Italian
+schools, appear to have been compounded of ultramarine, or ultramarine
+ashes and yellow. Whatever pigments are employed on a painting in the
+warm yellow hues of the foreground, and blue colouring of the distance
+and sky, are advantageous for forming the greens in landscape, &c.,
+because they harmonize better both in colouring and chemically, and
+impart homogeneity to the whole: a principle conducive to a fine tone
+and durability of effect, and applicable to all mixed tints. In
+compounding colours, it is desirable not only that they should agree
+chemically, but that they should have, as far as possible, the same
+degree of durability. In these respects, aureolin and ultramarine,
+gamboge and Prussian blue, Indian yellow and indigo, are all judicious
+mixtures, although not all to be recommended.
+
+    PERMANENT YELLOWS.     | PERMANENT BLUES.
+                           |
+    Aureolin.              | Cerulian Blue.
+    Cadmium Yellow, pale.  | Cobalt Blue.
+    Cadmium Yellow, deep.  | Genuine Ultramarine.
+    Lemon Yellow.          | Brilliant Ultramarine.
+    Mars Yellow.           | French Ultramarine.
+    Naples Yellow, modern. | New Blue.
+    Ochres.                | Permanent Blue.
+    Orient Yellow.         |
+    Raw Sienna.            |
+
+The foregoing yellows and blues are in no wise inimical to each other,
+and yield the best mixed greens, chemically considered, the palette can
+afford. In an artistic sense, we confess, the result is not so
+satisfactory: the list of blues, it must be admitted, being somewhat
+scant. Among the latter there is no pigment with the wonderful depth,
+richness, and transparency of Prussian blue, and none consequently which
+will furnish with yellow a green of similar quality. That the artist,
+therefore, will dispense with Prussian blue, it would be too much to
+expect. There is, however, less necessity for it since the introduction
+of viridian, a green resembling that which is produced by admixture of
+Prussian blue and yellow, and which may be varied in hue by being
+compounded with aureolin or ultramarine. Our object in this work is to
+give precedence to the chemical rather than the artistic properties of
+pigments, to separate the strictly stable from the semi-stable, and the
+semi-stable from the fugitive. A colour or a mixture may be chemically
+bad but artistically good, and vice versâ; but the chemist looks upon no
+pigment or compound with favour unless it be perfectly permanent, and
+ignores its mere beauty when void of durability. Hence, all artistic
+considerations are set aside in our lists of permanent pigments: if it
+be possible to use them alone, so much the better for the permanence of
+painting; if not, so much the worse will it be, according to the degree
+of fugacity of the colours employed.
+
+184. BRONZE,
+
+and the three succeeding varieties, are greens resembling each other in
+being semi-stable, and more or less transparent. Bronze is a species of
+Prussian green, of a dull blue-black hue. In its deep washes it appears
+a greenish-black with a coppery cast. It is used in ornamental work, and
+sometimes as a background tint for flower pieces.
+
+185. CHROME GREENS,
+
+commonly so called, are compounds of chromate of lead and Prussian blue,
+a mixture which is also known as _Brunswick Green_. Fine bright greens,
+they are suited to the ordinary purposes of mechanic painting, but are
+quite unfit for the artist's craft, chrome yellow reacting upon and
+ultimately destroying Prussian blue when mixed therewith. For the
+latter, cheap cobalts and ultramarines are preferably substituted,
+although they do not yield greens of like power and intensity.
+
+Under the names of English Green, Green Cinnabar, &c., 'new' green
+pigments have been from time to time introduced, which have turned out
+mixtures of Prussian blue and chromate of lead; not made, however, by
+compounding the two, but directly by processes similar to the
+following:--A mixed solution of the acetates of lead and iron is added
+to a mixed solution of the yellow prussiate and chromate of potash, the
+necessary acetate of iron being obtained by precipitating a solution of
+acetate of lead by sulphate of iron, and filtering the supernatant
+liquid. Or; to a solution of Prussian blue in oxalic acid, first
+chromate of potash is added, and then acetate of lead.
+
+By the last process, superior and more permanent chrome greens may be
+produced, free from lead, by using chloride of barium or nitrate of
+bismuth in place of the acetate of lead. Chromate of baryta, or chromate
+of bismuth is then formed, neither of which acts on the Prussian blue.
+
+It should be added that where the latter pigment is present, no green
+will serve for painting walls containing lime, as its action alters the
+tint of the Prussian blue.
+
+186. HOOKER'S GREEN
+
+is a compound of Prussian blue and gamboge, two pigments possessing a
+like degree of stability, and perfectly innocuous to each other. It is a
+mixture more durable and more transparent than chrome greens made with
+chromate of lead. There are two varieties in common use--No. 1, a light
+grass green, in which the yellow predominates; and No. 2, a deeper and
+more powerful green, with a larger amount of blue.
+
+187. PRUSSIAN GREEN,
+
+like the preceding, is composed of Prussian blue and gamboge; but
+contains a very great excess of the former, and is therefore a
+bluish-green of the utmost depth and transparency, verging on black in
+its deep washes. Yellow ochre may be employed instead of gamboge, but is
+not so eligible.
+
+A true Prussian green, which has been recommended as a pigment, can be
+produced as a simple original colour, with a base wholly of iron. It is
+got by partially decomposing the yellow oxalate of protoxide of iron
+with red prussiate of potash. We have made this green and given it a
+fair trial, but our verdict is decidedly against it. In colour it is
+far from being equal to a good compound of Prussian blue and gamboge,
+and it assumes a dirty buff-yellow on exposure to light and air, the
+film of blue on the oxalate more or less disappearing.
+
+Another Prussian green, with a base of cobalt, is obtained by
+precipitating the nitrate of that metal with yellow prussiate of potash.
+According to the mode adopted, and the degree of heat, either a light or
+dark green results; but this also is inferior in colour, and presents no
+advantage as to permanence.
+
+188. SAP GREEN,
+
+_Verde Vessie_, or _Iris Green_, is a vegetal pigment prepared from the
+juice of the berries of the buckthorn, the green leaves of the woad, the
+blue flowers of the iris, &c. It is usually preserved in bladders, and
+is thence sometimes called _Bladder Green_. When good, it is of a dark
+colour and glossy fracture, extremely transparent, and a fine natural
+yellowish green. This gummy juice, inspissated and formed into a cake,
+is occasionally employed in flower painting. It is, however, a very
+imperfect pigment, disposed to attract the moisture of the atmosphere,
+and to mildew; while, having little durability in water and less in oil,
+it is not eligible in the one and is totally useless in the other.
+
+Similar pigments, obtained from coffee-berries, and named Venetian and
+Emerald Greens, are of a colder colour, equally defective and fugitive,
+and now obsolete.
+
+189. TERRE VERTE,
+
+or _Green Earth_, is a sober bluish green with a grey cast. It is a
+species of ochre, containing silica, oxide of iron, magnesia, potash,
+and water. Not bright and of little power, it is a very durable pigment,
+being unaffected by strong light or impure air, and combining with other
+colours without injury. It has not much body, is semi-transparent, and
+dries well in oil. Veins of brownish or reddish ochre are often found
+mixed with terre verte, to the detriment of its colour; and there are
+varieties of this pigment with copper for their colouring matter, which,
+although generally brighter, are inferior in other respects, and not
+true terre vertes. Verona Green and Verdetto or Holy Green, are
+ferruginous native pigments of a warmer hue. These are met with in the
+Mendip Hills, France, Italy, and the island of Cyprus, and have been
+used as pigments from the earliest times. Rubens has availed himself
+much of terre verte, not in his landscapes merely, but likewise in the
+carnation tints in his figures of a dead Christ. It is evident that much
+of the glazing is done with this colour: it is, in fact, most useful in
+glazing; because, having only a thin substance, it can be rendered pale
+by a small portion of white; although in the end it becomes darker by a
+concentration of its molecules. Mérimée states that in the greater part
+of Alexander Veronese's works--in his Death of Cleopatra, in the Louvre,
+for instance--there are some demi-tints which are too green, and which
+it is certain were not so originally. Terre verte, therefore, must be
+employed with caution; and it would be well to ascertain beforehand
+whether a mineral colour will in time become darker than when first laid
+on the picture, by putting a drop of oil on the powder in its natural
+state. If the tone this gives to it be more intense than that which it
+acquires by being ground up, it may fairly be assumed that it will
+attain to the same degree of strength whenever, having completely dried,
+its molecules shall have re-united as closely as it is possible. Umber
+and terra di Sienna are of this class.
+
+In combination with Indian red and Naples yellow, terre verte forms a
+series of mild russet greens, of much use in middle distance.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+190. _Chrome Arseniate_
+
+is an agreeable apple-green colour, prepared from arseniate of potash
+and salts of chromic oxide. It is durable, but possesses no advantages
+over the chrome oxides, and is of course poisonous.
+
+191. _Cobalt Green_,
+
+Rinman's Green, Vert de Zinc or Zinc Green. True cobalt green is made by
+igniting a very large quantity of carbonate of zinc with a very small
+quantity of carbonate of cobalt. To give a green tint to an enormous
+proportion of the former, an inappreciable amount of the latter will
+suffice. Some samples which were analysed, consisted almost entirely of
+zinc, there being only two or three per cent. of cobalt present. This
+green presents an example of a pigment being chemically good and
+artistically bad, or at least indifferent. It is a moderately bright
+green, apt to vary in hue according to the mode of manufacture,
+permanent both alone and compounded, but so sadly deficient in body and
+power, as to have become almost obsolete. With other physical defects,
+and a colour inferior to the chrome oxides, cobalt green has never been
+a favourite with artists, though justly eulogised by chemists.
+
+192. _Copper Borate_
+
+is obtained by precipitating sulphate of copper with borax, washing the
+residue with cold water, and, after drying, igniting it, fusion being
+carefully avoided. In this manner, a pretty yellowish green is produced,
+which upon longer ignition assumes a dark green shade: the mass is
+levigated for use. The compound has the objection of being glassy, and
+possessing little body, but is preferable to verdigris as to permanence.
+
+193. _Copper Chrome_
+
+may be prepared by several methods, but the colour is in no case so fine
+as Scheele's or Schweinfurt green, nor is it as stable.
+
+194. _Copper Stannate_,
+
+or Tin-Copper Green, equals in colour any of the copper greens free from
+arsenic. The cheapest way of making it is to heat 59 parts of tin in a
+Hessian crucible with 100 parts nitrate of soda, and dissolve the mass
+when cold in a caustic alkali. To the clear solution, diluted with
+water, a cold solution of sulphate of copper is added: a reddish-yellow
+precipitate falls, which on being washed and dried, becomes a beautiful
+green. On the palette it would be superfluous, but for common purposes
+might be found of service.
+
+195. _Elsner's Green_
+
+is also a combination of tin and copper. It is made by adding to a
+solution of sulphate of copper a decoction of fustic, previously
+clarified by a solution of gelatine. To this mixture are added ten or
+eleven per cent. of protochloride of tin, and lastly an excess of
+caustic potash or soda. The precipitate is then washed and dried,
+whereupon it takes a green colour tinged with blue, but without the
+brightness or durability of the preceding stannate.
+
+196. _Green Bice_,
+
+or Green Verditer, is the same in substance as blue verditer, which is
+converted into green verditer by boiling. This pigment is one of the
+least eligible of copper greens.
+
+197. _Green Ochre._
+
+By partially decomposing yellow ochre with prussiate of potash, we have
+produced a fine dark blue-green, resembling Prussian green, of great
+depth and transparency. There are, however, difficulties in the process;
+and the results do not warrant us in pronouncing this green superior or
+equal to a mixture of the ochre and Prussian blue.
+
+198. _Green Ultramarine_
+
+is French or artificial ultramarine before the final roasting. It is a
+somewhat bright bluish-green, becoming a dull greenish-blue on continued
+exposure. Chemically, it is not a bad colour; but artists generally have
+decided against it.
+
+199. _Manganese Green_,
+
+or Cassel Green. By several methods, manganate of baryta may be obtained
+either as an emerald-green, a bluish-green, or a pale green. The
+manganates, however, are decomposed by contact with organic matter; and
+hence the green would be liable to suffer from the vehicles employed, as
+well as by being compounded with animal or vegetal pigments.
+
+200. _Mineral Green_
+
+is the commercial name of _Green Lakes_, prepared from sulphate of
+copper. These vary in hue and shade, have all the properties of the
+common non-arsenical copper-greens, and, not being subject to change of
+colour by oxygen and light, stand the weather well, and are excellent
+for the use of the house-painter, &c. Having a tendency to darken and
+blacken by time and foul air, they are not eligible in the nicer works
+of fine art.
+
+Another Mineral Green adopted in Germany as a substitute for the
+poisonous Schweinfurt green, is composed of chromate of lead, carbonate
+of copper, oxide of iron, and chalk. Valueless for the palette, it has
+not the beauty of Schweinfurt green, but is recommended as being free
+from arsenic. It is not, however, altogether harmless, and should not
+be used in confectionery or the like.
+
+201. _Molybdenum Green._
+
+A clear malachite green colour, when dried, is produced from molybdate
+of soda and potash-chrome-alum, or from the molybdate and alum with
+ammonia. Being more expensive than the chrome oxides and not better, its
+introduction, for use by artists, would be attended with no advantage.
+
+There is likewise obtainable a copper molybdate, by adding neutral
+molybdate of soda in excess to sulphate of copper. The precipitate is a
+very pale green colour, flocculent at first, but crystalline after
+washing. Like the chrome molybdate it would be superfluous as a pigment.
+
+202. _Quinine Green_
+
+is rather adapted for a dye than an artist-colour. It is furnished by
+acting on quinine with hypochlorite of lime, hydrochloric acid, and
+ammonia, successively. Thus prepared, the green resembles a resin,
+insoluble in water, but soluble in alcohol, and turned blue by acetic
+acid. Its alcoholic solution dyes silk green, and also woollen and
+cotton when mordanted with albumen.
+
+203. _Roman Green_,
+
+brought from Rome some years back by a President of the Royal Academy,
+appeared to be a mixture of Prussian blue and Dutch or Italian pink. It
+was a fugitive compound, which became blue in fading.
+
+204. _Silicate of Baryta._
+
+One part of silica heated to whiteness with three parts of baryta,
+yields a pale green solid mass, permanent, but deficient in colour when
+ground. It might be employed in enamelling.
+
+205. _Titanium Green_
+
+has been proposed as a substitute for the green arsenical pigments in
+common use; but, apart from its expense, the colour is very inferior to
+Scheele's green, &c. Titanium green is a ferrocyanide of that metal,
+produced by adding yellow prussiate of potash to a solution of titanic
+acid in dilute hydrochloric acid, and heating the mixture to ebullition
+rapidly. The dark green precipitate is washed with water acidulated with
+hydrochloric acid, and dried with great care, since it decomposes at
+temperatures above 100°.
+
+206. _Uranium Green_
+
+is an oxide of a deep dull green colour, inclining to olive, and nearly
+black when in lumps. A durable but unattractive preparation, equalled in
+permanence and far surpassed in beauty by many cheaper compounds.
+
+207. _Vanadium Green_
+
+falls when ferrocyanide of potassium is added to vanadic acid dissolved
+in a strong acid. It is a beautiful green precipitate, but at present
+simply a curiosity, owing to the rarity of the metal vanadium.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Adopting our usual custom of separating the wheat from the chaff, we
+point to the opaque and transparent oxides of chromium, Veronese green,
+viridian, emerald green, Scheele's green, and terre verte, as more or
+less worthy of being dubbed durable.
+
+As semi-stable, malachite green, bronze, Hooker's green, and Prussian
+green, must be classed.
+
+Verdigris, chrome greens, and sap green, should be branded as fugitive:
+the chrome greens, because they are always commercially composed of
+chromate of lead and Prussian blue, two compounds which are semi-stable
+in themselves, but become fugacious when compounded.
+
+A reference to the numbered italicised greens will show that there are
+many not known to the palette, which are nevertheless very greatly
+superior, as regards permanence, to some that disgrace it. Why these
+latter are suffered to hold their position is a mystery not easily
+explained: it is hard to reconcile the deplored degeneracy of modern
+pigments with the popularity of semi-stable and fugitive colours.
+Pictures do not stand, is the common cry; therefore, says the public,
+there are no good pigments now-a-days. To which we answer, newly built
+houses are constantly falling down; therefore there are no good bricks
+in these times. Of a truth, one conclusion is as reasonable as the
+other: in either case, if rotten materials be used, the result cannot be
+lasting; but in neither case does it follow, because such materials are
+employed, that there are no better obtainable. A well-built house
+implies a conscientious builder, and a well-painted picture implies a
+conscientious artist. It is because, we fear, that there are so few
+conscientious artists, that there are so few permanent paintings; not,
+certainly, because there are no good pigments. In this last belief,
+however, the public is encouraged by certain painters, who seek thereby
+to excuse their own shortcomings, forgetting that it is a bad workman
+who finds fault with his tools. It has been well observed that when
+artists speak regrettingly of lost 'systems,' or pigments enjoyed by the
+mediævalists and unattainable now, it would be far better were they to
+make the best use of existing materials, and study their further
+development. There is no need for this cant cry of fugacity, which casts
+such a blight on modern art. Durable pigments are not yet obsolete, they
+have only to be employed and employed properly to furnish paintings
+equal in permanence to those of the old masters. "Titian," says Haydon,
+"got his colours from the colour shops on the Rialto, as we get ours
+from Brown's; and if Apelles or Titian were living now, they would paint
+just as good works with our brushes and colours as with their own."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII.
+
+ON THE SECONDARY, PURPLE.
+
+
+Purple, the third and last of the secondary colours, is composed of
+_red_ and _blue_, in the proportions of five of the former to eight of
+the latter; proportions which constitute a perfect purple, or one of
+such a hue as will neutralize and best contrast a perfect yellow, in the
+ratio of thirteen to three, either of surface or intensity. When mixed
+with its co-secondary colour, green, purple forms the tertiary _olive_;
+and, when compounded with the remaining secondary, orange, it
+constitutes in like manner the tertiary _russet_. Of the three secondary
+colours it is the coolest, as well as the nearest in relation to _black_
+or shade; in which respect, and in never being a warm colour, it
+resembles blue. In other respects also, purple partakes of the
+properties of blue, which is its archeus, or ruling colour; hence it is
+to the eye a retiring colour, that reflects light little, and loses
+rapidly in power in a declining light, and according to the distance at
+which it is viewed. By reason of its being the mean between black and
+blue it becomes the most retiring of all positive colours. Nature
+employs this hue beautifully in landscape, as a sub-dominant, in
+harmonizing the broad shadows of a bright sunshine ere the light sinks
+into deep orange or red. Girtin, who saw Nature as she is, and painted
+what he saw, delighted in this effect of sunlight and shadow. As a
+ruling colour, whether in flesh or otherwise, purple is commonly too
+cold, or verges on ghastliness, a fault which is to be as much avoided
+as the opposite extreme of viciousness in colouring, stigmatized as
+foxiness.
+
+Yet, next to green, purple is the most generally pleasing of the
+consonant colours; and has been celebrated as a regal or imperial
+colour, as much perhaps from its rarity in a pure state, as from its
+individual beauty. Romulus wore it in his trabea or royal mantle, and
+Tullus Hostilius, after having subdued the Tuscans, assumed the pretexta
+or long robe, broadly striped with purple. Under the Roman emperors, it
+became the peculiar emblem or symbol of majesty, and the wearing of it
+by any who were not of the Imperial family, was deemed a "treasonable
+usurpation," punishable by death. At the decline of the empire, the
+Tyrian purple was an important article of commerce, and got to be common
+in the clothing of the people. Pliny says, "Nepos Cornelius, who died in
+the reign of Augustus Cæsar, when I was a young man, assured me that
+the light violet purple had been formerly in great request, and that a
+pound of it usually fetched 100 denaria (about £4 sterling): that soon
+after the tarentine or reddish purple came into fashion; and that this
+was followed by the Tyrian dibapha, which could not be bought for less
+than 1000 denaria (nearly £40 sterling) the pound; which was its price
+when P. Lentulus Spinter was Ædile, Cicero being then Consul. But
+afterwards, the double-dyed purple became less rare, &c." The Tyrian
+purple alluded to was obtained from the purpuræ, a species of shell-fish
+adhering to rocks and large stones in the sea adjoining Tyre. On
+account, probably, of its extreme costliness, it was frequently the
+custom to dye the cloth with a ground of kermes or alkanet, previous to
+applying the Tyrian purple. This imparted to the latter a crimson hue,
+and explains doubtless the term, double-dyed. The Greeks feigned the
+ancient purple to be the discovery of Hercules Tyrius, whose dog, eating
+by chance of the fish from which it was produced, returned to him with
+his mouth tinged with the dye. Alexander the Great is said to have found
+in the royal treasury, at the taking of Susa, purple to the enormous
+value of 5000 talents,[A] which had lain there one hundred and
+ninety-two years, and still preserved its freshness and beauty.
+
+When inclining to red, purple takes the name of _crimson_, &c.; and when
+leaning to blue, the names of _violet_, _lilac_, _mauve_, _&c._ Blue is
+a colour which it serves to mellow, or follows well into shade. The
+contrast or harmonizing colour of purple is yellow on the side of light
+and the primaries; while purple itself is the harmonizing contrast of
+the tertiary _citrine_ on the side of shade, and less perfectly so of
+the semi-neutral _brown_. As the extreme primaries, blue and yellow,
+when either compounded or opposed, afford, though not the most perfect
+harmony, yet the most pleasing consonance of the primary colours; so the
+extremes, purple and orange, yield the most pleasing of the secondary
+consonances. This analogy extends likewise to the extreme tertiary and
+semi-neutral colours, while the mean or middle colours furnish the most
+agreeable contrasts or harmonies.
+
+In nature pure purple is not a common colour, and on the palette purple
+pigments are singularly few. They lie under a peculiar disadvantage as
+to apparent durability and beauty of colour, owing to the neutralizing
+power of yellowness in the grounds upon which they are laid; as well as
+to the general warm colour of light, and the yellow tendency of almost
+all vehicles and varnishes, by which the colour of purple is subdued.
+
+208. BURNT CARMINE
+
+is the carmine of cochineal partially charred till it resembles in
+colour the purple of gold, for which, in miniature and water-painting,
+it is substituted. It is a magnificent reddish purple of extreme
+richness and depth, eligible in flower-painting and the shadow of
+draperies. As it is generally impossible, however, to alter the nature
+of a pigment by merely changing its colour, burnt carmine is scarcely
+more permanent than the carmine from which it is produced. If used,
+therefore, it should be in body, and not in thin washes or as a glaze.
+Durable pigments are admissible in any form; but semi-stable pigments
+(gamboge excepted) should only be employed in body.
+
+209. BURNT LAKE
+
+holds the same relation to crimson lake as burnt carmine to ordinary
+carmine; and is hence a weaker variety of the preceding, with less
+richness, and likewise less permanence.
+
+210. INDIAN PURPLE
+
+is prepared by precipitating an extract of cochineal with sulphate of
+copper. It is a very deep-toned but rather cold and subdued purple,
+neither so red nor so brilliant as burnt carmine; and is chiefly of
+service in draperies. It is apt to lose its purple colour in a great
+measure on exposure to light and air, and assume an inky blackness; a
+defect which becomes less apparent when the pigment is used in bulk.
+
+211. MARS VIOLET,
+
+_Violet de Mars_, _Purple Ochre_, or _Mineral Purple_, is a dark ochre,
+native of the Forest of Dean in Gloucestershire. It is of a murrey or
+chocolate colour, and forms cool tints of a purple hue with white. It is
+of a darker colour than Indian red, which has also been classed among
+purples, but has a similar body and opacity, and generally resembles
+that pigment. It may be prepared artificially, and some natural red
+ochres burn to this colour. Being difficult and sometimes impossible to
+procure, Mars violet is often compounded; in which case it is liable to
+vary both in hue and stability. As, however, Indian red is always taken
+for its basis, the mixture is never wholly fugitive, nor exhibits any
+very glaring contrast on exposure.
+
+212. MIXED PURPLE.
+
+Purple being a secondary colour, composed of _blue_ and _red_, it
+follows of course that any blue and red pigments, which are not
+chemically at variance, may be employed in producing mixed purples of
+any required hue, either by compounding or grinding them together ready
+for use, or by combining them in the various modes of operation in
+painting. In such compounding, the more perfect and permanent the
+original colours are, the more perfect and permanent will be the purple
+obtained. To produce a pure purple, neither the red nor the blue must
+contain or incline to yellow; while to compound a durable purple, both
+the red and the blue must be durable also. Ultramarine and the reds of
+madder yield beautiful and excellent purples, equally stable in water or
+oil, in glazing or tint, whether under the influence of light or impure
+air. Cobalt blue and madder red likewise afford good purples; and some
+of the finest and most delicate purples in ancient paintings appear to
+have been composed of ultramarine and vermilion, which furnish tints
+equally permanent, but less transparent than the above, and less easily
+compounded. Facility of use, and other advantages, are obtained at too
+great a sacrifice by the employment of perishable mixtures, such as the
+lakes of cochineal with indigo.
+
+    PERMANENT REDS. | PERMANENT BLUES.
+                    |
+    Cadmium Red.    | Cerulian Blue.
+    Liquid Rubiate. | Cobalt Blue.
+    Madder Carmine. | Genuine Ultramarine.
+    Rose Madder.    | Brilliant Ultramarine.
+    Mars Red.       | French Ultramarine.
+    Ochres.         | New Blue.
+    Vermilions.     | Permanent Blue.
+
+It should be noted that all the above reds do not afford pure purples
+with blue; those which contain more or less yellow, as cadmium red and
+orange vermilion, furnish purples partaking more or less of olive, which
+is a compound of purple and green. To those reds may be added the russet
+Rubens Madder and the marrone Madder Brown, two pigments which are alike
+eligible for mixed purple and mixed orange. No purple, it will be
+remarked, equal in gorgeous richness to that produced from crimson lake
+and Prussian blue is obtainable from the colours given; just as no mixed
+green is of such depth and power if that blue be wanting as a
+constituent. But, as our compound tints are given rather as examples of
+durability than beauty, all semi-stable or fugitive mixtures are of
+necessity ignored.
+
+213. PURPLE MADDER,
+
+_Field's Purple_, or _Purple Rubiate_, is the only durable organic
+purple the palette possesses. Marked by a soft subdued richness rather
+than by brilliancy, it leans somewhat towards marrone, and affords the
+greatest depth of shadow without coldness of tint. Unfortunately, in the
+whole range of artistic pigments there is no colour obtainable in such
+small quantity as madder purple; hence its scarcity and high price cause
+it to be confined to water-colour painting, in which the clearness and
+beauty of its delicate tones render it invaluable in every stage of a
+drawing. With raw Sienna and indigo or Prussian blue, subdued by black,
+it gives beautiful shadow tints, and will be found useful in sky and
+other effects compounded with cobalt, rose madder, French blue and
+sepia, yellow ochre and cobalt, lamp black and cobalt, light red,
+Vandyke brown, burnt Sienna, or aureolin. With great transparency, body,
+and depth, it is pure and permanent in its tints, neither gives nor
+sustains injury on admixture, dries and glazes well in oil, works well,
+and is altogether most perfect and eligible. For fresco it is admirably
+adapted, being quite uninjured by lime.
+
+There is a lighter and slightly brighter sort, containing less colouring
+matter and more base, which has all the properties of the above with
+less intensity of colour. For the sake of cheapness, the purple is
+sometimes compounded in oil, generally of brown madder and a blue.
+Provided the latter be stable, transparent, and mix kindly, no greater
+objection can be taken to this than to the neutral orange of brown
+madder and yellow ochre.
+
+214. VIOLET CARMINE
+
+is a brilliant bluish purple of much richness, employed in draperies and
+the like. It is prepared by precipitating an alcoholic extract of the
+root of the _Anchusa tinctoria_, commonly known as alkanet, a plant
+growing in the Levant, and some other warm countries. It was used by the
+ancients as a dye, or as a groundwork to those stuffs which were to be
+dyed purplish-red: the ladies in ancient times also employed it as a
+paint. Its colouring matter or _anchusin_ has the character of a resin,
+and is dark-red, softened by heat, insoluble in water, soluble in
+alcohol and alkalis, and freely so in ether, fats, and volatile oils, to
+all of which it imparts a brilliant red hue. To obtain anchusin, all the
+soluble matters are first abstracted from the bruised root by water: it
+is then digested in a solution of carbonate of potash, from which it may
+be readily precipitated by an acid. Its alcoholic solution yields with
+different reagents crimson, flesh-coloured, blue, and violet
+precipitates, none of which, however, can be classed as durable. The
+variety under notice, violet carmine, resembles the other colours
+afforded by alkanet in not being able to withstand the action of light.
+On continued exposure, it loses its beauty and brightness, together with
+much of its colour, and, like Indian purple, assumes an inky blackness.
+Hence it is unsuited to permanently pure effects, and should only be
+used in body.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+215. _Archil Purple._
+
+Archil may be regarded as the English, cudbear as the Scotch, and litmus
+as the Dutch name for one and the same substance, extracted from
+several species of lichens by various processes. These lichens, which
+are principally collected on rocks adjacent to the sea, are cleaned and
+ground into a pulp with water, treated from time to time with ammoniacal
+liquor, and exposed with frequent agitation to the action of the
+atmosphere. Peculiar principles existing in the lichens are, by the
+joint instrumentality of the air, water, and ammonia, so changed as to
+generate colouring matter, which, when perfect, is expressed. Soluble in
+water and alcohol, this colouring principle yields by precipitation with
+chloride of calcium a compound known as 'Solid French Purple', a pigment
+more stable than the archil colours generally, but all too fugitive for
+the palette.
+
+216. _Bismuth Purple._
+
+A purple powder is capable of being produced from bismuth by passing
+chlorine gas through the hydrated oxide suspended in a saturated
+solution of potash. As soon as the oxide becomes brown-red, the mixture
+is boiled and the liquid decanted off at once, the residue being
+immediately washed first with alcohol and then with water. On the whole,
+the result is not, for an artistic pigment, worth the trouble involved
+in the preparation.
+
+217. _Burnt Madder_
+
+is obtained by carefully charring madder carmine until it becomes of the
+hue required. Bearing the same relation to madder carmine as burnt
+carmine to the carmine of cochineal, burnt madder is a permanent and
+perfectly unexceptionable pigment. By reason, probably, of its great
+price, it is not mentioned in trade catalogues, and must be held as
+commercially unknown.
+
+218. _Cobalt Purples_
+
+are obtainable ranging from the richest crimson purple to the most
+delicate violet. We have produced them by wet and dry methods, varying
+in brilliancy and beauty, but characterised generally by want of body,
+and frequently by a smalt-like grittiness. Chemically, good and stable
+colours, they are not received with favour on the palette, and certainly
+may be very well replaced by mixtures of cobalt blue and madder red.
+When a permanent compound is obtainable equal in colour to an original
+pigment, and superior in its physical attributes, no objection can
+fairly be taken to its artistic preference. There are other things to be
+considered in a pigment besides permanence, or even permanence and
+colour combined. The two together do not constitute a perfect pigment,
+that is, a material of practical utility and value. In the last
+chapter, allusion was made to a green which possesses both the one and
+the other, and yet is--at present, at least--quite unfitted for artistic
+use. Hence, with a strong partiality for simple original pigments, we
+are bound to confess there are cases where mixtures are justifiably
+preferred. All we contend for is, that each constituent of such mixtures
+should be stable, and neither give nor receive injury by being
+compounded.
+
+219. _Gold Purple_,
+
+Purple of Cassius, or Cassius's Purple Precipitate, was discovered in
+1683 by Cassius of Leyden. It is a compound of tin and gold, best formed
+by mixing aqueous perchloride of iron with aqueous protochloride of tin,
+till the colour of the liquid has a shade of green, and then adding this
+liquid, drop by drop, to a solution of perchloride of gold, which is
+free from nitric acid and very dilute: after twenty-four hours the
+purple is deposited. When recently prepared, the colour is brightened by
+boiling nitric acid. Not brilliant, but rich and powerful, this purple
+varies in hue according to the mode of manufacture from deep crimson to
+murrey or dark purple: it also differs in degrees of transparency.
+Working well in water, it is an excellent though costly pigment, once
+popular in miniatures, but at present rarely, if ever used, as purple
+madder is cheaper, and perfectly well supplies its place. Retaining its
+colour at a high red heat, it is now confined to enamel and porcelain
+painting, and to tinging glass of a fine red. If, whilst in its hydrated
+state, it be washed with ammonia, a bright purple liquid results, from
+which a violet colour, somewhat less expensive, can be produced, by
+combining the gold purple with alumina, and calcining the product in the
+same way that is practised with cobalt. This compound may be exposed to
+the action of the sun's rays for a year without being sensibly affected.
+
+220. _Prussian Purple._
+
+A prussiate of iron is obtainable of a violet hue, affording good shadow
+tints and clear pale washes. It has not, however, been introduced as a
+pigment, as ordinary Prussian blue tinged with red furnishes a similar
+colour.
+
+221. _Sandal Wood Purple._
+
+Sandal wood contains about 16 per cent. of colouring matter, soluble
+with difficultly in water, but readily dissolved by alcohol. From the
+latter solution, chloride of tin throws down a purple, and sulphate of
+iron a deep violet precipitate; neither of which is remarkable for
+permanence.
+
+222. _Tin Violet._
+
+By heating chromate of stannic oxide to bright redness, a dark violet
+mass is obtained, which is better adapted to enamel painting than to the
+palette. It communicates in glazings a variety of tints, from rose-red
+to violet.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+So scant is the number of good purples in common use, that there are but
+two which can be classed as durable, namely, purple madder and the true
+Mars violet.
+
+Foremost in the second group stands burnt carmine. As there are
+different degrees both of permanence and fugacity, so are there
+different degrees of semi-stability. Burnt carmine, burnt lake, Indian
+purple, and violet carmine, all belong to this division; but the first
+certainly is more permanent than the rest.
+
+Rich and beautiful as it is, purple madder cannot be called brilliant;
+while Mars violet is, of course, ochrous. Unlike green and orange,
+therefore, purple can point to no original pigment at once vivid and
+durable: as regards purple, brilliancy implies a semi-stability that
+borders more or less closely on fugacity. Until the advent of a perfect
+palette, however, brilliancy and semi-stability will doubtless hold
+their own. Their present popularity may be seen by a glance at the lists
+of artist-colours--lists compiled, be it remembered, in obedience to
+the law of demand and supply. If art were really so much honoured as
+some of its disciples pretend, none but durable colours would be
+employed. In our opinion, if a picture be worth painting at all, it is
+worth painting with permanent pigments; but many evidently think
+otherwise. Deploring an error neither flattering to the craft they
+practise nor to themselves, we would urge such to bear in mind this
+axiom, semi-stable pigments become fugitive when used in thin washes.
+Even in body they do not preserve their primitive hue, but in glazing
+and the like, their colour altogether flies or is wholly destroyed.
+
+It is this semi-stability, recommended to the thoughtless and
+indifferent by the beauty which generally accompanies it, that is the
+bane of modern art. Even our greatest painters have yielded to its
+fascination. Who has not gazed upon one of Turner's fading pictures with
+still more of sadness than enjoyment, that anything so grand, so
+beautiful, so true, should slowly but surely be passing away? A feeling
+akin to pity is conjured up at the sight of the helpless wreck,
+abandoned amid the treacherous materials employed, and sinking deeper
+and deeper. Mournful, indeed, is that mighty ruin of mind amid matter;
+mournful the thought that in years to come, the monument sought for will
+not be found.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[A] A talent of money, _i.e._, a talent's weight of silver, was equal to
+nearly £244.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV.
+
+ON THE TERTIARY, CITRINE.
+
+
+Citrine, or the colour of the citron, is the first of the tertiary class
+of colours, or ultimate compounds of the primary triad, yellow, red, and
+blue; in which yellow is the archeus or predominating colour, and blue
+the extreme subordinate. For citrine being an immediate compound of the
+secondaries, _orange_ and _green_, of both which yellow is a
+constituent, the latter colour is of double occurrence therein, while
+the other two primaries enter singly into its composition. The mean or
+middle hue comprehends eight blue, five red, and six yellow, of equal
+intensities.
+
+Hence citrine, according to its name, which is that of a class of
+colours and used commonly for a dark yellow, partakes in a subdued
+degree of all the powers of its archeus yellow. In estimating,
+therefore, its properties and effects in painting, it is to be regarded
+as participating of all the relations of yellow. By some this colour is
+improperly called brown, as almost all broken colours are. The
+harmonizing contrast of citrine is a _deep purple_, which may be seen
+beautifully opposed to it in nature, when the green of summer declines.
+As autumn advances, citrine tends towards its orange hues, including the
+colours termed aurora, chamoise, and others before enumerated under the
+head of yellow. It is the most advancing of the tertiary colours, or
+nearest in relation to light; and is variously of a tender, modest,
+cheering character.
+
+To understand and relish the harmonious relations and expressive powers
+of the tertiary colours, require a cultivation of perception and a
+refinement of taste for which study and practice are needed. To a great
+extent the colourist, like the poet, is born not made; but although he
+must have an innate sense of the beautiful and the true, hard work
+alone, with his head, his eyes, and his hands, will enable him to learn
+and turn to account the complex beauties and relations of tertiary
+colours. They are at once less definite and less generally evident, but
+more delightful--more frequent in nature, though rarer in common art,
+than the like relations of the secondaries and primaries. There is very
+little pure colour in the world: now and then a gleam dazzles us, like a
+burst of sunshine through grey mists; but as a rule, nature prefers
+broken colours to absolute hues. Most pure in spring, most full in
+summer, most mellow in autumn, most sober in winter, her tints and
+shades of colour are always more or less interlaced, from white and the
+primaries to the semi-neutral and black.
+
+Of original citrine-coloured pigments there are only a few, unless we
+include several imperfect yellows which might not improperly be called
+citrines. The following are best entitled to this appellation:--
+
+223. BROWN PINK,
+
+_Brown Stil de Grain_, _Citrine Lake_, or _Quercitron Lake_ is usually
+prepared from the berries of Avignon (ramnus infectorius), better known
+as French, Persian, or Turkey berries; but a more durable and quicker
+drying species is obtained from the quercitron bark. If produced from
+the former, it must be branded as fugitive, but if from the latter, it
+may be termed semi-stable. In either case it is a lake, precipitated
+from the alkaline decoction by means of alum, in such proportions that
+the alkali shall not be more than half saturated. The excess of soda or
+potash employed imparts a brown hue; but the lake being in general an
+orange broken by green, falls into the class of citrine colours,
+sometimes inclining to greenness, and sometimes towards the warmth of
+orange. It works well both in water and oil, in the latter of which it
+is of great depth and transparency, but its tints with white lead are
+very fugitive, and in thin glazing it does not stand: the berry variety
+dries badly. A fine rich colour, more beautiful than eligible, it is
+popular in landscape for foliage in foregrounds. Modified by admixture
+with burnt Sienna or gamboge, it yields a compound which, with the
+addition of a small quantity of indigo, gives a warm though not very
+durable green. In many of the Flemish pictures the foliage has become
+blue from the yellowish lake, with which the ultramarine was mixed,
+having faded.
+
+It has been remarked that the alteration made by time in semi-stable
+pigments is not so observable when they are employed in full body. Their
+use generally has been deprecated, but in shadows such vegetable colours
+as brown pink are sometimes of advantage, as they are transparent, lose
+part of their richness by the action of the air, and do not become
+black. Moreover, if mixed with pigments which have a tendency to darken,
+they mitigate it very much. This last, indeed, is the most legitimate
+purpose to which semi-stable pigments whose colour fades on exposure can
+be put.
+
+224. MARS BROWN,
+
+or _Brun de Mars_, is either a natural or artificial ochre containing
+iron, or iron and manganese. Of much richness and strict permanence, it
+resembles raw umber in being a brown with a citrine cast, but is
+generally marked by a flush of orange which is not so observable in the
+latter pigment.
+
+225. MIXED CITRINE.
+
+What has been before remarked of the mixed secondary colours is more
+particularly applicable to the tertiary, it being more difficult to
+select three homogeneous substances of equal powers as pigments than
+two, that shall unite and work together cordially. Hence the mixed
+tertiaries are still less perfect and pure than the secondaries; and as
+their hues are of extensive use in painting, original pigments of these
+colours are proportionably estimable to the artist. Nevertheless there
+are two evident principles of combination, of which he may avail himself
+in producing these colours in the various ways of working; the one being
+that of combining two original secondaries; and the other, of uniting
+the three primaries in such a manner that the archeus shall predominate.
+Thus in the case of citrine, either orange and green may be directly
+compounded; or yellow, red, and blue be so mixed that the yellow shall
+be in excess.
+
+These colours are, however, obtained in many instances with best and
+most permanent effect, not by the intimate combination of pigments upon
+the palette, but by intermingling them, in the manner of nature, on the
+canvas, so as to produce the appearance at a proper distance of a
+uniform colour. Thus composed is the _citrine_ colour of fruit and
+foliage, on inspecting which we distinctly trace the stipplings of
+orange and green, or of yellow, red, and green. The truth and beauty
+resulting from such stipplings in art may be seen in the luscious
+fruit-pieces of the late W. Hunt, where the bloom on the plum, the down
+of the peach, &c., are given with wondrous fidelity to nature. In the
+_russet_ hues of autumn foliage, where purple and orange have broken or
+superseded the summer green, this interlacing of colour appears; and
+also in the _olive_ foliage of the rose-tree, formed in the individual
+leaf by the ramification of purple in green. Besides the durable
+yellows, reds, and blues, the following orange and green pigments are
+eligible for mixed citrines. They may likewise, however, be safely and
+simply compounded by slight additions, to an original brown, of that
+primary or secondary tone which is requisite to give it the required
+hue.
+
+    PERMANENT ORANGE.  | PERMANENT GREEN.
+                       |
+    Burnt Roman Ochre. | Oxide of Chromium, opaque.
+    Burnt Sienna.      | Oxide of Chromium, transparent.
+    Cadmium Orange.    | Veronese Green.
+    Mars Orange.       | Viridian.
+    Neutral Orange.    | Emerald Green.
+                       | Scheele's Green.
+                       | Terre Verte.
+
+226. RAW UMBER,
+
+or Umber, is a natural ochre, chiefly composed of oxide of manganese,
+oxide of iron, silica, and alumina. It is said to have been first
+brought from ancient Ombria, now Spoleto, in Italy. Found in England,
+and in most parts of the world, that which comes from Cyprus, under the
+name of Turkish or Levant umber, is the best. Of a quiet brown-citrine
+colour, semi-opaque, it dries rapidly, and injures no other good pigment
+with which it may be mixed. By time it grows darker, a disadvantage
+which may be obviated by compounding it with colours which pale on
+exposure. For light shadow tones and delicate grays it is extremely
+useful, and yields with blue most serviceable neutral greens. To mud
+walls, tints for stone, wood, gray rocks, baskets, yellow sails, and
+stormy seas, this citrine is suited. Some artists have painted on
+grounds primed with umber, but it has penetrated through the lighter
+parts of the work. Mérimée states that there are several of Poussin's
+pictures so painted; that fine series, "The Seven Sacraments," being
+clearly among the number.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+227. _Cassia Fistula_
+
+is a native vegetal pigment, though it is more commonly employed as a
+medicinal drug. It is brought from the East and West Indies in a sort of
+cane, in which it is naturally produced. As a pigment it is deep,
+transparent, of an imperfect citrine colour, inclining to dark green,
+and diffusible in water without grinding, like gamboge and sap green.
+Once sparingly used in water as a sort of substitute for bistre, it is
+not now to be met with on the palette.
+
+228. _Citrine Brown._
+
+From boiling, hot, or cold solutions of bichromate of potash and
+hyposulphite of soda in excess, we have obtained an agreeable
+citrine-brown colour, varying in hue and tint according to the mode of
+preparation and proportions of materials employed. It is a hydrated
+oxide of chromium which, when washed and carefully dried, yields a soft
+floury powder. Transparent, and affording clear, delicate pale washes,
+the oxide has not been introduced as a pigment; partly owing to certain
+physical objections, and partly to a tendency to greenness. This
+tendency is peculiar to all the brown chrome oxides of whatever hue,
+whether hydrated or anhydrous; and indeed distinguishes more or less
+nearly all the compounds of chromium. Green, in fact, is the natural
+colour of such compounds, the colour which they are constantly
+struggling to attain; and hence it is that the green oxides of chromium,
+being clothed in their native hue, are of such strict stability. The
+inclination to green which the citrine under notice possesses, may be
+seen by washing the precipitate with boiling water. It has been
+supposed that hydrated brown oxide of chromium is not a distinct
+compound of chromium and oxygen, but a feeble union of the green oxide
+with chromic acid. If this be the case, the citrine cast of the brown
+oxide is easily explained, as well as the gradual addition to its green
+by the deoxidation of the chromic acid.
+
+In mixed tints for autumn foliage and the like, the tendency to green of
+this citrine brown would be comparatively unimportant; but whether the
+oxide be adapted to the palette or not, we believe the colour might be
+utilized. In dyeing, for instance, the solutions of bichromate of potash
+and hyposulphite of soda would be worth a trial, the liquids of course
+being kept separate, and the brown washed with cold water. Various
+patterns could be printed with the bichromate on a ground previously
+treated with hyposulphite.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Several other browns, and ochrous earths, partake of a citrine hue, such
+as Cassel Earth, Bistre, &c. But in the confusion of names, infinity of
+tones and tints, and variations of individual pigments, it is impossible
+to arrive at an unexceptionable or universally satisfactory arrangement.
+We have therefore followed a middle and general course in distributing
+pigments under their proper heads.
+
+Of the three citrines in common use, Mars brown and raw umber are
+strictly stable; while brown pink, the purest original citrine the
+palette possesses, is either semi-stable or fugitive, according to the
+colouring substance used in its preparation.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV.
+
+ON THE TERTIARY, RUSSET.
+
+
+Russet, the second or middle tertiary colour, is, like citrine,
+constituted ultimately of the three primaries, red, yellow, and blue;
+but with this difference--instead of yellow as in citrine, the archeus
+or predominating colour in russet is red, to which yellow and blue are
+subordinates. For _orange_ and _purple_ being the immediate constituents
+of russet, and red being a component part of each of those colours, it
+follows that red enters doubly into russet, while yellow and blue appear
+but once therein. The proportions of its middle hue are eight blue, ten
+red, and three yellow, of equal intensities. Thus composed, russet takes
+the relations and powers of a subdued red; and many pigments and dyes of
+the latter denomination are strictly of the class of russet colours. In
+fact, nominal distinction of colours is only relative; the gradation
+from hue to hue, as from tint to tint, and shade to shade, being of such
+unlimited extent, that it is impossible to pronounce absolutely where
+one hue, tint, or shade ends, and another begins.
+
+The harmonizing, neutralizing, or contrasting colour of russet, is a
+_deep green_; or when the russet inclines to orange, a _gray_ or
+_subdued blue_. These are often beautifully opposed in nature, being
+medial accordances or in equal relation to light, shade and other
+colours, and among the most agreeable to sense.
+
+Russet, as we have said, partakes of the relations of red, but it is a
+hue moderated in every respect, and qualified for greater breadth of
+display in the colouring of nature and art; less so, perhaps, than its
+fellow-tertiaries in proportion as it is individually more beautiful.
+The powers of beauty are ever most effective when least obtrusive; and
+its presence in colour should be chiefly evident to the eye that seeks
+it--not so much courting as being courted.
+
+Of the tertiary colours, russet is the most important to the artist; and
+there are many pigments classed as red, purple, &c., which are of russet
+hues. But there are few true russets, and only one original pigment of
+that colour is now known on the palette, to wit--
+
+229. RUBENS' MADDER,
+
+_Orange Russet_, _Russet Rubiate_, or _Field's Russet_. This is a very
+rich crimson russet with a flush of orange; pure, transparent, and of a
+middle hue between orange and purple. Prepared from the madder root, it
+is not subject to change by the action of light, time, or mixture of
+other pigments. Although not so much employed as the marrone Madder
+Brown, it is serviceable both as a local and auxiliary colour in
+compounding and producing with yellow the glowing hues of autumnal
+foliage, &c.; and with blue, the beautiful and endless variety of grays
+in skies, flesh, &c. A good glazing colour, its thin washes afford fine
+flesh tints in water: as an oil pigment it dries indifferently, and
+requires to be forced by the addition of a little gold size or varnish.
+Cappah brown and burnt umber sadden it to the rich tones adapted for
+general use in shadows. So saddened, this lake meets admirably the dark
+centres of the upper petals of certain fancy geraniums, while alone its
+pale washes are equally well suited to the lower leaves.
+
+230. MIXED RUSSET.
+
+What has been remarked in the preceding chapter upon the production of
+mixed citrine colours, is likewise applicable to mixed russet. By the
+immediate method of producing it materially from its secondaries, good
+and durable colours are obtained by compounding the following orange and
+purple pigments--
+
+    PERMANENT ORANGE.  | PERMANENT PURPLE.
+                       |
+    Burnt Roman Ochre. | Mars Violet, true.
+    Burnt Sienna.      | Purple Madder.
+    Cadmium Orange.    |
+    Mars Orange.       |
+    Neutral Orange.    |
+
+Many other less eligible duple and triple compounds of russet are
+obvious upon principle, and it may be produced by adding red in due
+predominance to some browns; but these, like most mixtures, are inferior
+to original pigments. To the orange colours there may be added cadmium
+red and the orange vermilions, pigments which were classed among the
+reds, but which contain sufficient yellow to render them adapted for
+either compound russets or compound citrines. And as of original purple
+pigments there are two only which are stable, such mixtures as madder
+red and French blue will help to swell the list of available permanent
+purples. Rubens' madder itself may be changed in hue by being first
+mixed with blue and then with orange.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+231. _Prussiate of Copper_
+
+differs chemically from Prussian blue only in having copper instead of
+iron for its basis. It varies in hue from russet to purple brown, is
+transparent and deep, but, being very liable to change in colour by the
+action of light and by other pigments, has never been much used, and is
+now obsolete. The compound has the objection of containing free
+prussiate of potash, not removable by continued washing--sometimes as
+much as five per cent.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+There are several other pigments which enter imperfectly into, or verge
+upon, the class of russet, which, having obtained the names of other
+classes to which they are allied, will be found under other heads; such
+are some of the ochres, as Indian red. Burnt carmine is often of the
+russet hue, or convertible to it by due additions of yellow or orange;
+as are burnt Sienna and various browns, by like additions of lake or
+other reds.
+
+The one pigment in this chapter known to the modern palette, Rubens'
+madder, is permanent.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI.
+
+ON THE TERTIARY, OLIVE.
+
+
+Olive is the third and last of the tertiary colours, and nearest in
+relation to shade. Like its co-tertiaries, citrine and russet, it is
+composed of the three primaries, blue, red, and yellow; but is formed
+more directly of the secondaries, _purple_ and _green_, in each of which
+blue is a constituent: hence blue occurs twice in the latter mode of
+forming olive, while red and blue enter therein singly and
+subordinately. Blue is, therefore, in every instance the archeus or
+predominating colour of olive; its perfect or middle hue comprehending
+sixteen of blue to five of red and three of yellow. It partakes in a
+proportionate measure of the powers, properties, and relations of its
+archeus: accordingly, the antagonist or harmonizing contrast of olive is
+a _deep orange_. Like blue, olive is a retiring colour, the most so of
+all the colours, being the penultimate of the scale, or nearest of all
+in relation to black, and last, theoretically, of the regular
+distinctions of colours. Hence its importance in nature and painting is
+almost as great as that of black; it divides the office of clothing the
+face of creation with green and blue; with both which, as with black and
+grey, it enters into innumerable compounds and accordances, changing its
+name as either hue prevails, into green, gray, ashen, slate, &c. Thus
+the olive hues of foliage are called green, and the purple hues of
+clouds are called gray, &c.; but such terms are general only, and
+unequal to the infinite particularity of nature.
+
+This infinity, or endless variation of hue, tint, and relation, of which
+the tertiaries are susceptible, gives a boundless license to the revelry
+of taste, in which the genius of the pencil may display the most
+captivating harmonies of colouring, and the most chaste and delicate
+expressions; too subtle to be defined, too intricate to be easily
+understood, and often too exquisite to be felt by the untutored eye.
+Nature always melodizes by imperceptible gradations, while she
+harmonizes by distinct contrasts. At different seasons we have blossoms
+of all hues, variously subordinated; and when the time of flowers may be
+considered past, as if she had no further use for her fine colours, or
+were willing to display her ultimate skill and refinement, Nature
+lavishes the contents of her palette, not disorderly, but in multiplied
+relations, over all vegetal creation, in those rich and beautiful
+accordances of broken and finishing colours with which autumn is
+decorated ere the year decays and sinks into olive darkness.
+
+As a rule, no colour exists in nature without gradation, which is to
+colours what curvature is to lines. The difference in mere beauty
+between a gradated and ungradated colour may be seen by laying an even
+tint of rose-colour on paper, and putting a rose leaf beside it. The
+victorious beauty of the rose, as compared with other flowers, depends
+wholly on the delicacy and quantity of its colour gradations, all other
+flowers being either less rich in gradation, not having so many folds of
+leaf; or less tender, being patched and veined instead of flushed. It is
+not enough, however, that colour should be gradated in painting by being
+made simply paler or darker at one place than another. Generally, colour
+changes as it diminishes, and is not only darker at one spot, but also
+purer at one spot than elsewhere; although it does not follow that
+either the darkest or the lightest spot should be the purest. Very often
+the two gradations more or less cross each other, one passing in one
+direction from paleness to darkness, another in another direction from
+purity to dulness; but there will almost always be both of them, however
+reconciled. Hence, every piece of blue, say, laid on should be quite
+pure only at some given spot, from which it must be gradated into blue
+less pure--greyish blue, or greenish blue, or purplish blue--over all
+the rest of the space it occupies. In Turner's largest oil pictures,
+there is not one spot of colour as large as a grain of wheat ungradated;
+and it will be found in practice that brilliancy of hue, vigour of
+light, and even the aspect of transparency in shade, are essentially
+dependent on this character alone; hardness, coldness, and opacity,
+resulting far more from equality of colour than from nature of colour.
+Given some mud off a city crossing, some ochre out of a gravel pit, a
+little whitening, and some coal-dust, and a luminous picture might be
+painted, if time were allowed to gradate the mud, and subdue the dust.
+But not with the red of the ruby, the blue of the gentian, snow for the
+light, and amber for the gold, could such a picture be produced, if the
+masses of those colours were kept unbroken in purity, and unvarying in
+depth.
+
+Olive being usually a compound colour both with the artist and mechanic,
+there are few olive pigments in commerce.
+
+232. MIXED OLIVE
+
+may be compounded in several ways; directly, by mixing green and purple;
+or indirectly, by adding to blue a smaller proportion of yellow and red,
+or by breaking much blue with little orange. Cool black pigments,
+combined with yellow ochre, afford eligible olives; hues which are
+called _green_ in landscape, and _invisible green_ in mechanic painting.
+It is to be noted that in producing these and other compound colours on
+the palette or canvass, those mixtures will most conduce to the harmony
+of the performance which are formed of pigments otherwise generally
+employed in the picture. Thus, presuming aureolin to be the principal
+yellow used, the same yellow should be chosen for compounding orange and
+green, or for obtaining indirectly citrine, russet, and olive.
+
+    PERMANENT GREEN.                | PERMANENT PURPLE.
+                                    |
+    Oxide of Chromium, opaque.      | Mars Violet, true.
+    Oxide of Chromium, transparent. | Purple Madder.
+    Veronese Green.                 |
+    Viridian.                       |
+    Emerald Green.                  |
+    Scheele's Green.                |
+    Terre Verte.                    |
+
+As in the case of russet, there may be added to the two original
+purples, mixtures composed of durable reds and blues. There are so many
+ways of producing the tertiaries, that no difficulty can be found in
+compounding them with stable pigments. Each tertiary may be represented
+as follows:--
+
+    CITRINE = Orange          + Green.
+       "    = (Yellow + Red)  + (Yellow + Blue.)
+       "    = 2 Yellow + Red  + Blue.
+
+    RUSSET  = Orange          + Purple.
+       "    = (Yellow + Red)  + (Red + Blue.)
+       "    = 2 Red + Yellow  + Blue.
+
+    OLIVE   = Green           + Purple.
+       "    = (Yellow + Blue) + (Red + Blue.)
+       "    = 2 Blue + Yellow + Red.
+
+From the above equations, and by consulting the lists given of permanent
+primary and secondary colours, the artist will at once see how easily
+and safely he may vary his mode of compounding the tertiaries.
+
+233. OLIVE GREEN,
+
+sometimes called _Dewint's Green_, is an arbitrary compound, or mixed
+green, of a fine deep olive colour and sober richness. Advisedly or not,
+it is used in landscape, sketching, &c.; but only in water, olive lake
+supplying its place in oil. Like many other compound pigments, it is
+either permanent, semi-stable, or fugitive, according to the
+constituents of which it is composed. Generally speaking, it is more
+beautiful than durable, and is often decidedly fugacious, fading on
+exposure. It is impossible for a writer to pronounce an absolute opinion
+on the stability of all mixtures sold in a separate form, inasmuch as
+the compounds of one firm may differ from those of another. We have
+before expressed our dislike to such pigments, and this uncertainty with
+regard to their composition serves to strengthen it. Nevertheless, as
+there are exceptions to every rule, it must be admitted that the palette
+possesses compounds always to be relied upon.
+
+234. OLIVE LAKE
+
+is in commerce exclusively an oil colour. When true, it is a lake
+prepared from the green ebony, or laburnum, and is of considerable
+permanence, transparency, and depth, both in water and oil; in which
+latter vehicle it dries well. This variety, however, may be said to be
+obsolete; having given way to a mixture, usually semi-stable, and liable
+to blacken.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+235. _Burnt Verdigris_
+
+is what its name expresses, and is an olive-coloured oxide of copper
+deprived of acid. It dries remarkably well in oil, is more durable than
+the original verdigris, and is in other respects an improved and more
+eligible pigment, although not to be recommended.
+
+236. _Olive Oxide of Chromium._
+
+An olive oxide of this metal is obtainable, transparent, of strict
+stability, and altogether superior to any original or compound olive
+pigment as yet known. Eligible either in water or oil, it is admirably
+adapted for autumn foliage, where a quiet, subdued, nature-like green
+is required. It has not, however, been introduced, partly because of its
+expense, and partly because a mixture of other pigments with the
+ordinary chrome oxides sufficiently answers the purpose. There are more
+good colours in the world than are dreamt of in the palette's
+philosophy, but either they are not wanted, or are too costly to sell.
+In a great measure, both art and science are dependent on commerce.
+
+237. _Olive Rinman's Green._
+
+A compound analogous to cobalt green may be made, of an olive hue, with
+more body, and equally stable.
+
+238. _Olive Scheele's Green._
+
+Cupric arsenite, when heated, gives off arsenious acid and water,
+leaving a residue of arsenide of copper and copper arseniate. A series
+of olive colours is so afforded, which are as durable as their original
+pigment, and might with advantage be substituted for the doubtful
+compounds at present in use.
+
+239. _Olive Schweinfurt Green_
+
+is likewise furnished by gentle calcination. It may be directly prepared
+by mixing boiling aqueous solutions of equal parts of crystallised
+verdigris and arsenious acid. An olive-green precipitate is immediately
+formed, which is apt, without due precaution, to pass into an emerald
+green. A durable copper colour.
+
+240. _Olive Terre Verte._
+
+We have obtained a very beautiful olive from terre verte by simply
+changing its hue. In oil, especially, the colour so produced would be
+found of service for autumn foliage, or richly painted foregrounds. A
+simple original pigment, consisting wholly of the earth, it resembles
+ordinary terre verte in being unaffected by strong light or impure air,
+and uninjured by admixture; but differs from it in not darkening by
+time. Semi-transparent, of sober richness and drying well in oil, it is,
+according to its powers, a perfectly unexceptionable colour, of strict
+stability.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Of the two olive colours in common use, olive lake and olive green, the
+first is generally semi-stable, and apt to blacken; while the second is
+usually fugitive, and liable to fade: both are compounds. The palette,
+therefore, possesses no original olive pigment, good or bad. A glance at
+the numbered italicised olives will show that the doubtful mixtures
+referred to might with advantage be superseded. It is clear that the
+olive pigments which the palette does not know, are better than those
+with which it is acquainted.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII.
+
+ON THE SEMI-NEUTRAL, BROWN.
+
+
+As colour, according to the regular scale descending from white, ceases
+properly with the last of the tertiaries, olive, in theory the neutral
+black would here form a fitting conclusion. Practically, however, every
+coloured pigment, of every class or tribe, combines with black as it
+exists in pigments--not simply being deepened or lowered in tone
+thereby, but likewise defiled in colour, or changed in class. Hence
+there arises a new series or scale of coloured compounds, having black
+for their basis, which, though they differ not theoretically from the
+preceding order inverted, are yet in practice imperfect or impure. These
+broken compounds of black, or coloured blacks and greys, we have
+distinguished by the term, semi-neutral, and divided them into three
+classes: Brown, Marrone, and Gray. What tints are with respect to white,
+they are with regard to black, being, so to speak, black tints or
+shades.
+
+The first of the series is BROWN, a term which, in its widest
+acceptation, has been used to include vulgarly every kind of dark broken
+colour, and is, in a more limited sense, the rather indefinite name of a
+very extensive class of colours of warm or tawny hues. Accordingly there
+are browns of every denomination except blue; to wit, yellow-brown,
+red-brown, orange-brown, purple-brown, citrine-brown, russet-brown, &c.
+But there is no such thing as a blue-brown, nor, strictly, any other
+coloured brown in which blue predominates; such predominance of a cold
+colour at once carrying the compound into the class of gray, ashen, or
+slate. Brown comprises the hues called dun, hazel, auburn, feuillemort,
+mort d'ore, &c.; several of which have been already mentioned as allied
+to the tertiary colours.
+
+The term _brown_, then, denotes rightly a warm broken colour, of which
+_yellow_ is a chief constituent: hence brown is in some measure to shade
+what yellow is to light. Hence, also, proper quantities of either the
+three primaries, the three secondaries, or the three tertiaries, produce
+variously a brown mixture. Browns contribute to coolness and clearness
+by contrast when opposed to pure colours, and Rubens more especially
+appears to have employed them upon this principle; although the same may
+be said of Titian, Correggio, Paulo Veronese, and all the best
+colourists. Being a sort of intermedia between positive colours and
+neutrality, browns equally contrast colour and shade. This accounts for
+their vast importance in painting, and the necessity of preserving them
+distinct from other colours, to which they give foulness in mixture; and
+to this is due their use in backgrounds and in relieving of coloured
+objects.
+
+The tendency in the compounds of colours to run into brownness and
+warmth is one of the common natural properties of colours which
+occasions them to deteriorate or defile each other in mixture. Brown by
+consequence is synonymous with foul or dirty, as opposed to fair or
+clean; and hence brown, which is the nearest of the semi-neutrals in
+relation to light, is to be avoided in mixture with light colours. Yet
+is it an example of the wisdom of nature's Author that brown is
+rendered, like green, a prevailing hue, and in particular an earth
+colour, as a contrast which is harmonized by the blueness and coldness
+of the sky.
+
+This tendency will likewise explain the use of brown in harmonizing and
+toning, as well as the great number of natural and artificial pigments
+and colours so called. It was the fertility and abundance of browns that
+caused our great landscape-colourist Wilson, when a friend went
+exultingly to tell him that he had discovered a new brown, to check him
+in his characteristic way, with--"I'm sorry for it: we have gotten too
+many of them already." Nevertheless, fine transparent browns are
+obviously very valuable.
+
+If red or blue in excess be added to brown, it falls into the other
+semi-neutral classes, marrone or gray. The wide acceptation of the term
+brown has occasioned much confusion in the naming of colours, since
+broken colours in which red, &c. predominate, have been improperly
+called brown. That term, therefore, should be confined to the
+semi-neutral colours, compounded of, or like in hue to, either the
+primary _yellow_, the secondary orange, or the tertiary _citrine_, with
+a _black_. The general contrast or harmonizing colour of such compounds
+will consequently be more or less purple or blue.
+
+The number of browns is great, as may be seen by the following list.
+This list, however, is good, and includes a considerable proportion of
+permanent pigments.
+
+241. ASPHALTUM,
+
+_Asphalt_, _Bitumen_, _Mineral Pitch_, _Jew's Pitch_, _Antwerp Brown_,
+_Liquid Asphaltum_, &c., is a sort of mineral pitch or tar which, rising
+liquid to the surface of the Lacus Asphaltites or Asphaltic Lake (the
+Dead Sea) concretes there by the natural action of the atmosphere and
+sun, and, floating in masses to the shores, is gathered by the Arabs.
+The French give it an additional name from the region of the lake, to
+wit, Bitumen of Judea; and with the English, from the same cause, it has
+the alias of Jew's pitch. Asphaltum is not so called, however, after
+the lake, as is asserted by a writer in the Encyclopædia: it is just the
+reverse--Pliny says, "The Asphaltic lake produces nothing but bitumen
+(in Greek, asphaltos); and hence its name."
+
+A substance resembling asphalt is found at Neufchâtel in Switzerland,
+and in other parts of Europe. A specimen of the native bitumen, brought
+from Persia, and of which the author made trial, had a powerful scent of
+garlic when rubbed. In the fire it softened without flowing, and burnt
+with a lambent flame; did not dissolve by heat in turpentine, but ground
+easily as a pigment in pale drying oil, affording a fine deep
+transparent brown colour, resembling that of commercial asphaltum; dried
+firmly almost as soon as the drying-oil alone, and worked admirably both
+in water and oil. Asphaltum may be used as a permanent brown in water,
+for which purpose the native is superior to the artificial. The former,
+however, is now seldom to be met with, the varieties employed on the
+palette being the residua of various resinous and bituminous matters,
+distilled for the sake of their essential oils. These residua are all
+black and glossy like common pitch, which differs from them only in
+having been less acted upon by fire, and thence in being softer. At
+present asphaltum is prepared in excessive abundance as a product of the
+distillation of coal at the gas manufactories, and is chiefly confined
+to oil-painting, being first dissolved in turpentine, which fits it for
+glazing and shading. Its fine brown colour and perfect transparency are
+lures to its free use with many artists, notwithstanding the certain
+destruction that awaits the work on which it is much employed, owing to
+its tendency to contract and crack by changes of temperature and the
+atmosphere; but for which, and a slight liability to blacken, it would
+be a most beautiful, durable, and eligible pigment. The solution of
+asphaltum in turpentine, united with drying oil by heat, or the bitumen
+torrefied and ground in linseed or drying-oil, acquires a firmer
+texture, but becomes less transparent and dries with difficulty. If
+common asphaltum, as usually prepared with turpentine, be used with some
+addition of Vandyke brown, umber, or Cappah brown ground in drying oil,
+it will gain body and solidity which will render it much less disposed
+to crack. Nevertheless, asphaltum is to be regarded in practice rather
+as a dark varnish than as a solid pigment, and all the faults of a bad
+varnish are to be guarded against in employing it.
+
+It is common to call the solution in turpentine _Asphaltum_, and the
+mixture with drying-oil _Bitumen_: the latter is likewise known as
+_Antwerp Brown_. A preparation for the use of water-colour artists is
+employed under the name of _Liquid Asphaltum_.
+
+242. BISTRE
+
+is extracted by watery solution from the soot of wood fires, whence it
+derives a strong pyroligneous scent. It is a very powerful
+citrine-brown, washes well, and has a clearness suited to architectural
+subjects. Its use is confined to water-colour painting, in which it was
+much employed by the old masters for tinting drawings and shading
+sketches, before the general application of Indian ink to such purposes.
+Of a wax-like texture, it is perfectly durable, but unfitted for oil,
+drying therein with the greatest difficulty.
+
+A substance of this kind collects at the back of fire-places in cottages
+where peat is the constant fuel burnt; which, purified by solution and
+evaporation, yields a fine bistre, similar to the Scotch. All kinds of
+bistre attract moisture from the atmosphere.
+
+243. BONE BROWN
+
+and _Ivory Brown_ are obtained by roasting bone and ivory until by
+partial charring they become of a brown colour throughout. Though much
+esteemed by some artists, they are not quite eligible pigments, being
+bad driers in oil, the only vehicle in which they are now used.
+Moreover, their lighter shades are not permanent either in water or oil
+when exposed to the action of strong light, or mixed in tint with white
+lead. The palest of these colours are the most opaque: the deepest are
+more durable, and most so when approaching black. Neither bone nor ivory
+brown is often employed, but the former may be occasionally applied in
+forming clear, silvery, warm grays, in combination with zinc white.
+
+244. BURNT UMBER
+
+is what its name denotes, and has a deeper shade with a more russet hue
+than the raw umber. A quiet brown, it affords clear and warm shadows,
+but is apt to look rather turbid if used in great depth. It washes and
+works capitally in water, and dries quickly in oil, in which it is
+employed as a siccative. Perfectly stable in either vehicle, it may
+sometimes be substituted for Vandyke brown, is eligible in fresco, and
+invaluable in buildings. Where the lakes of madder require saddening,
+the addition of burnt umber increases their powers, and improves their
+drying in oil. It contains manganese and iron, and may be produced
+artificially. The old Italians called it _falsalo_.
+
+245. CALEDONIAN BROWN
+
+is a permanent native pigment, the use of which is confined to oil. A
+magnificent orange-russet brown of considerable transparency, it is
+marked by great depth and richness, and will be found serviceable where
+a powerful brown of the burnt Sienna class is required.
+
+246. CAPPAH BROWN,
+
+or _Cappagh Brown_, is likewise a colour peculiar to oil. It is a
+species of bog-earth or peat, mixed with manganese in various
+proportions, and found on the estate of Lord Audley at Cappagh, near
+Cork. The specimens in which the peat earth most abounds are of light
+weight, friable texture, and dark colour; while those which contain more
+of the metal are heavy and paler.
+
+As pigments, the peaty Cappah brown is the most transparent and rich in
+colour. A prompt drier in oil, its surface rivels during drying where it
+lies thick. The other and metallic sort is a more opaque, a lighter and
+warmer brown pigment, which dries rapidly and smoothly in a body or
+thick layer. The first may be regarded as a superior Vandyke brown, the
+second as a superior umber. The two extreme kinds should be
+distinguished as light and deep Cappah browns; the former excellent for
+dead colouring and grounds, the latter for glazing and graining. These
+pigments work well in oil and varnish; they do not, however, keep their
+place while drying in oil by fixing the oil, like the driers of lead,
+but run. Under the names of _Euchrome_ and _Mineral Brown_, they have
+been introduced into commerce for civil and marine painting.
+
+247. CASSEL EARTH,
+
+_Terre de Cassel_, or, corruptly, _Castle Earth_, is specially an oil
+pigment, similar to burnt umber but of a more russet hue. It is an earth
+containing bitumen, a substance which, with pit-coal, lignite or brown
+coal, jet, petroleum or rock oil, naphtha, &c., is looked upon as a
+product of the decomposition of organic matter, beneath the surface of
+the earth, in situations where the conditions of contact with water, and
+almost total exclusion of atmospheric air, are fulfilled. Deposited at
+the bottom of seas, lakes, or rivers, and subsequently covered up by
+accumulations of clay and sand, the organic tissue undergoes a kind of
+fermentation by which the bodies in question are slowly produced. The
+true bitumens appear to have arisen from coal or lignite by the action
+of subterranean heat; and very closely resemble some of the products
+yielded by the destructive distillation of those bodies.
+
+Rich as is the tone of colour of Cassel earth, it is apt to lose this in
+some measure on exposure to light. Mérimée remembers to have seen a
+head, the brown hair of which had been painted partly with the earth
+alone, and partly with a mixture of the earth and white; yet the hair
+where the white was employed was darker than that painted solely with
+the brown, the white having fixed the colour. To compensate for its
+thus fading, it should be mixed with pigments that are permanent, such
+as umber and lamp black. Like all bituminous earths, it needs the
+strongest drying oil. By calcination, a greater degree of intensity may
+be imparted to the colour, and perhaps a little more solidity. In
+landscapes it is of much service for the most vigorous portions of
+foregrounds and the trunks of trees, as well as for painting cavernous
+rocks or deep recesses in architecture. Compounded with burnt lake and a
+little Prussian blue, it gives a black the most profound.
+
+248. CHALON'S BROWN
+
+is a water-colour pigment, transparent and inclining to red; deep, full,
+and very rich. On exposure to light it becomes less russet, but is
+otherwise strictly stable.
+
+249. COLOGNE EARTH,
+
+incorrectly called _Cullen's Earth_, is a native bituminous earth,
+containing less bitumen than Cassel earth, and therefore drying more
+quickly. Darker than that variety, it is less transparent, and covers
+better. In its general qualities it resembles Vandyke brown, except that
+in combination with white, it affords a range of cooler brown tints.
+Useful for the shadows of buildings, it does not wash so well as sepia,
+and is preferred occasionally on that account. By some it has been
+called durable, by others branded as fugacious. According to Bouvier,
+brown hair represented by this colour has been known to disappear in six
+months, all the brown vanishing, and nothing remaining but a few black
+lines of the sketch. As it is similar in composition to Cassel earth,
+the safest course would be to mix it with umber, and not to employ it
+alone. Calcined, it acquires a reddish hue.
+
+250. INDELIBLE BROWN INK.
+
+Although this cannot be classed as a pigment, yet, being very useful in
+water-colours, it may be proper to describe its qualities. The ink is a
+rich brown fluid, and, as its name imports, is indelibly fixed on the
+paper as soon as it is dry; thus allowing the artist to work or wash
+over it repeatedly, without its being disturbed. If diluted with water
+to its faintest tint, it still continues to retain its indelible
+properties undiminished. It is generally used with a reed pen, and
+employed chiefly in architectural details and outlines.
+
+Various brown inks, principally solutions of bistre and sepia, were
+adopted in sketching by Claude, Rembrandt, and many of the old masters.
+In modern times, a beautiful transparent brown for water-colour artists,
+known as _Liquid Prout's Brown_, has been extensively employed. This
+contains less fixative than the indelible ink, and is the vehicle with
+which nearly all Samuel Prout's drawings were executed.
+
+251. LEITCH'S BROWN
+
+is a permanent pigment peculiar to water painting. A most beautiful
+olive brown, soft and rich, it is admirably adapted for autumnal foliage
+tints and the like, either alone or compounded with burnt Sienna or
+cadmium orange. Transparent and clear in its washes, this is a most
+serviceable colour in landscape generally.
+
+252. MIXED BROWN
+
+can be produced in endless variety, either by adding a warm colour to
+black, such as yellow, orange, or citrine, or else by combining the
+three primaries, secondaries, or tertiaries in suitable proportions. By
+consulting the lists given of permanent pigments belonging to those
+classes, and by referring to the chapter on Black, it will be seen that
+no difficulty exists in obtaining durable mixed browns when required.
+For example, there may be formed from the primaries, a compound of
+aureolin, rose madder, and ultramarine; or from the secondaries, a
+mixture of cadmium orange, viridian, and madder purple. Of course, as
+with other mixed tints, the brown hue can be furnished not only by
+direct compounding of the colours on the palette, but by laying one
+colour over the other on the paper or canvass, or by stippling.
+
+253. MUMMY,
+
+_Mummy Brown_, or _Egyptian Brown_, is a bituminous product mixed with
+animal remains, brought from the catacombs of Egypt, where liquid
+bitumen was employed three thousand years ago in embalming. By a slow
+chemical change, it has combined during so many ages with substances
+which give it, as a rule, a more solid and lasting texture than simple
+asphaltum. Generally resembling the latter in its other properties and
+uses as a pigment, mummy is often substituted for it, being less liable
+to crack or move on the canvass. It must be remembered, however, that
+mummy varies exceedingly both in its composition and qualities; and as
+from its very nature and origin nothing certain can be said of it, but
+little reliance should be placed on this brown. Mummy belongs to the
+class of pigments which are either good or bad, according as they turn
+out. On the whole, we agree with the American artist, who has been more
+than once quoted in these pages, that nothing is to be gained by
+smearing one's canvass with a part, perhaps, of the wife of Potiphar.
+With a preference for materials less frail and of a more sober
+character, we likewise hold with Bouvier, that it is not particularly
+prudent to employ without necessity these crumbled remains of dead
+bodies, which must contain ammonia and particles of fat in a concrete
+state and so be more or less apt to injure the colours with which they
+may be united. The use of mummy is now confined to oil, in which, says
+Mr. Carmichael, a mixture of mummy and bitumen will dry and never crack.
+If this be the case, the compound would be preferable to either
+separate.
+
+254. PRUSSIAN BROWN
+
+is an iron oxide, containing more or less alumina, and prepared by
+calcining an aluminous Prussian blue, or treating an aluminous
+ferrocyanide of peroxide of iron with an alkali. Possessing the nature
+and properties of burnt Sienna, it is transparent, permanent, and dries
+well in oil. Of an orange hue, it is neither so rich nor so powerful as
+that pigment, and is better employed as a glaze than in body.
+
+255. SEPIA,
+
+_Liquid Sepia_, _Seppia_, or _Animal Æthiops_, is named after the sepia
+or cuttle-fish, also called the ink-fish, from its affording a dark
+liquid, which was used as an ink and pigment by the ancients. All the
+species of cuttle-fish are provided with a dark-coloured fluid,
+sometimes quite black, which they emit to obscure the water, when it is
+wanted to favour their escape from danger, or, by concealing their
+approach, to enable them with greater facility to seize their prey. The
+liquid consists of a mass of extremely minute carbonaceous particles,
+intermixed with an animal gelatine or glue, and is capable of being so
+widely spread, than an ounce of it will suffice to darken several
+thousand ounces of water. From this liquid, brought chiefly from the
+Adriatic, but likewise obtainable from our own coasts, is derived the
+pigment sepia, as well as, partially, the Indian ink of the Chinese.
+
+Sepia is a powerful dusky brown, of a fine texture, transparent, works
+admirably in water, combines cordially with other pigments, and is very
+permanent. It is much used as a water-colour, and for making drawings in
+the manner of bistre and Indian ink; but is not employed in oil, as it
+dries therein very reluctantly. Extremely clear in its pale tints, and
+perhaps the best washing colour known, sepia must be used with caution,
+or otherwise heaviness will be engendered in the shades, so strong is
+its colouring property. Mixed with indigo, or, preferably, Prussian blue
+and black, it is eligible for distant trees, for a general shadow tint
+in light backgrounds, and for the shade of white linen or white
+draperies. With madder red it forms a fine hue, somewhat resembling
+brown madder, and with crimson lake and indigo gives an artistically
+excellent black. Sometimes alone and sometimes in combination with lamp
+black, or madder red and Prussian blue saddened by the black, it will be
+found useful in dark foreground boats, rocks, near buoys, sea-weed, &c.
+Compounded with aureolin, sepia yields a series of beautiful and durable
+neutral greens for landscape; and mixed with Prussian blue, affords low
+olive greens, which may be deepened into very cool dark greens by the
+addition of black. For hills and mountains in mid-distance, sepia
+combined with cobalt and brown madder is of service; or, for the dark
+markings and divisions of stones in brooks and running streams, the same
+compound without the cobalt. Mixed with purple madder, it furnishes a
+fine tint for the stems and branches of trees; and with French blue and
+madder red gives a really good black. Compounds of sepia and yellow
+ochre, gamboge, raw Sienna, or cobalt and aureolin, are severally
+useful. A rich and strong brown is formed by the admixture of madder
+red, burnt Sienna, and sepia; a tint which may be modified by omitting
+the sepia or the Sienna, or reducing the proportions of either. For
+Dutch craft, this tint and its variations are of great value. A wash of
+sepia over green very agreeably subdues the force of the colour.
+
+256. WARM SEPIA
+
+is the natural sepia warmed by mixture with other browns of a red hue,
+and is intended for drawings where it would be difficult to keep the
+whole work of the same tint, unless the compound were made in the cake
+of colour.
+
+257. ROMAN SEPIA
+
+is a preparation similar to the preceding, but with a yellow instead of
+a red cast.
+
+258. VANDYKE BROWN.
+
+This pigment, hardly less celebrated than the great painter whose name
+it bears, is a species of peat or bog-earth of a fine, deep,
+semi-transparent brown colour. The pigment so much esteemed and used by
+Vandyke is said to have been brought from Cassel; an assertion which
+seems to be justified by a comparison of Cassel earth with the browns of
+his pictures. Gilpin in his Essays on Picturesque Beauty, remarks that
+"In the tribe of browns--in oil-painting, one of the finest earths is
+known, at the colour shops, by the name of Castle-earth, or Vandyke's
+brown." The Vandyke brown of the present day is a bituminous ochre,
+purified by grinding and washing over. Apt to vary in hue, it is durable
+both in water and oil, but, like all bituminous earths, dries tardily as
+a rule in the latter vehicle. Clear in its pale tints, deep and glowing
+in shadows, in water it has sometimes the bad property of working up:
+for this reason, where it is necessary to lay on a great body of it,
+the moist tube colour should be preferred to the cake. With madder red,
+the brown gives a fine tint, most useful as a warm shadow colour; and
+with Prussian blue, clear, very sober neutral greens for middle
+distances. In banks and roads, Vandyke brown is the general colour for
+dragging over the surface, to give roughness of texture: compounded with
+yellow ochre, it affords a good ground tint, and with purple madder a
+rich shadow colour. In sunrise and sunset clouds, a mixture of the brown
+with cobalt yields a cold neutral green, adapted for those clouds at the
+greatest distance from the sun. For foliage tints, aureolin, French
+blue, and Vandyke brown, will be found of service; or as a glaze over
+such tints, the yellow and the brown. With raw Sienna, brown madder,
+Payne's gray, gamboge, and Roman ochre, this brown is useful. In a
+water-colour winter scene, when the trees are denuded of foliage, the
+net work of the small branches at the tops of them may be prettily given
+with cobalt and Vandyke brown, used rather dry, and applied with a brush
+having its hairs spread out either by the fingers or by drawing them
+through a fine-tooth comb before working. Grass is likewise represented
+readily by this means, and so are small trees on the summit of a cliff
+or in like positions.
+
+The Campania Brown of the old Italian painters was a similar earth.
+
+259. VERONA BROWN,
+
+a pigment peculiar to oil painting, is a native ferruginous earth. A
+citrine brown of great service in tender drab greens, it forms with
+terre verte and the madder lakes rich autumnal tints of much beauty and
+permanence.
+
+260. YELLOW MADDER,
+
+_Cory's Yellow Madder_, or _Cory's Madder_, is classed among the browns
+for the same reason that Italian Pink was ranked among the yellows. It
+was stated in the eighth chapter that no true madder yellow, brilliant
+and pure, exists as a pigment at the present day, and certainly this
+preparation can lay no claim to the title. Except in name, it is an
+orange-brown of the burnt Sienna hue, and might therefore with more
+reason have been called Orange Madder. It is a good and permanent
+colour, rich and transparent, at present used only in oil, we believe,
+and chiefly as a glaze.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+261. _Cadmium Brown_.
+
+By igniting the white carbonate of cadmium, among other methods, a
+cinnamon-brown oxide is obtainable, of a very clear and beautiful colour
+if the process be well conducted. It is, however, not eligible as a
+pigment, owing to the rapidity with which the oxide is acted upon by the
+air. In water, especially, we have found this brown so eagerly absorb
+carbonic acid from the atmosphere as to become in a few months once more
+a carbonate, and as purely white as before. The same result is
+observable when the powder is exposed: some shown at the International
+Exhibition of 1862, on a glass stand, had to be removed, its label
+marked 'Cadmium Brown' being at last found attached to a sample of
+cadmium white. In oil, the conversion takes place less readily, that
+vehicle having the property of protecting, to some extent, pigments from
+oxidation. It is curious that even in a book a water-rub of the brown
+slowly but surely changes to white.
+
+262. _Catechu Browns._
+
+Catechu is an extract of the Khair tree or _acacia catechu_ of Bombay,
+Bengal, and other parts of India. With the exception of such earthy
+matters as are communicated to it during the preparation, or are added
+purposely as adulterants, catechu is entirely soluble both in water and
+alcohol. An aqueous solution has a reddish-brown colour, and gives the
+following results:--protosalts of iron thrown down olive-brown and
+persalts greenish-brown precipitates; salts of tin and lead yield
+brownish-yellow and brick-coloured deposits respectively; while acetate
+of copper or bichromate of potash furnishes brown residues. To our
+knowledge, none of these have been introduced as pigments, but a brown
+prepared by Dr. Lyon Playfair some years back from the catechu bark has
+been described as exceedingly rich, transparent, and beautiful; and
+recommended for painting _if not too thinly applied_.
+
+263. _Chrome Browns_
+
+are produced by various methods of several hues, tints, and shades, both
+by wet and dry processes. We have obtained them by many methods, of
+different degrees of permanence. Some very intense in colour have stood
+well, while others paler and more delicate have gradually greened, but
+none possessed the strict stability of the green oxides. Presuming a
+paucity of browns, these preparations of chromium would be worth further
+attention; but, with the objection of being--for browns--somewhat
+expensive, they have the far more fatal objection of not being wanted.
+
+264. _Copper Brown_,
+
+varying in hue, is obtainable, in the form of prussiate, &c., but cannot
+be recommended, however made.
+
+265. _French Prussian-Brown._
+
+According to Bouvier, a colour similar to that of bistre, and rivalling
+asphaltum in transparency, is produced by partially charring a
+moderately dark Prussian blue; neither one too intense, which gives a
+heavy and opaque brownish-red, nor one too aluminous and bright, which
+yields a feeble and yellowish tint. Yielding to a rapture we cannot
+wholly share, he describes its qualities in the warmest terms. In his
+opinion, it has the combined advantages of asphaltum, mummy, and raw
+Sienna, without their drawbacks. "I cannot," he says, "commend too
+highly the use of this charming bistre-tint: it is as beautiful and good
+in water as in oil, perfectly transparent, of a most harmonious tone,
+and dries better than any other colour suitable for glazing. Closely
+resembling asphaltum in tint as well as in transparency, this brown is
+preferable to it in every point of view." As the colour is very quickly
+and easily obtained, the artist can judge for himself of its proper
+value. M. Bouvier's process is, to place upon a clear fire a large iron
+spoon, into which, when red hot, some pieces of the Prussian blue are
+put about the size of a small nut: these soon begin to crackle, and
+throw off scales in proportion as they grow hot. The spoon is then
+removed, and allowed to cool: if suffered to remain too long on the
+fire, the right colour will not be produced. When the product is crushed
+small, some of it will be found blackish, and the rest of a yellowish
+brown: this is quite as it should be. Chemically, the result is a
+mixture of oxide of iron and partly undecomposed or carbonised
+prussiate.
+
+266. _Gambogiate of Iron._
+
+Dr. Scoffern read a paper at the Meeting of the British Association of
+Science, in 1851, describing this combination as a rich brown, like
+asphaltum, but richer, as well as more durable in oil. It has not been,
+however, employed as a pigment, or at least is not at present.
+
+267. _Hypocastanum_,
+
+or Chestnut Brown, is a brown lake prepared from the horse-chestnut.
+This now obsolete pigment is transparent and rich in colour, warmer than
+brown pink, and very durable both in water and oil; in the latter of
+which it dries moderately well.
+
+268. _Iron Browns_,
+
+native or artificial, are well represented on the palette, but nothing
+would be easier than to increase their number. Of all metals, iron is
+the richest source of colour, capable of affording all colours with the
+exception of white. None of them, however, are so numerous as the
+browns, a description of which would fill this chapter. Suffice it to
+state they are obtainable of every hue, tint, and shade, and are
+generally permanent. They are made on a large scale and sold under
+various names for house-painting, &c.
+
+269. _Manganese Brown_
+
+is an oxide of manganese, which is quite durable both in water and oil,
+and dries admirably in the latter. A fine, deep, semi-opaque brown of
+good body, it is deficient in transparency, but might be useful for
+glazing or lowering the tone of white without tinging it, and as a local
+colour in draperies, &c.
+
+270. _Nickel Brown._
+
+A very pleasing yellowish brown is obtainable from nickel, bright and
+clear in its pale washes, and of some richness in oil. Unless thoroughly
+washed, it has a tendency to greenness in time.
+
+271. _Ochre Browns._
+
+The slight affinity of sulphur for yellow ochre, with its merely
+temporary effect thereon, was observed in the eighth chapter, where
+allusion was made to the action of sulphuretted hydrogen and sulphide of
+ammonium on the earth. Sulphur alone, and in the dry state, ignited with
+yellow or other native ochres converts them into browns, varying in hue,
+and of greater or less durability. Those browns, however, which we have
+made by this process, although standing well in a book, have not
+withstood exposure to light and air. They have all become pale, whitish,
+or of a drab cast, evidently through the oxidation of the sulphur, or
+rather the sulphide of iron formed during the calcination. Practically,
+therefore, ochres have an antipathy to sulphur, moist or dry, by itself
+or in combination; and are, so to speak, the disinfectants of the
+palette. Ever waging war against sulphurous vapours, the native earths
+serve to protect a picture from the damaging influence of impure air,
+whether they be used alone, or employed in admixture with such pigments
+as are injured thereby.
+
+272. _Purple Brown_
+
+is a refuse manufacture from Indian red washings. A dull, heavy, coarse
+colour, it belongs to the class of common pigments which are
+unexceptionable for decorative painting, but scarcely suited to the
+higher branches of art. As this work professes simply to treat of
+artistic pigments, that have been, are, or might be, more than a passing
+reference to those colours exclusively adopted by house-painters, &c.,
+would be out of place.
+
+273. _Rubens' Brown_,
+
+still in use in the Netherlands under this appellation, is an earth of
+a lighter colour and more ochrous texture than the Vandyke brown of
+English commerce: it is also of a warmer or more tawny hue than the
+latter pigment. Beautiful and durable, it works well both in water and
+oil, and much resembles the brown employed by Teniers.
+
+274. _Uranium Brown._
+
+Yellow, red, orange, green, have been previously noticed as being
+derived from uranium, and to this list of colours may now be added
+brown. A warm rich hue of the utmost intensity may be produced, which
+possesses considerable permanence, although not equal to that of uranium
+yellow.
+
+275. _Zinc Brown._
+
+A yellow-brown, so yellow that it might fairly have been classed with
+the ochrous colours of that denomination, is made by combining zinc with
+another metal by the aid of heat. Experience tells us that it is,
+chemically, a thoroughly good and stable pigment. Safely to be used in
+admixture, it is a clear, bright colour, affording good greens by
+compounding with blue. Of no great power, and semi-opaque, this
+yellow-brown or brown-yellow is superior to some of the pigments at
+present used, but is probably too much like them in hue and other
+properties to be of any special value.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Besides the preceding, there are those browns of a citrine or russet
+cast which are elsewhere described, such as raw umber, madder brown, &c.
+Moreover, there are numberless other varieties, obtainable from most of
+the metals, from many organic substances, and from a combination of the
+two. Of all colours, a 'new' brown is the most easily discovered:
+success may not be met with in seeking a yellow, red, or blue, or an
+orange, green, or purple; but it is strange if in the course of one's
+experiments a brown does not turn up. No difficulty, therefore, would
+have been found in greatly extending the present list; but it was felt
+that no advantage could have accrued by further multiplying the notices
+of a colour, with which we are already furnished so abundantly by nature
+and art, and which is capable of being produced in such profusion by
+admixture.
+
+With the exception of ivory and bone browns, and perhaps Cassel and
+Cologne earths, all the browns commonly employed may be considered more
+or less durable.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII.
+
+ON THE SEMI-NEUTRAL, MARRONE.
+
+
+We have adopted the term MARRONE, or _maroon_ as it is sometimes called,
+for our second and middle semi-neutral, as applicable to a class of
+impure colours composed of black and red, black and purple, or black and
+russet, or of black and any other denomination in which red
+predominates. It is a mean between the warm, broken, semi-neutral
+_browns_, and the cold, semi-neutral _grays_. Marrone is practically to
+shade, what red is to light; and its relations to other colours are
+those of red, &c., when we invert the scale from black to white. It is
+therefore a following, or shading, colour of red and its derivatives;
+and hence its accordances, contrasts, and expressions agree with those
+of red degraded; consequently red added to dark brown converts it into
+marrone if in sufficient quantity to prevail. In smaller proportions,
+red gives to lighter browns the names of bay, chestnut, sorrel, &c.
+
+Owing to confused nomenclature, most of the colours and pigments of
+this class have been assigned to other denominations--puce, murrey,
+morelle, chocolate, columbine, pavonazzo, &c., being variously ranked
+among reds, browns, and purples. This vagueness also accounts for
+pigments having been ranged under heads not suited to the names they
+bear, and explains why Brown Ochre has been classed among the yellows,
+Italian Pink among the same, Brown Pink among the citrines, &c.
+
+As adapted to the walls of a picture gallery, marrone, more or less deep
+and inclined to crimson, is one of the best colours known. For the
+reason that each colour has its antagonist, and consequently may affect
+a picture well or ill, according to its tone or general hue, there can
+be no universally good colour for such a purpose. What suits one picture
+or style of painting may not suit another: with a blood-red sunset, for
+instance, or portrait with crimson drapery, marrone would be out of
+place. But as it is impossible to provide each picture with a separate
+background, all that can be done in large collections is to study the
+general effect, sacrificing the interests of the few to the good of the
+many. If cool-coloured landscapes predominate, with blue skies and green
+foliage, it will be found that the orange-yellow of the frames agreeably
+contrasts the former, and the crimson-marrone of walls as agreeably sets
+off the latter. If portraits and historic paintings prevail, which are
+in general of a warm advancing nature, then a modest green may prove
+eligible. And if engravings form the staple, the grey hue of the print
+is best opposed by a bright fawn colour. Where several rooms are devoted
+to pictures, a suitable wall colour is most easily secured by
+classifying the paintings as far as possible according to their general
+hue, and placing them in different chambers: in each there will be a
+prevailing character in the colouring of its pictures, and each can be
+painted or papered accordingly. However, whether this plan is adopted or
+not--and it may be objected to as involving a certain monotony--care
+should be taken to have a wall colour of some sort or other, that is, to
+let it be seen. Pictures crammed together kill each other: without a
+pin's point between them, a speck of wall space visible, much of the
+illusion is destroyed. "It is only," says Chevreul, "the intelligent
+connoisseur and amateur who, on seeing a picture exhibited in a gallery,
+experience all the effect which the artist has wished to produce;
+because they alone know the best point of view, and because, while their
+attention is fixed on the work they are observing, they alone end by no
+longer seeing the surrounding pictures, or even the frame of that one
+they contemplate." Amid a moving crowd of people, inseparable from
+nearly all public exhibitions, it becomes difficult for the visitor,
+intelligent or otherwise, thus to concentrate his attention on one work.
+As far, therefore, as space will allow, paintings should be kept
+separate: larger rooms, or fewer pictures, are what is wanted.[B]
+
+From this digression, pardonable, let us hope, because in the interests
+of art, we will pass on to a consideration of marrone pigments.
+
+276. BROWN MADDER
+
+is an exceedingly rich marrone or russet-marrone brown, bearing the same
+relation to the colour marrone that raw umber bears to the colour
+citrine. One of the most valuable products of the madder root, it has
+supplied a great desideratum, and in water especially is indispensable,
+both as a local and auxiliary colour. Of intense depth and transparency,
+if made with skill, it affords the richest description of shadows,
+either alone or compounded with blue, and the most delicate pale tints.
+Being quite permanent, a good drier, and working most kindly, it is a
+pigment which cannot be too strongly recommended to the landscape
+painter's notice. Containing a large proportion of red, it is eligible,
+with yellow or blue, for mixed orange or mixed purple of a subdued tone.
+It may be used tolower red curtains or draperies, and for the darkest
+touches in flesh. Mixed with cobalt, it forms a fine shadow colour for
+distant objects; and with indigo or Prussian blue and black, is
+serviceable for the shades of those nearer the foreground. It is
+similarly useful when mixed with black, and will be found advantageous
+in rusty iron, as anchors, chains, &c. For the deepest and richest parts
+of foregrounds it may be employed alone, as also for deep dark cracks
+and fissures, or strong markings in other near objects, as boats and
+figures. With French blue, or cobalt and white, a set of beautiful warm
+or cold grays may be obtained, in proportion as the brown or blue
+predominates. Compounded with blues and bright yellows such as aureolin,
+it gives fine autumnal russet greens. A good purple for soft aerial
+clouds is furnished by cobalt and brown madder, or for stormy clouds
+by the brown, Prussian blue, and black: an equally good slate colour
+is obtained from cobalt, sepia, and the brown. For glazing over foliage
+and herbage, a mixture of the madder with aureolin or gamboge is adapted;
+and for brooks and running streams compounds of this brown with raw Sienna,
+cobalt and raw Sienna, Vandyke brown, and French blue, will each be found
+useful. Black sails are well represented by burnt Sienna, French blue, and
+brown madder; and red sails by light red or burnt Sienna with the brown.
+
+277. MIXED MARRONE.
+
+Marrone is a retiring colour easily compounded in all its hues and
+shades by the mixture variously of red, and black or brown; or of any
+other warm colours in which red and black predominate. A reference to
+the permanent brown, black, and red or reddish pigments will show to
+what extent the colour marrone may safely be produced by admixture. In
+compounding marrone, the brown or black may be itself compounded, before
+the addition of the red, reddish-purple, or russet, requisite for its
+conversion.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+278. _Chica Marrone_.
+
+Chica, the red colouring principle alluded to in the ninth chapter, is
+extracted from the _Bignonia chica_, by boiling its leaves in water,
+decanting the decoction, and allowing it to cool, when a red matter
+falls down, which is formed into cakes and dried. Insoluble in cold
+water, it dissolves in alcohol and alkalies; is precipitated from
+alkaline solutions by acids without alteration; and is bleached by
+chlorine. Another variety of the same substance, obtained from Para in
+Brazil, and known as crajuru, carajuru, or caracuru, behaves in a
+similar manner. This is said to be superior to the former sort.
+
+A chica pigment, brought from South America, and examined by the author,
+was of a soft powdery texture, and rich marrone colour. Somewhat
+resembling Rubens' madder in hue, it was equal in body and transparency
+to the carmine of cochineal, though by no means approaching it in
+beauty, or even in durability. Simply exposed to the light of a window,
+without sun, the colour was soon changed and destroyed. Conclusive
+evidence as this is that the sample submitted to Mr. Field was
+worthless, it remains to be seen whether all the colours to be derived
+from chica, by different modes and from different kinds, are equally
+valueless as pigments.
+
+279. _Chocolate Lead_,
+
+or Marrone Red, is a pigment prepared by calcining oxide of lead with
+about a third of copper oxide, and reducing the compound to a uniform
+tint by levigation. It is of a chocolate hue, strong opaque body, and
+dries freely. Like all lead and copper colours, it is blackened by
+impure air.
+
+280. _Cobalt Marrone._
+
+There is obtainable from cobalt a very rich marrone brown, which, like
+many other colours, is more beautiful while moist than when dried.
+Permanent, if carefully made and most thoroughly washed, it is an
+expensive compound, and must rank among those colours which are
+interesting in the laboratory but superfluous in the studio.
+
+281. _Madder Marrone_,
+
+or Marrone Lake, was a preparation of madder, of great depth,
+transparency, and stability. Working well in water, glazing and drying
+in oil, and in every respect a good pigment, it was one of those colours
+which gradually--and often, as in this case, unfortunately--become
+obsolete, on account of their hues being easily given by admixture of
+other pigments. There was likewise a deeper kind, called Purple Black. A
+good madder marrone may be produced by adding to brown madder either
+rose madder, madder carmine, or Rubens' madder, with a slight portion of
+black or blue if required.
+
+282. _Mars Marrone._
+
+Under the heading of a New Marrone Pigment there appeared some months
+back in a chemical journal the following:--"The blood-red compound
+obtained by adding a soluble sulphocyanide to a salt of iron in solution
+can be made (apparently at least) to combine with resin thus: To a
+concentrated solution of sesquichloride of iron and sulphocyanide of
+potassium in ether, an etherial solution of common resin is added, and
+the whole well shaken together. There is then mixed with it a
+sufficiency of water to cause a precipitate, when it will be found,
+after the mixture has stood a few hours, that the whole or nearly the
+whole of the red-coloured iron compound has united with the precipitated
+resin, forming the marrone-coloured pigment in question. When this
+coloured substance is finely powdered and mixed with water, the liquid
+is not the least coloured; whence it is inferred that the red iron
+compound has chemically united itself with the resin."
+
+The foregoing account is rather to be regarded as of scientific interest
+than of practical utility. The blood-red solution of sulphocyanide of
+iron is in itself not stable: when the red solution of this salt is so
+exposed to the sun, that the rays pass through the glass jar containing
+it, it is rendered colourless, but the colour is retained or restored
+when the rays pass directly from the air into the fluid; so that when a
+properly diluted solution is placed in a cylindrical glass vessel in
+direct sunshine, it loses colour in the morning till about eleven in the
+forenoon, when the rays beginning to fall upon the surface exposed to
+the air, gradually restore the colour, which attains its maximum about
+two o'clock. Moreover, the solution is immediately decolourised by
+sulphuretted hydrogen and other deoxidizing agents, as well as by
+alkalies and many acids. It is scarcely probable that the union of the
+red colouring matter with the resin would suffice to secure it from
+change; and there is little doubt that the new marrone pigment would be
+a chameleon colour.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Failures in the process of burning carmines, and preparing the purple of
+gold, frequently afford good marrones. Compounds more or less of that
+hue are likewise furnished by copper, mercury, &c. Some ochres incline
+to marrone when calcined: indeed we have remarked in many instances that
+the action of fire anticipates the effects of long continued time; and
+that several of the primary and secondary colours may, by different
+degrees of burning, be converted into their analogous secondary,
+tertiary, or semi-neutral colours.
+
+The one marrone or brown-marrone pigment at present employed, brown
+madder, is permanent.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[B] This was written previous to the opening of the new rooms of the
+Royal Academy at Burlington House. In these, among other improvements,
+the subject of wall space has been considered.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX.
+
+ON THE SEMI-NEUTRAL, GRAY.
+
+
+Of the tribe of semi-neutral colours, GRAY is third and last, being
+nearest in relation to black. In its common acceptation, and that in
+which we here use it, gray, as was observed in the third chapter,
+denotes a class of cool cinereous colours faint of hue; whence we have
+blue grays, olive grays, green grays, purple grays, and grays of all
+hues, in which blue predominates; but no yellow or red grays, the
+prevalence of such hues carrying the compounds into the classes of brown
+and marrone, of which gray is the natural opposite. In this sense the
+_semi-neutral_ Gray is distinguished from the _neutral_ Grey, which
+springs in an infinite series from the mixture of the neutral black and
+white. Between gray and grey, however, there is no intermediate, since
+where colour ends in the one, neutrality commences in the other, and
+vice versâ. Hence the natural alliance of the semi-neutral
+gray--definable as a cool coloured grey--with black or shade; an
+alliance which is strengthened by the latent predominance of blue in the
+synthesis of black, so that in the tints resulting from the mixture of
+black and white, so much of that hue is developed as to give apparent
+colour to the tints. This explains why the tints of black and dark
+pigments are colder than their originals, so much so as in some
+instances to answer the purposes of positive colours. It accounts in
+some measure for the natural blueness of the sky, yet not wholly, for
+this is in part dependent, by contrast, upon the warm colour of sunshine
+to which it is opposed; for, if by any accident the light of nature
+should be rendered red, the colour of the sky would not appear purple,
+in consequence, but green. Again, if the sun shone green, the sky would
+not be green, but red inclined to purple; and so would it be with all
+colours, not according to the laws of composition, but of contrast;
+since, if it were otherwise, the golden rays of the sun would render a
+blue sky green.
+
+The grays are the natural cold correlatives, or contrasts, of the warm
+semi-neutral browns, as well as degradations of blue and its allies.
+Hence blue added to brown throws it into or toward the class of grays,
+and hence grays are equally abundant in nature and necessary in art: in
+both they comprehend a widely diffused and beautiful play of retiring
+colours in skies, distances, carnations, and the shadowings and
+reflections of pure light, &c. Gray is, indeed, the colour of space, and
+has therefore the property of diffusing breadth in a picture, while it
+furnishes at the same time good connecting tints, or media, for
+harmonizing the general colouring. Consequently the grays are among the
+most essential hues of the art, though they must not be suffered to
+predominate where the subject or sentiment does not require it, lest
+they cast over the painting that gloom or leaden dulness reprobated by
+Sir Joshua Reynolds; yet in solemn works they are wonderfully effective,
+and proper ruling colours. Nature supplies these hues from the sky
+abundantly and effectively throughout landscape, and Rubens has employed
+them as generally to correct and give value to his colouring, with fine
+natural perception in this branch of his art: witness his works in the
+National Gallery, and in that of the Luxembourg.
+
+According to the foregoing relations, grays favour the effects and force
+of warm colours, which in their turn also give value to grays. It is
+hence that the tender gray distances of a landscape are assisted,
+enlivened, and kept in place by warm and forcible colouring in the
+foreground, gradually connected through intermediate objects and middle
+distances by demi-tints declining into gray; a union which secures full
+value to the colours and objects, and by reconciling opposites gives
+repose to the eye. As a general rule, it may be inferred that half of a
+picture should be of a neutral hue, to ensure the harmony of the
+colouring; or at least that a balance of colour and neutrality is quite
+as essential to the best effect of a painting as a like balance of light
+and shade.
+
+283. MINERAL GRAY,
+
+or Mineral Gr_e_y, as it is often improperly spelt, is obtainable from
+the lapis lazuli, after the blue and ash have been worked out. So
+derived, it is a refuse article, worthless if the stone has been
+skilfully exhausted of its ultramarine. As this is now generally the
+case, the best mineral gray is no longer a waste product, but a lower
+species of ash, a pale whitish blue with a grey cast. Possessing the
+permanence of ultramarine, it may be regarded in colour as a very weak
+variety of that blue, diluted with a large quantity of white slightly
+tinged by black. A pigment peculiar to oil painting, it is admirably
+adapted to that gray semi-neutrality, the prevalence of which in nature
+has been just remarked. For misty mornings, cloudy skies, and the like,
+this gray will be found useful.
+
+284. MIXED GRAY
+
+is formed by compounding black and blue, black and purple, black and
+olive, &c.; and is likewise produced by adding blue in excess to madder
+brown, sepia, &c., transparent mixtures which are much employed. It
+should be borne in mind that the semi-neutrals, like the secondaries and
+tertiaries, may be so compounded as to be permanent, semi-stable, or
+fugitive. The due remembrance of this cannot be too strongly insisted
+upon, seeing that in every picture the browns and grays are of frequent
+occurrence. These it is that lend such charm to the whole, flowing, as
+it were, like a quiet under-current of colour beneath the troubled
+surface of more decided hues. In the work of every true artist--between
+whom and the mere painter there is as much difference as between the
+poet and the poetaster--there is sentiment as well as colour, whether
+the subject be an exciting battle-scene or a bit of still life. This
+sentiment, as strongly felt as the colour is clearly seen, is imparted
+in no small degree by the skilful use of semi-neutrality, the
+compounding of which, as time goes on, will therefore affect a picture
+for good or for evil.
+
+Subjoined is an analysis of the three semi-neutrals, which serves partly
+to show in what great variety they may be obtained by admixture.
+
+    Brown   = Black                 + Yellow }
+       "    =   "                   + Orange }   + Red, Purple, &c.
+       "    =   "                   + Citrine}
+       "    = 2 Yellow              + Red        + Blue
+       "    = 2 Orange              + Green      + Purple
+       "    = 2 Citrine             + Russet     + Olive
+    Marrone = Black                 + Red
+       "    =     "                 + Purple-red
+       "    =     "                 + Russet
+       "    = 2 Red       }
+       "    = 2 Purple-red}         + Dark Brown or Black
+       "    = 2 Russet    }
+    Gray    = Black + Blue       }
+       "    =   "   + Purple-blue}  + 2 White
+       "    =   "   + Olive      }
+       "    = 2 Blue       }
+       "    = 2 Purple-blue}        + Light Brown, or Black + 2 White
+       "    = 2 Olive      }
+
+In the last division, the White has been added to remind the reader that
+grays are coloured greys, not coloured blacks; and are therefore faint
+of hue. This paleness, however, need not necessarily be produced by
+admixture with white: it can be gained by means of thin washes. As a
+pigment, gray may be to all appearance black in bulk.
+
+285. NEUTRAL TINT,
+
+or, more correctly, _Semi_-Neutral Tint, is a compound shadow colour of
+a cool character. It is permanent, except that on exposure the gray is
+apt to become grey, a change which may be prevented by a slight addition
+of ultramarine ash. So protected, it becomes serviceable in landscape
+for the extreme distance, which, it may be laid down as a general
+principle, should be painted rather cold than otherwise. Blue being the
+principal compound of atmosphere, it is of the utmost importance to
+obtain this in the first instance, particularly as, from its being only
+of a blue tint, not blue colour, it is so immediately altered and acted
+upon by subsequent washes; whereas, the blue tone once lost, it will be
+found very difficult to be recovered. Wherever a picture is wanting in
+air effect, the cause will, upon examination, be seen to rest entirely
+upon the absence of pure grays, bordering upon a bluish tone, not
+tending, be it observed, to brown or purple. A bluish gray, then, of
+rather a cold tone, such as the neutral tint, is recommended as the
+prevailing hue with which to begin the extreme distances; and, as a
+rule, it is better to pass with this over as much of the landscape as
+possible, and thus lay the foundation for a general atmosphere.
+
+286. PAYNE'S GRAY
+
+resembles the preceding in being a compound colour and liable to assume
+a grey cast by time, but differs from it in having more lilac in its
+hue, and being therefore of a warmer tone. Giving by itself a clear
+violet shadow, it may be rendered more neutral by a small portion of
+burnt Sienna, an admixture which, whether the gray or Sienna
+predominates, affords useful tints. Compounded with light red or Vandyke
+brown, the gray is good for shipping and sails, or the stems and
+branches of trees; while with gamboge or aureolin it is suited to glossy
+leaves in high light, also to very cold tones in foregrounds, herbage,
+&c. Yellow ochre, light red, and Payne's gray form a mixture for banks
+and roads; the ochre, gray, and sepia, a most beautiful tint for stones;
+and brown madder and the gray, a fine shade for the black head and feet
+of cattle. Alone, the gray is serviceable for slate; and compounded with
+light red, for bricks or tiles in shadow.
+
+287. ULTRAMARINE ASH
+
+is obtained from the stone after the richer and more intense blue has
+been extracted. Although not equal in beauty, and inferior in strength
+of colour to ultramarine, it is a valuable bye-product varying in shade
+from light to dark, and in hue from pale azure to cold blue. With a grey
+cast, it affords delicate and extremely tender tints, not so positive as
+ultramarine, but which, as water-colours, wash much better. It furnishes
+grays softer, purer, and more suited to the pearly tints of flesh,
+skies, distances, foliage, shadows of drapery, &c. than those composed
+of other blues, with white and black, which the old masters were wont to
+employ. Ultramarine, however, produces the same effects when broken with
+black and white, and is thus sometimes carried throughout the colouring
+of a picture. The ash, compounded with lamp black, gives a soft cold
+gray for dark louring clouds, or for twilight away from the sun's
+influence. Alone it is adapted to very remote hills or mountains, and
+with orient yellow or aureolin to distant foliage.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The native phosphate of iron, which has been already described in the
+tenth chapter under its name of Blue Ochre, might have been classed
+among the grays, being similar in colour to the deeper hues of
+ultramarine ashes. Powdered slate, slate clays, and several native
+earths, likewise rank with grays; but some of the earths we have tried
+are not durable, being apt to become brown by the oxidation of the iron
+they contain. It may be proper here to mention those other pigments,
+known as tints, which, being the result of the experience of accredited
+masters in their peculiar modes of practice, serve to facilitate the
+progress of their amateur pupils, while they are more or less eligible
+for artists. Such are _Harding's_ and _Macpherson's Tints_, composed of
+pigments which associate cordially, and sold ready prepared in cakes and
+boxes for miniature and water painting.
+
+Of the four grays in use--mineral gray, ultramarine ash, neutral tint,
+and Payne's gray--the two first are quite unchangeable, and the others
+sufficiently stable to be classed as permanent.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XX.
+
+ON THE NEUTRAL, GREY.
+
+
+Grey is the second and intermediate of the neutral colours, standing
+between _white_ and _black_. True or normal grey is only obtainable by
+admixture of pure white with pure black, various proportions of which
+afford numerous tones of pure grey. In practice it may likewise be
+produced by a thin wash of black over white. The neutral gr_e_y differs
+from the semi-neutral gr_a_y in not being coloured by any primary,
+secondary, tertiary, or semi-neutral; hence any blue, purple, olive, or
+gray added to it, at once destroys the neutrality of grey, and converts
+it into gray. Thus easily defiled and changed in class, grey is rather a
+theoretical than a practical colour. To our knowledge, there has never
+been a true grey pigment, that is, one composed exclusively of pure
+white and pure black; the gr_a_ys known to the palette as Mineral Grey
+and Payne's Grey having been incorrectly named. Practically, the nearest
+approach to a normal grey is furnished by Black Lead, which forms grey
+tints of greater permanence and purity than the blacks in general use,
+and is now employed for this purpose with approved satisfaction by
+experienced artists.
+
+Being compounded of white and black, grey partakes in some measure of
+the qualities of both those colours--for colours, as a matter of
+convenience, they must be called; although white is often spoken of as
+no colour, and black as the complete extinction of all colour. With
+white predominant, grey is used, pure or coloured, for the general
+lights of a picture; just as, with black predominant, grey is employed,
+pure or coloured, for the shades. It helps to subdue the absolute white,
+and to make the absolute black conspicuous. Black and white are in some
+respects complementary to each other, and when in contact, appear to
+differ more from each other than when viewed separately: both show with
+best effect when harmonised by a medium of grey, normal or otherwise.
+The primary colours, also, gain in brilliancy and purity by the
+proximity of grey. With dark colours, such as blue and violet, and deep
+tones in general, grey forms assortments of analogous harmonies; while
+with the luminous colours, such as red, orange, yellow, and the light
+tints of green, it forms harmonies of contrast. Although grey never
+produces a bad effect in its assortments with two luminous colours, in
+most cases the association is dull and inferior to black and white. The
+only instance in which grey associates with two such colours more
+happily than white is that with red and orange. Grey is inferior to both
+white and black with red and green, red and yellow, orange and yellow,
+orange and green, yellow and green; and is not so good as white with
+yellow and blue. In association with sombre colours, such as blue and
+violet, and with broken tones of luminous colours, grey gives rise to
+harmonies of analogy which have not the vigour of those with white; but
+if the colours do not combine well together, it has the advantage of
+separating them from each other. Associated with two colours, one
+sombre, the other luminous, grey will perhaps be better than white, if
+white produces too strong a contrast of tone: on the other hand, grey
+will be preferable to black, if that has the inconvenience of increasing
+too much the proportion of sombre colours. Grey associates more happily
+than black with orange and violet, green and blue, or green and violet.
+
+288. MIXED GREY.
+
+When a ray of solar light (a sunbeam) is passed through a prism of flint
+glass, and the image or 'prismatic spectrum' received upon a screen of
+white paper, it is found to consist of numerous rays of different
+colours, which are conveniently divided into six groups--red, orange,
+yellow, green, blue, violet. Optically, the union of red, yellow, and
+blue, in proper proportions, constitutes white light; whether the rays
+of the three separate colours are mixed, or of one with the other two in
+combination: the same result ensues when red is mixed with green as if
+it were mixed with blue and yellow, because green is composed of blue
+and yellow. Consequently, any primary mixed with a secondary composed of
+the other two primaries, forms the complement of rays necessary to
+constitute or make up white light, and vice versâ.
+
+There is, however, a very great difference between the results arising
+from the mixture of the pure coloured rays of the spectrum, and those
+from material colours or pigments. When, by means of a convex lens, we
+reunite the coloured rays of the spectrum white light is reproduced; but
+when we mix coloured materials, blues, yellows, and reds, the compound
+is never white, but grey or black; even if these coloured pigments are
+taken in the exact proportions in which their colours exist in the
+spectrum. Ultramarine, our purest blue, reflects red rays as well as
+blue rays; aureolin, our purest yellow, reflects blue as well as yellow
+rays; and carmine reflects yellow as well as red rays. Now whenever the
+third primary colour is present in any mixture of coloured materials, it
+tends to form grey, by mixing with a sufficient quantity of the other
+coloured rays to neutralize it, and the presence of this grey breaks or
+tarnishes the pure colour. Hence it is that to obtain a pure green, a
+blue should be taken tinged with yellow rather than with red, and a
+yellow tinged with blue: if there were chosen either a blue or a yellow
+tinged with red, this latter colour would go to form some grey in the
+compound, which would tarnish the green. In like manner, to produce pure
+orange, neither the red nor the yellow must contain blue; and similarly
+with pure purple, neither the blue nor red should contain yellow.
+
+As regards pigments, then, a proper mixture of yellow, red, and blue; or
+of yellow and purple, red and green, or blue and orange; or of orange,
+green, and purple, affords black if sufficiently intense, and grey if
+sufficiently diluted. The black may be rendered grey by spreading a thin
+wash over a white ground, or by the direct addition of white. It must be
+remembered, however, that suitable proportions of the component colours
+are essential. When all three of the primaries, for example, are mixed
+together, colour is neutralised according as they are compounded of
+equal strength and in right quantities: if proper proportions are
+observed, pure black or normal grey results; but if not, there will be
+produced a coloured black or a coloured grey, an excess of one or two of
+the primaries giving rise to brown, marrone, or gray.
+
+A reference to the lists of permanent primary and secondary pigments
+will show to what extent durable greys can be compounded. As these
+pigments differ so widely in hue and other properties, no fixed rules
+can be given for their admixture: to ensure neutrality, practice and a
+correct eye are indispensable. Without perfect neutrality, difficult to
+attain and rarely to be met with, grey ceases to exist. In pure white,
+pure grey, and pure black, colour is, so to speak, conspicuous by its
+absence.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXI.
+
+ON THE NEUTRAL, BLACK.
+
+
+Black is the last and lowest in the series or scale of colours
+descending--the opposite extreme from white--the maximum of colour. To
+be perfect, it must be neutral with respect to colours individually, and
+absolutely transparent, or destitute of reflective power as regards
+light; its use in painting being to represent shade or depths, of which
+black is the element in a picture and in colours, as white is of light.
+
+As there is no perfectly pure and transparent black pigment, black
+deteriorates all colours in deepening them, as it does warm colours by
+partially neutralizing them, but it combines less injuriously with cold
+colours. Though black is the antagonist of white, yet added to it in
+minute portion, it in general renders white more neutral, solid, and
+local, with less of the character of light. Impure black is brown, but
+black in its purity is a cold colour, and communicates a coolness to all
+light colours; thus it _blues_ white, _greens_ yellow, _purples_ red,
+and _cools_ blue. Hence the artist errs with ill effect who regards
+black as of nearest affinity to hot and brown colours, and will do well
+to keep in mind--"The glow of sunshine and the _cool_ of shade."
+
+It is a fault of even some of our best colourists, as evinced by their
+pictures, to be too fond of black upon their palettes, and thence to
+infuse it needlessly into their tints and colours. With such it is a
+taste acquired from the study of old pictures; but in nature hardly any
+object above ground is black, or in daylight is rendered neutral
+thereby. Black, therefore, should be reserved for a local colour, or
+employed only in the under-painting properly called grounding and dead
+colouring. As a local colour, black has the effect of connecting or
+amassing surrounding objects, and is the most retiring of all colours, a
+property which it communicates to other colours in mixture. It heightens
+the effect of warm as well as light colours, by a double contrast when
+opposed to them, and in like manner subdues that of cold and deep
+colours. In mixture or glazing, however, these effects are reversed, by
+reason of the predominance of cold colour in the constitution of black.
+Having, therefore, the double office of colour and of shade, black is
+perhaps the most important of all colours to the artist, both as to its
+use and avoidance.
+
+It may be laid down as a rule that the black must be conspicuous.
+However small a point of black may be, it ought to catch the eye,
+otherwise the work is too heavy in the shadow. All the ordinary shadows
+should be of some _colour_--never black, nor approaching black, they
+should be evidently and always of a luminous nature, and the black
+should look strange among them; never occurring except in a black
+object, or in small points indicative of intense shade in the very
+centre of masses of shadow. Shadows of absolutely negative grey,
+however, may be beautifully used with white, or with gold; but still
+though the black thus, in subdued strength, becomes spacious, it should
+always be conspicuous: the spectator should notice this grey neutrality
+with some wonder, and enjoy, all the more intensely on account of it,
+the gold colour and the white which it relieves. Of all the great
+colourists, Velasquez is the greatest master of the black chords: his
+black is more precious than other people's crimson. Yet it is not simply
+black and white that must be made valuable, rare worth must be given to
+each colour employed; but the white and black ought to separate
+themselves quaintly from the rest, while the other colours should be
+continually passing one into the other, being all plainly companions in
+the same gay world; while the white, black, and neutral grey should
+stand monkishly aloof in the midst of them. Crimson may be melted into
+purple, purple into blue, and blue into green, but none of them must be
+melted into black.
+
+All colours are comprehended in the synthesis of black, consequently the
+whole sedative power of colour is comprised in black. It is the same in
+the synthesis of white; and, with like relative consequence, white
+includes all the stimulating powers of colour in painting. It follows
+that a little white or black is equivalent to much colour, and hence
+their use as colours requires judgment and caution. By due attention to
+the synthesis of black, it may be rendered a harmonizing medium to all
+colours, to all which it lends brilliancy by its sedative effect on the
+eye, and its powers of contrast: nevertheless, we repeat, it must be
+introduced with caution when _hue_ is of greater importance than shade.
+Even when employed as a shadow, without much judgment in its use, black
+is apt to appear as local colour rather than as privation of light; and
+black pigments obtained by charring have a tendency to rise and
+predominate over other hues, subduing the more delicate tints by their
+chemical bleaching power upon other colours, and their own disposition
+to turn brown or dusky. For these reasons deep and transparent colours,
+which have darkness in their constitution, are better adapted as a rule
+for producing the true natural and permanent effects of shade. Many
+pictures of the early masters, and especially of the Roman and
+Florentine schools, evince the truth of our remarks; and it is to be
+feared the high reputation of these works has betrayed their admirers
+into this defective employment of black.
+
+Black substances reflect a small quantity of white light, which receives
+the complementary of the colour contiguous to the black. By
+'complementary' is meant that colour which is required with another
+colour to form white light; thus, green is the complementary of red,
+blue of orange, and yellow of violet, or vice versâ; because green and
+red, blue and orange, and yellow and violet, each make up the full
+complement of rays necessary to form white light. Briefly digressing, we
+give the following mode of observing complementary colours:--Place a
+sheet of white paper on a table opposite to one of two windows admitting
+diffused daylight[C] into a room; take a piece of coloured glass and so
+place it that the coloured light transmitted through it falls over the
+surface of the paper; then put an opaque object on the paper close to
+the coloured glass. The shadow of this object will not appear black or
+of the colour of the glass, as might be supposed, but of its
+complementary colour; thus if the glass is red, the colour of the
+shadow will be green, although the whole of the paper surrounding it
+appears red. Similarly, if the glass is blue, the shadow will appear
+orange; if it is green, the shadow will appear red; and so with other
+colours. It is absolutely essential, however, to the success of this
+experiment, that the paper be also illuminated with the white light
+admitted from the other window.
+
+It has been said that black substances reflect a small quantity of white
+light, which receives the complementary of the colour contiguous to the
+black. If this colour is deep, it gives rise to a luminous
+complementary, such as orange, or yellow, and enfeebles the black; while
+the other complementaries, such as violet or green, strengthen and
+purify it. In colours associated with black, if green is juxtaposed
+therewith, its complementary red, added to the black, makes it seem
+rusty. Those colours which best associate with black are orange, yellow,
+blue, and violet. It would be well to remember that black, being always
+deeper than the juxtaposed colour, entails contrast of tone, and tends
+to lower the tone of that colour.
+
+Most of the black pigments in use are obtained by charring, and owe
+their colour to the carbon they contain. As the objects of vegetal and
+animal nature may be blackened through every degree of impurity by the
+action of fire, black substances more or less fitted for pigments
+abound. The following are the chief native and artificial black
+pigments, or colours available as such:--
+
+289. BLACK LEAD,
+
+_Plumbago_, or _Graphite_, contains in spite of its name no lead, being
+simply a species of carbon or charcoal. In most specimens iron is
+present, varying in quantity from a mere trace up to five per cent,
+together with silica and alumina. Sometimes manganese and titanic acid
+are likewise found. It is curious that carbon should occur in two
+distinct and very dissimilar forms--as diamond, and as graphite; one,
+white, hard, and transparent; the other, black, soft, and opaque: the
+artist, therefore, who uses a pigment of plumbago, paints with nothing
+more or less than a black diamond. The best graphite, the finest and
+most valuable for pencils, is yielded by the mine of Borrowdale, at the
+west end of Derwent Lake, in Cumberland, where it was first wrought
+during the reign of Elizabeth. A kind of irregular vein traverses the
+ancient slate-beds of that district, furnishing the carbon of an
+iron-grey colour, metallic lustre, and soft and greasy to the touch.
+Universally employed in the form of crayons, &c. in sketching,
+designing, and drawing, until of late years it was not acknowledged as a
+pigment: yet its powers in this respect claim a place for it. As a
+water-colour, levigated in gum in the usual manner, it may be
+effectively used with rapidity and freedom in the shading and finishing
+of pencil drawings, or as a substitute therein for Indian ink. Even in
+oil it may be employed occasionally, as it possesses remarkably the
+property of covering, forms very pure grey, dries quickly, injures no
+colour chemically, and endures for ever. These qualities render it the
+most eligible black for adding to white in minute quantity to preserve
+the neutrality of its tint.
+
+Although plumbago has usurped the name of Black Lead, there is another
+substance more properly entitled to this appellation, and which may be
+used in the same way, and with like effects as a pigment. This substance
+is the sulphide of lead, found native in the beautiful lead ore, or
+Galena, of Derbyshire. An artificial sulphide can be prepared by dry and
+wet processes, which is subject to gradual oxidation on exposure to the
+air, and consequent conversion into grey or white. Neither variety can
+be compared to graphite for permanence, although the native is
+preferable to the artificial.
+
+Plumbago, or the so-called Black Lead, is often adulterated to an
+enormous extent with lamp black.
+
+290. BLUE BLACK,
+
+_Charcoal_, _Liege_, or _Vine Black_, is a well-burnt and levigated
+charcoal prepared from vine twigs, of weaker body than ivory or lamp
+black, and consequently better suited to the grays and general mixed
+tints of landscape painting, in which it is not so likely to look black
+and sooty as the others may do. Of a cool neutral tint, it has, in
+common with all carbonaceous blacks, a preserving influence on white
+when duly mixed therewith; which it owes, chemically, to the bleaching
+power of carbon, and, chromatically, to the neutralizing and contrasting
+power of black with white. Compounded slightly with blue black, and
+washed over with zinc white, white lead may be exposed to any ordinary
+impure atmosphere with comparative impunity. It would be well for art if
+carbon had a like power upon the colour of oils, but of this it is
+deficient; and although chlorine destroys their colour temporarily, they
+re-acquire it at no very distant period.
+
+Alone, blue black is useful as a cool shade for white draperies; and
+compounded with cobalt, affords a good gray for louring clouds.
+
+291. BRITISH INK
+
+is a compound black, preferred by some artists to Indian ink, on account
+of its not being liable to wash streaky, as the latter does: at the same
+time it is not so perfectly fixed on the paper as Indian ink.
+
+292. INDIAN INK,
+
+sometimes called _China_ or _Chinese Ink_, is chiefly brought from
+China in oblong cakes, of a musky scent, ready prepared for painting in
+water. Varying considerably in body and colour, the best has a shining
+black fracture, is finely compact, and homogeneous when rubbed with
+water, in which, when largely diluted, it yields no precipitate. Without
+the least appearance of particles, its dry surface is covered with a
+pellicle of a metallic appearance. When dry on the paper, it resists the
+action of water, yet it will give way at once to that action, when it
+has been used and dried on marble or ivory, a fact which proves that the
+alummed paper forms a strong combination with the ink; possibly a
+compound of the latter on an aluminous base, might even be employed in
+oil. Different accounts are given of the mode of making this ink, the
+principal substance or colouring matter of which is a smoke black,
+having all the properties of our lamp black; the variety of its hues and
+texture seeming wholly to depend on the degree of burning and levigating
+it receives. From certain Chinese documents, we learn that the ink of
+Nan-king is the most esteemed; and among the many sorts imported into
+this country, we find those of the best quality are prepared with lamp
+black of the oil of Sesame; with which are combined camphor, and the
+juice of a plant named _Houng hoa_ to give it brightness of tone.
+According to an analysis by M. Proust, the better kinds contain about
+two per cent. of camphor. By some, the pigment known as Sepia has been
+supposed to enter into their composition.
+
+_Liquid Indian Ink_ is a solution for architects, surveyors, &c.
+
+293. IVORY BLACK
+
+is ivory charred to blackness by strong heat in closed vessels.
+Differing chiefly through want of care or skill in preparing, when well
+made it is the richest and most transparent of all the blacks, a fine
+neutral colour perfectly durable and eligible both in water and oil.
+When insufficiently burnt, however, it is brown, and dries badly; or if
+too much burnt, it becomes cineritious, opaque, and faint in hue. With a
+slight tendency to brown in its pale washes, this full, silky black is
+serviceable where the sooty density of lamp black would be out of place.
+It is occasionally adulterated with bone black, a cheaper and inferior
+product.
+
+Being nothing more nor less than animal charcoal, ivory or bone black
+had best not be compounded with organic pigments, in water at least. It
+is well known that this charcoal possesses the singular property of
+completely absorbing the colour of almost any vegetal or animal
+solution, and of rendering quite limpid and colourless the water charged
+with it. If a solution of indigo in concentrated sulphuric acid be
+diluted with water, and animal charcoal added in sufficient quantity,
+the solution will soon be deprived of colour. The more perfect the ivory
+or bone black, the more powerful is its action likely to be: either over
+or under calcined, animal charcoal is less energetic; in the former
+case, because it is less porous; in the latter, because the animal
+matter, not being wholly consumed, makes a kind of varnish in the
+charcoal which interferes with its acting. To a greater or less extent,
+gums, oils, and varnishes serve similarly as preventives, thereby
+decreasing the danger of employing these blacks in admixture; but, in
+the compounding of colours, nothing is gained by needless risk. To mix
+with organic pigments, therefore, blue or lamp blacks should be
+substituted for those of ivory or bone; that is, vegetal charcoal should
+be used instead of animal. It is a question whether even with inorganic
+pigments the adoption of the former in admixture would not be advisable.
+It was once the general opinion that the action of animal charcoal was
+limited to bodies of organic origin, but it has since been found that
+inorganic matters are likewise influenced. "Through its agency," says
+Graham, "even the iodine is separated from iodide of potassium;" whence
+probably pigments containing iodine would suffer by contact. The
+investigation of Weppen appears to prove that the action of the charcoal
+extends to all metallic salts; with the following, no doubt remains of
+this being so, to wit:--the sulphates of copper, zinc, chromium, and
+protoxide of iron; the nitrates of lead, nickel, silver, cobalt,
+suboxide and oxide of mercury; the protochlorides of tin and mercury;
+the acetates of lead and sesquioxide of iron; and the tartrate of
+antimony. Whether animal charcoal exercises any deleterious influence on
+pigments consisting of these metals, and, if so, how far and under what
+circumstances, can only be answered when our knowledge of the properties
+of pigments is greater than it now is. At present, perhaps, it is safer
+to choose vegetal charcoal for mixed tints, inasmuch as, although it
+shares the property of bleaching in a certain degree, it does not
+possess the same energy.
+
+294. LAMP BLACK,
+
+or _Lamblack_, is a smoke black, being the soot procured by the burning
+of resins or resinous woods. It is a pure vegetal charcoal of fine
+texture, not quite so intense nor so transparent as the black made from
+ivory, but less brown in its pale tones. It has a very strong body that
+covers readily every underlay of colour, works well, but dries badly in
+oil. On emergency, it may be prepared extemporaneously for
+water-painting by holding a plate over the flame of a lamp or candle,
+and adding gum to the colour: the nearer the plate is held to the wick
+of the lamp, the more abundant and warm will be the hue of the black
+obtained; at a greater distance it will be more effectually charred, and
+blacker.
+
+Mixed with French blue or cobalt, lamp black gives good cloudy grays,
+which are useful for the shadows of heavy storm clouds. With French blue
+and this black alone various beautiful stormy skies may be represented;
+the contrast of the blue causing the black to assume, if desired, a warm
+tone in shadows. For like purposes, the black with ultramarine ash
+affords a very soft hue, and with light red and cobalt in different
+proportions yields silvery tones most serviceable. To the dark marking
+of murky and dirty clouds, a compound of lamp black and light red is
+particularly suited; while a mixture of the black with cobalt and purple
+madder is adapted for slate-coloured sunset and sunrise clouds. French
+blue softened with a little lamp black is fitted for mountains or hills,
+very remote; and the same blue and black with rose madder meet their
+tints if nearer. In seas the black is useful with raw Sienna and other
+colours; while, whether in storm or calm, vessels and boats may be
+painted with tints of lamp black, madder brown, and burnt Sienna,
+varying in degrees of strength according to the distances. Lamp black
+alone, or with French blue, cobalt and purple madder, emerald green, or
+rose madder, is good for rocks; and for dark foreground objects when
+mixed with madder lake and burnt Sienna. With aureolin the black
+furnishes a sober olive for foliage, and with rose madder a fine colour
+for the stems and branches of trees. Compounded with light red, it is
+suited to the first general tones of the ground for banks and roads; and
+with yellow ochre or madder red, to parts of buildings and cattle. A
+very eminent miniature painter recommends for hair tints, lamp black,
+Indian red, and burnt Sienna. Being a dense solid colour, this black
+must be used sparingly to avoid heaviness.
+
+Hitherto confined to painting and engraving, lamp black has lately
+refuted the assertion that there is nothing new under the sun by making
+its appearance in photography. By a method which combines the fidelity
+of that art with the permanence of prints, there is produced a species
+of photographic engraving, so to speak, having lamp black or carbon for
+its colouring matter. Indeed, in this 'Autotype' process, as it is
+called, any other durable pigment or pigments may be used, and a
+photographic picture thus obtained. In copying the works of artists,
+especially, the mode promises to be of value, inasmuch as by its agency
+the same pigments may be made the colouring matter of the reproduction
+as are employed in the original. If this be in sepia or bistre, the copy
+can be autotyped in those colours; or if a red chalk drawing be required
+to be multiplied, the proofs may be in red chalk, the copy when
+produced to the same scale being scarcely distinguishable from the
+original. In like manner, any single colour of the artist's palette is
+applicable without restriction or limitation, so that not only are every
+line and touch rendered absolutely, but the very pigment used in the
+original is found in the copy. Moreover, as the pigments are quite
+unchanged by the action of the other agents employed, the resulting
+colour of the print is determined once for all, just as the artist mixes
+those pigments on his palette for his picture. As extending the use of
+lamp black and permanent pigments in general, this brief digression on
+Autotypography may be pardoned in a treatise on colours.
+
+295. MIXED BLACK.
+
+Black is to be considered as a synthesis of the three primary colours,
+the three secondaries, or the three tertiaries, or of all these
+together; and, consequently, also of the three semi-neutrals, and may
+thus be composed of due proportions of either tribe or triad. All
+antagonistic colours, or contrasts, likewise afford the neutral black by
+composition; but in all the modes of producing black by compounding
+colours, blue is to be regarded as its archeus or predominating colour,
+and yellow as subordinate to red, in the proportions, when their hues
+are true, of eight blue, five red, and three yellow. It is owing to
+this predominance of blue in the constitution of black, that it
+contributes by mixture to the pureness of hue in white colours, which
+usually incline to warmth, and that it produces the cool effect of
+blueness in glazing and tints, or however otherwise diluted or dilated.
+It accords with the principle here inculcated that in glass-founding the
+oxide of manganese, which gives the _red_ hue, and that of cobalt, which
+furnishes the _blue_, are added to brown or _yellow_ frit, to obtain a
+velvety black glass. Similarly the dyer proceeds to dye black upon a
+deep blue basis of indigo, with the ruddy colour of madder and the
+yellow of quercitron, &c.
+
+Some of the best blacks and neutrals of the painter are those formed
+with colours of sufficient power and transparency upon the palette.
+Prussian blue and burnt lake afford a powerful though not very durable
+black; and compound blacks in which transparent pigments are employed
+will generally go deeper and harmonize better with other colours than
+any original black pigment alone. Hence lakes and deep blues, added to
+the common blacks, greatly increase their clearness and intensity: in
+mixture and glazing of the fine blacks of some old pictures, ultramarine
+has evidently been used. In this view, black altogether compounded of
+blue with red and yellow, each deep and transparent, and duly
+subordinated according to its powers, will give the most powerful and
+transparent blacks; although, like most other blacks, they dry badly in
+oil. Of course, as with all compound colours, it depends entirely on the
+pigments employed whether these mixed blacks are permanent or not: a
+compound black can very well pass through the stages of black to grey,
+gray, or dirty white, if each link in the chain of combination be not as
+strong as its fellows.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+296. _Black Chalk_
+
+is an indurated clay, of the texture of white chalk, and chiefly used
+for cutting into crayons. Fine specimens have been found near Bantry in
+Ireland, and in Wales, but the Italian has the most reputation. Crayons
+for sketching and drawing are also artificially prepared, which are
+deeper in colour and free from grit. Wood charcoal is likewise cut into
+crayons, that of soft woods, such as lime, poplar, &c., being best
+adapted for the purpose.
+
+297. _Black Ochre_,
+
+Earth Black, or Prussian Black, is a native earth, combined with iron
+and alluvial clay. It is found in most countries, and should be washed
+and exposed to the atmosphere before being employed. Sea-coal, and
+other black mineral substances, have been and may be used as substitutes
+for the more perfect blacks, when the latter are not procurable, which
+now seldom or never happens.
+
+298. _Bone Black_,
+
+obtained by charring, is similar to that of ivory, except that it is a
+little warmer in tone, having a reddish or orange tinge, and is a worse
+drier in oil. Like ivory black, it is very transparent. Immense
+quantities of bone black are consumed with sulphuric acid in the
+manufacture of shoe blacking.
+
+299. _Coffee Black_,
+
+though little known and not on sale, has been strongly recommended by
+Bouvier as one of the best blacks that can be used. Soft without being
+greasy, light, almost impalpable, even before being ground, it gives
+tints of a very bluish gray when mixed with white, a quality precious
+for making the blues of the sketch, and dull greens. It is said to dry
+better than blue or vine black, and to combine admirably with other
+colours. De Montabert prefers calling it Coffee Brown, giving it as an
+exemplification of a bluish-brown, but probably this brown hue is owing
+to want of skill in its manufacture. We have not had personal experience
+of the colour, but there is no theoretical reason why a carbonaceous
+black should not be produced from coffee. The mode of proceeding is to
+calcine the berry in a covered vessel, and well wash the resulting
+charcoal with boiling water by decantation. In order to prevent the
+powder, which is of great lightness, from floating, it is made into
+paste with a few drops of alcohol before adding the water.
+
+300. _Frankfort Black_
+
+is said to be made of the lees of wine from which the tartar has been
+washed, by burning, in the manner of ivory black; although the inferior
+sort is merely the levigated charcoal of woods, of which the hardest,
+such as box and ebony, yield the best. Fine Frankfort black, though
+almost confined to copper-plate printing, is one of the best black
+pigments extant, being of a neutral colour, next in intensity to lamp
+black, and more powerful than that of ivory. Strong light has the effect
+of deepening its colour. It is probable that this was the black used by
+some of the Flemish painters, and that the pureness of the greys formed
+therewith is due to the property of charred substances of preventing
+discolourment.
+
+301. _Manganese Black_,
+
+the common black oxide of that metal, is the best of all blacks for
+drying in oil without addition. It is also a colour of vast body and
+tingeing power. As a siccative, it might be advantageously employed with
+ivory black.
+
+302. _Mineral Black_
+
+is a native impure carbon of soft texture, found in Devonshire. Blacker
+than plumbago, and free from its metallic lustre, it is of a neutral
+colour, greyer and more opaque than ivory black, and forms pure neutral
+tints. Being perfectly durable, and drying well in oil, it is of value
+in dead colouring on account of its solid body, as a preparation for
+black and deep colours before glazing. It would likewise be the most
+permanent and best possible black for frescoes.
+
+303. _Paper Black_,
+
+a pigment unknown to the modern palette, like most of our numbered
+italicised colours, is of the nature of blue or vine black. Very soft
+and of a fine bluish-gray, it is fitted for flesh, or for mixing with
+whites or yellows in landscapes.
+
+304. _Peach Black_,
+
+or Almond Black, made by burning the stones of fruits, the shell of the
+cocoa-nut, &c., is a violet-black, once much used by Parisian artists.
+Bouvier believes it to be a good black, but at the same time sensibly
+asks, of what use is it to have a black of this cast, which can always
+be given by lake, without diminishing but rather increasing the
+intensity of the black it may be mixed with.
+
+305. _Prussian Black._
+
+The same Prussian blue which gives a brown when burnt in the open air,
+yields a black when calcined in a close crucible. Very intense, very
+soft and velvety, and very agreeable to work, this bluish-black dries
+much more promptly than most other blacks, and scarcely requires
+grinding. On account of its extreme division, however, it would probably
+be found more energetic as a decolourising agent in admixture with
+organic pigments than most carbonaceous blacks.
+
+Another Prussian black, containing copper, and made by a wet process, is
+obtained when a dilute solution of cupric sulphate and ferrous sulphate,
+in proper proportions, is mixed with a quantity of ferrocyanide of
+potassium not in excess. A very bulky deep black precipitate is formed,
+which is difficult to wash, and is deep black when dry. It is insoluble
+in water, and appears to be a compound analogous to Prussian blue. As a
+pigment, this black is inferior to the preceding.
+
+306. _Purple Black_
+
+is, or rather was, a preparation of madder, of a deep purple hue
+approaching black. Powerful and very transparent, it glazed and dried
+well in oil, and was a durable and eligible pigment. Its tints with
+white lead were of a purple cast.
+
+307. _Spanish Black_,
+
+or Cork Black, is a soft black, obtained by charring cork, and differs
+not essentially from Frankfort black, except in being of a lighter and
+softer texture. "Some of my friends," says Bouvier, "call it _Beggars'
+Ultramarine_, because it produces, by combinations, tints almost as fine
+as ultramarine." A blue but not a velvet black, where intensity is
+required some other is to be preferred. For mixtures, however, it is
+stated to be admirable, and especially for linen, skies, distances, and
+the various broken tints of carnations, &c.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Besides those blacks which have been mentioned, there are others
+furnished by several of the metals and by many organic substances
+employed as dyes; but as the blacks in common use are all permanent, and
+have been found sufficient for every purpose, it is scarce needful to
+swell the list. Nor is it more needful, the Editor considers, to swell
+the book; lest his aim be defeated of reflecting in a _moderate_-sized
+mirror the palette as it is and might be at the present day. Arrived at
+age, as it were, in its twenty-first chapter, this treatise may fitly
+conclude with Black, the last of the series of colours. Let us hope the
+maxim of Sir Joshua Reynolds, that success in some degree was never
+denied to earnest work may apply here.
+
+Still, by way of finale, we would offer a few remarks. In no branch of
+the science, perhaps, is it more hazardous to commit oneself to a
+positive dictum than in the chemistry of colours, so liable are theory
+and practice to clash, and so often does the experience of one person or
+one time differ from that of another. He who has turned his attention to
+pigments, finds nearly every assertion must be qualified, for to nearly
+every rule there is some exception, and learns that theory alone may
+mislead. For example, a colour known to be fugacious may last, in
+certain cases, a surprisingly long time; while, on the contrary, a
+pigment permanent when used alone, may be rendered fugitive by improper
+compounding. Again, what holds good of a colour produced by one process,
+or employed in one vehicle or by one artist, may not be true of the same
+colour made by a different mode, or used in another vehicle or by
+another artist. It is because, then, colours are of every degree of
+durability, from the perfectly stable to the utterly fugitive, and
+because each one is liable to influence by every condition of time,
+place, and circumstance, that the chemist's theory is opposed as often
+to the painter's practice as the experience of artists themselves
+varies. This may explain the charges of inconsistency and contradiction
+which have been brought against writers on pigments, faults that lie
+rather with the nature of the subject than with the authors.
+
+Even at the risk of being tiresome, we have throughout insisted on the
+choice of permanent pigments, not simply for use alone but for mixed
+tints. To quote Cennini, "I give you this advice, that you endeavour
+always to use ... good colours.... And if you say that a poor person
+cannot afford the expense, I answer, that if you work well (and give
+sufficient time to your works), and paint with good colours, you will
+acquire so much fame that from a poor person you will become a rich one;
+and your name will stand so high for using good colours, that if some
+masters receive a ducat for painting one figure, you will certainly be
+offered two, and your wishes will be fulfilled, according to the old
+proverb, 'good work, good pay.'" Of a truth, if man cannot dip his brush
+in the rainbow and paint with the aerial colours of the skies, he can at
+least select the best pigments that earth and the sea afford him;
+preferring, where he cannot get brilliancy and permanence combined,
+sobriety and permanence to brilliancy and fugacity. It must be the wish
+of every real artist to leave behind him a lasting record of his skill,
+a permanent panorama of those hues of nature which in life he loved so
+well. To effect this, genius alone is powerless: there must be first a
+proper choice of materials, and next a proper use of them. The painter's
+pigments are the bricks wherewith the mortar of his mind must be mixed,
+either to erect an edifice that shall endure for ages, or one which will
+quickly topple over like a house of cards. Now in nothing more than in
+painting is prevention better than cure--indeed cure may be said to be
+here out of the question: for good or for evil a picture once painted is
+painted for ever. Without a strong constitution there is no hope for it;
+no chemistry can strengthen the sickly frame, restore the faded colour,
+stop the ravages of consumption: Science stands helpless before dying
+Art.
+
+And yet, she sighs to think, it might have been otherwise. If durable
+pigments had been employed, if her counsel had been sought, this need
+not have been. In the history of modern art the use and abuse of colours
+would furnish a sad chapter, telling of gross ignorance, and a grosser
+indifference. Happily there is promise of a healthier state of things.
+When this comes, Art will be less shy to consult her sister: in the
+interests of both there should be closer union. Without waiting till the
+picture is finished--for then it will be too late--let her, if in doubt,
+frankly display the contents of her palette and ask advice. Now, not
+knowing what pigments are chosen or how they are used, never standing
+by and watching the progress of the work, how can Science lend her aid?
+She would willingly, for she herself needs help: at present her
+knowledge is limited, not so much of the chemistry of colours as of the
+properties of pigments. She seeks to mix her pound of theory with an
+ounce of practice, and craves a warmer welcome to the studio. For any
+approximation to the truth to be arrived at, facts must be noted with
+the conditions under which they occur, not by one sister alone nor by
+the other alone, but by both. In future, Art and Science should go hand
+in hand, mutually dependent on each other, mutually trustful of each
+other, working with and for each other, earnestly and patiently.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[C] Light is either direct or diffused--direct, when the sun's rays fall
+upon any object; diffused, when ordinary daylight illumines objects with
+white light, causing them to appear of their peculiar colours.
+
+
+
+
+ADDENDUM.
+
+With the present rapid progress of applied chemistry, an addendum in a
+work of this kind is quite excusable. Even while the book is being
+printed some fact may be announced which the author or editor would wish
+to insert. In our case this has happened. Very recently there has been
+introduced in France as a pigment
+
+308. TUNGSTEN WHITE,
+
+or _Tungstate of Baryta_. "At the request of a landscape painter," says
+M. Sacc in a letter to M. Dumas, "I was induced to examine in succession
+all our insoluble white compounds, with regard to their adaptability to
+painting purposes. Tungstate of baryta answers perfectly, covers as well
+as white lead, and is as unalterable as zinc white. It has been employed
+by this artist for three months, and was found equally successful in oil
+or water colours, chromolithography, and even in making white
+impressions on a black ground. This harmless substitute for the
+injurious white lead is prepared on a large scale in Paris by M. E.
+Rousseau." We have not met with a sample of that gentleman's
+manufacture, but judging from our own specimens, made both by wet and
+dry processes, and carefully tried in water and oil, it would seem that
+a perfect white pigment has yet to be discovered. With us, at least,
+tungstate of baryta is far from having the body of white lead, and
+indeed is inferior in opacity to good zinc white. Unaffected by foul
+air, the tungstate appears to possess the common fault of all whites
+when compared with white lead--want of body, moreover it is a bad dryer.
+However, M. Rousseau's preparation may not be open to these objections,
+and we therefore reserve our final opinion of tungsten white. It is
+intended to publish from time to time a fresh edition of Field's
+Chromatography, and we hope in the next issue to give a more detailed
+and favourable account of the new pigment.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX.
+
+
+A.
+
+Acacia catechu, 354.
+
+Academy, Royal, at Burlington House, 365.
+
+Acetate of lead, as a siccative, 51.
+  "        improper use of, 52.
+
+Adulteration, 70.
+  "  of Anotta, 256.
+  "     Artificial Ultramarine, 214.
+  "     Black Lead, 394.
+  "     Cadmium Yellow, 88.
+  "     Carmine, 134.
+  "     Chrome Yellow, 94.
+  "     Cochineal, 132.
+  "     Genuine Ultramarine, 214.
+  "     Indigo, 202.
+  "     Ivory Black, 397.
+  "     Madder, 140.
+  "     Madder Carmine, 142.
+  "     Mars Yellow, 102.
+  "     Prussian Blue, 203.
+  "     Red Lead, 152.
+  "     Smalt, 198.
+  "     Verdigris, 276.
+  "     Vermilion, 156.
+  "     Veronese Green, 268.
+  "     White Lead, 70, 74, 75.
+  "     Yellow and Orange Orpiment, 113, 259.
+  "     Zinc White, 77.
+
+Advancing and retiring colours, 186-188.
+
+Advice, Cennini's, 411.
+
+Aerial perspective, 22.
+
+African cochineal, 170.
+  "     green, 271.
+
+Air and light, action of, on pigments, 39.
+
+Air effect, want of, 378.
+
+Albumen, 50.
+
+Alchemy, 259.
+
+Alexander the Great, 296.
+  "       Veronese, 284.
+
+Alkanet, 302.
+
+Almagra, 147.
+
+Almond Black, 407.
+
+American artist, an, 347.
+
+Analysis of Brown, 377.
+  "         Citrine, 329.
+  "         Gray, 377.
+  "         Marrone, 377.
+  "         Olive, 330.
+  "         Russet, 330.
+
+Anchusa tinctoria, 302.
+
+Ancients, colouring of the, 3.
+  "       colours of the, 5, 6, 218.
+
+Aniline, 162.
+  "      colours, 162.
+  "        "      cakes of, 163.
+  "        "      in oil, 247.
+
+Animal Æthiops, 348.
+  "    charcoal, 397-399.
+  "    jelly, 50.
+
+Anotta, 255.
+
+Antimony, Golden Sulphur of, 256.
+  "       Orange, 256.
+  "       Red, 159.
+  "       White, 79.
+  "       Yellow, 105.
+
+Antipathies of pigments, 193.
+
+Antwerp Blue, 207.
+  "     Brown, 339.
+
+Apelles, 7, 293.
+
+Archil, 303.
+  "     Purple, 303.
+
+Arethas, 217.
+
+Armenian blue, 5, 217, 228.
+  "      bole, 147.
+  "      stone, 228.
+
+Arsenical pigments, 273.
+
+Arsenic green, substitutes for, 288, 290.
+  "     white, 79.
+  "     yellow, 116.
+
+Art and Science, 238, 412.
+
+Artificial Ultramarine, 209-216.
+  "        acid pigments with, 214.
+  "        adulteration of, 215.
+  "        green in, 211.
+  "        gum with, 214.
+
+Artificial Ultramarine, in siliceous painting, 212.
+  "        origin of, 209.
+  "        prize for, 209.
+  "        test for, 212.
+
+Artists and painters, 182.
+
+Arts, Society of, 130.
+
+Ash, Ultramarine, 379.
+
+Ashes, Blue, 228.
+
+Asphaltic Lake, the, 337.
+
+Asphaltum and Asphalt, 337.
+  "       Liquid, 339.
+
+Association of Science, British, 357.
+
+Assyrians, colouring and colours of, 6.
+
+Augustus Cæsar, 295.
+
+Aureolin, 42, 47, 83-87.
+  "       Chemical News on, 84.
+  "       in admixture, 86.
+  "       Mr. Aaron Penley on, 85.
+  "       the purest yellow, 84, 384.
+
+Aurine, 162.
+
+Autotype process, the, 401.
+
+Avignon, berries of, 312.
+
+Axiom, a wholesome, 201.
+
+Axioms for compounding, 250.
+
+Azuline, 162.
+
+Azure, 192, 196, 217.
+
+
+B.
+
+Barff, Mr., 212.
+
+Barium and Bismuth chrome greens, 280.
+
+Barthe and Laurent, MM., 235.
+
+Bartholomew, Mr., 143.
+
+Baryta, Ferrate of, 165.
+  "     Silicate of, 290.
+
+Barytic White, 65.
+
+Beauty in Pigments, 46.
+
+Beeswax, 50.
+
+Berries, French, Persian, and Turkey, 212.
+
+Berzelius, 169.
+
+Bice, Green, 187.
+
+Bignonia chica, 367.
+
+Bismuth Purple, 304.
+
+Bixa Orellana, 255.
+
+Bixine, 256.
+
+Black, 27.
+  "    ancient, 5.
+  "    as a colour, 387, 391.
+  "    as a pigment, 389.
+  "    colours with, 392.
+  "    on the Neutral, 387.
+
+BLACK PIGMENTS:--
+  Almond Black, 407.
+  Beggars' Ultramarine, 409.
+  Black Chalk, 404.
+  Black Lead, 382, 393.
+  Black Ochre, 404.
+  Blue Black, 394.
+  Bone Black, 405.
+  British Ink, 395.
+  Charcoal Black, 394.
+  Chinese Ink, 395.
+  Coffee Black, 405.
+  Copper Prussian Black, 408.
+  Cork Black, 409.
+  Earth Black, 404.
+  Frankfort Black, 406.
+  Galena, 394.
+  Graphite, 393.
+  Indian Ink, 395.
+  Ivory Black, 397.
+  Lamp Black, 399.
+  Liege Black, 394.
+  Manganese Black, 406.
+  Mineral Black, 407.
+  Mixed Black, 402.
+  Paper Black, 407.
+  Peach Black, 407.
+  Plumbago, 393.
+  Prussian Black, 404, 408.
+  Purple Black, 408.
+  Spanish Black, 409.
+  Vine Black, 394.
+
+Bladder Green, 282.
+
+Blanc d'Argent, 71.
+
+Blending of pigments, 37.
+
+Blood, Dragon's, 137.
+
+Bloodstone, 147.
+
+Blue, 28.
+  "   ancient, 5, 217.
+  "   Armenian, 5, 217.
+  "   as a colour, 183.
+  "   contrast of, 185, 188.
+  "   discordant, 185.
+  "   on the Primary, 183.
+
+BLUE PIGMENTS:--
+  Antwerp Blue, 207.
+  Artificial Ultramarines, 209-216.
+  Azure, 192, 217.
+  Basic Prussian Blue, 207.
+  Berlin Blue, 203, 207.
+  Bice, 228.
+  Bleu de Garance, 209.
+  Blue Ashes, 228.
+  Blue Bice, 228.
+  Blue Carmine, 228.
+  Blue Ochre, 226, 380.
+  Blue Sand, 196.
+  Blue Verditer, 228.
+  Brilliant Ultramarine, 215.
+  Cerulian Blue, or Coeruleum, 190.
+  Cobalt Blue, 192.
+  Cobalt Blues, 189-199.
+  Cobalt Prussian Blue, 227.
+  Cobalt Ultramarine, 192.
+  Coëlin, 190.
+  Copper Blues, 227-230.
+  Cotton Seed Blue, 230.
+  Cyanine, 198.
+  Dumont's Blue, 196.
+  Dutch Ultramarine, 189.
+  Enamel Blue, 189.
+  Egyptian Blue, 229.
+  Factitious Ultramarine, 215.
+  Ferricyanide of Iron, 208.
+  Ferrocyanide of Iron, 203.
+  French Blue, 215.
+  French Ultramarine, 215.
+  Genuine Ultramarine, 216-225.
+  Gmelin's German Ultramarine, 209.
+  Gold Blue, 231.
+  Guimet's Ultramarine, 209.
+  Haerlem Blue, 207.
+  Hungary Blue, 189.
+  Indian Blue, 199.
+  Indicum, 199.
+  Indigo, 199.
+  Intense Blue, 202.
+  Iodine Blue, 231.
+  Iridium Blue, 232.
+  Iris, 228.
+  Lazuline, 217.
+  Lazulite Blue, 217.
+  Lazurstein, 217.
+  Leitch's Blue, 199.
+  Leithner's Blue, 189.
+  Manganese Blue, 232.
+  Mineral Blue, 207.
+  Mountain Blue, 228.
+  Native Prussian Blue, 207.
+  Native Ultramarine, 216.
+  Natural Ultramarine, 216.
+  New Blue, 216.
+  Outremer, 217.
+  Outremer de Guimet, 209.
+  Paris Blue, 192, 203.
+  Permanent Blue, 216.
+  Platinum Blue, 233.
+  Powder Blue, 196.
+  Prussian Blue, 203.
+  Prussiate of Iron, 203.
+  Pure Ultramarine, 217.
+  Real Ultramarine, 216.
+  Reboulleau's Blue, 230.
+  Royal Blue, 196.
+  Saunders' Blue, 230.
+  Saxon Blue, 189.
+  Schweinfurt Blue, 230.
+  Smalt, 195-198.
+  Terre Bleu, 228.
+  Thénard's Blue, 192.
+  True Ultramarine, 216.
+  Tungsten Blue, 233.
+  Turnbull's Blue, 208.
+  Ultramarines, 209-225.
+  Verditer, 228.
+  Vienna Blue, 192.
+  Wood-Tar Blue, 233.
+  Zaffre, 189.
+  Zinc-Cobalt Blue, 235.
+
+Body White, 72.
+
+Bole, Armenian, 147.
+
+Borrowdale, 393.
+
+Bouvier, 153, 345, 347, 355, 405, 407, 409.
+
+Box, the painter's, 60.
+
+Bradley, Mr., 246.
+
+British School, 9.
+
+Broken colours, 16.
+
+Bronze, 279.
+
+Brown, 28.
+  "    analysis of, 377.
+  "    as a colour, 335.
+  "    Citrine, 317.
+  "    contrast of, 337.
+  "    Liquid, Prout's, 345.
+  "    Madder, 305.
+  "    Mars, 313.
+  "    on the Semi-Neutral, 334.
+
+BROWN PIGMENTS:--
+  Animal Æthiops, 348.
+  Antwerp Brown, 339.
+  Asphaltum or Asphalt, 337.
+  Bistre, 340.
+  Bitumen, 339.
+  Bitumen of Judea, 337.
+  Bone Brown, 340.
+  Burnt Umber, 341.
+  Cadmium Brown, 353.
+  Caledonian Brown, 341.
+  Campania Brown, 352.
+  Cappah Brown, 342.
+  Cassel Earth, 343.
+  Castle Earth, 343.
+  Catechu Browns, 374.
+  Chalon's Brown, 344.
+  Chestnut Brown, 357.
+  Chrome Browns, 355.
+  Cologne Earth, 344.
+  Copper Brown, 355.
+  Cory's Madder or Yellow Madder, 353.
+  Cullen's Earth, 344.
+  Egyptian Brown, 347.
+  Euchrome, 342.
+  French Prussian Brown, 355.
+  Gambogiate of Iron, 357.
+  Hypocastanum, 357.
+  Iron Browns, 357.
+  Ivory Brown, 340.
+  Jew's Pitch, 337.
+  Leitch's Brown, 346.
+  Manganese Brown, 358.
+  Mineral Brown, 342.
+  Mineral Pitch, 337.
+  Mixed Brown, 346.
+  Mummy, 347.
+  Mummy Brown, 347.
+  Nickel Brown, 358.
+  Ochre Browns, 358.
+  Prussian Brown, 348.
+  Purple Brown, 359.
+  Roman Sepia, 351.
+  Rubens' Brown, 359.
+  Sepia, 348.
+  Terre de Cassel, 343.
+  Uranium Brown, 360.
+  Vandyke Brown, 351.
+  Verona Brown, 353.
+  Warm Sepia, 350.
+  Yellow Madder, 353.
+  Zinc Brown, 360.
+
+Brown Pink, 312.
+  "   Red, 147.
+  "   Spanish, 146.
+  "   Stil de Grain, 312.
+
+Browns, abundance of, 336, 361.
+
+Brun de Mars, 313.
+
+Brunswick Green, 271, 279.
+
+Brushes, soap and alkali in, 52.
+
+Burlington House, Royal Academy at, 365.
+
+Burnt Carmine, 298.
+  "   Lake, 298.
+  "   Madder, 305.
+  "   Orpiment, 259.
+  "   Roman Ochre, 255.
+  "   Sienna, 243.
+  "   Terra di Sienna, 243.
+  "   Verdigris, 331.
+
+
+C.
+
+Cadmium Brown, 353.
+  "     Orange, 36, 42, 244.
+  "     Red, 42, 130.
+  "     White, 78.
+  "     Yellow, 87, 92.
+  "       "     adulteration of, 88.
+  "       "     manufacture of, 92.
+  "       "     when fugacious, 92.
+  "       "     with White Lead, 89.
+
+Caledonian Brown, 341.
+
+Campania Brown, 352.
+
+Camphor, 396.
+
+Cappah or Cappagh Brown, 342.
+
+Carajuru, 367.
+
+Carbolic acid, 162.
+
+Carbon, 393.
+
+Carmichael, Mr., 348.
+
+Carmine, 133, 135.
+  "      adulteration of, 134.
+  "      Blue, 225.
+  "      Burnt, 298.
+  "      Field's, 142.
+
+Carmine, Madder, 142.
+  "      manufacture of, 134.
+  "      Vermilion, 156.
+  "      Violet, 302.
+  "      with Indian Yellow, 98.
+  "        "  White Lead, 134.
+
+Carnac, ruins at, 4.
+
+Carnagione, 149.
+
+Carthamus, 174.
+
+Cartoons at Hampton Court, 10.
+
+Cassel Earth, 343.
+  "    Green, 288.
+  "    Terre de, 343.
+  "    Yellow, 121.
+
+Cassius, Purple of, 306.
+
+Cassius's Purple Precipitate, 306.
+
+Castle Earth, 343.
+
+Catechu Browns, 354.
+
+Celandine, 96.
+
+Cendres Bleues, 230.
+
+Cennini, advice of, 411.
+
+Cerulian Blue or Coeruleum, 190.
+
+Ceruse, 74.
+
+Chalk, Black, 404.
+  "    Green, 173.
+  "    Red, 172.
+  "    White, 79.
+
+Chalon's Brown, 344.
+
+Chaptal, Count, 105, 229.
+
+Charcoal, animal, 397, 399.
+  "       Black, 394.
+  "       vegetal, 398, 406.
+
+Charles I., 220.
+
+Charred blacks, 390, 395, 406.
+
+Cheese, anotta in, 256.
+
+Chemical News, extract from, 84.
+
+Chestnut Brown, 357.
+
+Chevreul, M., 173, 191, 205, 364.
+
+Chiaroscuro, 15.
+
+Chica d'Andiguez, 160.
+  "   Marrone, 367.
+  "   Red, 159.
+
+China, Mandarins of, 219.
+  "    White, 80.
+
+Chinese Ink, 395.
+  "     Lake, 137.
+  "     Orange, 246.
+  "     Rouge, 174.
+  "     Vermilion, 156.
+  "     White, 75.
+  "     Yellow, 111.
+
+Chinoline, 162.
+
+Chocolate Lead, 368.
+
+Chromate of Mercury, 256.
+
+Chromates of lead, organic pigments with, 248, 280.
+
+Chrome Arseniate, 284.
+  "    Browns, 355.
+  "    Green, True, 267.
+  "    Greens, 279-281.
+  "    Ochre, 267.
+
+Chrome Orange, 248.
+  "    Oxide, 267.
+  "    Oxides, 266-271.
+  "    Red, 151.
+  "    Scarlet, 151.
+  "    Yellows, 93-95.
+  "      "      adulteration of, 94.
+
+Chromium, Green Oxide of, 267.
+  "       Opaque Oxide of, 267.
+  "       Oxide of, 267.
+  "       Transparent Oxide of, 268.
+
+Church, Professor, 165.
+
+Cicero, 296.
+
+Cinnabar, 153.
+  "       Green, 280.
+
+Citrine, 28.
+  "      analysis of, 329.
+  "      as a colour, 310.
+  "      contrast of, 311.
+  "      on the Tertiary, 310.
+
+CITRINE PIGMENTS:--
+  Brown Pink, 312.
+  Brown Stil de Grain, 312.
+  Brun de Mars, 313.
+  Cassia Fistula, 316.
+  Citrine Brown, 317.
+  Citrine Lake, 312.
+  Mars Brown, 313.
+  Mixed Citrine, 314.
+  Quercitron Lake, 312.
+  Raw Umber, 315.
+  Umber, 315.
+
+Citron Yellow, 95.
+
+Classes of Colours, on, 27-30.
+
+CLASSIFIED PIGMENTS:--
+  Black, 409.
+  Blue, 236.
+  Brown, 361.
+  Citrine, 319.
+  Gray, 380.
+  Green, 291.
+  Grey, 386.
+  Marrone, 371.
+  Olive, 333.
+  Orange, 261.
+  Purple, 308.
+  Red, 181.
+  Russet, 324.
+  White, 80.
+  Yellow, 125.
+
+Claude, 345.
+
+Cleanliness in painting, 53.
+
+Coal-Tar Colours, 160-164, 247.
+  "               cakes of, 163.
+  "               in oil, 247.
+
+Cobalt Blue, 192.
+             chalkiness in, 195.
+             manufacture of, 192.
+  "    Blues, 189-199.
+  "    Green, 285.
+  "    Marrone, 368.
+  "    Prussian Blue, 227.
+  "      "      Green, 282.
+  "    Purples, 305.
+  "    Ultramarine, 192.
+
+Coccus (Abies nigra), 168.
+  "    cacti, 131.
+  "    ficus, 138.
+  "    ilicis, 153, 167.
+
+Cochineal, 132.
+  "        adulteration of, 132.
+  "        Dr. Warren de la Rue on, 132.
+  "        lake, with Vermilion, 136.
+  "        Lakes, 131-137.
+
+Coëlin, 190.
+
+Coeruleum, 190, 198, 217, 229.
+
+Coffee Black, 405.
+  "    Brown, 405.
+
+Cohesion and colour, 197, 208.
+  "      durability, 197, 208.
+
+Cologne Earth, 344.
+  "     Yellow, 94.
+
+Colour and neutrality, 375.
+  "    latent, 58.
+  "    of extreme light objects, 21.
+  "    of shadow, 21.
+  "    on the Relations and Harmony of, 13.
+
+Coloured rays, mixture of, 384.
+
+Colouring, ancient, 3-7.
+  "        false, 20.
+  "        importance of, 10-12.
+  "        on, 3.
+  "        vicious, 11-21.
+
+Colours, ancient, 5, 6, 218.
+  "      and Pigments Individually, on, 57.
+  "      broken, 16.
+  "      classes of:--
+  "        "          Neutral, 27.
+  "        "          Primary, 28.
+  "        "          Secondary, 28.
+  "        "          Semi-Neutral, 29.
+  "        "          Tertiary, 28.
+  "      complementary, 391.
+  "      discordant, 17, 185.
+  "      entire, 28.
+  "      extreme, 28.
+  "      fugacity of ancient, 6.
+  "      held in check, 106.
+  "      hot and cold, 20.
+  "      imaginary, 115.
+  "      individual beauty of, 57.
+  "      light and dark, 30.
+  "      material, mixture of, 384.
+  "      mixture and compounding of, 17-19.
+  "      not obtainable, 114.
+  "      not pigments, 305.
+  "      perspective of, 22.
+
+Colours, retiring or advancing, 186-188.
+  "      superfluous, 124.
+  "      unfitted for pigments, 115, 180.
+  "      vitrified, 33, 197.
+  "      with black, 27, 392.
+  "        "  colours, 27.
+  "        "  grey, 382.
+  "        "  white, 27, 63.
+
+Common pigments, 359.
+
+Compounding colours, on, 242-252, 277.
+
+Compound pigments, 36.
+
+Constable, 265.
+
+Constantinople, 7.
+
+Constant White, 65.
+  "      free acid in, 66.
+
+Contrast of colour and neutrality, 15.
+  "      gradations and extremes, 19.
+  "      hues, 13-15.
+  "      shades, 15.
+  "      warmth and coolness, 15.
+
+Copper Blues, 227-230.
+  "    Borate, 285.
+  "    Brown, 355.
+  "    Chrome, 286.
+  "    Greens, 271-276.
+  "    Prussian Black, 408.
+  "    Prussiate of, 323.
+  "    Reds, 164.
+  "    Smalt, 220.
+  "    Stannate, 286.
+  "    Yellow, 116.
+
+Cork Black, 409.
+
+Correggio, 8, 335.
+
+Cory's Madder or Yellow Madder, 119, 353.
+
+Cotton Seed Blue, 230.
+
+Cremnitz or Crems White, 72.
+
+Crimson Lake, 135.
+
+Crookes, Mr., 260.
+
+Crowding of pictures, 364.
+
+Cudbear, 303.
+
+Cullen's Earth, 344.
+
+Cuttle Fish, 348.
+
+Cuyp, 136.
+
+Cyanine, 198.
+
+Cyanus, 198, 217.
+
+
+D.
+
+Damonico, 257.
+
+Darkening of mineral colours, 284.
+
+Davy, Sir H., 229.
+
+Dead Sea, the, 337.
+
+Deep Cadmium, 87.
+  "  Chrome, 93.
+  "  Vermilion, 154.
+  "  Deoxidation of pigments, 38.
+
+Detractors of modern pigments, 43-45.
+
+Dewint's Green, 330.
+
+Diagram, 89.
+
+Diesbach, M. 203.
+
+Dilution of colour, 34.
+
+Di Palito, 109.
+
+Direct and diffused light, 391.
+
+Discord of colours, 17, 185.
+
+Disinfectants of the palette, 359.
+
+Distance, law about, 188.
+
+Distilled Verdigris, 276.
+
+Distinction of colours, 318, 320.
+
+Dominichino, 8.
+
+Dragon's Blood, 137.
+  "      with White Lead, 138.
+
+Drop Gum, 96.
+
+Drying of pigments, 50.
+  "    oils, lead in, 121.
+
+Duffield, Mrs., 144.
+
+Dumas, M., 234, 414.
+
+Dumont's Blue, 196.
+
+Durability of pigments, 31-45, 46.
+
+Dussance, Professor H., 175.
+
+Dutch Pink, 100.
+  "   Schools, 8.
+  "   the, 156, 200.
+  "   Ultramarine, 189.
+  "   White, 74.
+
+Dyeing, brown for, 318.
+  "     orange for, 257.
+
+Dyes and pigments, 169.
+
+
+E.
+
+Earth Black, 404.
+  "   Burnt Sienna, 243.
+  "   Cassel, or Castle, 343.
+  "   Cologne, 344.
+  "   Cullen's, 344.
+  "   Green, 283.
+  "   Raw Sienna, 113.
+
+Egg-shells, white of, 80.
+
+Egypt, catacombs of, 347.
+  "    temples of Upper, 5, 217.
+
+Egyptian Blue, 229.
+  "      Brown, 347.
+
+Egyptians, the, colouring and colours of, 3-5.
+
+Elizabeth, Queen, 393.
+
+Eisner's Green, 286.
+
+Emerald Green, 271.
+
+Emeraldine, 162.
+
+Enamel Blue, 189.
+  "    colours, 33, 197.
+
+England, climate and females of, 9.
+
+English Green, 280.
+  "     Pink, 100.
+  "     Red, 149.
+  "     Vermilion, 146.
+
+Entire colours, 28.
+
+Equations, 329, 330, 377.
+
+Euchrome, 342.
+
+Exhibition, International, of 1862, 244, 354.
+
+Experiment, 213.
+
+Exposure of pigments, 38.
+
+Extract of Gamboge, 97.
+  "     Vermilion, 157.
+
+Extreme colours, 28.
+
+
+F.
+
+Factitious Indigo, proposed, 202.
+  "        Ultramarine, 215.
+
+Falsalo, 341.
+
+Fast and fugitive, pigments both, 38.
+
+Ferrate of Baryta, 165.
+
+Ferricyanide of Iron, 208.
+
+Ferrocyanide  "  203.
+
+Field's Carmine, 142.
+  "     Lakes, 139-145.
+  "     Orange Vermilion, 158.
+  "     Purple, 301.
+  "     Russet, 321.
+
+Fineness of texture in pigments, 50.
+
+Fire, action of, on pigments, 371.
+  "   pigments affected by, 40.
+
+Fistula, Cassia, 316.
+
+Flake White, 72.
+
+Flemish painters, 406.
+  "     Schools, 8, 37.
+  "     White, 72.
+
+Florentine Lake, 137.
+  "        painters and painting, 7, 8, 10, 391.
+
+Flower pieces, background tint for, 279.
+
+Foul air, ochres with, 359.
+
+Frankfort Black, 406.
+
+French berries, 312.
+  "    Blue, 215.
+  "    Green, 271.
+  "    Prussian Brown, 355.
+  "    Purple, Solid, 304.
+  "    Ultramarine, 215.
+  "    Veronese Green, 268.
+  "    White, 71.
+
+Fresco, Prussian Blue in, 206, 281.
+
+Fruit pieces of W. Hunt, 315.
+
+Fugacity of pigments, 31-45.
+
+Fugitive colours, 34.
+
+
+G.
+
+Gainsborough, 20.
+
+Galena, 394.
+
+Galleries, picture, 363-365.
+
+Gallstone, 95.
+
+Gamboge, 96.
+  "      as a glaze, 97.
+  "      extract of, 97.
+
+Gamboge Orange, 257.
+
+Gambogiate of Iron, 357.
+
+Garance, Bleu de, 209.
+
+Gas, effect of, on colours, 191.
+
+Gelbin's Yellow, 117.
+
+General Qualities of Pigments, on the, 46.
+
+Genuine Ultramarine, 216-225.
+  "     adulteration of, 224.
+  "     colouring matter of, 224.
+  "     defects in, 222.
+  "     manufacture of, 220.
+  "     price of, 220.
+  "     properties of, 221.
+  "     tests for, 224.
+
+Giallolino, 103.
+
+Gilpin, 351.
+
+Giovanni Bellini, 7.
+
+Giulio Romano, 11.
+
+Glazing of colours, 18.
+
+Gloucestershire, 109.
+
+Gmelin, M., 178, 210, 218, 227.
+
+Gmelin's German Ultramarine, 209.
+
+Gold Blue, 231.
+  "  Purple, 306.
+  "  Reds, 166.
+  "  size, japanner's, 51.
+
+Golden Sulphur of Antimony, 256.
+  "    Yellow, 256.
+
+Gradation in art, 328.
+  "       nature, 326.
+
+Graham, Mr., 398.
+
+Graphite, 393.
+
+Gray, 29, 372.
+  "   analysis of, 277.
+  "   and grey, 29, 372, 381.
+  "   as a colour, 372, 374.
+  "   as a pigment, 377.
+  "   contrast of, 373.
+  "   on the Semi-Neutral, 372.
+
+GRAY PIGMENTS:--
+  Mineral Gray, 375.
+  Mixed Gray, 377.
+  Neutral Tint, 377.
+  Payne's Gray, 378.
+  Ultramarine Ash, 379.
+
+Greeks, colouring of the, 7, 8.
+  "     the, 153, 167, 296.
+
+Green, 28.
+  "    as a colour, 263, 265.
+  "    contrast of, 263.
+  "    Dewint's, 330.
+  "    discordant, 265.
+  "    Olive, 330.
+  "    on the Secondary, 263.
+
+GREEN PIGMENTS:--
+  African Green, 271.
+  Barium Chrome Green, 280.
+  Bismuth Chrome Green, 280.
+  Bladder Green, 282.
+  Bronze, 279.
+  Brunswick Green, 271, 279.
+  Chrome Arseniate, 284.
+  Chrome Greens, 279-281.
+  Chrome Oxide, 267.
+  Chrome Oxides, 266-271.
+  Cobalt Green, 285.
+  Cobalt Prussian Green, 282.
+  Copper Borate, 285.
+  Copper Chrome, 286.
+  Copper Greens, 271-276, 285-287, 288.
+  Copper Stannate, 286.
+  Distilled Verdigris, 276.
+  Elsner's Green, 286.
+  Emerald Green, 271, 283.
+  English Green, 280.
+  French Green, 271.
+  French Veronese Green, 268.
+  German Mineral Green, 288.
+  Green Bice, 287.
+  Green Cinnabar, 280.
+  Green Earth, 283.
+  Green Lake, 288.
+  Green Ochre, 287.
+  Green Oxide of Chromium, 267.
+  Green Ultramarine, 287.
+  Green Verditer, 287.
+  Holy Green, 283.
+  Hooker's Green, 281.
+  Hungary Green, 274.
+  Imperial Green, 271.
+  Iris Green, 282.
+  Malachite Green, 274.
+  Manganese Green, 288.
+  Marine Green, 271.
+  Mineral Green, 288.
+  Mitis Green, 271.
+  Mixed Green, 277.
+  Molybdenum Green, 289.
+  Mountain Green, 274.
+  Native Green, 267.
+  Olympian Green, 271.
+  Opaque Oxide of Chromium, 267.
+  Oxide of Chromium, 267.
+  Patent Green, 271.
+  Persian Green, 271.
+  Pickle Green, 276.
+  Prussian Greens, 281.
+  Quinine Green, 289.
+  Rinman's Green, 285.
+  Roman Green, 290.
+  Sap Green, 282.
+  Saxon Green, 271.
+  Sheele's Green, 272.
+  Schweinfurt Green, 271.
+  Silicate of Baryta, 290.
+  Swedish Green, 272.
+  Terre Verte, 283.
+  Titanium Green, 290.
+  Transparent Oxide of Chromium, 268.
+  True Chrome Green, 267.
+  True Prussian Green, 281.
+  Uranium Green, 291.
+  Vanadium Green, 291.
+  Venetian Green, 283.
+  Verde Vessie, 282.
+  Verdetto, 283.
+  Verdigris, 276.
+  Verona Green, 283.
+  Veronese Green, 268.
+  Vert de Zinc, 285.
+  Vienna Green, 271.
+  Viride Æris, 276.
+  Viridian, 269.
+  Zinc Green, 285.
+
+Green, pure, to obtain, 277.
+
+Greens, ancient, 5.
+
+Grey, 28-30, 372.
+  "   and gray, 29, 381.
+  "   as a colour, 381.
+  "   as a pigment, 382.
+  "   colours with, 382, 383.
+  "   on the Neutral, 381.
+
+GREY PIGMENTS:--
+  Black Lead, 382.
+  Mixed Grey, 384-386.
+
+Grinding of pigments, 37.
+
+Guido, 8.
+
+Guimet, M., 210, 215.
+  "     Outremer de, 209.
+
+Guimet's Ultramarine, 209.
+
+Gum, Drop, 96
+  "  tragacanth, 66.
+
+Gyges, 7.
+
+
+H.
+
+Haerlem Blue, 207.
+
+Hamburgh Lake, 137.
+  "      White, 74.
+
+Hampton Court, cartoons at, 10.
+
+Harding's Tint, 380.
+
+Harmony of colour, 13-24.
+
+Hatching of colours, 18.
+
+Haydon, 293.
+
+Hercules Tyrius, 296.
+
+Holy Green, 283.
+
+Hooker's Green, 281.
+
+Houng hoa, 396.
+
+Hues, 27, 30.
+
+Hungary Blue, 189.
+  "     Green, 274.
+
+Hunt, W., 315.
+
+Hypocastanum, 357.
+
+
+I.
+
+Illumination, Cadmium Orange in, 246.
+  "           Coal-Tar Colours in, 163, 247.
+  "           Manual of, 246.
+  "           Viridian in, 270.
+
+Imperial Green, 271.
+
+Indian Blue, 199.
+  "    Ink, 349, 395.
+  "    Lake, 138.
+  "    Ochre, 146.
+  "    Purple, 298.
+  "    Red, 148.
+  "    Yellow, 98.
+
+Indicum, 199.
+
+Indigo, 199.
+  "     adulteration of, 202.
+  "     possible substitute for, 235.
+  "     proposed Factitious, 202.
+
+Indigofera, 200.
+
+Indium Yellow, 117.
+
+Individually, on Colours and Pigments, 57.
+
+Ink, blue, 207.
+  "  British, 395.
+  "  Chinese, 395.
+  "  green, 276.
+  "  Indelible Brown, 345.
+  "  Indian, 395.
+  "  Liquid Indian, 397.
+  "  red, 145.
+
+Inkfish, the, 348.
+
+Innoxious pigments, 53.
+
+Intense Blue, 202.
+  "       "   manufacture of, 202.
+
+International Exhibition of 1862, 244, 354.
+
+Invisible Green, 329.
+
+Iodine, 118.
+  "     Blue, 231.
+  "     Pink, 166.
+  "     Scarlet, 150.
+  "     Yellow, 118.
+
+Iridium Blue, 232.
+
+Iris, 228.
+  "   Green, 282.
+
+Iron Browns, 357.
+  "  Ferricyanide of, 208.
+  "  Ferrocyanide of, 203.
+  "  Gambogiate of, 357.
+  "  pigments affected by, 39, 90, 145, 147, 149, 150, 249.
+  "  Prussiate of, 203.
+  "  Smalt, 218.
+  "  Yellow, 102, 118.
+
+Italian Greens, 276, 277.
+  "     Pink, 100.
+
+Italics, numbered colours in, 114, 407.
+
+Italy, colouring in modern, 8.
+
+Ivory Black, 397.
+  "     "    with Manganese Black, 407.
+
+Ivory Brown, 340.
+
+
+J.
+
+Japanner's gold size, 51.
+
+Jaune de Cologne, 94.
+  "    " Fer, 102.
+  "    " Mars, 102.
+  "   Minérale, 94.
+
+Jew's Pitch, 337.
+
+Judea, Bitumen of, 337.
+
+
+K.
+
+Kermes, 153.
+  "     Lake, 167.
+  "     Mineral, 159.
+
+Key of colouring, 40.
+
+Khair tree, the, 354.
+
+King's Yellow, 111.
+
+Knowledge of pigments, 43, 44.
+
+Kremnitz or Krems White, 72.
+
+Kremser White, 75.
+
+
+L.
+
+Lac, 138, 167.
+  "  Lake, 138.
+
+Lake, Asphaltic, the, 337.
+  "   Burnt, 198.
+  "   Chinese, 137.
+  "   Citrine, 312.
+  "   Crimson, 135.
+  "   Drop, 131.
+  "   Florentine, 137.
+  "   Green, 288.
+  "   Hamburgh, 137.
+  "   Indian, 138.
+  "   Kermes, 167.
+  "   Liquid Madder, 145.
+  "   Madder, 144.
+  "   Marrone, 369.
+  "   Olive, 331.
+  "   Orange, 258.
+  "   Purple, 137.
+  "   Quercitron, 100, 312.
+  "   Roman, 137.
+  "   Scarlet, 136.
+  "   Venetian, 137.
+  "   Yellow, 100.
+
+Lakes, Cochineal, 131-137.
+  "    Field's, 139-145.
+  "    Madder, 139-145.
+  "    Rubric, 139-145.
+  "    Yellow, 99, 100.
+
+Lamblack, 399.
+
+Lamp Black, 399.
+
+Lapis Lazuli, 209, 217, 219.
+
+Laque de garance, 142.
+  "   Minérale, 258.
+
+Latent colour, 58.
+
+Lawson, Professor, 168.
+
+Lawson's Red, 168.
+
+Layard, Mr., 6, 218.
+
+Lazuline, 217.
+
+Lazulite Blue, 217.
+
+Lazur, Persian and Tartarian, 228.
+
+Lazurium, 217.
+
+Lazurstein, 217.
+
+Lead, acetate or sugar of, 50-52.
+  "   Black, 382, 393.
+  "   carbonate of, 68.
+  "   Chocolate, 368.
+  "   dicarbonate of, 69.
+  "   hydrated oxide of, 68.
+  "   in drying oils, 121.
+  "   Orange, 258
+  "   oxychloride of, 73.
+  "   pigments affected by, 39, 67, 97, 99, 112, 120, 134, 138, 139, 152, 201, 206, 248, 280, 312, 341.
+  "   pigments, avoidance of, 67.
+  "   Red, 151.
+  "   Sulphate of, 72.
+  "   White, 67-70.
+  "   Whites, 67-75.
+
+Leitch's Blue, 199.
+  "      Brown, 346.
+
+Leithner's Blue, 189.
+
+Lemon Cadmium, 91.
+  "   Yellow, 101.
+
+Leonardo da Vinci, 8.
+
+Leyden, Cassius of, 306.
+
+Lichens, 304.
+
+Liege Black, 394.
+
+Light and air, pigments affected by, 91, 92, 95, 97, 98, 99, 112, 124, 134, 135, 136, 139, 151, 163, 199, 201, 205, 208, 247, 276, 282, 298, 303, 313, 330, 340, 343.
+
+Light, direct and diffused, 391.
+  "    electric, the, 191.
+  "    magnesium, the, 191.
+  "    Red, 149.
+
+Likes and dislikes of pigments, 194.
+
+Lime, pigments affected by, 40, 97, 98, 206, 275, 281.
+  "   with Prussian Blue, 206, 281.
+
+Linear perspective, 22.
+
+Linseed oil with White Lead, 69.
+
+Liquid Asphaltum, 339.
+  "    Indian Ink, 397.
+  "    Madder Lake, 145.
+  "    Prout's Brown, 345.
+  "    Rubiate, 145.
+
+Lists of Permanent Pigments:--
+  "   Blue, 278, 300.
+  "   Green, 315, 329.
+  "   Orange, 315, 323.
+  "   Purple, 323, 329.
+  "   Red, 253, 300.
+  "   Yellow, 252, 278.
+
+Litharge, 51, 120.
+
+Litmus, 303.
+
+Local colour, 24.
+
+Lombard School, 8.
+
+London White, 73.
+
+
+M.
+
+Macpherson's Tint, 380.
+
+Madder, 139.
+  "     adulteration of, 140.
+  "     Brown, 365.
+  "     Burnt, 305.
+  "     Carmine, 142.
+  "       "      adulteration of, 142.
+  "     colouring matters of, 140.
+  "     Cory's or Cory's Yellow, 119, 353.
+  "     Dr. Schunck on, 140.
+  "     Lake, 144.
+  "     Lakes, 139-145.
+  "       "    manufacture of, 141.
+  "     Liquid Lake, 145.
+  "     Orange, 258, 353.
+  "     Pink, 144.
+  "     Purple, 301.
+  "     reds in oil, 144.
+  "     Rose, 143.
+  "     Rubens', 321.
+  "     Yellow, 118, 353.
+
+Magenta, 162.
+
+Majolica, 146.
+
+Malachite Green, 274.
+
+Manganese as a siccative, 51, 77, 406.
+  "       Black, 406.
+  "       Blue, 232.
+  "       Brown, 358.
+  "       Green, 288.
+  "       Red, 168.
+
+Manufacture of Cadmium Yellow, 92.
+  "         Carmine, 134.
+  "         Cobalt Blue, 192.
+  "         Intense Blue, 202.
+  "         Vermilion, 92, 153.
+
+Marine Green, 271.
+
+Marrone, 28.
+  "      analysis of, 377.
+  "      as a colour, 362.
+  "      contrasts of, 362.
+  "      for walls of picture galleries, 363.
+  "      on the Semi-Neutral, 362.
+
+MARRONE PIGMENTS:--
+  Brown Madder, 365.
+  Chica Marrone, 367.
+  Chocolate Lead, 368.
+  Cobalt Marrone, 368.
+  Madder Marrone, 369.
+  Marrone Lake, 369.
+  Marrone Red, 368.
+  Mars Marrone, 369.
+  Mixed Marrone, 367.
+  Purple Black, 369.
+
+Mars Brown, 313.
+  "  Brun de, 313.
+  "  colours named after, 102, 146.
+  "  Orange, 248.
+  "  Red, 145.
+  "  Rouge de, 145.
+  "  Violet, 290.
+  "  Violet de, 290.
+  "  Yellow, 102.
+
+Massicot, 120.
+
+Mastic varnish, 50.
+
+Mauve, 163.
+
+Mercury, Chromate of, 256.
+  "      marrone, 371.
+  "      white, 79.
+
+Mérimée, 121, 142, 229, 284, 316,  343.
+
+Metallic whites, 79.
+
+Metals, rare, 172.
+
+Michael Angelo, 8.
+
+Mineral Black, 407.
+  "     Blue, 207.
+  "     Brown, 342.
+  "     colours, darkening of, 284.
+  "     Gray, 375.
+  "     Green, 288.
+  "     Green, German, 288.
+  "     Kermes, 159.
+  "     Orange, 258.
+  "     Pitch, 337.
+  "     Purple, 290.
+  "     Turbith, 123.
+  "     Yellow, 106, 116, 121.
+
+Minérale, Jaune, 94.
+  "       Laque, 258.
+
+Miniature painter, a, 401.
+
+Minium, 151, 153.
+
+Mitis Green, 271.
+
+Mixed Colours:--
+  "   Black, 402.
+  "   Brown, 346.
+  "   Citrine, 314.
+  "   Gray, 377.
+  "   Green, 277.
+  "   Grey, 384.
+  "   Marrone, 367.
+  "   Olive, 328.
+  "   Orange, 249.
+  "   Purple, 290.
+  "   Russet, 322.
+
+Mixed tints, on, 249-252, 262.
+
+Mixture, a, 199.
+  "      of Bitumen and Mummy,  348.
+  "      of coloured rays, 384.
+  "      of material colours, 384.
+  "      unnecessary, 35.
+
+Modan or Morat White, 80.
+
+Modern pigments, 41-45.
+  "    detractors of, 43-45.
+  "    inferior, 41.
+  "    superior, 42.
+
+Molybdenum Green, 289.
+
+Monicon, 257.
+
+Montabert, De, 405.
+
+Montbeillard, Roman pavement at,  218.
+
+Montpellier Yellow, 121.
+
+Mountain Blue, 228.
+  "      Green, 274.
+
+Mountains, 254.
+
+Mummy, 347.
+  "    Brown, 347.
+  "    and Bitumen, mixed, 348.
+
+Murexide, 169.
+
+Musée Minéralogique, of Paris,  219.
+
+Mutrie, Miss, 143.
+  "     Yellow, 92.
+
+
+N.
+
+Naphthaline, 162.
+
+Naples Yellow, modern, 104.
+  "    old, 103.
+
+Napoleon, Emperor, 176.
+
+Native Bitumen, 338.
+  "    Green, 267.
+  "    Prussian Blue, 207, 226.
+  "    Ultramarine, 216.
+
+Natural Ultramarine, 216.
+
+Nature, colour in, 311.
+  "     gradation in, 326.
+  "     palette of, 185.
+  "     study of, 24.
+
+Negative colours, 28.
+
+Nepos Cornelius, 295.
+
+Neutral colours, 27.
+  "     Orange, Penley's, 253.
+  "     Tint, 377.
+
+Neutrality and colour, 375, 376.
+
+Neutrals, colour as applied to the,  62.
+
+New Blue, 216.
+  "       pigments, 41-45.
+
+Nickel Brown, 358.
+
+Nineveh, 6, 218.
+
+Nottingham White, 73.
+
+
+O.
+
+Objectionable pigments, substitutes for, 96, 104, 114.
+
+Ochre, Black, 404
+  "    Blue, 226.
+  "    Brown, 108.
+  "    Browns, 358.
+  "    Burnt Roman, 255.
+  "    Chrome, 267.
+  "    Green, 287.
+  "    Indian, 148.
+  "    Orange, 255.
+  "    Oxford, 109.
+  "    Purple, 290.
+  "    Red, 147.
+  "    Roman, 107.
+  "    Scarlet, 149.
+  "    Spanish, 255.
+  "    Spruce, 108.
+  "    Stone, 109.
+  "    Transparent Gold, 108.
+  "    Yellow, 106.
+
+Ochres and foul air, 359.
+  "    Red, 146-150.
+  "    Yellow, 105-109.
+
+Ocre de Ru, 108
+
+Oil, coal-tar colours in, 247.
+  "  water-colour cakes in, 50.
+
+Oils, 33, 152, 194.
+
+Olive, 28.
+  "    analysis of, 330.
+  "    as a colour, 325.
+  "    contrast of, 325.
+  "    on the Tertiary, 325.
+
+OLIVE PIGMENTS:--
+  Burnt Verdigris, 331.
+  Dewint's Green, 330.
+  Mixed Olive, 328.
+  Olive Green, 330.
+  Olive Lake, 331.
+  Olive Oxide of Chromium, 331.
+  Olive Rinman's Green, 332.
+  Olive Scheele's Green, 332.
+  Olive Schweinfurt Green, 332.
+  Olive Terre Verte, 333.
+
+Olive purples, 301.
+
+Olympian Green, 271.
+
+O'Neill, Mr., 159.
+
+Opacity of pigments, 48.
+
+Orange, 28,
+  "     as a colour, 239.
+  "     as an archeus, 240.
+  "     contrast of, 240.
+  "     discordant, 240.
+  "     on the Secondary, 239.
+
+ORANGE PIGMENTS:--
+  Anotta, 255.
+  Antimony Orange, 256.
+  Bixine, 256.
+  Burnt Roman Ochre, 255.
+  Burnt Sienna, 243.
+  Burnt Terra di Sienna, 243.
+  Cadmium Orange, 36, 244.
+  Chinese Orange, 246.
+  Chromate of Mercury, 256.
+  Chrome Orange, 248.
+  Damonico, 257.
+  Gamboge Orange, 257.
+  Golden Sulphur of Antimony, 256.
+  Golden Yellow, 256.
+  Laque Minérale, 258.
+  Madder Orange, 258, 353.
+  Mars Orange, 248.
+  Mineral Orange, 248.
+  Mixed Orange, 249.
+  Monicon, 257.
+  Neutral Orange, 253.
+  Orange Chrome, 248.
+  Orange Chromate of Lead, 248.
+  Orange de Mars, 248.
+  Orange Lake, 258.
+  Orange Lead, 258.
+  Orange Ochre, 255.
+  Orange Orpiment, 258.
+  Penley's Neutral Orange, 253.
+  Realgar, 258.
+  Red Orpiment, 258.
+  Rocou, 255.
+  Spanish Ochre, 255.
+  Terra Orellana, 255.
+  Thallium Orange, 259.
+  Uranium Orange, 260.
+  Zinc Orange, 261.
+
+Orange Russet, 321.
+  "    Vermilion, 157.
+  "      "        Field's, 158.
+
+Order of Colours:--
+  White, 62-80, 414.
+  Yellow, 81-126.
+  Red, 127-182.
+  Blue, 183-238.
+  Orange, 239-262.
+  Green, 263-293.
+  Purple, 294-309.
+  Citrine, 310-319.
+  Russet, 320-324.
+  Olive, 325-333.
+  Brown, 334-361.
+  Marrone, 362-371.
+  Gray, 372-380.
+  Grey, 381-386.
+  Black, 387-413.
+
+Organic pigments with lead chromates, 248.
+
+Orient Yellow, 42, 110.
+
+Original pigments, 35.
+  "      importance of, 240-242.
+
+Orpiment Yellow, 111-113.
+
+Outremer, 217.
+
+Outremer de Guimet, 209.
+
+Oxford Ochre, 109.
+
+Oxidation of pigments, 38.
+
+Oxide, Chrome, 267.
+  "    of Chromium, Green, 267.
+  "     " Opaque, 267.
+  "     " Transparent, 268.
+
+Oxychloride of Lead, 73.
+
+Oxygenated water, 69.
+
+Oyster-shell, white of, 80.
+
+
+P.
+
+Paille de Mil, 170.
+
+Painting, siliceous, 212.
+
+Pale Cadmium, 90.
+  "  Chrome, 93.
+  "  Vermilion, 154.
+  "  washes of a pigment, 91.
+
+Palette, disinfectants of the, 359.
+  "      motto for the, 156.
+  "      setting the, 23.
+
+Palette-knife, avoidance of a steel, 39, 50, 90, 103.
+
+Palladium, 122.
+
+Paper Black, 407.
+  "   Smalt and Ultramarine in, 196.
+  "   to give a tone to, 253.
+
+Paris Blue, 192, 203.
+
+Paris, Musée Minéralogique at, 219.
+  "    Société d'Encouragement of, 210.
+
+Particular colour, predilection for a, 58, 59.
+
+Patent Green, 271.
+  "    Yellow, 121.
+
+Pattison's White, 73.
+
+Paul Veronese, 229, 335.
+
+Payne's Gray, 378.
+
+Peach Black, 407.
+
+Pearl White, 78.
+
+Peganum Harmala, 171.
+
+Penley, Mr. Aaron, 85-87, 158, 268, 270.
+
+Penley's Neutral Orange, 253.
+
+Perfect pigment, a, 46.
+
+Perkin, Mr. W., 162.
+
+Permanent Blue, 216.
+  "       pigments, 252, 278, 300, 315, 323, 329.
+  "       White, 65.
+
+Peroxidized pigments, 38.
+
+Persian berries, 312.
+  "     Green, 271.
+  "     lazur, 228.
+  "     Red, 148.
+
+Perspective, aerial, 22, 23.
+  "          linear, 22.
+  "          of colours, 22, 23.
+
+Persulphomolybdates, 171.
+
+Philocles, 7.
+
+Phosphine, 162.
+
+Photography, lamp black in, 401.
+  "          pigments generally in, 401.
+
+Pickle Green, 276.
+
+Picric acid, 162.
+
+Picture galleries, 363-365.
+
+Pictures and pigments, 292.
+
+Pigment and colour, 31.
+
+Pigments, action of fire and time on 31.
+  "       adulteration of, 70.
+  "       apt to vary, 126, 181.
+  "       beauty in, 46.
+  "       blending of, 37.
+  "       common, 359.
+  "       compound, 36.
+  "       drying of, 50.
+  "       fineness of texture in, 50.
+  "       grinding of, 37.
+  "       individual beauty of, 58.
+  "       innoxious, 53.
+  "       on the Durability and Fugacity of, 31.
+  "       on the General Qualities of, 46.
+  "       opacity and transparency of, 48.
+  "       past and present, 293.
+  "       rays from, 384.
+  "       truth of hue in, 47.
+  "       vehicles with, 48-53.
+  "       working well, 49.
+
+Pink, Brown, 313.
+  "   Dutch, 100.
+  "   English, 100.
+  "   Italian, 100.
+  "   Madder, 144.
+  "   Rose, 173.
+  "   Saucers, 174.
+
+Pitch, Jew's, 337.
+  "    Mineral, 337.
+
+Pittacal, 234.
+
+Platinum Blue, 233.
+  "      Yellow, 121.
+
+Playfair, Dr. Lyon, 355.
+
+Pliny, 7, 153, 198, 218, 295, 338.
+
+Plumbago, 393.
+
+Polygnotus, 9.
+
+Pompeii, 105, 229.
+
+Porcelain, blue for, 235.
+  "        green for, 267.
+
+Poussin, 11, 316.
+
+Powder Blue, 196.
+
+Power of pigments, individual, 59.
+
+Powers of colours, 82.
+
+Practice of Sir J. Reynolds, 37.
+
+Precipitate, Red, 173.
+
+Prevention and cure, 412.
+
+Price, Dr. D. S., 69.
+
+Primary colours, 28.
+
+Principles of practice, 35.
+
+Process, Autotype, 401.
+
+Protoxide, pigments in the state of, 37.
+
+Proust, M., 396.
+
+Prout, Samuel, 346.
+
+Prout's Brown, Liquid, 345.
+
+Prussian Black, 404, 408.
+  "      Copper, 408.
+
+Prussian Blue, 203.
+  "      adulteration of, 203.
+  "      character of, 237, 278, 301.
+  "      Cobalt, 227.
+  "      manufacture of, 203.
+  "      Native, 207, 226.
+  "      want of a permanent, 189.
+  "      with alkalies, 206.
+
+Prussian Brown, 348.
+  "        "    French, 255.
+  "      Greens, 281, 282.
+  "      Red, 149.
+
+Prussiate of Copper, 323.
+  "       Iron, 203.
+
+Pure Scarlet, 150.
+  "  Ultramarine, 216.
+
+Purple, 28.
+  "     as a colour, 295.
+  "     as a pigment, 297.
+  "     Black, 369, 408.
+  "     Brown, 359.
+  "     contrast of, 294, 297.
+  "     Lake, 137.
+  "     on the Secondary, 294.
+
+PURPLE PIGMENTS:--
+  Archil Purple, 303.
+  Bismuth Purple, 304.
+  Burnt Carmine, 298.
+  Burnt Lake, 298.
+  Burnt Madder, 305.
+  Cassius's Purple Precipitate, 306.
+  Cobalt Purples, 305.
+  Field's Purple, 301.
+  Gold Purple, 306.
+  Indian Purple, 298.
+  Mars Violet, 290.
+  Mauve, 163.
+  Mineral Purple, 290.
+  Mixed Purple, 290.
+  Prussian Purple, 307.
+  Purple Madder, 301.
+  Purple Ochre, 290.
+  Purple of Cassius, 306.
+  Purple Rubiate, 301.
+  Sandal Wood Purple, 307.
+  Solid French Purple, 304.
+  Tin Violet, 308.
+  Violet Carmine, 302.
+  Violet de Mars, 290.
+  Purple, pure, 300.
+    "     Tyrian, 295, 296.
+
+Purpurates, 170.
+
+Purree, 98.
+
+
+Q.
+
+Qualities of Pigments, on the General, 46.
+
+Queen's Yellow, 123.
+
+Quercitron Lake, 100, 312.
+  "        Yellow, 100.
+
+Quinine Green, 289.
+
+
+R.
+
+Ramnus infectorius, 315.
+
+Raphael, 8, 9.
+
+Rare Metals, 172.
+
+Raw Sienna, 113.
+  " Umber, 315.
+
+Rays from pigments, 384.
+
+Real Ultramarine, 216.
+
+Realgar, 258.
+
+Reboulleau's Blue, 230.
+
+Red, 28.
+  "  as a colour, 128.
+  "  contrasts of, 128, 129.
+  "  discordant, 129.
+  "  Marrone, 368.
+  "  on the Primary, 127.
+  "  Orpiment, 258.
+
+RED PIGMENTS:--
+  Almagra, 147.
+  Antimony Red, 159.
+  Armenian Bole, 147.
+  Bloodstone, 147.
+  Brown Red, 147.
+  Cadmium Red, 130.
+  Carmine, 133-135.
+  Carmine Vermilion, 156.
+  Carnagione, 149.
+  Chica Red, 159.
+  Chinese Lake, 137.
+  Chinese Rouge, 174.
+  Chinese Vermilion, 156.
+  Coal-Tar Colours, 160.
+  Cobalt Reds, 164.
+  Cochineal Lakes, 131-137.
+  Copper Reds, 164.
+  Crimson Lake, 135.
+  Deep Vermilion, 154.
+  Dragon's Blood, 137.
+  English Red, 149.
+  English Vermilion, 146.
+  Extract of Vermilion, 157.
+  Ferrate of Baryta, 165.
+  Field's Carmine, 142.
+  Field's Lakes, 139-145.
+  Field's Orange Vermilion, 158.
+  Florentine Lake, 137.
+
+RED PIGMENTS:--
+  Gold Reds, 166.
+  Hamburgh Lake, 137.
+  Indian Lake, 138.
+  Indian Ochre, 146.
+  Indian Red, 148.
+  Iodine Pink, 166.
+  Iodine Scarlet, 150.
+  Kermes Lake, 167.
+  Lac Lake, 138.
+  Lawson's Red, 168.
+  Light Red, 149.
+  Liquid Madder Lake, 145.
+  Liquid Rubiate, 145.
+  Madder Carmine, 142.
+  Madder Lake, 144.
+  Madder Lakes, 139-145.
+  Magenta, 160.
+  Majolica, 146.
+  Manganese Red, 168.
+  Mars Red, 145.
+  Mineral Kermes, 159.
+  Minium, 151.
+  Murexide, 169.
+  Ochres, 146-150.
+  Orange Vermilion, 157.
+  Paille de Mil, 170.
+  Pale Vermilion, 154.
+  Peganum Harmala, 171.
+  Persian Red, 148.
+  Persulphomolybdates, 171.
+  Pink Madder, 144.
+  Pink Saucers, 174.
+  Prussian Red, 149.
+  Pure Scarlet, 150.
+  Purple Lake, 137.
+  Red Chalk, 172.
+  Red Chrome, 151.
+  Red Lead, 151.
+  Red Ochre, 147.
+  Red Precipitate, 173.
+  Redding, 146.
+  Roman Lake, 137.
+  Rose Madder, 143.
+  Rose Pink, 173.
+  Rose Rubiate, 145.
+  Rouge, 173.
+  Rouge de Mars, 145.
+  Rubric Lakes, 139-145.
+  Rufigallic Red, 174.
+  Sandal Red, 175.
+  Saturnine Red, 151.
+  Scarlet Chrome, 151.
+  Scarlet Lake, 136.
+  Scarlet Ochre, 149.
+  Scarlet Vermilion, 156.
+  Sil Atticum, 147.
+  Silver Red, 176.
+  Sinoper, 151.
+  Sorgho Red, 176.
+  Spanish Brown, 146.
+  Spanish Red, 150.
+  Terra Puzzoli, 149.
+  Terra Sinopica, 147.
+  Thallium Red, 177.
+  Tin Pink, 177.
+  Ultramarine Red, 178.
+  Uranium Red, 179.
+  Venetian Lake, 137.
+  Venetian Red, 149.
+  Vermilion, 154.
+  Vermilions, 153-158.
+  Wongshy Red, 180.
+
+Reds, ancient, 5.
+
+Relations of colour, 13-24.
+
+Relative durability of colour, 32.
+
+Rembrandt, 11, 345.
+
+Revelation, Book of, 217.
+
+Reynolds, Sir Joshua, 10, 35, 37, 158, 374, 410.
+
+Rinman's Green, 285.
+  "      Olive, 332.
+
+Rocou, 255.
+
+Roman Green, 290.
+  "   Lake, 137.
+  "   Ochre, 107.
+  "     "    Burnt, 255.
+  "   painters and painting, 7, 8, 10, 391.
+  "   Sepia, 351.
+  "   White, 74.
+
+Romans, the, 153, 295.
+
+Romulus, 295.
+
+Rosaniline, 162.
+
+Rose, the, 327.
+
+Rousseau, M. E., 414.
+
+Rowbotham, Messrs., 144.
+
+Royal Academy at Burlington House, 365.
+  "   Blue, 196.
+
+Rubens, 11, 37, 64, 157, 283, 334, 374.
+  "     Brown, 359.
+  "     Madder, 321.
+
+Rubia tinctorum, 139.
+
+Rubiate, Purple, 301.
+
+Rue, Dr. Warren de la, 132.
+
+Ruskin, Mr., 13.
+
+Russet, 28.
+  "     analysis of, 330.
+  "     as a colour, 320.
+  "     contrast of, 321.
+  "     on the Tertiary, 320.
+
+RUSSET PIGMENTS:--
+  Field's Russet, 321.
+  Mixed Russet, 322.
+  Orange Russet, 321.
+  Prussiate of Copper, 323.
+  Rubens' Madder, 321.
+  Russet Rubiate, 321.
+
+
+S.
+
+Sacc, M., 414.
+
+Safflower, 174.
+
+Samuel Prout, 346.
+
+Sandal Red, 175.
+  "    Wood Purple, 307.
+
+Sandarac, 259.
+
+Sap Green, 282.
+
+Satin White, 80.
+
+Saturnine Red, 151.
+
+Saucers, Pink, 174.
+
+Saunders Blue, 230.
+
+Saxon Blue, 189.
+  "   Green, 271.
+  "   Smalts, 215.
+
+Scarlet Chrome, 151.
+  "     Iodine, 150.
+  "     Lake, 136.
+  "     Ochre, 149.
+  "     Pure, 150.
+  "     transparent, a, reward for, 130.
+  "       "          substitute for, 130.
+  "     Vermilion, 156.
+
+Scheele's Green, 272.
+  "       Olive, 332.
+
+Schools of painting, 8-10, 37.
+
+Schunck, Dr., 140.
+
+Schweinfurt Blue, 230.
+  "         Green, 271.
+  "           "   Olive, 332.
+
+Scoffern, Dr., 357.
+
+Sea, the Dead, 337.
+  "  transparency of the, 269.
+
+Secondary colours, 28.
+  "       pigments, 242.
+
+Semi-Neutral colours, 29.
+  "  the term, 334.
+
+Semi-stability, on, 308.
+
+Semi-stable pigments, 298, 313.
+
+Sepia, 348, 397.
+  "    Liquid, 348.
+  "    Roman, 350.
+  "    Warm, 351.
+
+Shades, 21.
+
+Shadow, colour of, 27, 30.
+
+Siccatives, 51-53.
+
+Sienna, Burnt, 243.
+  "     Raw, 113.
+  "     Terra di, 113.
+
+Sil Atticum, 147.
+
+Silicate of Baryta, 290.
+
+Siliceous painting, Ultramarine in, 212.
+
+Silver Red, 176.
+  "    White, 71.
+
+Sinoper, 151.
+
+Slate Clays, 380.
+  "   powdered, 380.
+
+Smalt, 195-198.
+  "    adulteration of, 198.
+  "    Copper, 229.
+
+Smalt, grinding of, 197.
+  "    in mural decoration, 198.
+  "    in paper, 196.
+  "    Iron, 218.
+
+Soap and alkali in brushes, 52.
+
+Société d'Encouragement of Paris, 210.
+
+Society of Arts, 130.
+
+Soda flame, 191.
+
+Solid French Purple, 304.
+
+Sorgho Red, 176.
+
+Sources of pigments, 60.
+
+South America, chica from, 368.
+
+Spanish Black, 409.
+  "     Brown, 146.
+  "     Ochre, 255.
+  "     Red, 150.
+  "     Schools, 8.
+  "     White, 80.
+
+Spence, Mr., 68.
+
+Spruce Ochre, 108.
+
+St. Petersburg, palace at, 219.
+
+Starch, 66.
+
+Stil de Grain, Brown, 312.
+
+Stippling, 315.
+
+Stone, Armenian, 228.
+  "    lapis lazuli, 217, 219.
+  "    malachite, 274.
+  "    Ochre, 109.
+
+Strontian Yellow, 113.
+
+Sulphate of Lead, 72.
+  "      zinc, 51.
+
+Sulphide of cadmium, thallium in, 260.
+
+Sulphur and ochres, 359.
+
+Sulphuretted hydrogen, pigments affected by, 39, 67, 69, 73, 78, 79, 93, 103, 120, 151, 152, 229, 248, 275, 276.
+
+Susa, 296.
+
+Swedish Green, 272.
+
+Synonyms, value of, 145.
+
+
+T.
+
+Talent of money, 296.
+
+Teniers, 360.
+
+Terra di Sienna, 113.
+  "    "   "     Burnt, 243.
+  "   Orellana, 255.
+  "   Puzzoli, 149.
+  "   Sinopica, 147.
+
+Terre Bleu, 228.
+  "   Verte, 283.
+  "     "    Olive, 333.
+
+Terrene whites, 66, 80.
+
+Tertiary colours, 28.
+  "      on, 311.
+
+Thallium, in sulphide of cadmium, 260.
+  "       Orange, 259.
+  "       Red, 177.
+  "       Yellow, 122.
+
+Thebes, mausoleum at, 3.
+
+Thénard, M., 69, 192.
+
+Thénard's Blue, 192.
+
+Theophrastus, 198.
+
+Theory and practice, 410.
+
+Thwaites' Yellow, 122.
+
+Time, pigments affected by, 40.
+
+Tin Pink, 177.
+  "       Violet, 308.
+  "       White, 79.
+
+Tin-Copper Green, 286.
+
+Tint, Harding's, 380.
+  "   Macpherson's, 380.
+  "   Neutral, 377.
+
+Tintoret, 8.
+
+Tints, 27.
+
+Titanium Green, 290.
+
+Titian, 7, 8, 9, 11, 37, 150, 157, 293, 334.
+
+Transparency of pigments, 48.
+  "   to obtain, 245.
+
+Transparent Gold Ochre, 108.
+  "         Oxide of Chromium, 268.
+  "         pigments, use of, 237.
+
+Troy White, 80.
+
+True Chrome Green, 267.
+  "  Prussian Green, 281.
+  "  Ultramarine, 216.
+
+Truth of hue in pigments, 47.
+
+Tullus Hostilius, 295.
+
+Tungsten Blue, 233.
+  "      White, 414.
+
+Turacine, 165.
+
+Turbith Mineral, 123.
+
+Turkey Berries, 312.
+
+Turnbull's Blue, 208.
+
+Turner, 309, 328.
+
+Turner's Yellow, 121.
+
+Tyrian Purple, 295, 296.
+
+
+U.
+
+Ultramarine, Artificial, 209-216.
+  "          acid pigments with, 214.
+  "          adulteration of, 215.
+  "          experiment with, 213.
+  "          green in, 211.
+  "          gum with, 214.
+  "          in siliceous painting, 212.
+  "          test for, 212.
+
+Ultramarine Ash, 379.
+  "         Beggars', 409.
+  "         Brilliant, 215.
+  "         Cobalt, 192.
+  "         Dutch, 189.
+  "         Factitious, 215.
+  "         French, 215.
+
+Ultramarine, Genuine, 216-225.
+  "          adulteration of, 224.
+  "          colouring matter of, 224.
+  "          defects in, 222, 223.
+  "          manufacture of, 220.
+  "          price of, 220.
+  "          properties of, 221.
+  "          tests for, 224.
+
+Ultramarine, Gmelin's German, 209.
+  "          Green, 287.
+  "          Guimet's, 209-211.
+  "          Native, 216.
+  "          Natural, 216.
+  "          Pure, 217.
+  "          Real, 216.
+  "          Red, 178.
+  "          True, 216.
+
+Umber, 315.
+  "    Burnt, 341.
+  "    grounds primed with, 316.
+  "    Raw, 315.
+
+Unnecessary mixture, 35.
+
+Uranium Brown, 360,
+  "     Green, 291.
+  "     Orange, 260.
+  "     Red, 179.
+  "     Yellow, 123.
+
+Ure, Dr., 73.
+
+
+V.
+
+Vanadium Green, 291.
+
+Vandyke, 11, 150, 220, 351.
+  "      Brown, 351.
+
+Van Eyck, 167.
+
+Varnishes, 33, 152.
+
+Vegetal charcoal, 398.
+
+Vehicles with pigments, 48-53.
+
+Velasquez, 389.
+
+Venetian Green, 283.
+  "      Lake, 137.
+  "      painters, painting, and pigments, 7, 8, 34, 37, 139, 167.
+  "      Red, 149.
+  "      White, 75.
+
+Verde Vessie, 282.
+
+Verdetto, 283.
+
+Verdigris, 51, 276.
+  "        Burnt, 331.
+  "        Distilled, 276.
+
+Verditer, Blue, 228.
+  "       Green, 287.
+
+Vermilion, 153-158.
+  "        adulteration of, 156.
+  "        Carmine, 156.
+  "        Chinese, and English, 156, 146.
+  "        Deep, 154.
+  "        European and Chinese, 154.
+  "        Extract of, 157.
+  "        Field's Orange, 158.
+  "        manufacture of, 154.
+  "        Orange, 157.
+
+Vermilion Pale, 154.
+  "       Scarlet, 156.
+  "       with cochineal lake, 136.
+  "       with iodide of mercury, 155.
+
+Verona Brown, 353.
+  "    Green, 283.
+
+Veronese Green, 268.
+  "      French, 268.
+
+Vert de Zinc, 285.
+
+Vicious extremes in colouring, 59.
+
+Vienna Blue, 192.
+  "    Green, 271.
+  "    White, 72.
+
+Vine Black, 394.
+
+Violet, Carmine, 302.
+  "     de Mars, 290.
+  "     Mars, 290.
+  "     Tin, 308.
+
+Viride Æris, 276.
+
+Viridian, 42, 269.
+
+Vision, derangement of, 59.
+
+Vitrification and permanence, 197.
+
+Vitrified colours, 33, 103, 197.
+
+Vitruvius, 229.
+
+
+W.
+
+Wall colour for picture galleries, 363.
+  "  space in     "       "        364.
+
+Walpole, Mrs., 220.
+
+Warm Sepia, 350.
+
+Water-colour cakes in oil, 50.
+
+Watts, Mr., 165.
+
+Weppen, 398.
+
+White, 27.
+  "    as a colour, 62.
+  "    as a pigment, 64.
+  "    Chalk, 79.
+  "    colour as applied to, 62.
+
+Whitelac varnish, 50.
+
+White Lead, 67-70.
+  "   adulteration of, 70.
+  "   colour restored in, 69.
+  "   hydrated oxide in, 68.
+  "   loss of opacity in, 68.
+  "   use of, 70.
+  "   with Blue Black, 395.
+  "     "  Bone Brown, 341.
+  "     "  Brown Pink, 312.
+  "     "  Cadmium Yellow, 89.
+  "     "  Carmine, 134.
+  "     "  Dragon's Blood, 138.
+  "     "  Gamboge, 97.
+  "     "  Indian Lake, 139.
+  "     "  Indigo, 201.
+  "     "  Massicot, 120.
+  "     "  Orpiment, 112.
+  "     "  Prussian Blue, 206.
+  "     "  Red Lead, 152.
+  "     " Yellow Lakes, 99.
+
+White, on the Neutral, 62.
+  "    perfect, 62, 64.
+
+WHITE PIGMENTS:--
+  Antimony White, 79.
+  Arsenic White, 79.
+  Barytic White, 65.
+  Blanc d'Argent, 71.
+  Body White, 72.
+  Cadmium White, 78.
+  Ceruse, 74.
+  China White, 80.
+  Chinese White, 75.
+  Constant White, 65.
+  Cremnitz or Kremnitz White, 72.
+  Crems or Krems White, 72.
+  Dutch White, 74.
+  Flake White, 72.
+  Flemish White, 72.
+  French White, 71.
+  Hamburgh White, 74.
+  Kremser White, 75.
+  London White, 73.
+  Mercury White, 79.
+  Modan or Morat White, 80.
+  Nottingham White, 73.
+  Oxychloride of Lead, 73.
+  Pattison's White, 73.
+  Pearl White, 78.
+  Permanent White, 65.
+  Roman White, 74.
+  Rouen White, 80.
+  Satin White, 80.
+  Silver White, 71.
+  Spanish White, 80.
+  Sulphate of Lead, 72.
+  Tin White, 79.
+  Tungsten White, 414.
+  Troy White, 80.
+  Venetian White, 75.
+  Vienna White, 72.
+  White Lead, 67-70.
+  Zinc White, 76.
+  Zinc Whites, 75-78.
+
+White, properties of, 62-64.
+  "    use of, 64.
+
+Whites, classified, 80.
+  "     in old pictures, 65.
+
+Williamson, Professor, 205.
+
+Wilson, 336.
+
+Winter scene, a water-colour, 352.
+
+Wongshy Red, 180.
+
+Wood-Tar Blue, 233.
+
+Working well in pigments, 49.
+
+
+Y.
+
+Yellow, 28.
+  "     as a colour, 82.
+  "     contrasts of, 82, 83.
+
+Yellow, discordant, 83.
+  "     Golden, 256.
+  "     Madder, Cory's, 353.
+  "     on the Primary, 81.
+
+YELLOW PIGMENTS:--
+  Antimony Yellow, 105.
+  Arsenic Yellow, 116.
+  Aureolin, 83-87.
+  Bismuth Yellow, 116.
+  Brown Ochre, 108.
+  Cadmium Yellows, 87-92.
+  Cassel Yellow, 121.
+  Chinese Yellow, 111.
+  Chrome Yellows, 93-95.
+  Citron Yellow, 95.
+  Cologne Yellow, 94.
+  Copper Yellow, 116.
+  Deep Cadmium, 87.
+  Deep Chrome, 93.
+  Di Palito, 109.
+  Drop Gum, 96.
+  Dutch Pink, 100.
+  English Pink, 100.
+  Extract of Gamboge, 97.
+  Gallstone, 95.
+  Gamboge, 96.
+  Gelbin's Yellow, 117.
+  Giallolino, 103.
+  Indian Yellow, 98.
+  Indium Yellow, 117.
+  Iodine Yellow, 118.
+  Iron Yellow, 102, 118.
+  Italian Pink, 100.
+  Jaune de Cologne, 94.
+  Jaune de Fer, 102.
+  Jaune de Mars, 102.
+  Jaune Minérale, 94.
+  King's Yellow, 111.
+  Lakes, 99, 100.
+  Lemon Cadmium, 91.
+  Lemon Yellow, 101.
+  Litharge, 120.
+  Madder Yellow, 118, 353.
+  Mars Yellow, 102.
+  Massicot, 120.
+  Mineral Yellow, 106, 116, 121.
+  Montpellier Yellow, 121.
+  Mutrie Yellow, 92.
+  Naples Yellow, 103.
+  Ochres, 105-109.
+  Ocre de Ru, 108.
+  Orient Yellow, 110.
+  Orpiment or Yellow Orpiment, 111.
+  Oxford Ochre, 109.
+  Pale Cadmium, 90.
+  Pale Chrome, 93.
+  Patent Yellow, 121.
+  Platinum Yellow, 121.
+  Purree, 98.
+  Queen's Yellow, 123.
+  Quercitron Lake, or Yellow, 100.
+  Raw Sienna, 113.
+  Roman Ochre, 107.
+  Spruce Ochre, 108.
+  Stone Ochre, 109.
+  Strontian Yellow, 113.
+  Terra di Sienna, 113.
+  Thallium Yellow, 122.
+  Thwaites' Yellow, 122.
+  Transparent Gold Ochre, 108.
+  Turbith Yellow, 123.
+  Turner's Yellow, 121.
+  Uranium Yellow, 123.
+  Yellow Carmine, 123.
+  Yellow Lake, 100.
+  Yellow Ochre, 106.
+
+Yellows, ancient, 5.
+  "      classified, 125.
+  "      former paucity of, 83.
+  "      various, 124.
+
+
+Z.
+
+Zaffre, 189.
+
+Zeuxis and Apelles, 7.
+
+Zinc Brown, 360.
+  "  Cobalt Blue, 235.
+  "  Green, 285.
+  "  Orange, 261,
+  "  siccatives, 51, 77.
+  "  Vert de, 285.
+  "  White, 76.
+  "   "     adulteration of, 77.
+  "   "     over White Lead, 76.
+  "  Whites, 75-78.
+
+
+
+
+ERRATA.
+
+
+Page  16 _for_ inharmonious _read_ harmonious
+  "   35 _for_ There prevails _read_ There prevail
+  "   48 _for_ as whiteness, or light do, _read_ as whiteness or light does
+  "  166 _for_ purple of cassius _read_ purple of Cassius
+  "  182 _for_ which manufactures _read_ which manufactures pictures
+  "  258 _for_ _Laque Minéral_ _read_ _Laque Minérale_
+  "  342 _for_ rivals _read_ rivels
+  "  378 _for_ predominate _read_ predominates
+
+
+THE END.
+
+
+LONDON:
+Printed by A. Schulze, 13, Poland Street.
+
+
++------------------------------------------------------+
+|Transcriber's Note:                                   |
+|                                                      |
+|The errata above and the following have been corrected|
+|in the text:                                          |
+|                                                      |
+|Page  vi Semi-neutral changed to Semi-Neutral         |
+|      10 life less changed to lifeless                |
+|      17 sun-rise changed to sunrise                  |
+|      20 in the the changed to in the                 |
+|      22 perpective changed to perspective            |
+|      29 marone changed to marrone                    |
+|      69 di-carbonate changed to dicarbonate          |
+|      73 hydrogren changed to hydrogen                |
+|      77 imimical changed to inimical                 |
+|      81 feuillemorte changed to feuillemort          |
+|      91 Item numbering has been left consistent      |
+|         with the omission of item no. 23             |
+|     129 extemes changed to extremes                  |
+|     169 muroxide changed to murexide                 |
+|     188 dullness changed to dulness                  |
+|     192 gaslight changed to gas-light                |
+|     200 durablity changed to durability              |
+|     206 and 293 developement changed to development  |
+|     212 decolorized changed to decolourised          |
+|     235 indentical changed to identical              |
+|     241 re-acting changed to reacting                |
+|     250 Exibition changed to Exhibition              |
+|     273 childrens' changed to children's             |
+|     336 toneing changed to toning                    |
+|     352 fine tooth-comb changed to fine-tooth comb   |
+|     408 analagous changed to analogous               |
+|     414 announceed changed to announced              |
+|     421 abies changed to Abies                       |
+|                                                      |
+|Inconsistencies in the use of analyse/analyze,        |
+|harmonise/harmonize and neutralise/neutralize have    |
+|been retained as in the original text, as have the    |
+|use of aërial and aerial.                             |
++------------------------------------------------------+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Field's Chromatography, by George Field
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Field's Chromatography, by George Field
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Field's Chromatography
+       or Treatise on Colours and Pigments as Used by Artists
+
+Author: George Field
+
+Editor: Thomas Salter
+
+Release Date: March 27, 2007 [EBook #20915]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FIELD'S CHROMATOGRAPHY ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Barbara Tozier, Bill Tozier, Jacqueline Jeremy
+and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<div id="auto">
+
+<h3 style="letter-spacing: 1em; margin-top: 5em;"><i>SALTER'S EDITION.</i></h3>
+
+<hr style="width: 35%;" />
+
+<h1 style="word-spacing: 1em; margin-bottom: 50px;">FIELD'S CHROMATOGRAPHY;</h1>
+
+<h5><span class="smcap">OR</span>,</h5>
+
+<h2 style="word-spacing: 1em; margin-top: 50px;">TREATISE ON COLOURS AND PIGMENTS</h2>
+
+<h3 style="word-spacing: 1em; margin-bottom: 50px;">AS USED BY ARTISTS.</h3>
+
+<h3><i>AN ENTIRELY NEW AND PRACTICAL EDITION</i>;</h3>
+
+<h5>REVISED, REWRITTEN, AND BROUGHT DOWN TO THE PRESENT TIME.</h5>
+
+<h5 style="margin-top: 50px; margin-bottom: 50px;">BY</h5>
+
+<h3 class="word-spacing: 1em;">THOMAS W. SALTER, F.C.S.</h3>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;">
+<img src="images/fig01.png" width="200" height="137" alt="logo" title="[logo]" />
+</div>
+
+<h5 class="center">Ars probat artificem.</h5>
+
+<h3 style="letter-spacing: 1em; margin-top: 50px; font-weight: 500;">LONDON:</h3>
+
+<h3 style="word-spacing: 1em; font-weight: 500;">WINSOR AND NEWTON, <b>38</b>, RATHBONE PLACE,</h3>
+
+<h5>Manufacturing Artists' Colourmen by Special Appointment
+to Her Majesty, and Their Royal Highnesses the Prince and
+Princess of Wales.</h5>
+
+<h6>[The Right of Translation is reserved.]</h6>
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%; margin-top: 80px; margin-bottom: 80px;" />
+<h2 style="letter-spacing: .5em;"><a name="contents" id="contents"></a>CONTENTS</h2>
+<hr style="width: 35%" />
+
+
+<table summary="table of contents" style="width: 500px;">
+<colgroup span="3">
+<col width="30px"></col>
+<col width="440px"></col>
+<col width="30px"></col>
+</colgroup>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd" colspan="3"><h3 class="nospace">PART I.</h3></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd" colspan="3"><h4 class="nospace">ON COLOURS AND COLOURING.</h4></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<th class="tda" style="padding-bottom: 5px;"><span style="font-size: small;">Chapter</span></th>
+<th class="tdc" colspan="2" style="padding-bottom: 5px;"><span style="font-size: small;">Page</span></th>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tda"><span class="smcap">I.&mdash;</span></td>
+<td class="tdb">On Colouring </td>
+<td class="tdc"><a href="#chapter_1">3</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tda"><span class="smcap">II.&mdash;</span></td>
+<td class="tdb">On the Relations and Harmonies of Colours</td>
+<td class="tdc"><a href="#chapter_2">13</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd" colspan="3"><h3 class="spacetop">PART II.</h3></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd" colspan="3"><h4 class="nospace">ON COLOURS AND PIGMENTS GENERALLY.</h4></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tda"><span class="smcap">III.&mdash;</span></td>
+<td class="tdb">On Classes of Colours</td>
+<td class="tdc"><a href="#chapter_3">27</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tda"><span class="smcap">IV.&mdash;</span></td>
+<td class="tdb">On the Durability and Fugacity of Pigments</td>
+<td class="tdc"><a href="#chapter_4">31</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tda"><span class="smcap">V.&mdash;</span></td>
+<td class="tdb">On the General Qualities of Pigments</td>
+<td class="tdc"><a href="#chapter_5">46</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd" colspan="3"><h3 class="spacetop">PART III.</h3></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd" colspan="3"><h4 class="nospace">ON COLOURS AND PIGMENTS INDIVIDUALLY.</h4></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tda"><span class="smcap">VI.&mdash;</span></td>
+<td class="tdb">On Colours and Pigments individually</td>
+<td class="tdc"><a href="#chapter_6">57</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tda"><span class="smcap">VII.&mdash;</span></td>
+<td class="tdb">On the Neutral, White</td>
+<td class="tdc"><a href="#chapter_7">62</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tda"><span class="smcap">VIII.&mdash;</span></td>
+<td class="tdb">On the Primary, Yellow</td>
+<td class="tdc"><a href="#chapter_8">81</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tda"><span class="smcap">IX.&mdash;</span></td>
+<td class="tdb">On the Primary, Red</td>
+<td class="tdc"><a href="#chapter_9">127</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tda"><span class="smcap">X.&mdash;</span></td>
+<td class="tdb">On the Primary, Blue  </td>
+<td class="tdc"><a href="#chapter_10">183</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tda"><span class="smcap">XI.&mdash;</span></td>
+<td class="tdb">On the Secondary, Orange </td>
+<td class="tdc"><a href="#chapter_11">239</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tda"><span class="smcap">XII.&mdash;</span></td>
+<td class="tdb">On the Secondary, Green </td>
+<td class="tdc"><a href="#chapter_12">263</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tda"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[vi]</a></span><span class="smcap">XIII.&mdash;</span></td>
+<td class="tdb">On the Secondary, Purple </td>
+<td class="tdc"><a href="#chapter_13">294</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tda"><span class="smcap">XIV.&mdash;</span></td>
+<td class="tdb">On the Tertiary, Citrine</td>
+<td class="tdc"><a href="#chapter_14">310</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tda"><span class="smcap">XV.&mdash;</span></td>
+<td class="tdb">On the Tertiary, Russet </td>
+<td class="tdc"><a href="#chapter_15">320</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tda"><span class="smcap">XVI.&mdash;</span></td>
+<td class="tdb">On the Tertiary, Olive</td>
+<td class="tdc"><a href="#chapter_16">325</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tda"><span class="smcap">XVII.&mdash;</span></td>
+<td class="tdb">On the <ins class="trans" title="was Semi-neutral">Semi-Neutral</ins>, Brown</td>
+<td class="tdc"><a href="#chapter_17">334</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tda"><span class="smcap">XVIII.&mdash;</span></td>
+<td class="tdb">On the Semi-Neutral, Marrone </td>
+<td class="tdc"><a href="#chapter_18">362</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tda"><span class="smcap">XIX.&mdash;</span></td>
+<td class="tdb">On the Semi-Neutral, Gray</td>
+<td class="tdc"><a href="#chapter_19">372</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tda"><span class="smcap">XX.&mdash;</span></td>
+<td class="tdb">On the Neutral, Grey </td>
+<td class="tdc"><a href="#chapter_20">381</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tda"><span class="smcap">XXI.&mdash;</span></td>
+<td class="tdb">On the Neutral, Black </td>
+<td class="tdc"><a href="#chapter_21">387</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tda"><span class="smcap">&nbsp;</span></td>
+<td class="tdb">Addendum</td>
+<td class="tdc"><a href="#addendum">414</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tda"><span class="smcap">&nbsp;</span></td>
+<td class="tdb">Index</td>
+<td class="tdc"><a href="#index">417</a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%; margin-bottom: 80px;" />
+
+<h3>NOTICE.</h3>
+
+
+<p>Among the works consulted in this Edition are the following, from most
+of which extracts have been taken:</p>
+
+<p>Bancroft's Philosophy of Colours.</p>
+<p>Brande's Manual of Chemistry.</p>
+<p>Chemical News.</p>
+<p>Chevreul on Colour.</p>
+<p>Fownes' Manual of Chemistry.</p>
+<p>Gmelin's Handbook of Chemistry.</p>
+<p>Handbooks on Art.</p>
+<p>Liebig and Kopp's Annual Report of the Progress of Chemistry.</p>
+<p>M&eacute;rim&eacute;e's Painting in Oil.</p>
+<p>Muspratt's Dictionary of Chemistry.</p>
+<p>Normandy's Commercial Handbook of Chemical Analysis.</p>
+<p>O'Neill's Chemistry of Calico Printing.</p>
+<p>Quarterly Journal of the Chemical Society.</p>
+<p>Ruskin's Elements of Drawing.</p>
+<p>Watts' Dictionary of Chemistry.</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%; margin-top: 80px;" />
+
+<h1>PART I.</h1>
+
+<hr style="width: 35%; margin-top: 0px;" />
+
+<h2>ON COLOURS AND COLOURING.</h2>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="chromatography" id="chromatography"></a>CHROMATOGRAPHY;</h2>
+
+<h5>OR,</h5>
+
+<h3>A TREATISE ON COLOURS AND PIGMENTS.</h3>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 35%;" />
+
+<h2><a name="chapter_1" id="chapter_1"></a><a href="#contents">CHAPTER I.</a></h2>
+
+<h3>ON COLOURING.</h3>
+
+
+<p><span class="dropcap">How</span> early, and to what extent, colouring may have attained the rank of
+science among the ancients, are questions not easily set at rest; but
+that some progress had been made, even at a very remote period, is
+proved by the magnificent tombs of the Egyptian kings at Thebes, where
+the walls of the royal mausoleum are described as being covered with
+paintings so fresh and perfect, as to require neither restoration nor
+improvement. So far from this, indeed, that with all care in copying, it
+was difficult to equal the brilliancy of the originals, which, as far as
+colours went, threw all others in the background. And yet, in spite of
+the scale having comprised pure vermilion, ochres, and indigo, it was
+not<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span> gaudy, owing to the judicious balance of the colours, and the
+artful management of the black. Nor was there an ornament throughout the
+dresses, wherein the red, yellow, and blue, were not so employed as to
+produce a delicious harmony.</p>
+
+<p>Moreover, it is stated that in one painting eighty feet high and
+proportionably broad, which was divided into two ranges of gigantic
+figures, these were glowing with most exquisite colours, suited to the
+drapery and naked parts; and in which the azure, yellow, green, &amp;c.,
+were as well preserved as though they had been laid on yesterday. Again,
+an apartment was discovered among the stupendous ruins at Carnac, on the
+site of ancient Thebes, one hundred paces wide and sixty deep,
+completely crowded with pillars, which, together with the ceiling, roof,
+and walls, were decorated with figures in basso-relievo, and
+hieroglyphics&mdash;all marvellously beautiful and finely painted, and as
+fresh, splendid and glorious, after so many ages, as if they had just
+been finished.</p>
+
+<p>In various accounts these colourings of the Egyptians are described in
+the warmest terms of admiration. The most charming are undoubtedly those
+on the tombs and temples: others of less merit have been found on the
+cases and cloths of mummies, and on papyrus rolls; but it is to the
+patterns<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span> on the walls and ceilings of their houses that they seem to
+have been most partial, and paid the most attention. The ordinary
+colours employed by them were red, yellow, green, and blue. Of the last
+there were two tints; black also was common. For white, the finely
+prepared stone-coloured ground was deemed sufficient. These colours were
+occasionally modified by mixture with chalk; but were always, or nearly
+always, applied singly, in an unmixed state. With regard to their
+composition, chemical analysis has shown several of the <i>blues</i> to be
+oxide of copper with a small proportion of iron; none containing cobalt.
+There is little doubt, however, that the most brilliant specimens&mdash;those
+which retain all their original force and beauty in the temples of Upper
+Egypt after an exposure of three thousand years, consist of
+ultramarine&mdash;the celebrated Armenian blue, possibly, of the ancients.
+The <i>reds</i> seem for the most part to be composed of oxide of iron mixed
+with lime, and were probably limited to iron earths and ochres, with a
+native cinnabar or vermilion. The <i>yellows</i> are said to have been, in
+many cases, vegetable colours; but it is likely earths and ochres were
+their chief source. The <i>greens</i> consist of yellow mixed with copper
+blue. The bluish-green which sometimes appears on Egyptian antiquities,
+is merely a faded blue. The <i>blacks</i> are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span> both of vegetable and mineral
+origin, having been obtained from a variety of substances in a variety
+of ways.</p>
+
+<p>But, as shown by Layard in his discoveries at Nineveh, a knowledge of
+colouring was not confined to the Egyptians; it was likewise possessed
+by the Assyrians. The painted ornaments of the latter are stated to have
+been remarkably elegant; and although the colours were limited to blue,
+red, white, yellow, and black, yet they were arranged with so much taste
+and skill, and the contrasts were so judiciously preserved, that the
+combinations were in general agreeable to the eye. The pale
+yellowish-white ground on which the designs were painted, resembled the
+tint on the walls of Egyptian monuments, and a strong well-defined black
+outline was found to be as peculiar a feature in Assyrian as in Egyptian
+painting, black frequently combining with white alone, or alternating
+with other colours. As far as they have been analysed, the pigments
+employed were mineral, the brightest being a blue derived from copper.
+No traces of vegetable colours have been found; it is presumed that they
+existed, but being subject to more rapid decay than the mineral
+pigments, they have disappeared. That all the colours, indeed, employed
+by the ancients were not permanent, was proved by the fact of certain
+blues and reds, brilliant and vivid when the earth was removed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span> from
+them, fading rapidly when exposed to the air.</p>
+
+<p>From Philocles, the Egyptian, and Gyges, a Lydian, both of whom,
+according to Pliny, acquired the knowledge of the art of painting in
+Egypt, the Greeks obtained the knowledge of their <i>Ars Chromatica</i>,
+which they are said to have carried by gradual advances during several
+centuries, from the monochromatic of their earlier painters, to the
+perfection of colouring under Zeuxis and Apelles, 450 to 350 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>
+Unfortunately, not long after, or about 300 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>, art rapidly
+deteriorated; the invasion of the Romans commenced; and the principles
+of light, shade, and colours in painting as understood by the Greeks,
+together with their valuable treatises on the subject were lost. The
+early Roman and Florentine painters, so eminent in other respects, were
+almost destitute of those principles, and of truly refined feeling for
+the effects of colouring.</p>
+
+<p>The partial restoration of this branch seems to have been coeval with
+the earliest practice of painting in oil. The glory of it belongs to the
+Venetians, to whom the art of painting passed with the last remains of
+the Greek schools after the capture of Constantinople at the beginning
+of the thirteenth century. Giovanni Bellini laid the foundation of
+colouring, and Titian carried it to its highest practical perfection.
+From<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span> the Venetian it extended to the Lombard, Flemish, and Spanish
+schools. In the practice of these, however, there was perhaps as much of
+instinct as principle, colouring still remaining to be established in
+its perfection as a science.</p>
+
+<p>According to the true, natural, and philosophical classification of
+painting, there are but three principal classes or schools; viz.: the
+gross and <i>material</i> which is content with mere nature, and to which
+belong the Dutch and Flemish schools; the <i>sensible</i>, which aims at
+refined and select nature, and accords with the Venetian school; and the
+<i>intellectual</i>, which aspires to the ideal in beauty, grandeur, and
+sublimity, and corresponds with the Greek, Roman, and Florentine
+schools. Modern art as founded upon the <i>intellectual</i> school of the
+ancient Greeks, became grand, scientific, and severe in the practice of
+Michael Angelo, and Leonardo da Vinci; graceful, beautiful and
+expressive in Raphael, Correggio, Dominichino, and Guido; and, aiming at
+<i>sensible</i> perfection, it attained harmony of colouring and effect in
+the works of Titian and Tintoret; but it sunk into grossness and
+sensuality while perfecting itself <i>materially</i> among the Flemish and
+Dutch.</p>
+
+<p>In the practice of the individual in painting, as well as in all
+revolutions of pictorial art, in ancient Greece as in modern Italy,
+colouring in its perfection has been the last attainment of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span> excellence
+in every school. It has been justly observed, indeed, that for near
+three hundred years, since painting was revived, we could hardly reckon
+six painters that had been good colourists, among the thousands who had
+laboured to become such. But there is reason to hope that as Zeuxis
+succeeded and excelled Polygnotus, and Titian Raphael, the artists of
+Britain will transcend all preceding schools in the chromatic department
+of painting. It is even probable that they may surpass them in all other
+branches, and in every mode and application of the art, as they have
+already more particularly done in an original and unrivalled use of
+water-colours.</p>
+
+<p>Happily, too, there has arisen among us a school of colouring that
+confirms this expectation, strengthened as it is, by the suitableness of
+our climate to perfect vision. For in it we have that mean degree of
+light which is best adapted to the distinguishing of colours, a
+boundless diversity of hue in nature relieved by those fine effects of
+light and shade which are denied to more vertical suns, besides those
+beauties of complexion and feature in our females peculiar to England;
+respects in which at least our country is not unfavourable to art.</p>
+
+<p>Even now it is urged by some to the <i>disparagement</i> of the British
+school, that it excels in colouring; as if this were incompatible with
+any other excellence, or as if nature, the great pro<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span>totype of art, ever
+dispensed with it. The graphic branches of painting, owe everything to
+colour, which, if it does not constitute a picture, is its flesh and
+blood. Without it, the finest performances remain <ins class="trans" title="was life less">lifeless</ins> skeletons,
+and yield no pleasure. Painting is the art of representing visible
+things by light, shade, form, and colour; but of these, colour&mdash;and
+colour alone&mdash;is the immediate object which attracts the eye. Colouring
+is, therefore, the first requisite&mdash;the one thing imparting warmth and
+life&mdash;the chief quality engaging attention; in short, the best
+introduction to a picture, and that which continues to give it value so
+long as it is regarded. It is a power, too, which is with the most
+difficulty retained, being the first to leave the artist himself, and
+the first to quit a school on its decline. Graphic art without
+colouring, is as food without flavour; and it was the deficiency of
+colouring in the great works of the Roman and Florentine schools that
+caused Sir Joshua Reynolds to confess a certain want of attraction in
+them. To relish and estimate truly their greatness, required, he said, a
+forced and often-repeated attention, and "it was only those persons
+incapable of appreciating such divine performances, who made pretensions
+to instantaneous raptures on first beholding them." Gainsborough also,
+with a candour similar to that of Reynolds, upon viewing the cartoons at
+Hampton<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span> Court, acknowledged that their beauty was of a class he could
+neither appreciate nor enjoy.</p>
+
+<p>Colouring, then, is a necessity; but there is in it a vicious extreme;
+that in which it is rendered so principal as, by want of subordination,
+to overlay the subject. There is also a negative excellence which
+consists in not always employing pleasing tints, but of sometimes taking
+advantage of the effects to be derived from impure hues, as Poussin did
+in his "Deluge." In this work, neither black nor white, blue, red, nor
+yellow appears; the whole mass being, with little variation, of a sombre
+grey, the true resemblance of a dark and humid atmosphere, by which
+every object is rendered indistinct and almost colourless. This absence
+of colour, however, is a merit, and not a fault. Vandyke employed such
+means with admirable effect in the background of a Crucifixion, and in
+his Pieta; and the Pha&euml;ton of Giulio Romano is celebrated for a
+suffusion of smothered red, which powerfully excites the idea of a world
+on fire.</p>
+
+<p>Of the rank and value of this department of painting, there will be, as
+there has been, difference of judgment and opinion, as there is variety
+in the powers of the eye and understanding. But take from Rubens,
+Rembrandt, Titian, and other distinguished masters, the estimation of
+their colouring, and we fear all that is left to them would hardly
+preserve their names from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span> oblivion. Art cannot, indeed, attain its
+appropriate end, that of pleasing, without excellence in colouring. It
+is colour which the true artist most loves, and it is colouring in all
+its complex and high relations, that he ever seeks to attain. Looking
+above, and around, and beneath him, with the intelligent eye of the
+colourist, he finds a boundless source of never-ceasing enjoyment. With
+harmonies and accordances lost to the untutored gaze, colour meets him
+in every stone he treads on&mdash;in the mineral, vegetable, and animal
+creation&mdash;in the heavens, sea, and earth. For him, in truth, colour is
+as equally diffused as light, spreading itself over the entire face of
+nature, and clothing the whole world with beauty.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span><a name="chapter_2" id="chapter_2"></a><a href="#contents">CHAPTER II.</a></h2>
+
+<h3>ON THE RELATIONS AND HARMONY OF COLOUR.</h3>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Assured</span> as we must be of the importance of colouring as a branch of art,
+colours in all their bearings become interesting to the artist, and on
+their use and arrangement his reputation as a colourist must depend.</p>
+
+<p>Colour, remarks Ruskin, is wholly <i>relative</i>; each hue throughout a work
+is altered by every touch added in other places. Thus, to place white
+beside a colour is to heighten its tone; to set black beside a colour is
+to weaken its tone; while to put grey beside a colour, is to render it
+more brilliant. If a dark colour be placed near a different, but lighter
+colour, the tone of the first is heightened, while that of the second is
+lowered. An important consequence of this principle is, that the first
+effect may neutralize the second, or even destroy it altogether. What
+was cold before, becomes warm when a colder colour is set near it, and
+what was in harmony before, becomes discordant as other colours are put
+beside it. For example, to place a light blue<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span> beside a yellow, tinges
+it orange, and consequently heightens its tone. Again, there are some
+blues so dark relatively to the yellow that they weaken it, and not only
+hide the orange tint, but even cause sensitive eyes to feel that the
+yellow is rather green than orange&mdash;a very natural result when it is
+considered that the paler the yellow becomes, the more it tends to
+appear green.</p>
+
+<p>We learn from these relations of colours, why dapplings of two or more
+produce effects in painting so much more clear and brilliant than
+uniform tints obtained by compounding the same colours: and why
+hatchings, or a touch of their contrasts, thrown as it were by accident
+upon local tints, have the same effect. We see, too, why colours mixed
+deteriorate each other, which they do more&mdash;in many cases&mdash;by
+imperfectly neutralizing or subduing each other chromatically, than by
+any chemical action. Finally, we are impressed with the necessity, not
+only of using colours pure, but of using pure colours; although pure
+colouring and brilliancy differ as much from crudeness and harshness, as
+tone and harmony from murkiness and monotony.</p>
+
+<p>The powers of colours in contrasting each other agree with their
+correlative powers of light and shade, and are to be distinguished from
+their powers individually on the eye, which are those of light alone.
+Thus, although orange and blue<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span> are equal powers with respect to each
+other, as regards the eye they are totally different and opposed. Orange
+is a luminous colour, and has a powerfully irritating effect, while blue
+is a shadowy colour, possessing a soothing quality&mdash;and it is the same,
+in various degrees, with other colours.</p>
+
+<p>There are yet further modes of contrast or antagonism in colouring,
+which claim the attention and engage the skill of the colourist. Of the
+contrast of <i>hues</i>, upon which depend the brilliancy, force, and harmony
+of colouring, we have just spoken; but there is, secondly, the contrast
+of <i>shades</i>. To this belong all the powers of chiaroscuro, by which term
+the painter denotes the <ins class="correction" title="inharmonious read as harmonious">harmonious</ins> effects of light and shade; and
+though they form the simplest part of colouring, yet they cannot be
+separated from it&mdash;light and shade, the chiaroscuro, being a distinct
+and important branch of painting. A third mode of contrast in colouring
+is that of <i>warmth</i> and <i>coolness</i>, upon which depend the toning and
+general effect of a picture. Fourthly, there is the contrast of <i>colour</i>
+and <i>neutrality</i>, the chromatic and achromatic, or hue and shade. By the
+right management of this, local colours acquire value, gradation,
+keeping, and connection: whence come breadth, a&euml;rial perspective, and
+the due distribution of greys and shadows in a picture.</p>
+
+<p>This principle of contrast applies even to <i>indi<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span>vidual colours</i>, and
+conduces greatly to good colouring. It may be carried with advantage
+into the variety of hue and tint in the same colour, not only as regards
+light and shade, but likewise with respect to warmth and coolness, as
+well as to colour and neutrality. Hence the judicious landscape-painter
+knows how to avail himself of warmth and coolness in the juxtaposition
+of his greens, in addition to their lightness and darkness, or
+brilliancy and brokenness, in producing the most beautiful and varied
+effects; effects which spring in other cases from a like management of
+blue, white, &amp;c. These powers of a colour upon itself are highly
+important to the artist, and lead to that gratification from fine
+colouring, which a good eye ever enjoys.</p>
+
+<p>In landscape we see nature employing broken colours in harmonious
+consonance and variety, while, equally true to picturesque relations,
+she uses also broken forms and figures, in conjoint harmony with
+colours; occasionally throwing into the composition a regular form, or a
+primary colour, for the sake of animation and contrast. And if we
+inspect her works more closely, we shall find that they have no uniform
+tints. Whether in the animal, vegetable or mineral creation&mdash;flesh or
+foliage, earth or sky, flower or stone&mdash;however uniform the colour may
+appear at a distance, it will, when examined nearly, be found to
+consist<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span> of a variety of hues and shades, compounded with harmony and
+intelligence.</p>
+
+<p>It is for this reason that no two colours are ever found discordant in
+nature, however much so they may be in art. Blue and green have been
+termed discordant, and in painting they may undoubtedly be made so. Yet
+those are two colours which nature seems to intend never to be
+separated, and never to be felt, either of them, in its full beauty,
+without the other&mdash;a blue sky through green leaves, or a blue wave with
+green lights through it, being precisely the loveliest things, next to
+clouds at <ins class="trans" title="was sun-rise">sunrise</ins>, in this coloured world of ours. A good eye for colour
+will soon discover how constantly nature puts green and purple together,
+purple and scarlet, green and blue, yellow and neutral grey, and the
+like; and how she strikes these colour-concords for general tones,
+before working into them with innumerable subordinate ones.</p>
+
+<p>Upon the more intimate union, or the blending and gradience of contrasts
+from one to another mutually, depend some of the most fascinating
+effects of colouring. The practical principle employed in producing them
+is important, and consists in the blending and gradating by <i>mixture</i>,
+while we avoid the <i>compounding</i> of contrasting colours. That is, the
+colours must be kept distinct in the act of blending them, or otherwise
+they will run into dusky neutrality and defile each other. This is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span> the
+case in blending and gradating from green to red, or from hue to
+hue&mdash;from blue to orange, or to and from coldness and warmth&mdash;from
+yellow to purple, or to and from advancing and retiring colours. It is
+the same in light and shade, or white and black, which <i>mix</i> with
+clearness. Now, there are only two ways in which this distinctness in
+union of contrasts can be effected in practice: the one is by hatching
+or breaking them together in mixture, without compounding them
+uniformly; and the other is by glazing, in which the colours unite and
+penetrate mutually, without monotonous composition.</p>
+
+<p>The former process may be said to be the carrying out of the principle
+of separate colours to the utmost possible refinement, by using atoms of
+colour in juxtaposition, instead of in large spaces. And it is to be
+noted, in filling up minute interstices of this kind, that if the colour
+with which they are filled be wanted to show brightly, a rather positive
+point of it had better be put, with a little white left beside or round
+it in the interstice. This plan is preferable to laying a pale tint of
+the colour over the whole interstice. Yellow or orange, for instance,
+will hardly show, if pale, in small spaces; but they show brightly in
+free touches, however small, with white beside them. The latter mode is
+founded on the fact, that if a dark colour be laid first, and a little
+blue or white body-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span>colour struck lightly over it, a more beautiful gray
+will be obtained than by mixing the colour and the blue or white.
+Similarly, if over a solid and perfectly dry touch of vermilion there be
+quickly washed a little very wet carmine, a much more brilliant red will
+be produced than by mixing the two colours.</p>
+
+<p>Transparency and opacity constitute another contrast of colouring, the
+former of which belongs to shade and blackness, the latter to light and
+whiteness. Even contrast has its contrast, for <i>gradations</i> or
+<i>intermedia</i> are opposed to contrasts or <i>extremes</i>; and, upon the right
+management of contrasts and gradations depend the harmony and melody,
+the tone, effect, and general expression of a picture. Thus, painting is
+an affair of judicious contrasting so far as regards colour, if even it
+be not such altogether.</p>
+
+<p>Colour, it has already been observed, is wholly <i>relative</i>. In
+contrasting, therefore, any colour, if we wish it to have light or
+brilliancy, we cast its opposite into the shade; if we would have it
+warm, we cool its antagonist; and if transparent, we oppose it by an
+opaque contrary, and <i>vice vers&acirc;</i>: indeed, in practice, all these must
+be in some measure combined.</p>
+
+<p>Such are some of the powers of contrast in colouring alone, and such is
+the diversity of art upon which skill in colouring depends. It must not
+be forgotten, however, that contrasts or ex<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span>tremes, whether of light and
+shade, or of colours, become violent and offensive when they are not
+reconciled by the interposition of their media, or intermediates, which
+partake of both extremes of the contrasts. Thus blue and orange in
+contrast become reconciled, softened in effect, and harmonized, when a
+broken colour composed of the two intervenes. The same may be said of
+other colours, shades, and contrasts.</p>
+
+<p>Seeing that the management and mastery of colours are to a great extent
+dependent on the same principles as light and shade, it might become a
+point of good discipline, after acquiring the use of black and white in
+the chiaroscuro, to paint designs in contrast; that is, with two
+contrasting colours only, in conjunction with black and white&mdash;for
+example, with blue and orange, before attempting the whole. Indeed,
+black can be dispensed with in these cases, because it may be
+compounded, since the neutral grey and third colours always arise from
+the compounding of contrasting colours. In this way, even flesh may be
+painted&mdash;for instance, with red and green alone, as Gainsborough is said
+at one period to have done.</p>
+
+<p>Some artists have produced pictures <ins class="trans" title="was in the the">in the</ins> above hot and cold colours
+only; which, although captivating to the eye, and true in theory with
+respect to colour, light and shade, are generally false in practice with
+regard to nature,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span> which rarely employs such extreme accordances.
+Colouring like this, therefore, is more beautiful than true. It is as
+though a painter were to execute a landscape in the full light of day,
+as he saw it looking through a prism, so that every object glowed with
+rainbow hues. Such a picture would present a beautiful fairy scene, and
+be true as regards colours, but as respects nature, it would be false.</p>
+
+<p>Colour, and what in painting is called transparency, belong chiefly to
+shade. It has been a common error to ascribe those properties to light
+only, and hence many have employed a uniform shade tint, regarding
+shadows as simply darkness, blackness, or the mere absence of light;
+when, in truth, shadows are infinitely varied by colour, and always so
+by the colours of the lights which produce them. But while we incline
+attention toward the relation of colour to shade, both light and shade
+being strictly co-essential to colour, a vicious extreme must be
+avoided. For although, as transparent, colour inclines to shade, and, as
+opaque, it partakes of light; yet the general tendency of colour is to
+transparency and shade, all colour being a departure from light. Hence
+it becomes a maxim, which he who aspires to good colouring must never
+lose sight of, that <i>the colour of shadow is always transparent, and
+only that of extreme light objects opaque</i>. It follows, that white is to
+be kept as much as possible out<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span> of shadow, and black, for the same
+reason, out of colour. In their stead, whenever it is necessary to
+cover, opaque tints may be employed, glazed over with transparent
+colours. Such practice would also be more favourable to durability of
+the tones of pictures, than the shades and tints produced with black and
+white. The hues and shadows of nature are in no ordinary case either
+black or white, which, except as local colours, are always poor and
+frigid. The perfection of colouring is to combine harmony with
+brilliancy, unity with variety, and freshness with force, without
+violating the laws of nature.</p>
+
+<p>With regard to the <i>perspective of colours</i>, or the manner in which they
+affect the eye, according to position and distance, it is a branch of
+a&euml;rial <ins class="trans" title="was perpective">perspective</ins> or the perspective of light and shade. This is
+distinguished from linear perspective, or the perspective of drawing, as
+drawing is from colouring; and they have progressed alike in the art.
+The most ancient painters seem to have known little of either; and
+linear perspective was established as science before the a&euml;rial, as
+drawing and composition preceded colouring.</p>
+
+<p>The perspective of colours depends upon their powers to reflect the
+elements of light, powers which are by no means uniform. Accordingly,
+blue is lost in the distance before red, and yellow is seen at a point
+at which red would disappear; yet blue preserves its hue better than
+yellow,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span> because colours are cooled in the distance. In this respect,
+the compound colours partake of the powers of their components, in
+obedience to a general rule, by which local colours closely connected
+with black are first lost in the distance, and those nearly related to
+white disappear last. The same may be said of local light and shade, the
+latter of which is totally lost at great distances; and it is for this
+reason the shadowed side of the moon is not generally seen. These powers
+of colours are, however, varied by mist, air, altitude, and mixture,
+which produce evanescence; and by contrast, which preserves the force of
+colours by distinguishing them. Colours do not decline in force so much
+by height as by horizontal distance, because the upper atmosphere is
+less dense and clouded with vapour: and hence it is that mountains of
+great elevation appear much nearer than they really are. From all these
+circumstances, it is evident that a simple scumbling or uniform
+degradation of local colours will not effect a true perspective&mdash;for
+this will be the a&euml;rial of light and shade only&mdash;but such a
+subordination of hues and tints, as the various powers of colours
+require, and as is always observable in nature.</p>
+
+<p>In furnishing or <i>setting the palette</i> philosophically and upon
+principle, it is necessary to supply it with pure blue, red, and yellow;
+to oppose to these an orange, of a hue that will neutralise the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span>
+blue&mdash;green, of a hue that will neutralise the red&mdash;and purple, of a hue
+that will neutralise the yellow; and so on to black and white, which
+will neutralise each other. As in nature, the general colour of the sky
+is blue, and the colour of light is always opposite to that of the sky
+and shade, so the white which is to represent light should be tinged
+with the orange of the palette sufficiently to neutralise the
+predominant coldness of black. Pure neutral white may thus be reserved
+as a "local" colour, which is a technical term for the <i>natural</i> colour
+of an object, unvaried by distance, reflection, or anything interfering
+with distinct vision; although, properly speaking, local colours are
+subject to all the relations and effects of the places they occupy in a
+composition&mdash;whether of light, shade, reflection, or distance.</p>
+
+<p>From what we have said, it will be seen that the relations and harmony
+of colours form a complex subject, requiring constant and careful study;
+one, indeed, into which he who would become a colourist must enter heart
+and soul. For as colouring is the beginning and end of a painter's
+craft, so colour in all its aspects must be the chief lesson of his
+life. And this lesson can only be learnt, by ever watching with a loving
+eye those wondrous colourings of nature, in which there is nothing
+inharmonious or out of place.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span>PART II.</h2>
+
+<h3><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span>ON COLOURS AND PIGMENTS GENERALLY.</h3>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span><a name="chapter_3" id="chapter_3"></a><a href="#contents">CHAPTER III.</a></h2>
+
+<h3>ON CLASSES OF COLOURS.</h3>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">By</span> mixing his <i>colours with white</i>, the artist obtains his <i>tints</i>. By
+mixing <i>colours with colours</i>, he produces compound colours, or <i>hues</i>.
+And by mixing <i>colours or tints with black</i>, he gets <i>shades</i>. It is a
+common error to confound these distinctions.</p>
+
+<p>The above classification of colours enables us to understand the
+simplicity of relation which exists among an infinity of tints, hues,
+and shades of colour. Also, it is calculated to give precision to
+language respecting colours, the nomenclature of which has too often
+been vague and uncertain.</p>
+
+<p>There are five classes of colours, viz.:&mdash;the <i>Neutral</i>, the <i>Primary</i>,
+the <i>Secondary</i>, the <i>Tertiary</i>, and the <i>Semi-neutral</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Neutral Colours</i> are three only, <i>white</i>, <i>black</i>, and grey. According
+to the laws of Optics, the two first comprise all other colours
+synthetically, and afford them all by analysis. These are sometimes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span>
+called "extreme" colours, grey being their intermediate.</p>
+
+<p><i>Primary Colours</i> are three only, <i>yellow</i>, <i>red</i>, and <i>blue</i>. They are
+such as yield others by being compounded, but are not themselves capable
+of being produced by composition of other colours. By way of
+distinction, they are occasionally designated "entire" colours.</p>
+
+<p><i>Secondary Colours</i>, are three only, <i>orange</i>, <i>green</i>, and <i>purple</i>.
+Each of these is composed of, or can be resolved into, two primaries.
+Thus, orange is composed of red and yellow; green, of yellow and blue;
+and purple, of blue and red.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tertiary Colours</i> are three only, <i>citrine</i>, <i>russet</i>, and <i>olive</i>.
+Each of these is composed of, or can be resolved into, either two
+secondary colours, or the three primaries. Thus, citrine consists of
+green and orange, or of a predominant yellow with blue and red; russet
+is compounded of orange and purple, or of a predominant red with blue
+and yellow; and olive is composed of purple and green, or of a
+predominant blue with yellow and red.</p>
+
+<p>The last three genera of colours comprehend in an orderly gradation all
+those which are <i>positive</i> or definite; and the three colours of each
+genus, united or compounded in such subordination that neither of them
+predominates to the eye, constitute the <i>negative</i> or neutral colours,
+of which <i>black</i> and <i>white</i> have been stated to be the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span> opposed
+extremes, and <i>greys</i> their intermediates. Thus black and white are
+constituted of, and comprise latently, the principles of all colours,
+and accompany them in their depth and brilliancy as shade and light.</p>
+
+<p><i>Semi-neutral Colours</i> belong to a class of which <i>brown</i>, <ins class="trans" title="was marone"><i>marrone</i></ins>,
+and <i>gray</i> may be considered types. They are so called, because they
+comprehend all the combinations of the primary, secondary, and tertiary
+colours, with the neutral <i>black</i>. Of the various combinations of black,
+those in which yellow, orange, or citrine predominates, have obtained
+the name of brown, &amp;c. A second class in which the compounds of black
+are of a predominant red, purple, or russet hue, comprises <ins class="trans" title="was marone">marrone</ins>,
+chocolate, &amp;c. And a third class, in which the combinations of black
+have a predominating hue of blue, green, or olive, includes gray, slate,
+&amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>While treating of the classes of colours, it may not be out of place to
+note here the difference between gray as spelt with an <i>a</i>, and grey as
+spelt with an <i>e</i>, the two names being occasionally confounded. <i>Gray</i>
+is semi-neutral, and denotes a class of cool cinereous colours, faint of
+hue; whence we have blue grays, olive grays, green grays, purple grays,
+and grays of all hues in which blue predominates; but no yellow or red
+grays, the predominance of such hues carrying the compounds into the
+classes of brown and <ins class="trans" title="was marone">marrone</ins>, of which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span> gray is the natural opposite.
+<i>Grey</i> is neutral, and is composed of or can be resolved into black and
+white alone, from a mixture of which two colours it springs in an
+infinite series.</p>
+
+<p>It must be observed that each colour may comprehend an indefinite series
+of <i>shades</i> between the extremes of light and dark, as each compound
+colour also may comprise a similar series of <i>hues</i> between the extremes
+of the colours composing it. And as the relations of colours have been
+deduced regularly, from white or light to black or shade; so the same
+may be done, inversely, from black to white. On this plan the
+tertiaries, olive, russet, and citrine, take the place of the primaries,
+blue, red, and yellow; while the secondaries still retain their
+intermediate station and relation to both.</p>
+
+<p>Thus, <i>russet and olive</i> compose or unite in <i>dark purple</i>; <i>citrine and
+olive</i> in <i>dark green</i>; <i>russet and citrine</i> in <i>dark orange</i>. The
+tertiaries have, therefore, the same order of relation to black that the
+primaries have to white; and we have black primaries, secondaries, and
+tertiaries, inversely, as we have white primaries, secondaries, and
+tertiaries, directly. In other words, we have light and dark colours in
+all classes.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span><a name="chapter_4" id="chapter_4"></a><a href="#contents">CHAPTER IV.</a></h2>
+
+<h3>ON THE DURABILITY AND EVANESCENCE OF PIGMENTS.</h3>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Pigments</span> may be defined as colours in a solid or insoluble state,
+prepared for the artists' use. Hitherto, we have treated of colours in
+the abstract sense, as appealing to the eye only: we have now to
+consider them as material bodies.</p>
+
+<p>As colour itself is relative, so is durability of colour relative. For
+the reason that all material substances are changeable and in perpetual
+action and reaction, no pigment is so permanent as that nothing will
+alter its colour. On the other hand, none is so fugitive as not to last
+under some favouring circumstances. Time, of long or short continuance,
+has often the effect of fire, more or less intense. Indeed, it is some
+sort of criterion of the stability and changes of colour in pigments,
+that time and fire are apt to produce similar effects thereon. Thus, if
+fire deepen, or cool, or warm a colour, so may time; if it vary its
+hues, so may time; if it destroy a colour altogether, so may time
+ultimately. The power of time, however, varies extremely with regard<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span> to
+the period in which it produces those effects, that are instantly
+accomplished by fire.</p>
+
+<p>That there is no absolute but only relative durability of colour may be
+proved from the most celebrated pigments. For instance, the colour of
+native ultramarine, which will endure a hundred centuries under ordinary
+circumstances, may be at once destroyed by a drop of lemon juice; and
+the generally fugitive and changeable carmine of cochineal will, when
+secluded from light and air, continue fifty years or more; while fire or
+time, which merely deepen the former colour, will completely dissipate
+the latter. Again, there have been works of art in which the white of
+lead has retained its freshness for ages in a pure atmosphere, but has
+been changed to blackness after a few days' or even hours' exposure to
+foul air. These and other peculiarities of colours will be noticed, when
+we come to speak of pigments individually; not for the purpose of
+destroying the artist's confidence, but as a caution, and a guide to the
+availing himself of their powers properly.</p>
+
+<p>It is, therefore, the lasting under the usual conditions of painting,
+and the common circumstances to which works of art are exposed, that
+entitles a colour to the character of permanency; and it is the
+not-so-enduring which attaches to it rightly the opposite character of
+evanescence: while a pigment may obtain a false repute for either, by
+accidental preservation or destruction<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span> under unusually favourable or
+fatal circumstances.</p>
+
+<p>Many have imagined that colours vitrified by intense heat are
+consequently durable when levigated for painting in oil or water. Had
+this been the case, the artist need not have looked farther for the
+furnishing of his palette than to a supply of well-burnt and levigated
+enamel pigments. But though such colours for the most part stand well
+when fluxed on glass, or in the glazing of enamel, they are nearly,
+without exception, subject to the most serious changes when ground to
+the degree of fineness necessary to their application as pigments, and
+become liable to all the chemical changes and affinities of the
+substances which compose them. These remarks even apply in a measure to
+native products, such as coloured earths and metallic ores.</p>
+
+<p>Others have not unreasonably supposed that when pigments are locked up
+in varnishes and oils, they are safe from all possibility of change. The
+assumption would be more warranted if we had an impenetrable
+varnish&mdash;and even that would not resist the action of light, however
+well it might exclude the influence of air and moisture. But, in fact,
+varnishes and oils themselves yield to changes of temperature, to the
+action of a humid atmosphere, and to other influences: their protection
+of colour from change is therefore far from perfect.</p>
+
+<p>Want of attention to the unceasing mutability<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span> of all chemical
+substances, as well as to their reciprocal actions, has occasioned those
+changes of colour to be ascribed to fugitiveness of the pigment, which
+belong to the affinities of other substances with which it has been
+improperly mixed and applied. It is thus that the best pigments have
+suffered in reputation under the injudicious processes of the painter;
+although, owing to a desultory practice, the effects and results have
+not been uniform. If a colour be not extremely permanent, dilution will
+render it in some measure more weak and fugitive; and this occurs in
+several ways&mdash;by a too free use of the vehicle; by complex mixture in
+the formation of tints; by distribution, in glazing or lackering, of
+colours upon the lights downward, or scumbling colours upon the shades
+upward; or by a mixed mode very common among the Venetian painters, in
+which opaque pigments are combined, as umber and lake.</p>
+
+<p>The fugitive colours do less injury in the shadows than in the lights of
+a picture, because they are employed pure, and in greater body in
+shadows, and are therefore less liable to decay by the action of light,
+and by mixture. Through partially fading, moreover, they balance any
+tendency to darken, to which the dead colouring of earthy and metallic
+pigments is disposed.</p>
+
+<p>The foregoing circumstances, added to the variableness of pigments by
+nature, preparation,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span> and sophistication, have often rendered their
+effects equivocal, and their powers questionable. These considerations
+enforce the expediency of using colours as pure and free from
+unnecessary mixture as possible; for simplicity of composition and
+management is equally a maxim of good mechanism, good chemistry, and
+good colouring. Accordingly, in respect to the latter, Sir Joshua
+Reynolds remarks, "Two colours mixed together will not preserve the
+brightness of either of them single, nor will three be as bright as two:
+of this observation, simple as it is, an artist who wishes to colour
+bright will know the value."</p>
+
+<p><ins class="correction" title="There prevails read There prevail">There prevail</ins>, notwithstanding, two principles of practice on the
+palette, opposed to each other&mdash;the one, simple; the other, multiple.
+The first is that of having as few pigments as possible; and consists,
+when carried to the extreme, in employing the three primary colours
+only. The second is that of having a number of pigments; and consists,
+also when carried to the extreme, of employing as many, if possible, as
+there are hues and shades of colour.</p>
+
+<p>On the former plan, every tint requires to be compounded; on the latter,
+one pigment supplies the place of two or more. Now, the more pigments
+are mixed, the more they are deteriorated in colour, attenuated, and
+chemically set at variance. Original pigments, that is, such as are not
+made up of two or more colours, are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span> purer in hue and generally more
+durable than those compounded. Hence pure intermediate tints in single,
+permanent, original pigments, are to be preferred to pigments
+compounded, often to the dilution and injury of their colours. Cadmium
+Orange, for instance, which is <i>naturally</i> an orange pigment and not
+composed of red and yellow, is superior to many mixtures of those
+colours in a chemical sense, and to all such mixtures in an artistic
+sense. At the same time, it is quite possible for the artist to multiply
+his pigments unnecessarily. Colours are sometimes brought out under new
+names which have no claim to be regarded as new colours, being, indeed,
+mere mixtures. Compound pigments like these may most frequently be
+dispensed with, in favour of hues and tints composed extemporaneously of
+original colours upon the palette.</p>
+
+<p>It may be inferred from the foregoing that, between the modes of
+employing as few pigments as possible, and of having as many as there
+are hues and shades of colour, a middle course is the best. But,
+whatever the practice adopted, permanent <i>original</i> pigments should be
+used as often as the case will admit; it being borne in mind, that a
+pigment may be compound, although its colour may be primary. As a rule,
+the less colours are mixed, the purer, brighter, and more lasting they
+will be found.</p>
+
+<p>To the practice of producing tints and hues by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span> <i>grinding</i> pigments
+together, instead of <i>blending</i> them on the palette, may be attributed
+some of the peculiarities of the tints and textures of the Flemish
+school; they being, perhaps, results of intimate combination from
+grinding, and consequently of a more powerful chemical action among the
+ingredients compounded. This method has, in a great measure, fallen into
+disuse, and undoubtedly it conduced to foulness when the colours of the
+pigments ground were not pure and true, and did not assimilate well in
+mixture chemically.</p>
+
+<p>The superiority of Rubens and the Flemings, and of Titian and the
+Venetian school, in colouring and effect, is due in a considerable
+degree to their sketching their designs in colours experimentally with a
+full palette. This practice, as derived from Reynolds, is common with
+the best masters of our own school, who, in executing their works,
+resort also to nature, with an improved knowledge of colours and
+colouring. Such attention to colouring and effect, from the first study
+and ground of a picture to the finishing, contributes a beauty to the
+painting no superinduced colouring can accomplish.</p>
+
+<p>The durability of colour in substances is to a great extent dependent
+upon the condition in which they exist chemically. If pigments, for
+example, be in a state which chemists have termed <i>pro</i>toxide, they are
+liable to absorb oxygen<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span> on exposure to light, air, or moisture, and
+becoming what is called <i>per</i>oxidized, may, by consequence, change or
+fade. In like manner, lakes and carmines thrown down upon a base, may
+owe some of their fugacity to the oxidation of that base, as well as to
+the natural infirmity of their colouring matter. On the other hand,
+pigments and bases are subject to <i>de</i>oxidation, or to a loss of oxygen,
+in which case the colour is apt to deepen. Pigments generally are more
+affected by oxidation and fading in a water vehicle, and by deoxidation
+and darkening in one of oil.</p>
+
+<p>A principal test of permanency in pigments is the impunity with which
+they bear exposure to light and air, an artistic proof of their
+stability the mere chemist is apt to neglect. Provided the colour remain
+unaffected by sulphuretted hydrogen, &amp;c., he seldom hesitates to
+pronounce it safe. But a pigment may be fast in one sense and fugitive
+in another, believed in by the laboratory, and found wanting by the
+studio. It has happened before now that the same colour has been dubbed
+durable and the reverse, by the man of science and the man of art. The
+former, we take it, looks upon a pigment as a coloured substance of a
+certain composition, possessing maybe an acid and a base, either, or
+neither, or both of which, gases and other reagents may injure or
+destroy. The latter views a colour chiefly as part<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span> and parcel of his
+picture&mdash;that picture which <i>may</i> meet with foul exhalations, but <i>must</i>
+be exposed to light and air. And he too often thinks as little of the
+effects of an impure atmosphere or injudicious admixture, as the chemist
+considers the action of air and light.</p>
+
+<p>With the exception of madder, those colours mostly affected by <i>light
+and air</i> are of organic origin, such as gallstone, Indian yellow, and
+the yellow dye-wood lakes; the red and purple lakes of cochineal;
+indigo; and sap green. To these may be added the semi-organic Prussian
+blue; and the inorganic yellows and orange of arsenic.</p>
+
+<p>The pigments liable to injury from <i>sulphuretted hydrogen</i>, &amp;c., are
+notably those obtained from lead and copper; and that treacherous
+compound of iodine and mercury, known as pure scarlet.</p>
+
+<p>Many colours are apt to change from the action of white <i>lead</i> and other
+lead pigments, &amp;c., principally those which are altered by light and
+air.</p>
+
+<p>Many, too, cannot safely come into contact with iron, or ferruginous
+pigments; especially the yellows of arsenic, the lakes of cochineal, and
+the blues and greens of copper. With these an iron palette knife is best
+avoided, one of ivory or horn being used instead. The latter, indeed, is
+preferable in all cases, several pigments being slightly affected by
+iron, cadmium yellow among the number.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span>Numerous colours are likewise injured by <i>lime</i> and <i>fire</i>, and cannot
+therefore be employed in fresco, or enamel painting.</p>
+
+<p>Of substances which may act deleteriously on colours, there remain the
+<i>vehicles and varnishes</i> with which they are mixed. Many of these have
+been blamed, and often with justice, for their injurious effects on
+pigments. The reputation of the most permanent colour may be ruined, if
+the vehicle, &amp;c., employed with it be untrustworthy. The presence of
+lead, for instance, in such materials renders them liable to be
+blackened by foul air, and by consequence the pigments used therewith.</p>
+
+<p>Time produces in many cases a mellow and harmonious change in pictures,
+but occasionally alterations altogether unfavourable. To ensure the
+former and prevent the latter, the attention of the artist in the course
+of his colouring should be to the employment of such pigments and
+colours as are prone to adapt themselves, in changing, to the intended
+key of his colouring, and the right effect of his picture. Thus, if he
+design a cool effect, ultramarine has a tendency through time to
+predominate and aid the natural key of blue. He will, therefore,
+compromise the permanence of this effect, if in such case he employ a
+declining or changeable blue, or if he introduce such reds and yellows
+as have a tendency to warmth or foxiness, by which the colouring<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span> of
+many pictures has been destroyed. In a glowing or warm key, the case is
+in some measure reversed&mdash;not wholly so, for it is observable that those
+pictures have best preserved their colouring and harmony in which the
+blue has been most lasting, by the pigment counteracting the change of
+colour in the vehicle, and that suffusion of dusky yellow which time is
+wont to bestow upon pictures even of the best complexion.</p>
+
+<p>Unless introduced and guaranteed by houses of acknowledged reputation,
+newly discovered pigments are to be used with caution. Good colours have
+ever been prized with so true an estimation of their value, that to
+produce such, after so many ages of research is no ordinary
+accomplishment. But too many resplendent pigments, fruits of the
+fecundity of modern chemistry, have been found deficient. The yellow and
+orange chromates of lead, for instance, withstanding as they do the
+action of the sunbeam, become by time, foul air, and the influence of
+other pigments, inferior to the ochres. So the dazzling scarlet of
+iodine and mercury must yield the palm of excellence to the more sober
+vermilion, being a chameleon colour, subject to the most sudden and
+opposite changes. And the blues of cobalt, as always tending to
+greenness and obscurity, cannot rank beside ultramarine.</p>
+
+<p>We are far from asserting, however, that all modern pigments are
+inferior, or that pigments<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span> should be looked upon with suspicion because
+they are modern. Several most valuable colours have lately claimed
+attention, notably the permanent transparent yellow called <i>Aureolin</i>.
+Seeing that, until its introduction, a yellow combining transparency
+with a perfect stability was unknown to the palette, the importance of
+such an addition, so long wanted and wished for, cannot be overrated.
+Equal in beauty and durability with the preceding, but possessing
+greater richness and depth, and of a semi-opacity, another yellow of the
+highest order merits regard, <i>Orient Yellow</i>, distinguished for its
+lustrous golden hue, resembling a bright Indian yellow. Dazzling in
+brilliancy, and absolute in permanency. <i>Cadmium Red</i> next attracts
+notice. This new aspirant for artistic fame is a most vivid
+orange-scarlet, the latter colour predominating, of intense fire, but
+with no approach to rankness or harshness, yielding delicate pale
+washes, and blending happily with white in the formation of flesh tints.
+With it may be coupled <i>Cadmium Orange</i>, a colour equally brilliant and
+stable, and equally without rankness or harshness, but of a true orange
+hue, admirably adapted for sunsets and the like. Last of all the fresh
+pigments of whose thorough durability there is <i>no</i> doubt, comes the
+splendid <i>Viridian</i>, a green nothing but fire will change, and no
+mixture of blue and yellow will afford. Clear, bright, and transparent
+as the emerald, it rivals velvet in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span> its soft gorgeous richness. With
+this and Aureolin a series of beautiful foliage tints may be formed,
+sparkling with sunshine, as it were.</p>
+
+<p>Other colours there are which have been brought forward within the last
+few years, not possessing the absolute permanency of the five foregoing,
+but equal, or superior, to many formerly used. It were folly, therefore,
+and a silly conservatism on the part of the artist to limit himself to
+such pigments only as were employed by his forefathers, especially as
+their merits were often more than doubtful. New colours, it is true,
+have to be <i>learnt</i>, for each pigment has its own peculiar habitudes,
+chemical, physical, artistic; but if they be good and durable, no amount
+of time and study spent upon them is thrown away. To think less of the
+quality of one's materials than of the effects which can be produced
+with them is mistaken policy; and to be content with that quality when
+better can be had, shows no real love of art, but rather indolence and
+apathy.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps one reason why freshly introduced pigments have not as fair a
+chance as they are entitled to, is due to the fashion which prevails of
+exclaiming against the fugacity of modern colours. If their detractors
+would confine themselves to certain colours, there could be no denial;
+but to assert, as is often done, that the cause of modern pictures not
+standing is owing to modern pigments generally, is unjust. It is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span> not
+the materials which should be blamed, but those who use them. The fact
+is, that the artist's knowledge has not increased in proportion to the
+greater variety of colours at his command. In the early periods of art,
+when the palette was chiefly confined to native pigments, the painter
+could not very well go wrong. Now-a-days but too many, wanting the skill
+of the old masters, seek to make amends for it by brilliancy of
+colouring: with imperfect knowledge of their materials the result is
+obvious. The palette, we admit, wants weeding; not only of the bad new
+colours, but of the bad old colours. This, however, must be a work of
+time, and depend, not upon the colourman&mdash;for where there is a demand
+there will be a supply&mdash;but upon the artists themselves. To this end an
+increased acquaintance with the properties of pigments is required,
+whereby they may be able to choose the fast from the fugitive. It may be
+fairly assumed that the painter will be assisted in his task by the
+progress of chemical science, which will doubtless add from time to time
+to the list of stable pigments. We have heard it remarked that there are
+too many colours already&mdash;to which we reply, there are not too many good
+colours, and scarcely can be. The more crowded the palette is with
+reliable pigments, the more likely are the worthless to be pushed from
+their places. In our opinion, there is ample room for fresh colours,
+provided they be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span> durable; and we have as little sympathy with the
+stereotyped cry of there being too many, as with the fashionable
+unbelief in modern pigments. Certainly, the artist who seeks for
+permanence among the whites, reds, or blues, will not be troubled with a
+superfluity. Certainly, too, colours are as good as ever they were, and
+better&mdash;better made, better ground, better prepared for use. But, fast
+and fugitive, pigments are more numerous, and for that reason need more
+careful selection.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span><a name="chapter_5" id="chapter_5"></a><a href="#contents">CHAPTER V.</a></h2>
+
+<h3>ON THE GENERAL QUALITIES OF PIGMENTS.</h3>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The</span> general attributes of a perfect pigment are beauty of colour,
+comprehending pureness and richness, brilliancy and intensity, delicacy
+and depth,&mdash;truth of hue&mdash;transparency or opacity, well-working,
+crispness, setting up, or keeping its place, and desiccation, or drying
+well. To all of these must be superadded <i>durability</i> when used, a
+quality to which the health and vitality of a picture belong, and one so
+essential that all other properties put together without it are of no
+esteem with the artist who merits reputation. We have, therefore, given
+it a previous distinct consideration.</p>
+
+<p>It must be observed that no pigment possesses all the foregoing
+qualifications in perfection, some being naturally at variance or
+opposed; nor is there any, perhaps, that cannot boast excellence in one
+or more of them.</p>
+
+<p><i>Beauty</i> commonly comprises in the same pigment delicacy, purity, and
+brilliancy; or depth, richness, and intensity. Delicacy and depth in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span>
+the beauty of colours are at variance in the production of all pigments,
+so that perfect success in producing the one is attended with more or
+less of failure in the other, and when they are united&mdash;as they
+occasionally are&mdash;it is with some sacrifice of both. Hence the judicious
+artist purveys for his palette at least two pigments of each colour, one
+eminent for delicate beauty, the other for richness and depth.</p>
+
+<p><i>Truth of hue</i> is a relative quality in all colours, except the extreme
+primaries, in the relations of which, blue, being of nearest affinity to
+black or shade, has properly but one other relation, in which it
+inclines to red and becomes purple-blue: it is, therefore, faulty or
+false, when, tending to yellow, it becomes of a green hue. But red,
+which is of equal affinity to light and shade, has two relations, by one
+of which it verges upon blue and becomes a purple-red or crimson; and by
+the other it leans to yellow, and becomes an orange-red or scarlet,
+neither of which is individually false or discordant. Yet yellow, which
+is of nearest affinity to white or light, has strictly but one true
+relation, by which it inclines to red, and becomes a warm or orange
+yellow, for by uniting with blue it becomes a defective green-yellow.
+The best example of true yellow in a pigment, tending neither to red nor
+blue, is furnished by <i>Aureolin</i>, alluded to in the last chapter. The
+secondary and tertiary colours, having all<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span> duplex relations, may
+incline without default to either of their relatives.</p>
+
+<p><i>Transparency</i> is an essential property of all glazing pigments, and
+adds greatly to the value of dark or shading colours; indeed it is the
+prime quality upon which depth and darkness depend, <ins class="correction" title="as whiteness, or light do, reasd as whiteness or light does">as whiteness, or
+light, does</ins> upon opacity or reflecting power. <i>Opacity</i> is, therefore,
+the antagonist of transparency, and qualifies pigments to cover in
+dead-colouring, or solid painting, as well as to combine with
+transparent colours in forming tints; and hence it is that
+semi-transparent pigments are suited in a mean degree both for dead
+colouring and for finishing. As excellencies, therefore, transparency
+and opacity are relative only&mdash;the first being as indispensable to shade
+in all its gradations, as the latter is to light. With regard to
+transparent and opaque colours generally, it is worthy of attention in
+the practice of the oil-painter, that the best effects of the former are
+produced when they are used with a resinous varnish; as opaque pigments
+are best employed in oil, and the two become united with best effect in
+a mixture of these vehicles. The natural and artificial powers, or depth
+and brilliancy, of every colour lie within the extremes of black and
+white; hence it follows that the most powerful effects of transparent
+colours are obtained by glazing them over black and white. As, however,
+few transparent pigments have<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span> sufficient body, or tinging power for
+this, it is often necessary to glaze them over tints, or deep opaque
+colours of the required hues. There is a charm in transparent colours
+which frequently leads to an undue use thereof in glazing; but glazing,
+scumbling, and their combined process must be employed with discretion,
+according to the objects and effects of a picture.</p>
+
+<p><i>Working well</i> is a quality which depends principally upon fineness of
+texture, and what is called <i>body</i> in colours; yet every pigment has its
+peculiarities in respect to working both in water and oil, and these
+must become matter of every artist's special experience. Some of the
+best pigments are most difficult of management, while some ineligible
+colours are rich in body and free in working. Accidental circumstances,
+however, may influence all pigments in these respects, according to the
+painter's particular mode of operation, and his vehicle; upon the
+affinities of colours with which depend their general faculties of
+working&mdash;such as keeping their place, crispness or setting up, and
+drying well. These latter, with other properties and accidents of
+pigments, will be particularly considered in treating of their
+individual characters; but it may be remarked that crispness or setting
+up, as well as keeping their place and form in which they are applied,
+are contrary to the nature of many pigments, and depend in painting with
+them upon a gelatinous<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span> mixture of their vehicle. For example, mastic
+and other resinous varnishes impart this texture to oils which have been
+rendered drying by the acetate, or sugar of lead:&mdash;simple water, also
+albumen, and animal jelly made of glue and isinglass, give the same
+quality to oils and colours; and bees-wax has a similar effect in pure
+oils. Whitelac varnish, and other spirit varnishes, rubbed into the
+colours on the palette likewise enable them to keep their place very
+effectually in most instances. This is important, because glazing cannot
+be performed except with a vehicle which keeps its place, or with
+pigments which lend this property to the vehicle, as some lakes and
+transparent colours do.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fineness of texture</i> is produced by extreme grinding and levigation.
+Pigments ground in water in the state of a thick paste, are miscible in
+oil and dry therein firmly; and in case of utility or necessity, any
+water-colour in cake, being rubbed off thick in water may be diffused in
+oil, the gum acting as a medium of union between the two. Thus, pigments
+which cannot otherwise be employed in oil, or varnish, may be forced
+into the service and add to the resources of the oil-painter, care being
+taken to use the palette-knife, if of steel, with caution.</p>
+
+<p><i>Desiccation or drying.</i> The well-known additions of the acetate, or
+sugar of lead, litharge,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span> and sulphate of zinc, either mechanically
+ground, or in solution, for light colours; and japanner's gold size, or
+oils boiled upon litharge, for lakes; or, in some cases, manganese and
+verdigris for dark colours, are resorted to when the pigments or
+vehicles are not sufficiently good dryers alone. It would be well if
+lead and copper could be banished from the list of siccatives
+altogether: assuredly, no artist with any regard for the permanent
+texture of his work should employ them except in extreme cases, and in
+the smallest possible quantity. The best of pigments may be ruined by
+their injudicious use, and obtain a character for fugacity which they in
+no way deserve. It requires attention that an excess of dryer renders
+oil saponaceous, is inimical to drying, and is otherwise injurious. Some
+colours dry badly from not being sufficiently edulcorated or washed.
+Sulphate of zinc, as a siccative, is less powerful than acetate of lead,
+but is far preferable in a chemical sense. It is supposed erroneously to
+set the colours running; which is not positively the case, though it
+will not retain those disposed to move, because it wants the property
+the acetate of lead possesses, of gelatinizing the mixture of oil and
+varnish. These two dryers should not be employed together, since they
+counteract and decompose each other, forming two new substances&mdash;acetate
+of zinc, which is a bad siccative, and sulphate of lead, which is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span>
+insoluble and opaque. The inexperienced ought here to be guarded against
+the highly improper practice of some artists, who strew their pictures
+while wet with acetate of lead, or use that substance in some other
+mode, without grinding or solution; which, though it may promote present
+drying, will ultimately effloresce on the surface of the work, throw off
+the colour in sandy spots, and expose the paintings to peculiar risk
+from the damaging influence of impure air.</p>
+
+<p>It is not always that ill drying is to be attributed to the pigments or
+vehicles, the states of the weather and atmosphere have great influence
+thereon. The direct rays of the sun are powerfully active in rendering
+oils and colours siccative, and were probably resorted to before dryers
+were&mdash;not always wisely&mdash;added to oils, particularly in the warm climate
+of Italy. The ground may also advance or retard drying, because some
+pigments united by mixing or glazing, become either more or less
+siccative by their conjunction. Many other accidental circumstances may
+likewise affect drying; and among these none is to be more guarded
+against by the artist than the presence of soap and alkali, too often
+left in the washing of his brushes, and which, besides other bad
+results, decompose and are decomposed by acetate of lead and most
+siccatives. In such cases desiccation is retarded, streaks and patches
+are formed on the painting, and the odium of ill drying falls<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span> upon some
+unlucky pigment. To free brushes from this disadvantage, they should be
+cleansed with linseed oil and turpentine. Dryers should be added to
+colours only at the time of using them, because they exercise their
+drying property while chemically combining with the oils employed,
+during which the latter become thick or fatten. Too much of the
+siccative will, as before noticed, often retard drying.</p>
+
+<p>The various affinities of pigments occasion each to have its more or
+less appropriate dryer; and it would be a matter of useful experience if
+the habits of every colour in this respect were ascertained. It is
+probable that siccatives of less power generally than the compounds of
+lead and copper might come into use in particular cases, such as the
+oxides of manganese, to which umber and the Cappagh browns owe their
+drying quality.</p>
+
+<p>To other good attributes of pigments, it would be well if we could in
+all cases add the property of being <i>innoxious</i>. As this, however,
+cannot be, and colours are by no means to be sacrificed on that account,
+cleanliness and avoiding the habit of putting the brush unnecessarily to
+the mouth, so common in water-painting, are sufficient guards against
+any possibly pernicious effects from the use of any pigment. No colour
+which is not imbibed by the stomach will in the slightest degree injure
+the health of the artist.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span></p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span>PART III.</h2>
+
+<h3><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span>ON COLOURS AND PIGMENTS INDIVIDUALLY.</h3>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span><a name="chapter_6" id="chapter_6"></a><a href="#contents">CHAPTER VI.</a></h2>
+
+<h3>ON COLOURS AND PIGMENTS INDIVIDUALLY.</h3>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Having</span> briefly discussed the relations and attributes of colours and
+pigments generally, we come to their powers and properties
+individually&mdash;a subject pregnant with materials and of unlimited
+connexions, every substance in nature and art possessing colour, the
+first quality of pigments.</p>
+
+<p>With regard to <i>colours</i> individually, it is a general law of their
+relations, confirmed by nature and the impressions of sense, that those
+colours which lie nearest in nature to light have their greatest beauty
+in their lightest tints: and that those which tend similarly towards
+shade are most beautiful in their greatest depth or fulness, a rule of
+course applying to black and white particularly. Thus, the most
+beautiful yellow, like white, is that which is lightest and most vivid;
+blue is most beautiful when deep and rich; while red is of greatest
+beauty when of intermediate depth, or somewhat inclined to light; and
+their compounds partake of these relations. We speak<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span> here only of the
+individual beauty of colours, and not of that relative beauty by which
+every tint, hue, and shade of colour become pleasing, or otherwise
+according to space, place, and reference; for this latter beauty belongs
+to the general nature and harmony of colours.</p>
+
+<p>In respect to <i>pigments</i> individually, it may be observed that&mdash;other
+things being equal&mdash;those pigments are the most beautiful which possess
+the most colour, whether they be light or dark, opaque or transparent,
+bright or subdued. There are some which exhibit all their colour at a
+glance: there are others that the more they are looked into the more
+colour they are found to have&mdash;containing, as they do, an amount of
+<i>latent colour</i>, not immediately apparent. Apart from the beauty which a
+wealth of colour imparts, those pigments imbued with it are, as a rule,
+the most permanent. And not unnaturally so, for the more colour there is
+present, the longer it takes to be affected, either by exposure or
+impure air. Colour within colour, therefore, not only lends charm to a
+pigment, but contributes to its safety.</p>
+
+<p>There is often a vicious predilection of some artists in favour of a
+particular colour, from which many of our best colourists have not been
+totally free, and which arises from organic defect, or mental
+association. Such predilection is greatly to be guarded against by the
+colourist, who<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span> is every way surrounded by dangers. On the one hand,
+there is fear lest he fall into whiteness or chalkiness; on the other,
+into blackness or gloom: in front he may run into fire and foxiness, or
+he may slide backward into cold and leaden dulness: all of which are
+extremes he must avoid. There are also other important prejudices to
+which the eye is liable in regard to colours individually, that demand
+his particular attention. These are occasioned by the various specific
+powers of single colours acting on the eye according to their masses and
+the activity of light, or the length of time they are viewed. By
+consequence, vision becomes over-stimulated, unequally exhausted, and
+endued, even before it is fatigued, with a spectrum which not only
+clouds the colour itself, but gives a false brilliancy by contrast to
+surrounding hues, so as totally or partially to throw the eye off its
+balance, and mislead the judgment. This derangement of the organ may be
+caused by a powerful tint on the palette, a mass of drapery, the colour
+of a wall, the light of a room, or other accidental circumstance; and
+the remedy is to refresh the eye with a new object&mdash;of nature, if
+possible&mdash;or to give it rest. The powers of colours in these respects,
+as well as of pigments individually, together with their reciprocal
+action and influence chemically, will be adverted to under their
+distinct heads.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span>The attention of the artist to the individual powers of pigments,
+although it may be of less concern than the attention to general effect
+in colouring, is by no means less necessary in practice. For he who
+would excel in colouring must study it from several points of view, in
+respect to the whole and the parts of a picture, as regards mind and
+body, and concerning itself alone. To this end, is needed a knowledge of
+his pigments individually.</p>
+
+<p>If nature has arrayed herself in all the colours of the rainbow, she has
+not been niggardly in offering man the materials wherewith to copy them.
+The mineral, animal, vegetable kingdom&mdash;each helps him to realize,
+however faintly, her many manifold beauties: to give some idea, however
+slight, of that glorious flood of colour, which light lets loose upon
+the world. Metal, ore, earth, stone; root, plant, flower, fruit; beast,
+fish, insect&mdash;in turn aid the arduous task. The painter's box is a very
+museum of curiosities, from every part of the universe. For it, the
+mines yield their treasures, as well as the depths of the sea: to it
+come Arab camel, and English ox, cuttle-fish and crawling coccus: in it
+the Indian indigo lies next the madder of France, and the gaudy
+vermilion of China brightens the mummy of Egypt. Varied, indeed, are the
+sources whence we derive our pigments; and if they still leave much to
+desire, improvement is clearly manifest. Slowly but<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span> surely, year by
+year, we are advancing. With the growth of science, the exhaustless
+stores of creation, will there at last be attained&mdash;step by step, though
+it be&mdash;that summit of the artist's hopes, a perfect palette?</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span><a name="chapter_7" id="chapter_7"></a><a href="#contents">CHAPTER VII.</a></h2>
+
+<h3>ON THE NEUTRAL, WHITE.</h3>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The</span> term "colour" is equivocal when applied to the neutrals, yet the
+artist is bound to consider them as colours; for a thing cannot but be
+that of which it is composed, and neutrals are composed of, or
+comprehend, all colours.</p>
+
+<p>With regard to colour, then, <i>white</i> in a perfect state should be
+neutral in hue, and absolutely opaque; that white being the best which
+reflects light most brilliantly. This property in white is called
+<i>body</i>; by which in other pigments, especially those that are
+transparent, is meant <i>tingeing power</i>. White, besides its uses as a
+colour, is the instrument of light in painting, and compounds when pure
+with all colours, without changing their class. Yet it dilutes and cools
+all colours except blue, which is specifically cold; and, though it does
+not change nor defile any colour, it is changed and defiled by all
+colours. This pureness of white, if it be not in some degree broken or
+tinged, will cast down or degrade every other colour in a picture, and
+itself become<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span> harsh and crude. Hence the lowness of tone which has been
+thought a necessity in painting, but is such only because our other
+colours do not approach to the purity of white. Had we all necessary
+colours thus relatively pure as white, colouring in painting might be
+carried up to the full brilliancy of nature; and, in fact, more progress
+has already been made in that respect, than the prejudice for dulness is
+disposed to tolerate.</p>
+
+<p>Locally, white is the most advancing of all colours in a picture, and
+produces the effect of throwing others back in different degrees,
+according to their specific retiring and advancing powers. These latter,
+however, are not absolute qualities of colours, but depend on the
+relations of light and shade, which are variously appropriate to all
+colours. Hence it is that a white object rightly adapted, appears to
+detach, distribute, and put in keeping; as well as to give relief,
+decision, distinctness, and distance to every thing around it: hence,
+too, the use and requirement of a white or light object, in each
+separate group of a composition. White itself is advanced or brought
+forward, unless indeed white surround a dark object, in which case they
+retire together. In mixture, white communicates these properties to its
+tints, and harmonizes in conjunction with, or in opposition to all
+colours; but lies nearest in series to yellow, and remotest from blue,
+of which, next to black, it is the most thorough contrast.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span> It is
+correlative with black, which is the opposite extreme of neutrality.</p>
+
+<p>Perfect white is opaque, and perfect black transparent; hence when added
+to black in minute proportion, white gives it solidity; and from a like
+small proportion of black combined with white, the latter acquires
+locality as a colour, and better preserves its hue in painting. Both
+white and black communicate these properties to other colours, in
+proportion to their lightness or depth; while they cool each other in
+mixture, and equally contrast each other when opposed. These extremes of
+the chromatic scale are each in its way most easily denied, as green,
+the mean of the scale, is the greatest defiler of all colours. Rubens
+regarded white as the nourishment of light, and the poison of shadow.</p>
+
+<p>In a picture, white should not be merely glittering or brilliant, but
+tender as well as bright. The eye should seek it for rest, brilliant
+though it may be; and feel it as a space of strange heavenly paleness in
+the midst of the flushing of the colours. This effect can only be
+reached by general depth of middle tint, by the perfect absence of any
+white, save where it is needed, and by keeping the white itself subdued
+by grey, except at a few points of chief lustre.</p>
+
+<p>White, as a pigment, is of more extensive use than any other colour in
+oil painting and fresco, owing to its local quality, its representing
+light,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span> and its entering into composition with all colours in the
+formation of tints. The old masters have been supposed by some to
+possess whites superior to our own, but this may be questioned. The
+pureness of whites in some celebrated old pictures is rather to be
+attributed to a proper method of using, careful preservation of the
+work, and in many instances to the introduction of ultramarine or a
+permanent cold colour into the white&mdash;such as plumbago&mdash;helped also by
+judicious contrast.</p>
+
+<p>Notwithstanding white pigments are tolerably numerous, a thoroughly
+unexceptionable white is still a desideratum&mdash;one combining the perfect
+opacity or body of white lead with the perfect permanency of zinc white.
+The nearest approach to it that has yet been made, is Chinese white,
+which possesses in a great measure the property of the former, and,
+being a preparation of zinc, has wholly that of the latter.
+Unfortunately Chinese white is a water-colour pigment only, not
+retaining its several advantages, stability excepted, when employed in
+oil.</p>
+
+
+<h4>1. CONSTANT WHITE,</h4>
+
+<p>Also called <i>Permanent white</i>, and <i>Barytic white</i>, is, when well
+prepared, of superior body in water, but has less opacity in oil. It
+works in a somewhat unsatisfactory and unpleasant manner, and is
+considerably lower in its tone while wet than when dry, a fault which
+sub<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span>jects even an experienced artist to great uncertainty where he uses
+it in compound tints. The semi-transparency of the white, while wet,
+prevents his judging of the true tint until his colour has dried, when
+he frequently finds it harsh and chalky, and out of tone with the rest
+of his painting. As little gum as possible should be employed with it,
+gum being inimical to its body, or whiteness. The best way of preparing
+this pigment, as well as other terrene whites, so as to preserve their
+opacity, is to grind them in simple water, and to add towards the end of
+the grinding sufficient only of clear <i>cold</i> jelly of gum tragacanth as
+will connect them into a body, and attach them to the paper in painting.
+Cold starch will answer the same purpose.</p>
+
+<p>Constant white is a sulphate of baryta, found native and known under the
+name of heavy-spar, or prepared artificially by adding sulphuric acid,
+or a soluble sulphate, to a solution of a barytic salt. In the first
+mode, if the white be not well purified from free acid, it is apt to act
+injuriously on some pigments. Sulphate of baryta is often used for the
+purpose of adulterating white lead, the native salt being ground to fine
+powder, and washed with dilute sulphuric acid, by which its colour is
+improved, and a little oxide of iron probably dissolved out. Whether
+native or artificial, the compound is quite unaffected by impure air,
+and is not poisonous.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4>LEAD WHITES</h4>
+
+<p>Comprise and are known under the names of:&mdash;<i>White lead</i>, <i>Flake white</i>
+and <i>Body-white</i>, <i>Cremnitz</i>, or <i>Kremnitz</i>, <i>Crems</i> or <i>Krems white</i>,
+<i>London</i> and <i>Nottingham white</i>, <i>Flemish white</i>, <i>Pattison's white</i>,
+<i>Blanc d'argent</i> or <i>Silver white</i>, <i>Ceruse</i>, <i>Dutch white</i>, <i>French
+white</i>, <i>Venetian white</i>, <i>Hamburgh white</i>, <i>Kremser white</i>, <i>Sulphate
+of lead</i>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>The heaviest and whitest of these are the best, and in point of colour
+and body, are superior to all other whites. When pure and properly
+applied in oil and varnish, they are comparatively safe and durable,
+drying well without addition; but excess of oil discolours them, and in
+water-painting they are changeable even to blackness. Upon all vegetable
+lakes, except those of madder, they have a destructive effect; and are
+injurious to gamboge, as well as to those almost obsolete pigments, red
+and orange leads, king's and patent yellow, massicot, and orpiment. With
+ultramarine, however, red and orange vermilions, yellow and orange
+chromes, yellow and orange and red cadmiums, aureolin, the ochres,
+viridian and other oxides of chromium, Indian red &amp;c., they compound
+with little or no injury. Lead colours must not be employed in
+water-colour or crayon painting, distemper, or fresco. The whites of
+lead are carbonates of that metal, with two exceptions:&mdash;Flemish white
+or the sul<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span>phate, and Pattison's white or the oxychloride. In using all
+pigments of which lead is the basis, cleanliness is essential to health.</p>
+
+<p>White lead, by which we must be understood to mean the carbonate, always
+contains when commercially prepared a certain proportion of hydrated
+oxide. The less of the latter there is present, the better does the
+white cover, and the less liable is it to turn brown. The products
+formed by precipitation have proved to be inferior in body: otherwise,
+pure mono-carbonate of lead-oxide, obtained by mixing solutions of
+carbonate of potash and a lead-salt, might be best adapted for a
+pigment. However, such a carbonate has been lately produced by Mr.
+Spence's process of passing carbonic acid gas into a caustic soda or
+potash solution of lead, and for this white an opacity is claimed equal
+to that of the ordinary compound.</p>
+
+<p>Great as is the opacity of white lead, it is apt to lose that property
+in some measure in course of time, and become more or less transparent.
+If, over a series of dry oil-colour rubs of varied hues, there were
+brushed sufficient white lead paint to utterly obscure them, after some
+years those rubs would indistinctly appear, and by degrees become more
+and more visible, until at last their forms&mdash;if not their very
+colours&mdash;could be recognised. From this it would seem that white lead
+must slowly but surely part with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span> some of its carbonic acid, and be at
+length converted into <ins class="trans" title="was di-carbonate">dicarbonate</ins>, a compound possessing less carbonic
+acid, and less coating power.</p>
+
+<p>Impure air, or sulphuretted hydrogen, browns or blackens white lead,
+converting it partially or wholly into sulphide. It would appear from
+the recent investigations of Dr. D. S. Price, that white lead is less
+liable to be thus affected, when the pictures in which it is used are
+exposed to a strong light; also, that when such pictures have so
+suffered, a like exposure will restore them. We have ourselves noticed
+the rapidity with which an oil rub of white lead that has been damaged
+by foul gas, regains its former whiteness when submitted to air and
+sunshine. The action of drying oils has been likewise proved to be very
+powerful upon sulphide of lead, an exposure to light for a few days only
+being sufficient to change a surface of it, coated with a thin layer of
+boiled linseed oil, into a white one. Probably, these agents may have a
+similar effect upon other pigments injured by sulphuretted hydrogen, and
+many of the colours in paintings may be restored by treating them with
+boiled linseed oil, and submitting them to a strong light. That the
+result is due to oxidation, there can be no doubt. Indeed, the eminent
+French chemist, M. Th&eacute;nard, was consulted some years back upon the means
+of bringing to their original whiteness the black spots which had formed
+upon a valuable drawing, by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span> the changing of the white lead, and
+employed for that purpose oxygenated water. He had ascertained its power
+of converting the black sulphide of lead into the white sulphate, and,
+by touching the spots with a brush dipped in the fluid, soon succeeded
+in restoring the drawing to its primitive state. Here, again, the use of
+the agent might doubtless be extended to other colours, to which foul
+air is inimical.</p>
+
+<p>In oil painting white lead is essential in the ground, in dead
+colouring, in the formation of tints of all colours, and in scumbling,
+either alone or mixed with other pigments. It is also the best local
+white, when neutralized with ultramarine or black; and it is the true
+representative of light, when warmed with Naples yellow, or orange
+vermilion or cadmium, or with a mixture of the yellow and either of the
+orange pigments, according to the light.</p>
+
+<p>Ordinary white lead is often mixed with considerable quantities of heavy
+spar, gypsum, or chalk. These injure it in body and brightness, dispose
+it to dry more slowly, keep its place less firmly, and discolour the oil
+with which it is applied, as well as prevent it dissolving completely in
+boiling dilute potash-ley, a test by which pure white lead may be known.</p>
+
+<p>The adulteration of pigments, which we have in some instances found
+practised to a large extent abroad, is comparatively unfrequent in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span> our
+own country, so far at least as regards the superior class of colours
+employed by artists. As a rule, such colours when manufactured in
+England may be fairly assumed to be genuine; and certainly the
+respectable colourmen of the present day are not in the habit of
+sophisticating them. We must bear testimony, indeed, to the zeal with
+which they purvey, regardless of necessary expense, the choicest and
+most perfect materials. This should be a matter of congratulation to the
+painter, who must of necessity rely on the faith and honesty of his
+colour-dealer; for if he were ever so good a chemist, it would be
+impossible for him to analyse each pigment before proceeding to use it.
+The fault must rest with himself, therefore, if, through a mistaken
+economy, he do not frequent the best houses and pay the best prices. Of
+a surety, the colours of the artist are not among those things in which
+quality can, or should, be sacrificed to cheapness.</p>
+
+
+<h4>2. BLANC D'ARGENT, OR SILVER WHITE.</h4>
+
+<p>These are false appellations of a white lead, called also <i>French
+white</i>. It is brought from Paris in the form of drops, is exquisitely
+white, but of less body than flake white, and has all the properties of
+the best white leads. Being subject to the same changes, it is unfit<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span>
+for general use as a water-colour, though good in oil or varnish.</p>
+
+
+<h4>3. CREMNITZ WHITE,</h4>
+
+<p>Known likewise as <i>Kremnitz</i>, <i>Crems</i>, or <i>Krems white</i>, is a carbonate
+of lead which derives its names from Kremnitz in Hungary, or Crems or
+Krems in Austria. It is also called <i>Vienna white</i>, being brought from
+Vienna in cakes of a cubical form. Cremnitz white is the brightest white
+that is used in oil: it possesses rather less body than flake white,
+because the particles are finer. When newly prepared, it gives out a
+strong smell of vinegar.</p>
+
+
+<h4>4. FLAKE WHITE,</h4>
+
+<p>Called, when levigated, <i>Body white</i>, is an English white lead in the
+form of scales or plates, sometimes grey on the surface. It takes its
+name from its figure, is occasionally equal to Crems white in colour,
+and generally surpasses in body all other white leads. In composition,
+it is a mixture of protocarbonate and hydrated oxide of lead, the latter
+decreasing the opacity of the product according to the greater
+proportion in which it is present.</p>
+
+
+<h4>5. FLEMISH WHITE, OR SULPHATE OF LEAD</h4>
+
+<p>Is an exceedingly white precipitate from any solution of lead by
+sulphuric acid, much resembling<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span> the blanc d'argent. It is inferior,
+however, both in body and permanence to the ordinary carbonate. Hence,
+white lead which has more or less been converted by sulphuretted
+<ins class="trans" title="was hydrogren">hydrogen</ins> into sulphide, and again been converted into sulphate by
+oxidation, with a view to restoring its colour, becomes peculiarly
+liable to the influence of impure air.</p>
+
+
+<h4>6. LONDON AND NOTTINGHAM WHITES.</h4>
+
+<p>The best of these do not essentially differ from each other, nor from
+the white leads of other manufactories. The latter variety, being
+prepared from flake white, is usually the greyer of the two.</p>
+
+
+<h4>7. PATTISON'S WHITE, OR OXYCHLORIDE OF LEAD</h4>
+
+<p>Is a mixture of chloride and oxide of lead, formed by precipitating a
+solution of chloride of lead with soda, potash, lime, or baryta, in the
+caustic or hydrated state. It would appear that when the oxychloride is
+used as a paint, the oxide contained in it gives rise to an oleate of
+lead, and, in consequence of this saponaceous matter, is capable of
+spreading over an extended surface. The product has been described as
+possessing properties which are superior to those of white lead,
+inasmuch as it does not so readily blacken as the latter body. Dr. Ure,
+however, found that water removes the chloride of lead from the paint<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span>
+compounded of this article, and, consequently, that it is not so
+effectual as the carbonate. As an artist's pigment, a partially soluble
+compound of lead can decidedly not be eligible.</p>
+
+
+<h4>8. ROMAN WHITE</h4>
+
+<p>Is of the purest white colour, and differs only from blanc d'argent in
+the warm flesh tint of the external surface of the large square masses
+in which it is commonly prepared.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the foregoing, there are other white leads, generally foreign,
+cheaper, and adulterated. Many of these are mixed with a small quantity
+of charcoal, indigo, or Prussian blue, so that the dead yellowish shade
+which they present may be enlivened to a brighter hue. Among them may be
+named&mdash;</p>
+
+
+<h4>9. CERUSE.</h4>
+
+<p>A French variety, not necessarily, but not unfrequently, mixed with
+different chalky earths in various proportions; and the following
+Belgian kinds:</p>
+
+
+<h4>10. DUTCH WHITE,</h4>
+
+<p>Containing three fourths of sulphate of baryta.</p>
+
+
+<h4>11. HAMBURGH WHITE.</h4>
+
+<p>A mixture of two parts of heavy spar and one of the plumbous compound.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span>12. KREMSER WHITE,</h4>
+
+<p>Differing from the rest in being unadulterated.</p>
+
+
+<h4>13. VENETIAN WHITE</h4>
+
+<p>Composed of heavy spar and the carbonate in equal proportions.</p>
+
+
+<h4>ZINC WHITES.</h4>
+
+<h4>14. CHINESE WHITE.</h4>
+
+<p>The introduction, in 1834, of this peculiar preparation of oxide of zinc
+has proved an incalculable boon to water-colour painters, who formerly
+had no white which combined perfect permanency with good body in
+working. Its invention obviated the necessity for using white lead, a
+pigment which, though it may be employed with comparative safety in oil,
+is quite unfitted for water. Since the period of its production, Chinese
+white has been generally preferred by water-colour artists, as being the
+most eligible in their peculiar department. Previous to that period, the
+complaints of whites changing were of constant occurrence; but in no
+instance has any picture, in which this white has been used, suffered
+from its employment. To the colour of oxide of zinc, sulphuretted
+hydrogen is altogether harmless; sulphide of zinc being itself white.
+The variety under notice<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span> works and washes well, possesses no pasty or
+clogging properties, and is prepared beautifully white. Moreover, it has
+the desirable quality of dense body; so much so, that, as the painter
+works, his effects remain unaltered by the drying of the colour. It may
+likewise be safely mixed with all other pigments, the following blending
+very satisfactorily with the white for opaque lights&mdash;cadmium yellow,
+orange, and red; gamboge; aureolin; yellow ochre; vermilion; and light
+red. Without the artistic drawbacks of constant white or the chemical
+defects of white lead, and retaining the advantages of both, Chinese
+white cannot but be considered as a most important addition. It is a
+matter of regret that this pigment is not equally efficacious in oil.</p>
+
+
+<h4>15. ZINC WHITE</h4>
+
+<p>Is either the anhydrous oxide, the hydrate oxide, or hydrated basic
+carbonate of zinc. It varies in opacity and colour according to the mode
+of manufacture, and the purity of the compound, but may always be relied
+upon as permanent. The whiteness of the best samples rivals that of
+white lead, and it is not tarnished like the latter by sulphurous
+vapours. In opacity it never equals white lead, and might perhaps serve
+advantageously as a glaze over that pigment, either alone or compounded
+with other colours; as well as act as a medium of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span> interposition between
+white lead and those colours which are injured by it, such as gamboge,
+crimson lake, &amp;c. When duly and skilfully prepared the colour and body
+of this pigment are sufficient to qualify it for a general use upon the
+palette in oil: in water it has been superseded by Chinese white.</p>
+
+<p>Occasionally, starch, chalk, white clay, and carbonate of baryta, are
+employed as adulterants; none of which, however, are <ins class="trans" title="was imimical">inimical</ins> to
+stability.</p>
+
+<p>As a pigment, zinc white may be said to be innoxious. As oxide of zinc
+does not readily form a saponaceous compound with fats or oil like white
+lead, the paint prepared with it and ordinary linseed oil does not dry
+or harden so rapidly. For the purpose of causing it to be more
+siccative, the oil was boiled with a large quantity of litharge, but by
+this method the white was liable to tarnish on meeting with foul air.
+Instead of litharge, experiments have led to the choice of salts of
+zinc, such as the chloride or sulphate, a small percentage of which, on
+being mixed with the oil or oxide, confers upon it the property of
+rapidly hardening. The same result is attained by employing an oil,
+dried by boiling with about five per cent of peroxide of manganese. In
+either case, a paint retaining its white colour permanently is produced.
+These agents might, with advantage, be more generally used in the place
+of litharge for rendering oils siccative. Many<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span> pigments which are not
+naturally affected by sulphurous emanations are apt to suffer if mixed
+with an oil made drying by means of lead.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<h4>16. <i>Cadmium White.</i></h4>
+
+<p>Provided the metal be freed from iron, which we have commonly found to
+be more or less present, a white of considerable beauty may be produced;
+either directly by precipitation as hydrated oxide or carbonate, or
+indirectly by exposing the brown anhydrous oxide to air and light&mdash;the
+latter mode yielding a product of greater opacity. However prepared,
+cadmium white is deficient in body, and apt to assume a yellow tint on
+meeting with an impure atmosphere.</p>
+
+
+<h4>17. <i>Pearl White</i></h4>
+
+<p>Is an insoluble basic nitrate of bismuth, a pearly white powder of loose
+texture, turning grey on exposure, and blackened by sulphuretted
+hydrogen. It is chiefly used as a cosmetic, but is said to injure the
+skin, rendering it yellow and leather-like; and it has been known to
+cause a spasmodic trembling of the face, ending in paralysis.</p>
+
+<p>Another preparation under this name, and now obsolete we believe as a
+pigment, was obtained<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span> from mother-of-pearl. It is described as
+exquisitely white, and of good body in water, but of little force in oil
+or varnish.</p>
+
+
+<h4>18. <i>Tin White</i></h4>
+
+<p>Resembles zinc white in some respects, but has less body and colour, and
+dries badly. According to its composition, it is liable to turn either
+black or a dull yellow in contact with sulphurous vapours.</p>
+
+
+<h4>19. <i>White Chalk</i></h4>
+
+<p>Is a well-known native carbonate of lime, employed by the artist only as
+a crayon, or for tracing his designs, for which purpose it is sawed into
+suitable lengths. White crayons and tracing chalks, to be good, must
+work and cut free from grit. From this material are prepared whitening
+and lime, which form the bases of many cheap pigments and colours, used
+in distemper, paper-staining, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>Besides those mentioned, there are other metallic whites varying in
+beauty and opacity, such as those of mercury, arsenic, and antimony; but
+none of them are of any value or reputation in painting, on account of
+their great disposition to change of colour, whether by light or foul
+air, both in water and oil.</p>
+
+<p>There are also other terrene whites, under<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span> equivocal names, among which
+are Morat or Modan white, Spanish white, Troys or Troy white, Rouen
+white, China white, and Satin white; the latter being a sulphate of lime
+and alumina, which dries with a glossy surface. The common oyster-shell
+contains a soft white in its thick part, and there is the white of
+egg-shells. There is, too, an endless variety of native earths, in
+addition to those prepared by art. The whole of them, however, are
+destitute of body in oil; and several, owing to their alkaline nature,
+are injurious to many colours in water, as well as to all colours which
+cannot be employed in fresco.</p>
+
+<p>Among the infinitude of white substances, the artist finds that there
+are but three white pigments&mdash;those of lead, zinc, and baryta. The first
+possesses the greatest opacity, while the second and third are most
+durable. The last, however, has so many objectionable qualities, that
+the number of eligible whites, may almost be said to be two&mdash;lead and
+zinc. Of these, the former is blackened by foul air, and in oil, the
+latter is wanting in body. In fact, there is but one white pigment which
+approaches perfection&mdash;Chinese white; and this is only a water-colour.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span><a name="chapter_8" id="chapter_8"></a><a href="#contents">CHAPTER VIII.</a></h2>
+
+<h3>ON THE PRIMARY, YELLOW.</h3>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Yellow</span> is the first of the primary or simple colours, nearest in
+relation to, and partaking most of the nature of, the neutral white; it
+is accordingly a most advancing colour, of great power in reflecting
+light. Compounded with the primary <i>red</i>, it constitutes the secondary
+<i>orange</i>, as well as its relatives, scarlet, and other warm colours.</p>
+
+<p>It is the archeus, or prime colour, of the tertiary <i>citrine</i>;
+characterises in like manner the endless number of semi-neutral colours
+called <i>brown</i>, and enters largely into the complex hues termed buff,
+bay, tawny, tan, dan, dun, drab, chestnut, roan, sorrel, hazel, auburn,
+isabela, fawn, <ins class="trans" title="was feuillemorte">feuillemort</ins>, &amp;c. Yellow is naturally associated with red
+in transient and prismatic colours, and is the principal power with it
+in representing the effects of warmth, heat, and fire. Combined with the
+primary <i>blue</i>, yellow furnishes all the variety of the secondary
+<i>green</i>, as well as, subordinately, the tertiaries <i>russet</i> and <i>olive</i>.
+It also enters in a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span> very subdued degree into cool, semi-neutral, and
+broken colours, and assists in minor proportion with blue and red in the
+composition of <i>black</i>.</p>
+
+<p>As a pigment, yellow is a tender delicate colour, easily defiled, when
+pure, by other colours. In painting it diminishes the power of the eye
+by its action in a strong light, at the same time becoming less distinct
+as a colour; while, on the contrary, it assists vision and becomes more
+distinct as a colour in a neutral somewhat declining light. These powers
+of colours upon vision require the particular attention of the
+colourist. To remedy the ill effect arising from the eyes having dwelt
+upon a colour, they should be either passed gradually to its opposite
+colour, and refreshed amid compound or neutral tints, or washed in the
+clear light of day. Hence, in viewing large collections of pictures,
+their colours will be more duly estimated by sometimes walking to the
+window, or by taking an occasional glance at a millboard, which may be
+carried in the hand, painted a cool gray.</p>
+
+<p>In a warm light, yellow becomes totally lost, but is less diminished
+than all other colours, except white, by distance. The stronger tones of
+any colour subdue its fainter hues in the same proportion as opposite
+colours and contrasts exalt them. The contrasting colours of yellow are
+a purple inclining to blue when the yellow leans to orange, and a purple
+inclining<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span> to red when the yellow tends to green, in the mean
+proportions of <i>thirteen</i> purple to <i>three</i> yellow, measured in surface
+or intensity. Being nearest to the neutral white in the natural scale of
+colours, yellow accords with it in conjunction; while, of all colours,
+except white, it contrasts black most powerfully. Yellow is discordant
+when standing alone with orange, unsupported by other colours.</p>
+
+<p>On account of the paucity of fine yellows among the ancients, we find
+that in many paintings and beautiful illuminated MSS. of old, glowing
+with vermilion and ultramarine, the place of yellow was supplied by
+gilding. Now, certainly, no such scarcity exists; of the three primary
+colours, good yellows being the most numerous. It may be observed of
+yellow pigments that their colour being primary and therefore simple,
+they cannot be composed by any mixture of other colours. The same remark
+of course applies to pigments which are red or blue.</p>
+
+
+<h4>20. AUREOLIN.</h4>
+
+<p>In these days a new pigment soon finds its level, standing or falling
+according to its merits. There are too many colours already on the
+palette for a fresh comer to have much chance, unless it possess some
+great distinguishing quality, or can take a place which has never been
+occupied. Such a void aureolin fills. This "magnificent<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span> yellow
+pigment," says the <i>Chemical News</i>, "supplies a desideratum hitherto in
+vain sought for by artists. It is the nearest approach to a perfect
+yellow in existence, and more closely resembles the purity of the
+prismatic spectrum than any other artificial colour. It is transparent,
+has great brilliancy and richness, both pure and in combination, and is
+very permanent, being entirely unaffected by exposure to sulphuretted
+hydrogen and other atmospheric impurities, or to the direct rays of the
+sun during an entire summer. Aureolin, with ultramarine and madder red,
+completes the triad of brilliant, permanent, and transparent primitive
+colours." The above only tallies with the statements of several
+scientific chemists and artists of note, statements which a prolonged
+personal experience of the colour enables us to endorse. To our
+knowledge, aureolin is quite uninjured by the severest tests to which a
+pigment can be subjected. We have found it bear with impunity, even in
+its lightest and faintest tints, the foulest gas and the brightest
+sunshine. Damp has no effect upon it; and in oil, water, or fresco, it
+is equally eligible. With all other colours aureolin mixes safely and
+readily, forming combinations of the utmost variety and value. It
+affords beautiful transparent tints, well defined, and of exceeding
+purity; the paler washes being at once clear and delicate, and admitting
+the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span> most subtle gradations of tone. The artistic properties of
+aureolin, however, will be best described by quoting the following
+extract from Mr. Aaron Penley's <i>English School of Painting in Water
+Colours</i>:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>"I have fully tested the qualifications of <i>Aureolin</i> for the
+Landscape Painter, and, without hesitation, pronounce it to be
+the most valuable addition to the 'colour box' since the
+introduction of Rose Madder. It has supplied a deficiency of a
+very important character. Hitherto, no Primitive Yellow has been
+quite satisfactory as to its persistence; so that the Aureolin
+will not only be regarded by the <i>artist</i> as a great boon in the
+production of his works, but it must also be considered as a
+<i>real</i> and <i>lasting benefit</i> to pictorial art in general. The
+permanence and unaltered purity of its lightest and faintest
+tints we are assured may be confidently relied upon, inasmuch as
+they have been fully established by the most severe tests to
+which colour can be subjected, by several of our ablest and most
+talented chemists. It is, therefore, needless to enlarge upon
+its merits, other than that I, for one, feel grateful for its
+introduction. Its uses are manifold, and may be considered
+available for every purpose requiring a Yellow of its character.
+As to Gray&mdash;perhaps it is not possible to obtain more delicately
+pure and transparent a&euml;rial tints than are to be pro<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span>duced from
+a combination of Cobalt, Rose Madder and Aureolin; all of which
+are of a light description and well suited for the
+representation of soft and thin effects of the atmosphere. These
+colours are each of them beautiful, and yield a most exquisite
+range of tones, which, as they mix together most kindly, render
+them desirable where purity and delicacy are sought. As to
+Foliage.&mdash;In speaking of Aureolin as adapted for the colouring
+of foliage and herbage, it is impossible to say too much in its
+praise. It imparts the vividness and freshness of nature to
+every colour with which it is combined&mdash;a quality of the highest
+order. As a colour for drapery it has no equal, and may be
+employed with perfect success, either by itself or with any of
+the other pigments.</p>
+
+<p>"The following table of compound tints will be found extremely
+useful:&mdash;</p>
+</div>
+
+<table summary="table of compound tints" style="width: 500px; font-size: 80%; margin-top: 2em;">
+<colgroup span="4">
+<col width="150px"></col>
+<col width="150px"></col>
+<col width="150px"></col>
+<col width="150px"></col>
+</colgroup>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb2">Aureolin.</td>
+<td class="tdb2 bl">Aureolin.</td>
+<td class="tdb2 bl">Aureolin.</td>
+<td class="tdb2 bl">Aureolin.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb2">Burnt Sienna.</td>
+<td class="tdb2 bl">Vandyke Brown.</td>
+<td class="tdb2 bl">Sepia.</td>
+<td class="tdb2 bl">Sepia, or Rose<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Madder.</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb2">Indigo, or French<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Blue.</span></td>
+<td class="tdb2 bl"> Indigo, or French<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Blue.</span></td>
+<td class="tdb2 bl">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="tdb2 bl">Cobalt.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb2">Aureolin.</td>
+<td class="tdb2 bl"> Aureolin.</td>
+<td class="tdb2 bl">Aureolin.</td>
+<td class="tdb2 bl">Aureolin.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb2">Indigo. </td>
+<td class="tdb2 bl">Oxide of<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chromium.</span></td>
+<td class="tdb2 bl">Emerald Green.</td>
+<td class="tdb2 bl">Light Red.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="tdb2 bl">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="tdb2 bl">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="tdb2 bl">Cobalt, or Indigo.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb2">Aureolin.</td>
+<td class="tdb2 bl"> Aureolin.</td>
+<td class="tdb2 bl">Aureolin.</td>
+<td class="tdb2 bl">Aureolin.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb2">Burnt Sienna.</td>
+<td class="tdb2 bl">Burnt Umber.</td>
+<td class="tdb2 bl">Brown Madder.</td>
+<td class="tdb2 bl">Rose Madder.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>"Aureolin, in combination with Cobalt and Sepia, or Rose Madder,
+gives most agreeable and delicate tints for distant trees, when
+under the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span> influence of a soft light, or hazy state of the
+atmosphere. Having most impartially and diligently tested the
+qualities of the Aureolin, I can and do most conscientiously
+recommend its adoption by all who practise water-colour
+painting."</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The foregoing sufficiently proves the value of aureolin in water, and
+similar flattering notices have been given of the colour in oil. Both in
+a chemical and artistic sense, therefore, this new primitive yellow
+merits the highest regard, and justly claims a foremost place among that
+little band of pigments which are without fear and without reproach.</p>
+
+<p>For mural decoration, aureolin is admirably adapted, but it cannot be
+used in enamel, the colour being destroyed by great heat.</p>
+
+
+<h4>CADMIUM YELLOWS.</h4>
+
+<p>Of these there are three tints, <i>Deep</i>, a so-called <i>Pale</i>, and <i>Lemon</i>.</p>
+
+
+<h4>21. DEEP CADMIUM.</h4>
+
+<p>Cadmium Yellow is comparatively a recent introduction, the metal itself
+not having been discovered till 1818. The cadmium yellows of commerce
+are (the chromate excepted) all sulphides, and therefore not affected by
+impure air. Until lately, they were not manufactured in England but
+imported from abroad, and as a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span> rule were sadly doctored. We have found
+in them a large proportion of orpiment, chromate of lead, &amp;c., together
+with quantities of soluble salt, extracted by boiling water. Owing to
+careless preparation, there was also present an unnecessary amount of
+dirt, which interfered as much with the purity of the colour, as
+sophistication lessened its stability. For these reasons, doubtless,
+cadmium yellows got to be regarded by some with disfavour and suspicion;
+and it may fairly be said that they did not attain their present
+popularity, until they became an article of home produce.</p>
+
+<p>Deep cadmium yellow, if genuine, may without hesitation be declared
+permanent, both with respect to foul gas, and exposure to light or air.
+The variety under notice is of extreme depth, inclining to orange,
+glowing, lustrous, and brilliant. It is not very transparent, but
+wonderfully clear and bright, of great power, and the most richly toned
+yellow known. For draperies it is particularly adapted, and for gorgeous
+sunsets is invaluable. It works and washes well, readily throws all
+other yellows into the shade when used alone, and combines admirably
+with Chinese white for the light touches of bright clouds or mountains.</p>
+
+<p>By admixture with white, cadmium gives a series of beautiful clear
+tints. When compounded with white lead, however, the colour has been
+stated to be destroyed. Theoretically, this might<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span> very well happen.
+Cadmium yellow is composed of cadmium and sulphur&mdash;white lead of lead
+and carbonic acid. If the former parted with some of its sulphur to the
+latter, sulphide of lead would result, which is black. Hence, the partly
+decomposed yellow and white would be mixed with black, and there would
+be formed a blackish-yellow or a yellowish-black. Again, if the cadmium
+parted with the whole of its sulphur to the lead, receiving in exchange
+the carbonic acid of the latter, a mixture of black sulphide of lead
+with white carbonate of cadmium would be furnished, the result being a
+grey. Perhaps the following rough diagram may serve to make our meaning
+plainer:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table summary="colour mix" style="width: 600px; font-size: 80%; margin-top: 2em;">
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb" rowspan="2" style="vertical-align: top;">Cadmium Yellow</td>
+<td class="tdb" rowspan="2" style="vertical-align: top; font-size: 2em;">{</td>
+<td class="tdb">Cadmium.<br />
+Sulphur.</td>
+<td class="tdb"><div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;"><img src="images/fig02.png" width="200" alt="admixture diagram" /></div></td>
+<td class="tdb">Carbonate of Cadmium (White.)</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<table summary="colour mix" style="width: 600px; font-size: 80%;">
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb" rowspan="2" style="vertical-align: top;">White Lead</td>
+<td class="tdb" rowspan="2" style="vertical-align: top; font-size: 2em;">{</td>
+<td class="tdb">Lead.<br />
+Carbonic Acid.</td>
+<td class="tdb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="tdb">Sulphide of Lead (Black.)</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p>Such is the theory of the reaction which might take place, but which, as
+far as our own experience goes, does not. Some deep cadmium yellow which
+we ourselves prepared was intimately mixed and ground with an equal
+quantity by weight of Cremnitz white, and an oil rub of the compound
+laid upon a tile. Having placed the latter on a shelf in the laboratory,
+we watched from week to week to see if any approach to blackness
+occurred, any diminution in the beauty of the tint; but could perceive
+none. Hence,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span> while admitting the possibility of the colour being
+damaged or destroyed in the case of an inferior and spurious article, we
+conclude that an unadulterated cadmium yellow, containing no free
+sulphur, neither injures, nor is injured by, white lead, and may safely
+be used therewith. At the same time, the artist should be warned to
+satisfy himself of the genuineness of his pigment, or otherwise to
+employ the white of zinc, at least as a medium of intervention.</p>
+
+<p>A good sample of cadmium yellow may rather advantageously than otherwise
+be compounded with white lead, for we have found that a mixture of equal
+parts by weight of the two will bear an atmosphere of sulphuretted
+hydrogen that completely blackens the white alone.</p>
+
+<p>With all the sulphides of cadmium a steel palette knife is best avoided.</p>
+
+
+<h4>22. PALE CADMIUM.</h4>
+
+<p>The cadmium yellow so-called, is not strictly pale, but pale only when
+compared with the preceding. It is, in fact, a full rich colour,
+brilliant and permanent, but without that tendency to orange which
+distinguishes the deep. For some purposes, when a warm tone is not
+required, such a tint is preferable. In water, especially, where
+delicacy of colouring can be carried to a greater degree of refinement
+than in oil, these differences of hue are important.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span> In the first
+medium the faint washes show with a clearness which is not so apparent
+in the last, and the most subtle gradation of tone tells with a force in
+some measure lost in oil. As a consequence, the colour of the lightest
+tints in the distance must be as true as that of the deepest shades in
+the foreground, and hence the warmth or coldness of the pale washes of a
+pigment should be duly considered.</p>
+
+<p>Pale cadmium yellow with or without aureolin, is adapted for golden
+sunsets, and yields with French blue a beautiful sea-green.</p>
+
+
+<h4><ins class="trans" title="number 23. has been omitted from original">24.</ins> LEMON CADMIUM.</h4>
+
+<p>Very pale cadmium yellows are not permanent, and lemon cadmiums are
+decidedly fugitive. Being, like the deep and 'pale' varieties,
+sulphides, they are of course unaltered by sulphurous gas; but they will
+not stand exposure to light and air, or even to light alone. Some which
+were submitted in an air-tight bottle to the action of light gradually
+whitened next the glass. Yet they were almost identical in composition
+with the deepest and most orange hues, and might have reasonably been
+presumed stable. Repeated experiments, however, both with samples of our
+own making and of others' manufacture, have shown that for a cadmium to
+be durable, it must be of a full, rich, comparatively deep yellow; and
+that any paler product than the 'pale' alluded to can<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span>not be depended
+on. It is true that a light or lemon tint will fade quicker in water
+than in oil, but a colour which is fugitive in the one vehicle cannot be
+regarded as eligible in the other. From a somewhat long acquaintance
+with cadmiums, we have derived the opinion that their stability rests
+much on the mode of preparation, and that an amount of heat is needed
+sufficient to make the sulphur <i>bite into</i> the base. This opinion,
+indeed, extends to all metallic sulphides, and our belief is, that if
+vermilions were made generally by wet processes, they would not be found
+the permanent pigments they undoubtedly are.</p>
+
+
+<h4>25. MUTRIE YELLOW.</h4>
+
+<p>Under this name a lemon sulphide of cadmium has lately appeared, to
+which the foregoing remarks are applicable. A water colour rub on
+exposure to air and light faded rapidly, no trace of yellow remaining in
+the pale wash. The sample which came under our notice contained a
+quantity of free sulphur.</p>
+
+<p>It is to be regretted that these lemon cadmiums are fugacious, so
+bright, so clear, are they, and of so pure a lemon tint can they be
+obtained. But as no beauty of colour compensates for want of durability,
+their place should be supplied by lemon yellow proper, or chromate of
+baryta.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span>26. CHROME YELLOWS,</h4>
+
+<p>Also called <i>Jaune Min&eacute;rale</i>, <i>Jaune de Cologne</i> or <i>Cologne Yellow</i>,
+<i>Pale Chrome</i>, and <i>Deep Chrome</i>, are chromates of lead, in which the
+latter metal more or less exists, according to the paleness or depth of
+the colour. Of modern introduction, they are distinguished for their
+brilliancy, their opacity and body, and their going cordially into tint
+with white, both in water and oil. Owing, however, to a harshness and
+hardness of tone for which they are peculiar, a coarse and disagreeable
+effect is apt to be produced by their use. In general, they do not
+accord with the modest hues of nature, nor harmonize well with the
+softer beauty of other colours. Rivalling the cadmiums in brightness,
+they are wanting in the mellow richness which belongs to the deeper
+varieties of those pigments, as well as in their permanency. Although
+they resist the sun's rays for a lengthened period, after some time they
+lose their original hue, whether employed alone or in tint, and may even
+become black in impure air. Upon several pigments they produce serious
+changes, ultimately destroying Prussian and Antwerp blues, when
+compounded therewith in the composition of greens, &amp;c. Ranging from
+lemon to deep yellow, in oil, provided the atmosphere be good, the
+chromes may be found comparatively durable; but, on<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span> the whole, the
+artist cannot trust to them his reputation as a colourist.</p>
+
+<p>The chromates are often mixed with sulphate of lead, as well as with the
+sulphates of baryta and lime. The presence of the first is especially
+objectionable, as increasing the tendency of the yellows to be blackened
+by foul gas. The sulphates of baryta and lime, however, are sometimes
+formed in the process of preparation, in which case they are rather an
+advantage than otherwise; inasmuch as they not only lend a softness to
+the colour, but decrease the proportion of leaden base, and consequently
+the tendency referred to. We may remark, indeed, with respect to
+pigments, that it is difficult in many instances to say where
+manufacture ends and adulteration begins. A substance may be present
+which, although not absolutely essential to the colour itself, has been
+legitimately employed to impart a desired quality, or a certain tint.</p>
+
+
+<h4>27. COLOGNE YELLOW</h4>
+
+<p>Is a cheap inferior chrome yellow, unfit for artistic purposes, and
+consists of twenty-five parts of chromate of lead, fifteen of sulphate
+of lead, and sixty of sulphate of lime.</p>
+
+
+<h4>28. JAUNE MINERALE</h4>
+
+<p>Is prepared in Paris, and differs in no essential particular from
+ordinary chromate of lead, except<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span> in the paleness of its colour. The
+chrome yellows have also obtained other names from places or persons,
+whence they have been brought or by whom they have been made. Another
+lead yellow, not a chromate, has likewise been called jaune min&eacute;rale.</p>
+
+
+<h4>29. CITRON YELLOW</h4>
+
+<p>Is chromate of zinc, a bright pale lemon-like yellow, slightly soluble
+in water. It is not affected by foul gas, but does not preserve its
+colour on exposure to light and air, or even when kept in a book. In
+contact with organic substances it is apt to turn green. Compounded,
+especially for foliage tints, this yellow is eligible; but if purity of
+hue be desired, it should certainly not be employed alone. In this
+chromate, as in many others, the affinity of the chromic acid to the
+base is small; the former is liable to separate from the latter, and, by
+deoxidation, to become converted into green oxide of chromium.</p>
+
+
+<h4>30. GALLSTONE</h4>
+
+<p>Is a deep-toned gorgeous yellow, affording richer tints than most other
+yellows, but it cannot be depended on for permanency, and therefore is
+seldom employed. Its colour is soon changed and destroyed by strong
+light, though not subject to alteration by impure air. In oil it is
+ineligible. A true gallstone is an animal<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span> calculus formed in the
+gall-bladder, chiefly of oxen; but the pigment sold under that name is
+often replaced by a substitute, resembling the original in colour, but
+of greater stability.</p>
+
+
+<h4>31. GAMBOGE,</h4>
+
+<p>Sometimes designated <i>Drop Gum</i>, and variously written <i>Gamboge</i>,
+<i>Camboge</i>, <i>Gamboage</i>, <i>Cambogia</i>, <i>Cambadium</i>, <i>Cambogium</i>,
+<i>Gambodium</i>, <i>Gambogium</i>, &amp;c., is the produce of several kinds of trees.
+The natives of the coast of Coromandel call the tree from which it is
+principally obtained Gokathu, which grows also in Ceylon and Siam. From
+the wounded leaves and young shoots the gamboge is collected in a liquid
+state and dried. Our indigenous herb Celandine yields abundantly, in the
+same manner, a beautiful yellow juice of the same properties as gamboge.
+Gamboge is of a gum-resinous nature and clear yellow colour. It is
+bright and transparent, but not of great depth, and in its deepest
+touches shines too much and verges upon brown. When properly used, it is
+more durable than generally reputed, both in water and oil; and
+conduces, when mixed with other colours, to their stability and keeping
+their place, on account of its gum and resin. It is deepened in some
+degree by ammoniacal and impure air, and somewhat weakened, but not
+easily discoloured, by the action of light. Time effects less change on
+this colour than on other<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span> bright vegetal yellows; but white lead and
+other metalline pigments injure, while terrene and alkaline substances
+redden it. In water it works remarkably well, and forms an opaque
+emulsion without grinding or preparation, by means of its natural gum;
+but is with difficulty employed in oil, &amp;c., in a dry condition. It
+dries well, however, in its natural state, and lasts in glazing when
+deprived of its gum. With regard to other colours it is perfectly
+innocent, and though a strong medicine, is not dangerous or deleterious
+in use. Gamboge has been employed as a yellow lake, precipitated upon an
+aluminous base; but a better way of preparing it is to form a paste of
+the colour in water, and mix it with lemon yellow, with which pigment
+being diffused it goes readily into oil or varnish. Glazed over other
+colours in water, its resin acts as a varnish which protects them; and
+under other colours its gum acts as a preparation which admits
+varnishing. It is injured by a less degree of heat than most pigments.</p>
+
+<p>In landscape, gamboge affords with indigo or Antwerp blue clear bright
+greens, and with sepia a very useful sober tint. For sunrise and sunset
+clouds, a mixture of gamboge and cadmium yellow will be found useful.</p>
+
+
+<h4>32. EXTRACT OF GAMBOGE</h4>
+
+<p>Is the colouring matter separated from its<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span> greenish gum and impurities
+by solution in alcohol, filtration and precipitation, by which it
+acquires a powdery texture, rendering it miscible in oil, &amp;c., and
+capable of being employed in glazing. At the same time it is improved in
+colour, and retains its original property of working well in water with
+gum. Gamboge is likewise soluble in caustic potash, forming a red
+liquid, from which it is thrown down by acids.</p>
+
+
+<h4>33. INDIAN YELLOW</h4>
+
+<p>Is a pigment long employed in India under the name <i>Purree</i>, but has not
+many years been introduced generally into painting in Europe. It is
+imported in the form of balls of a fetid odour, and is produced from the
+urine of the camel. It appears to be a urio-phosphate of lime, and is of
+a beautiful pure yellow colour and light powdery texture; of greater
+body and depth than gamboge, but inferior in these respects to
+gallstone. Indian yellow resists the sun's rays with singular power in
+water painting; yet in ordinary light and air, or even in a book, the
+beauty of its colour is not lasting. In oil it is exceedingly fugitive,
+both alone and in tint. Owing probably to its alkaline nature, it has an
+injurious effect upon cochineal lakes and carmine when used with them.
+The colour is not damaged by foul air, and, as lime does not destroy it,
+the pigment may be employed in fresco according to its powers.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span>Indian yellow washes and works extremely well, and is adapted for
+draperies and for compounding landscape greens&mdash;where permanency is not
+required. Blackness in the darkest shadows of the foliage will sometimes
+result from too great a use of indigo; should this evil exist, no colour
+is so fitted to regain the proper tone as Indian yellow employed
+thickly.</p>
+
+
+<h4>LAKES.</h4>
+
+<p>There are several pigments of this denomination, varying in colour and
+appearance according to the substances used and modes of preparation.
+Usually they are in the form of drops, and their colours are in general
+bright yellow, very transparent, and not liable to change in an impure
+atmosphere&mdash;qualities which would render them very valuable, were they
+not soon discoloured and even destroyed on exposure to air and light,
+both in water and oil. In the latter vehicle, they are bad driers, like
+most lakes, and they do not stand the action of white lead and other
+metallic pigments. If used, therefore, it should be as simple as
+possible. Of these lakes, the following are the best; but it must be
+borne in mind that, as not one of them is permanent, the compounds they
+afford are of necessity unstable.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span>34. YELLOW LAKE</h4>
+
+<p>Is a bright transparent yellow, a difficult drier, and liable to be
+destroyed by light. It affords beautiful foliage tints, and would, if it
+could be depended on, be of extreme value in what is called "glazing."</p>
+
+
+<h4>35. ITALIAN PINK,</h4>
+
+<p>Also called <i>English</i> and <i>Dutch Pink</i>, is an absurd name for a stronger
+and richer kind of yellow lake, warmer in tint and more powerful than
+the preceding. It is a rich transparent yellow, yielding a variety of
+fine foliage tints by admixture with indigo and sepia in different
+proportions. These three colours with burnt sienna will produce almost
+every variety of sunny foliage. It gives likewise good olive greens with
+lamp black.</p>
+
+
+<h4>36. QUERCITRON LAKE,</h4>
+
+<p>Or <i>Quercitron Yellow</i>, is what its name implies. It is dark in
+substance, in grains of a glossy fracture, perfectly transparent, and
+when ground is of a beautiful yellow colour. In painting it follows, and
+adds richness and depth to, gamboge in water, and goes well into
+varnish; but any lead used in rendering oils siccative, browns it, and
+for the same reason it is useless in tints.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span>37. LEMON YELLOW,</h4>
+
+<p>Or chromate of baryta, is exceedingly difficult to make well. Upon the
+mode of manufacture depend not only the beauty of the colour but its
+stability. If properly and carefully prepared, it is of a vivid lemon
+tint, deep or pale, very clear, very pure and permanent. It also washes
+well, and is entirely free from the slightest tinge of orange. This may
+be pronounced the only chromate which possesses durability, not being
+liable to change by damp or foul air, by the action of light or the
+steel palette-knife, or by mixture with white lead and other pigments,
+either in water or oil, in both of which it works pleasantly. Lemon
+yellow is chiefly adapted to points of high light, and has a peculiarly
+happy effect when glazed over greens in both modes of painting. In water
+it exceeds gamboge in brightness, and compounded therewith improves its
+beauty. This mixture also goes readily into oil; indeed it is the best
+and easiest way of rendering gamboge diffusible as an oil colour&mdash;simple
+emulsion of the gamboge in a little water, and trituration of the lemon
+yellow therewith, being all that is requisite for the purpose.</p>
+
+<p>Lemon yellow has not much power, and is semi-opaque. In distance, its
+light wash is used with great effect for cool sunny greens, for which a
+minute quantity of emerald green may be added<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span> to it. Being uninjured by
+lime, the colour is eligible in fresco and crayons.</p>
+
+
+<h4>38. MARS YELLOW,</h4>
+
+<p><i>Jaune de Mars</i>, <i>Jaune de Fer</i>, <i>Iron Yellow</i>, &amp;c., is an artificially
+prepared iron ochre, of the nature of sienna earth. In its general
+qualities it resembles the ochres, with the same eligibilities and
+exceptions, but is more transparent, as well as purer, clearer, richer,
+and brighter. Like them it is quite permanent. The colours of iron exist
+in endless variety in nature, and are capable of the same variation by
+art, from sienna yellow, through orange and red, to a species of purple,
+brown, and black, among which are useful and valuable distinctions. They
+were formerly introduced by the author, and have been received under the
+names of Mars yellow, Mars orange, Mars red, Mars violet, and Mars
+brown. All of them are brighter and purer than native ochres, and
+equally stable. When carefully prepared, these pigments dry well in
+proportion to their depth, are marked by a subdued richness rather than
+brilliancy, and have the general habits of sienna earths and ochres.
+Their faint washes possess the desirable quality of transparent
+clearness.</p>
+
+<p>We have occasionally found Mars yellow mixed with orpiment, or chromate
+of lead, for the purpose of brightening the colour.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span>39. NAPLES YELLOW</h4>
+
+<p>Was a compound of lead and antimony, anciently prepared at Naples under
+the name of <i>Giallolino</i>, and was variously of a pleasing light, warm
+yellow tint. It was opaque and of good body, not altered by the light of
+the sun, and might be used with comparative safety in oil or varnish,
+under the same management as the whites of lead. Like these, however, it
+was liable to change even to blackness by damp and impure air when
+employed in water. Iron was also destructive of the colour of this
+yellow, on which account great care was requisite, in grinding and using
+it, not to touch it with the common steel palette knife, but to compound
+its tints with a spatula of ivory or horn. For the same reason, it was
+apt to suffer in composition with ochres, Prussian and Antwerp blues,
+and other pigments of which iron was a principal or ingredient. Used
+pure or with white lead it was eligible in oil, in which it worked and
+dried well. It was also employed in enamel painting as it vitrified
+without change. In this state it was called <i>Giallolino di fornace</i>, and
+was introduced as a pigment for artists, under the erroneous conception
+that vitrification gives permanence to colours, when in truth it only
+increases the difficulty of levigation, and injures their texture for
+working.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span> We have spoken of Naples yellow in the past tense, because the
+pigment now sold as such is generally, or always, a compound colour, or
+manufactured with a zinc instead of a lead base. In either case the
+preceding remarks are not applicable to the present product, which is
+perfectly durable and trustworthy. The new Naples yellow presents an
+example of an old objectionable pigment being replaced by a different
+and superior preparation. However fugitive certain colours may have
+been, the fact of their once having had a place on the palette would
+seem to be sufficient recommendation to some. At any rate, they are
+still in occasional request, and we cannot but approve the pious fraud
+which offers under the same name a good substitute for a bad original.
+If an artist must needs demand a worthless pigment, he had better buy a
+colour like it that will stand, even if it be not what he asked for.</p>
+
+<p>The tints of Naples yellow are readily and accurately imitated by
+admixture of deep cadmium yellow and white.</p>
+
+
+<h4>40. ANTIMONY YELLOW,</h4>
+
+<p>As its name denotes, was likewise a preparation of that metal, of a
+deeper colour than Naples yellow, but similar in its properties. It was
+principally used in enamel and porcelain painting, and differed greatly
+in tint. One<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span> variety, brighter than the rest, is stated not to have
+been affected by foul air, and therefore could not have had a lead
+basis.</p>
+
+<h4>OCHRES,</h4>
+
+<p>Known as <i>Yellow Ochre</i>, <i>Brown Ochre</i>, <i>Roman Ochre</i>, <i>Transparent Gold
+Ochre</i>, <i>Oxford Ochre</i>, <i>Stone Ochre</i>, <i>Di Palito</i>, &amp;c., are native
+earths, consisting chiefly of silica and alumina in combination with
+iron, which latter forms the principal colouring matter. They are among
+the most ancient of pigments, and their permanency is proved by the
+state of the old pictures. In a box of colours found at Pompeii, and
+analyzed by Count Chaptal, he discovered yellow ochre purified by
+washing, which had preserved its original freshness. They may all be
+produced artificially in endless variety as they exist in nature, and
+are all converted by burning into reds or reddish-browns. Several ochres
+are found in the natural state of so very fine a quality, that they
+require no other preparation than that of being washed. Their colours
+may be imitated to a certain extent by means of iron alone, uncombined
+with silica and alumina; but such ferruginous preparations are not
+equally durable, and as their chemical action is stronger, they are more
+likely to affect those pigments which are damaged by iron. It often
+happens in colours that one component<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span> of weak stability, or powerful
+for evil, is strengthened and held in check by another; thus in the case
+of the ochres, the silica and alumina by keeping a tight hand on the
+iron, both ensure its safety, and prevent it injuring others.</p>
+
+
+<h4>41. YELLOW OCHRE,</h4>
+
+<p>Called also <i>Mineral Yellow</i>, is found in most countries, and abundantly
+in our own. It differs much both in constitution and colour, ranging
+from a tolerably bright though not vivid yellow to a brown-yellow, and
+is generally of a warm cast. Its natural variety is much increased by
+artificial dressing and compounding. The best yellow ochres possess no
+great force, but as far as they go are valuable pigments, particularly
+in fresco and distemper, being neither subject to change by ordinary
+light, nor sensibly affected by impure air, or the action of lime. By
+time, however, and the direct rays of the sun, they are somewhat
+darkened. Like other ochres, they may be safely used in admixture with
+pigments which are themselves permanent. With carmine and the cochineal
+lakes, or intense blue, the ochres are best not employed.</p>
+
+<p>The impunity with which yellow ochre bears foul gas is one of its many
+recommendations. No immediate effect whatever is produced by
+sulphuretted hydrogen, and only a slight dirty<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span> brown tint is imparted
+by its prolonged action. This discolouration a short exposure to air and
+light quickly removes. By keeping the ochre sufficiently long in contact
+with sulphide of ammonium a jet black is obtainable, but a rub of it in
+a moist unwashed state completely regains its yellow hue in a day or so.
+Hence, yellow ochre compounded with pigments which suffer from an impure
+atmosphere doubtless acts as a preservative agent.</p>
+
+<p>Yellow ochre is usually employed in the distance and middle ground of a
+landscape. It possesses a slight degree of turbidness, and is esteemed
+for this property, which is considered to give it a retiring quality. By
+admixture with Antwerp blue or indigo it affords a fine range of quiet
+greens, also a very serviceable yellowish drab with Vandyke brown. The
+ochre is valuable in warm skies, the sails of ships and boats, sandstone
+rocks and cliffs, buildings, hay, sheep, &amp;c. It does not compound kindly
+with any of the cold colours, and should therefore be used as a wash
+over others that are dry, when required to qualify their tints.</p>
+
+
+<h4>42. ROMAN OCHRE</h4>
+
+<p>Is rather deeper and more powerful than the preceding, as well as more
+transparent and cool in tint. In other respects it is similar, and forms
+with Antwerp blue and indigo a like<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span> excellent range of greens. We may
+observe, however, that as indigo is not a permanent pigment, the colours
+it yields by admixture cannot be durable as far as the blue is
+concerned. Roman ochre and brown madder are admirably adapted for red
+sails, and autumnal effects of foliage.</p>
+
+
+<h4>43. BROWN OCHRE,</h4>
+
+<p>Likewise known as <i>Spruce Ochre</i> and <i>Ocre de Rue</i>, or, more correctly
+<i>Ru</i>, is a dense, deep-toned brownish yellow, fine in sandy foregrounds.
+With Indian yellow it gives a dark autumnal tint of great richness, but
+stable only as respects the ochre. When mixed with other colours, it
+furnishes a series of rich yet sober tones of extensive use. It covers
+well, without being too opaque; and compounded with black and a little
+brown-red is good for backgrounds, &amp;c.</p>
+
+
+<h4>44. TRANSPARENT GOLD OCHRE</h4>
+
+<p>Resembles in a great degree Roman ochre, but is clearer in its tints,
+and more transparent. It is also brighter and much less opaque than
+yellow ochre. It approaches somewhat the character of clear bright raw
+sienna, though more pure and brilliant, serving for strong
+semi-transparent greens and sunny effects.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span>45. OXFORD OCHRE</h4>
+
+<p>Is a native pigment from the neighbourhood of Oxford, semi-opaque, of a
+warm yellow colour and soft argillaceous texture, absorbent of water and
+oil, in both of which it may be safely employed. It is one of the best
+of yellow ochres.</p>
+
+
+<h4>46. STONE OCHRE</h4>
+
+<p>Has been confounded with the last variety, to which, as well as to Roman
+ochre, it is frequently similar. True stone ochres are found in balls or
+globular masses of various sizes in the solid body of stones, lying near
+the surface of rocks among the quarries of Gloucestershire and
+elsewhere. These balls are smooth and compact, in general free from
+grit, and of a powdery fracture. They vary exceedingly in colour, from
+yellow to brown, murrey, and gray, but otherwise do not differ from
+ordinary ochres.</p>
+
+<p>In enamel they may be used for browns and dull reds.</p>
+
+
+<h4>47. DI PALITO</h4>
+
+<p>Is a light yellow ochre, with no special distinguishing quality, except
+that its tints are rather purer in colour than most ochres.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span>48. ORIENT YELLOW</h4>
+
+<p>Is an entirely new preparation of absolute permanence, and perfectly
+unexceptionable in all respects, both in water and oil. We can give it
+no higher praise than by saying it equals aureolin in stability, as well
+as in neither injuring, nor being injured by, other colours. Not
+possessed of the same amount of transparency, it is distinguished by
+greater richness and depth. Of a soft golden hue, lustrous and luminous,
+it resembles a brilliant and somewhat opaque Indian yellow. A gorgeous
+and durable substitute for that fugitive pigment is produced by
+compounding the orient with aureolin, or by using the latter as a glaze.
+Being more transparent than cadmiums and less obtrusive, the new yellow
+is adapted for mellow sunset and sunrise clouds, or for sunshine on
+distant mountains. With French blue it affords a beautiful sea green;
+and, mixed with aureolin, gives fine foliage tints. It is also eligible
+for draperies and illumination. For enamelling it is inadmissible, the
+colour being destroyed by great heat; but in fresco it may safely be
+employed.</p>
+
+<p>As in the case of aureolin, we have had a prolonged personal experience
+of this new yellow, an experience which justifies us in asserting that
+there is none more permanent. In the whole range of artistic colours
+there is no pigment less<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span> affected by chemical or physical agents. Acid
+and ammoniacal fumes, foul gases, and exposure to damp, air, light, or
+sunshine, equally fail to injure it. The perfect impunity with which it
+bears the action both of sulphuretted hydrogen and sulphide of ammonium
+is remarkable. The former gas may be continuously passed into the colour
+suspended in water, or a strong solution of the latter sulphide be
+poured upon it, and the yellow remains unchanged. Submitted to the
+direct rays of the sun during an entire summer, its lightest and
+faintest tints have preserved their original hue.</p>
+
+<p>In a preceding chapter we remarked that, provided the colour be stable,
+the more colour a pigment possesses the better. The "latent colour"
+there alluded to, is one of the advantages of orient yellow. The more it
+is looked into, the more colour is seen&mdash;there is no suspicion of a base
+coloured, the pigment is colour itself.</p>
+
+
+<h4>49. ORPIMENT,</h4>
+
+<p>Also called <i>King's Yellow</i>, <i>Chinese Yellow</i>, <i>Yellow Orpiment</i>, &amp;c.,
+was known in ancient times: the Romans called it <i>auri pigmentum</i> or
+gold colour, whence, by corruption, its present name is derived. It is
+found in the native state in China and elsewhere, the best quality being
+in masses, consisting of plates of a fine golden hue, inter<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span>mixed with
+portions of a vermilion or orange-red colour; the inferior kinds are
+yellow or greenish yellow. Of orpiment, or sulphuret of arsenic, which
+is produced artificially, there are two distinct varieties; one of a
+bright pure yellow tint, in which the sulphur predominates, and one of
+an orange hue, in which the arsenic is in excess. The former is the most
+lasting, but it is not durable in water, and still less so in oil,
+although not discoloured by impure air. Compounded with white lead it is
+soon destroyed, nor can it be mixed with any colours into which lead
+enters, such as chrome yellow, the old Naples yellow, &amp;c. The sulphur in
+combination with the arsenic, having less affinity for that metal than
+for lead, lets it go, and forms a sulphuret of lead of a dark greyish
+hue. Moreover, as orpiment is apt to deprive other pigments of their
+oxygen, and therefore to change and be changed by all pigments whose
+colour depends on that element&mdash;metallic pigments especially&mdash;it is
+probable that the orpiment after some time withdraws the oxygen from the
+lead; and this would be an additional cause for the darkening of the
+tint composed of the two colours. With sulphides or pigments containing
+sulphur, orpiment may be used with less danger. If employed at all,
+however, it had better be in a pure and unmixed state. We are far from
+recommending orpiment as an eligible colour, and it is highly
+poisonous.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Brick dust and yellow ochre are sometimes found as adulterants.</p>
+
+
+<h4>50. RAW SIENNA,</h4>
+
+<p>Known likewise as <i>Raw Sienna Earth</i>, <i>Terra di Sienna</i>, &amp;c., is a
+ferruginous native pigment, firm in substance, of a glossy fracture, and
+very absorbent. It is of rather an impure yellow colour, and much used
+in landscape, being very serviceable both in distance and foreground.
+Unless proper skill is exercised in its preparation, the sienna has the
+objection of being somewhat pasty in working. Being little liable to
+change by the action of either light, time, or impure air, it may safely
+be employed according to its powers, in oil, water, and other modes of
+practice. It possesses more body and transparency than the ochres; and
+by burning becomes deeper, orange-russet, as well as more transparent
+and drying.</p>
+
+<p>Raw sienna compounded with cobalt, indigo, or Prussian blue, and a very
+little bistre, yields good sea greens, that with indigo being the most
+fugitive. Alone, it is adapted for shipping, sails, baskets, decayed
+leaves, brooks and running streams.</p>
+
+
+<h4>51. STRONTIAN YELLOW,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">To justify its name, should be a chromate of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span> strontia, a compound very
+slightly soluble in water, and not more stable than the zinc chromate.
+The pigment, however, now sold as strontian yellow is usually formed by
+admixture, and contains no strontia whatever. Its absence cannot be
+considered a disadvantage, for the substitute possesses a durability to
+which the original could lay no claim. Other things being equal, we
+prefer an original pigment to one compounded, but a good mixture is
+decidedly better than a bad original. A light primrose, clear and
+delicate.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<p>The foregoing comprise those yellows more generally employed, advisedly
+or not, as the case may be. The following are for the most part not
+commercially obtainable, a remark that will apply in ensuing chapters to
+all numbered colours printed in italics. As a rule, these have become
+obsolete as pigments, or have never been introduced as such. The former
+could not well be omitted in a work of this kind, and the latter deserve
+notice as being at least suggestive. At present, many of them must be
+regarded as mere curiosities, being obtainable only from materials of
+excessive rarity. In time, however, the sources whence they are derived
+may possibly be found in greater abundance, and these now fancy products
+prove of value to the palette.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span> The new metal indium, for instance,
+furnishes a bright yellow sulphide, like that of cadmium. The colour
+could not be affected by foul air, and might possess other advantages
+which would render indium yellow a desirable pigment. With regard to
+those compounds available for artistic use, but which have not to our
+knowledge been adopted, several are quite ineligible. It may be thought
+that they are needlessly referred to, but they are mentioned as a
+warning and a guide. Strange preparations have been offered as pigments,
+and sometimes accepted, witness turbith mineral, iodine yellow, &amp;c. In
+these days of chemistry there is less chance for them, but they are
+continually submitted to one's notice, their merits being enlarged upon
+in proportion to their worthlessness. Through an exceptional ignorance
+they may still gain a place, and it has been deemed, therefore, not
+superfluous to allude to them. At the same time we do not pretend to
+exhaust the list, any more than we claim to note all substances
+possessing colour, but yet not admissible as pigments. Some there are
+which do not retain that colour on drying; others, whose preparation
+involves processes too nice, complicated, or expensive, for
+manufacturing purposes. There are many colours, again, which exist only
+on paper. We have too often found the imaginations of chemical writers
+far more vivid than the colours they describe. Gorgeous yellows turn<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span>
+out dingy drabs; dazzling scarlets dirty reds; and brilliant blues dusky
+slates. As respects colours, most books of science need revising.</p>
+
+
+<h4>52. <i>Arsenic Yellow</i>,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">Called also <i>Mineral Yellow</i>, has improperly been classed as an
+orpiment, from which it differs in not being a sulphide, and in
+containing lead. It is prepared from arsenic fluxed with litharge, and
+reduced to powder. It is much like orpiment in colour, dries better, and
+not being affected by lead, is less liable to change in tint. The
+presence of the litharge, however, renders it subject to be blackened by
+sulphuretted hydrogen. Of course it is poisonous.</p>
+
+
+<h4>53. <i>Bismuth Yellow</i>,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">Or chromate of bismuth, may be obtained either as a lemon or an orange
+yellow, sparingly soluble in water. The colour is not permanent, and
+turns greenish-brown even when excluded from light and air.</p>
+
+
+<h4>54. <i>Copper Yellow</i>,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">Or chromate of copper-potassa, is of a bright yellow tint, not insoluble
+in water. It is discoloured both by foul gas and exposure.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span>55. <i>Gelbin's Yellow</i>,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">Or chromate of lime, is a pale whitish yellow, poor in colour, partly
+soluble, and not at all to be depended on.</p>
+
+
+<h4>56. <i>Indium Yellow.</i></h4>
+
+<p>Whether the new metal indium will ever be found in sufficient quantity
+to render it practically useful remains to be seen. The most abundant
+source at present known is the Freiberg blende, 100,000 parts of which
+only yield from twenty-five to forty parts of indium. The metal is
+chiefly interesting in an artistic sense on account of its sulphide, a
+fine bright yellow resembling cadmium, and best obtained by
+precipitating an acetic acid solution with sulphuretted hydrogen, or
+sulphide of ammonium. In the latter, the yellow dissolves on being
+heated, but deposits again on cooling of a rather paler tint. With one
+modification, what was said in a former edition of this Treatise
+concerning cadmium yellow may be repeated of indium yellow. "The metal
+from which it is prepared being hitherto scarce, it has not been
+employed as a pigment, and its habits are not therefore ascertained."
+All we can tell is, that the colour does not suffer from impure air.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span>Indium is likewise distinguished by a straw-yellow oxide.</p>
+
+
+<h4>57. <i>Iodine Yellow</i>,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">Or iodide of lead, is one of those compounds whose presence on the
+palette should never have been allowed. Exceedingly brilliant, it is
+also utterly fugitive, destroyed by exposure or foul gas, and useless in
+admixture. We may state here that, whatever its colour, no pigment
+containing iodine can in the slightest degree be relied upon. One of the
+most unstable of substances, being slowly volatile even at common
+temperatures, iodine is or ought to be quite inadmissible as a
+constituent. Combined with lead, which is in itself objectionable, it
+forms a yellow possessing every bad quality.</p>
+
+
+<h4>58. <i>Iron Yellow</i>,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">Or oxalate of protoxide of iron, has very unadvisedly been recommended
+as a pigment. It is a bright pale yellow, but soon loses the beauty of
+its tint when submitted to air and light, becoming, by peroxidation, red
+and buffy. Even in a book the colour changes.</p>
+
+
+<h4>59. <i>Madder Yellow.</i></h4>
+
+<p>As our (the Editor's) experience of this product is somewhat at variance
+with that of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span> author, we subjoin his original statement. "Madder
+yellow is a preparation from the madder-root. The best is of a bright
+colour, resembling Indian yellow, but more powerful and transparent,
+though hardly equal to it in durability of hue; metallic, terrene, and
+alkaline substances acting on and reddening it as they do gamboge: even
+alone it has by time a natural tendency to become orange and foxy. We
+have produced it of various hues and tints, from an opaque and ochrous
+yellow, to a colour the most brilliant, transparent, and deep. Upon the
+whole, however, after an experience of many years, we do not consider
+them eligible pigments."</p>
+
+<p>While agreeing with Mr. Field as to the character given of these
+yellows, we must confess that we have never been able to obtain, nor
+have we ever seen, a "most brilliant" madder yellow. Colours bearing
+that name have come under our notice, but if their hue was pure and
+vivid, they have always proved to be falsely so called, the madder being
+conspicuous by its absence. What we have succeeded in producing, and the
+genuine samples we have met with, have been fawns, buffs, drabs, &amp;c.,
+decidedly "ochrous" yellows, and wanting in stability. It is certain
+that no true madder yellow, brilliant and pure, ranks as a pigment at
+the present day. A variety known as Cory's Yellow Madder may be briefly
+described as Cory's <i>Brown</i> Madder.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span>60. <i>Massicot</i>,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">Or <i>Masticot</i>, is a protoxide of lead, varying from the purest and most
+tender straw colour to a dull orange yellow, and known as Light, Yellow,
+and Golden Massicot. It has in painting all the properties of white
+lead, from which it may be prepared by gentle calcination in an open
+furnace. In tint with that pigment, however, it soon loses its colour
+and returns to white, probably extracting some carbonic acid therefrom.
+If used in an unmixed state, it is permanent in oil under the same
+conditions as white lead, but should not be employed in water, on
+account of its changing even to blackness by the action of damp or
+impure air. It is an admirable dryer, and has much the same effect as
+litharge in rendering oils siccative.</p>
+
+<p><i>Litharge</i> is merely fused massicot. Old writers speak of litharge of
+silver and litharge of gold, oxides of lead, pale and reddish yellow
+respectively. Commercial litharge, especially that which is foreign,
+contains sometimes a considerable proportion of oxide of copper and
+iron. The principal impurity, however, is generally silica, left
+undissolved on treating the litharge with nitric or acetic acid.
+Litharge is commonly used in preparing drying oils, which contain a
+greater or less amount of the oxide in the form of oleate of lead. Oils
+made siccative by means<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span> of litharge are therefore liable to be damaged
+by foul gas. It is a matter of congratulation that such injury is not
+lasting, and that the oil, like white lead, recovers its original colour
+on exposure to air and light. Some drying oil which we exposed on a tile
+to an atmosphere of sulphuretted hydrogen until it was completely
+blackened, regained its former yellow hue on being submitted for a day
+or so to air and light. Hence, although the employment of lead as a
+siccative is not desirable, its effects are not so deleterious as might
+be imagined.</p>
+
+
+<h4>61. <i>Patent Yellow</i>,</h4>
+
+<p class="no"><i>Turner's Yellow</i>, <i>Montpellier Yellow</i>, <i>Mineral Yellow</i>, <i>Cassel
+Yellow</i>, &amp;c., is a mixture of chloride and oxide of lead, obtainable
+either as a pale or a deep yellow. It is a hard, ponderous, sparkling
+substance, of a crystalline texture and bright colour; hardly inferior,
+when ground, to chrome yellow. Of an excellent body, and working well in
+oil and water, but soon injured both by the sun's light and impure air.
+A variety, mentioned by M&eacute;rim&eacute;e, in which bismuth and antimony are also
+used, is of greater durability.</p>
+
+
+<h4>62. <i>Platinum Yellow.</i></h4>
+
+<p>Our own opinion of this costly preparation is that the good qualities of
+the product do not<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span> justify its price. It may be obtained as a bright,
+rich, deep yellow, of considerable transparency; but the colour is acted
+upon by foul gas and exposure. Even in a book we have found it assume a
+dirty greyish cast, and a specimen which had been kept in a drawer,
+wrapped up in paper, became perfectly black in a few years. The presence
+of palladium interferes with the beauty of the original tint, but does
+not affect its stability.</p>
+
+
+<h4>63. <i>Thallium Yellow.</i></h4>
+
+<p>The new metal thallium yields in combination with chromic acid two
+yellow colours, a pale and an orange. They are not absolutely insoluble
+in water, and the sulphide of thallium being brown, would probably be
+damaged by impure air. But whatever their properties as pigments may be,
+their habitudes as such are not yet known. The present scarcity of the
+metal renders the colours produced from it mere scientific curiosities.</p>
+
+
+<h4>64. <i>Thwaites' Yellow.</i></h4>
+
+<p>Under this name chromate of cadmium was introduced some few years back.
+If well prepared, it is a fine soft powder of a very vivid light yellow
+colour. The compound is too soluble, however, to be of value, its
+washings even with cold water being continually tinged yellow. Hence it
+turns<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span> green after a time, and becomes otherwise discoloured. Like
+citron yellow and other chromates apt to assume a green cast, it should
+only be employed, if at all, when compounded for foliage tints, &amp;c. This
+want of durability is to be regretted, for a good sample of cadmium
+chrome is marked by exceeding beauty, unsurpassed for clearness and
+purity by any other yellow.</p>
+
+
+<h4>65. <i>Turbith Mineral</i>,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">Or <i>Queen's Yellow</i>, is a subsulphate of mercury, of a beautiful lemon
+yellow colour, but so liable to change by the action of light or impure
+air, that it cannot be used safely, and hardly deserves attention as a
+pigment.</p>
+
+
+<h4>66. <i>Uranium Yellow</i></h4>
+
+<p class="no">Can be produced of a pale or orange tint, differing in brightness and
+depth of colour according to the mode of preparation. It is fairly
+eligible as a pigment, and far superior to the many fugitive compounds
+which have from time to time appeared. Being very expensive, however,
+and not possessing the good qualities of its compeers lately introduced,
+uranium yellow has but little chance of being employed now.</p>
+
+
+<h4>67. <i>Yellow Carmine</i></h4>
+
+<p class="no">Is a rich transparent colour, somewhat resem<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span>bling an ochre compounded
+with Indian yellow. On exposure to light, it behaves much as a mixture
+of those pigments would do, the rich <i>yellowness</i> entirely disappearing,
+and the sober-coloured earth being left behind.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<p>From several metals besides those mentioned, yellows more or less vivid
+and durable may be obtained&mdash;from tin, nickel, cerium, molybdenum, &amp;c.;
+but we do not know that any one of them would be a really desirable
+addition. To justify its being brought out, a new pigment should own
+some special advantage, chemical or artistic, by which it may be
+distinguished from other colours. No purpose would be answered by
+crowding the palette with mere repetitions, even though they were
+stable. If, for instance, indium yellow were found exactly similar to
+that of cadmium, in colour, opacity, permanence, its presence would be
+quite superfluous. The mistake is often made of offering a fresh
+compound for a pigment when something as good or better, and cheaper may
+be, already exists. We remember a patient experimenter, who had produced
+a pink from cobalt, wondering why his colour should be so generally
+declined. The product was not wanting in either beauty or stability, but
+he forgot that the lakes of madder were far more beautiful, at least as
+durable, and much less expensive. We have said that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span> we do not join in
+the cry of there being too many pigments, or share the opinion that
+there is not room for more, but we do enforce the necessity of progress.
+Let us have as many good colours as possible, but let the new be
+superior to the old, and all be distinct from each other.</p>
+
+<p>As far as yellows are concerned, the palette possesses both variety and
+durability. Opaque or transparent, bright or subdued, deep or pale, it
+presents a sufficiency of permanent pigments. Most noteworthy are
+aureolin, the deep and 'pale' cadmiums, lemon yellow, Mars yellow, the
+modern Naples yellow, the ochres, orient yellow, and raw sienna. Whether
+used alone or in tint these are, if genuine, perfectly reliable, and
+comprise the list of those durable colours which may be called pigments
+of the first class.</p>
+
+<p>Among pigments of the second class, or the semi-stable, gamboge holds
+the foremost place, for although not strictly durable in itself, it
+conduces to the permanence of other colours. Chrome yellows, citron
+yellow, strontian yellow, and Thwaites' yellow, also belong to this
+division.</p>
+
+<p>As third class pigments, or the fugitive, must be ranked Mutrie yellow
+and other lemon cadmiums, the true gallstone, Indian yellow, the lakes,
+orpiment, Gelbin's yellow, massicot, patent yellow, and turbith mineral.</p>
+
+<p>It must not be forgotten, however, that these<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span> three classes are subject
+to modification. A durable pigment may be so adulterated as to descend
+to the second or even the third division, while a semi-stable or
+fugitive colour may be replaced by a permanent or comparatively
+permanent substitute, as in the case of strontian yellow and gallstone.
+It should likewise be remembered that pigments are apt to vary in
+stability according to the mode of their preparation; and that, as there
+are different degrees of permanence, there are different degrees of
+fugacity.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span><a name="chapter_9" id="chapter_9"></a><a href="#contents">CHAPTER IX.</a></h2>
+
+<h3>ON THE PRIMARY, RED.</h3>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Red</span> is the second and intermediate of the primary colours, standing
+between <i>yellow</i> and <i>blue</i>; and is also in like intermediate relation
+to <i>white</i> and <i>black</i>, or light and shade. Hence red is pre-eminent
+among colours, as well as the most positive of all, forming with yellow
+the secondary <i>orange</i> and its near relatives, scarlet, &amp;c.; and with
+blue, the secondary <i>purple</i> and its allies, crimson, &amp;c. It gives some
+degree of warmth to all colours, especially to those which partake of
+yellow.</p>
+
+<p>Red is the archeus, or principal colour in the tertiary <i>russet</i>; enters
+subordinately into the two other tertiaries, <i>citrine</i> and <i>olive</i>; goes
+largely into the composition of the various hues and shades of the
+semi-neutral <i>marrone</i> or chocolate, and its relations, puce, murrey,
+morelle, mordore, pompadour, &amp;c.; and is more or less present in
+<i>browns</i>, <i>grays</i>, and all broken colours. It is likewise the second
+power in harmonizing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span> and contrasting other colours, as well as in
+compounding <i>black</i> and all other neutrals, into which it enters in the
+proportion of five,&mdash;to blue, eight,&mdash;and yellow, three.</p>
+
+<p>Red is a colour of double power in this respect too; that, in union or
+connexion with yellow, it becomes hot and <i>advancing</i>; but mixed or
+combined with blue, cool and <i>retiring</i>. It is, however, more congenial
+with yellow than with blue, and thence partakes more of the character of
+the former in its effects of warmth, the influence of light and
+distance, and action on the eye, by which the power of vision is
+diminished on viewing this colour in a strong light. On the other hand,
+red appears to deepen in colour rapidly in a declining light as night
+comes on, or in shade. These qualities of red give it great importance,
+render it difficult of management, and require it to be generally kept
+subordinate in painting. It is therefore rarely used unbroken, as the
+ruling or predominating colour, or for toning a picture; on which
+account it will always seem detached or insulated, unless repeated and
+subordinated. Hence Nature is sparing with her red, employing it with as
+much reserve in the decoration of her works as she is profuse in
+lavishing green upon them. This latter is of all colours the most
+soothing to the eye, and the true contrasting or harmonizing equivalent
+of red, in the proportional quantity<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span> of eleven to five, according to
+surface or intensity: being, when the red inclines to scarlet or orange,
+a <i>blue</i>-green; and when it tends to crimson or purple, a
+<i>yellow</i>-green.</p>
+
+<p>Red breaks and diffuses with white with peculiar loveliness. It is
+discordant when standing with orange only, requiring to be joined or
+accompanied by their proper contrast, to resolve or harmonize the
+dissonance. In landscapes, &amp;c., abounding with hues allied to green, a
+red object properly placed as regards light, shade, or distance,
+conduces wonderfully to the life, beauty, harmony, and connexion of the
+colouring. Red is, indeed, the chief element of beauty in floral nature,
+the prime ornament of the green garb of the vegetal kingdom.</p>
+
+<p>Being the most <i>positive</i> of colours, and holding the middle station of
+the primaries, red contrasts and harmonizes with black and white, which
+are the <i>negative</i> powers or neutrals of colours, and the <ins class="trans" title="was extemes">extremes</ins> of
+the scale. Moreover, as red is less nearly allied to black or shade than
+to white or light, this harmony is most remarkable in the union or
+opposition of white and red, and this contrast most powerful in black
+and red.</p>
+
+<p>As a primary and simple colour, red cannot be composed by mixture of
+other colours. So much is it the instrument of beauty in nature and art
+in flesh, flowers, &amp;c., that good pigments of this genus are most
+indispensable. On the whole,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span> the palette cannot be considered so well
+furnished with reds as with yellows. Especially is there wanting a
+permanent transparent scarlet, a colour for which a prize of &pound;500 has
+for many years been offered by the Society of Arts.</p>
+
+
+<h4>68. CADMIUM RED.</h4>
+
+<p>The deep, pale, and lemon yellows which cadmium at first afforded, were
+followed by an orange, which has quite recently been succeeded by a red.
+This is a most vivid orange-scarlet, the red predominating, of exceeding
+depth, and intense fire. It is a simple original pigment, containing no
+base but cadmium, and possessing a large amount of latent colour. It is
+more orange in hue than vermilion, and has the advantages of flowing and
+drying well, of greater brilliancy, of retaining that brilliancy when
+dry, and of considerable transparency. Hence this red is preferably
+employed where opacity is to be avoided&mdash;in sunset clouds for instance.
+As day declines or by artificial light, the colour approaches very
+nearly to a deep pure scarlet; and the best substitute for a permanent
+transparent scarlet which has yet been obtained is furnished by
+admixture of cadmium red with madder carmine, or by using the latter as
+a glaze. Compounded with white, the red yields a series of fine flesh
+tints; and it mixes readily and safely with other colours. Without
+harshness or rankness, neither injured by an im<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span>pure atmosphere nor
+exposure to light and air, cadmium red is eligible in every department
+of art, enamel painting only excepted. In illumination, the red
+contrasted by viridian will be found most beautiful and effective.
+Seeing that previous to its introduction the number of bright reds, not
+being crimson, nor of a crimson cast, was limited to vermilions, pure
+scarlet, red chrome, and red lead, of which the first alone were
+permanent, there was room on the palette for a strictly durable and
+somewhat transparent pigment like cadmium red, with its many distinctive
+properties.</p>
+
+
+<h4>COCHINEAL LAKES.</h4>
+
+<p>Lake, a term derived from the <i>lac</i> or <i>lacca</i> of India, is the name of
+a number of transparent red and other coloured pigments of great beauty,
+prepared for the most part by precipitating coloured tinctures of dyeing
+drugs upon aluminous bases. Consequently, the lakes form a numerous
+class, both with respect to the variety of their appellations, and the
+substances whence they are produced. Those under notice are known as
+<i>Carmine</i>, <i>Crimson Lake</i>, <i>Scarlet Lake</i>, <i>Purple Lake</i>, <i>Chinese
+Lake</i>, <i>Florentine Lake</i>, <i>Hamburgh Lake</i>, <i>Roman Lake</i>, <i>Venetian
+Lake</i>, &amp;c., and are obtained from the "coccus cacti," an insect found on
+a species of cactus, from the juice of which it extracts its
+nourishment. This coccus is a native of Mexico,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span> where two kinds are
+recognised, under names which signify wild cochineal and fine cochineal.
+The latter may be considered a cultivated product, its food and wants
+being carefully attended to, while the former is left in a natural
+state, and is less valuable. Wild cochineal is distinguished by having a
+woolly downy coat, which is not the case with the fine cochineal. The
+females, of which there are from one hundred and fifty to two hundred
+for each male, are marked by the absence of wings, and constitute the
+commercial article. They are generally killed by immersion in boiling
+water, which causes them to swell to twice their natural size, and are
+then dried and packed for market. The insects shrivel in drying, and
+assume the form of irregular grains, fluted and concave. The best sorts
+have a silvery-grey colour, with a purplish reflection, and seem to be
+dusted with a white powder. This appearance is often given by means of
+heavy spar, carbonate of lead, Venice talc, &amp;c. A good lens, however,
+will mostly expose the fraud; or it may be detected by macerating the
+insect in water, and allowing the loosened pulverised particles to
+settle.</p>
+
+<p>Cochineal is a very rich colouring substance, yielding about half its
+weight of real colouring matter, which may be easily extracted by
+boiling in water. Dr. Warren De La Rue, who examined the living animal,
+states that on piercing the side<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span> of the insect a purplish-red fluid
+exuded, containing the colouring matter in minute granules. This
+colouring matter he succeeded in obtaining pure, in the form of a
+purple-brown friable mass, pulverizable to a fine red powder,
+transparent when viewed by the microscope, and soluble both in water and
+alcohol in all proportions. At temperatures above 136&deg; it decomposed,
+and by alkalies its colour was turned to purple. These facts account for
+the care required in drying cochineal lakes, and for their liability to
+change of hue when in contact with alkaline substances, as in mural
+decoration.</p>
+
+<p>The lakes of cochineal may be known from those of the dye-woods by their
+solubility in ammonia, a liquid which purples but does not dissolve the
+colours produced from the latter.</p>
+
+
+<h4>69. CARMINE.</h4>
+
+<p>A name once given only to the fine feculences of kermes and cochineal
+tinctures, now denotes generally any pigment which resembles them in
+beauty, richness of hue, and powdery texture. We have, therefore, blue
+and other coloured carmines, though the term is usually confined to the
+crimson and scarlet lakes of cochineal. As at present commonly
+understood, carmine is that preparation of cochineal which contains the
+most colouring matter and the least aluminous base. Hence it is the
+richest, deepest, most intense,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span> and most permanent. Although not to be
+classed as durable, yet by reason of its extreme depth, carmine is more
+stable than the weaker crimson, scarlet, and purple lakes. When
+well-made, pure, and employed alone and in body, it has been known to
+retain its colour for years, especially if protected by oil or varnish.
+In tint with white lead, however, it has no stability; and though little
+affected by impure air, in glazing it is soon discoloured and destroyed
+by the action of light. Of great power in its full touches, it possesses
+considerable clearness in the pale washes, and works admirably. In
+landscape, carmine is seldom used, the colour being chiefly valued in
+flower painting and illumination.</p>
+
+<p>It has been erroneously stated that the finest carmines cannot be made
+in England, owing to a want of clearness in the atmosphere and a
+scarcity of sunshine. For many years, however, they have been produced
+in this country, not only finer than any foreign preparations, but
+equally good in winter as in summer.</p>
+
+<p>Carmine is sometimes sophisticated with starch, vermilion, and with
+alumina not formed in the process of manufacture. Occasionally also, a
+portion of the animal matter of the cochineal from which it has been
+obtained is left mixed with it. These accidental or intentional
+impuri<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span>ties may mostly be detected by heating the carmine with liquid
+ammonia, which entirely dissolves the colouring matter and leaves the
+impurities in an insoluble state.</p>
+
+
+<h4>70. CRIMSON LAKE</h4>
+
+<p class="no">Is a cochineal pigment containing more aluminous base than carmine, and
+is consequently weaker in colour and less stable. Deficient in much of
+the depth and brilliancy which belong to the latter, it is more commonly
+employed and more generally useful. This lake is of service in mixing
+tints, to impart richness, in flower painting and illumination, and is,
+like all cochineal colours, of greater utility in water than in oil.
+With cobalt and gamboge it yields an excellent gray, and with cobalt
+alone a fine purple for heather. Distant hills may be strengthened with
+a tint of French blue and lake, and Vandyke brown with the crimson will
+be found admirable for a rich coloured foreground. Many other beautiful
+tints, unexceptionable in an artistic sense, are afforded by crimson
+lake on admixture. It should be remembered, however, that not one of
+them is permanent as far as the lake is concerned. All cochineal
+pigments are more or less affected by strong light, which weakens their
+tints, and in time deprives them of colour; and it is not by being
+compounded that a fugitive colour is rendered durable.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span>71. SCARLET LAKE</h4>
+
+<p class="no">Is prepared in the form of drops from cochineal, and is of a fine
+transparent red colour and excellent body, though, like other lakes, it
+dries slowly. Discoloured and destroyed by strong light both in water
+and oil, and not permanent in tint with white lead or in combination
+with other pigments, it possesses the common attributes of cochineal
+lakes. Yet when well prepared, used in sufficient body, and not unduly
+exposed, it has been found to last a lengthened period; but it ought
+never to be employed in glazing, nor at all in works that aim at high
+reputation and stability. It is in general tinted with vermilion, which
+has probably been mixed with lakes at all times to give their scarlet
+hue and add to their weight; for upon examining with a powerful lens
+some fine pictures of ancient masters, in which lake had been used in
+glazing, particles of vermilion were apparent, from which lake had
+evidently flown. Unfortunately, these lakes are injured by vermilion as
+they are by lead, so that glazings of cochineal over vermilion or lead
+are particularly apt to vanish. This effect is very remarkable in
+several pictures of Cuyp, where he has introduced a figure in red from
+which the shadows have disappeared, owing to their having been formed
+with lake over vermilion. The scarlet hue of this lake should properly
+be im<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span>parted to it during the process of manufacture, and not by
+subsequent mechanical admixture.</p>
+
+
+<h4>72. PURPLE LAKE</h4>
+
+<p class="no">Is a species of crimson lake with a purple cast, transparent and
+deep-toned, and useful in shadows: in other respects resembling that
+pigment. Red being its predominant colour, we have preferred classing
+this so-called purple among the reds, in spite of its name. On the whole
+it is more durable than crimson lake.</p>
+
+
+<h4>73. FLORENTINE LAKE</h4>
+
+<p class="no">Differs from scarlet lake only in the mode of preparation. Formerly the
+lake so called was extracted from the shreds of scarlet cloth. The same
+may be said of <i>Chinese Lake</i>.</p>
+
+
+<h4>74. HAMBURGH LAKE</h4>
+
+<p class="no">Is a lake of great power and depth of colour, purplish or inclining to
+crimson, which dries with extreme difficulty, but differs in no other
+essential respect from preceding cochineal lakes&mdash;an observation which
+applies to <i>Roman Lake</i>, <i>Venetian Lake</i>, and many others; none of
+which, however beautiful or reputed, is entitled to the character of
+stability either in hue, shade, or tint.</p>
+
+
+<h4>75. DRAGON'S BLOOD</h4>
+
+<p class="no">Is a resin brought from the East Indies. It is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span> of a warm
+semi-transparent, rather dull red colour, which is deepened by impure
+air, and darkened by light. There are two or three sorts, but that in
+drops is the best. White lead soon destroys it, and in oil it dries with
+extreme difficulty. It is sometimes used to colour varnishes and
+lackers, being soluble in oils and alcohol. Although it has been
+recommended as a pigment, dragon's blood does not merit the attention of
+the artist.</p>
+
+
+<h4>76. INDIAN LAKE,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">Likewise called <i>Lac Lake</i>. This is obtained from the lac or lacca of
+India, a resinous secretion which seems to depend upon the puncture of a
+small insect&mdash;<i>coccus ficus</i>&mdash;made for the sake of depositing its ova on
+the branches of several plants, found in Siam, Assam, and Bengal. The
+twigs soon become encrusted with a mammelated substance of a red colour
+more or less deep, nearly transparent, hard, and having a brilliant
+conchoidal fracture. The roughly-prepared coating is imported in two
+forms, called lac-lake and lac-dye, which contain about 50 per cent of
+colouring matter, combined with more or less resin, and with earthy
+matters, consisting chiefly of carbonate and sulphate of lime and
+silica.</p>
+
+<p>Indian lake is rich, transparent, and deep,&mdash;less brilliant and more
+durable than the colours<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span> of cochineal, but inferior in both respects to
+those of madder. Used thickly or in strong glazing, as a shadow colour,
+it is of great body and much permanence; but in thin glazing it changes
+and flies, as it also does in tint with white lead. In the properties of
+drying, &amp;c., it resembles other lakes. The pigment may be dispensed with
+in favour of madder lake and madder brown, whose combinations serve for
+every purpose to which it can be applied, and are stable.</p>
+
+<p>Lac appears to be the lake which has stood best in old pictures, and was
+probably employed by the Venetians, who had the trade of India when
+painting flourished at Venice.</p>
+
+
+<h4>MADDER LAKES.</h4>
+
+<p><i>Rubric Lakes</i>, or <i>Field's Lakes</i>, are derived from the root of "rubia
+tinctorum," a plant largely grown in France and Holland, whence the bulk
+of that used in England is obtained. The French madders are in a state
+of very fine powder, containing one half their weight of gum, sugar,
+salts, and other soluble substances, which water speedily dissolves.
+Madder roots in the unground state are imported from the Levant, and
+called Turkey roots. Good qualities of Turkey madder yield near sixty
+per cent of extractive matters, a term that includes everything
+removable by water and dilute alkalis: the woody fibre is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span> therefore
+about forty per cent. This is presuming the root to be genuine, for
+madder is often adulterated with brickdust, red ochre, red sand, clay,
+mahogany sawdust, logwood, sandal and japan-wood, and bran.</p>
+
+<p>Unlike cochineal, madder possesses several colouring matters; the
+question of which, despite the learned researches of Dr. Schunck and
+others, is far from settled yet. The following remarks embody our own
+experience of the root, simply as a pigment-producing product:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>Madder contains five colouring matters&mdash;yellow, red, orange, purple, and
+brown. Of these, the first colour is soluble in cold water. By washing
+the powdered root quickly with it by decantation, the yellow and brown
+are extracted in the form of an opaque liquid. If this be decanted and
+allowed to stand, the brown deposits, leaving a clear buffish-yellow
+supernatant liquor. In the root from which the extract was poured, the
+remaining three colours are left. On adding a strong boiling solution of
+alum, these are dissolved, yielding a fine red liquid. From this there
+can be thrown down, by the agency of different chemicals, a red, an
+orange, or a purple precipitate. Or, supposing the whole of the
+colouring matter to be deposited as a red lake, it is possible to
+convert this&mdash;also by the agency of different chemicals&mdash;either into
+orange or purple. Hence, for all practical purposes, madder contains but
+three<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span> colouring matters: a yellow, soluble in cold water; a brown, not
+soluble in, but capable of being extracted by cold water; and a red,
+soluble in boiling alum, and furnishing at will a purple or an orange.</p>
+
+<p>As was observed in the previous chapter, no good pigment is obtained
+from the yellow, of which the less there is present the better; but the
+brown affords a valued product, which will be duly noticed. It is
+essential to the purity of the reds, that the madder should be freed
+from both these colours; and it was probably due to insufficient aqueous
+washing of the root, that the old lakes were dull and muddy, mere
+brick-reds of ochrous hues. For many years, however, lakes have been
+prepared perfectly transparent, and literally as beautiful and pure in
+colour as the rose; qualities in which they are unrivalled by the lakes
+and carmine of cochineal. They have justly been considered as supplying
+a desideratum, and as among the most valuable acquisitions of the
+palette in modern times, since permanent transparent red and rose
+pigments were previously unknown. The red varieties range from rich
+crimson to a delicate rose, and are known as <i>Madder Carmine</i>, <i>Field's
+Carmine</i>, <i>Pink Madder</i>, <i>Rose Madder</i>, <i>Madder Lake</i>, and <i>Liquid
+Rubiate</i> or <i>Liquid Madder Lake</i>.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span>77. MADDER CARMINE,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">Or <i>Field's Carmine</i>, like that of cochineal, is the richest and deepest
+lake prepared, containing most colouring matter and least base. It
+differs from the paler products chiefly in transparency and intensity,
+and is the only durable carmine for painting either in water or oil; for
+both which it is qualified by texture without previous grinding. In
+common with the other reds of madder, its faint washes possess greater
+clearness than those of cochineal. This carmine is a difficult colour to
+make well, exceeding care and nicety being required to obtain the
+fullest tint: hence it is apt to vary in hue according to the skill of
+the manufacturer. Being expensive also, the price increasing according
+to depth of colour, the lake has been the most liable to adulteration,
+of all the reds of madder. M&eacute;rim&eacute;e states that samples were sent to him
+from Berlin, under the name of "carmine madder," which evidently owed
+their brightness to tincture of cochineal. It is certain that madder
+lakes have been imitated on the Continent with various success by those
+of lac, cochineal, and carthamus or safflower. The best we have seen is
+the <i>laque de garance</i>, which was tinged with the rouge of carthamus,
+and was of course inferior in durability. As, however, liquid ammonia
+and alkalis generally dissolve the colours of cochineal, lac, and
+safflower,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span> the test is simple. If the liquid remain uncoloured on
+adding ammonia to an assumed madder lake, in all probability the pigment
+is genuine.</p>
+
+
+<h4>78. ROSE MADDER.</h4>
+
+<p>The exquisite flowers of Bartholomew, Miss Mutrie, and others, give
+evidence of the beauty, purity, and stability of the reds of madder,
+both in water and oil. This variety, less intense than the preceding and
+without its carmine hue, is of a rich rose colour&mdash;a true rose&mdash;tending
+neither to crimson, scarlet, nor purple. Marked by a peculiar softness,
+and an unusual clearness in its pale washes, rose madder affords the
+most perfect carnation tints known. Not liable to change by the action
+of light, impure air, or admixture with white lead and other colours, it
+resembles all madder lakes in these respects. Like them, too, it is but
+a tardy dryer in oil unless thoroughly edulcorated, and does not work in
+water with the entire fulness and facility of cochineal pigments. When,
+therefore, permanence is of no consideration, the latter may still be
+preferred. In those works, however, where the hues and tints of nature
+are to be imitated with stability and pure effect, the rose colours of
+madder are become indispensable. They have this advantage, moreover,
+that they possess the property of ultramarine of improving in hue by
+time&mdash;their tendency being to their own specific prismatic red colour.
+As they are too beautiful and require<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span> saddening for the general use of
+the painter, the addition of manganese brown, cappagh brown, or burnt
+umber, adds to their powers, and improves their drying in oils; for
+which last purpose a little japanner's gold size may be likewise
+employed.</p>
+
+<p>In the light touches of bright clouds or mountains, where a mixture of
+cadmium yellow and Chinese white is used, rose madder is invaluable for
+glazing over such touches when dry, should they be required of a warmer
+hue. The red portion of sunset skies may be improved by a thin wash of
+this pigment, tinged perhaps with the above yellow, or with gamboge.
+Most serviceable landscape tints are afforded by admixture of rose
+madder with cobalt, Indian red, purple madder, yellow ochre, lamp black,
+&amp;c. In painting flesh, the lake cannot be dispensed with.</p>
+
+
+<h4>79. PINK MADDER</h4>
+
+<p class="no">Was a weaker preparation of the preceding, paler in hue and possessing
+less colour. It was formerly employed in miniature painting, but with
+the decline of that art became less and less used, until it may now be
+said to be obsolete. The name, however, still lives, but is applied to
+rose madder, which is indeed indifferently called <i>Rose Madder</i>, <i>Pink
+Madder</i>, or <i>Madder Lake</i>. Speaking of pink roses, Mrs. Duffield remarks
+that "the local colour is best imitated with pink madder," and the
+Messrs. Rowbotham observe<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span> "this heather may be best represented by
+cobalt and madder lake." In trade catalogues several names are often
+given, as in this instance, to one and the same pigment. The seeming
+superfluity is rendered necessary through some artists knowing a pigment
+by one name and some by another. Hence arises the value of a list of
+synonyms.</p>
+
+
+<h4>80. LIQUID RUBIATE,</h4>
+
+<p class="no"><i>Rose Rubiate</i>, or <i>Liquid Madder Lake</i>, is a concentrated tincture of
+madder of the most beautiful and perfect rose colour and transparency.
+It is used as a water colour only in its simple state, diluted with
+water, and with or without gum. In oil it dries by acting as a
+siccative. Mixed or ground with all other madder colours, with or
+without gum, it forms combinations which work freely in water, and
+produce the most charming and stable effects. The rubiate also furnishes
+a fine red ink, and is a durable stain for printing on cotton, &amp;c. To
+the tinting of maps and charts permanently, it is peculiarly suited.</p>
+
+
+<h4>81. MARS RED</h4>
+
+<p class="no">Or <i>Rouge de Mars</i>, is an artificial iron ochre, similar in subdued tint
+and permanence to the native earths. Its chemical affinities, however,
+are greater than those of the latter, and it therefore requires to be
+employed cautiously with pigments affected by iron. In this respect the
+red resembles<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span> its compeers, Mars yellow, Mars orange, Mars violet, and
+Mars brown, all of which are iron ochres artificially prepared.
+Possessing the richness and depth of Indian red, it is distinguished by
+the russet-orange hue of light red. Its pale washes are marked by
+considerable clearness. In keeping the Mars colours separate from the
+ochres, we have followed the plan of the author.</p>
+
+
+<h4>OCHRES</h4>
+
+<p class="no">Comprise <i>Red Ochre</i>, <i>Indian Red</i>, <i>Light Red</i>, <i>Venetian Red</i>,
+<i>English Red</i>, <i>Persian Red</i>, <i>Prussian Red</i>, <i>Spanish Red</i>, <i>Brown
+Red</i>, <i>Indian Ochre</i>, <i>Scarlet Ochre</i>, <i>Carnagione</i>, <i>Terra Puzzoli</i>,
+<i>English Vermilion</i>, <i>Spanish Brown</i>, <i>Majolica</i>, <i>Redding</i>, <i>Ruddle</i>,
+<i>Bole</i>, <i>Almagra</i>, <i>Sil Atticum</i>, <i>Terra Sinopica</i>, &amp;c. They are rather
+hues and tints than definite colours, or more properly belong to the
+tertiary, semi-neutral, and broken colours. As a rule they are native
+pigments, found in most countries, and very abundantly and fine in our
+own; but some are products of manufacture, and obtainable in the variety
+of nature by art.</p>
+
+<p>The colouring matter of these earths is the red oxide of iron, as that
+of the yellow ochres is the yellow oxide. All the yellow ochres are more
+or less reddened by being burnt, as yellow oxide of iron itself becomes
+red on calcination. It was observed in the fourth chapter that time has
+often the effect<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span> of fire, more or less intense; and hence it is that
+yellow ochres occasionally assume a buffish-red hue, by the gradual
+peroxidation of the iron. Similarly, if a yellow ochre be but partially
+calcined, the red so obtained is apt to deepen or darken. Especially do
+these changes take place when the iron oxides are not associated with an
+earthy base; when, in fact, the so-called ochres cannot be classed as
+such. In this case, too, as was lately remarked, the pigments are more
+chemically active, and more likely to affect those colours to which iron
+is inimical.</p>
+
+
+<h4>82. RED OCHRE</h4>
+
+<p class="no">Is a native earth; sometimes brown ochre burnt, and called <i>Brown Red</i>.
+It is less pure in hue and clear in its tints than light red, and is
+best reserved for dark and vigorous shades and touches. For draperies of
+a dusky red it is well suited, or even for the shadows of bright-red
+drapery. In dead colouring it is very valuable. Like all ochres, it is
+characterized by permanence in water, oil, crayons, and fresco; and is,
+like most of them, available in enamel-painting.</p>
+
+<p>Almagra, the Sil Atticum of the ancients, is a deep red ochre found in
+Andalusia; as is also their Terra Sinopica or Armenian Bole, dug
+originally in Cappadocia, and now found in New Jersey and elsewhere
+under the name of Bloodstone.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[148]</a></span>83. INDIAN RED,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">Once known as <i>Persian Red</i>, is brought from Bengal. It is a natural
+earth rich in peroxide of iron, of a purple russet hue and good body,
+and valued when fine for the clearness and soft lakey tone of its tints.
+In a crude state it is a coarse powder, full of extremely hard and
+brilliant particles of a dark appearance and sometimes magnetic. It is
+greatly improved by grinding and washing over, and is very permanent.
+Neither light, impure air, mixture with other colours, time, nor fire,
+effects any sensible change in it; but being opaque and not keeping its
+place well, it is unsuited for glazing. This pigment differs
+considerably in its hues, that which is most rosy being esteemed the
+best, and affording the purest tints. Inferior ochres were formerly
+substituted for Indian red, which procured it a variable character; but
+the colour being now obtained abundantly can in general be had genuine.
+It is a good drier.</p>
+
+<p>Mixed with Indian ink, it furnishes useful shadows; and compounded with
+cobalt or indigo, most serviceable grays. For sunsets, where deep purple
+lines are louring over the horizon's brink, a mixture of French blue
+with a little Indian red and lake is admirably adapted. In twilight and
+stormy clouds, in sails and buildings, in shade carnations of portraits
+and backgrounds, &amp;c., the red is often employed.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span>84. LIGHT RED</h4>
+
+<p class="no">Is an ochre of an orange-russet hue, chiefly valued for its tints. The
+principal yellow ochres afford this colour best, and the brighter and
+clearer the yellow ochre is from which it is prepared, the brighter will
+the red be, and the better flesh tints will it yield with white. Light
+red has the good properties common to ochres, dries capitally, and
+furnishes an excellent crayon. It is much used both in figure and
+landscape painting, giving fine grays with cobalt, and serviceable
+compounds with yellow ochre, indigo, lamp black, rose madder, Payne's
+grey, brown madder, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>Terra Puzzoli, a volcanic production, is a species of light red, as is
+the Carnagione of the Italians.</p>
+
+
+<h4>85. VENETIAN RED,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">Less known as <i>English Red</i>, <i>Prussian Red</i>, and <i>Scarlet Ochre</i>. True
+Venetian red, that is, the red of the Venetians, was probably brought
+from India, and similar to our modern Indian red. The Venetian red of
+the present day, however, is an artificial product, containing no earthy
+base, and therefore improperly classed among the ochres. It is prepared
+by calcining sulphate of iron, to which a little nitre may be
+advantageously added. The result is a peroxide of iron, resembling light
+red, but more powerful, and of a more scarlet hue. It is very permanent,
+but being a purely iron pigment, should be cautiously<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[150]</a></span> employed with
+colours affected by that metal. Though not bright, its tints are clear,
+and it mixes and works kindly with cobalt or French blue, affording fine
+pearly grays. Heightened by madder lake, it furnishes a glowing red,
+very useful in some descriptions of skies; and saddened by black, it
+gives low toned reds of good quality for buildings. With white it
+produces carnation tints nearly approaching to nature, and much employed
+by Titian, Vandyke, and others. Compounded with aureolin, Venetian red
+yields a clear orange of considerable transparency.</p>
+
+<p><i>Spanish Red</i> is an ochre differing little from the above.</p>
+
+
+<h4>86. PURE SCARLET,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">Or <i>Iodine Scarlet</i>, is an iodide of mercury, having the body and
+opacity of vermilion, and being as much inferior to it in permanence as
+it is superior in brilliancy. Of all artistic pigments, it is at once
+the most dazzling and the most fugitive, and should have no place on the
+palette. If used, it should be with an ivory knife, as iron and most
+metals change it to colours varying from yellow to black; hence it
+should never be compounded with metallic pigments. So sensitive, indeed,
+is it to the slightest touch of metal, that it has been known to turn to
+a dull brown merely by being washed over with a colour which had been
+taken out of its saucer with a penknife. In the cake, it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span> must be
+carefully kept wrapped up in paper, otherwise the presence of metal
+tubes or a knife in the colour-box may spoil it. By a foul atmosphere,
+the scarlet is soon utterly destroyed, and even metallized. In contact
+with the air, it quickly fades away; and has been found to vanish
+completely, when exposed to light alone. Employed in water, a thick
+glaze of gum-arabic or gamboge adds to its stability. As a landscape
+pigment, the colour is out of the general scale of nature; but in
+flower-painting its charms are almost irresistible. Nothing certainly
+can approach it as a colour for scarlet geraniums, but its beauty is
+almost as fleeting as the flowers.</p>
+
+
+<h4>87. RED CHROME,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">Also called <i>Scarlet Chrome</i>, is a bright chromate of lead of an
+orange-red colour, the red being predominant. Rank in tone, it is liable
+to the changes of the yellow chromes, though in a less degree. The
+recent introduction of cadmium red renders the use of this unnecessary.</p>
+
+
+<h4>88. RED LEAD,</h4>
+
+<p class="no"><i>Minium</i>, or <i>Saturnine Red</i>, is an ancient pigment, by some old writers
+confounded with cinnabar, and termed Sinoper or Synoper. It is an oxide
+of uncertain composition, prepared by subjecting massicot to the heat of
+a furnace with an expanded surface and free accession of air. Of a
+scarlet colour and fine hue, it is warmer<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[152]</a></span> than common vermilion, whose
+body and opacity it possesses, and with which it was once customary to
+mix it. Bright, but not so vivid as the iodide of mercury, it is more
+durable, although far less so than vermilion. When pure and alone, light
+does not affect its colour, which soon flies, however, on being mixed
+with white lead or any preparation of that metal. By impure air, red
+lead is blackened and ultimately metallized.</p>
+
+<p>On account of its extreme fugacity when compounded with white lead, this
+red cannot be used in tints; but employed, unmixed with other pigments,
+in simple varnish or oil not rendered drying by any metallic oxide, it
+may stand a long time under favourable circumstances. It is an excellent
+dryer in oil, and has often been used as a siccative with other colours,
+but it cannot safely be so employed except with the ochres, earths, and
+blacks in general. Oils, varnishes, and, in some measure, strong
+mucilages, are preventive of chemical action in the compounding of
+colours, by intervening and clothing the particles of pigments; and
+hence heterogeneous and injudicious tints and mixtures have sometimes
+stood well, but are not to be relied upon in practice. Altogether, red
+lead is a dangerous pigment in any but skilled hands, and has naturally
+had a variable character for permanence. It is frequently adulterated
+with earthy substances, such as brickdust, red ochre, and colcotha.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></span>VERMILIONS.</h4>
+
+<p>Vermilion is so called from the Italian word <i>vermiglio</i> (little worm,)
+given to the kermes or "coccus ilicis," which was used as a scarlet dye
+before the introduction of cochineal. It is a sulphuret of mercury,
+which previous to levigation is called Cinnabar; and is found native in
+quicksilver mines, as well as produced artificially. This is an ancient
+pigment, the <ins class="transgreek" title="[Greek: kinnabari]">&#954;&#953;&#957;&#957;&#940;&#946;&#945;&#961;&#953;</ins> of the Greeks, and the <i>minium</i>&mdash;a term
+now confined to red lead&mdash;of older writers. Pliny states that it was so
+esteemed by the Romans, as to have its price fixed by express law of
+state. Among other places, the natural product is met with in
+California, Spain, and Peru; and in China there is a native cinnabar so
+pure as only to require grinding to become very perfect vermilion.
+Whether the natural possesses any advantages over the artificial,
+appears to admit of doubt: Bouvier thought that the former blackened
+more than the latter, and others coincide with him. As, however, native
+vermilion has become commercially obsolete, the question of their
+comparative permanence is of little importance. Theoretically, it is
+difficult to assign a reason why there should be any difference between
+the two.</p>
+
+<p>Vermilion is capable of being made by both wet and dry processes, but
+the last are almost exclusively adopted on a scale, and are, we
+believe,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a></span> preferable. Our opinion, expressed with some diffidence, is,
+that pigments whose colour depends on the union of sulphur with a
+metal&mdash;such as vermilion and cadmium yellow&mdash;are more stable when the
+sulphur is forced to bite into the base. This can only be effected by a
+considerable degree of heat, far greater than can be obtained in any
+moist method. We hold that in pigments so produced, the sulphur is less
+liable to oxidation by air and light, and that therefore the colour
+better withstands exposure to those agents. Before now, vermilions have
+been taxed with fading in a strong light: supposing them genuine, it
+would be interesting to know by what mode they were manufactured.</p>
+
+<p>There are two kinds of vermilion in common use, European and Chinese, of
+which the first inclines to orange and the second to purple. These
+include the several varieties known as&mdash;<i>Vermilion</i>, <i>Deep Vermilion</i>,
+<i>Pale Vermilion</i>, <i>Scarlet Vermilion</i>, <i>Chinese Vermilion</i>, <i>Carmine
+Vermilion</i>, <i>Extract of Vermilion</i>, <i>Orange Vermilion</i>, and <i>Field's
+Orange Vermilion</i>.</p>
+
+
+<h4>89. VERMILION,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">Deep or pale, when well made and pure is of strict permanence, not
+sensibly affected by light, time, or foul air; and eligible either in
+water, oil, or fresco. For an enamel colour it is unsuited, being
+dissipated at a red heat, a test that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[155]</a></span> detects the presence of any
+non-volatile adulterant. The best vermilion is a powerful vivid colour,
+higher in tone than all reds, except the scarlet iodide of mercury. With
+this it should not be compounded, but with other pigments it may safely
+be used in admixture, as far as its own colour is concerned. Of great
+body, weight, and opacity, it is a somewhat slow drier; and does not
+retain that brilliancy when dry, which is peculiar to it while wet. A
+want of transparency, and not drying well, prevent its being so
+generally employed as would be desirable. Pictures should seem to be
+painted with colour, not with pigment, the material being lost amid the
+hues, tints, and shades; but with such compounds as vermilion, the art
+of concealing art becomes difficult indeed. The pigment is apt to
+predominate over the colour, and the painting to look mechanical rather
+than natural: particles are apparent where hues alone should be seen,
+and all sense of reality is destroyed. For these reasons, vermilion is a
+dangerous pigment in unskilled hands, needing an intimate acquaintance
+with its physical properties. The extreme weight or specific gravity of
+the red renders it liable to sink and separate when compounded with
+other colours; hence the heavier those mixed with it the better. Its
+almost equal opacity, too, and habit of washing up, militate against its
+use by young painters. With ex<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[156]</a></span>perience, however, and due care, this is
+a serviceable colour; yielding with white most delicate flesh tints, and
+in minute proportion with cobalt or French blue and white, tender a&euml;rial
+grays.</p>
+
+<p>Being cheaper than formerly, vermilion is not so much adulterated as it
+once was; although, even now, brickdust, orpiment, &amp;c. sometimes
+sophisticate it. The knavish practices to which the pigment has been
+subjected, have acquired it an ill-fame both with authors and artists.
+Vermilion has been charged with fading in the light, and with being
+blackened by impure air; but it was the custom to crimson the colour by
+means of lake, or tone it to a scarlet hue by red lead. With pigments as
+with persons, evil communications corrupt good manners&mdash;a motto that
+might be written with advantage on every palette.</p>
+
+
+<h4>90. SCARLET VERMILION</h4>
+
+<p class="no">Resembles the preceding in all respects, except in being more scarlet in
+its tint, and washing better; advantages which render it more useful
+when the tone is required to be very bright and pure. At one time, the
+Dutch alone in Europe possessed the secret of giving to vermilion a rich
+scarlet colour.</p>
+
+
+<h4>91. CHINESE VERMILION,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">Or <i>Carmine Vermilion</i>, partakes of a crimson<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[157]</a></span> hue, and is adapted,
+mixed with white, for the rose and lilac-tints of some complexions. Like
+other vermilions, however, the colour needs much nicety of management;
+and it must not be attempted to further enrich it by admixture of
+cochineal lakes. Those colours, as we have remarked, cannot safely be
+brought into contact with vermilion, either compounded or as a glaze.
+The reds of madder should be substituted for them.</p>
+
+
+<h4>92. EXTRACT OF VERMILION,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">A somewhat curious name for a metallic colour, was a peculiar
+preparation of the author, possessing in its time certain advantages
+over other vermilions, and especially distinguished by a more scarlet
+hue. Now, however, extract of vermilion and scarlet vermilion are
+synonymous terms.</p>
+
+
+<h4>93. ORANGE VERMILION</h4>
+
+<p class="no">Is rather more transparent than ordinary vermilion, with a clear but not
+bright orange hue. It also washes better, and is for landscape purposes
+more generally useful. Resembling red-lead in appearance, it is not
+subject to its changes, being perfectly durable in oil and water. A most
+powerful tinger of white, its tints are warmer than red-lead's,
+affording delicate carnations similar to those of Titian and Rubens.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[158]</a></span>
+This pigment&mdash;or, preferably, the succeeding variety&mdash;may be employed
+with excellent results in scumbling of flesh, for which Sir Joshua
+Reynolds improperly used the so-called red orpiment. It dries in simple
+linseed oil, but works with best effect in water with a considerable
+portion of gum. In speaking of sunset and sunrise clouds, Mr. Penley
+observes&mdash;"Orange vermilion if used so thin as to get rid of its
+opacity, is a fine tone; but it must be remembered that <i>transparency</i>
+is the character of the sunset or sunrise, and hence arises the
+difficulty of employing such opaque colour effectively." Before the
+introduction of cadmium red, this and the following pigment were the
+best and only unexceptionable orange-reds known. It is probable,
+however, that the new colour will in a great measure supersede these
+latter in cases where transparency is sought. Orange vermilion is often
+a mixture, in which case the yellow employed is apt to separate from the
+red and float on its surface.</p>
+
+
+<h4>94. FIELD'S ORANGE VERMILION</h4>
+
+<p class="no">Is a superior preparation to the preceding, being brighter, purer, and
+clearer. It possesses also, less opacity, and is not a compound. Both
+pigments are rather reds with an orange cast than strictly orange
+colours, and are therefore inserted in this chapter.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<h4><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[159]</a></span>95 <i>Antimony Red</i>,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">Or Mineral Kermes. We have obtained this colour ranging from light
+orange to deep carmine, of different degrees of brightness and
+stability. Some of the tints stood well in a book, but faded on exposure
+to light and air; and some even vanished when secluded from those
+agents. It has more than once been recommended as a pigment, but our
+experience is against its adoption by artists. The colour is not
+affected by sulphuretted hydrogen.</p>
+
+
+<h4>96. <i>Chica Red</i></h4>
+
+<p class="no">Is extracted from the leaves of a tree growing in central and southern
+America. A sample examined by Mr. O'Neill was in small irregular lumps,
+of a bright scarlet colour, adherent to the tongue like indigo, and
+taking a metallic polish of a greenish reflection, when rubbed against a
+hard smooth body, as the finger nail. So far it seems to be only
+employed by the Indians as a paint for their bodies, mixed up with fatty
+matters. It has doubtless been used in painting: for in the old churches
+of those parts of America there is a good deal of red colour, which
+remains brilliant and sound after a couple of centuries; and from the
+appearance of it, and such accounts as can be collected, it is probably
+this chica. A portion was forwarded to an eminent artist in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[160]</a></span> England, to
+ascertain whether it would be of any value as a pigment in the fine
+arts. His report is stated to have been unfavourable; and the chica,
+contained in a gourd labelled "Chica d'Andiguez," was then tested as to
+its capabilities for dyeing and printing. Fine and durable reds were
+found to be produced by it upon woollen, equal to those of cochineal. To
+mordanted calico the shades imparted were dull and heavy, but very
+solid. Chica is described as a very strong colouring matter, a small
+quantity dyeing a large amount of cloth, and as more nearly resembling
+lac lake than anything else.</p>
+
+<p>No information existing as to its price, or the quantity that could be
+obtained if it were wanted, chica remains in the state of an unapplied
+product. If it really possess, however, the durability assigned to it,
+this red is worth attention. With regard to the artist's disapproval,
+the chica sent him may not have been properly or sufficiently prepared
+to adapt it for a pigment.</p>
+
+
+<h4>97. <i>Coal-Tar Colours.</i></h4>
+
+<p>Our work might be considered incomplete without some allusion to the
+coal-tar colours, even though they are rather dyes than pigments, not
+possessing sufficient stability for the palette. To avoid repeated
+reference, we have preferred grouping them in this chapter, irrespective
+of hue. Consequently, yellow, red, blue, orange,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[161]</a></span> green, purple, brown,
+and black, will be all comprised under the heading of coal-tar colours.</p>
+
+<p>Previous to the year 1856 the colouring matters derived from coal-tar
+were practically unknown. Until then, that black evil-smelling substance
+was looked upon as almost worthless; but gradually the unsightly grub
+emerged into a beautiful butterfly, clothed first in mauve and next in
+magenta. After its long winter of neglect, there sprung from coal-tar
+the most vivid and varied hues, like flowers from the earth at spring.
+At a touch of the fairy wand of science, the waste land became a garden
+of tropic tints, and colour succeeded colour, until the whole gamut had
+been gone through. Never was transformation more dazzling or more
+complete. The once despised refuse was now a valued commercial
+product&mdash;indeed a trade in itself. Perfectly fascinated by the study,
+chemists threw themselves heart and soul into coal-tar, and coal-tar
+colours were to be seen everywhere.</p>
+
+<p>It were beside our purpose to enter into the various stages through
+which coal has to pass to become colour. Enough to state that to the
+introduction of gas-light we are indebted for the acquisition of
+coal-tar colours, the starting point for the production of mauve,
+magenta, &amp;c., being the manufacture of coal-gas. From the destructive
+distillation of coal, coal-tar oil results; and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[162]</a></span> from this are obtained
+the products which yield the colours in question. Among these products
+may be mentioned aniline, rosaniline, napthaline, chinoline, carbolic
+acid, picric acid, &amp;c., with their derivatives.</p>
+
+<p>Of the fifty-one compounds furnished by the distillation of coal,
+perhaps the most popularly associated with coal-tar colours is aniline,
+to which we will therefore confine ourselves. Discovered in 1826, this
+body was formerly prepared from indigo&mdash;in Spanish, <i>anil</i>, whence the
+name; but is now produced on a larger scale from benzol, a coal-tar
+product. As the source of mauve and magenta, aniline must be considered
+the parent of coal-tar colours generally. Little was known of it at one
+time except that on being mixed with a solution of chloride of lime
+there was formed a splendid purple liquid, which immediately gave place
+to a dingy reddish precipitate. From the investigation of this simple
+fact, however, by Mr. W. Perkin, there was created a new and important
+branch of chemical industry&mdash;the manufacture of coal-tar colours. The
+violet mauve led the way, followed by the red magenta, the blue azuline,
+the yellow phosphine, the green emeraldine, the orange aurine, by
+purple, and brown, and black. Such were the hues, with many intermediate
+tints and shades, which one reaction brought forth. The world rubbed its
+eyes with astonishment; and truly it seemed almost as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[163]</a></span> wonderful to
+produce the colours of the rainbow from a lump of coal, as to extract
+sunshine from cucumbers.</p>
+
+<p>The history of these colours reads more like a romance than a sober
+story, but to the artist it is of slight practical interest.
+Sufficiently stable as dyes, though they be, coal-tar colours are not
+adapted to the palette. Mauve, magenta, with a few others, hare been
+introduced as pigments and fairly tried, but a want of permanence has
+been fatal to their success. Mauve is more durable than magenta, and the
+rest vary in stability, but none of them have proved really fitted for
+artists' colours. Exposed to light and air, they all more or less fade,
+especially in thin washes; and they have mostly the objection of
+staining and permeating the paper or canvas on which they are employed.
+Used in body, some may be found eligible in portfolio illuminations and
+the like, where the brilliancy of their colours shows to advantage; but
+in landscapes and pictures of life, coal-tar pigments are best avoided.</p>
+
+<p>Cakes of red, blue, violet, and other hues, may be prepared for
+painting, by combining the colours with a mixture of starch and alumina,
+or with soap and alumina in a moist state&mdash;thus: 150 parts of white curd
+soap, dissolved in 1000 parts of hot water, are mixed with an alcoholic
+or a methylated spirit solution of six parts of the crystallized or
+solid coal-tar colour. To this are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[164]</a></span> added 250 parts by weight of washed
+gelatinous alumina. The whole is then well stirred, collected on a
+filter, drained, and dried. Several hues, tints, and shades may be
+obtained by compounding: for instance, an orange is produced on
+admixture of picric yellow with aniline red, or a green by adding the
+same yellow to aniline blue.</p>
+
+
+<h4>98. <i>Cobalt Reds.</i></h4>
+
+<p>There are obtainable from cobalt by different processes rose and red
+colours of more or less beauty and intensity, but all vastly inferior to
+those of madder, in whose absence alone they could gain a place on the
+palette. Durable as a rule, they are in general characterized by a fatal
+chalkiness, and poorness of hue. More expensive than the madder colours,
+and without their purity, delicacy, depth, or transparency, cobalt reds
+have often been offered as pigments, and as often declined. A colour may
+be good in itself, but if there is something better and at the same time
+cheaper, its introduction into commerce is out of the question.</p>
+
+
+<h4>99. <i>Copper Reds.</i></h4>
+
+<p>A somewhat finely coloured red oxide is produced by exposing to a white
+heat for twenty minutes, a mixture of certain proportions of blue
+vitriol, mono-carbonate of soda, and copper<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[165]</a></span> filings. The product,
+however, is affected by impure air, and is otherwise not so desirable as
+an iron oxide.</p>
+
+<p>An interesting account has lately been given by Professor Church of a
+new animal pigment, containing copper, found in the feathers of the
+violet plantain-eater and two species of Turacus, natives respectively
+of the Gold Coast, the Cape, and Natal. <i>Turacine</i>, the name proposed
+for it, is noticed here only because it is the first animal or vegetable
+pigment, with copper as an essential element, which has been hitherto
+isolated. The colour is extracted by solution in an alkali, and
+precipitation by an acid, and is changed on long exposure to air and
+moisture to a green hue. As the entire plumage of a bird yields not more
+than three grains of pigment, turacine must be looked upon as a mere
+curiosity.</p>
+
+
+<h4>100. <i>Ferrate of Baryta</i>,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">Produced by adding aqueous ferrate of potash to an excess of dilute
+solutions of baryta salts, has been described as carmine-coloured and
+permanent. We have not found it to be so&mdash;an experience which has
+evidently not been confined to ourselves; and we cannot help thinking
+that this is one of those errors which get copied from one chemical work
+into another, to the special confusion of students. It is but fair,
+however, to add that in Mr. Watts' Dictionary of Chemistry,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[166]</a></span> the latest
+and best work of the kind, this ferrate is said to become "brick-red
+after washing and drying at 100100&deg; C.," and to be only "tolerably stable."</p>
+
+
+<h4>101. <i>Gold Reds.</i></h4>
+
+<p>Many organic substances added to gold solutions throw down either the
+metallic gold or the red oxide, which then unites with the organic
+compound more or less decomposed and forms a red precipitate. Sugar,
+gum, the decoctions of cochineal, gamboge, fustic, turmeric, sumach,
+catechu, and Brazil wood, all afford red pulverulent colours. Boiled
+with sugar, gold solution gives first a light and then a dark red.
+Whatever their merits, the excessive costliness of these preparations
+renders them inadmissible as pigments. At one time, indeed, a gold
+compound known as <ins class="correction" title="purple of cassius read purple of Cassius">purple of Cassius</ins> was so employed, but this soon
+became obsolete on the introduction of madder purple.</p>
+
+
+<h4>102. <i>Iodine Pink.</i></h4>
+
+<p>There may be obtained from iodine and mercury a very pretty pink colour,
+analogous in composition to pure scarlet. It is apt to pass into the
+scarlet modification, and is in other respects even less to be depended
+on than that variety.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[167]</a></span>103. <i>Kermes Lake</i></h4>
+
+<p class="no">Is an ancient pigment, perhaps the earliest of the European lakes, and
+so called from the Arabic Alkermes. It is sometimes spelt <i>cermes</i>,
+whence probably cermosin and crimson, and kermine and carmine. In old
+books it is named vermilion, in allusion to the insect, or <i>vermes</i>,
+from which it is prepared. This insect is the "coccus ilicis," which
+feeds upon the leaves of the prickly oak in the south of Europe. Like
+the "coccus cacti," it is covered with a whitish dust, and yields a
+tinctorial matter soluble in water and alcohol. Kermes and the lac of
+India doubtless afforded the lakes of the Venetians, and appear to have
+been used by the earliest painters in oil of the school of Van Eyck. The
+former, under the appellation <ins class="transgreek" title="[Greek: kurno kokino]">&#954;&#973;&#961;&#957;&#959; &#954;&#972;&#954;&#953;&#957;&#959;</ins>, is said to be
+employed by the modern Greeks for dyeing their caps red.</p>
+
+<p>Some old specimens of this pigment which the author obtained were in
+drops of a powdery texture and crimson colour, warmer than cochineal
+lakes, and having less body and brilliancy. They worked well, however,
+and withstood the action of light better than the latter, though the sun
+ultimately discoloured and destroyed them. In other respects, they
+resembled the lakes of cochineal. As a colouring matter, kermes is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[168]</a></span> only
+about one-twelfth part as powerful as that substance.</p>
+
+
+<h4>104. <i>Lawson's Red.</i></h4>
+
+<p>In 1861 it was stated that Professor Lawson had prepared a new dye of
+great richness, in the laboratory of Queen's College, Canada, from an
+insect, a species of coccus, found the previous summer for the first
+time on a tree of the common black spruce (<i>Abies nigra</i>), in the
+neighbourhood of Kingston. Having been but recently observed, a
+sufficient quantity had not been obtained for a complete series of
+experiments as to its nature and uses; but the habits of the insect, as
+well as the properties of the dye, seemed to indicate that it might
+become of practical importance. In colour it closely resembled ordinary
+cochineal, but was rather more scarlet in hue. It was described as
+capable of being produced in temperate countries. The colouring matter
+had not then been thrown upon a base, nor do we know that it has since
+been introduced as a pigment. If it possessed greater stability than
+cochineal, with equal brilliancy and depth, this dye might form one of
+those colours of the future, to whose possible sources we would direct
+attention.</p>
+
+
+<h4>105. <i>Manganese Red.</i></h4>
+
+<p>Bisulphide of arsenic combines with basic<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[169]</a></span> metallic sulphides forming a
+class of sulphur-salts, called by Berzelius, hyposulpharsenites. The
+hyposulpharsenite of manganese is a dark red precipitate, uninjured by
+sulphuretted hydrogen, and so far applicable as a pigment. Containing
+arsenic, it would of course be poisonous; and would probably be found to
+fade on exposure to air and light.</p>
+
+
+<h4>106. <i>Murexide.</i></h4>
+
+<p>The red obtained from this substance created a great deal of interest
+among printers and dyers on its introduction in 1857, or thereabouts.
+For purity and brilliancy of shade it was not excelled by any other
+colour, but not being able to stand the effects of air and light, its
+employment was limited. We are not aware that <ins class="trans" title="was muroxide">murexide</ins> has yet been
+brought forward as a pigment, and judging from its character as a dye,
+it would scarcely enrich the palette. Dyes and pigments have much in
+common, and a fugitive dye cannot be expected to furnish a permanent
+pigment.</p>
+
+
+<p>Murexide is produced by the action of ammonia on alloxan, which is
+itself derived from the uric acid of guano by treatment with nitric
+acid, and was known nearly forty years back to stain the fingers and
+nails red. The first murexide sent into the market was a reddish-purple
+powder, dissolving in water with a fine purple tint, leaving<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[170]</a></span> a little
+residue undissolved. Owing to improvements in manufacture, it is now
+capable of being prepared almost chemically pure, and with that green
+metallic reflection peculiar to several coal-tar salts and the wings of
+certain insects. When sulphuretted hydrogen is passed through a
+concentrated solution of murexide, it is immediately decoloured; a fact
+which renders it likely that murexide pigments would be as liable to
+suffer from an impure atmosphere, as from exposure to light and air.</p>
+
+<p>When an alkaline solution of murexide is precipitated by an acid, a
+light shining powder results, called purpuric acid. This dissolves in
+alkalies, and combines with metalline bases to form various coloured
+compounds, termed <i>Purpurates</i>. Among them may be mentioned a red
+purpurate of lead, a purple-red and a rose-coloured purpurate of
+mercury, a purple-red purpurate of silver, a dark red-brown purpurate of
+strontia, a crystalline red purpurate of cobalt, a scarlet purpurate of
+platinum, a yellow purpurate of zinc, and a green purpurate of baryta.
+All of these, however, being more or less soluble in water, and owing
+their colours to murexide, would be ill adapted for pigments.</p>
+
+
+<h4>107. <i>Paille de Mil,</i></h4>
+
+<p class="no">Or African Cochineal, is a substance obtained from Africa. Whether it
+has received its name<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[171]</a></span> of cochineal from its appearance or origin is not
+clear, but it behaves more like galls and sumac than cochineal, though
+it does give a kind of red with alumina mordants. The colours it yields
+are deficient in brightness, and it has otherwise been reported
+unfavourably of.</p>
+
+
+<h4>108. <i>Peganum Harmala,</i></h4>
+
+<p class="no">The seeds of which afford a red colour, has been investigated by the
+French, but described as inferior to existing reds both in brilliancy
+and stability.</p>
+
+
+<h4>109. <i>Persulphomolybdates.</i></h4>
+
+<p>The metallic compounds formed by the combination of persulphomolybdic
+acid with a base are pulverulent, in many cases of a red colour, and for
+the most part insoluble in water. With barium, the acid furnishes a
+yellowish-red powder, insoluble in, but made denser by water, which
+imparts to it a cinnabar colour. With calcium it is said to yield a
+scarlet, sparingly soluble in water. With chromium, uranium, lead,
+platinum, and copper, it gives a dark red; that from the last metal
+turning brown when collected on a filter. It likewise produces reds with
+zinc, cadmium, iron, mercury, and tin; of which the last is slightly
+soluble in water.</p>
+
+<p>Molybdenum being a rare metal, and persulphomolybdate of potash, the
+salt used in the foregoing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[172]</a></span> reactions, difficult to prepare, it is
+unlikely that the colours named will rank among the pigments of this
+generation. Nevertheless, as we have observed before, such fancy
+products should not be altogether ignored, it being quite as well to
+have some knowledge of our resources, even though those resources be not
+at present available. All the rare metals afford coloured compounds:
+tantalum, niobium, pelopium, vanadium, tellurium, titanium, yttrium,
+lanthanum, didymium, glucinum, cerium, thorinum, zirconium, palladium,
+rhodium, iridium, ruthenium, osmium, indium, thallium, &amp;c.; and it is
+just possible that some of these may one day scrape acquaintance with
+the palette.</p>
+
+
+<h4>110. <i>Red Chalk</i>,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">The colouring matter of which is sesquioxide of iron, is used as a
+crayon. Some specimens are excessively hard, so much so that they are
+difficult to crush, even in an iron mortar; while others have the
+consistence of the softest iron-ochres. They vary too in tint from a
+fawn colour to the softest brick-red, occasionally being almost as
+bright as a mixture of equal weights of vermilion and Venetian red. The
+amount of iron oxide present has been found to range from four to
+thirty-seven per cent, according to the depth and hardness of the
+samples. When a specimen of red chalk tolerably rich, but not too<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[173]</a></span> rich,
+in iron oxide is finely powdered and strongly ignited, it offers a
+remarkable change of colour, becoming a dull sage-green. Perhaps this,
+if it were permanent, might prove useful in foliage tints.</p>
+
+
+<h4>111. <i>Red Precipitate</i>,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">Or mercuric oxide, may be obtained either of a brick-red or
+orange-yellow colour. It is destroyed by impure air, and on exposure to
+sunshine gradually turns black, being superficially decomposed into
+oxygen and metallic mercury or mercurous oxide.</p>
+
+
+<h4>112. <i>Rose Pink</i></h4>
+
+<p class="no">Is a coarse kind of lake, produced by dyeing chalk or whitening with
+decoction of Brazil wood, peachwood, sapan, bar, camwood, &amp;c. It is a
+pigment much used by paper-stainers, and in the commonest distemper
+painting, &amp;c., but is too perishable to merit the attention of the
+artist.</p>
+
+<p>Chevreul obtained a crystalline substance from Brazil wood, which he
+looked upon as the pure colouring matter, or as containing the pure
+colouring matter, and which gave red and crimson precipitates with many
+salts. Possibly some of these might prove more durable than the roughly
+made rose pink.</p>
+
+
+<h4>113. <i>Rouge</i>,</h4>
+
+<p>The rouge v&eacute;g&eacute;tale of the French, is a species<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[174]</a></span> of carmine, prepared
+from safflower or carthamus, which is the flower of a plant growing in
+the north of Africa, India, and other warm climates. Safflower yields
+two colours&mdash;a valueless yellow which dissolves in cold water, and about
+five per cent of red, insoluble in water but dissolved by alkalies. The
+red, or carthamin, furnishes a pigment of exquisite beauty, marked by
+richness, transparency, and free working. Its extreme fugacity, however,
+militates against its employment by artists. As a dye, its manner of
+fixing upon fibre is different from that of any other colouring matter;
+requiring no mordant, like madder or cochineal, and needing no solution,
+like indigo or anotta, but fixing at once as soon as the cloth is
+brought into contact with it. But even for a dye the colour is fugitive,
+fading after a few hours' exposure to sunshine, and sometimes being
+quite bleached in the course of a day. It is when combined with
+levigated talc to form the paint of the toilette that the red becomes
+most serviceable. Possessing a peculiar softness and velvety glow, rouge
+is an unrivalled&mdash;and a most harmless&mdash;aid to beauty.</p>
+
+<p><i>Chinese Rouge</i> and <i>Pink Saucers</i> have much of the qualities of, and
+appear to be also prepared from, the safflower.</p>
+
+
+<h4>114. <i>Rufigallic Red.</i></h4>
+
+<p>When a duly proportioned mixture of gallic<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[175]</a></span> acid and oil of vitriol is
+carefully and gradually heated to 140&deg;, a viscid wine-red liquid
+results. If this be poured into cold water, after cooling, a heavy
+brown-red granular precipitate is formed, soluble in 3333 parts of
+boiling water. It dissolves in potash-ley, and to fabrics impregnated
+with alum or iron mordants, imparts the same shades of colour as madder;
+the colours so produced withstanding soap but not chlorine.</p>
+
+<p>Whether brilliant lakes could be obtained from the potash solution of
+the red, and whether those reds would be stable, it might be worth while
+to ascertain.</p>
+
+
+<h4>115. <i>Sandal Red.</i></h4>
+
+<p class="no">We have kept this separate from other reds derived from woods, because
+it is said (by Professor H. Dussance) to be obtainable not only equal in
+beauty and brightness to carmine, but of greater permanence. The process
+of preparation is as follows:&mdash;The powdered root exhausted by alcohol
+gives a solution to which hydrated oxide of lead is added in excess. The
+combination of colouring matter and lead oxide is then collected on a
+filter, washed with alcohol, dried, dissolved in acetic acid, and mixed
+with a quantity of water. The red being insoluble therein is
+precipitated, while the acetate of lead remains dissolved. After being
+washed, the colour is dried at a low temperature. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[176]</a></span> Professor affirms
+that the red so produced is unaffected by sulphuretted hydrogen, or by
+light and air; and it is stated that the colour which was used to paint
+the carriages of the Emperor Napoleon, remained as bright at the end of
+nine years as when it was put on. Possessing such properties, it is
+curious that the red has never been&mdash;in this country at
+least&mdash;introduced as an artistic pigment, the more especially as
+seventeen years have elapsed since its discovery.</p>
+
+
+<h4>116. <i>Silver Red.</i></h4>
+
+<p>By adding monochromate of potash to an acid solution of nitrate of
+silver, a particularly fine ochre-red is obtained. It is, however, apt
+to be injured both by foul air and exposure.</p>
+
+
+<h4>117. <i>Sorgho Red.</i></h4>
+
+<p>Some nine years back there was found to be a carmine colouring matter in
+most parts of the Chinese sorgho, chiefly in the unpressed stem. The
+red, which is extracted in an impure state, is dissolved in weak
+potash-ley, thrown down by sulphuric acid, and washed with water. This
+purified product, soluble in alcohol, caustic alkalies, and dilute
+acids, has been employed in Austria, Baden, &amp;c., for the dyeing of silks
+and woollens with the common tin mordants. The colours produced from it
+are unchanged, they say, by warm soapsuds or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[177]</a></span> light. We do not know
+whether the red found its way to England, but it has certainly not
+appeared here as a pigment.</p>
+
+
+<h4>118. <i>Thallium Red.</i></h4>
+
+<p>The orange-yellow precipitate formed by mixing a neutral salt of
+protoxide of thallium with bichromate of potash, is converted by nitric
+acid into an orange-red. The latter compound, which is a terchromate, is
+almost insoluble in cold water, 2814 parts being required to dissolve
+it. If the colour be boiled in a large excess of moderately strong
+nitric acid it is dissolved, yielding magnificent cinnabar red crystals
+on the solution cooling. These crystals likewise seem to be the
+terchromate.</p>
+
+
+<h4>119. <i>Tin Pink.</i></h4>
+
+<p>By igniting strongly for some hours a mixture of stannic oxide, chalk,
+chromate of potash, and a little silica and alumina, a dingy red mass is
+obtained, which acquires a beautiful rose-red colour on being washed
+with water containing hydrochloric acid. For the same reason that the
+pinks of cobalt are superfluous as artistic pigments, this tin product
+is commercially ineligible. Having, however, the advantage of being
+cheap, and being probably durable, it would be well adapted for the
+common purposes of painting, in place of the fugitive rose pink.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[178]</a></span>120. <i>Ultramarine Red?</i></h4>
+
+<p>In Gmelin's Handbook of Chemistry it is remarked that "Hydrogen gas
+passed over ignited ultramarine, colours it light red, from formation of
+liver of sulphur, hydrosulphuric acid gas and water being evolved at the
+same time." On most carefully making the experiment with a sample of
+native blue (the variety referred to) we did not succeed in effecting
+this change: no alteration to red or even to purple took place, the only
+result being that the colour was entirely spoilt, having assumed a
+leaden slate-gray hue. At our request, the trial was kindly repeated by
+well-known chemists, who took every precaution to ensure success.
+Several specimens of ultramarine were acted upon, but in no case was a
+red or anything like a red obtained, the products ranging from a
+slate-gray to a drab-grey. Sufficient hydrosulphuric acid gas was
+evolved to blacken paper moistened with acetate of lead, a fact which
+proved that the blue had lost some of its sulphur. Seeing that not only
+no red was produced, but that no tendency to red was imparted, is it
+possible the change described by Gmelin occurred under exceptional
+circumstances? All conversant with chemical matters will admit that
+results are obtained occasionally which cannot be repeated, owing it may
+be to some slight difference in the materials employed, or some slight
+variation of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[179]</a></span> the process. Perhaps a link, considered of no importance
+at the time and overlooked, has been lost, and thus the whole chain of
+proceeding becomes useless. It is, therefore, within the bounds of
+probability that the red ultramarine of the great German chemist was
+furnished either by a peculiar specimen of blue, or by a modified form
+of the method he gives. We have noticed the subject at some length
+because if a red ultramarine, brilliant and durable, could be obtained,
+the colour might prove of value. A permanent artificial compound
+corresponding to French blue would certainly be an acquisition.</p>
+
+
+<h4>121. <i>Uranium Red.</i></h4>
+
+<p>By treating the yellow sulphite of uranium with a prolonged current of
+sulphuretted hydrogen, and saturating gradually with ammonia, a red
+finally results. This colour is insoluble in water, and it has the
+objection of remaining partially suspended for an almost indefinite
+time, colouring the liquid light red. The product is brighter and more
+beautiful while moist; when dried and powdered, its tone&mdash;slightly
+approaching vermilion&mdash;is duller. The colour may be obtained of several
+degrees of brilliancy, but, apart from the question of expense, it would
+be inadmissible in oil, the red gradually altering by contact therewith.
+The most persistent tint at length resembles burnt Sienna.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[180]</a></span>122. <i>Wongshy Red.</i></h4>
+
+<p>There was imported a few years ago from Batavia a new colouring
+principle, under the name of <i>wongshy</i>, and consisting of the
+seed-capsule of a species of gentian. The aqueous extract, freed from
+the pectin which it contains, yields with baryta- and lime-water yellow
+precipitates, from which acids separate the colouring matter of a
+vermilion hue. When thus prepared it is insoluble in water, and would so
+far be adapted for a pigment. The red has not, however, been employed as
+such, and we are unacquainted with its habitudes.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<p>The concluding remarks appended to the chapter on yellow apply equally
+to red, and indeed to all other colours. It is not assumed that the list
+is exhausted: there are other reds, but they are, like some we have
+mentioned, ineligible as pigments, either by reason of their fugacity,
+their costliness, the difficulty of producing them on a scale, or the
+sources whence they are derived being commercially unavailable. While
+endeavouring throughout the work to render complete the collection of
+pigments actually in use, it is our object to give a selection only of
+numbered italicised colours; ample enough, however, to include those
+which have become<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[181]</a></span> obsolete or nearly so, and full enough to afford some
+insight into our resources. The nearer we approach perfection, the more
+eager we are to arrive at it: the path before us, therefore, cannot fail
+to be of interest.</p>
+
+<p>Looking back, and noting those pigments commonly employed, we find that
+the reds like the yellows are divisible into three classes&mdash;the good,
+bad, and indifferent; or the permanent, the semi-stable, and the
+fugitive.</p>
+
+<p>Among permanent reds, rank cadmium red, madder reds, Mars red, the
+ochres, and vermilions.</p>
+
+<p>In the second or semi-stable class, must be placed cochineal lakes,
+Indian lake, and red chrome.</p>
+
+<p>To the third division, or the fugitive, belong dragon's blood, pure
+scarlet, red lead, and the coal-tar reds.</p>
+
+<p>With regard to the foregoing classification, it must be borne in mind
+that the properties and effects of pigments are much influenced by
+adventitious circumstances. Sometimes pigments are varied or altogether
+changed by the grounds on which they are employed, the vehicles in which
+they are used, the siccatives and colours with which they are mixed, and
+the varnishes by which they are covered. And as there is no exact and
+constant agreement in different specimens of like pigments, so there is
+no exact and con<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[182]</a></span>stant result in their use. Artists vary as much as the
+pigments they employ: some resemble the old masters in the delicacy with
+which they treat their colours, the cleanliness with which they surround
+them, and the care with which they compound them: in the hands of such
+artists pigments have every chance. Some, however, are characterized by
+a careless manipulation, a dirty mode of working, an utter disregard for
+all rules of admixture: with such painters the best colours may be
+ruined. And here, indeed, it may be asked, whether these latter are not
+more properly termed painters than artists, chiefly belonging as they do
+to that slap-dash school <ins class="correction" title="which manufactures read which manufactures pictures">which manufactures pictures</ins> simply to sell
+them. Duly subordinated, the commercial side of art has a value which it
+were affectation to ignore; but to paint merely for the present,
+heedless of the future, is to sink art to the level of a trade, not the
+most honest. For it is the purchaser who suffers from the want of
+thought bestowed on the materials, the sloppy manipulation, the careless
+compounding; sins of omission and commission that cause him, on finding
+his picture becoming chaos, to join the detractors of modern pigments.
+In classifying colours therefore, those also should be classified who
+use them:&mdash;into artists, whose love for art would render it more lasting
+than themselves; and into painters, whose motto is <i>Vita brevis est, Ars
+quoque</i>.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[183]</a></span><a name="chapter_10" id="chapter_10"></a><a href="#contents">CHAPTER X.</a></h2>
+
+<h3>ON THE PRIMARY, BLUE.</h3>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The</span> third and last of the primary or simple colours is <i>blue</i>, which
+bears the same relation to shade as yellow to light. Hence it is the
+most retiring and diffusive of all colours, except purple and black; and
+all colours have the power of throwing it back in painting, to a greater
+or less extent, in proportion to the intimacy of their relations to
+light&mdash;first white, then yellow, orange, red, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>Blue alone possesses entirely the quality technically called 'coldness'
+in colouring, and it communicates this property variously to all other
+colours with which it happens to be compounded. Most powerful in a
+strong light, it seems to become neutral and pale in a declining light,
+owing to its ruling affinity with black or shade, and its power of
+absorbing light. Consequently, the eye of the artist is liable to be
+deceived when painting with blue in too low a light, or toward the close
+of day, to the endangering of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[184]</a></span> warmth and harmony of his picture.
+Entering into combination with yellow in the composition of all
+<i>greens</i>, and with red in all <i>purples</i>, blue characterizes the tertiary
+<i>olive</i>, and is also the prime colour or archeus of the neutral <i>black</i>,
+&amp;c., as well as of the semi-neutral <i>gray</i>, &amp;c.: it therefore is changed
+in hue less than any other colour by mixture with black, as it is
+likewise by distance. Blue is present subordinately in all tertiary and
+broken colours, and being nearest in the scale to black, breaks and
+contrasts powerfully and agreeably with white, as in pale blues, skies,
+&amp;c. Being less active than the other primaries in reflecting light, it
+is sooner lost as a local colour by assimilation with distance. There is
+an ancient doctrine that the azure of the sky is a compound of light and
+darkness, and some have argued hence that blue is not a primary colour,
+but a mixture of black and white; but pure or <i>neutral</i> black and white
+compound in infinite shades, all of which are neutral also, or <i>grey</i>.
+It is true that a mixture of black and white is of a <i>cool</i> hue, because
+black is not a primary colour, but a compound of the three primary
+colours in which blue predominates, a predominance which is rendered
+more sensible when black is diluted with white. As to the colour of the
+sky, in which light and shade are combined, that is likewise neutral,
+and never blue except by contrast; thus, the more the light of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[185]</a></span> the sun
+partakes of a golden or orange hue, and the more parched and burnt the
+earth is, the bluer appears the sky, as in Italy and all hot countries.
+In England, where the sun is cooler, and a perpetual verdure reigns,
+infusing blue latently into the landscape, the sky is warmer and nearer
+to neutrality, partaking of a diversity of greys, which beautifully
+melodize with blue as their key, and harmonize with the light and
+landscape. Therefore the colour of the sky is always a contrast to the
+direct and reflected light of the scene: if this light were of a rose
+colour, the neutral of the sky would be converted into green, or if
+purple, the sky would become yellow. Similarly would it be in all cases,
+according to the laws of chromatic equivalence and contrast, as may be
+often seen in the openings of coloured clouds at the rising and setting
+of the sun.</p>
+
+<p>In art, blue is apt to be discordant in juxtaposition with green, and
+less so with purple, both which are cool colours; consequently blue
+requires its contrast, <i>orange</i>, in equal proportion whether of surface
+or intensity, to compensate or resolve its dissonances and correct its
+coldness. In nature, however, blue is not discordant with either green
+or purple, nor are any two colours (as we have said before) ever found
+so. On the palette of nature each <i>colour</i> is an example of <i>colouring</i>:
+no colour is too absolute or defined,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[186]</a></span> no perfectly pure blue appears
+beside a perfectly pure green. A blue flower nestled in its green leaves
+does not offend the nicest eye, but the blue and green are not blue and
+green alone. There is, perhaps, but a single gleam of pure colour in
+each: the rest is composed of such varied hues and tints and shades, so
+broken and blended and beautifully harmonized, that no jarring discord
+is possible. Hue melts into hue, tint into tint, shade into shade; and
+thus does the simplest weed teach a lesson in colouring the proudest
+painter may stoop to learn.</p>
+
+<p>We have spoken of blue, which is termed a cold colour, as retiring; and
+of yellow and red, which are called warm colours, as advancing. By this
+we must not be understood to mean that blue, as blue, expresses
+distance; or that yellow and red, as yellow and red, express nearness.
+Colours are advancing or retiring in their <i>quality</i>&mdash;as depth,
+delicacy, &amp;c., not in their hue. A blue object set side-by-side a yellow
+one will not look an inch farther off, but a red or orange cloud, in the
+upper sky, will always seem to be beyond a blue cloud close to us, as it
+is in reality. We grant that in certain objects, blue is a <i>sign</i> of
+distance, but that is not because blue, as a mere colour, is retiring;
+but because the mist in the air is blue, and therefore any warm colour
+which has not strength of light enough to pierce the mist is lost or
+subdued in its blue. Blue in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[187]</a></span> itself, however, is no more, on this
+account, retiring, than brown is retiring, because when stones are seen
+through brown water, the deeper they lie, the browner they appear.
+Neither blue nor yellow nor red possesses, as such, the smallest power
+of expressing either nearness or distance; they merely express
+themselves under the peculiar circumstances which render them at the
+moment, or in that place, signs of nearness or distance. Thus, purple in
+a violet is a sign of nearness, because the closer it is looked at the
+more purple is seen; but purple in a mountain is a sign of distance,
+because a mountain close at hand is not purple, but green or grey. It
+may, indeed, be generally assumed that a tender or pale colour will more
+or less denote distance, and a powerful or dark colour nearness; but
+even this is not always so. Heathery hills will usually give a pale and
+tender purple near, and an intense or dark purple far away: the rose
+colour of sunset on snow is pale on the snow at one's feet, but deep and
+full on the snow in the distance; and the green of a Swiss lake is pale
+in the clear waves on the beach, but intense as an emerald in the
+sunstreak, six miles from shore. And in any case, when the foreground is
+in strong light, with much water about it or white surface, casting
+intense reflections, all its colours may be perfectly delicate, pale,
+and faint; while the distance, when it is in shadow, may relieve the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[188]</a></span>
+whole foreground with deepest shades of purple, blue green, or
+ultramarine blue.</p>
+
+<p>There is one law, however, about distance, which has some claims to be
+considered constant, namely, that <ins class="trans" title="was dullness">dulness</ins> and heaviness of colour are
+more or less indicative of nearness. All distant colour is pure colour:
+it may not be bright, but it is clear and lovely, not opaque nor soiled;
+for the air and light coming between us and any earthy or imperfect
+colour, purify or harmonize it; hence a bad colourist is peculiarly
+incapable of expressing distance. It is not of course meant that bad
+colours are to be used in the foreground by way of making it come
+forward; but only that a failure in colour there will not put it out of
+its place. A failure in colour in the distance will at once do away with
+its remoteness; a dull-coloured foreground will still be a foreground,
+though coloured badly; but an ill-painted distance will not be merely a
+dull distance, it will be no distance at all.</p>
+
+
+<p>This seeming digression is not out of place, as it will enable the
+artist better to understand that it is in their quality, not in their
+hue, that colours are advancing or retiring; and that he must rely on
+the depth, delicacy, &amp;c., of his pigments, and not simply on their
+colours, to produce effects of distance.</p>
+
+<p>Of all colours, except black, blue contrasts white most powerfully. In
+all harmonious com<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[189]</a></span>binations of colours, whether of mixture or
+neighbourhood, blue is the natural, prime, or predominating power.
+Accordingly, blue is universally agreeable to the eye in due relation to
+the composition, and may more frequently be repeated therein, pure or
+unbroken, than either of the other primaries; whence the employment of
+ultramarine by some masters throughout the colouring of a picture.</p>
+
+<p>Blue pigments, like blue flowers, are more rare than those of the other
+primary colours. In permanent blues the palette is very deficient, the
+list being exhausted when the native and artificial ultramarines and the
+cobalts have been mentioned. That there is room for new blues, durable
+and distinct, cannot therefore be denied. A good addition has been made
+of late years in the German <i>Co&euml;lin</i>, known here as Cerulian Blue and
+C&oelig;ruleum. What is chiefly wanted, however, is a colour combining the
+wonderful depth, richness, and transparency of Prussian blue with the
+strict stability of ultramarine. A permanent Prussian blue would be the
+most valued gift the palette could receive.</p>
+
+
+<h4>COBALT BLUES</h4>
+
+<p class="no">comprise <i>Cerulian Blue</i> or <i>C&oelig;ruleum</i>, <i>Cobalt Blue</i>, <i>Smalt</i>,
+<i>Royal Blue</i>, <i>Dumont's Blue</i>, <i>Saxon Blue</i>, <i>Th&eacute;nard's Blue</i>,
+<i>Leithner's Blue</i>, <i>Hungary Blue</i>, <i>Dutch Ultramarine</i>, <i>Zaffre or
+Enamel Blue</i>,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[190]</a></span> <i>Vienna Blue</i>, <i>Paris Blue</i>, <i>Azure</i>, &amp;c., and are
+obtained by the action of heat on mixtures of earthy or metallic bases
+with cobalt. They are divisible into three classes&mdash;the stannic cerulian
+blue, the aluminous cobalt blues, and the siliceous smalts. Of these,
+the first possesses the least depth; the second hold a middle position;
+while the third are marked by exceeding richness. Although not to be
+ranked with ultramarine, the stannic and aluminous blues may be
+described as durable, or at least as durable rather than semi-stable.
+There are, as we have before observed, different degrees of permanence,
+and the blues in question are not readily affected. With regard to
+smalts, they are, as artist's pigments, inferior in stability to other
+blues of cobalt.</p>
+
+
+<h4>123. CERULIAN BLUE,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">or <i>C&oelig;ruleum</i>. Under the name Co&euml;lin there has of late years been
+imported from Germany the cobalt blue with a tin base to which reference
+has just been made. This comparatively new pigment&mdash;which likewise
+contains or is mixed with gypsum, silica, and sometimes magnesia&mdash;has
+the distinctive property of appearing a pure blue by artificial light,
+tending neither to green on the one hand nor to purple on the other.
+This advantage, added to its permanence, has conferred a popularity upon
+c&oelig;ruleum which its mere colour would scarcely have gained<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[191]</a></span> for it. A
+light and pleasing blue, with a greenish-grey cast by day, it possesses
+little depth or richness, and is far excelled in beauty by a good
+aluminous cobalt. A certain chalkiness, moreover, somewhat detracts from
+its transparency, and militates against its use in water. It is in oil,
+and as a night colour, that c&oelig;ruleum becomes of service, as our
+present system of lighting picture galleries by gas affects the purity
+of blues generally. If those galleries were illuminated by means of the
+electric light, we have it on the authority of Chevreul that all colours
+and shades would show as well as by day: the same purpose would be
+answered by the magnesium light. Some artificial lights are the ruin of
+colours; in the soda flame (alcohol and salt) for instance, yellow
+chromate of lead appears white, while red ochre and aniline blue appear
+black.</p>
+
+<p>Like other blues of cobalt, c&oelig;ruleum assumes a greenish obscurity in
+time, but like them it resists for a lengthened period both the action
+of light and impure air, although chemically it is more open to the
+influence of the latter, owing to its tin base. In admixture it may
+safely be employed, as well as in fresco or enamel. For stage skies,
+&amp;c., in high-art scenery, the blue is admirably adapted. Now that there
+are so many scene-painters who are artists&mdash;and so many artists who are
+scene-painters&mdash;in bringing Nature<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[192]</a></span> to the foot-lights the effect of gas
+on colours is of importance.</p>
+
+
+<h4>124. COBALT BLUE,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">to which the various appellations have been given of <i>Th&eacute;nard's Blue</i>,
+<i>Vienna Blue</i>, <i>Paris Blue</i>, <i>Azure</i>, <i>Cobalt-Ultramarine</i>, &amp;c., is the
+name now exclusively confined to that preparation of cobalt which has a
+base of alumina. It may, therefore, be not improperly called a blue
+lake, the colour of which is brought up by fire, in the manner of enamel
+blues. The discovery of this important pigment was made in 1802 by M.
+Th&eacute;nard, who obtained it by calcining a well-combined mixture of alumina
+and crystals of cobalt. There may be employed with the aluminous base,
+either the arseniate, the borate, or the phosphate of cobalt; but the
+latter in preference, as it produces the purest colour. The arseniate
+has always a violet tinge, more visible by <ins class="trans" title="was gaslight">gas-light</ins> than by day; while,
+on account of the arsenic, the blue is more apt to be greened by impure
+air, by reason of the formation of yellow sulphide of arsenic. The
+purity of the colour, however, does not altogether depend on the
+compound of cobalt used; in a great measure&mdash;as with other pigments&mdash;it
+rests on the purity of the materials. To obtain a perfect blue, neither
+inclining to purple nor green, the cobalt and alumina should be freed
+from iron, and the former, as much as possible,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[193]</a></span> from nickel also. With
+the absence of these and proper skill, a true and brilliant blue may be
+produced, almost rivalling the finest ultramarine. Apart, too, from its
+increased beauty, a cobalt blue containing no iron or nickel is of
+greater permanence than the ordinary products, being less liable to that
+greenness and obscurity which time confers.</p>
+
+<p>Though not possessing the body, transparency, and depth of ultramarine,
+nor its natural and modest hue, commercial cobalt blue works better in
+water than that pigment in general does; and is hence an acquisition to
+those who have not the management of the latter. Resisting the action of
+strong light and acids, its beauty declines by time, while impure air
+greens and ultimately blackens it. Nevertheless, these changes are not
+readily effected, especially in well made samples full of colour, and
+sometimes the green tone is mechanically imparted. What wheat is to a
+loaf, colour is to a pigment&mdash;it has to be ground and made up for use;
+in the one vehicle to be mixed with gums, in the other with oils. It
+often happens that colours have an antipathy to the latter, and refuse
+to compound kindly therewith. Occasionally this repugnance manifests
+itself in a few days, occasionally not for months. We know of a green
+which flatly declines to have anything to do with oils, sinking and
+separating therefrom in the course of a week, and leaving<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[194]</a></span> the clear oil
+on the top. Repeatedly have colours to be coaxed to behave themselves as
+pigments, coaxed not to 'run,' to work well, to dry well, &amp;c.; and in
+the humouring of their likes and dislikes the skill and patience of the
+artist-colourman are sometimes severely taxed. Given a colour, it might
+puzzle most chemists to convert it into a pigment; luckily Commerce
+lends her aid. Lasting success, it is true, does not always follow, and
+oils will rise to the surface now and then, giving green hues to blues,
+orange hues to reds, and buff hues to yellows. Hence changes of colour
+have been imputed before now to chemical alteration, when in reality the
+results have been physical, caused by the subsidence of the pigments,
+and the floating of the vehicles employed.</p>
+
+<p>Cobalt blue dries well in oil, does not injure or suffer injury from
+pigments in general, and may be used with a proper flux in enamel, as
+well as in fresco. It affords clear bright tints in skies and distances,
+but is apt to cause opacity if brought too near the foreground, and to
+assume a violet tinge by artificial light. With madder brown it yields a
+range of fine pearly neutrals; and with light red, in any proportion,
+gives beautiful cloud tints. In combination with aureolin and sepia, or
+rose madder, cobalt furnishes most agreeable and delicate tints for
+distant trees, when under the influence of a soft<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[195]</a></span> light, or hazy state
+of the atmosphere. In water-colour painting, cobalt is tolerably firm on
+paper, and consequently answers better for some purposes than French
+blue. In middle distances, if the cobalt possess a tendency to
+chalkiness, the addition of a little indigo is a good corrective,
+especially where the blue tone is required to be sombre and dark: it
+should, however, be observed that the change is but temporary, indigo
+being a fugitive pigment. In marine painting in water-colours, cobalt is
+most useful for the remotest parts of seas and headlands. When dry, it
+can be changed by going over it with a slight wash of vermilion or light
+red, whereby a prismatic character is realized. Any strength of tone can
+be obtained by repeating the washes, and should the colour be too
+powerful, it may be reduced by pouncing it with a soft wet sponge; or if
+too cold and blue, by a thin wash of burnt Sienna, merely the water
+stained.</p>
+
+<p>The blues of cobalt, on whatever base they may be prepared, are
+distinguished from native and artificial ultramarines by not being
+decolorised by acids.</p>
+
+
+<h4>125. SMALT,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">Invented about the year 1540, in Saxony, is a vitreous compound of
+cobalt and silica, in fact a blue glass. Since the fifteenth century,
+cobalt has been used in different parts of Europe to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[196]</a></span> tinge glass; and
+so intense is the colouring power of its oxide, that pure white glass is
+rendered sensibly blue by the addition of one thousandth part, while one
+twenty-thousandth part communicates a perceptible azure tint. In common
+with cobalt blue, the name <i>Azure</i> has sometimes been given to it.
+Varying exceedingly in quality and colour, the rougher kinds have been
+employed by the laundress, and in the making of porcelain, pottery,
+stained glass, encaustic tiles, &amp;c.; as well as to cover the yellow
+tinge of paper. For this last purpose, however, smalt is not perfectly
+adapted, the colour being difficult to lay on uniformly, and the paper
+when written on blunting the nibs of pens. Hence it has been superseded
+to a great extent by artificial ultramarine, the presence of which may
+be detected by the yellow spot which a drop of acid leaves on the paper.</p>
+
+<p>A coarse gritty texture is peculiar to smalt, whether it be the <i>Powder
+Blue</i> of the washtub and <i>Blue Sand</i> of the pottery, or the <i>Dumont's</i>
+and <i>Royal Blue</i> of the artist and high-class manufacturer. But the
+strict stability which is a feature in smalt when used for painting on
+glass and enamel does not follow it to the studio: both in water and oil
+its beauty soon decays, as is often the case with other vitrified
+pigments; nor is it in other respects eligible, being, notwithstanding
+its richness and depth, very inferior to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[197]</a></span> the cobalts preceding. It may
+seem a paradox that the same colour should be at once so durable and so
+fugitive, but we may briefly explain it by saying <i>when vitreous
+pigments are reduced to that extreme state of division which the palette
+requires, they lose the properties they possess in a less finely divided
+state</i>. The best smalt in lumps appears black, yields a blue powder on
+grinding, becomes paler on further grinding, and may be almost
+decolourised by continued and excessive grinding. Smalt, it has been
+stated, is merely a blue glass; and when a piece of blue glass, or a
+blue crystal of sulphate of copper, is reduced to the fineness of flour,
+the blue is lost. In vitrified and crystallised compounds, colour
+depends on cohesion: sufficiently separate the particles, and the colour
+more or less disappears. Not only, moreover, does grinding effect an
+optical change in vitreous pigments, but it imposes further alteration.
+That colour which was safe when locked up in a mass, crushed to minute
+atoms is no longer so: imbedded in glass or enamel it will endure for
+ages, but ground to impalpable powder becomes as liable to influence as
+though it had never been subjected to heat at all. To sum up, vitreous
+pigments are durable in a coarse or compact form, but are not more
+stable than others when reduced to extreme division. As far as regards
+artists' colours, therefore, vitrification does <i>not</i> impart
+permanence.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[198]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The grittiness to which we have referred is one of the defects of smalt,
+which cannot, consistently with preserving its colour be entirely freed
+from that drawback&mdash;an objection which pertains to vitreous pigments in
+general. Hence it does not wash well, and in mural decoration is
+sometimes applied to work by strewing the dry powdered colour upon a
+flat ground of white or blue oil paint immediately after the latter is
+laid on, whilst it yet remains wet. Of little body, it is a vivid and
+gorgeous blue; bright, deep, and transparent, bordering on the violet
+hue. It is chiefly employed in illumination and flower painting. The
+inferior kinds of smalt are occasionally adulterated with chalk.</p>
+
+
+<h4>126. CYANINE.</h4>
+
+<p>Beckmann is fully convinced that the <i>cyanus</i> of Theophrastus and the
+<i>c&oelig;ruleum</i> of Pliny were a blue copper earth. However that may be, in
+these days both names signify cobalt compounds, c&oelig;ruleum being a
+stannate of cobalt, and cyanine a mixture of cobalt and Prussian blue.
+Unlike the former, cyanine, being composed of two old colours, can lay
+no claim to originality. In the fourth chapter it was observed, "it is
+quite possible for the artist to multiply his pigments unnecessarily.
+Colours are sometimes brought out under new names which have no claim to
+be regarded as new colours, being,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[199]</a></span> indeed, mere mixtures. Compound
+pigments like these may most frequently be dispensed with, in favour of
+hues and tints composed extemporaneously of original colours upon the
+palette." Whether these remarks are applicable to cyanine or not is a
+question for artists to decide: in our opinion, with so many semi-stable
+original pigments, the introduction of semi-stable compounds is to be
+deprecated. Cyanine is a rich, deep, transparent blue, but its richness
+and depth, as well as to a great extent its transparency, depend upon
+Prussian blue, which is not strictly stable. Hence the peculiar
+properties of cyanine remain unchanged only so long as the Prussian blue
+itself, the pigment losing its colour by degrees on exposure to air and
+light, and gradually assuming the tint of the paler but more permanent
+cobalt. A mixture, be it remembered, necessarily partakes of the
+qualities of its constituents, and if one of these be fugitive, the
+compound cannot preserve its original hue.</p>
+
+<p>Within the last few years, a compound similar to cyanine has appeared,
+under the name of <i>Leitch's Blue</i>.</p>
+
+
+<h4>127. INDIGO,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">or <i>Indian Blue</i>, was known to the ancients under the name of <i>Indicum</i>,
+whence its present<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[200]</a></span> appellation. In modern Europe, it first came into
+extensive use in Italy; but about the middle of the sixteenth century,
+the Dutch began to import and employ it in considerable quantity.
+Present in the woad plant, which is a native of Great Britain, indigo is
+chiefly derived from a genus of leguminous plants called <i>Indigofera</i>,
+found in India, Africa, and America. The colouring matter of these is
+wholly in the cellular tissue of the leaves, as a secretion or juice;
+not, however, in the blue state in which one is accustomed to see
+indigo, but as a colourless substance, which continues white only so
+long as the tissue of the leaf remains perfect: when this is by any
+means destroyed, oxygen is absorbed from the atmosphere, and the
+principle becomes blue. The best indigo is so light as to swim upon
+water, but the commercial article seldom contains more than 5050 per cent.
+of blue colouring matter or true indigo, the remainder consisting of
+either accidental or intentional impurities.</p>
+
+<p>In painting, indigo is not nearly so bright as Prussian blue, but it is
+extremely powerful and transparent, and may be described as a Prussian
+blue in mourning. Of great body, it glazes and works well both in water
+and oil. Its relative permanence as a dye has obtained it a false
+character of extreme <ins class="trans" title="was durablity">durability</ins> as a pigment, a quality in which it is
+nevertheless<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[201]</a></span> very inferior even to Prussian blue. By impure air it is
+injured, and in glazing some specimens are firmer than others, but not
+durable; while in tint with white lead they are all fugitive. Employed
+in considerable body in shadow, it is more permanent, but in all
+respects Prussian blue is superior.</p>
+
+<p>Despite this want of stability, indigo is a favourite colour with many
+artists, who sacrifice by its use future permanence to present effect.
+It is so serviceable a pigment for so many purposes, especially in
+admixture, that its sin of fugacity is overlooked. Hence we find indigo
+constantly mentioned in works on painting, their authors forgetting or
+not caring to remember that wholesome axiom, a fugitive colour is not
+rendered durable by being compounded. Artistically, it is adapted for
+moonlights, and when mixed with a little lamp black, is well suited for
+night clouds, distant cliffs, &amp;c. With a little raw umber and madder it
+is used for water in night effects. With the addition of a little madder
+it forms a good gray; and with madder and burnt Sienna is useful for
+dark rocks, this combination, with raw Sienna, being also eligible for
+boats. For these and other mixed tints, however, Prussian blue saddened
+by black with a suspicion of green in it, is equally fitted, and is more
+permanent. Indeed, it would be perhaps justifiable to introduce such<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[202]</a></span> a
+compound, under the name say, of Factitious Indigo.</p>
+
+<p>Indigo in dust, or in small bits, is often adulterated with sand,
+pulverized slate, and other earthy substances. That indigo is best which
+is lightest, brightest, most copper-coloured, most fine-grained, and
+inodorous.</p>
+
+
+<h4>128. INTENSE BLUE</h4>
+
+<p class="no">is indigo refined by solution and precipitation. By this process, indigo
+becomes more durable, and, being separated from impurities, is rendered
+much more powerful, transparent, and deep. It washes and works admirably
+in water; in other respects it possesses the common properties of
+indigo. It is apt, however, to penetrate the paper on which it is
+employed, if not well freed by washing from the acid and saline matter
+used in its preparation. This is not always easily effected, and we
+cannot help thinking that in the manufacture of intense blue a dry
+method would be preferable. Indigo may, by cautious management, be
+volatilized, and therefore be most thoroughly purified without the aid
+of acids and alkalies. The best mode of subliming this substance is to
+mix one part of indigo with two parts of plaster of Paris, make the
+whole into a paste with water, spread it upon an iron plate, and, when
+quite dry, heat it by a spirit lamp.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[203]</a></span> The volatilization of the indigo
+is aided by the vapour of water disengaged from the gypsum, and the
+surface of the mass becomes covered with beautiful crystals of pure
+indigo, which may be readily removed by a thin spatula. At a higher
+temperature, charring and decomposition take place.</p>
+
+
+<h4>129. PRUSSIAN BLUE,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">otherwise called <i>Berlin Blue</i>, <i>Paris Blue</i>, <i>Prussiate of Iron</i>,
+<i>Ferrocyanide of Iron</i>, &amp;c., was accidentally discovered in 1710 by
+Diesbach, a colour-maker at Berlin. It is a compound of iron and
+cyanogen, of varying composition, formed by adding yellow prussiate of
+potash to a persalt of iron, or by oxidizing the precipitate obtained
+from the prussiate and a protosalt. The finest blue is furnished by
+sesquinitrate of iron, but the salt almost exclusively employed is the
+protosulphate, the freedom of which from copper is essential to the
+colour of the blue. As is the case with other pigments, Prussian blue
+differs considerably in colour, in depth, and in permanence, according
+to the purity of the materials, the mode of manufacture, and the absence
+of adulterants. Like smalt, it is known in the washtub as well as in the
+studio; and in the cheaper varieties, alumina, starch, chalk, oxide of
+iron, &amp;c., are often largely present.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[204]</a></span> A good unsophisticated sample in
+the dry state is intense blue, almost black, hard and brittle, much
+resembling in appearance the best indigo, and having a similar
+copper-red fracture. It does not effervesce with acids, as when
+adulterated with chalk; nor become pasty with boiling water, as when
+sophisticated with starch. Further, it feels light in the hand, adheres
+to the tongue, is inodorous, tasteless, not poisonous, and is insoluble
+in water. Forming a bulky mass while moist, Prussian blue shrinks to a
+comparatively small compass when well washed and dried by gentle heat;
+and, when once dried, being difficult to reduce again to the state of
+extreme division which it possessed while wet, it is frequently sold and
+used in paste for common purposes. We have said that a good sample of
+Prussian blue is insoluble in water, and for artistic use it should
+certainly be so, as otherwise it has a tendency to stain the fabric on
+which it is employed, a defect formerly very prevalent. All Prussian
+blues, however, are not insoluble, and these are not only liable to the
+drawback named, but are less to be depended on for permanence. Improper
+proportions, for instance, of sesquichloride of iron and
+potash-ferrocyanide will yield a blue which, when washed even with cold
+water, continually imparts to it a yellow or green colour, through the
+partial solution of the prussiate. All com<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[205]</a></span>mercial Prussian blue, and
+indeed that which is prepared by careful chemical processes, give up the
+ferrocyanide to boiling water, thereby colouring it greenish yellow; but
+a sample which parts with its prussiate to <i>cold</i> water is quite
+unfitted for the palette, for which the most perfect specimen is none
+too stable.</p>
+
+<p>In spite of the learned researches of Professor Williamson, whose name
+is as closely connected with the pigment as are the names of Schunck and
+De La Rue with madder and cochineal, Prussian blue is not yet entirely
+understood. Complex and uncertain in composition, uncertain too in its
+habitudes, our best course perhaps will be not to attempt a complete
+survey, but to state briefly those facts which bear on the artist's
+craft.</p>
+
+<p>Prussian blue is a colour of vast body and wonderful transparency, with
+a soft velvety richness, and of such intense depth as to appear black in
+its deepest washes. Notwithstanding it lasts a long time under
+favourable circumstances, its tints fade by the action of strong light;
+becoming white, according to Chevreul, in the direct rays of the sun,
+but regaining its blue colour in the dark; hence that subdued light
+which is favourable to all colours is particularly so to this blue. Its
+colour has the singular property of fluctuating, or of coming and going,
+under certain conditions; and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[206]</a></span> which it owes to the action and reaction
+by which it acquires or relinquishes oxygen alternately. It also becomes
+greenish sometimes by a <ins class="trans" title="was developement">development</ins> of the oxide of iron; and is
+purpled, darkened, or otherwise discoloured by damp or impure air. Time
+has a neutralizing tendency upon its colour, which forms tints of much
+beauty with white lead, though they are not equal either in purity,
+brilliancy, or permanence to those of cobalt and ultramarine. When
+carefully heated, Prussian blue gives off water and assumes a pale green
+hue; its colour, therefore, depending on the presence of water, must not
+be exposed to a high temperature. And as it is likewise injured or
+destroyed by alkalis, which decompose it into oxide of iron and a
+soluble prussiate, the blue should be avoided in fresco, on account of
+the lime; neither should it be employed with pigments of an alkaline
+nature, nor with hard water containing bicarbonate of lime in solution,
+but with clean rain or distilled water, either of which is preferable
+for colours generally.</p>
+
+<p>Prussian blue dries and glazes well in oil, but its great and principal
+use is in painting deep blues, in which its body helps to secure its
+permanence, and its transparency gives force to its depth. It is also
+valuable in compounding deep purples with lake, and is a powerful
+neutralizer and component of black, to the intensity of which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[207]</a></span> it adds
+considerably. Prussian blue borders slightly on green, a quality which
+militates against its use in skies and distances. In spite, however, of
+its want of, or deficiency in, durability, the old water-colour painters
+so employed it, neutralized by the addition of a little crimson lake. It
+is serviceable in mixed tints of greens, affording with light red a
+sea-green neutral. Dissolved in oxalic acid, the blue is available as an
+ink, or for tinting maps.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the preceding, there is a <i>Basic Prussian Blue</i>, formed by
+simply submitting to the air the bluish-white precipitate which falls on
+adding yellow prussiate of potash to green vitriol. This compound
+dissolves entirely by continued washing with water, yielding a beautiful
+deep blue solution, from which the colour may be thrown down in a solid
+form by the addition of any salt. Probably it was this basic
+preparation, so cheaply and easily made, that conferred upon Prussian
+blue the character of staining paper. In name, there is also another
+variety of this pigment, known as <i>Native Prussian Blue</i>; which is
+really a native phosphate of iron, occurring as a blue earthy powder, or
+as a white powder that becomes blue by exposure.</p>
+
+
+<h4>130. ANTWERP BLUE,</h4>
+
+<p><i>Haerlem Blue</i>, <i>Berlin Blue</i>, <i>Mineral Blue</i>, is a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[208]</a></span> lighter and
+somewhat brighter Prussian blue, with less depth and less permanence. It
+is a species of lake, having a considerable proportion of aluminous
+base, to which its paler tint is due. As the stability of Prussian blue
+rests in a great measure on the marvellous amount of latent colour the
+pigment contains, when its particles of colour are set farther apart by
+the intervention of the alumina, the permanence of its hue is
+endangered. It was remarked, with respect to vitrified pigments, that
+colour depends on cohesion. More or less, this holds good as regards all
+pigments; but not only, as was also observed, does colour rest on
+cohesion, in many instances durability depends likewise. It is only when
+a colour is stable in itself that its particles will bear separating:
+native ultramarine, for example, may be weakened almost to white, and
+will still preserve its hue. If, however, a colour be naturally
+fugitive, and rely chiefly on its extreme depth for what permanence it
+possesses, that colour cannot with impunity be paled: witness the
+cochineal lakes, which the deeper they are, the more durable they are
+found; and so it is with Prussian blue. Antwerp blue is distinguished
+from the latter by its more earthy fracture.</p>
+
+
+<p>131. TURNBULL'S BLUE,</p>
+
+<p class="no">Or <i>Ferricyanide of Iron</i>, is formed by adding the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[209]</a></span> red prussiate of
+potash to a protosalt of iron. This blue is lighter and more delicate
+than ordinary Prussian blue, and is believed to resist the action of
+alkalies longer. It is a question whether the common Prussian blue
+obtained by oxidizing the precipitate yielded by green vitriol and the
+yellow prussiate is not in reality this variety. However that may be,
+there is, as far as permanence goes, little or no difference between the
+two kinds.</p>
+
+
+<h4>ULTRAMARINES.</h4>
+
+<h4>ARTIFICIAL ULTRAMARINES</h4>
+
+<p class="no">comprise the varieties known as <i>French Ultramarine</i>, <i>French Blue</i>,
+<i>Brilliant Ultramarine</i>, <i>Factitious Ultramarine</i>, <i>Guimet's
+Ultramarine</i>, <i>New Blue</i>, <i>Permanent Blue</i>, <i>Gmelin's German
+Ultramarine</i>, <i>Bleu de Garance</i>, <i>Outremer de Guimet</i>, &amp;c. The
+unrivalled qualities of native ultramarine prepared from the lapis
+lazuli rendered it most desirable to obtain an artificial compound
+which, while possessing similar properties, could be produced in
+quantity, and at a less costly rate. In demolishing some furnaces
+employed in making soda, by means of decomposing sulphate of soda, some
+earth had been found impregnated with a light blue, which was proved to
+have so close a resemblance to ultramarine as to foster hopes of
+success. As a stimulus, there was offered a prize of six thousand francs
+or &pound;500 for the production of artificial ultramarine by the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[210]</a></span> <i>Soci&eacute;t&eacute;
+d'Encouragement</i> of Paris, which was won in 1828 by M. Guimet. It is
+fitting that the discoverer of a colour should excel in its manufacture,
+and to this day Guimet's ultramarine is the finest made. As an instance
+of how the researches of different men may, almost simultaneously, lead
+to the same results, it is curious that very shortly after the problem
+was also solved by Gmelin.</p>
+
+<p>The cause of the blue colour of ultramarine was long a matter of
+controversy, but was believed generally to be due to iron. When,
+however, the discovery of artificial ultramarine was made, this
+assumption was shown to be false, by the fact that a blue could be
+obtained with materials perfectly free from iron. The absolutely
+necessary constituents of ultramarine are silica, alumina, sulphur, and
+soda; and there is little doubt that the colouring matter consists of
+hyposulphite of soda and sulphide of sodium: it is certain that the blue
+colour is dependant on the soda, inasmuch as potash yields an analogous
+compound which is purely white. A number of substances, such as iron,
+lime, magnesia, and potash, may be present as impurities, and were, in
+part at least, purposely added to the earlier manufactures; but they are
+found to be superfluous. Nevertheless, as regards iron, it is probable
+that a very small portion, such as is usually contained in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[211]</a></span>
+ingredients, greatly facilitates the production of the blue, and may
+even be essential in some cases.</p>
+
+<p>The colour of ultramarine is brought out by successive heatings. Green
+portions, more or less in quantity, are often formed in the crucibles,
+especially on the first ignition. On repeated heating they pass into a
+blue tint. Artificial ultramarines are said to be seldom entirely freed
+from all traces of the green modification, and are therefore less
+beautiful than the natural varieties, having a shade of green or grey.
+This defect, however, is certainly not discernible in Guimet's products,
+which sometimes incline so much to purple as to require neutralizing
+with a little Prussian blue. Depth for depth, the artificial are darker
+and less azure than the natural varieties, but the superiority of the
+latter consists not so much in their greater purity of hue, although
+this is considerable, as in their far greater transparency. The finest
+French ultramarine is never so transparent as the native; it is
+brilliant, it is powerful, it is permanent, it is nearly&mdash;but only
+nearly&mdash;transparent. Possessing in a subdued degree the characteristics
+and qualities of the genuine, it works, washes, and dries well; and is
+useful either in figures, draperies, or landscape. Rivalling in depth,
+although not equalling in colour, the pure azure of native ultramarine,
+it answers to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[212]</a></span> the same acid tests, but is sometimes distinguished
+therefrom by the effervescence which ensues on the addition of an acid.
+Not a bubble escapes in such case from the natural blue; unless, indeed,
+as occasionally happens, it retain a portion of alkali, with which it
+may have been combined in the preparation, but from which it should have
+been freed. Darkened as a rule by fire, factitious ultramarine becomes
+dingy blue, and at last white, when strongly ignited for a long time;
+and is, like the true variety, <ins class="trans" title="was decolourized">decolourised</ins> by ignition in an atmosphere
+of hydrogen gas. At a high temperature, this effect is even produced by
+silica, whence the unfitness of ultramarine for painting on glass or
+porcelain; and simply by a prolonged red heat the blue is rendered
+white. Being unaffected by alkalis, it is eligible in mural decoration,
+and is particularly adapted to siliceous painting, on account of the
+silica and alumina which it contains, two substances with which a
+soluble silicate readily unites. If artificial ultramarine be mixed with
+a soluble silicate, for example silicate of potash, and be laid on a
+properly prepared ground, it will become so firmly fixed, says Mr.
+Barff, that no amount of washing nor the slow action of moisture will
+remove it, or affect its brilliancy. Judging from the behaviour of
+ultramarine, therefore, if the colours employed in siliceous painting
+contain silica and alumina, they should adhere<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[213]</a></span> as firmly to the surface
+on which they are placed; and this is really the case. It is possible to
+produce a mixed solution of aluminate and silicate of potash which will
+remain liquid for twenty-four hours. If, while in the liquid state,
+colours are saturated with this solution and allowed to dry, their
+particles will be very intimately mixed with silica and alumina
+chemically combined with potash. According to the author quoted, the
+admixture of silica and alumina does not interfere with the brilliancy
+or depth of the colours, and the method may be used for all those which
+are not injured by potash, and are in themselves adapted to the art.</p>
+
+<p>With respect to permanence, the finer varieties of artificial
+ultramarines may, undoubtedly, be pronounced stable; but, like all other
+colours, these blues are apt to vary in quality, and inferior kinds are
+liable to lose their purity in a measure, and become grayer. Moreover,
+they are made by different processes, and the mode adopted for the
+manufacture of a pigment not only tells upon the colour, but may
+influence to some extent its durability. From the following experiment
+of an ingenious artist and friend of the author, it is evident that the
+production of artificial ultramarine was not carried in its early days
+to that state of perfection at which it has now arrived. He took a
+picture, the sky of which had been recently painted in the ordinary<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[214]</a></span>
+manner with Prussian blue and white; and having painted over the clear
+part of the sky uniform portions with tints formed of the best
+factitious ultramarine, cobalt blue, and genuine ultramarine, so as to
+match the ground of the sky, and to disappear to the eye thereon by
+blending with the ground, when viewed at a moderate distance, he set the
+picture aside for some months. Upon examination, it appeared that the
+colour of these various blue pigments had taken different ways, and
+departed from the hue of the ground: the factitious ultramarine had
+<i>blackened</i>, the cobalt blue <i>greened</i>, the genuine ultramarine remained
+a <i>pure azure</i>, like a spot of light, while their ground, the Prussian
+blue sky, seemed by contrast with the ultramarine of a <i>grey</i> or <i>slate
+colour</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Other things being equal, those artificial ultramarines are most durable
+which possess the most colour; and all are, perhaps, most permanent in
+water. If used in that vehicle, care should be taken to employ a gum
+free from acid; also, whether in water or oil, not to compound the blue
+with a pigment which may possibly contain acid, such as constant white.
+Acid, as we have said, is the great test for ultramarine; whence if a
+sample be sophisticated with cobalt, its blue colour will not be
+entirely destroyed. With high-class artistic pigments, however,
+adulteration is the exception and not<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[215]</a></span> the rule. It is as a powder-blue
+for the washtub that ultramarine gets disguised, when it is ground up
+with soda-ash, chalk, gypsum, &amp;c., and sold sometimes under its own
+name, but more frequently as superfine Saxon smalts.</p>
+
+
+<h4>132. BRILLIANT ULTRAMARINE,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">lately called <i>Factitious Ultramarine</i>, is a specially fine preparation
+of M. Guimet, presenting the nearest approach to the natural product of
+any artificial ultramarine, both in transparency, purity of hue, and
+chemical characteristics. Equalling in depth and power the ordinary
+French ultramarine, it possesses greater clearness, beauty, and
+brightness; and has, in a subdued degree, that quality of light in it,
+and of the tint of air, which forms so distinguishing a feature in the
+native blue.</p>
+
+
+<h4>133. FRENCH ULTRAMARINE,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">or <i>French Blue</i>, is a rich deep colour, but less transparent and vivid
+than the preceding variety, which is preferable in unmixed tints. For
+compound hues, French blue is sufficiently well adapted, and is
+extremely useful. With aureolin and burnt Sienna, or Vandyke brown, it
+affords valuable autumn greens; and with lamp black, or lamp black and
+light red, good stormy clouds. A sombre gray for distant mountains is
+furnished by French blue and madder brown, with a very<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[216]</a></span> little gamboge;
+and a deep purple for sunsets, by the blue and purple madder, or Indian
+red and rose madder. With cadmium and orient yellows, sepia, viridian,
+and many other colours, this ultramarine is of service.</p>
+
+
+<h4>134. NEW BLUE</h4>
+
+<p class="no">Is confined to water-colour painting, and is an artificial ultramarine,
+holding a middle position between French blue and permanent blue, being
+less deep than the one and less pale than the other. It may be said to
+hover in tint between a rich ultramarine and cobalt.</p>
+
+<h4>135. PERMANENT BLUE</h4>
+
+<p class="no">Is a pale ultramarine, with a cobalt hue; and, in spite of its name,
+less permanence than belongs to the richer and deeper sorts. What
+Antwerp blue is to Prussian blue, this is to French blue&mdash;that is, as
+regards colour. With respect to durability, however, permanent and
+Antwerp blues cannot be compared; the former being a weakened variety of
+a stable, and the latter a weakened variety of a semi-fugitive, pigment.
+Hence permanent blue justifies its name, although that name would be
+more suited to the brilliant, or French, ultramarine.</p>
+
+
+<h4>136. GENUINE ULTRAMARINE,</h4>
+
+<p class="no"><i>Native Ultramarine</i>, <i>Natural Ultramarine</i>, <i>Real Ultramarine</i>, <i>True
+Ultramarine</i>, <i>Ultramarine</i>, <i>Pure</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[217]</a></span> <i>Ultramarine</i>, <i>Azure</i>, <i>Outremer</i>,
+<i>Lazuline</i>, <i>Lazulite Blue</i>, and <i>Lazurstein</i>. This most costly, most
+permanent, and most celebrated of all pigments, is obtained by isolating
+the blue colouring matter of the <i>lapis lazuli</i>, a stone chiefly brought
+from China, Thibet, and the shores of Lake Baikal. About the antiquity
+of the stone, and its colour, much has been written, and many
+conflicting statements have been made; but there is little doubt that
+our lapis lazuli was the sapphire of the ancients; and that the first
+certain mention of ultramarine occurs in a passage of Arethas, who lived
+in the eleventh century, and who, in his exposition of a verse in the
+book of Revelation, says, the sapphire is that stone of which
+<i>lazurium</i>, as we are told, is made. It has been common to confound
+ultramarine with the <i>cyanus</i> and <i>c&oelig;ruleum</i> of the ancients; but
+their cyanus, or Armenian blue, was a kind of mineral or mountain blue,
+tinged with copper; and their c&oelig;ruleum, although it may sometimes
+have been real ultramarine, was properly and in general a copper ochre.
+That ultramarine was known to the ancients there seems every
+probability, for it is certain they were acquainted with the stone; and
+modern travellers describe the brilliant blue painting still remaining
+in the ruins of temples of Upper Egypt as having all the appearance of
+ultramarine. Whether it is so or not, however, could only be proved by
+analysis; for,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[218]</a></span> be it recollected, although the colour had preserved its
+hue during so many centuries, it had been completely buried, and
+therefore most perfectly secluded from light and air. Mr. Layard, in his
+'Nineveh,' referring to some painted plaster, remarks that "The colours,
+particularly the blues and reds, were as brilliant and vivid when the
+earth was removed from them as they could originally have been; but, on
+exposure to the air, they faded rapidly." In all likelihood, these were
+of organic, or semi-organic, origin, prepared in some such manner as
+that mentioned by Pliny, who speaks of an earth which, when boiled with
+plants, acquired their blue colour, and was in some measure inflammable.
+As a pigment, cobalt was unknown to the ancients; but to these vegetable
+and copper blues of theirs, a third blue may perhaps be added.
+Experiments made upon blue tiles, found in a Roman tesselated
+foot-pavement at Montbeillard, showed that the colour was due to iron.
+M. Gmelin has proved that a blue tint can be imparted to glass and
+enamel by means of iron; and it is probable that the ancients were first
+induced by the blue slag of their smelting-houses to study the colouring
+of glass with iron; that in this art they acquired a dexterity not
+possessed at present, and that they employed their iron-smalt as a
+pigment, as we do our smalt of cobalt. To sum up, there are grounds for
+believing that the ancients were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[219]</a></span> acquainted with copper blues,
+vegetable blues, and iron blues; and that, consequently, the blue
+described by travellers as having all the appearance of ultramarine may,
+or may not, be that pigment.</p>
+
+<p>Lapis lazuli, or lazulite, is usually disseminated in a rock, which
+contains, among other substances, a fine white lazulite. In the <i>Mus&eacute;e
+Min&eacute;ralogique</i> of Paris are two splendid specimens of the stone, in
+which is seen the transition from the azure to the white. According to
+the quantity and quality of blue present, the lapis varies from an
+almost uniform tint of the deepest indigo-blue to grayish-white, dotted
+and streaked at intervals with pale blue. The exceeding beauty of good
+samples has caused the lazulite to be much sought after, both as a gem
+for adorning the person, and for inlaid works in ornamental decoration.
+In China the stone is highly esteemed, being worn by mandarins as badges
+of nobility conferred only by the Emperor; and in the apartments of a
+summer palace near St. Petersburg, the walls are covered with amber,
+interspersed with plates of this costly lapis. Besides the colouring
+principle of the lazulite, there are always more or less mica and iron
+pyrites, the latter a lustrous yellow bisulphide of iron, which has
+often been mistaken for pellets of gold. Having chosen portions of the
+stone most free from these impurities, it is simply requisite to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[220]</a></span> reduce
+them to an impalpable powder to obtain a blue pigment; and probably this
+was the original mode of preparing it before the discovery of the modern
+process. This curious method, which is mechanical rather than chemical,
+depends for its success on the character and proportions of the
+materials employed, as well as on the nicety of working. When well
+carried out, it perfectly isolates the blue from all extraneous matter,
+yielding the colour at first deep and rich, then lighter and paler, and
+lastly of that gray tint which is known by the name of Ultramarine Ash.
+The refuse, containing little or no blue, furnishes the useful pigment,
+Mineral Gray.</p>
+
+<p>The immense price of ultramarine&mdash;or, as it was at first called, azurrum
+ultramarinum, blue beyond-the-sea&mdash;was almost a prohibition to its use
+in former times. It is related that Charles I. presented to Mrs.
+Walpole, and possibly to Vandyke also, five hundred pounds worth of
+ultramarine, which lay in so small a compass as only to cover his hand.
+Even in these days, despite the introduction of artificial ultramarines,
+the native product continues costly, commanding in proportion to its
+intensity and brightness, from two to eight guineas an ounce. To say,
+however, that the merits of the blue at least equal its expense, is to
+give the genuine ultramarine no more than its due. It has, indeed, not
+earned its reputation upon slight pretensions, being, when of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[221]</a></span> fine
+quality, and skilfully prepared, of the most exquisitely beautiful blue,
+ranging from the utmost depth of shadow to the highest brilliancy of
+light and colour,&mdash;transparent in all its shades, and pure in all its
+tints. A true medial blue, when perfect, partaking neither of purple on
+the one hand, nor of green on the other, it sustains no injury either by
+damp and impure air, or by the intensest action of light, and is so
+eminently durable, that it remains unchanged in the oldest paintings.
+Drying well, working well in oil and fresco, ultramarine may be safely
+compounded with pigments generally, excepting only an acid sulphate of
+baryta or constant white. The blue has so much of the property of light
+in it, and of the tint of air&mdash;is so purely a sky-colour, and hence so
+singularly adapted to the direct and reflex light of the sky, and to
+become the antagonist of sunshine&mdash;that it is indispensable to the
+painter. Moreover, it is so pure, so true, so unchangeable in its tints
+and glazings, as to be no less essential in imitating the marvellous
+colouring of nature in flesh and flowers. To this may be added that it
+enters so admirably into purples, blacks, greens, grays, and broken
+hues, that it has justly obtained the character of clearing or carrying
+light and air into all colours, both in mixture and glazing, as well as
+gained a sort of claim to universality throughout a picture.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[222]</a></span>Nevertheless, ultramarine is not always entitled to the whole of this
+commendation. Frequently it is coarse in texture, in which case it is
+apparently more deep and valuable; yet such blue cannot be used with
+effect, nor ground fine without injuring its colour. Again, it is apt to
+be separated in an impure state from the lapis lazuli, which is an
+exceedingly varying and compound mineral, abounding with earthy and
+metallic parts in different states of oxidation and composition: hence
+ultramarine sometimes contains iron as a red oxide, when it has a purple
+cast; and sometimes the same metal as a yellow oxide, when it is of a
+green tone; while often it retains a portion of black sulphuret of iron,
+which imparts a dark and dusky hue. Occasionally, it is true, artists
+have preferred ultramarine for each of these tones; still are they
+imperfections which may account for various effects and defects of this
+pigment in painting. Growing deeper by age has been attributed to
+ultramarine; but it is only such specimens as would acquire depth in the
+fire that could be subject to the change; and it has been reasonably
+supposed that in pictures wherein other colours have faded, it may have
+taken this appearance by contrast. Ultramarine, prepared from calcined
+lapis, is not liable to so deepen; but this advantage may be purchased
+at some sacrifice of the vivid, warm, and pure azure colour of the blue
+produced from unburnt stone.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[223]</a></span> We have frequently found ultramarine to be
+darkened, dimmed, and somewhat purpled by ignition; and the same results
+ensue, in many instances, when the lazulite is calcined. In burning the
+stone, the sulphur of the pyrites is in a great measure expelled, and
+during its expulsion has probably a deteriorating influence on the
+beauty of the colour: our belief in this being so is strengthened by the
+fact that certain samples of ultramarine, ignited with sulphur, were not
+improved thereby. Similar effects are likewise caused by a careless or
+improper mode of treatment, for the finest lapis may yield dingy blues,
+containing particles of mica, metal, &amp;c., and possessing a dull green,
+black, or purple hue. Of course the perfection of the pigment is
+dependant to a large extent upon the quality of the stone itself.</p>
+
+<p>Though unexceptionable as an oil-colour, both in solid painting and
+glazing, it does not work so well as some other blues in water; nor is
+it, unless carefully prepared, so well adapted for mixed tints, on
+account of a gritty quality, of which no grinding will entirely divest
+it, and which causes it to separate from other pigments. When extremely
+fine in texture, however, or when a considerable portion of gum, which
+renders it transparent, can be employed to give connexion or adhesion
+while flowing, it becomes no less valuable in water than in oil; but
+when<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[224]</a></span> its vivid azure is to be preserved, as in illuminated manuscripts
+and missals, little gum must be used. The fine greens, purples, and
+grays of the old masters, are often unquestionably compounds of
+ultramarine; and formerly it was the only blue known in fresco. Pure
+ultramarine varies in shade from light to dark, and in hue from pale
+warm azure to the deepest cold blue.</p>
+
+<p>Native ultramarine consists of silica, alumina, sulphur, and soda; its
+colouring matter seeming to be due to hyposulphite of soda and sulphide
+of sodium. In these respects, as well as in that of being decolourised
+by acids, the natural product resembles the artificial. As a precious
+material, the former has been subject to adulteration; and it has been
+dyed, damped, and oiled to enrich its appearance; attempts of fraud,
+however, which may be easily detected. In the preceding edition of this
+work the author adds&mdash;"and the genuine may be as easily distinguished
+from the spurious by dropping a few particles of the pigment into
+lemon-juice, or any other acid, which almost instantly destroys the
+colour of the true ultramarine totally, and without effervescence." With
+this statement, so far as it pretends to be a test for the two kinds, we
+are not inclined to agree. Genuine ultramarine is always decolourised by
+acids; but it depends on the mode and nicety of its preparation whether
+it is decolourised without effervescence: that this is the case the
+author<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[225]</a></span> himself admits in his article on artificial ultramarine.
+Moreover, the "violent effervescence" which he describes as ensuing on
+the latter being dropped into an acid, does not of necessity take place:
+in M. Guimet's finest variety, the brilliant ultramarine, acid produces
+little or no effervescence. Seeing, therefore, that both sorts are
+decolourised by acids, and that both may or may not effervesce
+therewith, the acid test must be considered fallacious. Experiments made
+with different samples of each, showed that native ultramarines offered
+greater resistance to acid than the artificial, taking longer to
+decolourise; and that the residues of the first were in general of a
+purer white than those of the last. It was also found that the brilliant
+ultramarine, above referred to, was less readily decolourised than other
+French or German kinds.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<h4>137. <i>Blue Carmine.</i></h4>
+
+<p>In a former edition of this work there appeared the following:&mdash;"Blue
+carmine is a blue oxide of molybdenum, of which little is known as a
+substance or as a pigment. It is said to be of a beautiful blue colour,
+and durable in a strong light, but is subject to be changed in hue by
+other substances, and blackened by foul air: we may conjecture,
+therefore, that it is not of much value in painting." In his estimate of
+this colour<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[226]</a></span> the author was certainly right. It is formed when a
+solution of bichloride of molybdenum is poured into a saturated, or
+nearly saturated, solution of molybdate of ammonia. A blue precipitate
+falls, which is a molybdate of molybdic oxide, hydrated, and abundantly
+soluble in water. When dried, it furnishes a dark blue powder,
+resembling powdered indigo, having a bitter, rough, metallic taste, and
+reddening litmus strongly. The solubility of this hydrated oxide is
+alone fatal to its employment as a pigment. It may, indeed, be rendered
+comparatively insoluble in water by ignition; but the anhydrous oxide so
+obtained is nearly black, and as a colour worthless.</p>
+
+<p>A more eligible preparation is the molybdate of baryta, produced by
+mixing solutions of molybdate of potash and acetate of baryta. A white,
+flocculent precipitate results, which rapidly condenses to a crystalline
+powder, and turns blue on ignition. It is, however, a costly compound,
+of little merit, and not likely to come into use. It is insoluble in
+water.</p>
+
+
+<h4>138. <i>Blue Ochre</i>,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">which has been improperly called Native Prussian Blue, is a native
+hydrated phosphate of iron of rare occurrence, found with iron pyrites
+in Cornwall, and also in North America. What Indian red is to the colour
+red, and Oxford ochre to yellow, this pigment is to the colour blue,
+being sober<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[227]</a></span> and subdued rather than brilliant. It has the body of other
+ochres, more transparency, and is of considerable depth. Both in water
+and oil it works well, dries readily, and does not suffer in tint with
+white lead, nor change when exposed to the action of strong light, damp,
+or impure air. As far as its powers extend, therefore, it is an eligible
+pigment, though not generally employed nor easily procured; it may,
+however, be artificially prepared. Answering to similar acid tests as
+ultramarine, it is distinguished therefrom by assuming an olive-brown
+hue on exposure to a red heat.</p>
+
+
+<h4>139. <i>Cobalt Prussian Blue.</i></h4>
+
+<p>Gmelin states that yellow prussiate of potash yields with a solution of
+oxalate of sesquioxide of cobalt a blue resembling Prussian blue&mdash;that,
+in fact, there can be obtained a Prussian blue with a base of cobalt
+instead of iron. In the moist state, the similarity is sufficiently
+great, but when washed and dried, the product is, with us, a dingy slate
+colour. Possibly, if such a blue could be produced, it might exceed in
+permanence the ferro- and ferri-cyanides of iron. Of course the compound
+would be much more expensive.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Copper Blues</i></h4>
+
+<p class="no">are now seldom or never employed as artists'<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[228]</a></span> pigments. The following
+are the principal varieties:&mdash;</p>
+
+
+<h4>140. <i>Bice</i>,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">Blue Bice, Iris, Terre Bleu, was prepared, when true, from the Armenian
+stone, which is a calcareous kind of stone coloured with copper. It was
+of a light bright hue, but is completely superseded by pale ultramarine.
+The Persian lazur appears to have been a similar pigment, being a sort
+of copper ore, which, when the stone was pounded and sifted, furnished a
+fine paint, very bright and pleasant. It could not, however, stand the
+effects of the atmosphere like the Tartarian lazur or lapis lazuli, in
+the course of time becoming of a dark and dismal colour.</p>
+
+<p>Ground smalts, blue verditer, and other pigments, have passed under the
+name of bice.</p>
+
+
+<h4>141. <i>Blue Ashes</i>, or <i>Mountain Blue</i>,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">are both hydrated carbonates of copper, the first being artificially
+prepared, and the second found native in Cumberland. Neither is durable,
+especially in oil; and, as pigments, both are precisely of the character
+of verditer. By treating the natural malachite green with an alkali, it
+may be converted into blue.</p>
+
+
+<h4>142. <i>Blue Verditer</i>,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">or Verditer, is an oxide of copper, formed by precipitating nitrate of
+copper with lime. It is of a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[229]</a></span> beautiful light blue colour, little
+affected by light, but greened and ultimately blackened by time, damp,
+and impure air&mdash;changes which ensue even more rapidly in oil than in
+water. It is mostly confined to distemper painting and paper-staining.</p>
+
+
+<h4>143. <i>Egyptian Blue</i>,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">called by Vitruvius, C&oelig;ruleum, is frequently found on the walls of
+the temples in Egypt, as well as on the cases enclosing mummies. Count
+Chaptal, who analysed some of it discovered in 1809 in a shop at
+Pompeii, found that it was blue ashes, not prepared in the moist manner,
+but by calcination. He considers it a kind of frit, of a semi-vitreous
+nature; and this would appear to be the case from Sir H. Davy obtaining
+a similar colour by exposing to a strong heat, for two hours, a mixture
+of fifteen parts of carbonate of soda, twenty of powdered flints, and
+three of copper. The colour is very brilliant when first made, and
+retains its hue well in distemper and decorative painting; but it has
+the common defect of copper blues of turning green in oil, when ground
+impalpably for artistic use. One remarkable effect of this copper
+smalt&mdash;for it is nothing else&mdash;is, that by lamp-light it shows somewhat
+greenish, but shines by day with all the brightness of azure. M&eacute;rim&eacute;e
+believes that Paul Veronese employed this sort of blue in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[230]</a></span> many of his
+pictures where the skies have become green.</p>
+
+
+<h4>144. <i>Saunders Blue</i>,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">a corrupt name from <i>Cendres Bleues</i>, the original denomination probably
+of ultramarine ashes, is of two kinds, the natural and artificial. The
+first is a blue mineral found near copper mines, while the last is
+simply a verditer.</p>
+
+
+<h4>145. <i>Schweinfurt Blue</i>,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">or Reboulleau's Blue, is prepared by fusing together equal weights of
+ordinary arseniate of protoxide of copper and arseniate of potash, and
+adding one-fifth its weight of nitre to the fused mass. The result is,
+so to speak, a sort of blue Scheele's green, into which latter colour it
+soon passes when rubbed with oil.</p>
+
+
+<h4>146. <i>Cotton Seed Blue.</i></h4>
+
+<p>Cotton seed oil is bleached by treatment with either carbonate of soda
+or caustic lime. In both cases, a considerable residue is left after
+drawing off the bleached oil. This residue is treated with sulphuric
+acid, and distilled at a high temperature, when there is left a compact
+mass of a deep greenish-blue colour. On further treatment of this mass
+with strong sulphuric acid, the green tint disappears, and a very
+intense pure<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[231]</a></span> blue colour is produced. The blue mass is a mixture of the
+coloured substance with some sulphuric acid, sulphate of soda, and fats.
+The two former may be removed by washing with water; the latter by
+treatment with naptha. Alcohol now dissolves the blue colour, and water
+precipitates it from the solution chemically pure.</p>
+
+<p>This blue has not been introduced as a pigment; and of its permanence,
+and other attributes, we know nothing.</p>
+
+
+<h4>147. <i>Gold Blue.</i></h4>
+
+<p>Gold purple, under the name of Purple of Cassius, was once very well
+known: a like compound of tin and gold may be made to yield a blue.
+Resembling indigo, the colour is not remarkably brilliant, and, unless
+several precautions are carefully observed, is rather violet than blue.
+When obtained, the colour must be quickly washed by decantation, or it
+changes first to violet and then to purple. Its costliness, lack of
+brightness, and tendency to redden, are against its employment on the
+palette. In enamelling it would doubtless preserve its colour, and in
+exceptional cases might be useful.</p>
+
+
+<h4>148. <i>Iodine Blue.</i></h4>
+
+<p>It is curious that iodine, which gives a yellow with lead, should also
+afford a blue with the same metal. When a solution of iodine in aqueous<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[232]</a></span>
+soda (carbonate of soda is not so good) is added to nitrate or acetate
+of lead-oxide, a transient violet-red precipitate falls, which
+decomposes spontaneously under water, yielding iodine and a beautiful
+blue powder. The colour, however, is exceedingly fugitive, even the
+carbonic acid of the air separating iodine from it and forming a lead
+salt. Bearing in mind the scarlet iodide of mercury, iodine is capable
+of furnishing the three primary colours, distinguished alike by their
+brilliancy and fugacity.</p>
+
+
+<h4>149. <i>Iridium Blue.</i></h4>
+
+<p>The rare metal iridium affords a blue which is a mixture of the oxide
+and the sesquioxide. But being slightly soluble in water and
+decolourised by sulphuretted hydrogen, it would not, other
+considerations apart, be an acquisition.</p>
+
+
+<h4>150. <i>Manganese Blue.</i></h4>
+
+<p>An aqueous solution of permanganate of potash yields with baryta-water a
+violet mixture, which afterwards becomes colourless, and deposits a blue
+precipitate. This retains its colour after washing and drying, but
+cannot be recommended as a pigment, being liable to suffer in contact
+with organic substances, which deoxidize and decolourize the manganates
+and permanganates.</p>
+
+<h4><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[233]</a></span>151. <i>Platinum Blue.</i></h4>
+
+<p>With mercurous nitrate, the platinocyanide of potassium forms a thick
+smalt blue, and the platinidcyanide a dark blue precipitate. The
+compound is a mixture of platino- or platinidcyanide of mercury and
+mercurous nitrate. Upon the presence of the latter the colour seems to
+depend, for on washing with cold water containing nitric acid, the
+nitrate is not removed nor the blue affected; but boiling water extracts
+the nitrate and leaves a white residue. A blue containing mercurous
+nitrate must necessarily be injured by impure air, and be otherwise
+objectionable.</p>
+
+
+<h4>152. <i>Tungsten Blue</i></h4>
+
+<p class="no">is an oxide formed by the action of various deoxidizing agents on
+tungstic acid. It remains unaltered in the air at ordinary temperatures,
+is opaque, and of a blackish indigo-blue colour. As a pigment, there is
+little to recommend it.</p>
+
+
+<h4>153. <i>Wood-Tar Blue.</i></h4>
+
+<p>The colours obtained from coal-tar have become household words, and it
+is not impossible that those from wood-tar may be some day equally
+familiar. At present wood-tar is comparatively unexplored, but the fact
+that picamar furnishes a blue is at least as suggestive and hopeful as
+that transient purple colouration by which aniline was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[234]</a></span> once chiefly
+distinguished. As aniline is a product of coal-tar, so picamar is a
+product of wood-tar; and as the former gives a purple with
+hypochlorites, so the latter yields a blue with baryta-water. Both are
+distinguished by coloured tests, but there is this advantage in the
+picamar blue&mdash;it is comparatively permanent.</p>
+
+<p>Picamar blue is produced when a few drops of baryta-water are added to
+an alcoholic solution of impure picamar, or even to wood-tar oil
+deprived of its acid. The liquor instantly assumes a bright blue tint,
+which in a few minutes passes into an indigo colour. From <ins class="transgreek" title="[Greek: pitta]">&#960;&#953;&#964;&#964;&#945;</ins>
+pitch, and <ins class="transgreek" title="[Greek: kallos]">&#954;&#945;&#955;&#955;&#959;&#962;</ins> ornament, the blue is named <i>Pittacal</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The mode of separating pittacal has not been clearly described. Dumas
+states, that when precipitated in a flocculent state from its solutions,
+or obtained by evaporation, it closely resembles indigo, and, like it,
+acquires a coppery hue when rubbed. It is inodorous, tasteless, and not
+volatile; and is abundantly soluble in acetic acid, forming a red
+liquid, which, when saturated by an alkali, becomes of a bright blue. It
+is represented as a more delicate test of acid and alkalis than litmus.
+With acetate of lead, protochloride of tin, ammonio-sulphate of copper,
+and acetate of alumina, it yields a fine blue colour with a tint of
+violet, said not to be affected by air or light, and therefore
+recommended for dyeing.</p>
+
+<p>Like indigo, pittacal is believed to contain<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[235]</a></span> nitrogen, but its ultimate
+composition has not been accurately determined. Dumas considers it
+<ins class="trans" title="was indentical">identical</ins> with a blue product obtained in 1827 from coal-tar by MM.
+Barthe and Laurent. If this be the case, its greater stability over
+coal-tar blues and colours generally admits of doubt. That, however, has
+yet to be ascertained. Our object in noticing this blue has been
+two-fold: first, to direct attention to wood-tar as a possible source of
+colour; and secondly, to point to pittacal as a possible substitute for
+indigo, possessing greater durability.</p>
+
+
+<h4>154. <i>Zinc-Cobalt Blue.</i></h4>
+
+<p>Cobalt, as furnishing a blue colour, is usually associated with alumina,
+silica, or tin; and, as furnishing a green colour, with zinc. But there
+is obtainable a compound of zinc and cobalt which gives a blue not only
+free from green, but inclining rather to red. It is made by adding to a
+solution of ordinary phosphate of soda in excess a solution first of
+sulphate of zinc and then of sulphate of cobalt, and washing and
+igniting the precipitate. The result is a vitreous blue with a purple
+cast, of little body, and exceedingly difficult to grind. Altogether, it
+is not unlike smalt, over which it has no advantages as an artistic
+pigment either in colour or permanence. For tinting porcelain, however,
+it is admirably adapted, imparting thereto a very pure dark<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[236]</a></span> blue of
+extraordinary beauty. This blue is distinguished from smalt by
+dissolving in acetic acid.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<p>Compared with the wide range of yellows, or even with reds, the artist
+finds the number of his blues limited. The perfect native and excellent
+artificial ultramarines, the good blues of cobalt, the fair Prussian
+blue, and the doubtful indigo, are the four varieties he has for years
+been in the habit of using, and is still mainly dependent on. Our
+division, therefore, into permanent, semi-stable, and fugitive, is
+easily effected.</p>
+
+<p>In the front rank, pre-eminent among blues as among pigments generally,
+stands genuine ultramarine. Behind it, are the artificial ultramarines;
+and behind them again, cobalt and cerulian blue. To a greater or less
+extent, all these are durable.</p>
+
+<p>Among the semi-stable, must be classed cyanine or Leitch's blue, smalt,
+and Prussian blue.</p>
+
+<p>To the fugitive, belong indigo and the somewhat more permanent intense
+blue, Antwerp blue, and the copper blues.</p>
+
+<p>In this list of blues, which grace or disgrace the palette of the
+present day, there is one colour which, although not permanent, is
+almost indispensable. As yet, the chemist cannot in all cases lay down
+the law as to what pigments may or may not be employed. The painter who
+unne<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[237]</a></span>cessarily uses fugitive colours must have little love for his
+craft, and a poor opinion of the value of his work; but, even with the
+best intentions and the utmost self-esteem, the artist cannot always
+confine himself to strictly stable pigments. He has no right to use
+orpiment instead of cadmium yellow, or red lead instead of vermilion, or
+copper blue instead of cobalt: he has no business to employ indigo when
+Prussian blue saddened by black will answer his purpose; but&mdash;what
+pigment can he substitute for Prussian blue itself? None. In its
+wondrous depth, richness, and transparency, it stands alone: there is no
+yellow to compare with it, no red to equal it, no blue to rival it. In
+force and power it is a colour among colours, and transparent beyond
+them all. The great importance of transparent pigments is to unite with
+solid or opaque colours of their own hues, giving tone and atmosphere
+generally, together with beauty and life; to convert primary into
+secondary, and secondary into tertiary colours, with brilliancy; to
+deepen and enrich dark colours and shadows, and to impart force and tone
+to black itself. For such effects, no pigment can vie with Prussian
+blue. What purples it produces, what greens it gives, what a matchless
+range of grays; what velvety glow it confers, how it softens the
+harshness of colours, and how it subdues their glare. No; until the
+advent of a perfect palette, the artist can scarcely<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[238]</a></span> part with his
+Prussian blue; nor can the chemist, who has nothing better to offer,
+hold him to blame. It is for Art to copy Nature with the best materials
+she possesses: it is for Science to learn the secrets of Nature, and
+turn them to the benefit of Art.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[239]</a></span><a name="chapter_11" id="chapter_11"></a><a href="#contents">CHAPTER XI.</a></h2>
+
+<h3>ON THE SECONDARY, ORANGE.</h3>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Orange</span> is the first of the secondary colours in relation to light, being
+in all the variety of its hues composed of <i>yellow</i> and <i>red</i>. A true or
+perfect orange is such a compound of red and yellow as will neutralize a
+perfect blue in equal quantity either of surface or intensity; and the
+proportions of such compound are five of perfect red to three of perfect
+yellow. When orange inclines to red, it takes the names of <i>scarlet</i>,
+<i>poppy</i>, &amp;c.: in gold colour, &amp;c., it leans towards yellow. Combined
+with green it forms the tertiary <i>citrine</i>, and with purple the tertiary
+<i>russet</i>: it also furnishes a series of warm semi-neutral colours with
+black, and harmonizes in contact and variety of tints with white.</p>
+
+<p>Orange is an advancing colour in painting:&mdash;in nature it is effective at
+a great distance, acting powerfully on the eye, diminishing its
+sensibility in accordance with the strength of the light in which it is
+viewed. It is of the hue, and par<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[240]</a></span>takes of the vividness of sunshine, as
+it likewise does of all the powers of its components, red and yellow.
+Pre-eminently a <i>warm</i> colour, being the equal contrast of or antagonist
+to blue, to which the attribute of <i>coolness</i> peculiarly belongs, it is
+discordant when standing alone with yellow or with red, unresolved by
+their proper contrasts or harmonizing colours, purple and green. As an
+archeus or ruling colour, orange is one of the most agreeable keys in
+toning a picture, from the richness and warmth of its effects. If it
+predominate therein, for the colouring to be true, the violet and purple
+should be more or less red, the red more or less scarlet, the yellow
+more or less intense and orange, and the orange itself be intense and
+vivid. Further, the greens must lose some of their blue and consequently
+become yellower, the light blues be more or less light grey, and the
+deep indigo more or less marrone.</p>
+
+<p>Although the secondary colours are capable of being obtained by
+admixture of the primaries in an infinitude of hues, tints, and shades;
+yet simple original pigments of whatever class&mdash;whether secondary,
+tertiary, or semi-neutral&mdash;are, it has been said before, often superior
+to those compounded, both in a chemical and artistic sense. Hence a
+thoroughly good original orange is only of less value and importance
+than a thoroughly good original yellow, a green<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[241]</a></span> than a blue, or a
+purple than a red. To produce pure and permanent compound hues requires
+practice and knowledge, and we too often see in the works of painters
+combinations neither pleasing nor stable. Colours are associated with
+each other which do not mix kindly, and compounds formed of which one or
+both constituents are fugitive. As a consequence, mixed tints are
+frequently wanting in clearness, and, where they do not disappear
+altogether, resolve themselves into some primary colour; orange becoming
+red by a fading of the yellow, green yellow by a fading of the blue, and
+purple blue by a fading of the red. Again, with regard to compound
+tints, there is the danger of one colour <ins class="trans" title="was re-acting">reacting</ins> upon and injuring
+another, as in the case of greens obtained from chrome yellow and
+Prussian blue, where the former ultimately destroys the latter. Of
+course a mixture of two permanent pigments which do not react on each
+other will remain permanent; the green, for instance, furnished by
+aureolin and native ultramarine lasting as long as the ground itself. To
+produce, however, the effects desired, the artist does not always stop
+to consider the fitness and stability of his colours in compounding,
+even if he possess the needed acquaintance with their physical and
+chemical properties. At all times, therefore, but especially when such
+knowledge is slight, good orange, &amp;c., pigments are of more<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[242]</a></span> or less
+value, as by their use the employment of inferior mixtures is to a great
+extent avoided. In mingling primary with primary, if one colour does not
+compound well with the other, or is fugacious, the result is failure;
+but a secondary is not so easily affected by admixture: a green, for
+example, is seldom quite ruined by the injudicious addition of blue or
+yellow; and even if either of the latter be fugitive, the green will
+remain a green if originally durable. Thus the secondaries, if they are
+not already of the colour required, may be brightened or subdued,
+deepened or paled, with comparative impunity. The artist who, from long
+years of experience, knows exactly the properties and capabilities of
+the colours he employs, may in a measure dispense with secondary
+pigments, and obtain from the primaries mixed tints at once stable,
+beautiful, and pure; but even he must sometimes resort to them, as when
+a green like emerald or viridian is required, which no mixture of blue
+and yellow will afford. The primaries, by reason of their not being able
+to be composed of other colours, occupy the first place on the palette,
+and are of the first importance; but the secondaries are far too useful
+to be disregarded, and have a value of their own, which both veteran and
+tyro have cause to acknowledge.</p>
+
+<p>The list of original orange pigments was once so deficient, that in some
+old treatises on the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[243]</a></span> subject of colours, they are not even mentioned.
+This may have arisen, not merely from their paucity, but from the
+unsettled signification of the term orange, as well as from improperly
+calling these pigments reds, yellows, &amp;c. In these days, however, orange
+pigments are sufficiently numerous to merit a chapter to themselves;
+they indeed comprise some of the best colours on the palette.</p>
+
+
+<h4>155. BURNT SIENNA,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">or <i>Burnt Terra di Sienna</i>, is calcined raw Sienna, of a rich
+transparent brown-orange or orange-russet colour, richer, deeper, and
+more transparent than the raw earth. It also works and dries better, has
+in other respects the qualities of its parent colour, and is a most
+permanent and serviceable pigment in painting generally. For the warm
+tints in rocks, mud banks, and buildings, this colour is excellent. When
+mixed with blue it makes a good green; furnishing a bright green with
+cobalt, and one much more intense with Prussian blue. For the foresea,
+whether calm or broken by waves, it may be employed with a little
+madder; while compounded with a small portion of the latter and lamp
+black, it meets the hues of old posts, boats, and a variety of near
+objects, as the tints may be varied by modifying the proportions of the
+component colours. Used with white, it yields a range of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[244]</a></span> sunny tones;
+and with aureolin or French blue and aureolin will be found of service,
+the last compound giving a fine olive green. Similar but fugitive greens
+are afforded by admixture of burnt Sienna with indigo and yellow or
+Roman ochre, or raw Sienna; tints which may be saddened into olive
+neutrals by the addition of sepia, and rendered more durable by
+substituting for indigo Prussian blue and black. Mixed with viridian, it
+furnishes autumnal hues of the utmost richness, beauty, and permanence;
+and, alone, is valuable as a glaze over foliage and herbage. For the
+dark markings and divisions of stones a compound of Payne's gray and
+burnt Sienna will prove serviceable; while for red sails the Sienna,
+either by itself, with brown madder, or with Indian red, cannot be
+surpassed. For foregrounds, banks and roads, cattle and animals in
+general, burnt Sienna is equally eligible, both alone and compounded. It
+has a slight tendency to darken by time.</p>
+
+
+<h4>156. CADMIUM ORANGE</h4>
+
+<p class="no">was first introduced to the art-world at the International <ins class="trans" title="was Exibition">Exhibition</ins> of
+18621862, where it was universally admired for its extreme brilliancy and
+beauty, a brilliancy equalled by few of the colours with which it was
+associated, and a beauty devoid of coarseness. We remember well the
+power it possessed of attracting the eye from a distance;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[245]</a></span> and how, on
+near approach, it threw nearly all other pigments into the shade. It has
+in truth a lustrous luminosity not often to be met with, added to a
+total absence of rankness or harshness. A simple original colour,
+containing no base but cadmium, it is of perfect permanence, being
+uninjured by exposure to light, air or damp, by sulphuretted hydrogen,
+or by admixture. Having in common with cadmium sulphides a certain
+amount of transparency, it is invaluable for gorgeous sunsets and the
+like, either alone or compounded with aureolin. Of great depth and power
+in its full touches, the pale washes are marked by that clearness and
+delicacy which are so essential in painting skies. As day declines, and
+blue melts into green, green into orange, and orange into purple, the
+proper use of this pigment will produce effects both glowing and
+transparent. Transparency signifies the quality of being seen through or
+into; and in no better way can it be arrived at than by giving a number
+of thin washes of determined character, each lighter than the preceding
+one. With due care in preserving their forms, from the commencement to
+the termination, such washes of orange will furnish hues the softest and
+most aerial. For bits of bright drapery, a glaze over autumn leaves, and
+mural decoration, this colour is adapted; while in illumination it
+supplies a want formerly much felt. "With<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[246]</a></span> the exception of scarlet or
+bright orange," said Mr. Bradley, nine or ten years since, in his Manual
+of Illumination, "our colours are everything we could wish." As an
+original pigment, a permanent scarlet does not yet exist; but the
+brilliancy of cadmium orange cannot be disputed, nor its claim to be the
+only unexceptionable bright orange known. It even assists the formation
+of the other colour: remarks the author mentioned, "Brilliancy is
+obtained by gradation. Suppose a scarlet over-curling leaf, for example.
+The whole should be painted in pure orange, with the gentlest possible
+after-touch of vermilion towards the corner under the curl. When dry, a
+firm line&mdash;not wash&mdash;of carmine, (of madder, preferable.&mdash;<i>Ed.</i>), passed
+within the outline on the shade side only of the leaf, will give to the
+whole the look of a bright scarlet surface, but with an indescribable
+superadded charm, that no merely flat colour can possess." In the same
+branch of art, illumination, cadmium orange, opposed to viridian,
+presents a most dazzling contrast, especially if relieved by purple.</p>
+
+
+<h4>157. CHINESE ORANGE</h4>
+
+<p class="no">belongs to the coal-tar colours, and ought strictly to have been classed
+therewith. We have preferred, however, to keep it separate, because, as
+Chinese Orange, it was introduced as a pigment,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[247]</a></span> and has not been
+employed as a dye. In colour, it somewhat resembles burnt Sienna,
+enriched, reddened, brightened, and made more transparent, by admixture
+with crimson lake. From its behaviour, it would seem to be composed of
+yellow and red, such a compound as magenta and aniline yellow would
+afford. Its pale washes are uncertain, being apt to resolve themselves
+into red and yellow, of which the latter appears the most permanent;
+for, on exposure to light and air, the red more or less flies, leaving
+here a yellow, and there a reddish-yellow ground: in places both red and
+yellow disappear. Like all fugitive colours, it is comparatively stable
+when used in body; but even then it entirely loses its depth and
+richness, and in a great measure its redness, becoming faded and
+yellowish. In thin washes or glazing it is totally inadmissible; and,
+being neither a red, an orange, nor a brown, is unsuited to pure
+effects. Nevertheless, where it need not be unduly exposed; in portfolio
+illuminations, for instance, the richness, subdued brilliancy, and
+transparency of this pigment, justify its adoption. It is not affected
+by an impure atmosphere.</p>
+
+<p>Aniline colours may be adapted for oil painting by dissolving them in
+the strongest alcohol, saturating the solution with Dammar resin,
+filtering the tincture, and pouring the filtrate either on pure water or
+solution of common salt, stirring well all<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[248]</a></span> the time. The water or brine
+solution must be at least twenty times the bulk of the tincture. The
+colour after being collected on a filter, washed, and dried, can be
+ground with linseed oil, poppy oil, or oil varnishes.</p>
+
+
+<h4>158. CHROME ORANGE,</h4>
+
+<p class="no"><i>Orange Chrome</i>, or <i>Orange Chromate of Lead</i>, is a sub-chromate of lead
+of an orange-yellow colour, produced by the action of an alkali on
+chrome yellow. Like all the chromates of lead, it is characterized by
+power and brilliancy; but also by a rankness of tone, a want of
+permanence, and a tendency to injure organic pigments. By reason of its
+lead base it is subject to alteration by impure air, but is on the whole
+preferable to the chrome yellows, being liable in a somewhat less degree
+to their changes and affinities. As, however, a colour has no business
+to be used if a better can be procured, the recent introduction of
+cadmium orange renders all risk unnecessary.</p>
+
+
+<h4>159. MARS ORANGE,</h4>
+
+<p class="no"><i>Orange de Mars</i>, is a subdued orange of the burnt Sienna class, but
+without the brown tinge that distinguishes the latter. Marked by a
+special clearness and purity of tone, with much transparency, it affords
+bright sunny tints in its pale washes, and combines effectively with
+white.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[249]</a></span> Being an artificial iron ochre it is more chemically active than
+native ochres, and needs to be cautiously employed with pigments
+affected by iron, such as the lakes of cochineal and intense blue.</p>
+
+
+<h4>160. MIXED ORANGE.</h4>
+
+<p>Orange being a compound colour, the place of original orange pigments
+can be supplied by mixtures of yellow and red; either by glazing one
+over the other, by stippling, or by other modes of breaking and
+intermixing them, according to the nature of the work and the effect
+required. For reasons lately given, mixed pigments are apt to be
+inferior to the simple or homogeneous both in colour, working, and other
+properties; yet some pigments mix and combine more cordially and with
+better results than others; as is the case with liquid rubiate and
+gamboge. Generally speaking, the compounding of colours is easier in oil
+than in water; but in both vehicles trouble will be saved by beginning
+with the predominating colour, and adding the other or others to it.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps in this, our first chapter on the secondary colours, and
+consequently on colours that can be compounded, a few remarks on mixed
+tints from a chemical point of view will not be deemed superfluous.</p>
+
+<p>There are two ways, we take it, of looking at<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[250]</a></span> a picture&mdash;from a purely
+chemical, and from a purely artistic, point of view. Regarded in the
+first light, it matters little whether a painting be a work of genius or
+a daub, provided the pigments employed on it are good and properly
+compounded. The effects produced are lost sight of in a consideration of
+the materials, their permanence, fugacity, and conduct towards each
+other. Painting is essentially a chemical operation: with his pigments
+for reagents, the artist unwittingly performs reaction after reaction,
+not with the immediate results indeed of the chemist in his laboratory,
+but often as surely. As colour is added to colour, and mixture to
+mixture, acid meets alkali, metal animal, mineral vegetable, inorganic
+organic. With so close a union of opposite and opposing elements, the
+wonder is not so much that pictures sometimes perish, but that they ever
+live. It behoves the artist, then, not only to procure the best and most
+permanent pigments possible, but to compound them in such a manner that
+his mixed tints may be durable as well as beautiful. To effect or aid in
+effecting this, although he may not always be able to act upon them, the
+following axioms should be borne in mind:&mdash;</p>
+
+<ol class="sample">
+<li>If they do not react on each other, a permanent pigment added to a
+permanent pigment yields a permanent mixture.</li>
+
+<li>If they do react on each other, a permanent<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[251]</a></span> pigment added to a
+permanent pigment yields a semi-stable or fugitive mixture.</li>
+
+<li>A permanent pigment added to a semi-stable pigment yields a
+semi-stable mixture.</li>
+
+<li>A permanent pigment added to a fugitive pigment yields a fugitive
+mixture.<br /><br />
+
+Consequently&mdash;</li>
+
+<li>A permanent pigment may be rendered fugitive or semi-stable by
+improper compounding.</li>
+
+<li>A semi-stable or fugitive pigment is not rendered durable by being
+compounded.</li>
+
+<li>As a chain is only as strong as its weakest link, so a mixture is
+only as permanent as its least durable constituent.</li>
+</ol>
+
+<p>To give illustrations&mdash;</p>
+
+<ol class="sample">
+<li>Ultramarine added to Chinese white yields a permanent mixture.</li>
+
+<li>Ultramarine added to an acid constant white yields a semi-stable or
+fugitive mixture.</li>
+
+<li>Ultramarine added to Prussian blue yields a semi-stable mixture.</li>
+
+<li>Ultramarine added to indigo yields a fugitive mixture.</li>
+</ol>
+
+<p>Except in the second instance, where the blue is either partially or
+wholly destroyed&mdash;in time, be it remembered, not at once&mdash;according to
+the quantity and strength of the acid in the white, the ultramarine
+remains unchanged. Hence at first sight our third and fourth conclusions
+may<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[252]</a></span> appear wrong; inasmuch as, it may be argued, a blue mixture cannot
+be semi-stable or fugitive when blue is left. To this we reply, unless
+both constituents are fugitive, a mixture will always more or less
+possess colour; but, if even one constituent be semi-stable or fugitive,
+a mixture will slowly but surely lose <i>the</i> colour for which it was
+compounded, and be <i>as a mixture</i> semi-stable or fugitive.</p>
+
+<p>It need hardly be observed that the number of permanent orange, green,
+and purple hues which the artist can compound, depends mainly on the
+number of permanent yellows, reds, and blues at his disposal. In mixed
+orange, therefore, a selection of durable yellows and reds is of the
+first importance. It should, however, be remarked that mixed orange,
+more sober and less decided, is obtainable by the use of citrine and
+russet; in the former of which yellow predominates, and in the latter,
+red: consequently orange results when yellow is added to russet, red to
+citrine, or citrine to russet.</p>
+
+<table summary="permanent yellows and reds" style="width: 400px; margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 2em; font-size: 90%;">
+<colgroup span="2">
+<col width="200px"></col>
+<col width="200px"></col>
+</colgroup>
+<tr>
+<th class="tdb3 br">PERMANENT YELLOWS.</th>
+<th class="tdb3">PERMANENT REDS.</th>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb3 br">Aureolin.</td>
+<td class="tdb3">Cadmium Red.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb3 br">Cadmium, deep.</td>
+<td class="tdb3">Liquid Rubiate.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb3 br">Cadmium, pale.</td>
+<td class="tdb3">Madder Carmine.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb3 br">Lemon Yellow.</td>
+<td class="tdb3">Rose Madder.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb3 br">Mars Yellow.</td>
+<td class="tdb3">Mars Red.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb3 br">Naples Yellow, modern.</td>
+<td class="tdb3">Ochres.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb3 br">Ochres.</td>
+<td class="tdb3">Vermilions.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb3 br">Orient Yellow.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb3 br">Raw Sienna.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[253]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>None of these pigments react on each other, and from them can be
+produced the most durable mixed orange that yellow and red will afford.</p>
+
+
+<h4>161. NEUTRAL ORANGE,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">or <i>Penley's Neutral Orange</i>, is a permanent compound pigment composed
+of yellow ochre and the russet-marrone known as brown madder: it is
+chiefly valuable in water-colour. Paper, being white, is too opaque to
+paint upon, without some wash of colour being first passed over it;
+otherwise the light tones of the sky are apt to look crude and harsh. It
+must, therefore, be gone over with some desirable tint, that shall
+break, in a slight degree, the extreme brilliancy of the mere paper. For
+this purpose, a thin wash of the orange is to be put over the whole
+surface of the paper with a large flat brush, care being taken never to
+drive the colour too bare, <i>i.e.</i> never to empty the brush too closely,
+but always to replenish before more is actually required. This first
+wash of colour not only gives a tone to the paper, but secures the
+pencil sketch from being rubbed out.</p>
+
+<p>The reason why, in this compound, yellow ochre, as a yellow, is
+preferred to any of the others, is, that it is a broken yellow, that is,
+a yellow slightly altered by having another hue, such as red, or brown,
+in its composition. It is somewhat opaque too, and hence, from this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[254]</a></span>
+quality, is especially adapted for distances. Brown madder also is a
+subdued red, which, when in combination with the former, produces a
+neutral orange, partaking of the character of soft light. As a general
+rule, yellow ochre is to predominate in broad daylight, and brown madder
+in that which is more sombre and imperfect: hence the pigment can be
+yellowed or reddened, by the addition of one or the other. For a clear
+sunset, the neutral orange must be repeated, with a preponderance of
+ochre at the top, assisted by a little cadmium yellow near the sun; the
+madder being added downwards.</p>
+
+<p>In treating of distant mountains, a distinction is to be made between
+them and the clouds, the former requiring solidity, while the latter are
+only to be regarded as vapour and air. Mountains, being opaque bodies,
+are acted upon by atmosphere more or less, according to their position,
+their distance, and the state of the weather. To express this
+distinction, recourse must be had to an under tint, except where the
+tone is decidedly blue&mdash;an uncommon case. No mixture can give this with
+such truth as the neutral orange. A wash, therefore, should be passed
+over the mountains, with nearly all yellow in the high lights, or in the
+gleams of sunshine, and, on the contrary, almost all brown madder for
+the shadows. These two degrees of tone must be run into each other<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[255]</a></span>
+while the drawing is wet. A beautiful and soft under tone will thus be
+given to receive the greys.</p>
+
+
+<h4>162. ORANGE, OR BURNT ROMAN OCHRE,</h4>
+
+<p>called also <i>Spanish Ochre</i>, is a very bright yellow or Roman ochre
+burnt, by which operation it acquires warmth, colour, transparency, and
+depth. Moderately bright, it forms good flesh tints with white, dries
+and works well both in water and oil, and is a very good and eligible
+pigment. It may be used in enamel painting, and has all the properties
+of its original ochre in other respects.</p>
+
+<p>A redder hue is imparted by mixing the ochre with powdered nitre before
+ignition, the orange red being subsequently washed with hot water.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<h4>163. <i>Anotta</i>,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">Annotto, Annatto, Arnotto, Arnotta, Terra Orellana, Rocou, &amp;c., is met
+with in commerce under the names of cake anotta, and flag or roll
+anotta. The former, which comes almost exclusively from Cayenne, should
+be of a bright yellow colour: the latter, which is imported from the
+Brazils, is brown outside and red within. It is prepared from the pods
+of the <i>bixa orellana</i>, and appears generally to contain two colouring
+matters, a yellow and a red, which are apt to adhere to each other and
+produce orange. Anotta<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[256]</a></span> dissolves with difficulty in water, but readily
+in alcohol and alkaline solutions, from which last it may be thrown down
+as a lake by means of alum. Being, however, exceedingly fugitive and
+changeable, it is not fit for painting; but is chiefly employed in
+dyeing silk, and colouring varnishes and cheese. Very red cheese should
+be looked upon with suspicion, for although the admixture of anotta is
+in no way detrimental to health provided the drug be pure, it is
+commonly adulterated with red lead and ochre. Several instances are on
+record that Gloucester and other cheeses have been found contaminated
+with red lead, through having been coloured with anotta containing it,
+and that this contamination has produced serious consequences.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bixine</i> is a purified extract of anotta made in France, and used by
+dyers.</p>
+
+
+<h4>164. <i>Antimony Orange</i>,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">Golden Sulphur of Antimony, or Golden Yellow, is a hydro-sulphuret of
+antimony of an orange colour, which is destroyed by the action of strong
+light. It is a bad dryer in oil, injurious to many pigments, and in no
+respect eligible either in water or oil.</p>
+
+
+<h4>165. <i>Chromate of Mercury</i></h4>
+
+<p class="no">has been improperly classed as a red with vermilion, for though it is of
+a bright ochrous red<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[257]</a></span> in powder, when ground it becomes a bright
+ochre-orange, and affords with white very pure orange tints.
+Nevertheless it is a bad pigment, since light soon changes it to a deep
+russet colour, and foul air reduces it to extreme blackness.</p>
+
+
+<h4>166. <i>Damonico</i>,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">or Monicon, is an iron ochre, being a compound of raw Sienna and Roman
+ochre burnt, and having all their qualities. It is rather more russet in
+hue than the pigment known as orange or burnt Roman ochre, has
+considerable transparency, is rich and durable in colour, and furnishes
+good flesh tints. As in orange ochre, powdered nitre may be employed in
+its preparation. Notwithstanding its merits, it is obsolete or nearly
+so; doubtless because burnt Sienna mixed with burnt Roman ochre
+sufficiently answers the purpose.</p>
+
+
+<h4>167. <i>Gamboge Orange.</i></h4>
+
+<p>On adding acetate of lead to a potash solution of gamboge, a rich bright
+orange is precipitated, which may be washed on a filter till the
+washings are colourless, and preserves its hue with careful drying. The
+orange which we thus obtained stood well in a book, but it cannot be
+recommended as an artistic pigment. Perhaps in dyeing, the lead and
+gamboge solutions might be worth a trial.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[258]</a></span>168. <ins class="correction" title="for Laque Min&eacute;ral read Laque Min&eacute;rale"><i>Laque Min&eacute;rale</i></ins></h4>
+
+<p class="no">is a French pigment, a species of chromic orange, similar to the orange
+chromate of lead. This name is likewise given to orange oxide of iron.</p>
+
+
+<h4>169. <i>Madder Orange</i>,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">or Orange Lake. It has been said that the yellows so-called produced
+from madder are not remarkable for stability, differing therein from the
+reds, purples, russets, and browns. Like them, this 'orange' is of
+doubtful colour and permanence, and not to be met with, brilliant and
+pure, on the palette of to-day. The russet known as Rubens' madder has a
+tendency to orange.</p>
+
+
+<h4>170. <i>Orange Lead</i>,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">of a dull orange colour, is an orange protoxide of lead or massicot.
+Like litharge, it may be employed in the preparation of drying oils,
+and, being a better drier than white lead, may be substituted for it in
+mixing with pigments which need a siccative, as the bituminous earths.</p>
+
+<p>Minium sometimes leans to orange; and there is made from ceruse a
+peculiar red, <i>Mineral Orange</i>.</p>
+
+<h4><i>Orange Orpiment</i>,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">or Realgar, has also been called Red Orpiment,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[259]</a></span> improperly, since it is
+a brilliant orange, inclining to yellow. There are two kinds, a native
+and an artificial, of which the former is the <i>sandarac</i> of the
+ancients, and is rather redder than the latter. They possess the same
+qualities as pigments, and as such resemble yellow orpiment, to which
+the old painters gave the orange hue by heat, naming it alchemy and
+burnt orpiment. Orange orpiment contains more arsenic and less sulphur
+than the yellow, and is of course highly poisonous. It is often
+sophisticated with brickdust and yellow ochre.</p>
+
+
+<h4>172. <i>Thallium Orange</i></h4>
+
+<p class="no">is produced when bichromate of potash is added to a neutral salt of the
+protoxide of thallium, as an orange-yellow precipitate. The scarcity of
+the metal precludes their present introduction as pigments, but if the
+chromates of thallium were found to resist the action of light and air,
+and not to become green by deoxidation of the chromic acid, they might
+possibly prove fitted for the palette. It is a question whether their
+<i>very</i> slight solubility in water would be a fatal objection; and,
+although they would be liable to suffer from a foul atmosphere, we are
+inclined to think the effects would not be so lasting as in the
+chromates of lead. Like lead sulphide, the sulphide of thallium ranges
+from brown to brownish-black, or grey-black; and, like it too,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[260]</a></span> is
+subject to oxidation and consequent conversion into colourless sulphate.
+It is, however, much more readily oxidized than sulphate of lead; and
+hence the thallium chromates would doubtless soon regain their former
+hue on exposure to a strong light.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Crookes, who discovered this new metal in 1861, believes that the
+deep orange shade observable in some specimens of sulphide of cadmium is
+due to the presence of thallium. He has frequently found it, he says, in
+the dark-coloured varieties, and considers the variations of colour in
+cadmium sulphide to be owing to traces of thallium. That thallium
+affects the colour is most probable, but it is not necessarily the cause
+of the orange hue. The tint of cadmium sulphide is a mere matter of
+manufacture, seeing that from the same sample of metal there can be
+obtained lemon-yellow, pale yellow, deep yellow, orange-yellow, and
+orange-red. With deference to the opinion of a chemist so distinguished,
+we hold that thallium rather impairs the beauty of cadmium sulphide than
+imparts to it an orange shade, the thallium being likewise in the form
+of sulphide, and therefore more or less black. On chromate of cadmium,
+made with bichromate of potash, thallium would naturally confer an
+orange hue.</p>
+
+
+<h4>173. <i>Uranium Orange</i></h4>
+
+<p class="no">is obtainable by wet and dry methods as a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[261]</a></span> yellowish-red, or, when
+reduced to powder, an orange-yellow, uranate of baryta. It is an
+expensive preparation, superfluous as a pigment.</p>
+
+
+<h4>174. <i>Zinc Orange.</i></h4>
+
+<p>When hydrochloric acid and zinc are made to act on nitro-prusside of
+sodium, a corresponding zinc compound is formed of a deep orange colour,
+slightly soluble in water, and not permanent.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<p>For a secondary colour, orange is well represented on the modern
+palette, and can point to some pigments as good and durable as any to be
+found among the primaries. Burnt Sienna, cadmium orange, Mars orange,
+neutral orange, and orange or burnt Roman ochre, are all strictly
+permanent. The so-called orange vermilions were, it will be remembered,
+classed among the reds.</p>
+
+<p>As semi-stable, must be ranked chrome orange; and as fugitive, Chinese
+orange, orange orpiment, and orange lead.</p>
+
+<p>From the foregoing division, the predominance of eligible orange
+pigments over those less trustworthy is manifest. Unfortunately, with
+many painters it is not so manifest that their secondary and compound
+colours should receive as much attention as the primaries, and that it
+is their duty, not only to the art which they practice, but to the
+patrons for whom they practice<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[262]</a></span> it, that their orange and green and
+purple hues, should be as durable as their yellows, reds, and blues. For
+such, the introduction of a new permanent pigment is of little interest,
+unless its colour be primary; so wedded are they to that passion for
+compounding which the chemist views with dismay. With dismay, because he
+knows that the rules of mixture are severe, and cannot with impunity be
+altered; that, although disguised in oil or gum, each pigment is a
+chemical compound, with more or less of affinity and power, more or less
+likely to act or be acted upon. Because he knows that, except with the
+most experienced artists, compounding leads to confusion; and that in it
+the temptations to use semi-stable or fugitive colours are strong. Look
+at those tables of mixed tints of which artist-authors are so fond, and
+tell us whether they always bear scrutiny&mdash;surely not. Admirable,
+perfect as these tints may be in an artistic sense, how often is their
+beauty like the hectic flush of consumption, which carries with it the
+seeds of a certain death. Will that orange where Indian yellow figures
+ever see old age, or that green with indigo, or purple with cochineal
+lake? Will they not rather spread over the picture the Upas-tree of
+fugacity, and kill it as they die themselves!</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[263]</a></span><a name="chapter_12" id="chapter_12"></a><a href="#contents">CHAPTER XII.</a></h2>
+
+<h3>ON THE SECONDARY, GREEN.</h3>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Green</span>, which occupies the middle station in the natural scale of colours
+and in relation to light and shade, is the second of the secondary
+colours. It is composed of the extreme primaries, <i>yellow</i> and <i>blue</i>,
+and is most perfect in hue when constituted in the proportions of three
+of yellow to eight of blue of equal intensities; because such a green
+will exactly neutralize and contrast a perfect red in the ratio of
+eleven to five, either of space or power. Of all compound colours, green
+is the most effective, distinct, and striking, causing surprise and
+delight when first produced by a mixture of blue and yellow, so
+dissimilar to its constituents does it appear to the untutored eye.
+Compounded with orange, green converts it into the one extreme tertiary
+<i>citrine</i>; while mixed with purple, it becomes the other extreme
+tertiary <i>olive</i>: hence its relations and accordances are more general,
+and its contrasts more agreeable with all colours, than those of any
+other individual<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[264]</a></span> colour. Accordingly it has been adopted very wisely in
+nature as the common garb of the vegetal creation. It is, indeed, in
+every respect a central or medial colour, being the contrast,
+compensatory in the proportion of eleven to five, of the middle primary
+<i>red</i>, on the one hand, and of the middle tertiary <i>russet</i>, on the
+other; while, unlike the other secondaries, all its hues, whether
+tending to blue or yellow, are of the same denomination.</p>
+
+<p>These attributes of green, which render it so universally effective in
+contrasting colours, cause it also to become the least useful in
+compounding them, and the most apt to defile other colours in mixture.
+Nevertheless it forms valuable semi-neutrals of the olive class with
+<i>black</i>, for of such subdued tones are those greens by which the more
+vivid tints of nature are opposed. Accordingly, the various greens of
+foliage are always more or less semi-neutral in hue. As green is the
+most general colour of vegetal nature and principal in foliage; so red,
+its harmonizing colour, with compounds of red, is most general and
+principal in flowers. Purple flowers are commonly contrasted with
+centres or variegations of bright yellow, as blue flowers are with like
+relievings of orange; and there is a prevailing hue, or character, in
+the green colour of the foliage of almost every plant, by which it is
+harmonized with the colours of its flowers.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[265]</a></span>The chief discord of green is blue; and when they approximate or
+accompany each other, they require to be resolved by the opposition of
+warm colours. It is in this way that the warmth of distance and the
+horizon reconciles the azure of the sky with the greenness of a
+landscape. Its less powerful discord is yellow, which needs to be
+similarly resolved by a purple-red, or its principles. In tone, green is
+cool or warm, sedate or gay, either as it inclines to blue or to yellow;
+yet in its general effects it is cool, calm, temperate, and refreshing.
+Having little power in reflecting light, it is a retiring colour, and
+readily subdued by distance: for the same reason, it excites the retina
+less than most colours, and is cool and grateful to the eye. As a colour
+individually, green is eminently beautiful and agreeable, but it is more
+particularly so when contrasted by its compensating colour, red, as it
+often is in nature, even in the green leaves and young shoots of plants
+and trees. "The autumn only is called the painter's season," remarks
+Constable, "from the great richness of the colours of the dead and
+decaying foliage, and the peculiar tone and beauty of the skies; but the
+spring has, perhaps, more than an equal claim to his notice and
+admiration, and from causes not wholly dissimilar,&mdash;the great variety of
+tints and colours of the living foliage, accompanied by their flowers
+and blossoms. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[266]</a></span> beautiful and tender hues of the young leaves and
+buds are rendered more lovely by being contrasted, as they now are, with
+the sober russet browns of the stems from which they shoot, and which
+still show the drear remains of the season that is past."</p>
+
+<p>The number of pigments of any colour is in general proportioned to its
+importance; hence the variety of greens is very great, though the
+classes of those in common use are not very numerous. Of the three
+secondaries, green is the colour most often met with, and, consequently,
+the most often compounded: for this last reason, perhaps, the palette is
+somewhat deficient in really good original greens&mdash;more deficient than
+there is any necessity for.</p>
+
+
+<h4>CHROME OXIDES.</h4>
+
+<p>By numerous methods both wet and dry, oxides of chromium are obtainable
+pale and deep, bright and subdued, warm and cool, opaque and
+transparent: sometimes hydrated, in which case they cannot be employed
+in enamelling; and sometimes anhydrous, when they are admissible
+therein. But whatever their properties may be, chemical, physical, or
+artistic, they are all strictly stable. Neither giving nor receiving
+injury by admixture, equally unaffected by foul gas and exposure to
+light, air, or damp, these oxides are perfectly unexceptionable in every
+respect.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[267]</a></span> For the most part they are eligible in water and oil, drying
+well in the latter vehicle, and requiring in the former much gum. They
+have long been known as affording pure, natural, and durable tints; but,
+until within the last few years, have been rather fine than brilliant
+greens. Lately, however, processes have been devised, yielding them
+almost as bright, rich, and transparent, as the carmine of cochineal
+itself.</p>
+
+
+<h4>175. OXIDE OF CHROMIUM,</h4>
+
+<p class="no"><i>Opaque Oxide of Chromium</i>, <i>Green Oxide of Chromium</i>, <i>Chrome Oxide</i>,
+<i>True Chrome Green</i>, <i>Native Green</i>, <i>&amp;c.</i>, is found native in an impure
+state as Chrome Ochre, but is always artificially prepared for artistic
+use. Obtained anhydrous by dry modes, this is the only chrome oxide
+available in enamelling, and is the one seen on superior porcelain. It
+is a cold, sober sage green, deep-toned, opaque, and, although dull,
+agreeable to the eye. Its tints with white are peculiarly delicate and
+pleasing, possessing a silvery luminous quality, and giving the effect
+of atmosphere. Being very dense and powerful, it must be employed with
+care to avoid heaviness, and is preferably diluted with a large quantity
+of white, or compounded with transparent yellow. In the hands of a
+master, this gray-green furnishes lustrous hues with brown pink, Italian
+pink, and Indian yellow; three beautiful but<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[268]</a></span> fugitive pigments, of
+which the two last may be replaced by aureolin. Of this Mr. Penley
+observes, "as adapted for the colouring of foliage and herbage, it is
+impossible to say too much in its praise. It imparts the vividness and
+freshness of nature to every colour with which it is combined;" and he
+brackets oxide of chromium with aureolin as a compound hue "extremely
+useful." In flat tints, the oxide sometimes does not wash well in water.</p>
+
+
+<h4>176. TRANSPARENT OXIDE OF CHROMIUM</h4>
+
+<p class="no">being deficient in body, is only eligible in oil. A very pale
+greyish-white green in powder, it gives an agreeable yellowish green of
+some depth in oil, moderately bright, but not very pure or clear.</p>
+
+<p>We are acquainted with another transparent chrome oxide of far greater
+beauty, brightness, purity, and clearness than the above. Of a bluish
+green hue, a difficulty in getting it to mix with oil renders it at
+present unavailable.</p>
+
+
+<h4>177. VERONESE GREEN,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">or <i>French Veronese Green</i>, is a comparatively recent introduction,
+similar in colour and general properties to the following; beside which,
+however, it appears dull, muddy, and impure. It is often adulterated
+with arsenic to an enormous extent, which interferes with its
+transparency,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[269]</a></span> mars its beauty, and renders it of course rankly
+poisonous.</p>
+
+
+<h4>178. VIRIDIAN</h4>
+
+<p class="no">is a still later addition to the palette, and the only permanent green
+which can be described as gorgeous, being not unlike the richest velvet.
+Pure and clear as the emerald, it may be called the Prussian Blue of
+Greens, of such richness, depth, and transparency is it. In hue of a
+bluish-green, its deepest shades verge on black, while its light tints
+are marked by transparent clearness unsurpassed. No compound of blue and
+yellow will afford a green at once so beautiful and stable, so gifted
+with the quality of light, and therefore so suited for aerial and liquid
+effects. Used with aureolin, it gives foliage greens sparkling with
+sunshine; and, fitly compounded, will be found invaluable for the glassy
+liquidity of seas, in painting which it becomes incumbent to employ
+pigments more or less transparent. "The general failing in the
+representation of the sea is, that instead of appearing liquid and thin,
+it is made to bear the semblance of opacity and solidity. In order to
+convey the idea of transparency, some object is often placed floating on
+the wave, so as to give reflection; and it is strange that we find our
+greatest men having recourse to this stratagem. To say it is not true in
+all cases, is saying too much; but this we do<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[270]</a></span> assert, that as a general
+principle it is quite false, and we prove it in this way: water has its
+motion, more or less, from the power of the wind; it is acted upon in
+the mass, and thus divided into separate waves, and these individually
+have their surface ruffled, which renders them incapable of receiving
+reflection. The exception to this will be, where the heaving of the sea
+is the result of some gone-by storm, when the wind is hushed, and the
+surface becomes bright and glassy. In this state, reflections are
+distinctly seen. Another exception will be in the hollow portion of the
+waves, as they curl over, and dash upon the shore."</p>
+
+<p>As viridian, like the sea, is naturally "liquid and thin, bright and
+glassy," the extract we have quoted from Mr. Penley, points to this
+green as a pigment peculiarly adapted for marine painting; in which, it
+may be added, its perfect permanence and transparency will be
+appreciated in glazing. Its fitness for foliage has been remarked; but
+in draperies the colour will prove equally useful, and in illumination
+will be found unrivalled. In the last branch of art, indeed, viridian
+stands alone, not only through its soft rich brilliancy, but by the
+glowing contrast it presents with other colours: employed as a ground,
+it throws up the reds, &amp;c., opposed to it, in a marvellous manner. Like
+the three preceding oxides of chromium, viridian neither injures nor<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[271]</a></span> is
+injured by other pigments; is unaffected by light, damp, or impure air;
+and is admissible in fresco. In enamelling it cannot be used; the
+colour, depending on the water of hydration, being destroyed by a strong
+heat.</p>
+
+
+<h4>COPPER GREENS</h4>
+
+<p class="no">are commercially known as <i>Emerald Green</i>, <i>Malachite Green</i>, <i>Scheele's
+Green</i>, <i>Schweinfurt Green</i>, <i>Verdigris</i>, <i>Green Bice</i>, <i>Green
+Verditer</i>, <i>Brunswick Green</i>, <i>Vienna Green</i>, <i>Hungary Green</i>, <i>Green
+Lake</i>, <i>Mineral Green</i>, <i>Patent Green</i>, <i>Mountain Green</i>, <i>Marine
+Green</i>, <i>Saxon Green</i>, <i>French Green</i>, <i>African Green</i>, <i>Persian Green</i>,
+<i>Swedish Green</i>, <i>Olympian Green</i>, <i>Imperial Green</i>, <i>Mitis Green</i>,
+<i>Pickle Green</i>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>The general characteristics of these greens are brightness of colour,
+well suited to the purposes of house-painting, but seldom adapted to the
+modesty of nature in fine art; considerable permanence, except when
+exposed to the action of damp and impure air, which ultimately blacken
+most of them; and good body. They have a tendency to darken by time, dry
+well as a rule in oil, and are all more or less poisonous, even those
+not containing arsenic.</p>
+
+
+<h4>179. EMERALD GREEN,</h4>
+
+<p class="no"><i>Schweinfurt Green</i>, <i>Vienna Green</i>, <i>Imperial Green</i>, <i>Brunswick
+Green</i>, <i>Mitis Green</i>, &amp;c., is a cupric aceto-arsenite, prepared on the
+large scale by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[272]</a></span> mixing arsenious acid with acetate of copper and water.
+It differs from Scheele's Green, or cupric arsenite, in being lighter,
+more vivid, and more opaque. Powerfully reflective of light, it is
+perhaps the most durable pigment of its class, not sensibly affected by
+damp nor by that amount of impure air to which pictures are usually
+subject: indeed it may be ranked as permanent both in itself and when in
+tint with white. It works better in water than in oil, in which latter
+vehicle it dries with difficulty. Bearing the same relation to greens
+generally as Pure Scarlet bears to reds, its vivid hue is almost beyond
+the scale of other bright pigments, and immediately attracts the eye to
+any part of a painting in which it may be employed. Too violent in
+colour to be of much service, it has the effect, when properly placed,
+of toning down at once, by force of contrast, all the other greens in a
+picture. If discreetly used, it is occasionally of value in the drapery
+of a foreground figure, where a bright green may be demanded; or in a
+touch on a gaily painted boat or barge. When required, no mixture will
+serve as a substitute. Compounded with aureolin, it becomes softened and
+semi-transparent, yielding spring tints of extreme brilliancy and
+beauty.</p>
+
+
+<h4>180. SCHEELE'S GREEN,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">or <i>Swedish Green</i>, resembles the preceding variety<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[273]</a></span> in being a compound
+of copper and arsenic, and therefore rankly poisonous; but differs from
+it in containing no acetic acid, in possessing less opacity, and in
+having a darker shade. It is a cupric arsenite, with the common
+attributes of emerald green, under which name it is sometimes sold. Of
+similar stability, it must not be employed with the true Naples yellow
+or antimoniate of lead, by which it is soon destroyed.</p>
+
+<p>Upon the lavish use of this dangerous pigment in colouring toys,
+dresses, paper-hangings, artificial leaves, and even cheap
+confectionery, it is not our province to enlarge: the constant-recurring
+diseases and deaths, which, directly or indirectly, result from the
+employment of arsenical pigments, are such every-day facts that they are
+merely deplored and forgotten. With arsenic on our heads, our clothes,
+our papers, our sweets, our <ins class="trans" title="was childrens'">children's</ins> playthings, we are so accustomed
+to live&mdash;and die&mdash;in a world of poison, that familiarity with it has
+bred contempt. Into the fatal popularity, therefore, of arsenical
+colours for decorative purposes, we shall not further enter; but it
+behoves us to deprecate their presence, and the presence of all
+poisonous pigments, in colour-boxes for the young. It is one of the
+pleasures of childhood to suck anything attractive that comes in its
+way, openly if allowed, furtively otherwise: and as in early life we
+have a preference for brilliancy, so vivid a pigment as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[274]</a></span> Scheele's green
+is an object of special attention. Artistically, it matters little
+whether a pigment is noxious or not, but we hold that poison should not
+be put into the hands of the young; and indeed are of opinion that a box
+of colours is about the worst present a child can receive.</p>
+
+
+<h4>181. MALACHITE GREEN,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">or <i>Mountain Green</i>, is met with in Cumberland, and is also found in the
+mountains of Kernhausen, whence it is sometimes called <i>Hungary Green</i>.
+It is prepared from malachite, a beautiful copper ore employed by
+jewellers, and is a hydrated dicarbonate of copper, combined with a
+white earth, and often striated with veins of mountain blue, to which it
+bears the same relation that green verditer bears to blue verditer. The
+colour, which may be extracted from the stone by the process followed
+for native ultramarine, varies from emerald-green to grass-green, and
+inclines to grey. It has been held in great esteem by some, and
+considered strictly stable, on the assumption, probably, that a pigment
+obtained from a stone like ultramarine, and by the same method, could
+not be otherwise than permanent. That it is so, with respect to light
+and air, there is no denying; but the green, when separated from the ore
+and purified for artistic use, is merely a carbonate of copper, and
+therefore sub<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[275]</a></span>ject to the influence of damp and impure air, in common
+with other non-arsenical copper colours. As a pigment, native malachite
+green has the same composition, or very nearly the same, as that which
+can be artificially produced, and answers to the same tests. Water-rubs
+of the two varieties which we exposed to an atmosphere of sulphuretted
+hydrogen became equally blackened by the gas. Practically, there is
+little or no difference between them: both preserve their colour if kept
+from damp and foul air, both are injured by those agents, and both are
+liable to darken in time, especially when secluded from light. The
+artificial, however, can be obtained of a much finer colour than the
+natural, which it may be made to resemble by admixture with mineral
+gray. On the whole, they can scarcely be recommended for the palette,
+and are certainly inferior in durability to Scheele's and Schweinfurt
+greens. In fresco painting they have been pronounced admissible; but,
+apart from the question of damp, we should deem the conjunction of lime
+with carbonate of copper not favourable to permanence. By the action of
+alkalies, even the native green malachite may be converted into blue;
+and it becomes a question whether the dingy greenish-blue on some
+ancient monuments was not originally malachite green.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<h4><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[276]</a></span>182. VERDIGRIS,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">or <i>Viride &AElig;ris</i>, is of two kinds, common or impure, and crystallized or
+<i>Distilled Verdigris</i>, or, more properly, refined verdigris. The best is
+made at Montpellier in France, and is a sub-acetate of copper of a
+bright green colour inclining to blue. The least durable of the copper
+greens, it soon fades as a water-colour by the action of light, &amp;c., and
+becomes first white and ultimately black by damp and foul gas. In oil,
+verdigris is permanent with respect to light and air, but moisture and
+an impure atmosphere change its colour, and cause it to effloresce or
+rise to the surface through the oil. It dries rapidly, and is
+exceptionally useful with other greens or very dark colours. In varnish
+it stands better; but cannot be considered safe or eligible, either
+alone or compounded. Vinegar dissolves it, forming a solution used for
+tinting maps, and formerly much employed for colouring pickles, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>The painters, who lived at the time when the arts were restored in
+Italy, used this pigment; and the bright greens seen in some old
+pictures are made by glazings of verdigris. It is often largely
+adulterated with chalk and sulphate of copper.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[277]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h4>183. MIXED GREEN</h4>
+
+<p>Green, being a compound of blue and yellow, may be got by combining
+those colours in the several ways of working&mdash;by mixing, glazing,
+hatching, or otherwise blending them in the proportions of the various
+hues required. To obtain a <i>pure</i> green, which consists of blue and
+yellow only, a blue should be chosen tinged with yellow rather than with
+red, and a yellow tinged with blue. If either a blue or a yellow were
+taken, tinged with red, this latter colour would go to produce some grey
+in the compound, which would tarnish the green. The fine nature-like
+greens, which have lasted so well in some of the pictures of the Italian
+schools, appear to have been compounded of ultramarine, or ultramarine
+ashes and yellow. Whatever pigments are employed on a painting in the
+warm yellow hues of the foreground, and blue colouring of the distance
+and sky, are advantageous for forming the greens in landscape, &amp;c.,
+because they harmonize better both in colouring and chemically, and
+impart homogeneity to the whole: a principle conducive to a fine tone
+and durability of effect, and applicable to all mixed tints. In
+compounding colours, it is desirable not only that they should agree
+chemically, but that they should have, as far as possible, the same
+degree of durability. In these respects, aureolin and ultramarine,
+gam<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[278]</a></span>boge and Prussian blue, Indian yellow and indigo, are all judicious
+mixtures, although not all to be recommended.</p>
+
+
+<table summary="permanent yellows and blues" style="width: 420px; margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 2em; font-size: 90%;">
+<colgroup span="2">
+<col width="220px"></col>
+<col width="200px"></col>
+</colgroup>
+<tr>
+<th class="tdb3 br">PERMANENT YELLOWS.</th>
+<th class="tdb3">PERMANENT BLUES.</th>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb3 br">Aureolin.</td>
+<td class="tdb3">Cerulian Blue.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb3 br">Cadmium Yellow, pale.</td>
+<td class="tdb3">Cobalt Blue.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb3 br">Cadmium Yellow, deep.</td>
+<td class="tdb3">Genuine Ultramarine.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb3 br">Lemon Yellow.</td>
+<td class="tdb3">Brilliant Ultramarine.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb3 br">Mars Yellow.</td>
+<td class="tdb3">French Ultramarine.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb3 br">Naples Yellow, modern.</td>
+<td class="tdb3">New Blue.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb3 br">Ochres.</td>
+<td class="tdb3">Permanent Blue.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb3 br">Orient Yellow.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb3 br">Raw Sienna.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p>The foregoing yellows and blues are in no wise inimical to each other,
+and yield the best mixed greens, chemically considered, the palette can
+afford. In an artistic sense, we confess, the result is not so
+satisfactory: the list of blues, it must be admitted, being somewhat
+scant. Among the latter there is no pigment with the wonderful depth,
+richness, and transparency of Prussian blue, and none consequently which
+will furnish with yellow a green of similar quality. That the artist,
+therefore, will dispense with Prussian blue, it would be too much to
+expect. There is, however, less necessity for it since the introduction
+of viridian, a green resembling that which is produced by admixture of
+Prussian blue and yellow, and which may be varied in hue by being
+compounded with aureolin or ultramarine. Our object in this work is to
+give precedence to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[279]</a></span> the chemical rather than the artistic properties of
+pigments, to separate the strictly stable from the semi-stable, and the
+semi-stable from the fugitive. A colour or a mixture may be chemically
+bad but artistically good, and vice vers&acirc;; but the chemist looks upon no
+pigment or compound with favour unless it be perfectly permanent, and
+ignores its mere beauty when void of durability. Hence, all artistic
+considerations are set aside in our lists of permanent pigments: if it
+be possible to use them alone, so much the better for the permanence of
+painting; if not, so much the worse will it be, according to the degree
+of fugacity of the colours employed.</p>
+
+
+<h4>184. BRONZE,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">and the three succeeding varieties, are greens resembling each other in
+being semi-stable, and more or less transparent. Bronze is a species of
+Prussian green, of a dull blue-black hue. In its deep washes it appears
+a greenish-black with a coppery cast. It is used in ornamental work, and
+sometimes as a background tint for flower pieces.</p>
+
+
+<h4>185. CHROME GREENS,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">commonly so called, are compounds of chromate of lead and Prussian blue,
+a mixture which is also known as <i>Brunswick Green</i>. Fine bright greens,
+they are suited to the ordinary purposes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[280]</a></span> of mechanic painting, but are
+quite unfit for the artist's craft, chrome yellow reacting upon and
+ultimately destroying Prussian blue when mixed therewith. For the
+latter, cheap cobalts and ultramarines are preferably substituted,
+although they do not yield greens of like power and intensity.</p>
+
+<p>Under the names of English Green, Green Cinnabar, &amp;c., 'new' green
+pigments have been from time to time introduced, which have turned out
+mixtures of Prussian blue and chromate of lead; not made, however, by
+compounding the two, but directly by processes similar to the
+following:&mdash;A mixed solution of the acetates of lead and iron is added
+to a mixed solution of the yellow prussiate and chromate of potash, the
+necessary acetate of iron being obtained by precipitating a solution of
+acetate of lead by sulphate of iron, and filtering the supernatant
+liquid. Or; to a solution of Prussian blue in oxalic acid, first
+chromate of potash is added, and then acetate of lead.</p>
+
+<p>By the last process, superior and more permanent chrome greens may be
+produced, free from lead, by using chloride of barium or nitrate of
+bismuth in place of the acetate of lead. Chromate of baryta, or chromate
+of bismuth is then formed, neither of which acts on the Prussian blue.</p>
+
+<p>It should be added that where the latter pig<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[281]</a></span>ment is present, no green
+will serve for painting walls containing lime, as its action alters the
+tint of the Prussian blue.</p>
+
+
+<h4>186. HOOKER'S GREEN</h4>
+
+<p class="no">is a compound of Prussian blue and gamboge, two pigments possessing a
+like degree of stability, and perfectly innocuous to each other. It is a
+mixture more durable and more transparent than chrome greens made with
+chromate of lead. There are two varieties in common use&mdash;No. 11, a light
+grass green, in which the yellow predominates; and No. 22, a deeper and
+more powerful green, with a larger amount of blue.</p>
+
+
+<h4>187. PRUSSIAN GREEN,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">like the preceding, is composed of Prussian blue and gamboge; but
+contains a very great excess of the former, and is therefore a
+bluish-green of the utmost depth and transparency, verging on black in
+its deep washes. Yellow ochre may be employed instead of gamboge, but is
+not so eligible.</p>
+
+<p>A true Prussian green, which has been recommended as a pigment, can be
+produced as a simple original colour, with a base wholly of iron. It is
+got by partially decomposing the yellow oxalate of protoxide of iron
+with red prussiate of potash. We have made this green and given it a
+fair trial, but our verdict is decidedly against<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[282]</a></span> it. In colour it is
+far from being equal to a good compound of Prussian blue and gamboge,
+and it assumes a dirty buff-yellow on exposure to light and air, the
+film of blue on the oxalate more or less disappearing.</p>
+
+<p>Another Prussian green, with a base of cobalt, is obtained by
+precipitating the nitrate of that metal with yellow prussiate of potash.
+According to the mode adopted, and the degree of heat, either a light or
+dark green results; but this also is inferior in colour, and presents no
+advantage as to permanence.</p>
+
+
+<h4>188. SAP GREEN,</h4>
+
+<p class="no"><i>Verde Vessie</i>, or <i>Iris Green</i>, is a vegetal pigment prepared from the
+juice of the berries of the buckthorn, the green leaves of the woad, the
+blue flowers of the iris, &amp;c. It is usually preserved in bladders, and
+is thence sometimes called <i>Bladder Green</i>. When good, it is of a dark
+colour and glossy fracture, extremely transparent, and a fine natural
+yellowish green. This gummy juice, inspissated and formed into a cake,
+is occasionally employed in flower painting. It is, however, a very
+imperfect pigment, disposed to attract the moisture of the atmosphere,
+and to mildew; while, having little durability in water and less in oil,
+it is not eligible in the one and is totally useless in the other.</p>
+
+<p>Similar pigments, obtained from coffee-berries,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[283]</a></span> and named Venetian and
+Emerald Greens, are of a colder colour, equally defective and fugitive,
+and now obsolete.</p>
+
+
+<h4>189. TERRE VERTE,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">or <i>Green Earth</i>, is a sober bluish green with a grey cast. It is a
+species of ochre, containing silica, oxide of iron, magnesia, potash,
+and water. Not bright and of little power, it is a very durable pigment,
+being unaffected by strong light or impure air, and combining with other
+colours without injury. It has not much body, is semi-transparent, and
+dries well in oil. Veins of brownish or reddish ochre are often found
+mixed with terre verte, to the detriment of its colour; and there are
+varieties of this pigment with copper for their colouring matter, which,
+although generally brighter, are inferior in other respects, and not
+true terre vertes. Verona Green and Verdetto or Holy Green, are
+ferruginous native pigments of a warmer hue. These are met with in the
+Mendip Hills, France, Italy, and the island of Cyprus, and have been
+used as pigments from the earliest times. Rubens has availed himself
+much of terre verte, not in his landscapes merely, but likewise in the
+carnation tints in his figures of a dead Christ. It is evident that much
+of the glazing is done with this colour: it is, in fact, most useful in
+glazing; because, having only a thin substance,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[284]</a></span> it can be rendered pale
+by a small portion of white; although in the end it becomes darker by a
+concentration of its molecules. M&eacute;rim&eacute;e states that in the greater part
+of Alexander Veronese's works&mdash;in his Death of Cleopatra, in the Louvre,
+for instance&mdash;there are some demi-tints which are too green, and which
+it is certain were not so originally. Terre verte, therefore, must be
+employed with caution; and it would be well to ascertain beforehand
+whether a mineral colour will in time become darker than when first laid
+on the picture, by putting a drop of oil on the powder in its natural
+state. If the tone this gives to it be more intense than that which it
+acquires by being ground up, it may fairly be assumed that it will
+attain to the same degree of strength whenever, having completely dried,
+its molecules shall have re-united as closely as it is possible. Umber
+and terra di Sienna are of this class.</p>
+
+<p>In combination with Indian red and Naples yellow, terre verte forms a
+series of mild russet greens, of much use in middle distance.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+
+<h4>190. <i>Chrome Arseniate</i></h4>
+
+<p class="no">is an agreeable apple-green colour, prepared from arseniate of potash
+and salts of chromic oxide. It is durable, but possesses no advantages
+over the chrome oxides, and is of course poisonous.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[285]</a></span>191. <i>Cobalt Green</i>,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">Rinman's Green, Vert de Zinc or Zinc Green. True cobalt green is made by
+igniting a very large quantity of carbonate of zinc with a very small
+quantity of carbonate of cobalt. To give a green tint to an enormous
+proportion of the former, an inappreciable amount of the latter will
+suffice. Some samples which were analysed, consisted almost entirely of
+zinc, there being only two or three per cent. of cobalt present. This
+green presents an example of a pigment being chemically good and
+artistically bad, or at least indifferent. It is a moderately bright
+green, apt to vary in hue according to the mode of manufacture,
+permanent both alone and compounded, but so sadly deficient in body and
+power, as to have become almost obsolete. With other physical defects,
+and a colour inferior to the chrome oxides, cobalt green has never been
+a favourite with artists, though justly eulogised by chemists.</p>
+
+
+<h4>192. <i>Copper Borate</i></h4>
+
+<p class="no">is obtained by precipitating sulphate of copper with borax, washing the
+residue with cold water, and, after drying, igniting it, fusion being
+carefully avoided. In this manner, a pretty yellowish green is produced,
+which upon longer ignition assumes a dark green shade: the mass<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[286]</a></span> is
+levigated for use. The compound has the objection of being glassy, and
+possessing little body, but is preferable to verdigris as to permanence.</p>
+
+
+<h4>193. <i>Copper Chrome</i></h4>
+
+<p class="no">may be prepared by several methods, but the colour is in no case so fine
+as Scheele's or Schweinfurt green, nor is it as stable.</p>
+
+
+<h4>194. <i>Copper Stannate</i>,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">or Tin-Copper Green, equals in colour any of the copper greens free from
+arsenic. The cheapest way of making it is to heat 59 parts of tin in a
+Hessian crucible with 100100 parts nitrate of soda, and dissolve the mass
+when cold in a caustic alkali. To the clear solution, diluted with
+water, a cold solution of sulphate of copper is added: a reddish-yellow
+precipitate falls, which on being washed and dried, becomes a beautiful
+green. On the palette it would be superfluous, but for common purposes
+might be found of service.</p>
+
+
+<h4>195. <i>Elsner's Green</i></h4>
+
+<p class="no">is also a combination of tin and copper. It is made by adding to a
+solution of sulphate of copper a decoction of fustic, previously
+clarified by a solution of gelatine. To this mixture are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[287]</a></span> added ten or
+eleven per cent. of protochloride of tin, and lastly an excess of
+caustic potash or soda. The precipitate is then washed and dried,
+whereupon it takes a green colour tinged with blue, but without the
+brightness or durability of the preceding stannate.</p>
+
+
+<h4>196. <i>Green Bice</i>,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">or Green Verditer, is the same in substance as blue verditer, which is
+converted into green verditer by boiling. This pigment is one of the
+least eligible of copper greens.</p>
+
+
+<h4>197. <i>Green Ochre.</i></h4>
+
+<p>By partially decomposing yellow ochre with prussiate of potash, we have
+produced a fine dark blue-green, resembling Prussian green, of great
+depth and transparency. There are, however, difficulties in the process;
+and the results do not warrant us in pronouncing this green superior or
+equal to a mixture of the ochre and Prussian blue.</p>
+
+
+<h4>198. <i>Green Ultramarine</i></h4>
+
+<p class="no">is French or artificial ultramarine before the final roasting. It is a
+somewhat bright bluish-green, becoming a dull greenish-blue on continued
+exposure. Chemically, it is not a bad colour; but artists generally have
+decided against it.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[288]</a></span>199. <i>Manganese Green</i>,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">or Cassel Green. By several methods, manganate of baryta may be obtained
+either as an emerald-green, a bluish-green, or a pale green. The
+manganates, however, are decomposed by contact with organic matter; and
+hence the green would be liable to suffer from the vehicles employed, as
+well as by being compounded with animal or vegetal pigments.</p>
+
+
+<h4>200. <i>Mineral Green</i></h4>
+
+<p class="no">is the commercial name of <i>Green Lakes</i>, prepared from sulphate of
+copper. These vary in hue and shade, have all the properties of the
+common non-arsenical copper-greens, and, not being subject to change of
+colour by oxygen and light, stand the weather well, and are excellent
+for the use of the house-painter, &amp;c. Having a tendency to darken and
+blacken by time and foul air, they are not eligible in the nicer works
+of fine art.</p>
+
+<p>Another Mineral Green adopted in Germany as a substitute for the
+poisonous Schweinfurt green, is composed of chromate of lead, carbonate
+of copper, oxide of iron, and chalk. Valueless for the palette, it has
+not the beauty of Schweinfurt green, but is recommended as being free
+from arsenic. It is not, however, altogether<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">[289]</a></span> harmless, and should not
+be used in confectionery or the like.</p>
+
+
+<h4>201. <i>Molybdenum Green.</i></h4>
+
+<p class="no">A clear malachite green colour, when dried, is produced from molybdate
+of soda and potash-chrome-alum, or from the molybdate and alum with
+ammonia. Being more expensive than the chrome oxides and not better, its
+introduction, for use by artists, would be attended with no advantage.</p>
+
+<p>There is likewise obtainable a copper molybdate, by adding neutral
+molybdate of soda in excess to sulphate of copper. The precipitate is a
+very pale green colour, flocculent at first, but crystalline after
+washing. Like the chrome molybdate it would be superfluous as a pigment.</p>
+
+
+<h4>202. <i>Quinine Green</i></h4>
+
+<p class="no">is rather adapted for a dye than an artist-colour. It is furnished by
+acting on quinine with hypochlorite of lime, hydrochloric acid, and
+ammonia, successively. Thus prepared, the green resembles a resin,
+insoluble in water, but soluble in alcohol, and turned blue by acetic
+acid. Its alcoholic solution dyes silk green, and also woollen and
+cotton when mordanted with albumen.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">[290]</a></span>203. <i>Roman Green</i>,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">brought from Rome some years back by a President of the Royal Academy,
+appeared to be a mixture of Prussian blue and Dutch or Italian pink. It
+was a fugitive compound, which became blue in fading.</p>
+
+
+<h4>204. <i>Silicate of Baryta.</i></h4>
+
+<p>One part of silica heated to whiteness with three parts of baryta,
+yields a pale green solid mass, permanent, but deficient in colour when
+ground. It might be employed in enamelling.</p>
+
+
+<h4>205. <i>Titanium Green</i></h4>
+
+<p class="no">has been proposed as a substitute for the green arsenical pigments in
+common use; but, apart from its expense, the colour is very inferior to
+Scheele's green, &amp;c. Titanium green is a ferrocyanide of that metal,
+produced by adding yellow prussiate of potash to a solution of titanic
+acid in dilute hydrochloric acid, and heating the mixture to ebullition
+rapidly. The dark green precipitate is washed with water acidulated with
+hydrochloric acid, and dried with great care, since it decomposes at
+temperatures above 100100&deg;.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">[291]</a></span>206. <i>Uranium Green</i></h4>
+
+<p class="no">is an oxide of a deep dull green colour, inclining to olive, and nearly
+black when in lumps. A durable but unattractive preparation, equalled in
+permanence and far surpassed in beauty by many cheaper compounds.</p>
+
+
+<h4>207. <i>Vanadium Green</i></h4>
+
+<p class="no">falls when ferrocyanide of potassium is added to vanadic acid dissolved
+in a strong acid. It is a beautiful green precipitate, but at present
+simply a curiosity, owing to the rarity of the metal vanadium.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<p>Adopting our usual custom of separating the wheat from the chaff, we
+point to the opaque and transparent oxides of chromium, Veronese green,
+viridian, emerald green, Scheele's green, and terre verte, as more or
+less worthy of being dubbed durable.</p>
+
+<p>As semi-stable, malachite green, bronze, Hooker's green, and Prussian
+green, must be classed.</p>
+
+<p>Verdigris, chrome greens, and sap green, should be branded as fugitive:
+the chrome greens, because they are always commercially composed of
+chromate of lead and Prussian blue, two compounds which are semi-stable<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">[292]</a></span>
+in themselves, but become fugacious when compounded.</p>
+
+<p>A reference to the numbered italicised greens will show that there are
+many not known to the palette, which are nevertheless very greatly
+superior, as regards permanence, to some that disgrace it. Why these
+latter are suffered to hold their position is a mystery not easily
+explained: it is hard to reconcile the deplored degeneracy of modern
+pigments with the popularity of semi-stable and fugitive colours.
+Pictures do not stand, is the common cry; therefore, says the public,
+there are no good pigments now-a-days. To which we answer, newly built
+houses are constantly falling down; therefore there are no good bricks
+in these times. Of a truth, one conclusion is as reasonable as the
+other: in either case, if rotten materials be used, the result cannot be
+lasting; but in neither case does it follow, because such materials are
+employed, that there are no better obtainable. A well-built house
+implies a conscientious builder, and a well-painted picture implies a
+conscientious artist. It is because, we fear, that there are so few
+conscientious artists, that there are so few permanent paintings; not,
+certainly, because there are no good pigments. In this last belief,
+however, the public is encouraged by certain painters, who seek thereby
+to excuse their own shortcomings, forgetting that it is a bad work<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">[293]</a></span>man
+who finds fault with his tools. It has been well observed that when
+artists speak regrettingly of lost 'systems,' or pigments enjoyed by the
+medi&aelig;valists and unattainable now, it would be far better were they to
+make the best use of existing materials, and study their further
+<ins class="trans" title="was developement">development</ins>. There is no need for this cant cry of fugacity, which casts
+such a blight on modern art. Durable pigments are not yet obsolete, they
+have only to be employed and employed properly to furnish paintings
+equal in permanence to those of the old masters. "Titian," says Haydon,
+"got his colours from the colour shops on the Rialto, as we get ours
+from Brown's; and if Apelles or Titian were living now, they would paint
+just as good works with our brushes and colours as with their own."</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">[294]</a></span><a name="chapter_13" id="chapter_13"></a><a href="#contents">CHAPTER XIII.</a></h2>
+
+<h3>ON THE SECONDARY, PURPLE.</h3>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Purple</span>, the third and last of the secondary colours, is composed of
+<i>red</i> and <i>blue</i>, in the proportions of five of the former to eight of
+the latter; proportions which constitute a perfect purple, or one of
+such a hue as will neutralize and best contrast a perfect yellow, in the
+ratio of thirteen to three, either of surface or intensity. When mixed
+with its co-secondary colour, green, purple forms the tertiary <i>olive</i>;
+and, when compounded with the remaining secondary, orange, it
+constitutes in like manner the tertiary <i>russet</i>. Of the three secondary
+colours it is the coolest, as well as the nearest in relation to <i>black</i>
+or shade; in which respect, and in never being a warm colour, it
+resembles blue. In other respects also, purple partakes of the
+properties of blue, which is its archeus, or ruling colour; hence it is
+to the eye a retiring colour, that reflects light little, and loses
+rapidly in power in a declining light, and according to the distance at
+which it is viewed.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">[295]</a></span> By reason of its being the mean between black and
+blue it becomes the most retiring of all positive colours. Nature
+employs this hue beautifully in landscape, as a sub-dominant, in
+harmonizing the broad shadows of a bright sunshine ere the light sinks
+into deep orange or red. Girtin, who saw Nature as she is, and painted
+what he saw, delighted in this effect of sunlight and shadow. As a
+ruling colour, whether in flesh or otherwise, purple is commonly too
+cold, or verges on ghastliness, a fault which is to be as much avoided
+as the opposite extreme of viciousness in colouring, stigmatized as
+foxiness.</p>
+
+<p>Yet, next to green, purple is the most generally pleasing of the
+consonant colours; and has been celebrated as a regal or imperial
+colour, as much perhaps from its rarity in a pure state, as from its
+individual beauty. Romulus wore it in his trabea or royal mantle, and
+Tullus Hostilius, after having subdued the Tuscans, assumed the pretexta
+or long robe, broadly striped with purple. Under the Roman emperors, it
+became the peculiar emblem or symbol of majesty, and the wearing of it
+by any who were not of the Imperial family, was deemed a "treasonable
+usurpation," punishable by death. At the decline of the empire, the
+Tyrian purple was an important article of commerce, and got to be common
+in the clothing of the people. Pliny says, "Nepos Cornelius, who died in
+the reign of Augustus<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">[296]</a></span> C&aelig;sar, when I was a young man, assured me that
+the light violet purple had been formerly in great request, and that a
+pound of it usually fetched 100 denaria (about &pound;4 sterling): that soon
+after the tarentine or reddish purple came into fashion; and that this
+was followed by the Tyrian dibapha, which could not be bought for less
+than 1000 denaria (nearly &pound;40 sterling) the pound; which was its price
+when P. Lentulus Spinter was &AElig;dile, Cicero being then Consul. But
+afterwards, the double-dyed purple became less rare, &amp;c." The Tyrian
+purple alluded to was obtained from the purpur&aelig;, a species of shell-fish
+adhering to rocks and large stones in the sea adjoining Tyre. On
+account, probably, of its extreme costliness, it was frequently the
+custom to dye the cloth with a ground of kermes or alkanet, previous to
+applying the Tyrian purple. This imparted to the latter a crimson hue,
+and explains doubtless the term, double-dyed. The Greeks feigned the
+ancient purple to be the discovery of Hercules Tyrius, whose dog, eating
+by chance of the fish from which it was produced, returned to him with
+his mouth tinged with the dye. Alexander the Great is said to have found
+in the royal treasury, at the taking of Susa, purple to the enormous
+value of 5000 talents,<a name="FNanchor_A_1" id="FNanchor_A_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_A_1" class="fnanchor">[A]</a> which had<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">[297]</a></span> lain there one hundred and
+ninety-two years, and still preserved its freshness and beauty.</p>
+
+<p>When inclining to red, purple takes the name of <i>crimson</i>, &amp;c.; and when
+leaning to blue, the names of <i>violet</i>, <i>lilac</i>, <i>mauve</i>, <i>&amp;c.</i> Blue is
+a colour which it serves to mellow, or follows well into shade. The
+contrast or harmonizing colour of purple is yellow on the side of light
+and the primaries; while purple itself is the harmonizing contrast of
+the tertiary <i>citrine</i> on the side of shade, and less perfectly so of
+the semi-neutral <i>brown</i>. As the extreme primaries, blue and yellow,
+when either compounded or opposed, afford, though not the most perfect
+harmony, yet the most pleasing consonance of the primary colours; so the
+extremes, purple and orange, yield the most pleasing of the secondary
+consonances. This analogy extends likewise to the extreme tertiary and
+semi-neutral colours, while the mean or middle colours furnish the most
+agreeable contrasts or harmonies.</p>
+
+<p>In nature pure purple is not a common colour, and on the palette purple
+pigments are singularly few. They lie under a peculiar disadvantage as
+to apparent durability and beauty of colour, owing to the neutralizing
+power of yellowness in the grounds upon which they are laid; as well as
+to the general warm colour of light, and the yellow tendency of almost
+all vehicles and varnishes, by which the colour of purple is subdued.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">[298]</a></span>208. BURNT CARMINE</h4>
+
+<p class="no">is the carmine of cochineal partially charred till it resembles in
+colour the purple of gold, for which, in miniature and water-painting,
+it is substituted. It is a magnificent reddish purple of extreme
+richness and depth, eligible in flower-painting and the shadow of
+draperies. As it is generally impossible, however, to alter the nature
+of a pigment by merely changing its colour, burnt carmine is scarcely
+more permanent than the carmine from which it is produced. If used,
+therefore, it should be in body, and not in thin washes or as a glaze.
+Durable pigments are admissible in any form; but semi-stable pigments
+(gamboge excepted) should only be employed in body.</p>
+
+
+<h4>209. BURNT LAKE</h4>
+
+<p class="no">holds the same relation to crimson lake as burnt carmine to ordinary
+carmine; and is hence a weaker variety of the preceding, with less
+richness, and likewise less permanence.</p>
+
+
+<h4>210. INDIAN PURPLE</h4>
+
+<p class="no">is prepared by precipitating an extract of cochineal with sulphate of
+copper. It is a very deep-toned but rather cold and subdued purple,
+neither so red nor so brilliant as burnt carmine; and is chiefly of
+service in draperies. It is apt to lose its purple colour in a great
+measure on exposure<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">[299]</a></span> to light and air, and assume an inky blackness; a
+defect which becomes less apparent when the pigment is used in bulk.</p>
+
+
+<h4>211. MARS VIOLET,</h4>
+
+<p class="no"><i>Violet de Mars</i>, <i>Purple Ochre</i>, or <i>Mineral Purple</i>, is a dark ochre,
+native of the Forest of Dean in Gloucestershire. It is of a murrey or
+chocolate colour, and forms cool tints of a purple hue with white. It is
+of a darker colour than Indian red, which has also been classed among
+purples, but has a similar body and opacity, and generally resembles
+that pigment. It may be prepared artificially, and some natural red
+ochres burn to this colour. Being difficult and sometimes impossible to
+procure, Mars violet is often compounded; in which case it is liable to
+vary both in hue and stability. As, however, Indian red is always taken
+for its basis, the mixture is never wholly fugitive, nor exhibits any
+very glaring contrast on exposure.</p>
+
+
+<h4>212. MIXED PURPLE.</h4>
+
+<p>Purple being a secondary colour, composed of <i>blue</i> and <i>red</i>, it
+follows of course that any blue and red pigments, which are not
+chemically at variance, may be employed in producing mixed purples of
+any required hue, either by compounding or grinding them together ready
+for use, or by combining them in the various modes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">[300]</a></span> of operation in
+painting. In such compounding, the more perfect and permanent the
+original colours are, the more perfect and permanent will be the purple
+obtained. To produce a pure purple, neither the red nor the blue must
+contain or incline to yellow; while to compound a durable purple, both
+the red and the blue must be durable also. Ultramarine and the reds of
+madder yield beautiful and excellent purples, equally stable in water or
+oil, in glazing or tint, whether under the influence of light or impure
+air. Cobalt blue and madder red likewise afford good purples; and some
+of the finest and most delicate purples in ancient paintings appear to
+have been composed of ultramarine and vermilion, which furnish tints
+equally permanent, but less transparent than the above, and less easily
+compounded. Facility of use, and other advantages, are obtained at too
+great a sacrifice by the employment of perishable mixtures, such as the
+lakes of cochineal with indigo.</p>
+
+<table summary="permanent reds and blues" style="width: 400px; margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 2em; font-size: 90%;">
+<colgroup span="2">
+<col width="190px"></col>
+<col width="210px"></col>
+</colgroup>
+<tr>
+<th class="tdb3 br">PERMANENT REDS.</th>
+<th class="tdb3">PERMANENT BLUES.</th>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb3 br">Cadmium Red.</td>
+<td class="tdb3">Cerulian Blue.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb3 br">Liquid Rubiate.</td>
+<td class="tdb3">Cobalt Blue.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb3 br">Madder Carmine.</td>
+<td class="tdb3">Genuine Ultramarine.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb3 br">Rose Madder.</td>
+<td class="tdb3">Brilliant Ultramarine.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb3 br">Mars Red.</td>
+<td class="tdb3">French Ultramarine.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb3 br">Ochres.</td>
+<td class="tdb3">New Blue.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb3 br">Vermilions.</td>
+<td class="tdb3">Permanent Blue.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>It should be noted that all the above reds do not afford pure purples
+with blue; those which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">[301]</a></span> contain more or less yellow, as cadmium red and
+orange vermilion, furnish purples partaking more or less of olive, which
+is a compound of purple and green. To those reds may be added the russet
+Rubens Madder and the marrone Madder Brown, two pigments which are alike
+eligible for mixed purple and mixed orange. No purple, it will be
+remarked, equal in gorgeous richness to that produced from crimson lake
+and Prussian blue is obtainable from the colours given; just as no mixed
+green is of such depth and power if that blue be wanting as a
+constituent. But, as our compound tints are given rather as examples of
+durability than beauty, all semi-stable or fugitive mixtures are of
+necessity ignored.</p>
+
+
+<h4>213. PURPLE MADDER,</h4>
+
+<p class="no"><i>Field's Purple</i>, or <i>Purple Rubiate</i>, is the only durable organic
+purple the palette possesses. Marked by a soft subdued richness rather
+than by brilliancy, it leans somewhat towards marrone, and affords the
+greatest depth of shadow without coldness of tint. Unfortunately, in the
+whole range of artistic pigments there is no colour obtainable in such
+small quantity as madder purple; hence its scarcity and high price cause
+it to be confined to water-colour painting, in which the clearness and
+beauty of its delicate tones render it invaluable in every stage of a
+drawing. With raw Sienna and indigo or Prussian blue, subdued<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">[302]</a></span> by black,
+it gives beautiful shadow tints, and will be found useful in sky and
+other effects compounded with cobalt, rose madder, French blue and
+sepia, yellow ochre and cobalt, lamp black and cobalt, light red,
+Vandyke brown, burnt Sienna, or aureolin. With great transparency, body,
+and depth, it is pure and permanent in its tints, neither gives nor
+sustains injury on admixture, dries and glazes well in oil, works well,
+and is altogether most perfect and eligible. For fresco it is admirably
+adapted, being quite uninjured by lime.</p>
+
+<p>There is a lighter and slightly brighter sort, containing less colouring
+matter and more base, which has all the properties of the above with
+less intensity of colour. For the sake of cheapness, the purple is
+sometimes compounded in oil, generally of brown madder and a blue.
+Provided the latter be stable, transparent, and mix kindly, no greater
+objection can be taken to this than to the neutral orange of brown
+madder and yellow ochre.</p>
+
+
+<h4>214. VIOLET CARMINE</h4>
+
+<p class="no">is a brilliant bluish purple of much richness, employed in draperies and
+the like. It is prepared by precipitating an alcoholic extract of the
+root of the <i>Anchusa tinctoria</i>, commonly known as alkanet, a plant
+growing in the Levant, and some other warm countries. It was used by the
+ancients as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">[303]</a></span> a dye, or as a groundwork to those stuffs which were to be
+dyed purplish-red: the ladies in ancient times also employed it as a
+paint. Its colouring matter or <i>anchusin</i> has the character of a resin,
+and is dark-red, softened by heat, insoluble in water, soluble in
+alcohol and alkalis, and freely so in ether, fats, and volatile oils, to
+all of which it imparts a brilliant red hue. To obtain anchusin, all the
+soluble matters are first abstracted from the bruised root by water: it
+is then digested in a solution of carbonate of potash, from which it may
+be readily precipitated by an acid. Its alcoholic solution yields with
+different reagents crimson, flesh-coloured, blue, and violet
+precipitates, none of which, however, can be classed as durable. The
+variety under notice, violet carmine, resembles the other colours
+afforded by alkanet in not being able to withstand the action of light.
+On continued exposure, it loses its beauty and brightness, together with
+much of its colour, and, like Indian purple, assumes an inky blackness.
+Hence it is unsuited to permanently pure effects, and should only be
+used in body.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<h4>215. <i>Archil Purple.</i></h4>
+
+<p>Archil may be regarded as the English, cudbear as the Scotch, and litmus
+as the Dutch name for one and the same substance, extracted from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">[304]</a></span>
+several species of lichens by various processes. These lichens, which
+are principally collected on rocks adjacent to the sea, are cleaned and
+ground into a pulp with water, treated from time to time with ammoniacal
+liquor, and exposed with frequent agitation to the action of the
+atmosphere. Peculiar principles existing in the lichens are, by the
+joint instrumentality of the air, water, and ammonia, so changed as to
+generate colouring matter, which, when perfect, is expressed. Soluble in
+water and alcohol, this colouring principle yields by precipitation with
+chloride of calcium a compound known as 'Solid French Purple', a pigment
+more stable than the archil colours generally, but all too fugitive for
+the palette.</p>
+
+
+<h4>216. <i>Bismuth Purple.</i></h4>
+
+<p>A purple powder is capable of being produced from bismuth by passing
+chlorine gas through the hydrated oxide suspended in a saturated
+solution of potash. As soon as the oxide becomes brown-red, the mixture
+is boiled and the liquid decanted off at once, the residue being
+immediately washed first with alcohol and then with water. On the whole,
+the result is not, for an artistic pigment, worth the trouble involved
+in the preparation.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">[305]</a></span>217. <i>Burnt Madder</i></h4>
+
+<p>is obtained by carefully charring madder carmine until it becomes of the
+hue required. Bearing the same relation to madder carmine as burnt
+carmine to the carmine of cochineal, burnt madder is a permanent and
+perfectly unexceptionable pigment. By reason, probably, of its great
+price, it is not mentioned in trade catalogues, and must be held as
+commercially unknown.</p>
+
+
+<h4>218. <i>Cobalt Purples</i></h4>
+
+<p class="no">are obtainable ranging from the richest crimson purple to the most
+delicate violet. We have produced them by wet and dry methods, varying
+in brilliancy and beauty, but characterised generally by want of body,
+and frequently by a smalt-like grittiness. Chemically, good and stable
+colours, they are not received with favour on the palette, and certainly
+may be very well replaced by mixtures of cobalt blue and madder red.
+When a permanent compound is obtainable equal in colour to an original
+pigment, and superior in its physical attributes, no objection can
+fairly be taken to its artistic preference. There are other things to be
+considered in a pigment besides permanence, or even permanence and
+colour combined. The two together do not constitute a perfect pigment,
+that is, a material<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">[306]</a></span> of practical utility and value. In the last
+chapter, allusion was made to a green which possesses both the one and
+the other, and yet is&mdash;at present, at least&mdash;quite unfitted for artistic
+use. Hence, with a strong partiality for simple original pigments, we
+are bound to confess there are cases where mixtures are justifiably
+preferred. All we contend for is, that each constituent of such mixtures
+should be stable, and neither give nor receive injury by being
+compounded.</p>
+
+
+<h4>219. <i>Gold Purple</i>,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">Purple of Cassius, or Cassius's Purple Precipitate, was discovered in
+1683 by Cassius of Leyden. It is a compound of tin and gold, best formed
+by mixing aqueous perchloride of iron with aqueous protochloride of tin,
+till the colour of the liquid has a shade of green, and then adding this
+liquid, drop by drop, to a solution of perchloride of gold, which is
+free from nitric acid and very dilute: after twenty-four hours the
+purple is deposited. When recently prepared, the colour is brightened by
+boiling nitric acid. Not brilliant, but rich and powerful, this purple
+varies in hue according to the mode of manufacture from deep crimson to
+murrey or dark purple: it also differs in degrees of transparency.
+Working well in water, it is an excellent though costly pigment, once
+popular in miniatures, but at present rarely, if ever used, as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">[307]</a></span> purple
+madder is cheaper, and perfectly well supplies its place. Retaining its
+colour at a high red heat, it is now confined to enamel and porcelain
+painting, and to tinging glass of a fine red. If, whilst in its hydrated
+state, it be washed with ammonia, a bright purple liquid results, from
+which a violet colour, somewhat less expensive, can be produced, by
+combining the gold purple with alumina, and calcining the product in the
+same way that is practised with cobalt. This compound may be exposed to
+the action of the sun's rays for a year without being sensibly affected.</p>
+
+
+<h4>220. <i>Prussian Purple.</i></h4>
+
+<p>A prussiate of iron is obtainable of a violet hue, affording good shadow
+tints and clear pale washes. It has not, however, been introduced as a
+pigment, as ordinary Prussian blue tinged with red furnishes a similar
+colour.</p>
+
+
+<h4>221. <i>Sandal Wood Purple.</i></h4>
+
+<p>Sandal wood contains about 1616 per cent. of colouring matter, soluble
+with difficultly in water, but readily dissolved by alcohol. From the
+latter solution, chloride of tin throws down a purple, and sulphate of
+iron a deep violet precipitate; neither of which is remarkable for
+permanence.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">[308]</a></span>222. <i>Tin Violet.</i></h4>
+
+<p>By heating chromate of stannic oxide to bright redness, a dark violet
+mass is obtained, which is better adapted to enamel painting than to the
+palette. It communicates in glazings a variety of tints, from rose-red
+to violet.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<p>So scant is the number of good purples in common use, that there are but
+two which can be classed as durable, namely, purple madder and the true
+Mars violet.</p>
+
+<p>Foremost in the second group stands burnt carmine. As there are
+different degrees both of permanence and fugacity, so are there
+different degrees of semi-stability. Burnt carmine, burnt lake, Indian
+purple, and violet carmine, all belong to this division; but the first
+certainly is more permanent than the rest.</p>
+
+<p>Rich and beautiful as it is, purple madder cannot be called brilliant;
+while Mars violet is, of course, ochrous. Unlike green and orange,
+therefore, purple can point to no original pigment at once vivid and
+durable: as regards purple, brilliancy implies a semi-stability that
+borders more or less closely on fugacity. Until the advent of a perfect
+palette, however, brilliancy and semi-stability will doubtless hold
+their own. Their present popularity may be seen by a glance at the lists
+of artist-colours&mdash;lists compiled, be it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309">[309]</a></span> remembered, in obedience to
+the law of demand and supply. If art were really so much honoured as
+some of its disciples pretend, none but durable colours would be
+employed. In our opinion, if a picture be worth painting at all, it is
+worth painting with permanent pigments; but many evidently think
+otherwise. Deploring an error neither flattering to the craft they
+practise nor to themselves, we would urge such to bear in mind this
+axiom, semi-stable pigments become fugitive when used in thin washes.
+Even in body they do not preserve their primitive hue, but in glazing
+and the like, their colour altogether flies or is wholly destroyed.</p>
+
+<p>It is this semi-stability, recommended to the thoughtless and
+indifferent by the beauty which generally accompanies it, that is the
+bane of modern art. Even our greatest painters have yielded to its
+fascination. Who has not gazed upon one of Turner's fading pictures with
+still more of sadness than enjoyment, that anything so grand, so
+beautiful, so true, should slowly but surely be passing away? A feeling
+akin to pity is conjured up at the sight of the helpless wreck,
+abandoned amid the treacherous materials employed, and sinking deeper
+and deeper. Mournful, indeed, is that mighty ruin of mind amid matter;
+mournful the thought that in years to come, the monument sought for will
+not be found.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p style="text-indent: 0em;"><a name="Footnote_A_1" id="Footnote_A_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_A_1"><span class="label">[A]</span></a> A talent of money, <i>i.e.</i>, a talent's weight of silver, was
+equal to nearly &pound;244.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310">[310]</a></span><a name="chapter_14" id="chapter_14"></a><a href="#contents">CHAPTER XIV.</a></h2>
+
+<h3>ON THE TERTIARY, CITRINE.</h3>
+
+
+<p>Citrine, or the colour of the citron, is the first of the tertiary class
+of colours, or ultimate compounds of the primary triad, yellow, red, and
+blue; in which yellow is the archeus or predominating colour, and blue
+the extreme subordinate. For citrine being an immediate compound of the
+secondaries, <i>orange</i> and <i>green</i>, of both which yellow is a
+constituent, the latter colour is of double occurrence therein, while
+the other two primaries enter singly into its composition. The mean or
+middle hue comprehends eight blue, five red, and six yellow, of equal
+intensities.</p>
+
+<p>Hence citrine, according to its name, which is that of a class of
+colours and used commonly for a dark yellow, partakes in a subdued
+degree of all the powers of its archeus yellow. In estimating,
+therefore, its properties and effects in painting, it is to be regarded
+as participating of all the relations of yellow. By some this colour is
+improperly called brown, as almost all broken<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">[311]</a></span> colours are. The
+harmonizing contrast of citrine is a <i>deep purple</i>, which may be seen
+beautifully opposed to it in nature, when the green of summer declines.
+As autumn advances, citrine tends towards its orange hues, including the
+colours termed aurora, chamoise, and others before enumerated under the
+head of yellow. It is the most advancing of the tertiary colours, or
+nearest in relation to light; and is variously of a tender, modest,
+cheering character.</p>
+
+<p>To understand and relish the harmonious relations and expressive powers
+of the tertiary colours, require a cultivation of perception and a
+refinement of taste for which study and practice are needed. To a great
+extent the colourist, like the poet, is born not made; but although he
+must have an innate sense of the beautiful and the true, hard work
+alone, with his head, his eyes, and his hands, will enable him to learn
+and turn to account the complex beauties and relations of tertiary
+colours. They are at once less definite and less generally evident, but
+more delightful&mdash;more frequent in nature, though rarer in common art,
+than the like relations of the secondaries and primaries. There is very
+little pure colour in the world: now and then a gleam dazzles us, like a
+burst of sunshine through grey mists; but as a rule, nature prefers
+broken colours to absolute hues. Most pure in spring, most full in
+summer, most mellow in autumn,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">[312]</a></span> most sober in winter, her tints and
+shades of colour are always more or less interlaced, from white and the
+primaries to the semi-neutral and black.</p>
+
+<p>Of original citrine-coloured pigments there are only a few, unless we
+include several imperfect yellows which might not improperly be called
+citrines. The following are best entitled to this appellation:&mdash;</p>
+
+
+<h4>223. BROWN PINK,</h4>
+
+<p><i>Brown Stil de Grain</i>, <i>Citrine Lake</i>, or <i>Quercitron Lake</i> is usually
+prepared from the berries of Avignon (ramnus infectorius), better known
+as French, Persian, or Turkey berries; but a more durable and quicker
+drying species is obtained from the quercitron bark. If produced from
+the former, it must be branded as fugitive, but if from the latter, it
+may be termed semi-stable. In either case it is a lake, precipitated
+from the alkaline decoction by means of alum, in such proportions that
+the alkali shall not be more than half saturated. The excess of soda or
+potash employed imparts a brown hue; but the lake being in general an
+orange broken by green, falls into the class of citrine colours,
+sometimes inclining to greenness, and sometimes towards the warmth of
+orange. It works well both in water and oil, in the latter of which it
+is of great depth and transparency, but its tints with white lead<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">[313]</a></span> are
+very fugitive, and in thin glazing it does not stand: the berry variety
+dries badly. A fine rich colour, more beautiful than eligible, it is
+popular in landscape for foliage in foregrounds. Modified by admixture
+with burnt Sienna or gamboge, it yields a compound which, with the
+addition of a small quantity of indigo, gives a warm though not very
+durable green. In many of the Flemish pictures the foliage has become
+blue from the yellowish lake, with which the ultramarine was mixed,
+having faded.</p>
+
+<p>It has been remarked that the alteration made by time in semi-stable
+pigments is not so observable when they are employed in full body. Their
+use generally has been deprecated, but in shadows such vegetable colours
+as brown pink are sometimes of advantage, as they are transparent, lose
+part of their richness by the action of the air, and do not become
+black. Moreover, if mixed with pigments which have a tendency to darken,
+they mitigate it very much. This last, indeed, is the most legitimate
+purpose to which semi-stable pigments whose colour fades on exposure can
+be put.</p>
+
+
+<h4>224. MARS BROWN,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">or <i>Brun de Mars</i>, is either a natural or artificial ochre containing
+iron, or iron and manganese. Of much richness and strict permanence, it
+resembles raw umber in being a brown with a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314">[314]</a></span> citrine cast, but is
+generally marked by a flush of orange which is not so observable in the
+latter pigment.</p>
+
+
+<h4>225. MIXED CITRINE.</h4>
+
+<p>What has been before remarked of the mixed secondary colours is more
+particularly applicable to the tertiary, it being more difficult to
+select three homogeneous substances of equal powers as pigments than
+two, that shall unite and work together cordially. Hence the mixed
+tertiaries are still less perfect and pure than the secondaries; and as
+their hues are of extensive use in painting, original pigments of these
+colours are proportionably estimable to the artist. Nevertheless there
+are two evident principles of combination, of which he may avail himself
+in producing these colours in the various ways of working; the one being
+that of combining two original secondaries; and the other, of uniting
+the three primaries in such a manner that the archeus shall predominate.
+Thus in the case of citrine, either orange and green may be directly
+compounded; or yellow, red, and blue be so mixed that the yellow shall
+be in excess.</p>
+
+<p>These colours are, however, obtained in many instances with best and
+most permanent effect, not by the intimate combination of pigments upon
+the palette, but by intermingling them, in the manner of nature, on the
+canvas, so as to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">[315]</a></span> produce the appearance at a proper distance of a
+uniform colour. Thus composed is the <i>citrine</i> colour of fruit and
+foliage, on inspecting which we distinctly trace the stipplings of
+orange and green, or of yellow, red, and green. The truth and beauty
+resulting from such stipplings in art may be seen in the luscious
+fruit-pieces of the late W. Hunt, where the bloom on the plum, the down
+of the peach, &amp;c., are given with wondrous fidelity to nature. In the
+<i>russet</i> hues of autumn foliage, where purple and orange have broken or
+superseded the summer green, this interlacing of colour appears; and
+also in the <i>olive</i> foliage of the rose-tree, formed in the individual
+leaf by the ramification of purple in green. Besides the durable
+yellows, reds, and blues, the following orange and green pigments are
+eligible for mixed citrines. They may likewise, however, be safely and
+simply compounded by slight additions, to an original brown, of that
+primary or secondary tone which is requisite to give it the required
+hue.</p>
+
+
+<table summary="permanent orange and green" style="width: 460px; margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 2em; font-size: 90%;">
+<colgroup span="2">
+<col width="185px"></col>
+<col width="275px"></col>
+</colgroup>
+<tr>
+<th class="tdb3 br">PERMANENT ORANGE.</th>
+<th class="tdb3">PERMANENT GREEN.</th>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb3 br">Burnt Roman Ochre.</td>
+<td class="tdb3">Oxide of Chromium, opaque.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb3 br">Burnt Sienna.</td>
+<td class="tdb3">Oxide of Chromium, transparent.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb3 br">Cadmium Orange.</td>
+<td class="tdb3">Veronese Green.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb3 br">Mars Orange.</td>
+<td class="tdb3">Viridian.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb3 br">Neutral Orange.</td>
+<td class="tdb3">Emerald Green.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb3 br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="tdb3">Scheele's Green.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb3 br">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="tdb3">Terre Verte.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+
+
+<h4>226. RAW UMBER,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">or Umber, is a natural ochre, chiefly composed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316">[316]</a></span> of oxide of manganese,
+oxide of iron, silica, and alumina. It is said to have been first
+brought from ancient Ombria, now Spoleto, in Italy. Found in England,
+and in most parts of the world, that which comes from Cyprus, under the
+name of Turkish or Levant umber, is the best. Of a quiet brown-citrine
+colour, semi-opaque, it dries rapidly, and injures no other good pigment
+with which it may be mixed. By time it grows darker, a disadvantage
+which may be obviated by compounding it with colours which pale on
+exposure. For light shadow tones and delicate grays it is extremely
+useful, and yields with blue most serviceable neutral greens. To mud
+walls, tints for stone, wood, gray rocks, baskets, yellow sails, and
+stormy seas, this citrine is suited. Some artists have painted on
+grounds primed with umber, but it has penetrated through the lighter
+parts of the work. M&eacute;rim&eacute;e states that there are several of Poussin's
+pictures so painted; that fine series, "The Seven Sacraments," being
+clearly among the number.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<h4>227. <i>Cassia Fistula</i></h4>
+
+<p class="no">is a native vegetal pigment, though it is more commonly employed as a
+medicinal drug. It is brought from the East and West Indies in a sort of
+cane, in which it is naturally produced. As a pigment it is deep,
+transparent, of an imperfect<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">[317]</a></span> citrine colour, inclining to dark green,
+and diffusible in water without grinding, like gamboge and sap green.
+Once sparingly used in water as a sort of substitute for bistre, it is
+not now to be met with on the palette.</p>
+
+
+<h4>228. <i>Citrine Brown.</i></h4>
+
+<p>From boiling, hot, or cold solutions of bichromate of potash and
+hyposulphite of soda in excess, we have obtained an agreeable
+citrine-brown colour, varying in hue and tint according to the mode of
+preparation and proportions of materials employed. It is a hydrated
+oxide of chromium which, when washed and carefully dried, yields a soft
+floury powder. Transparent, and affording clear, delicate pale washes,
+the oxide has not been introduced as a pigment; partly owing to certain
+physical objections, and partly to a tendency to greenness. This
+tendency is peculiar to all the brown chrome oxides of whatever hue,
+whether hydrated or anhydrous; and indeed distinguishes more or less
+nearly all the compounds of chromium. Green, in fact, is the natural
+colour of such compounds, the colour which they are constantly
+struggling to attain; and hence it is that the green oxides of chromium,
+being clothed in their native hue, are of such strict stability. The
+inclination to green which the citrine under notice possesses, may be
+seen by washing the precipitate with boiling<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318">[318]</a></span> water. It has been
+supposed that hydrated brown oxide of chromium is not a distinct
+compound of chromium and oxygen, but a feeble union of the green oxide
+with chromic acid. If this be the case, the citrine cast of the brown
+oxide is easily explained, as well as the gradual addition to its green
+by the deoxidation of the chromic acid.</p>
+
+<p>In mixed tints for autumn foliage and the like, the tendency to green of
+this citrine brown would be comparatively unimportant; but whether the
+oxide be adapted to the palette or not, we believe the colour might be
+utilized. In dyeing, for instance, the solutions of bichromate of potash
+and hyposulphite of soda would be worth a trial, the liquids of course
+being kept separate, and the brown washed with cold water. Various
+patterns could be printed with the bichromate on a ground previously
+treated with hyposulphite.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<p>Several other browns, and ochrous earths, partake of a citrine hue, such
+as Cassel Earth, Bistre, &amp;c. But in the confusion of names, infinity of
+tones and tints, and variations of individual pigments, it is impossible
+to arrive at an unexceptionable or universally satisfactory arrangement.
+We have therefore followed a middle and general course in distributing
+pigments under their proper heads.</p>
+
+<p>Of the three citrines in common use, Mars<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319">[319]</a></span> brown and raw umber are
+strictly stable; while brown pink, the purest original citrine the
+palette possesses, is either semi-stable or fugitive, according to the
+colouring substance used in its preparation.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_320" id="Page_320">[320]</a></span><a name="chapter_15" id="chapter_15"></a><a href="#contents">CHAPTER XV.</a></h2>
+
+<h3>ON THE TERTIARY, RUSSET.</h3>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Russet</span>, the second or middle tertiary colour, is, like citrine,
+constituted ultimately of the three primaries, red, yellow, and blue;
+but with this difference&mdash;instead of yellow as in citrine, the archeus
+or predominating colour in russet is red, to which yellow and blue are
+subordinates. For <i>orange</i> and <i>purple</i> being the immediate constituents
+of russet, and red being a component part of each of those colours, it
+follows that red enters doubly into russet, while yellow and blue appear
+but once therein. The proportions of its middle hue are eight blue, ten
+red, and three yellow, of equal intensities. Thus composed, russet takes
+the relations and powers of a subdued red; and many pigments and dyes of
+the latter denomination are strictly of the class of russet colours. In
+fact, nominal distinction of colours is only relative; the gradation
+from hue to hue, as from tint to tint, and shade to shade, being of such
+unlimited extent, that it is im<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321">[321]</a></span>possible to pronounce absolutely where
+one hue, tint, or shade ends, and another begins.</p>
+
+<p>The harmonizing, neutralizing, or contrasting colour of russet, is a
+<i>deep green</i>; or when the russet inclines to orange, a <i>gray</i> or
+<i>subdued blue</i>. These are often beautifully opposed in nature, being
+medial accordances or in equal relation to light, shade and other
+colours, and among the most agreeable to sense.</p>
+
+<p>Russet, as we have said, partakes of the relations of red, but it is a
+hue moderated in every respect, and qualified for greater breadth of
+display in the colouring of nature and art; less so, perhaps, than its
+fellow-tertiaries in proportion as it is individually more beautiful.
+The powers of beauty are ever most effective when least obtrusive; and
+its presence in colour should be chiefly evident to the eye that seeks
+it&mdash;not so much courting as being courted.</p>
+
+<p>Of the tertiary colours, russet is the most important to the artist; and
+there are many pigments classed as red, purple, &amp;c., which are of russet
+hues. But there are few true russets, and only one original pigment of
+that colour is now known on the palette, to wit&mdash;</p>
+
+
+<h4>229. RUBENS' MADDER,</h4>
+
+<p class="no"><i>Orange Russet</i>, <i>Russet Rubiate</i>, or <i>Field's Russet</i>. This is a very
+rich crimson russet with a flush of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_322" id="Page_322">[322]</a></span> orange; pure, transparent, and of a
+middle hue between orange and purple. Prepared from the madder root, it
+is not subject to change by the action of light, time, or mixture of
+other pigments. Although not so much employed as the marrone Madder
+Brown, it is serviceable both as a local and auxiliary colour in
+compounding and producing with yellow the glowing hues of autumnal
+foliage, &amp;c.; and with blue, the beautiful and endless variety of grays
+in skies, flesh, &amp;c. A good glazing colour, its thin washes afford fine
+flesh tints in water: as an oil pigment it dries indifferently, and
+requires to be forced by the addition of a little gold size or varnish.
+Cappah brown and burnt umber sadden it to the rich tones adapted for
+general use in shadows. So saddened, this lake meets admirably the dark
+centres of the upper petals of certain fancy geraniums, while alone its
+pale washes are equally well suited to the lower leaves.</p>
+
+
+<h4>230. MIXED RUSSET.</h4>
+
+<p>What has been remarked in the preceding chapter upon the production of
+mixed citrine colours, is likewise applicable to mixed russet. By the
+immediate method of producing it materially from its secondaries, good
+and durable colours are obtained by compounding the following orange and
+purple pigments&mdash;</p>
+
+
+
+
+<table summary="permanent orange and purple" style="width: 420px; margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 2em; font-size: 90%;">
+<colgroup span="2">
+<col width="200px"></col>
+<col width="220px"></col>
+</colgroup>
+<tr>
+<th class="tdb3 br"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_323" id="Page_323">[323]</a></span>PERMANENT ORANGE.</th>
+<th class="tdb3">PERMANENT PURPLE.</th>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb3 br">Burnt Roman Ochre.</td>
+<td class="tdb3">Mars Violet, true.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb3 br">Burnt Sienna.</td>
+<td class="tdb3">Purple Madder.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb3 br">Cadmium Orange.</td>
+<td class="tdb3">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb3 br">Mars Orange.</td>
+<td class="tdb3">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb3 br">Neutral Orange.</td>
+<td class="tdb3">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+
+<p>Many other less eligible duple and triple compounds of russet are
+obvious upon principle, and it may be produced by adding red in due
+predominance to some browns; but these, like most mixtures, are inferior
+to original pigments. To the orange colours there may be added cadmium
+red and the orange vermilions, pigments which were classed among the
+reds, but which contain sufficient yellow to render them adapted for
+either compound russets or compound citrines. And as of original purple
+pigments there are two only which are stable, such mixtures as madder
+red and French blue will help to swell the list of available permanent
+purples. Rubens' madder itself may be changed in hue by being first
+mixed with blue and then with orange.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<h4>231. <i>Prussiate of Copper</i></h4>
+
+<p class="no">differs chemically from Prussian blue only in having copper instead of
+iron for its basis. It varies in hue from russet to purple brown, is
+transparent and deep, but, being very liable to change in colour by the
+action of light and by other pigments, has never been much used, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_324" id="Page_324">[324]</a></span> is
+now obsolete. The compound has the objection of containing free
+prussiate of potash, not removable by continued washing&mdash;sometimes as
+much as five per cent.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<p>There are several other pigments which enter imperfectly into, or verge
+upon, the class of russet, which, having obtained the names of other
+classes to which they are allied, will be found under other heads; such
+are some of the ochres, as Indian red. Burnt carmine is often of the
+russet hue, or convertible to it by due additions of yellow or orange;
+as are burnt Sienna and various browns, by like additions of lake or
+other reds.</p>
+
+<p>The one pigment in this chapter known to the modern palette, Rubens'
+madder, is permanent.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_325" id="Page_325">[325]</a></span><a name="chapter_16" id="chapter_16"></a><a href="#contents">CHAPTER XVI.</a></h2>
+
+<h3>ON THE TERTIARY, OLIVE.</h3>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Olive</span> is the third and last of the tertiary colours, and nearest in
+relation to shade. Like its co-tertiaries, citrine and russet, it is
+composed of the three primaries, blue, red, and yellow; but is formed
+more directly of the secondaries, <i>purple</i> and <i>green</i>, in each of which
+blue is a constituent: hence blue occurs twice in the latter mode of
+forming olive, while red and blue enter therein singly and
+subordinately. Blue is, therefore, in every instance the archeus or
+predominating colour of olive; its perfect or middle hue comprehending
+sixteen of blue to five of red and three of yellow. It partakes in a
+proportionate measure of the powers, properties, and relations of its
+archeus: accordingly, the antagonist or harmonizing contrast of olive is
+a <i>deep orange</i>. Like blue, olive is a retiring colour, the most so of
+all the colours, being the penultimate of the scale, or nearest of all
+in relation to black, and last, theoretically, of the regular
+distinctions of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326">[326]</a></span> colours. Hence its importance in nature and painting is
+almost as great as that of black; it divides the office of clothing the
+face of creation with green and blue; with both which, as with black and
+grey, it enters into innumerable compounds and accordances, changing its
+name as either hue prevails, into green, gray, ashen, slate, &amp;c. Thus
+the olive hues of foliage are called green, and the purple hues of
+clouds are called gray, &amp;c.; but such terms are general only, and
+unequal to the infinite particularity of nature.</p>
+
+<p>This infinity, or endless variation of hue, tint, and relation, of which
+the tertiaries are susceptible, gives a boundless license to the revelry
+of taste, in which the genius of the pencil may display the most
+captivating harmonies of colouring, and the most chaste and delicate
+expressions; too subtle to be defined, too intricate to be easily
+understood, and often too exquisite to be felt by the untutored eye.
+Nature always melodizes by imperceptible gradations, while she
+harmonizes by distinct contrasts. At different seasons we have blossoms
+of all hues, variously subordinated; and when the time of flowers may be
+considered past, as if she had no further use for her fine colours, or
+were willing to display her ultimate skill and refinement, Nature
+lavishes the contents of her palette, not disorderly, but in multiplied
+relations, over all vegetal creation, in those rich and beautiful
+accordances of broken and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_327" id="Page_327">[327]</a></span> finishing colours with which autumn is
+decorated ere the year decays and sinks into olive darkness.</p>
+
+<p>As a rule, no colour exists in nature without gradation, which is to
+colours what curvature is to lines. The difference in mere beauty
+between a gradated and ungradated colour may be seen by laying an even
+tint of rose-colour on paper, and putting a rose leaf beside it. The
+victorious beauty of the rose, as compared with other flowers, depends
+wholly on the delicacy and quantity of its colour gradations, all other
+flowers being either less rich in gradation, not having so many folds of
+leaf; or less tender, being patched and veined instead of flushed. It is
+not enough, however, that colour should be gradated in painting by being
+made simply paler or darker at one place than another. Generally, colour
+changes as it diminishes, and is not only darker at one spot, but also
+purer at one spot than elsewhere; although it does not follow that
+either the darkest or the lightest spot should be the purest. Very often
+the two gradations more or less cross each other, one passing in one
+direction from paleness to darkness, another in another direction from
+purity to dulness; but there will almost always be both of them, however
+reconciled. Hence, every piece of blue, say, laid on should be quite
+pure only at some given spot, from which it must be gradated into blue<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328">[328]</a></span>
+less pure&mdash;greyish blue, or greenish blue, or purplish blue&mdash;over all
+the rest of the space it occupies. In Turner's largest oil pictures,
+there is not one spot of colour as large as a grain of wheat ungradated;
+and it will be found in practice that brilliancy of hue, vigour of
+light, and even the aspect of transparency in shade, are essentially
+dependent on this character alone; hardness, coldness, and opacity,
+resulting far more from equality of colour than from nature of colour.
+Given some mud off a city crossing, some ochre out of a gravel pit, a
+little whitening, and some coal-dust, and a luminous picture might be
+painted, if time were allowed to gradate the mud, and subdue the dust.
+But not with the red of the ruby, the blue of the gentian, snow for the
+light, and amber for the gold, could such a picture be produced, if the
+masses of those colours were kept unbroken in purity, and unvarying in
+depth.</p>
+
+<p>Olive being usually a compound colour both with the artist and mechanic,
+there are few olive pigments in commerce.</p>
+
+
+<h4>232. MIXED OLIVE</h4>
+
+<p class="no">may be compounded in several ways; directly, by mixing green and purple;
+or indirectly, by adding to blue a smaller proportion of yellow and red,
+or by breaking much blue with little orange. Cool black pigments,
+combined with yellow ochre,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_329" id="Page_329">[329]</a></span> afford eligible olives; hues which are
+called <i>green</i> in landscape, and <i>invisible green</i> in mechanic painting.
+It is to be noted that in producing these and other compound colours on
+the palette or canvass, those mixtures will most conduce to the harmony
+of the performance which are formed of pigments otherwise generally
+employed in the picture. Thus, presuming aureolin to be the principal
+yellow used, the same yellow should be chosen for compounding orange and
+green, or for obtaining indirectly citrine, russet, and olive.</p>
+
+<table summary="permanent green and purple" style="width: 470px; margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 2em; font-size: 90%;">
+<colgroup span="2">
+<col width="250px"></col>
+<col width="220px"></col>
+</colgroup>
+<tr>
+<th class="tdb3 br">PERMANENT GREEN.</th>
+<th class="tdb3">PERMANENT PURPLE.</th>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb3 br">Oxide of Chromium, opaque.</td>
+<td class="tdb3">Mars Violet, true.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb3 br">Oxide of Chromium, transparent.</td>
+<td class="tdb3">Purple Madder.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb3 br">Veronese Green.</td>
+<td class="tdb3">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb3 br">Viridian.</td>
+<td class="tdb3">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb3 br">Emerald Green.</td>
+<td class="tdb3">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb3 br">Scheele's Green.</td>
+<td class="tdb3">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdb3 br">Terre Green.</td>
+<td class="tdb3">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p>As in the case of russet, there may be added to the two original
+purples, mixtures composed of durable reds and blues. There are so many
+ways of producing the tertiaries, that no difficulty can be found in
+compounding them with stable pigments. Each tertiary may be represented
+as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table summary="representation of tertiaries" style="width: 620px; margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 2em; font-size: 90%;">
+<colgroup span="5">
+<col width="200px"></col>
+<col width="10px"></col>
+<col width="200px"></col>
+<col width="10px"></col>
+<col width="200px"></col>
+</colgroup>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd"><span class="smcap">Citrine</span></td>
+<td class="tdd">=</td>
+<td class="tdb3">Orange</td>
+<td class="tdd">+</td>
+<td class="tdb3">Green.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd">"</td>
+<td class="tdd">=</td>
+<td class="tdb3">(Yellow + Red)</td>
+<td class="tdd">+</td>
+<td class="tdb3">(Yellow + Blue).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd">"</td>
+<td class="tdd">=</td>
+<td class="tdb3">2 Yellow + Red</td>
+<td class="tdd">+</td>
+<td class="tdb3">Blue.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_330" id="Page_330">[330]</a></span><span class="smcap">Russet</span></td>
+<td class="tdd">=</td>
+<td class="tdb3">Orange</td>
+<td class="tdd">+</td>
+<td class="tdb3">Purple.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd">"</td>
+<td class="tdd">=</td>
+<td class="tdb3">(Yellow + Red)</td>
+<td class="tdd">+</td>
+<td class="tdb3">(Red + Blue.)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd">"</td>
+<td class="tdd">=</td>
+<td class="tdb3">2 Red + Yellow</td>
+<td class="tdd">+</td>
+<td class="tdb3">Blue.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd"><span class="smcap">Olive</span></td>
+<td class="tdd">=</td>
+<td class="tdb3">Green</td>
+<td class="tdd">+</td>
+<td class="tdb3">Purple.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd">"</td>
+<td class="tdd">=</td>
+<td class="tdb3">(Yellow + Blue)</td>
+<td class="tdd">+</td>
+<td class="tdb3">(Red +Blue.)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd">"</td>
+<td class="tdd">=</td>
+<td class="tdb3">2 Blue + Yellow</td>
+<td class="tdd">+</td>
+<td class="tdb3">Red.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>From the above equations, and by consulting the lists given of permanent
+primary and secondary colours, the artist will at once see how easily
+and safely he may vary his mode of compounding the tertiaries.</p>
+
+
+<h4>233. OLIVE GREEN,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">sometimes called <i>Dewint's Green</i>, is an arbitrary compound, or mixed
+green, of a fine deep olive colour and sober richness. Advisedly or not,
+it is used in landscape, sketching, &amp;c.; but only in water, olive lake
+supplying its place in oil. Like many other compound pigments, it is
+either permanent, semi-stable, or fugitive, according to the
+constituents of which it is composed. Generally speaking, it is more
+beautiful than durable, and is often decidedly fugacious, fading on
+exposure. It is impossible for a writer to pronounce an absolute opinion
+on the stability of all mixtures sold in a separate form, inasmuch as
+the compounds of one firm may differ from those of another. We have
+before expressed our dislike to such pigments, and this uncertainty with
+regard to their composition serves to strengthen<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_331" id="Page_331">[331]</a></span> it. Nevertheless, as
+there are exceptions to every rule, it must be admitted that the palette
+possesses compounds always to be relied upon.</p>
+
+
+<h4>234. OLIVE LAKE</h4>
+
+<p class="no">is in commerce exclusively an oil colour. When true, it is a lake
+prepared from the green ebony, or laburnum, and is of considerable
+permanence, transparency, and depth, both in water and oil; in which
+latter vehicle it dries well. This variety, however, may be said to be
+obsolete; having given way to a mixture, usually semi-stable, and liable
+to blacken.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<h4>235. <i>Burnt Verdigris</i></h4>
+
+<p class="no">is what its name expresses, and is an olive-coloured oxide of copper
+deprived of acid. It dries remarkably well in oil, is more durable than
+the original verdigris, and is in other respects an improved and more
+eligible pigment, although not to be recommended.</p>
+
+
+<h4>236. <i>Olive Oxide of Chromium.</i></h4>
+
+<p>An olive oxide of this metal is obtainable, transparent, of strict
+stability, and altogether superior to any original or compound olive
+pigment as yet known. Eligible either in water or oil, it is admirably
+adapted for autumn foliage, where a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_332" id="Page_332">[332]</a></span> quiet, subdued, nature-like green
+is required. It has not, however, been introduced, partly because of its
+expense, and partly because a mixture of other pigments with the
+ordinary chrome oxides sufficiently answers the purpose. There are more
+good colours in the world than are dreamt of in the palette's
+philosophy, but either they are not wanted, or are too costly to sell.
+In a great measure, both art and science are dependent on commerce.</p>
+
+
+<h4>237. <i>Olive Rinman's Green.</i></h4>
+
+<p>A compound analogous to cobalt green may be made, of an olive hue, with
+more body, and equally stable.</p>
+
+
+<h4>238. <i>Olive Scheele's Green.</i></h4>
+
+<p>Cupric arsenite, when heated, gives off arsenious acid and water,
+leaving a residue of arsenide of copper and copper arseniate. A series
+of olive colours is so afforded, which are as durable as their original
+pigment, and might with advantage be substituted for the doubtful
+compounds at present in use.</p>
+
+
+<h4>239. <i>Olive Schweinfurt Green</i></h4>
+
+<p class="no">is likewise furnished by gentle calcination. It may be directly prepared
+by mixing boiling aqueous solutions of equal parts of crystallised
+verdigris and arsenious acid. An olive-green precipitate<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_333" id="Page_333">[333]</a></span> is immediately
+formed, which is apt, without due precaution, to pass into an emerald
+green. A durable copper colour.</p>
+
+
+<h4>240. <i>Olive Terre Verte.</i></h4>
+
+<p>We have obtained a very beautiful olive from terre verte by simply
+changing its hue. In oil, especially, the colour so produced would be
+found of service for autumn foliage, or richly painted foregrounds. A
+simple original pigment, consisting wholly of the earth, it resembles
+ordinary terre verte in being unaffected by strong light or impure air,
+and uninjured by admixture; but differs from it in not darkening by
+time. Semi-transparent, of sober richness and drying well in oil, it is,
+according to its powers, a perfectly unexceptionable colour, of strict
+stability.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<p>Of the two olive colours in common use, olive lake and olive green, the
+first is generally semi-stable, and apt to blacken; while the second is
+usually fugitive, and liable to fade: both are compounds. The palette,
+therefore, possesses no original olive pigment, good or bad. A glance at
+the numbered italicised olives will show that the doubtful mixtures
+referred to might with advantage be superseded. It is clear that the
+olive pigments which the palette does not know, are better than those
+with which it is acquainted.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_334" id="Page_334">[334]</a></span><a name="chapter_17" id="chapter_17"></a><a href="#contents">CHAPTER XVII.</a></h2>
+
+<h3>ON THE SEMI-NEUTRAL, BROWN.</h3>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">As</span> colour, according to the regular scale descending from white, ceases
+properly with the last of the tertiaries, olive, in theory the neutral
+black would here form a fitting conclusion. Practically, however, every
+coloured pigment, of every class or tribe, combines with black as it
+exists in pigments&mdash;not simply being deepened or lowered in tone
+thereby, but likewise defiled in colour, or changed in class. Hence
+there arises a new series or scale of coloured compounds, having black
+for their basis, which, though they differ not theoretically from the
+preceding order inverted, are yet in practice imperfect or impure. These
+broken compounds of black, or coloured blacks and greys, we have
+distinguished by the term, semi-neutral, and divided them into three
+classes: Brown, Marrone, and Gray. What tints are with respect to white,
+they are with regard to black, being, so to speak, black tints or
+shades.</p>
+
+<p>The first of the series is <span class="smcap">Brown</span>, a term which,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_335" id="Page_335">[335]</a></span> in its widest
+acceptation, has been used to include vulgarly every kind of dark broken
+colour, and is, in a more limited sense, the rather indefinite name of a
+very extensive class of colours of warm or tawny hues. Accordingly there
+are browns of every denomination except blue; to wit, yellow-brown,
+red-brown, orange-brown, purple-brown, citrine-brown, russet-brown, &amp;c.
+But there is no such thing as a blue-brown, nor, strictly, any other
+coloured brown in which blue predominates; such predominance of a cold
+colour at once carrying the compound into the class of gray, ashen, or
+slate. Brown comprises the hues called dun, hazel, auburn, feuillemort,
+mort d'ore, &amp;c.; several of which have been already mentioned as allied
+to the tertiary colours.</p>
+
+<p>The term <i>brown</i>, then, denotes rightly a warm broken colour, of which
+<i>yellow</i> is a chief constituent: hence brown is in some measure to shade
+what yellow is to light. Hence, also, proper quantities of either the
+three primaries, the three secondaries, or the three tertiaries, produce
+variously a brown mixture. Browns contribute to coolness and clearness
+by contrast when opposed to pure colours, and Rubens more especially
+appears to have employed them upon this principle; although the same may
+be said of Titian, Correggio, Paulo Veronese, and all the best
+colourists. Being a sort of intermedia between positive colours and
+neutrality, browns equally<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_336" id="Page_336">[336]</a></span> contrast colour and shade. This accounts for
+their vast importance in painting, and the necessity of preserving them
+distinct from other colours, to which they give foulness in mixture; and
+to this is due their use in backgrounds and in relieving of coloured
+objects.</p>
+
+<p>The tendency in the compounds of colours to run into brownness and
+warmth is one of the common natural properties of colours which
+occasions them to deteriorate or defile each other in mixture. Brown by
+consequence is synonymous with foul or dirty, as opposed to fair or
+clean; and hence brown, which is the nearest of the semi-neutrals in
+relation to light, is to be avoided in mixture with light colours. Yet
+is it an example of the wisdom of nature's Author that brown is
+rendered, like green, a prevailing hue, and in particular an earth
+colour, as a contrast which is harmonized by the blueness and coldness
+of the sky.</p>
+
+<p>This tendency will likewise explain the use of brown in harmonizing and
+<ins class="trans" title="was toneing">toning</ins>, as well as the great number of natural and artificial pigments
+and colours so called. It was the fertility and abundance of browns that
+caused our great landscape-colourist Wilson, when a friend went
+exultingly to tell him that he had discovered a new brown, to check him
+in his characteristic way, with&mdash;"I'm sorry for it: we have gotten too
+many of them already." Nevertheless, fine transparent browns are
+obviously very valuable.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_337" id="Page_337">[337]</a></span>If red or blue in excess be added to brown, it falls into the other
+semi-neutral classes, marrone or gray. The wide acceptation of the term
+brown has occasioned much confusion in the naming of colours, since
+broken colours in which red, &amp;c. predominate, have been improperly
+called brown. That term, therefore, should be confined to the
+semi-neutral colours, compounded of, or like in hue to, either the
+primary <i>yellow</i>, the secondary orange, or the tertiary <i>citrine</i>, with
+a <i>black</i>. The general contrast or harmonizing colour of such compounds
+will consequently be more or less purple or blue.</p>
+
+<p>The number of browns is great, as may be seen by the following list.
+This list, however, is good, and includes a considerable proportion of
+permanent pigments.</p>
+
+
+<h4>241. ASPHALTUM,</h4>
+
+<p class="no"><i>Asphalt</i>, <i>Bitumen</i>, <i>Mineral Pitch</i>, <i>Jew's Pitch</i>, <i>Antwerp Brown</i>,
+<i>Liquid Asphaltum</i>, &amp;c., is a sort of mineral pitch or tar which, rising
+liquid to the surface of the Lacus Asphaltites or Asphaltic Lake (the
+Dead Sea) concretes there by the natural action of the atmosphere and
+sun, and, floating in masses to the shores, is gathered by the Arabs.
+The French give it an additional name from the region of the lake, to
+wit, Bitumen of Judea; and with the English, from the same cause, it has
+the alias of Jew's pitch. Asphaltum<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_338" id="Page_338">[338]</a></span> is not so called, however, after
+the lake, as is asserted by a writer in the Encyclop&aelig;dia: it is just the
+reverse&mdash;Pliny says, "The Asphaltic lake produces nothing but bitumen
+(in Greek, asphaltos); and hence its name."</p>
+
+<p>A substance resembling asphalt is found at Neufch&acirc;tel in Switzerland,
+and in other parts of Europe. A specimen of the native bitumen, brought
+from Persia, and of which the author made trial, had a powerful scent of
+garlic when rubbed. In the fire it softened without flowing, and burnt
+with a lambent flame; did not dissolve by heat in turpentine, but ground
+easily as a pigment in pale drying oil, affording a fine deep
+transparent brown colour, resembling that of commercial asphaltum; dried
+firmly almost as soon as the drying-oil alone, and worked admirably both
+in water and oil. Asphaltum may be used as a permanent brown in water,
+for which purpose the native is superior to the artificial. The former,
+however, is now seldom to be met with, the varieties employed on the
+palette being the residua of various resinous and bituminous matters,
+distilled for the sake of their essential oils. These residua are all
+black and glossy like common pitch, which differs from them only in
+having been less acted upon by fire, and thence in being softer. At
+present asphaltum is prepared in excessive abundance as a product of the
+distillation of coal at the gas manufactories, and is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_339" id="Page_339">[339]</a></span> chiefly confined
+to oil-painting, being first dissolved in turpentine, which fits it for
+glazing and shading. Its fine brown colour and perfect transparency are
+lures to its free use with many artists, notwithstanding the certain
+destruction that awaits the work on which it is much employed, owing to
+its tendency to contract and crack by changes of temperature and the
+atmosphere; but for which, and a slight liability to blacken, it would
+be a most beautiful, durable, and eligible pigment. The solution of
+asphaltum in turpentine, united with drying oil by heat, or the bitumen
+torrefied and ground in linseed or drying-oil, acquires a firmer
+texture, but becomes less transparent and dries with difficulty. If
+common asphaltum, as usually prepared with turpentine, be used with some
+addition of Vandyke brown, umber, or Cappah brown ground in drying oil,
+it will gain body and solidity which will render it much less disposed
+to crack. Nevertheless, asphaltum is to be regarded in practice rather
+as a dark varnish than as a solid pigment, and all the faults of a bad
+varnish are to be guarded against in employing it.</p>
+
+<p>It is common to call the solution in turpentine <i>Asphaltum</i>, and the
+mixture with drying-oil <i>Bitumen</i>: the latter is likewise known as
+<i>Antwerp Brown</i>. A preparation for the use of water-colour artists is
+employed under the name of <i>Liquid Asphaltum</i>.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_340" id="Page_340">[340]</a></span>242. BISTRE</h4>
+
+<p>is extracted by watery solution from the soot of wood fires, whence it
+derives a strong pyroligneous scent. It is a very powerful
+citrine-brown, washes well, and has a clearness suited to architectural
+subjects. Its use is confined to water-colour painting, in which it was
+much employed by the old masters for tinting drawings and shading
+sketches, before the general application of Indian ink to such purposes.
+Of a wax-like texture, it is perfectly durable, but unfitted for oil,
+drying therein with the greatest difficulty.</p>
+
+<p>A substance of this kind collects at the back of fire-places in cottages
+where peat is the constant fuel burnt; which, purified by solution and
+evaporation, yields a fine bistre, similar to the Scotch. All kinds of
+bistre attract moisture from the atmosphere.</p>
+
+
+<h4>243. BONE BROWN</h4>
+
+<p class="no">and <i>Ivory Brown</i> are obtained by roasting bone and ivory until by
+partial charring they become of a brown colour throughout. Though much
+esteemed by some artists, they are not quite eligible pigments, being
+bad driers in oil, the only vehicle in which they are now used.
+Moreover, their lighter shades are not permanent either in water or oil
+when exposed to the action<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_341" id="Page_341">[341]</a></span> of strong light, or mixed in tint with white
+lead. The palest of these colours are the most opaque: the deepest are
+more durable, and most so when approaching black. Neither bone nor ivory
+brown is often employed, but the former may be occasionally applied in
+forming clear, silvery, warm grays, in combination with zinc white.</p>
+
+
+<h4>244. BURNT UMBER</h4>
+
+<p class="no">is what its name denotes, and has a deeper shade with a more russet hue
+than the raw umber. A quiet brown, it affords clear and warm shadows,
+but is apt to look rather turbid if used in great depth. It washes and
+works capitally in water, and dries quickly in oil, in which it is
+employed as a siccative. Perfectly stable in either vehicle, it may
+sometimes be substituted for Vandyke brown, is eligible in fresco, and
+invaluable in buildings. Where the lakes of madder require saddening,
+the addition of burnt umber increases their powers, and improves their
+drying in oil. It contains manganese and iron, and may be produced
+artificially. The old Italians called it <i>falsalo</i>.</p>
+
+
+<h4>245. CALEDONIAN BROWN</h4>
+
+<p class="no">is a permanent native pigment, the use of which is confined to oil. A
+magnificent orange-russet brown of considerable transparency, it is
+marked by great depth and richness, and will be found<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_342" id="Page_342">[342]</a></span> serviceable where
+a powerful brown of the burnt Sienna class is required.</p>
+
+
+<h4>246. CAPPAH BROWN,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">or <i>Cappagh Brown</i>, is likewise a colour peculiar to oil. It is a
+species of bog-earth or peat, mixed with manganese in various
+proportions, and found on the estate of Lord Audley at Cappagh, near
+Cork. The specimens in which the peat earth most abounds are of light
+weight, friable texture, and dark colour; while those which contain more
+of the metal are heavy and paler.</p>
+
+<p>As pigments, the peaty Cappah brown is the most transparent and rich in
+colour. A prompt drier in oil, its surface <ins class="correction" title="rivals read rivels">rivels</ins> during drying where it
+lies thick. The other and metallic sort is a more opaque, a lighter and
+warmer brown pigment, which dries rapidly and smoothly in a body or
+thick layer. The first may be regarded as a superior Vandyke brown, the
+second as a superior umber. The two extreme kinds should be
+distinguished as light and deep Cappah browns; the former excellent for
+dead colouring and grounds, the latter for glazing and graining. These
+pigments work well in oil and varnish; they do not, however, keep their
+place while drying in oil by fixing the oil, like the driers of lead,
+but run. Under the names of <i>Euchrome</i> and <i>Mineral Brown</i>, they have
+been introduced into commerce for civil and marine painting.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_343" id="Page_343">[343]</a></span>247. CASSEL EARTH,</h4>
+
+<p><i>Terre de Cassel</i>, or, corruptly, <i>Castle Earth</i>, is specially an oil
+pigment, similar to burnt umber but of a more russet hue. It is an earth
+containing bitumen, a substance which, with pit-coal, lignite or brown
+coal, jet, petroleum or rock oil, naphtha, &amp;c., is looked upon as a
+product of the decomposition of organic matter, beneath the surface of
+the earth, in situations where the conditions of contact with water, and
+almost total exclusion of atmospheric air, are fulfilled. Deposited at
+the bottom of seas, lakes, or rivers, and subsequently covered up by
+accumulations of clay and sand, the organic tissue undergoes a kind of
+fermentation by which the bodies in question are slowly produced. The
+true bitumens appear to have arisen from coal or lignite by the action
+of subterranean heat; and very closely resemble some of the products
+yielded by the destructive distillation of those bodies.</p>
+
+<p>Rich as is the tone of colour of Cassel earth, it is apt to lose this in
+some measure on exposure to light. M&eacute;rim&eacute;e remembers to have seen a
+head, the brown hair of which had been painted partly with the earth
+alone, and partly with a mixture of the earth and white; yet the hair
+where the white was employed was darker than that painted solely with
+the brown, the white<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_344" id="Page_344">[344]</a></span> having fixed the colour. To compensate for its
+thus fading, it should be mixed with pigments that are permanent, such
+as umber and lamp black. Like all bituminous earths, it needs the
+strongest drying oil. By calcination, a greater degree of intensity may
+be imparted to the colour, and perhaps a little more solidity. In
+landscapes it is of much service for the most vigorous portions of
+foregrounds and the trunks of trees, as well as for painting cavernous
+rocks or deep recesses in architecture. Compounded with burnt lake and a
+little Prussian blue, it gives a black the most profound.</p>
+
+
+<h4>248. CHALON'S BROWN</h4>
+
+<p class="no">is a water-colour pigment, transparent and inclining to red; deep, full,
+and very rich. On exposure to light it becomes less russet, but is
+otherwise strictly stable.</p>
+
+
+<h4>249. COLOGNE EARTH,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">incorrectly called <i>Cullen's Earth</i>, is a native bituminous earth,
+containing less bitumen than Cassel earth, and therefore drying more
+quickly. Darker than that variety, it is less transparent, and covers
+better. In its general qualities it resembles Vandyke brown, except that
+in combination with white, it affords a range of cooler brown tints.
+Useful for the shadows of buildings, it does not wash so well as sepia,
+and is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_345" id="Page_345">[345]</a></span> preferred occasionally on that account. By some it has been
+called durable, by others branded as fugacious. According to Bouvier,
+brown hair represented by this colour has been known to disappear in six
+months, all the brown vanishing, and nothing remaining but a few black
+lines of the sketch. As it is similar in composition to Cassel earth,
+the safest course would be to mix it with umber, and not to employ it
+alone. Calcined, it acquires a reddish hue.</p>
+
+
+<h4>250. INDELIBLE BROWN INK.</h4>
+
+<p>Although this cannot be classed as a pigment, yet, being very useful in
+water-colours, it may be proper to describe its qualities. The ink is a
+rich brown fluid, and, as its name imports, is indelibly fixed on the
+paper as soon as it is dry; thus allowing the artist to work or wash
+over it repeatedly, without its being disturbed. If diluted with water
+to its faintest tint, it still continues to retain its indelible
+properties undiminished. It is generally used with a reed pen, and
+employed chiefly in architectural details and outlines.</p>
+
+<p>Various brown inks, principally solutions of bistre and sepia, were
+adopted in sketching by Claude, Rembrandt, and many of the old masters.
+In modern times, a beautiful transparent brown for water-colour artists,
+known as <i>Liquid Prout's Brown</i>, has been extensively employed. This<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_346" id="Page_346">[346]</a></span>
+contains less fixative than the indelible ink, and is the vehicle with
+which nearly all Samuel Prout's drawings were executed.</p>
+
+
+<h4>251. LEITCH'S BROWN</h4>
+
+<p class="no">is a permanent pigment peculiar to water painting. A most beautiful
+olive brown, soft and rich, it is admirably adapted for autumnal foliage
+tints and the like, either alone or compounded with burnt Sienna or
+cadmium orange. Transparent and clear in its washes, this is a most
+serviceable colour in landscape generally.</p>
+
+
+<h4>252. MIXED BROWN</h4>
+
+<p class="no">can be produced in endless variety, either by adding a warm colour to
+black, such as yellow, orange, or citrine, or else by combining the
+three primaries, secondaries, or tertiaries in suitable proportions. By
+consulting the lists given of permanent pigments belonging to those
+classes, and by referring to the chapter on Black, it will be seen that
+no difficulty exists in obtaining durable mixed browns when required.
+For example, there may be formed from the primaries, a compound of
+aureolin, rose madder, and ultramarine; or from the secondaries, a
+mixture of cadmium orange, viridian, and madder purple. Of course, as
+with other mixed tints, the brown hue can be furnished not only by
+direct compounding of the colours on the palette, but by laying one
+colour<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_347" id="Page_347">[347]</a></span> over the other on the paper or canvass, or by stippling.</p>
+
+
+<h4>253. MUMMY,</h4>
+
+<p class="no"><i>Mummy Brown</i>, or <i>Egyptian Brown</i>, is a bituminous product mixed with
+animal remains, brought from the catacombs of Egypt, where liquid
+bitumen was employed three thousand years ago in embalming. By a slow
+chemical change, it has combined during so many ages with substances
+which give it, as a rule, a more solid and lasting texture than simple
+asphaltum. Generally resembling the latter in its other properties and
+uses as a pigment, mummy is often substituted for it, being less liable
+to crack or move on the canvass. It must be remembered, however, that
+mummy varies exceedingly both in its composition and qualities; and as
+from its very nature and origin nothing certain can be said of it, but
+little reliance should be placed on this brown. Mummy belongs to the
+class of pigments which are either good or bad, according as they turn
+out. On the whole, we agree with the American artist, who has been more
+than once quoted in these pages, that nothing is to be gained by
+smearing one's canvass with a part, perhaps, of the wife of Potiphar.
+With a preference for materials less frail and of a more sober
+character, we likewise hold with Bouvier, that it is not particularly
+pru<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_348" id="Page_348">[348]</a></span>dent to employ without necessity these crumbled remains of dead
+bodies, which must contain ammonia and particles of fat in a concrete
+state and so be more or less apt to injure the colours with which they
+may be united. The use of mummy is now confined to oil, in which, says
+Mr. Carmichael, a mixture of mummy and bitumen will dry and never crack.
+If this be the case, the compound would be preferable to either
+separate.</p>
+
+
+<h4>254. PRUSSIAN BROWN</h4>
+
+<p class="no">is an iron oxide, containing more or less alumina, and prepared by
+calcining an aluminous Prussian blue, or treating an aluminous
+ferrocyanide of peroxide of iron with an alkali. Possessing the nature
+and properties of burnt Sienna, it is transparent, permanent, and dries
+well in oil. Of an orange hue, it is neither so rich nor so powerful as
+that pigment, and is better employed as a glaze than in body.</p>
+
+
+<h4>255. SEPIA,</h4>
+
+<p class="no"><i>Liquid Sepia</i>, <i>Seppia</i>, or <i>Animal &AElig;thiops</i>, is named after the sepia
+or cuttle-fish, also called the ink-fish, from its affording a dark
+liquid, which was used as an ink and pigment by the ancients. All the
+species of cuttle-fish are provided with a dark-coloured fluid,
+sometimes quite black, which they emit to obscure the water, when it is
+wanted to favour their escape from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_349" id="Page_349">[349]</a></span> danger, or, by concealing their
+approach, to enable them with greater facility to seize their prey. The
+liquid consists of a mass of extremely minute carbonaceous particles,
+intermixed with an animal gelatine or glue, and is capable of being so
+widely spread, than an ounce of it will suffice to darken several
+thousand ounces of water. From this liquid, brought chiefly from the
+Adriatic, but likewise obtainable from our own coasts, is derived the
+pigment sepia, as well as, partially, the Indian ink of the Chinese.</p>
+
+<p>Sepia is a powerful dusky brown, of a fine texture, transparent, works
+admirably in water, combines cordially with other pigments, and is very
+permanent. It is much used as a water-colour, and for making drawings in
+the manner of bistre and Indian ink; but is not employed in oil, as it
+dries therein very reluctantly. Extremely clear in its pale tints, and
+perhaps the best washing colour known, sepia must be used with caution,
+or otherwise heaviness will be engendered in the shades, so strong is
+its colouring property. Mixed with indigo, or, preferably, Prussian blue
+and black, it is eligible for distant trees, for a general shadow tint
+in light backgrounds, and for the shade of white linen or white
+draperies. With madder red it forms a fine hue, somewhat resembling
+brown madder, and with crimson lake and indigo gives an artistically
+excellent black. Sometimes alone and sometimes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_350" id="Page_350">[350]</a></span> in combination with lamp
+black, or madder red and Prussian blue saddened by the black, it will be
+found useful in dark foreground boats, rocks, near buoys, sea-weed, &amp;c.
+Compounded with aureolin, sepia yields a series of beautiful and durable
+neutral greens for landscape; and mixed with Prussian blue, affords low
+olive greens, which may be deepened into very cool dark greens by the
+addition of black. For hills and mountains in mid-distance, sepia
+combined with cobalt and brown madder is of service; or, for the dark
+markings and divisions of stones in brooks and running streams, the same
+compound without the cobalt. Mixed with purple madder, it furnishes a
+fine tint for the stems and branches of trees; and with French blue and
+madder red gives a really good black. Compounds of sepia and yellow
+ochre, gamboge, raw Sienna, or cobalt and aureolin, are severally
+useful. A rich and strong brown is formed by the admixture of madder
+red, burnt Sienna, and sepia; a tint which may be modified by omitting
+the sepia or the Sienna, or reducing the proportions of either. For
+Dutch craft, this tint and its variations are of great value. A wash of
+sepia over green very agreeably subdues the force of the colour.</p>
+
+
+<h4>256. WARM SEPIA</h4>
+
+<p class="no">is the natural sepia warmed by mixture with other browns of a red hue,
+and is intended for draw<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_351" id="Page_351">[351]</a></span>ings where it would be difficult to keep the
+whole work of the same tint, unless the compound were made in the cake
+of colour.</p>
+
+
+<h4>257. ROMAN SEPIA</h4>
+
+<p class="no">is a preparation similar to the preceding, but with a yellow instead of
+a red cast.</p>
+
+
+<h4>258. VANDYKE BROWN.</h4>
+
+<p>This pigment, hardly less celebrated than the great painter whose name
+it bears, is a species of peat or bog-earth of a fine, deep,
+semi-transparent brown colour. The pigment so much esteemed and used by
+Vandyke is said to have been brought from Cassel; an assertion which
+seems to be justified by a comparison of Cassel earth with the browns of
+his pictures. Gilpin in his Essays on Picturesque Beauty, remarks that
+"In the tribe of browns&mdash;in oil-painting, one of the finest earths is
+known, at the colour shops, by the name of Castle-earth, or Vandyke's
+brown." The Vandyke brown of the present day is a bituminous ochre,
+purified by grinding and washing over. Apt to vary in hue, it is durable
+both in water and oil, but, like all bituminous earths, dries tardily as
+a rule in the latter vehicle. Clear in its pale tints, deep and glowing
+in shadows, in water it has sometimes the bad property of working up:
+for this reason, where it is necessary to lay on a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_352" id="Page_352">[352]</a></span> great body of it,
+the moist tube colour should be preferred to the cake. With madder red,
+the brown gives a fine tint, most useful as a warm shadow colour; and
+with Prussian blue, clear, very sober neutral greens for middle
+distances. In banks and roads, Vandyke brown is the general colour for
+dragging over the surface, to give roughness of texture: compounded with
+yellow ochre, it affords a good ground tint, and with purple madder a
+rich shadow colour. In sunrise and sunset clouds, a mixture of the brown
+with cobalt yields a cold neutral green, adapted for those clouds at the
+greatest distance from the sun. For foliage tints, aureolin, French
+blue, and Vandyke brown, will be found of service; or as a glaze over
+such tints, the yellow and the brown. With raw Sienna, brown madder,
+Payne's gray, gamboge, and Roman ochre, this brown is useful. In a
+water-colour winter scene, when the trees are denuded of foliage, the
+net work of the small branches at the tops of them may be prettily given
+with cobalt and Vandyke brown, used rather dry, and applied with a brush
+having its hairs spread out either by the fingers or by drawing them
+through a <ins class="trans" title="was fine tooth-comb">fine-tooth comb</ins> before working. Grass is likewise represented
+readily by this means, and so are small trees on the summit of a cliff
+or in like positions.</p>
+
+<p>The Campania Brown of the old Italian painters was a similar earth.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_353" id="Page_353">[353]</a></span>259. VERONA BROWN,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">a pigment peculiar to oil painting, is a native ferruginous earth. A
+citrine brown of great service in tender drab greens, it forms with
+terre verte and the madder lakes rich autumnal tints of much beauty and
+permanence.</p>
+
+
+<h4>260. YELLOW MADDER,</h4>
+
+<p class="no"><i>Cory's Yellow Madder</i>, or <i>Cory's Madder</i>, is classed among the browns
+for the same reason that Italian Pink was ranked among the yellows. It
+was stated in the eighth chapter that no true madder yellow, brilliant
+and pure, exists as a pigment at the present day, and certainly this
+preparation can lay no claim to the title. Except in name, it is an
+orange-brown of the burnt Sienna hue, and might therefore with more
+reason have been called Orange Madder. It is a good and permanent
+colour, rich and transparent, at present used only in oil, we believe,
+and chiefly as a glaze.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<h4>261. <i>Cadmium Brown</i>.</h4>
+
+<p>By igniting the white carbonate of cadmium, among other methods, a
+cinnamon-brown oxide is obtainable, of a very clear and beautiful colour
+if the process be well conducted. It is, however,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_354" id="Page_354">[354]</a></span> not eligible as a
+pigment, owing to the rapidity with which the oxide is acted upon by the
+air. In water, especially, we have found this brown so eagerly absorb
+carbonic acid from the atmosphere as to become in a few months once more
+a carbonate, and as purely white as before. The same result is
+observable when the powder is exposed: some shown at the International
+Exhibition of 1862, on a glass stand, had to be removed, its label
+marked 'Cadmium Brown' being at last found attached to a sample of
+cadmium white. In oil, the conversion takes place less readily, that
+vehicle having the property of protecting, to some extent, pigments from
+oxidation. It is curious that even in a book a water-rub of the brown
+slowly but surely changes to white.</p>
+
+
+<h4>262. <i>Catechu Browns.</i></h4>
+
+<p>Catechu is an extract of the Khair tree or <i>acacia catechu</i> of Bombay,
+Bengal, and other parts of India. With the exception of such earthy
+matters as are communicated to it during the preparation, or are added
+purposely as adulterants, catechu is entirely soluble both in water and
+alcohol. An aqueous solution has a reddish-brown colour, and gives the
+following results:&mdash;protosalts of iron thrown down olive-brown and
+persalts greenish-brown precipitates; salts of tin and lead yield
+brownish-yellow and brick-coloured deposits respectively; while acetate
+of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_355" id="Page_355">[355]</a></span> copper or bichromate of potash furnishes brown residues. To our
+knowledge, none of these have been introduced as pigments, but a brown
+prepared by Dr. Lyon Playfair some years back from the catechu bark has
+been described as exceedingly rich, transparent, and beautiful; and
+recommended for painting <i>if not too thinly applied</i>.</p>
+
+
+<h4>263. <i>Chrome Browns</i></h4>
+
+<p class="no">are produced by various methods of several hues, tints, and shades, both
+by wet and dry processes. We have obtained them by many methods, of
+different degrees of permanence. Some very intense in colour have stood
+well, while others paler and more delicate have gradually greened, but
+none possessed the strict stability of the green oxides. Presuming a
+paucity of browns, these preparations of chromium would be worth further
+attention; but, with the objection of being&mdash;for browns&mdash;somewhat
+expensive, they have the far more fatal objection of not being wanted.</p>
+
+
+<h4>264. <i>Copper Brown</i>,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">varying in hue, is obtainable, in the form of prussiate, &amp;c., but cannot
+be recommended, however made.</p>
+
+
+<h4>265. <i>French Prussian-Brown.</i></h4>
+
+<p>According to Bouvier, a colour similar to that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_356" id="Page_356">[356]</a></span> of bistre, and rivalling
+asphaltum in transparency, is produced by partially charring a
+moderately dark Prussian blue; neither one too intense, which gives a
+heavy and opaque brownish-red, nor one too aluminous and bright, which
+yields a feeble and yellowish tint. Yielding to a rapture we cannot
+wholly share, he describes its qualities in the warmest terms. In his
+opinion, it has the combined advantages of asphaltum, mummy, and raw
+Sienna, without their drawbacks. "I cannot," he says, "commend too
+highly the use of this charming bistre-tint: it is as beautiful and good
+in water as in oil, perfectly transparent, of a most harmonious tone,
+and dries better than any other colour suitable for glazing. Closely
+resembling asphaltum in tint as well as in transparency, this brown is
+preferable to it in every point of view." As the colour is very quickly
+and easily obtained, the artist can judge for himself of its proper
+value. M. Bouvier's process is, to place upon a clear fire a large iron
+spoon, into which, when red hot, some pieces of the Prussian blue are
+put about the size of a small nut: these soon begin to crackle, and
+throw off scales in proportion as they grow hot. The spoon is then
+removed, and allowed to cool: if suffered to remain too long on the
+fire, the right colour will not be produced. When the product is crushed
+small, some of it will be found blackish, and the rest of a yellowish
+brown: this is quite as it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_357" id="Page_357">[357]</a></span> should be. Chemically, the result is a
+mixture of oxide of iron and partly undecomposed or carbonised
+prussiate.</p>
+
+
+<h4>266. <i>Gambogiate of Iron.</i></h4>
+
+<p>Dr. Scoffern read a paper at the Meeting of the British Association of
+Science, in 1851, describing this combination as a rich brown, like
+asphaltum, but richer, as well as more durable in oil. It has not been,
+however, employed as a pigment, or at least is not at present.</p>
+
+
+<h4>267. <i>Hypocastanum</i>,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">or Chestnut Brown, is a brown lake prepared from the horse-chestnut.
+This now obsolete pigment is transparent and rich in colour, warmer than
+brown pink, and very durable both in water and oil; in the latter of
+which it dries moderately well.</p>
+
+
+<h4>268. <i>Iron Browns</i>,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">native or artificial, are well represented on the palette, but nothing
+would be easier than to increase their number. Of all metals, iron is
+the richest source of colour, capable of affording all colours with the
+exception of white. None of them, however, are so numerous as the
+browns, a description of which would fill this chapter. Suffice it to
+state they are obtainable of every<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_358" id="Page_358">[358]</a></span> hue, tint, and shade, and are
+generally permanent. They are made on a large scale and sold under
+various names for house-painting, &amp;c.</p>
+
+
+<h4>269. <i>Manganese Brown</i></h4>
+
+<p class="no">is an oxide of manganese, which is quite durable both in water and oil,
+and dries admirably in the latter. A fine, deep, semi-opaque brown of
+good body, it is deficient in transparency, but might be useful for
+glazing or lowering the tone of white without tinging it, and as a local
+colour in draperies, &amp;c.</p>
+
+
+<h4>270. <i>Nickel Brown.</i></h4>
+
+<p>A very pleasing yellowish brown is obtainable from nickel, bright and
+clear in its pale washes, and of some richness in oil. Unless thoroughly
+washed, it has a tendency to greenness in time.</p>
+
+
+<h4>271. <i>Ochre Browns.</i></h4>
+
+<p>The slight affinity of sulphur for yellow ochre, with its merely
+temporary effect thereon, was observed in the eighth chapter, where
+allusion was made to the action of sulphuretted hydrogen and sulphide of
+ammonium on the earth. Sulphur alone, and in the dry state, ignited with
+yellow or other native ochres converts them into browns, varying in hue,
+and of greater or less durability.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_359" id="Page_359">[359]</a></span> Those browns, however, which we have
+made by this process, although standing well in a book, have not
+withstood exposure to light and air. They have all become pale, whitish,
+or of a drab cast, evidently through the oxidation of the sulphur, or
+rather the sulphide of iron formed during the calcination. Practically,
+therefore, ochres have an antipathy to sulphur, moist or dry, by itself
+or in combination; and are, so to speak, the disinfectants of the
+palette. Ever waging war against sulphurous vapours, the native earths
+serve to protect a picture from the damaging influence of impure air,
+whether they be used alone, or employed in admixture with such pigments
+as are injured thereby.</p>
+
+
+<h4>272. <i>Purple Brown</i></h4>
+
+<p class="no">is a refuse manufacture from Indian red washings. A dull, heavy, coarse
+colour, it belongs to the class of common pigments which are
+unexceptionable for decorative painting, but scarcely suited to the
+higher branches of art. As this work professes simply to treat of
+artistic pigments, that have been, are, or might be, more than a passing
+reference to those colours exclusively adopted by house-painters, &amp;c.,
+would be out of place.</p>
+
+
+<h4>273. <i>Rubens' Brown</i>,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">still in use in the Netherlands under this appella<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_360" id="Page_360">[360]</a></span>tion, is an earth of
+a lighter colour and more ochrous texture than the Vandyke brown of
+English commerce: it is also of a warmer or more tawny hue than the
+latter pigment. Beautiful and durable, it works well both in water and
+oil, and much resembles the brown employed by Teniers.</p>
+
+
+<h4>274. <i>Uranium Brown.</i></h4>
+
+<p>Yellow, red, orange, green, have been previously noticed as being
+derived from uranium, and to this list of colours may now be added
+brown. A warm rich hue of the utmost intensity may be produced, which
+possesses considerable permanence, although not equal to that of uranium
+yellow.</p>
+
+
+<h4>275. <i>Zinc Brown.</i></h4>
+
+<p>A yellow-brown, so yellow that it might fairly have been classed with
+the ochrous colours of that denomination, is made by combining zinc with
+another metal by the aid of heat. Experience tells us that it is,
+chemically, a thoroughly good and stable pigment. Safely to be used in
+admixture, it is a clear, bright colour, affording good greens by
+compounding with blue. Of no great power, and semi-opaque, this
+yellow-brown or brown-yellow is superior to some of the pigments at
+present used, but is probably too<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_361" id="Page_361">[361]</a></span> much like them in hue and other
+properties to be of any special value.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<p>Besides the preceding, there are those browns of a citrine or russet
+cast which are elsewhere described, such as raw umber, madder brown, &amp;c.
+Moreover, there are numberless other varieties, obtainable from most of
+the metals, from many organic substances, and from a combination of the
+two. Of all colours, a 'new' brown is the most easily discovered:
+success may not be met with in seeking a yellow, red, or blue, or an
+orange, green, or purple; but it is strange if in the course of one's
+experiments a brown does not turn up. No difficulty, therefore, would
+have been found in greatly extending the present list; but it was felt
+that no advantage could have accrued by further multiplying the notices
+of a colour, with which we are already furnished so abundantly by nature
+and art, and which is capable of being produced in such profusion by
+admixture.</p>
+
+<p>With the exception of ivory and bone browns, and perhaps Cassel and
+Cologne earths, all the browns commonly employed may be considered more
+or less durable.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_362" id="Page_362">[362]</a></span><a name="chapter_18" id="chapter_18"></a><a href="#contents">CHAPTER XVIII.</a></h2>
+
+<h3>ON THE SEMI-NEUTRAL, MARRONE.</h3>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">We</span> have adopted the term <span class="smcap">marrone</span>, or <i>maroon</i> as it is sometimes called,
+for our second and middle semi-neutral, as applicable to a class of
+impure colours composed of black and red, black and purple, or black and
+russet, or of black and any other denomination in which red
+predominates. It is a mean between the warm, broken, semi-neutral
+<i>browns</i>, and the cold, semi-neutral <i>grays</i>. Marrone is practically to
+shade, what red is to light; and its relations to other colours are
+those of red, &amp;c., when we invert the scale from black to white. It is
+therefore a following, or shading, colour of red and its derivatives;
+and hence its accordances, contrasts, and expressions agree with those
+of red degraded; consequently red added to dark brown converts it into
+marrone if in sufficient quantity to prevail. In smaller proportions,
+red gives to lighter browns the names of bay, chestnut, sorrel, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>Owing to confused nomenclature, most of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_363" id="Page_363">[363]</a></span> colours and pigments of
+this class have been assigned to other denominations&mdash;puce, murrey,
+morelle, chocolate, columbine, pavonazzo, &amp;c., being variously ranked
+among reds, browns, and purples. This vagueness also accounts for
+pigments having been ranged under heads not suited to the names they
+bear, and explains why Brown Ochre has been classed among the yellows,
+Italian Pink among the same, Brown Pink among the citrines, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>As adapted to the walls of a picture gallery, marrone, more or less deep
+and inclined to crimson, is one of the best colours known. For the
+reason that each colour has its antagonist, and consequently may affect
+a picture well or ill, according to its tone or general hue, there can
+be no universally good colour for such a purpose. What suits one picture
+or style of painting may not suit another: with a blood-red sunset, for
+instance, or portrait with crimson drapery, marrone would be out of
+place. But as it is impossible to provide each picture with a separate
+background, all that can be done in large collections is to study the
+general effect, sacrificing the interests of the few to the good of the
+many. If cool-coloured landscapes predominate, with blue skies and green
+foliage, it will be found that the orange-yellow of the frames agreeably
+contrasts the former, and the crimson-marrone of walls as agreeably sets
+off the latter. If portraits<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_364" id="Page_364">[364]</a></span> and historic paintings prevail, which are
+in general of a warm advancing nature, then a modest green may prove
+eligible. And if engravings form the staple, the grey hue of the print
+is best opposed by a bright fawn colour. Where several rooms are devoted
+to pictures, a suitable wall colour is most easily secured by
+classifying the paintings as far as possible according to their general
+hue, and placing them in different chambers: in each there will be a
+prevailing character in the colouring of its pictures, and each can be
+painted or papered accordingly. However, whether this plan is adopted or
+not&mdash;and it may be objected to as involving a certain monotony&mdash;care
+should be taken to have a wall colour of some sort or other, that is, to
+let it be seen. Pictures crammed together kill each other: without a
+pin's point between them, a speck of wall space visible, much of the
+illusion is destroyed. "It is only," says Chevreul, "the intelligent
+connoisseur and amateur who, on seeing a picture exhibited in a gallery,
+experience all the effect which the artist has wished to produce;
+because they alone know the best point of view, and because, while their
+attention is fixed on the work they are observing, they alone end by no
+longer seeing the surrounding pictures, or even the frame of that one
+they contemplate." Amid a moving crowd of people, inseparable from
+nearly all public exhibitions, it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_365" id="Page_365">[365]</a></span> becomes difficult for the visitor,
+intelligent or otherwise, thus to concentrate his attention on one work.
+As far, therefore, as space will allow, paintings should be kept
+separate: larger rooms, or fewer pictures, are what is wanted.<a name="FNanchor_B_2" id="FNanchor_B_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_B_2" class="fnanchor">[B]</a></p>
+
+<p>From this digression, pardonable, let us hope, because in the interests
+of art, we will pass on to a consideration of marrone pigments.</p>
+
+
+<h4>276. BROWN MADDER</h4>
+
+<p class="no">is an exceedingly rich marrone or russet-marrone brown, bearing the same
+relation to the colour marrone that raw umber bears to the colour
+citrine. One of the most valuable products of the madder root, it has
+supplied a great desideratum, and in water especially is indispensable,
+both as a local and auxiliary colour. Of intense depth and transparency,
+if made with skill, it affords the richest description of shadows,
+either alone or compounded with blue, and the most delicate pale tints.
+Being quite permanent, a good drier, and working most kindly, it is a
+pigment which cannot be too strongly recommended to the landscape
+painter's notice. Containing a large proportion of red, it is eligible,
+with yellow or blue, for mixed orange or mixed purple of a subdued tone.
+It may be used to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_366" id="Page_366">[366]</a></span>
+lower red curtains or draperies, and for the darkest touches in flesh.
+Mixed with cobalt, it forms a fine shadow colour for distant objects;
+and with indigo or Prussian blue and black, is serviceable for the
+shades of those nearer the foreground. It is similarly useful when mixed
+with black, and will be found advantageous in rusty iron, as anchors,
+chains, &amp;c. For the deepest and richest parts of foregrounds it may be
+employed alone, as also for deep dark cracks and fissures, or strong
+markings in other near objects, as boats and figures. With French blue,
+or cobalt and white, a set of beautiful warm or cold grays may be
+obtained, in proportion as the brown or blue predominates. Compounded
+with blues and bright yellows such as aureolin, it gives fine autumnal
+russet greens. A good purple for soft aerial clouds is furnished by
+cobalt and brown madder, or for stormy clouds by the brown, Prussian
+blue, and black: an equally good slate colour is obtained from cobalt,
+sepia, and the brown. For glazing over foliage and herbage, a mixture of
+the madder with aureolin or gamboge is adapted; and for brooks and
+running streams compounds of this brown with raw Sienna, cobalt and raw
+Sienna, Vandyke brown, and French blue, will each be found useful. Black
+sails are well represented by burnt Sienna, French blue, and brown
+madder; and red sails by light red or burnt Sienna with the brown.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_367" id="Page_367">[367]</a></span>277. MIXED MARRONE.</h4>
+
+<p>Marrone is a retiring colour easily compounded in all its hues and
+shades by the mixture variously of red, and black or brown; or of any
+other warm colours in which red and black predominate. A reference to
+the permanent brown, black, and red or reddish pigments will show to
+what extent the colour marrone may safely be produced by admixture. In
+compounding marrone, the brown or black may be itself compounded, before
+the addition of the red, reddish-purple, or russet, requisite for its
+conversion.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<h4>278. <i>Chica Marrone</i>.</h4>
+
+<p>Chica, the red colouring principle alluded to in the ninth chapter, is
+extracted from the <i>Bignonia chica</i>, by boiling its leaves in water,
+decanting the decoction, and allowing it to cool, when a red matter
+falls down, which is formed into cakes and dried. Insoluble in cold
+water, it dissolves in alcohol and alkalies; is precipitated from
+alkaline solutions by acids without alteration; and is bleached by
+chlorine. Another variety of the same substance, obtained from Para in
+Brazil, and known as crajuru, carajuru, or caracuru, behaves in a
+similar manner. This is said to be superior to the former sort.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_368" id="Page_368">[368]</a></span>A chica pigment, brought from South America, and examined by the author,
+was of a soft powdery texture, and rich marrone colour. Somewhat
+resembling Rubens' madder in hue, it was equal in body and transparency
+to the carmine of cochineal, though by no means approaching it in
+beauty, or even in durability. Simply exposed to the light of a window,
+without sun, the colour was soon changed and destroyed. Conclusive
+evidence as this is that the sample submitted to Mr. Field was
+worthless, it remains to be seen whether all the colours to be derived
+from chica, by different modes and from different kinds, are equally
+valueless as pigments.</p>
+
+
+<h4>279. <i>Chocolate Lead</i>,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">or Marrone Red, is a pigment prepared by calcining oxide of lead with
+about a third of copper oxide, and reducing the compound to a uniform
+tint by levigation. It is of a chocolate hue, strong opaque body, and
+dries freely. Like all lead and copper colours, it is blackened by
+impure air.</p>
+
+
+<h4>280. <i>Cobalt Marrone.</i></h4>
+
+<p>There is obtainable from cobalt a very rich marrone brown, which, like
+many other colours, is more beautiful while moist than when dried.
+Permanent, if carefully made and most thoroughly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_369" id="Page_369">[369]</a></span> washed, it is an
+expensive compound, and must rank among those colours which are
+interesting in the laboratory but superfluous in the studio.</p>
+
+
+<h4>281. <i>Madder Marrone</i>,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">or Marrone Lake, was a preparation of madder, of great depth,
+transparency, and stability. Working well in water, glazing and drying
+in oil, and in every respect a good pigment, it was one of those colours
+which gradually&mdash;and often, as in this case, unfortunately&mdash;become
+obsolete, on account of their hues being easily given by admixture of
+other pigments. There was likewise a deeper kind, called Purple Black. A
+good madder marrone may be produced by adding to brown madder either
+rose madder, madder carmine, or Rubens' madder, with a slight portion of
+black or blue if required.</p>
+
+
+<h4>282. <i>Mars Marrone.</i></h4>
+
+<p>Under the heading of a New Marrone Pigment there appeared some months
+back in a chemical journal the following:&mdash;"The blood-red compound
+obtained by adding a soluble sulphocyanide to a salt of iron in solution
+can be made (apparently at least) to combine with resin thus: To a
+concentrated solution of sesquichloride of iron and sulphocyanide of
+potassium in ether, an etherial solution of common resin is added,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_370" id="Page_370">[370]</a></span> and
+the whole well shaken together. There is then mixed with it a
+sufficiency of water to cause a precipitate, when it will be found,
+after the mixture has stood a few hours, that the whole or nearly the
+whole of the red-coloured iron compound has united with the precipitated
+resin, forming the marrone-coloured pigment in question. When this
+coloured substance is finely powdered and mixed with water, the liquid
+is not the least coloured; whence it is inferred that the red iron
+compound has chemically united itself with the resin."</p>
+
+<p>The foregoing account is rather to be regarded as of scientific interest
+than of practical utility. The blood-red solution of sulphocyanide of
+iron is in itself not stable: when the red solution of this salt is so
+exposed to the sun, that the rays pass through the glass jar containing
+it, it is rendered colourless, but the colour is retained or restored
+when the rays pass directly from the air into the fluid; so that when a
+properly diluted solution is placed in a cylindrical glass vessel in
+direct sunshine, it loses colour in the morning till about eleven in the
+forenoon, when the rays beginning to fall upon the surface exposed to
+the air, gradually restore the colour, which attains its maximum about
+two o'clock. Moreover, the solution is immediately decolourised by
+sulphuretted hydrogen and other deoxidizing agents, as well as by
+alkalies and many acids. It is scarcely<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_371" id="Page_371">[371]</a></span> probable that the union of the
+red colouring matter with the resin would suffice to secure it from
+change; and there is little doubt that the new marrone pigment would be
+a chameleon colour.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<p>Failures in the process of burning carmines, and preparing the purple of
+gold, frequently afford good marrones. Compounds more or less of that
+hue are likewise furnished by copper, mercury, &amp;c. Some ochres incline
+to marrone when calcined: indeed we have remarked in many instances that
+the action of fire anticipates the effects of long continued time; and
+that several of the primary and secondary colours may, by different
+degrees of burning, be converted into their analogous secondary,
+tertiary, or semi-neutral colours.</p>
+
+<p>The one marrone or brown-marrone pigment at present employed, brown
+madder, is permanent.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p style="text-indent: 0em;"><a name="Footnote_B_2" id="Footnote_B_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_B_2"><span class="label">[B]</span></a> This was written previous to the opening of the new rooms
+of the Royal Academy at Burlington House. In these, among other
+improvements, the subject of wall space has been considered.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_372" id="Page_372">[372]</a></span><a name="chapter_19" id="chapter_19"></a><a href="#contents">CHAPTER XIX.</a></h2>
+
+<h3>ON THE SEMI-NEUTRAL, GRAY.</h3>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Of</span> the tribe of semi-neutral colours, <span class="smcap">GRAY</span> is third and last, being
+nearest in relation to black. In its common acceptation, and that in
+which we here use it, gray, as was observed in the third chapter,
+denotes a class of cool cinereous colours faint of hue; whence we have
+blue grays, olive grays, green grays, purple grays, and grays of all
+hues, in which blue predominates; but no yellow or red grays, the
+prevalence of such hues carrying the compounds into the classes of brown
+and marrone, of which gray is the natural opposite. In this sense the
+<i>semi-neutral</i> Gray is distinguished from the <i>neutral</i> Grey, which
+springs in an infinite series from the mixture of the neutral black and
+white. Between gray and grey, however, there is no intermediate, since
+where colour ends in the one, neutrality commences in the other, and
+vice vers&acirc;. Hence the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_373" id="Page_373">[373]</a></span> natural alliance of the semi-neutral
+gray&mdash;definable as a cool coloured grey&mdash;with black or shade; an
+alliance which is strengthened by the latent predominance of blue in the
+synthesis of black, so that in the tints resulting from the mixture of
+black and white, so much of that hue is developed as to give apparent
+colour to the tints. This explains why the tints of black and dark
+pigments are colder than their originals, so much so as in some
+instances to answer the purposes of positive colours. It accounts in
+some measure for the natural blueness of the sky, yet not wholly, for
+this is in part dependent, by contrast, upon the warm colour of sunshine
+to which it is opposed; for, if by any accident the light of nature
+should be rendered red, the colour of the sky would not appear purple,
+in consequence, but green. Again, if the sun shone green, the sky would
+not be green, but red inclined to purple; and so would it be with all
+colours, not according to the laws of composition, but of contrast;
+since, if it were otherwise, the golden rays of the sun would render a
+blue sky green.</p>
+
+<p>The grays are the natural cold correlatives, or contrasts, of the warm
+semi-neutral browns, as well as degradations of blue and its allies.
+Hence blue added to brown throws it into or toward the class of grays,
+and hence grays are equally abundant in nature and necessary in art: in
+both they<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_374" id="Page_374">[374]</a></span> comprehend a widely diffused and beautiful play of retiring
+colours in skies, distances, carnations, and the shadowings and
+reflections of pure light, &amp;c. Gray is, indeed, the colour of space, and
+has therefore the property of diffusing breadth in a picture, while it
+furnishes at the same time good connecting tints, or media, for
+harmonizing the general colouring. Consequently the grays are among the
+most essential hues of the art, though they must not be suffered to
+predominate where the subject or sentiment does not require it, lest
+they cast over the painting that gloom or leaden dulness reprobated by
+Sir Joshua Reynolds; yet in solemn works they are wonderfully effective,
+and proper ruling colours. Nature supplies these hues from the sky
+abundantly and effectively throughout landscape, and Rubens has employed
+them as generally to correct and give value to his colouring, with fine
+natural perception in this branch of his art: witness his works in the
+National Gallery, and in that of the Luxembourg.</p>
+
+<p>According to the foregoing relations, grays favour the effects and force
+of warm colours, which in their turn also give value to grays. It is
+hence that the tender gray distances of a landscape are assisted,
+enlivened, and kept in place by warm and forcible colouring in the
+foreground, gradually connected through intermediate objects and middle
+distances by demi-tints declining into<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_375" id="Page_375">[375]</a></span> gray; a union which secures full
+value to the colours and objects, and by reconciling opposites gives
+repose to the eye. As a general rule, it may be inferred that half of a
+picture should be of a neutral hue, to ensure the harmony of the
+colouring; or at least that a balance of colour and neutrality is quite
+as essential to the best effect of a painting as a like balance of light
+and shade.</p>
+
+
+<h4>283. MINERAL GRAY,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">or Mineral Gr<i>e</i>y, as it is often improperly spelt, is obtainable from
+the lapis lazuli, after the blue and ash have been worked out. So
+derived, it is a refuse article, worthless if the stone has been
+skilfully exhausted of its ultramarine. As this is now generally the
+case, the best mineral gray is no longer a waste product, but a lower
+species of ash, a pale whitish blue with a grey cast. Possessing the
+permanence of ultramarine, it may be regarded in colour as a very weak
+variety of that blue, diluted with a large quantity of white slightly
+tinged by black. A pigment peculiar to oil painting, it is admirably
+adapted to that gray semi-neutrality, the prevalence of which in nature
+has been just remarked. For misty mornings, cloudy skies, and the like,
+this gray will be found useful.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_376" id="Page_376">[376]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h4>284. MIXED GRAY</h4>
+
+<p>is formed by compounding black and blue, black and purple, black and
+olive, &amp;c.; and is likewise produced by adding blue in excess to madder
+brown, sepia, &amp;c., transparent mixtures which are much employed. It
+should be borne in mind that the semi-neutrals, like the secondaries and
+tertiaries, may be so compounded as to be permanent, semi-stable, or
+fugitive. The due remembrance of this cannot be too strongly insisted
+upon, seeing that in every picture the browns and grays are of frequent
+occurrence. These it is that lend such charm to the whole, flowing, as
+it were, like a quiet under-current of colour beneath the troubled
+surface of more decided hues. In the work of every true artist&mdash;between
+whom and the mere painter there is as much difference as between the
+poet and the poetaster&mdash;there is sentiment as well as colour, whether
+the subject be an exciting battle-scene or a bit of still life. This
+sentiment, as strongly felt as the colour is clearly seen, is imparted
+in no small degree by the skilful use of semi-neutrality, the
+compounding of which, as time goes on, will therefore affect a picture
+for good or for evil.</p>
+
+<p>Subjoined is an analysis of the three semi-neutrals, which serves partly
+to show in what great variety they may be obtained by admixture.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_377" id="Page_377">[377]</a></span></p>
+
+<table summary="semi-neutral admixtures" style="width: 550px; margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 2em; font-size: 90%;">
+<colgroup span="8">
+<col width="90px"></col>
+<col width="10px"></col>
+<col width="120px"></col>
+<col width="10px"></col>
+<col width="100px"></col>
+<col width="10px"></col>
+<col width="10px"></col>
+<col width="200px"></col>
+</colgroup>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd5">Brown</td>
+<td class="tdd5 padright">=</td>
+<td class="tdd5">Black</td>
+<td class="tdd5">+</td>
+<td class="tdd5">Yellow</td>
+<td class="tdd6" rowspan="3"><span style="font-size: 300%;">}</span></td>
+<td class="tdd5" colspan="2"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd5 padleft">"</td>
+<td class="tdd5 padright">=</td>
+<td class="tdd5 padleft">"</td>
+<td class="tdd5">+</td>
+<td class="tdd5">Orange</td>
+<td class="tdd5">+</td>
+<td class="tdd5">Red, Purple, &amp;c.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd5 padleft">"</td>
+<td class="tdd5 padright">=</td>
+<td class="tdd5 padleft">"</td>
+<td class="tdd5">+</td>
+<td class="tdd5">Citrine</td>
+<td class="tdd5" colspan="2"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd5 padleft">"</td>
+<td class="tdd5 padright">=</td>
+<td class="tdd5">2 Yellow</td>
+<td class="tdd5">+</td>
+<td class="tdd5">Red</td>
+<td class="tdd5">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="tdd5">+</td>
+<td class="tdd5">Blue</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd5 padleft">"</td>
+<td class="tdd5 padright">=</td>
+<td class="tdd5">2 Orange</td>
+<td class="tdd5">+</td>
+<td class="tdd5">Green</td>
+<td class="tdd5">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="tdd5">+</td>
+<td class="tdd5">Purple</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd5 padleft">"</td>
+<td class="tdd5 padright">=</td>
+<td class="tdd5">2 Citrine</td>
+<td class="tdd5">+</td>
+<td class="tdd5">Russett</td>
+<td class="tdd5">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="tdd5">+</td>
+<td class="tdd5">Olive</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd5">Marrone</td>
+<td class="tdd5 padright">=</td>
+<td class="tdd5">Black</td>
+<td class="tdd5">+</td>
+<td class="tdd5">Red</td>
+<td class="tdd5">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="tdd5">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd5 padleft">"</td>
+<td class="tdd5 padright">=</td>
+<td class="tdd5 padleft">"</td>
+<td class="tdd5">+</td>
+<td class="tdd5">Purple-red</td>
+<td class="tdd5">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="tdd5">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd5 padleft">"</td>
+<td class="tdd5 padright">=</td>
+<td class="tdd5 padleft">"</td>
+<td class="tdd5">+</td>
+<td class="tdd5">Russet</td>
+<td class="tdd5">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="tdd5">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd5 padleft">"</td>
+<td class="tdd5 padright">=</td>
+<td class="tdd5">2 Red</td>
+<td class="tdd5" rowspan="3"><span style="font-size: 300%;">}</span></td>
+<td class="tdd5">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="tdd5">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="tdd5">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd5 padleft">"</td>
+<td class="tdd5 padright">=</td>
+<td class="tdd5">2 Purple-red</td>
+<td class="tdd5" colspan="4">+ Dark Brown or Black</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd5 padleft">"</td>
+<td class="tdd5 padright">=</td>
+<td class="tdd5">2 Russet</td>
+<td class="tdd5" colspan="4"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd5">Gray</td>
+<td class="tdd5 padright">=</td>
+<td class="tdd5">Black</td>
+<td class="tdd5">+</td>
+<td class="tdd5">Blue</td>
+<td class="tdd5" rowspan="3"><span style="font-size: 300%;">}</span></td>
+<td class="tdd5"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd5 padleft">"</td>
+<td class="tdd5 padright">=</td>
+<td class="tdd5 padleft">"</td>
+<td class="tdd5">+</td>
+<td class="tdd5">Purple-blue</td>
+<td class="tdd5">+</td>
+<td class="tdd5">2 White</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd5 padleft">"</td>
+<td class="tdd5 padright">=</td>
+<td class="tdd5 padleft">"</td>
+<td class="tdd5">+</td>
+<td class="tdd5">Olive</td>
+<td class="tdd5">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="tdd5">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd5 padleft">"</td>
+<td class="tdd5 padright">=</td>
+<td class="tdd5">2 Blue</td>
+<td class="tdd5" rowspan="3"><span style="font-size: 300%;">}</span></td>
+<td class="tdd5">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="tdd5">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="tdd5">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd5 padleft">"</td>
+<td class="tdd5 padright">=</td>
+<td class="tdd5">2 Purple-blue</td>
+<td class="tdd5" colspan="4">+ Light Brown, or Black + 2 White</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd5 padleft">"</td>
+<td class="tdd5 padright">=</td>
+<td class="tdd5">2 Olive</td>
+<td class="tdd5">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="tdd5">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="tdd5">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="tdd5">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>In the last division, the White has been added to remind the reader that
+grays are coloured greys, not coloured blacks; and are therefore faint
+of hue. This paleness, however, need not necessarily be produced by
+admixture with white: it can be gained by means of thin washes. As a
+pigment, gray may be to all appearance black in bulk.</p>
+
+
+<h4>285. NEUTRAL TINT,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">or, more correctly, <i>Semi</i>-Neutral Tint, is a compound shadow colour of
+a cool character. It is permanent, except that on exposure the gray is
+apt to become grey, a change which may be prevented by a slight addition
+of ultramarine ash. So protected, it becomes serviceable in landscape
+for the extreme distance, which, it may be laid down as a general
+principle, should be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_378" id="Page_378">[378]</a></span> painted rather cold than otherwise. Blue being the
+principal compound of atmosphere, it is of the utmost importance to
+obtain this in the first instance, particularly as, from its being only
+of a blue tint, not blue colour, it is so immediately altered and acted
+upon by subsequent washes; whereas, the blue tone once lost, it will be
+found very difficult to be recovered. Wherever a picture is wanting in
+air effect, the cause will, upon examination, be seen to rest entirely
+upon the absence of pure grays, bordering upon a bluish tone, not
+tending, be it observed, to brown or purple. A bluish gray, then, of
+rather a cold tone, such as the neutral tint, is recommended as the
+prevailing hue with which to begin the extreme distances; and, as a
+rule, it is better to pass with this over as much of the landscape as
+possible, and thus lay the foundation for a general atmosphere.</p>
+
+
+<h4>286. PAYNE'S GRAY</h4>
+
+<p class="no">resembles the preceding in being a compound colour and liable to assume
+a grey cast by time, but differs from it in having more lilac in its
+hue, and being therefore of a warmer tone. Giving by itself a clear
+violet shadow, it may be rendered more neutral by a small portion of
+burnt Sienna, an admixture which, whether the gray or Sienna
+<ins class="correction" title="predominate read predominates">predominates</ins>, affords useful tints. Compounded with light red or Vandyke
+brown, the gray is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_379" id="Page_379">[379]</a></span> good for shipping and sails, or the stems and
+branches of trees; while with gamboge or aureolin it is suited to glossy
+leaves in high light, also to very cold tones in foregrounds, herbage,
+&amp;c. Yellow ochre, light red, and Payne's gray form a mixture for banks
+and roads; the ochre, gray, and sepia, a most beautiful tint for stones;
+and brown madder and the gray, a fine shade for the black head and feet
+of cattle. Alone, the gray is serviceable for slate; and compounded with
+light red, for bricks or tiles in shadow.</p>
+
+
+<h4>287. ULTRAMARINE ASH</h4>
+
+<p class="no">is obtained from the stone after the richer and more intense blue has
+been extracted. Although not equal in beauty, and inferior in strength
+of colour to ultramarine, it is a valuable bye-product varying in shade
+from light to dark, and in hue from pale azure to cold blue. With a grey
+cast, it affords delicate and extremely tender tints, not so positive as
+ultramarine, but which, as water-colours, wash much better. It furnishes
+grays softer, purer, and more suited to the pearly tints of flesh,
+skies, distances, foliage, shadows of drapery, &amp;c. than those composed
+of other blues, with white and black, which the old masters were wont to
+employ. Ultramarine, however, produces the same effects when broken with
+black and white, and is thus sometimes carried throughout the colouring
+of a picture. The ash, compounded<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_380" id="Page_380">[380]</a></span> with lamp black, gives a soft cold
+gray for dark louring clouds, or for twilight away from the sun's
+influence. Alone it is adapted to very remote hills or mountains, and
+with orient yellow or aureolin to distant foliage.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<p>The native phosphate of iron, which has been already described in the
+tenth chapter under its name of Blue Ochre, might have been classed
+among the grays, being similar in colour to the deeper hues of
+ultramarine ashes. Powdered slate, slate clays, and several native
+earths, likewise rank with grays; but some of the earths we have tried
+are not durable, being apt to become brown by the oxidation of the iron
+they contain. It may be proper here to mention those other pigments,
+known as tints, which, being the result of the experience of accredited
+masters in their peculiar modes of practice, serve to facilitate the
+progress of their amateur pupils, while they are more or less eligible
+for artists. Such are <i>Harding's</i> and <i>Macpherson's Tints</i>, composed of
+pigments which associate cordially, and sold ready prepared in cakes and
+boxes for miniature and water painting.</p>
+
+<p>Of the four grays in use&mdash;mineral gray, ultramarine ash, neutral tint,
+and Payne's gray&mdash;the two first are quite unchangeable, and the others
+sufficiently stable to be classed as permanent.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_381" id="Page_381">[381]</a></span><a name="chapter_20" id="chapter_20"></a><a href="#contents">CHAPTER XX.</a></h2>
+
+<h3>ON THE NEUTRAL, GREY.</h3>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Grey</span> is the second and intermediate of the neutral colours, standing
+between <i>white</i> and <i>black</i>. True or normal grey is only obtainable by
+admixture of pure white with pure black, various proportions of which
+afford numerous tones of pure grey. In practice it may likewise be
+produced by a thin wash of black over white. The neutral gr<i>e</i>y differs
+from the semi-neutral gr<i>a</i>y in not being coloured by any primary,
+secondary, tertiary, or semi-neutral; hence any blue, purple, olive, or
+gray added to it, at once destroys the neutrality of grey, and converts
+it into gray. Thus easily defiled and changed in class, grey is rather a
+theoretical than a practical colour. To our knowledge, there has never
+been a true grey pigment, that is, one composed exclusively of pure
+white and pure black; the gr<i>a</i>ys known to the palette as Mineral Grey
+and Payne's Grey having been incorrectly named. Practically, the nearest
+approach to a normal grey is furnished<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_382" id="Page_382">[382]</a></span> by Black Lead, which forms grey
+tints of greater permanence and purity than the blacks in general use,
+and is now employed for this purpose with approved satisfaction by
+experienced artists.</p>
+
+<p>Being compounded of white and black, grey partakes in some measure of
+the qualities of both those colours&mdash;for colours, as a matter of
+convenience, they must be called; although white is often spoken of as
+no colour, and black as the complete extinction of all colour. With
+white predominant, grey is used, pure or coloured, for the general
+lights of a picture; just as, with black predominant, grey is employed,
+pure or coloured, for the shades. It helps to subdue the absolute white,
+and to make the absolute black conspicuous. Black and white are in some
+respects complementary to each other, and when in contact, appear to
+differ more from each other than when viewed separately: both show with
+best effect when harmonised by a medium of grey, normal or otherwise.
+The primary colours, also, gain in brilliancy and purity by the
+proximity of grey. With dark colours, such as blue and violet, and deep
+tones in general, grey forms assortments of analogous harmonies; while
+with the luminous colours, such as red, orange, yellow, and the light
+tints of green, it forms harmonies of contrast. Although grey never
+produces a bad effect in its assortments with two luminous colours, in
+most cases the association is dull and inferior to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_383" id="Page_383">[383]</a></span> black and white. The
+only instance in which grey associates with two such colours more
+happily than white is that with red and orange. Grey is inferior to both
+white and black with red and green, red and yellow, orange and yellow,
+orange and green, yellow and green; and is not so good as white with
+yellow and blue. In association with sombre colours, such as blue and
+violet, and with broken tones of luminous colours, grey gives rise to
+harmonies of analogy which have not the vigour of those with white; but
+if the colours do not combine well together, it has the advantage of
+separating them from each other. Associated with two colours, one
+sombre, the other luminous, grey will perhaps be better than white, if
+white produces too strong a contrast of tone: on the other hand, grey
+will be preferable to black, if that has the inconvenience of increasing
+too much the proportion of sombre colours. Grey associates more happily
+than black with orange and violet, green and blue, or green and violet.</p>
+
+
+<h4>288. MIXED GREY.</h4>
+
+<p>When a ray of solar light (a sunbeam) is passed through a prism of flint
+glass, and the image or 'prismatic spectrum' received upon a screen of
+white paper, it is found to consist of numerous rays of different
+colours, which are conveniently divided into six groups&mdash;red, orange,
+yellow,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_384" id="Page_384">[384]</a></span> green, blue, violet. Optically, the union of red, yellow, and
+blue, in proper proportions, constitutes white light; whether the rays
+of the three separate colours are mixed, or of one with the other two in
+combination: the same result ensues when red is mixed with green as if
+it were mixed with blue and yellow, because green is composed of blue
+and yellow. Consequently, any primary mixed with a secondary composed of
+the other two primaries, forms the complement of rays necessary to
+constitute or make up white light, and vice vers&acirc;.</p>
+
+<p>There is, however, a very great difference between the results arising
+from the mixture of the pure coloured rays of the spectrum, and those
+from material colours or pigments. When, by means of a convex lens, we
+reunite the coloured rays of the spectrum white light is reproduced; but
+when we mix coloured materials, blues, yellows, and reds, the compound
+is never white, but grey or black; even if these coloured pigments are
+taken in the exact proportions in which their colours exist in the
+spectrum. Ultramarine, our purest blue, reflects red rays as well as
+blue rays; aureolin, our purest yellow, reflects blue as well as yellow
+rays; and carmine reflects yellow as well as red rays. Now whenever the
+third primary colour is present in any mixture of coloured materials, it
+tends to form grey, by mixing with a sufficient quantity of the other<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_385" id="Page_385">[385]</a></span>
+coloured rays to neutralize it, and the presence of this grey breaks or
+tarnishes the pure colour. Hence it is that to obtain a pure green, a
+blue should be taken tinged with yellow rather than with red, and a
+yellow tinged with blue: if there were chosen either a blue or a yellow
+tinged with red, this latter colour would go to form some grey in the
+compound, which would tarnish the green. In like manner, to produce pure
+orange, neither the red nor the yellow must contain blue; and similarly
+with pure purple, neither the blue nor red should contain yellow.</p>
+
+<p>As regards pigments, then, a proper mixture of yellow, red, and blue; or
+of yellow and purple, red and green, or blue and orange; or of orange,
+green, and purple, affords black if sufficiently intense, and grey if
+sufficiently diluted. The black may be rendered grey by spreading a thin
+wash over a white ground, or by the direct addition of white. It must be
+remembered, however, that suitable proportions of the component colours
+are essential. When all three of the primaries, for example, are mixed
+together, colour is neutralised according as they are compounded of
+equal strength and in right quantities: if proper proportions are
+observed, pure black or normal grey results; but if not, there will be
+produced a coloured black or a coloured grey, an excess of one or two of
+the primaries giving rise to brown, marrone, or gray.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_386" id="Page_386">[386]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>A reference to the lists of permanent primary and secondary pigments
+will show to what extent durable greys can be compounded. As these
+pigments differ so widely in hue and other properties, no fixed rules
+can be given for their admixture: to ensure neutrality, practice and a
+correct eye are indispensable. Without perfect neutrality, difficult to
+attain and rarely to be met with, grey ceases to exist. In pure white,
+pure grey, and pure black, colour is, so to speak, conspicuous by its
+absence.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_387" id="Page_387">[387]</a></span><a name="chapter_21" id="chapter_21"></a><a href="#contents">CHAPTER XXI.</a></h2>
+
+<h3>ON THE NEUTRAL, BLACK.</h3>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Black</span> is the last and lowest in the series or scale of colours
+descending&mdash;the opposite extreme from white&mdash;the maximum of colour. To
+be perfect, it must be neutral with respect to colours individually, and
+absolutely transparent, or destitute of reflective power as regards
+light; its use in painting being to represent shade or depths, of which
+black is the element in a picture and in colours, as white is of light.</p>
+
+<p>As there is no perfectly pure and transparent black pigment, black
+deteriorates all colours in deepening them, as it does warm colours by
+partially neutralizing them, but it combines less injuriously with cold
+colours. Though black is the antagonist of white, yet added to it in
+minute portion, it in general renders white more neutral, solid, and
+local, with less of the character of light. Impure black is brown, but
+black in its purity is a cold colour, and communicates a coolness to all
+light colours; thus it <i>blues</i> white, <i>greens</i> yellow,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_388" id="Page_388">[388]</a></span> <i>purples</i> red,
+and <i>cools</i> blue. Hence the artist errs with ill effect who regards
+black as of nearest affinity to hot and brown colours, and will do well
+to keep in mind&mdash;"The glow of sunshine and the <i>cool</i> of shade."</p>
+
+<p>It is a fault of even some of our best colourists, as evinced by their
+pictures, to be too fond of black upon their palettes, and thence to
+infuse it needlessly into their tints and colours. With such it is a
+taste acquired from the study of old pictures; but in nature hardly any
+object above ground is black, or in daylight is rendered neutral
+thereby. Black, therefore, should be reserved for a local colour, or
+employed only in the under-painting properly called grounding and dead
+colouring. As a local colour, black has the effect of connecting or
+amassing surrounding objects, and is the most retiring of all colours, a
+property which it communicates to other colours in mixture. It heightens
+the effect of warm as well as light colours, by a double contrast when
+opposed to them, and in like manner subdues that of cold and deep
+colours. In mixture or glazing, however, these effects are reversed, by
+reason of the predominance of cold colour in the constitution of black.
+Having, therefore, the double office of colour and of shade, black is
+perhaps the most important of all colours to the artist, both as to its
+use and avoidance.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_389" id="Page_389">[389]</a></span>It may be laid down as a rule that the black must be conspicuous.
+However small a point of black may be, it ought to catch the eye,
+otherwise the work is too heavy in the shadow. All the ordinary shadows
+should be of some <i>colour</i>&mdash;never black, nor approaching black, they
+should be evidently and always of a luminous nature, and the black
+should look strange among them; never occurring except in a black
+object, or in small points indicative of intense shade in the very
+centre of masses of shadow. Shadows of absolutely negative grey,
+however, may be beautifully used with white, or with gold; but still
+though the black thus, in subdued strength, becomes spacious, it should
+always be conspicuous: the spectator should notice this grey neutrality
+with some wonder, and enjoy, all the more intensely on account of it,
+the gold colour and the white which it relieves. Of all the great
+colourists, Velasquez is the greatest master of the black chords: his
+black is more precious than other people's crimson. Yet it is not simply
+black and white that must be made valuable, rare worth must be given to
+each colour employed; but the white and black ought to separate
+themselves quaintly from the rest, while the other colours should be
+continually passing one into the other, being all plainly companions in
+the same gay world; while the white, black, and neutral grey should
+stand monkishly aloof in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_390" id="Page_390">[390]</a></span> midst of them. Crimson may be melted into
+purple, purple into blue, and blue into green, but none of them must be
+melted into black.</p>
+
+<p>All colours are comprehended in the synthesis of black, consequently the
+whole sedative power of colour is comprised in black. It is the same in
+the synthesis of white; and, with like relative consequence, white
+includes all the stimulating powers of colour in painting. It follows
+that a little white or black is equivalent to much colour, and hence
+their use as colours requires judgment and caution. By due attention to
+the synthesis of black, it may be rendered a harmonizing medium to all
+colours, to all which it lends brilliancy by its sedative effect on the
+eye, and its powers of contrast: nevertheless, we repeat, it must be
+introduced with caution when <i>hue</i> is of greater importance than shade.
+Even when employed as a shadow, without much judgment in its use, black
+is apt to appear as local colour rather than as privation of light; and
+black pigments obtained by charring have a tendency to rise and
+predominate over other hues, subduing the more delicate tints by their
+chemical bleaching power upon other colours, and their own disposition
+to turn brown or dusky. For these reasons deep and transparent colours,
+which have darkness in their constitution, are better adapted as a rule
+for producing the true natural and permanent effects of shade. Many
+pictures of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_391" id="Page_391">[391]</a></span> early masters, and especially of the Roman and
+Florentine schools, evince the truth of our remarks; and it is to be
+feared the high reputation of these works has betrayed their admirers
+into this defective employment of black.</p>
+
+<p>Black substances reflect a small quantity of white light, which receives
+the complementary of the colour contiguous to the black. By
+'complementary' is meant that colour which is required with another
+colour to form white light; thus, green is the complementary of red,
+blue of orange, and yellow of violet, or vice vers&acirc;; because green and
+red, blue and orange, and yellow and violet, each make up the full
+complement of rays necessary to form white light. Briefly digressing, we
+give the following mode of observing complementary colours:&mdash;Place a
+sheet of white paper on a table opposite to one of two windows admitting
+diffused daylight<a name="FNanchor_C_3" id="FNanchor_C_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_C_3" class="fnanchor">[C]</a> into a room; take a piece of coloured glass and so
+place it that the coloured light transmitted through it falls over the
+surface of the paper; then put an opaque object on the paper close to
+the coloured glass. The shadow of this object will not appear black or
+of the colour of the glass, as might be supposed, but of its
+complementary colour; thus if<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_392" id="Page_392">[392]</a></span> the glass is red, the colour of the
+shadow will be green, although the whole of the paper surrounding it
+appears red. Similarly, if the glass is blue, the shadow will appear
+orange; if it is green, the shadow will appear red; and so with other
+colours. It is absolutely essential, however, to the success of this
+experiment, that the paper be also illuminated with the white light
+admitted from the other window.</p>
+
+<p>It has been said that black substances reflect a small quantity of white
+light, which receives the complementary of the colour contiguous to the
+black. If this colour is deep, it gives rise to a luminous
+complementary, such as orange, or yellow, and enfeebles the black; while
+the other complementaries, such as violet or green, strengthen and
+purify it. In colours associated with black, if green is juxtaposed
+therewith, its complementary red, added to the black, makes it seem
+rusty. Those colours which best associate with black are orange, yellow,
+blue, and violet. It would be well to remember that black, being always
+deeper than the juxtaposed colour, entails contrast of tone, and tends
+to lower the tone of that colour.</p>
+
+<p>Most of the black pigments in use are obtained by charring, and owe
+their colour to the carbon they contain. As the objects of vegetal and
+animal nature may be blackened through every degree of impurity by the
+action of fire, black sub<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_393" id="Page_393">[393]</a></span>stances more or less fitted for pigments
+abound. The following are the chief native and artificial black
+pigments, or colours available as such:&mdash;</p>
+
+
+<h4>289. BLACK LEAD,</h4>
+
+<p class="no"><i>Plumbago</i>, or <i>Graphite</i>, contains in spite of its name no lead, being
+simply a species of carbon or charcoal. In most specimens iron is
+present, varying in quantity from a mere trace up to five per cent,
+together with silica and alumina. Sometimes manganese and titanic acid
+are likewise found. It is curious that carbon should occur in two
+distinct and very dissimilar forms&mdash;as diamond, and as graphite; one,
+white, hard, and transparent; the other, black, soft, and opaque: the
+artist, therefore, who uses a pigment of plumbago, paints with nothing
+more or less than a black diamond. The best graphite, the finest and
+most valuable for pencils, is yielded by the mine of Borrowdale, at the
+west end of Derwent Lake, in Cumberland, where it was first wrought
+during the reign of Elizabeth. A kind of irregular vein traverses the
+ancient slate-beds of that district, furnishing the carbon of an
+iron-grey colour, metallic lustre, and soft and greasy to the touch.
+Universally employed in the form of crayons, &amp;c. in sketching,
+designing, and drawing, until of late years it was not acknowledged as a
+pigment: yet its powers in this respect claim a place for it. As a
+water-colour, levigated in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_394" id="Page_394">[394]</a></span> gum in the usual manner, it may be
+effectively used with rapidity and freedom in the shading and finishing
+of pencil drawings, or as a substitute therein for Indian ink. Even in
+oil it may be employed occasionally, as it possesses remarkably the
+property of covering, forms very pure grey, dries quickly, injures no
+colour chemically, and endures for ever. These qualities render it the
+most eligible black for adding to white in minute quantity to preserve
+the neutrality of its tint.</p>
+
+<p>Although plumbago has usurped the name of Black Lead, there is another
+substance more properly entitled to this appellation, and which may be
+used in the same way, and with like effects as a pigment. This substance
+is the sulphide of lead, found native in the beautiful lead ore, or
+Galena, of Derbyshire. An artificial sulphide can be prepared by dry and
+wet processes, which is subject to gradual oxidation on exposure to the
+air, and consequent conversion into grey or white. Neither variety can
+be compared to graphite for permanence, although the native is
+preferable to the artificial.</p>
+
+<p>Plumbago, or the so-called Black Lead, is often adulterated to an
+enormous extent with lamp black.</p>
+
+
+<h4>290. BLUE BLACK,</h4>
+
+<p class="no"><i>Charcoal</i>, <i>Liege</i>, or <i>Vine Black</i>, is a well-burnt and levigated
+charcoal prepared from vine twigs,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_395" id="Page_395">[395]</a></span> of weaker body than ivory or lamp
+black, and consequently better suited to the grays and general mixed
+tints of landscape painting, in which it is not so likely to look black
+and sooty as the others may do. Of a cool neutral tint, it has, in
+common with all carbonaceous blacks, a preserving influence on white
+when duly mixed therewith; which it owes, chemically, to the bleaching
+power of carbon, and, chromatically, to the neutralizing and contrasting
+power of black with white. Compounded slightly with blue black, and
+washed over with zinc white, white lead may be exposed to any ordinary
+impure atmosphere with comparative impunity. It would be well for art if
+carbon had a like power upon the colour of oils, but of this it is
+deficient; and although chlorine destroys their colour temporarily, they
+re-acquire it at no very distant period.</p>
+
+<p>Alone, blue black is useful as a cool shade for white draperies; and
+compounded with cobalt, affords a good gray for louring clouds.</p>
+
+
+<h4>291. BRITISH INK</h4>
+
+<p class="no">is a compound black, preferred by some artists to Indian ink, on account
+of its not being liable to wash streaky, as the latter does: at the same
+time it is not so perfectly fixed on the paper as Indian ink.</p>
+
+
+<h4>292. INDIAN INK,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">sometimes called <i>China</i> or <i>Chinese Ink</i>, is chiefly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_396" id="Page_396">[396]</a></span> brought from
+China in oblong cakes, of a musky scent, ready prepared for painting in
+water. Varying considerably in body and colour, the best has a shining
+black fracture, is finely compact, and homogeneous when rubbed with
+water, in which, when largely diluted, it yields no precipitate. Without
+the least appearance of particles, its dry surface is covered with a
+pellicle of a metallic appearance. When dry on the paper, it resists the
+action of water, yet it will give way at once to that action, when it
+has been used and dried on marble or ivory, a fact which proves that the
+alummed paper forms a strong combination with the ink; possibly a
+compound of the latter on an aluminous base, might even be employed in
+oil. Different accounts are given of the mode of making this ink, the
+principal substance or colouring matter of which is a smoke black,
+having all the properties of our lamp black; the variety of its hues and
+texture seeming wholly to depend on the degree of burning and levigating
+it receives. From certain Chinese documents, we learn that the ink of
+Nan-king is the most esteemed; and among the many sorts imported into
+this country, we find those of the best quality are prepared with lamp
+black of the oil of Sesame; with which are combined camphor, and the
+juice of a plant named <b>Houng hoa</b> to give it brightness of tone.
+According to an analysis by M. Proust, the better kinds contain about
+two per<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_397" id="Page_397">[397]</a></span> cent. of camphor. By some, the pigment known as Sepia has been
+supposed to enter into their composition.</p>
+
+<p><i>Liquid Indian Ink</i> is a solution for architects, surveyors, &amp;c.</p>
+
+
+<h4>293. IVORY BLACK</h4>
+
+<p class="no">is ivory charred to blackness by strong heat in closed vessels.
+Differing chiefly through want of care or skill in preparing, when well
+made it is the richest and most transparent of all the blacks, a fine
+neutral colour perfectly durable and eligible both in water and oil.
+When insufficiently burnt, however, it is brown, and dries badly; or if
+too much burnt, it becomes cineritious, opaque, and faint in hue. With a
+slight tendency to brown in its pale washes, this full, silky black is
+serviceable where the sooty density of lamp black would be out of place.
+It is occasionally adulterated with bone black, a cheaper and inferior
+product.</p>
+
+<p>Being nothing more nor less than animal charcoal, ivory or bone black
+had best not be compounded with organic pigments, in water at least. It
+is well known that this charcoal possesses the singular property of
+completely absorbing the colour of almost any vegetal or animal
+solution, and of rendering quite limpid and colourless the water charged
+with it. If a solution of indigo in concentrated sulphuric acid be
+diluted with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_398" id="Page_398">[398]</a></span> water, and animal charcoal added in sufficient quantity,
+the solution will soon be deprived of colour. The more perfect the ivory
+or bone black, the more powerful is its action likely to be: either over
+or under calcined, animal charcoal is less energetic; in the former
+case, because it is less porous; in the latter, because the animal
+matter, not being wholly consumed, makes a kind of varnish in the
+charcoal which interferes with its acting. To a greater or less extent,
+gums, oils, and varnishes serve similarly as preventives, thereby
+decreasing the danger of employing these blacks in admixture; but, in
+the compounding of colours, nothing is gained by needless risk. To mix
+with organic pigments, therefore, blue or lamp blacks should be
+substituted for those of ivory or bone; that is, vegetal charcoal should
+be used instead of animal. It is a question whether even with inorganic
+pigments the adoption of the former in admixture would not be advisable.
+It was once the general opinion that the action of animal charcoal was
+limited to bodies of organic origin, but it has since been found that
+inorganic matters are likewise influenced. "Through its agency," says
+Graham, "even the iodine is separated from iodide of potassium;" whence
+probably pigments containing iodine would suffer by contact. The
+investigation of Weppen appears to prove that the action of the charcoal
+extends to all metallic<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_399" id="Page_399">[399]</a></span> salts; with the following, no doubt remains of
+this being so, to wit:&mdash;the sulphates of copper, zinc, chromium, and
+protoxide of iron; the nitrates of lead, nickel, silver, cobalt,
+suboxide and oxide of mercury; the protochlorides of tin and mercury;
+the acetates of lead and sesquioxide of iron; and the tartrate of
+antimony. Whether animal charcoal exercises any deleterious influence on
+pigments consisting of these metals, and, if so, how far and under what
+circumstances, can only be answered when our knowledge of the properties
+of pigments is greater than it now is. At present, perhaps, it is safer
+to choose vegetal charcoal for mixed tints, inasmuch as, although it
+shares the property of bleaching in a certain degree, it does not
+possess the same energy.</p>
+
+
+<h4>294. LAMP BLACK,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">or <i>Lamblack</i>, is a smoke black, being the soot procured by the burning
+of resins or resinous woods. It is a pure vegetal charcoal of fine
+texture, not quite so intense nor so transparent as the black made from
+ivory, but less brown in its pale tones. It has a very strong body that
+covers readily every underlay of colour, works well, but dries badly in
+oil. On emergency, it may be prepared extemporaneously for
+water-painting by holding a plate over the flame of a lamp or candle,
+and adding gum to the colour: the nearer the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_400" id="Page_400">[400]</a></span> plate is held to the wick
+of the lamp, the more abundant and warm will be the hue of the black
+obtained; at a greater distance it will be more effectually charred, and
+blacker.</p>
+
+<p>Mixed with French blue or cobalt, lamp black gives good cloudy grays,
+which are useful for the shadows of heavy storm clouds. With French blue
+and this black alone various beautiful stormy skies may be represented;
+the contrast of the blue causing the black to assume, if desired, a warm
+tone in shadows. For like purposes, the black with ultramarine ash
+affords a very soft hue, and with light red and cobalt in different
+proportions yields silvery tones most serviceable. To the dark marking
+of murky and dirty clouds, a compound of lamp black and light red is
+particularly suited; while a mixture of the black with cobalt and purple
+madder is adapted for slate-coloured sunset and sunrise clouds. French
+blue softened with a little lamp black is fitted for mountains or hills,
+very remote; and the same blue and black with rose madder meet their
+tints if nearer. In seas the black is useful with raw Sienna and other
+colours; while, whether in storm or calm, vessels and boats may be
+painted with tints of lamp black, madder brown, and burnt Sienna,
+varying in degrees of strength according to the distances. Lamp black
+alone, or with French blue, cobalt and purple madder, emerald green, or
+rose madder, is good for rocks; and for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_401" id="Page_401">[401]</a></span> dark foreground objects when
+mixed with madder lake and burnt Sienna. With aureolin the black
+furnishes a sober olive for foliage, and with rose madder a fine colour
+for the stems and branches of trees. Compounded with light red, it is
+suited to the first general tones of the ground for banks and roads; and
+with yellow ochre or madder red, to parts of buildings and cattle. A
+very eminent miniature painter recommends for hair tints, lamp black,
+Indian red, and burnt Sienna. Being a dense solid colour, this black
+must be used sparingly to avoid heaviness.</p>
+
+<p>Hitherto confined to painting and engraving, lamp black has lately
+refuted the assertion that there is nothing new under the sun by making
+its appearance in photography. By a method which combines the fidelity
+of that art with the permanence of prints, there is produced a species
+of photographic engraving, so to speak, having lamp black or carbon for
+its colouring matter. Indeed, in this 'Autotype' process, as it is
+called, any other durable pigment or pigments may be used, and a
+photographic picture thus obtained. In copying the works of artists,
+especially, the mode promises to be of value, inasmuch as by its agency
+the same pigments may be made the colouring matter of the reproduction
+as are employed in the original. If this be in sepia or bistre, the copy
+can be autotyped in those colours; or if a red chalk drawing be required
+to be multiplied, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_402" id="Page_402">[402]</a></span> proofs may be in red chalk, the copy when
+produced to the same scale being scarcely distinguishable from the
+original. In like manner, any single colour of the artist's palette is
+applicable without restriction or limitation, so that not only are every
+line and touch rendered absolutely, but the very pigment used in the
+original is found in the copy. Moreover, as the pigments are quite
+unchanged by the action of the other agents employed, the resulting
+colour of the print is determined once for all, just as the artist mixes
+those pigments on his palette for his picture. As extending the use of
+lamp black and permanent pigments in general, this brief digression on
+Autotypography may be pardoned in a treatise on colours.</p>
+
+
+<h4>295. MIXED BLACK.</h4>
+
+<p>Black is to be considered as a synthesis of the three primary colours,
+the three secondaries, or the three tertiaries, or of all these
+together; and, consequently, also of the three semi-neutrals, and may
+thus be composed of due proportions of either tribe or triad. All
+antagonistic colours, or contrasts, likewise afford the neutral black by
+composition; but in all the modes of producing black by compounding
+colours, blue is to be regarded as its archeus or predominating colour,
+and yellow as subordinate to red, in the proportions, when their hues
+are true, of eight blue,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_403" id="Page_403">[403]</a></span> five red, and three yellow. It is owing to
+this predominance of blue in the constitution of black, that it
+contributes by mixture to the pureness of hue in white colours, which
+usually incline to warmth, and that it produces the cool effect of
+blueness in glazing and tints, or however otherwise diluted or dilated.
+It accords with the principle here inculcated that in glass-founding the
+oxide of manganese, which gives the <i>red</i> hue, and that of cobalt, which
+furnishes the <i>blue</i>, are added to brown or <i>yellow</i> frit, to obtain a
+velvety black glass. Similarly the dyer proceeds to dye black upon a
+deep blue basis of indigo, with the ruddy colour of madder and the
+yellow of quercitron, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>Some of the best blacks and neutrals of the painter are those formed
+with colours of sufficient power and transparency upon the palette.
+Prussian blue and burnt lake afford a powerful though not very durable
+black; and compound blacks in which transparent pigments are employed
+will generally go deeper and harmonize better with other colours than
+any original black pigment alone. Hence lakes and deep blues, added to
+the common blacks, greatly increase their clearness and intensity: in
+mixture and glazing of the fine blacks of some old pictures, ultramarine
+has evidently been used. In this view, black altogether compounded of
+blue with red and yellow, each deep and transparent, and duly
+subordinated<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_404" id="Page_404">[404]</a></span> according to its powers, will give the most powerful and
+transparent blacks; although, like most other blacks, they dry badly in
+oil. Of course, as with all compound colours, it depends entirely on the
+pigments employed whether these mixed blacks are permanent or not: a
+compound black can very well pass through the stages of black to grey,
+gray, or dirty white, if each link in the chain of combination be not as
+strong as its fellows.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<h4>296. <i>Black Chalk</i></h4>
+
+<p class="no">is an indurated clay, of the texture of white chalk, and chiefly used
+for cutting into crayons. Fine specimens have been found near Bantry in
+Ireland, and in Wales, but the Italian has the most reputation. Crayons
+for sketching and drawing are also artificially prepared, which are
+deeper in colour and free from grit. Wood charcoal is likewise cut into
+crayons, that of soft woods, such as lime, poplar, &amp;c., being best
+adapted for the purpose.</p>
+
+
+<h4>297. <i>Black Ochre</i>,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">Earth Black, or Prussian Black, is a native earth, combined with iron
+and alluvial clay. It is found in most countries, and should be washed
+and exposed to the atmosphere before being employed.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_405" id="Page_405">[405]</a></span> Sea-coal, and
+other black mineral substances, have been and may be used as substitutes
+for the more perfect blacks, when the latter are not procurable, which
+now seldom or never happens.</p>
+
+
+<h4>298. <i>Bone Black</i>,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">obtained by charring, is similar to that of ivory, except that it is a
+little warmer in tone, having a reddish or orange tinge, and is a worse
+drier in oil. Like ivory black, it is very transparent. Immense
+quantities of bone black are consumed with sulphuric acid in the
+manufacture of shoe blacking.</p>
+
+
+<h4>299. <i>Coffee Black</i>,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">though little known and not on sale, has been strongly recommended by
+Bouvier as one of the best blacks that can be used. Soft without being
+greasy, light, almost impalpable, even before being ground, it gives
+tints of a very bluish gray when mixed with white, a quality precious
+for making the blues of the sketch, and dull greens. It is said to dry
+better than blue or vine black, and to combine admirably with other
+colours. De Montabert prefers calling it Coffee Brown, giving it as an
+exemplification of a bluish-brown, but probably this brown hue is owing
+to want of skill in its manufacture. We have not had personal experience
+of the colour, but there is no<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_406" id="Page_406">[406]</a></span> theoretical reason why a carbonaceous
+black should not be produced from coffee. The mode of proceeding is to
+calcine the berry in a covered vessel, and well wash the resulting
+charcoal with boiling water by decantation. In order to prevent the
+powder, which is of great lightness, from floating, it is made into
+paste with a few drops of alcohol before adding the water.</p>
+
+
+<h4>300. <i>Frankfort Black</i></h4>
+
+<p class="no">is said to be made of the lees of wine from which the tartar has been
+washed, by burning, in the manner of ivory black; although the inferior
+sort is merely the levigated charcoal of woods, of which the hardest,
+such as box and ebony, yield the best. Fine Frankfort black, though
+almost confined to copper-plate printing, is one of the best black
+pigments extant, being of a neutral colour, next in intensity to lamp
+black, and more powerful than that of ivory. Strong light has the effect
+of deepening its colour. It is probable that this was the black used by
+some of the Flemish painters, and that the pureness of the greys formed
+therewith is due to the property of charred substances of preventing
+discolourment.</p>
+
+
+<h4>301. <i>Manganese Black</i>,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">the common black oxide of that metal, is the best of all blacks for
+drying in oil without addi<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_407" id="Page_407">[407]</a></span>tion. It is also a colour of vast body and
+tingeing power. As a siccative, it might be advantageously employed with
+ivory black.</p>
+
+
+<h4>302. <i>Mineral Black</i></h4>
+
+<p class="no">is a native impure carbon of soft texture, found in Devonshire. Blacker
+than plumbago, and free from its metallic lustre, it is of a neutral
+colour, greyer and more opaque than ivory black, and forms pure neutral
+tints. Being perfectly durable, and drying well in oil, it is of value
+in dead colouring on account of its solid body, as a preparation for
+black and deep colours before glazing. It would likewise be the most
+permanent and best possible black for frescoes.</p>
+
+
+<h4>303. <i>Paper Black</i>,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">a pigment unknown to the modern palette, like most of our numbered
+italicised colours, is of the nature of blue or vine black. Very soft
+and of a fine bluish-gray, it is fitted for flesh, or for mixing with
+whites or yellows in landscapes.</p>
+
+
+<h4>304. <i>Peach Black</i>,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">or Almond Black, made by burning the stones of fruits, the shell of the
+cocoa-nut, &amp;c., is a violet-black, once much used by Parisian artists.
+Bouvier believes it to be a good black, but at the same time sensibly
+asks, of what use is it to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_408" id="Page_408">[408]</a></span> have a black of this cast, which can always
+be given by lake, without diminishing but rather increasing the
+intensity of the black it may be mixed with.</p>
+
+
+<h4>305. <i>Prussian Black.</i></h4>
+
+<p>The same Prussian blue which gives a brown when burnt in the open air,
+yields a black when calcined in a close crucible. Very intense, very
+soft and velvety, and very agreeable to work, this bluish-black dries
+much more promptly than most other blacks, and scarcely requires
+grinding. On account of its extreme division, however, it would probably
+be found more energetic as a decolourising agent in admixture with
+organic pigments than most carbonaceous blacks.</p>
+
+<p>Another Prussian black, containing copper, and made by a wet process, is
+obtained when a dilute solution of cupric sulphate and ferrous sulphate,
+in proper proportions, is mixed with a quantity of ferrocyanide of
+potassium not in excess. A very bulky deep black precipitate is formed,
+which is difficult to wash, and is deep black when dry. It is insoluble
+in water, and appears to be a compound <ins class="trans" title="was analagous">analogous</ins> to Prussian blue. As a
+pigment, this black is inferior to the preceding.</p>
+
+
+<h4>306. <i>Purple Black</i></h4>
+
+<p class="no">is, or rather was, a preparation of madder, of a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_409" id="Page_409">[409]</a></span> deep purple hue
+approaching black. Powerful and very transparent, it glazed and dried
+well in oil, and was a durable and eligible pigment. Its tints with
+white lead were of a purple cast.</p>
+
+<h4>307. <i>Spanish Black</i>,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">or Cork Black, is a soft black, obtained by charring cork, and differs
+not essentially from Frankfort black, except in being of a lighter and
+softer texture. "Some of my friends," says Bouvier, "call it <i>Beggars'
+Ultramarine</i>, because it produces, by combinations, tints almost as fine
+as ultramarine." A blue but not a velvet black, where intensity is
+required some other is to be preferred. For mixtures, however, it is
+stated to be admirable, and especially for linen, skies, distances, and
+the various broken tints of carnations, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<p>Besides those blacks which have been mentioned, there are others
+furnished by several of the metals and by many organic substances
+employed as dyes; but as the blacks in common use are all permanent, and
+have been found sufficient for every purpose, it is scarce needful to
+swell the list. Nor is it more needful, the Editor considers, to swell
+the book; lest his aim be defeated of reflecting in a <i>moderate</i>-sized
+mirror the palette as it is and might be at the present day. Arrived at
+age, as it were, in its twenty-first chapter, this treatise may fitly
+con<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_410" id="Page_410">[410]</a></span>clude with Black, the last of the series of colours. Let us hope the
+maxim of Sir Joshua Reynolds, that success in some degree was never
+denied to earnest work may apply here.</p>
+
+<p>Still, by way of finale, we would offer a few remarks. In no branch of
+the science, perhaps, is it more hazardous to commit oneself to a
+positive dictum than in the chemistry of colours, so liable are theory
+and practice to clash, and so often does the experience of one person or
+one time differ from that of another. He who has turned his attention to
+pigments, finds nearly every assertion must be qualified, for to nearly
+every rule there is some exception, and learns that theory alone may
+mislead. For example, a colour known to be fugacious may last, in
+certain cases, a surprisingly long time; while, on the contrary, a
+pigment permanent when used alone, may be rendered fugitive by improper
+compounding. Again, what holds good of a colour produced by one process,
+or employed in one vehicle or by one artist, may not be true of the same
+colour made by a different mode, or used in another vehicle or by
+another artist. It is because, then, colours are of every degree of
+durability, from the perfectly stable to the utterly fugitive, and
+because each one is liable to influence by every condition of time,
+place, and circumstance, that the chemist's theory is opposed as often
+to the painter's practice as the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_411" id="Page_411">[411]</a></span> experience of artists themselves
+varies. This may explain the charges of inconsistency and contradiction
+which have been brought against writers on pigments, faults that lie
+rather with the nature of the subject than with the authors.</p>
+
+<p>Even at the risk of being tiresome, we have throughout insisted on the
+choice of permanent pigments, not simply for use alone but for mixed
+tints. To quote Cennini, "I give you this advice, that you endeavour
+always to use ... good colours.... And if you say that a poor person
+cannot afford the expense, I answer, that if you work well (and give
+sufficient time to your works), and paint with good colours, you will
+acquire so much fame that from a poor person you will become a rich one;
+and your name will stand so high for using good colours, that if some
+masters receive a ducat for painting one figure, you will certainly be
+offered two, and your wishes will be fulfilled, according to the old
+proverb, 'good work, good pay.'" Of a truth, if man cannot dip his brush
+in the rainbow and paint with the aerial colours of the skies, he can at
+least select the best pigments that earth and the sea afford him;
+preferring, where he cannot get brilliancy and permanence combined,
+sobriety and permanence to brilliancy and fugacity. It must be the wish
+of every real artist to leave behind him a lasting record of his skill,
+a permanent panorama of those<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_412" id="Page_412">[412]</a></span> hues of nature which in life he loved so
+well. To effect this, genius alone is powerless: there must be first a
+proper choice of materials, and next a proper use of them. The painter's
+pigments are the bricks wherewith the mortar of his mind must be mixed,
+either to erect an edifice that shall endure for ages, or one which will
+quickly topple over like a house of cards. Now in nothing more than in
+painting is prevention better than cure&mdash;indeed cure may be said to be
+here out of the question: for good or for evil a picture once painted is
+painted for ever. Without a strong constitution there is no hope for it;
+no chemistry can strengthen the sickly frame, restore the faded colour,
+stop the ravages of consumption: Science stands helpless before dying
+Art.</p>
+
+<p>And yet, she sighs to think, it might have been otherwise. If durable
+pigments had been employed, if her counsel had been sought, this need
+not have been. In the history of modern art the use and abuse of colours
+would furnish a sad chapter, telling of gross ignorance, and a grosser
+indifference. Happily there is promise of a healthier state of things.
+When this comes, Art will be less shy to consult her sister: in the
+interests of both there should be closer union. Without waiting till the
+picture is finished&mdash;for then it will be too late&mdash;let her, if in doubt,
+frankly display the contents of her palette and ask advice. Now, not
+knowing what pigments are chosen or how they are used,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_413" id="Page_413">[413]</a></span> never standing
+by and watching the progress of the work, how can Science lend her aid?
+She would willingly, for she herself needs help: at present her
+knowledge is limited, not so much of the chemistry of colours as of the
+properties of pigments. She seeks to mix her pound of theory with an
+ounce of practice, and craves a warmer welcome to the studio. For any
+approximation to the truth to be arrived at, facts must be noted with
+the conditions under which they occur, not by one sister alone nor by
+the other alone, but by both. In future, Art and Science should go hand
+in hand, mutually dependent on each other, mutually trustful of each
+other, working with and for each other, earnestly and patiently.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p style="text-indent: 0em;"><a name="Footnote_C_3" id="Footnote_C_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_C_3"><span class="label">[C]</span></a> Light is either direct or diffused&mdash;direct, when the sun's
+rays fall upon any object; diffused, when ordinary daylight illumines
+objects with white light, causing them to appear of their peculiar
+colours.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_414" id="Page_414">[414]</a></span><a name="addendum" id="addendum"></a><a href="#contents">ADDENDUM.</a></h2>
+
+<p>With the present rapid progress of applied chemistry, an addendum in a
+work of this kind is quite excusable. Even while the book is being
+printed some fact may be <ins class="trans" title="was announceed">announced</ins> which the author or editor would wish
+to insert. In our case this has happened. Very recently there has been
+introduced in France as a pigment</p>
+
+
+<h4><a href="#Page_308"><b>308</b></a>. TUNGSTEN WHITE,</h4>
+
+<p class="no">or <i>Tungstate of Baryta</i>. "At the request of a landscape painter," says
+M. Sacc in a letter to M. Dumas, "I was induced to examine in succession
+all our insoluble white compounds, with regard to their adaptability to
+painting purposes. Tungstate of baryta answers perfectly, covers as well
+as white lead, and is as unalterable as zinc white. It has been employed
+by this artist for three months, and was found equally successful in oil
+or water colours, chromolithography, and even in making white
+impressions on a black ground. This harmless substitute for the
+injurious white lead is prepared on a large scale in Paris<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_415" id="Page_415">[415]</a></span> by M. E.
+Rousseau." We have not met with a sample of that gentleman's
+manufacture, but judging from our own specimens, made both by wet and
+dry processes, and carefully tried in water and oil, it would seem that
+a perfect white pigment has yet to be discovered. With us, at least,
+tungstate of baryta is far from having the body of white lead, and
+indeed is inferior in opacity to good zinc white. Unaffected by foul
+air, the tungstate appears to possess the common fault of all whites
+when compared with white lead&mdash;want of body, moreover it is a bad dryer.
+However, M. Rousseau's preparation may not be open to these objections,
+and we therefore reserve our final opinion of tungsten white. It is
+intended to publish from time to time a fresh edition of Field's
+Chromatography, and we hope in the next issue to give a more detailed
+and favourable account of the new pigment.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_416" id="Page_416">[416]</a></span></p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_417" id="Page_417">[417]</a></span><a name="index" id="index"></a><a href="#contents">INDEX.</a></h2>
+
+<div class="block" style="width: 100%; font-size: 90%; text-align: left;">
+
+<h5 style="text-align: left; text-indent: 5em;">A.</h5>
+
+<ul class="sample2">
+<li>Acacia catechu,  <a href="#Page_354"><b>354</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Academy,  Royal,  at Burlington House,  <a href="#Page_365"><b>365</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Acetate of lead,  as a siccative,  <a href="#Page_51"><b>51</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> improper use of,  <a href="#Page_52"><b>52</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Adulteration,  <a href="#Page_70"><b>70</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span><span style="padding-right: .5em;">of</span> Anotta,  <a href="#Page_256"><b>256</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 3.5em;">"</span>    Artificial Ultramarine,  <a href="#Page_214"><b>214</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 3.5em;">"</span>    Black Lead,  <a href="#Page_394"><b>394</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 3.5em;">"</span>    Cadmium Yellow,  <a href="#Page_88"><b>88</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 3.5em;">"</span>    Carmine,  <a href="#Page_134"><b>134</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 3.5em;">"</span>    Chrome Yellow,  <a href="#Page_94"><b>94</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 3.5em;">"</span>    Cochineal,  <a href="#Page_132"><b>132</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 3.5em;">"</span>    Genuine Ultramarine,  <a href="#Page_214"><b>214</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 3.5em;">"</span>    Indigo,  <a href="#Page_202"><b>202</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 3.5em;">"</span>    Ivory Black,  <a href="#Page_397"><b>397</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 3.5em;">"</span>    Madder,  <a href="#Page_140"><b>140</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 3.5em;">"</span>    Madder Carmine,  <a href="#Page_142"><b>142</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 3.5em;">"</span>    Mars Yellow,  <a href="#Page_102"><b>102</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 3.5em;">"</span>    Prussian Blue,  <a href="#Page_203"><b>203</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 3.5em;">"</span>    Red Lead,  <a href="#Page_152"><b>152</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 3.5em;">"</span>    Smalt,  <a href="#Page_198"><b>198</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 3.5em;">"</span>    Verdigris,  <a href="#Page_276"><b>276</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 3.5em;">"</span>    Vermilion,  <a href="#Page_156"><b>156</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 3.5em;">"</span>    Veronese Green,  <a href="#Page_268"><b>268</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 3.5em;">"</span>    White Lead,  <a href="#Page_70"><b>70</b></a>,  <a href="#Page_74"><b>74</b></a>,  <a href="#Page_75"><b>75</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 3.5em;">"</span>    Yellow and Orange Orpiment,  <a href="#Page_113"><b>113</b></a>,  <a href="#Page_259"><b>259</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 3.5em;">"</span>    Zinc White,  <a href="#Page_77"><b>77</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Advancing and retiring colours,  <a href="#Page_186"><b>186</b></a>-<a href="#Page_188"><b>188</b></a>.</li>
+
+
+<li>Advice,  Cennini's,  <a href="#Page_411"><b>411</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Aerial perspective,  <a href="#Page_22"><b>22</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>African cochineal,  <a href="#Page_170"><b>170</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   green,  <a href="#Page_271"><b>271</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Air and light,  action of,  on pigments,  <a href="#Page_39"><b>39</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Air effect,  want of,  <a href="#Page_378"><b>378</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Albumen,  <a href="#Page_50"><b>50</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Alchemy,  <a href="#Page_259"><b>259</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Alexander the Great,  <a href="#Page_296"><b>296</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   Veronese,  <a href="#Page_284"><b>284</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Alkanet,  <a href="#Page_302"><b>302</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Almagra,  <a href="#Page_147"><b>147</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Almond Black,  <a href="#Page_407"><b>407</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>American artist,  an,  <a href="#Page_347"><b>347</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Analysis of Brown,  <a href="#Page_377"><b>377</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    Citrine,  <a href="#Page_329"><b>329</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    Gray,  <a href="#Page_377"><b>377</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    Marrone,  <a href="#Page_377"><b>377</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    Olive,  <a href="#Page_330"><b>330</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    Russet,  <a href="#Page_330"><b>330</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Anchusa tinctoria,  <a href="#Page_302"><b>302</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ancients,  colouring of the,  <a href="#chapter_1"><b>3</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   colours of the,  <a href="#Page_5"><b>5</b></a>,  <a href="#Page_6"><b>6</b></a>,  <a href="#Page_218"><b>218</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Aniline,  <a href="#Page_162"><b>162</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> colours,  <a href="#Page_162"><b>162</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   cakes of,  <a href="#Page_163"><b>163</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   in oil,  <a href="#Page_247"><b>247</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Animal &AElig;thiops,  <a href="#Page_348"><b>348</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> charcoal,  <a href="#Page_397"><b>397</b></a>-<a href="#Page_399"><b>399</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> jelly,  <a href="#Page_50"><b>50</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Anotta,  <a href="#Page_255"><b>255</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Antimony,  Golden Sulphur of,  <a href="#Page_256"><b>256</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    Orange,  <a href="#Page_256"><b>256</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    Red,  <a href="#Page_159"><b>159</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    White,  <a href="#Page_79"><b>79</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    Yellow,  <a href="#Page_105"><b>105</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Antipathies of pigments,  <a href="#Page_193"><b>193</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Antwerp Blue,  <a href="#Page_207"><b>207</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    Brown,  <a href="#Page_339"><b>339</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Apelles,  <a href="#Page_7"><b>7</b></a>,  <a href="#Page_293"><b>293</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Archil,  <a href="#Page_303"><b>303</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Purple,  <a href="#Page_303"><b>303</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Arethas,  <a href="#Page_217"><b>217</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Armenian blue,  <a href="#Page_5"><b>5</b></a>,  <a href="#Page_217"><b>217</b></a>,  <a href="#Page_228"><b>228</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   bole,  <a href="#Page_147"><b>147</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   stone,  <a href="#Page_228"><b>228</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Arsenical pigments,  <a href="#Page_273"><b>273</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Arsenic green,  substitutes for,  <a href="#Page_288"><b>288</b></a>,  <a href="#Page_290"><b>290</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   white,  <a href="#Page_79"><b>79</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   yellow,  <a href="#Page_116"><b>116</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Art and Science,  <a href="#Page_238"><b>238</b></a>,  <a href="#Page_412"><b>412</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_418" id="Page_418">[418]</a></span>Artificial Ultramarine,  <a href="#Page_209"><b>209</b></a>-<a href="#Page_216"><b>216</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> acid pigments with,  <a href="#Page_214"><b>214</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> adulteration of,  <a href="#Page_215"><b>215</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> green in,  <a href="#Page_211"><b>211</b></a>.</li>
+
+
+
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> gum with,  <a href="#Page_214"><b>214</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Artificial Ultramarine,  in siliceous painting,  <a href="#Page_212"><b>212</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   origin of,  <a href="#Page_209"><b>209</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   prize for,  <a href="#Page_209"><b>209</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   test for,  <a href="#Page_212"><b>212</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Artists and painters,  <a href="#Page_182"><b>182</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Arts,  Society of,  <a href="#Page_130"><b>130</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ash,  Ultramarine,  <a href="#Page_379"><b>379</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ashes,  Blue,  <a href="#Page_228"><b>228</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Asphaltic Lake,  the,  <a href="#Page_337"><b>337</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Asphaltum and Asphalt,  <a href="#Page_337"><b>337</b></a>.</li>
+<li>   <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> Liquid,  <a href="#Page_339"><b>339</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Association of Science,  British,  <a href="#Page_357"><b>357</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Assyrians,  colouring and colours of,  <a href="#Page_6"><b>6</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Augustus C&aelig;sar,  <a href="#Page_295"><b>295</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Aureolin,  <a href="#Page_42"><b>42</b></a>,  <a href="#Page_47"><b>47</b></a>,  <a href="#Page_83"><b>83</b></a>-<a href="#Page_87"><b>87</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> Chemical News on,  <a href="#Page_84"><b>84</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> in admixture,  <a href="#Page_86"><b>86</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> Mr. Aaron Penley on,  <a href="#Page_85"><b>85</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> the purest yellow,  <a href="#Page_84"><b>84</b></a>,  <a href="#Page_384"><b>384</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Aurine,  <a href="#Page_162"><b>162</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Autotype process,  the,  <a href="#Page_401"><b>401</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Avignon,  berries of,  <a href="#Page_312"><b>312</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Axiom,  a wholesome,  <a href="#Page_201"><b>201</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Axioms for compounding,  <a href="#Page_250"><b>250</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Azuline,  <a href="#Page_162"><b>162</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Azure,  <a href="#Page_192"><b>192</b></a>,  <a href="#Page_196"><b>196</b></a>,  <a href="#Page_217"><b>217</b></a>.</li>
+
+</ul>
+
+
+
+<h5 style="text-align: left; text-indent: 5em;">B.</h5>
+
+
+
+<ul class="sample2">
+
+<li>Barff,  Mr.,  <a href="#Page_212"><b>212</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Barium and Bismuth chrome greens,  <a href="#Page_280"><b>280</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Barthe and Laurent,  MM.,  <a href="#Page_235"><b>235</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bartholomew,  Mr.,  <a href="#Page_143"><b>143</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Baryta,  Ferrate of,  <a href="#Page_165"><b>165</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> Silicate of,  <a href="#Page_290"><b>290</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Barytic White,  <a href="#Page_65"><b>65</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Beauty in Pigments,  <a href="#Page_46"><b>46</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Beeswax,  <a href="#Page_50"><b>50</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Berries,  French,  Persian,  and Turkey,  <a href="#Page_212"><b>212</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Berzelius,  <a href="#Page_169"><b>169</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bice,  Green,  <a href="#Page_187"><b>187</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bignonia chica,  <a href="#Page_367"><b>367</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bismuth Purple,  <a href="#Page_304"><b>304</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bixa Orellana,  <a href="#Page_255"><b>255</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bixine,  <a href="#Page_256"><b>256</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Black,  <a href="#Page_27"><b>27</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> ancient,  <a href="#Page_5"><b>5</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> as a colour,  <a href="#Page_387"><b>387</b></a>,  <a href="#Page_391"><b>391</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> as a pigment,  <a href="#Page_389"><b>389</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> colours with,  <a href="#Page_392"><b>392</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> on the Neutral,  <a href="#Page_387"><b>387</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li><span class="smcap">Black Pigments</span>:&mdash;</li>
+
+
+<li><ul class="sample2">
+<li>  Almond Black,  <a href="#Page_407"><b>407</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Beggars' Ultramarine,  <a href="#Page_409"><b>409</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Black Chalk,  <a href="#Page_404"><b>404</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Black Lead,  <a href="#Page_382"><b>382</b></a>,  <a href="#Page_393"><b>393</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Black Ochre,  <a href="#Page_404"><b>404</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Blue Black,  <a href="#Page_394"><b>394</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Bone Black,  <a href="#Page_405"><b>405</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  British Ink,  <a href="#Page_395"><b>395</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Charcoal Black,  <a href="#Page_394"><b>394</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Chinese Ink,  <a href="#Page_395"><b>395</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Coffee Black,  <a href="#Page_405"><b>405</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Copper Prussian Black,  <a href="#Page_408"><b>408</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Cork Black,  <a href="#Page_409"><b>409</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Earth Black,  <a href="#Page_404"><b>404</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Frankfort Black,  <a href="#Page_406"><b>406</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Galena,  <a href="#Page_394"><b>394</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Graphite,  <a href="#Page_393"><b>393</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Indian Ink,  <a href="#Page_395"><b>395</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Ivory Black,  <a href="#Page_397"><b>397</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Lamp Black,  <a href="#Page_399"><b>399</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Liege Black,  <a href="#Page_394"><b>394</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Manganese Black,  <a href="#Page_406"><b>406</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Mineral Black,  <a href="#Page_407"><b>407</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Mixed Black,  <a href="#Page_402"><b>402</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Paper Black,  <a href="#Page_407"><b>407</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Peach Black,  <a href="#Page_407"><b>407</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Plumbago,  <a href="#Page_393"><b>393</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Prussian Black,  <a href="#Page_404"><b>404</b></a>,  <a href="#Page_408"><b>408</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Purple Black,  <a href="#Page_408"><b>408</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Spanish Black,  <a href="#Page_409"><b>409</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Vine Black,  <a href="#Page_394"><b>394</b></a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+
+
+<li>Bladder Green,  <a href="#Page_282"><b>282</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Blanc d'Argent,  <a href="#Page_71"><b>71</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Blending of pigments,  <a href="#Page_37"><b>37</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Blood,  Dragon's,  <a href="#Page_137"><b>137</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bloodstone,  <a href="#Page_147"><b>147</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Blue,  <a href="#Page_28"><b>28</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> ancient,  <a href="#Page_5"><b>5</b></a>,  <a href="#Page_217"><b>217</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> Armenian,  <a href="#Page_5"><b>5</b></a>,  <a href="#Page_217"><b>217</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> as a colour,  <a href="#Page_183"><b>183</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> contrast of,  <a href="#Page_185"><b>185</b></a>,  <a href="#Page_188"><b>188</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> discordant,  <a href="#Page_185"><b>185</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> on the Primary,  <a href="#Page_183"><b>183</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li><span class="smcap">Blue Pigments</span>:&mdash;</li>
+
+
+
+<li><ul class="sample2">
+
+<li>  Antwerp Blue,  <a href="#Page_207"><b>207</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Artificial Ultramarines,  <a href="#Page_209"><b>209</b></a>-<a href="#Page_216"><b>216</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Azure,  <a href="#Page_192"><b>192</b></a>,  <a href="#Page_217"><b>217</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Basic Prussian Blue,  <a href="#Page_207"><b>207</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Berlin Blue,  <a href="#Page_203"><b>203</b></a>,  <a href="#Page_207"><b>207</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Bice,  <a href="#Page_228"><b>228</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Bleu de Garance,  <a href="#Page_209"><b>209</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Blue Ashes,  <a href="#Page_228"><b>228</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Blue Bice,  <a href="#Page_228"><b>228</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Blue Carmine,  <a href="#Page_228"><b>228</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Blue Ochre,  <a href="#Page_226"><b>226</b></a>,  <a href="#Page_380"><b>380</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Blue Sand,  <a href="#Page_196"><b>196</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Blue Verditer,  <a href="#Page_228"><b>228</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Brilliant Ultramarine,  <a href="#Page_215"><b>215</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Cerulian Blue,  or C&oelig;ruleum,  <a href="#Page_190"><b>190</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Cobalt Blue,  <a href="#Page_192"><b>192</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Cobalt Blues,  <a href="#Page_189"><b>189</b></a>-<a href="#Page_199"><b>199</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Cobalt Prussian Blue,  <a href="#Page_227"><b>227</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Cobalt Ultramarine,  <a href="#Page_192"><b>192</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Co&euml;lin,  <a href="#Page_190"><b>190</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_419" id="Page_419">[419]</a></span>Copper Blues,  <a href="#Page_227"><b>227</b></a>-<a href="#Page_230"><b>230</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>  Cotton Seed Blue,  <a href="#Page_230"><b>230</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Cyanine,  <a href="#Page_198"><b>198</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Dumont's Blue,  <a href="#Page_196"><b>196</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Dutch Ultramarine,  <a href="#Page_189"><b>189</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Enamel Blue,  <a href="#Page_189"><b>189</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Egyptian Blue,  <a href="#Page_229"><b>229</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Factitious Ultramarine,  <a href="#Page_215"><b>215</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Ferricyanide of Iron,  <a href="#Page_208"><b>208</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Ferrocyanide of Iron,  <a href="#Page_203"><b>203</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  French Blue,  <a href="#Page_215"><b>215</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  French Ultramarine,  <a href="#Page_215"><b>215</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Genuine Ultramarine,  <a href="#Page_216"><b>216</b></a>-<a href="#Page_225"><b>225</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Gmelin's German Ultramarine,  <a href="#Page_209"><b>209</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Gold Blue,  <a href="#Page_231"><b>231</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Guimet's Ultramarine,  <a href="#Page_209"><b>209</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Haerlem Blue,  <a href="#Page_207"><b>207</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Hungary Blue,  <a href="#Page_189"><b>189</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Indian Blue,  <a href="#Page_199"><b>199</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Indicum,  <a href="#Page_199"><b>199</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Indigo,  <a href="#Page_199"><b>199</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Intense Blue,  <a href="#Page_202"><b>202</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Iodine Blue,  <a href="#Page_231"><b>231</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Iridium Blue,  <a href="#Page_232"><b>232</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Iris,  <a href="#Page_228"><b>228</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Lazuline,  <a href="#Page_217"><b>217</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Lazulite Blue,  <a href="#Page_217"><b>217</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Lazurstein,  <a href="#Page_217"><b>217</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Leitch's Blue,  <a href="#Page_199"><b>199</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Leithner's Blue,  <a href="#Page_189"><b>189</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Manganese Blue,  <a href="#Page_232"><b>232</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Mineral Blue,  <a href="#Page_207"><b>207</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Mountain Blue,  <a href="#Page_228"><b>228</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Native Prussian Blue,  <a href="#Page_207"><b>207</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Native Ultramarine,  <a href="#Page_216"><b>216</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Natural Ultramarine,  <a href="#Page_216"><b>216</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  New Blue,  <a href="#Page_216"><b>216</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Outremer,  <a href="#Page_217"><b>217</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Outremer de Guimet,  <a href="#Page_209"><b>209</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Paris Blue,  <a href="#Page_192"><b>192</b></a>,  <a href="#Page_203"><b>203</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Permanent Blue,  <a href="#Page_216"><b>216</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Platinum Blue,  <a href="#Page_233"><b>233</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Powder Blue,  <a href="#Page_196"><b>196</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Prussian Blue,  <a href="#Page_203"><b>203</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Prussiate of Iron,  <a href="#Page_203"><b>203</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Pure Ultramarine,  <a href="#Page_217"><b>217</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Real Ultramarine,  <a href="#Page_216"><b>216</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Reboulleau's Blue,  <a href="#Page_230"><b>230</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Royal Blue,  <a href="#Page_196"><b>196</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Saunders' Blue,  <a href="#Page_230"><b>230</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Saxon Blue,  <a href="#Page_189"><b>189</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Schweinfurt Blue,  <a href="#Page_230"><b>230</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Smalt,  <a href="#Page_195"><b>195</b></a>-<a href="#Page_198"><b>198</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Terre Bleu,  <a href="#Page_228"><b>228</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Th&eacute;nard's Blue,  <a href="#Page_192"><b>192</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  True Ultramarine,  <a href="#Page_216"><b>216</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Tungsten Blue,  <a href="#Page_233"><b>233</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Turnbull's Blue,  <a href="#Page_208"><b>208</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Ultramarines,  <a href="#Page_209"><b>209</b></a>-<a href="#Page_225"><b>225</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Verditer,  <a href="#Page_228"><b>228</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Vienna Blue,  <a href="#Page_192"><b>192</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Wood-Tar Blue,  <a href="#Page_233"><b>233</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Zaffre,  <a href="#Page_189"><b>189</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Zinc-Cobalt Blue,  <a href="#Page_235"><b>235</b></a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Body White,  <a href="#Page_72"><b>72</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bole,  Armenian,  <a href="#Page_147"><b>147</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Borrowdale,  <a href="#Page_393"><b>393</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bouvier,  <a href="#Page_153"><b>153</b></a>,  <a href="#Page_345"><b>345</b></a>,  <a href="#Page_347"><b>347</b></a>,  <a href="#Page_355"><b>355</b></a>,  <a href="#Page_405"><b>405</b></a>,  <a href="#Page_407"><b>407</b></a>,  <a href="#Page_409"><b>409</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Box,  the painter's,  <a href="#Page_60"><b>60</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bradley,  Mr.,  <a href="#Page_246"><b>246</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>British School,  <a href="#Page_9"><b>9</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Broken colours,  <a href="#Page_16"><b>16</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bronze,  <a href="#Page_279"><b>279</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Brown,  <a href="#Page_28"><b>28</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> analysis of,  <a href="#Page_377"><b>377</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> as a colour,  <a href="#Page_335"><b>335</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> Citrine,  <a href="#Page_317"><b>317</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> contrast of,  <a href="#Page_337"><b>337</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> Liquid,  Prout's,  <a href="#Page_345"><b>345</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> Madder,  <a href="#Page_305"><b>305</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> Mars,  <a href="#Page_313"><b>313</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> on the Semi-Neutral,  <a href="#Page_334"><b>334</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li><span class="smcap">Brown Pigments</span>:&mdash;</li>
+
+
+
+<li><ul class="sample2">
+<li>  Animal &AElig;thiops,  <a href="#Page_348"><b>348</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Antwerp Brown,  <a href="#Page_339"><b>339</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Asphaltum or Asphalt,  <a href="#Page_337"><b>337</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Bistre,  <a href="#Page_340"><b>340</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Bitumen,  <a href="#Page_339"><b>339</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Bitumen of Judea,  <a href="#Page_337"><b>337</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Bone Brown,  <a href="#Page_340"><b>340</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Burnt Umber,  <a href="#Page_341"><b>341</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Cadmium Brown,  <a href="#Page_353"><b>353</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Caledonian Brown,  <a href="#Page_341"><b>341</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Campania Brown,  <a href="#Page_352"><b>352</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Cappah Brown,  <a href="#Page_342"><b>342</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Cassel Earth,  <a href="#Page_343"><b>343</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Castle Earth,  <a href="#Page_343"><b>343</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Catechu Browns,  <a href="#Page_374"><b>374</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Chalon's Brown,  <a href="#Page_344"><b>344</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Chestnut Brown,  <a href="#Page_357"><b>357</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Chrome Browns,  <a href="#Page_355"><b>355</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Cologne Earth,  <a href="#Page_344"><b>344</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Copper Brown,  <a href="#Page_355"><b>355</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Cory's Madder or Yellow Madder,  <a href="#Page_353"><b>353</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Cullen's Earth,  <a href="#Page_344"><b>344</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Egyptian Brown,  <a href="#Page_347"><b>347</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Euchrome,  <a href="#Page_342"><b>342</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  French Prussian Brown,  <a href="#Page_355"><b>355</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Gambogiate of Iron,  <a href="#Page_357"><b>357</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Hypocastanum,  <a href="#Page_357"><b>357</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Iron Browns,  <a href="#Page_357"><b>357</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Ivory Brown,  <a href="#Page_340"><b>340</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Jew's Pitch,  <a href="#Page_337"><b>337</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Leitch's Brown,  <a href="#Page_346"><b>346</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Manganese Brown,  <a href="#Page_358"><b>358</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Mineral Brown,  <a href="#Page_342"><b>342</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Mineral Pitch,  <a href="#Page_337"><b>337</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_420" id="Page_420">[420]</a></span>Mixed Brown,  <a href="#Page_346"><b>346</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>  Mummy,  <a href="#Page_347"><b>347</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Mummy Brown,  <a href="#Page_347"><b>347</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Nickel Brown,  <a href="#Page_358"><b>358</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Ochre Browns,  <a href="#Page_358"><b>358</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Prussian Brown,  <a href="#Page_348"><b>348</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Purple Brown,  <a href="#Page_359"><b>359</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Roman Sepia,  <a href="#Page_351"><b>351</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Rubens' Brown,  <a href="#Page_359"><b>359</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Sepia,  <a href="#Page_348"><b>348</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Terre de Cassel,  <a href="#Page_343"><b>343</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Uranium Brown,  <a href="#Page_360"><b>360</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Vandyke Brown,  <a href="#Page_351"><b>351</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Verona Brown,  <a href="#Page_353"><b>353</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Warm Sepia,  <a href="#Page_350"><b>350</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Yellow Madder,  <a href="#Page_353"><b>353</b></a>.</li>
+<li>  Zinc Brown,  <a href="#Page_360"><b>360</b></a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Brown Pink,  <a href="#Page_312"><b>312</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> Red,  <a href="#Page_147"><b>147</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> Spanish,  <a href="#Page_146"><b>146</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> Stil de Grain,  <a href="#Page_312"><b>312</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Browns,  abundance of,  <a href="#Page_336"><b>336</b></a>,  <a href="#Page_361"><b>361</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Brun de Mars,  <a href="#Page_313"><b>313</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Brunswick Green,  <a href="#Page_271"><b>271</b></a>,  <a href="#Page_279"><b>279</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Brushes,  soap and alkali in,  <a href="#Page_52"><b>52</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Burlington House,  Royal Academy at,  <a href="#Page_365"><b>365</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Burnt Carmine,  <a href="#Page_298"><b>298</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> Lake,  <a href="#Page_298"><b>298</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> Madder,  <a href="#Page_305"><b>305</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> Orpiment,  <a href="#Page_259"><b>259</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> Roman Ochre,  <a href="#Page_255"><b>255</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> Sienna,  <a href="#Page_243"><b>243</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> Terra di Sienna,  <a href="#Page_243"><b>243</b></a>.</li>
+<li> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> Verdigris,  <a href="#Page_331"><b>331</b></a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<h5 style="text-align: left; text-indent: 5em;">C.</h5>
+
+<ul class="sample2">
+
+<li>Cadmium Brown, <a href="#Page_353"><b>353</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Orange, <a href="#Page_36"><b>36</b></a>, <a href="#Page_42"><b>42</b></a>, <a href="#Page_244"><b>244</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Red, <a href="#Page_42"><b>42</b></a>, <a href="#Page_130"><b>130</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  White, <a href="#Page_78"><b>78</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Yellow, <a href="#Page_87"><b>87</b></a>, <a href="#Page_92"><b>92</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> adulteration of, <a href="#Page_88"><b>88</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> manufacture of, <a href="#Page_92"><b>92</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> when fugacious, <a href="#Page_92"><b>92</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> with White Lead, <a href="#Page_89"><b>89</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Caledonian Brown, <a href="#Page_341"><b>341</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Campania Brown, <a href="#Page_352"><b>352</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Camphor, <a href="#Page_396"><b>396</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cappah or Cappagh Brown, <a href="#Page_342"><b>342</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Carajuru, <a href="#Page_367"><b>367</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Carbolic acid, <a href="#Page_162"><b>162</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Carbon, <a href="#Page_393"><b>393</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Carmichael,  Mr., <a href="#Page_348"><b>348</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Carmine, <a href="#Page_133"><b>133</b></a>, <a href="#Page_135"><b>135</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  adulteration of, <a href="#Page_134"><b>134</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Blue, <a href="#Page_225"><b>225</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Burnt, <a href="#Page_298"><b>298</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Field's, <a href="#Page_142"><b>142</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Carmine,  Madder, <a href="#Page_142"><b>142</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  manufacture of, <a href="#Page_134"><b>134</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Vermilion, <a href="#Page_156"><b>156</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Violet, <a href="#Page_302"><b>302</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  with Indian Yellow, <a href="#Page_98"><b>98</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> White Lead, <a href="#Page_134"><b>134</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Carnac,  ruins at, <a href="#Page_4"><b>4</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Carnagione, <a href="#Page_149"><b>149</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Carthamus, <a href="#Page_174"><b>174</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cartoons at Hampton Court, <a href="#Page_10"><b>10</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cassel Earth, <a href="#Page_343"><b>343</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Green, <a href="#Page_288"><b>288</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Terre de, <a href="#Page_343"><b>343</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Yellow, <a href="#Page_121"><b>121</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cassius,  Purple of, <a href="#Page_306"><b>306</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cassius's Purple Precipitate, <a href="#Page_306"><b>306</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Castle Earth, <a href="#Page_343"><b>343</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Catechu Browns, <a href="#Page_354"><b>354</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Celandine, <a href="#Page_96"><b>96</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cendres Bleues, <a href="#Page_230"><b>230</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cennini,  advice of, <a href="#Page_411"><b>411</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cerulian Blue or C&oelig;ruleum, <a href="#Page_190"><b>190</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ceruse, <a href="#Page_74"><b>74</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Chalk,  Black, <a href="#Page_404"><b>404</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Green, <a href="#Page_173"><b>173</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Red, <a href="#Page_172"><b>172</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  White, <a href="#Page_79"><b>79</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Chalon's Brown, <a href="#Page_344"><b>344</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Chaptal,  Count, <a href="#Page_105"><b>105</b></a>, <a href="#Page_229"><b>229</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Charcoal,  animal, <a href="#Page_397"><b>397</b></a>, <a href="#Page_399"><b>399</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Black, <a href="#Page_394"><b>394</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  vegetal, <a href="#Page_398"><b>398</b></a>, <a href="#Page_406"><b>406</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Charles I., <a href="#Page_220"><b>220</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Charred blacks, <a href="#Page_390"><b>390</b></a>, <a href="#Page_395"><b>395</b></a>, <a href="#Page_406"><b>406</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cheese,  anotta in, <a href="#Page_256"><b>256</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Chemical News,  extract from, <a href="#Page_84"><b>84</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Chestnut Brown, <a href="#Page_357"><b>357</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Chevreul,  M., <a href="#Page_173"><b>173</b></a>, <a href="#Page_191"><b>191</b></a>, <a href="#Page_205"><b>205</b></a>, <a href="#Page_364"><b>364</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Chiaroscuro, <a href="#Page_15"><b>15</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Chica d'Andiguez, <a href="#Page_160"><b>160</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Marrone, <a href="#Page_367"><b>367</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Red, <a href="#Page_159"><b>159</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>China,  Mandarins of, <a href="#Page_219"><b>219</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  White, <a href="#Page_80"><b>80</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Chinese Ink, <a href="#Page_395"><b>395</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Lake, <a href="#Page_137"><b>137</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Orange, <a href="#Page_246"><b>246</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Rouge, <a href="#Page_174"><b>174</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Vermilion, <a href="#Page_156"><b>156</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  White, <a href="#Page_75"><b>75</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Yellow, <a href="#Page_111"><b>111</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Chinoline, <a href="#Page_162"><b>162</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Chocolate Lead, <a href="#Page_368"><b>368</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Chromate of Mercury, <a href="#Page_256"><b>256</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Chromates of lead,  organic pigments with, <a href="#Page_248"><b>248</b></a>, <a href="#Page_280"><b>280</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Chrome Arseniate, <a href="#Page_284"><b>284</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Browns, <a href="#Page_355"><b>355</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Green,  True, <a href="#Page_267"><b>267</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Greens, <a href="#Page_279"><b>279</b></a>-<a href="#Page_281"><b>281</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Ochre, <a href="#Page_267"><b>267</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_421" id="Page_421">[421]</a></span>Chrome Orange, <a href="#Page_248"><b>248</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   Oxide, <a href="#Page_267"><b>267</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   Oxides, <a href="#Page_266"><b>266</b></a>-<a href="#Page_271"><b>271</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   Red, <a href="#Page_151"><b>151</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   Scarlet, <a href="#Page_151"><b>151</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   Yellows, <a href="#Page_93"><b>93</b></a>-<a href="#Page_95"><b>95</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    adulteration of, <a href="#Page_94"><b>94</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Chromium,  Green Oxide of, <a href="#Page_267"><b>267</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     Opaque Oxide of, <a href="#Page_267"><b>267</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     Oxide of, <a href="#Page_267"><b>267</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     Transparent Oxide of, <a href="#Page_268"><b>268</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Church,  Professor, <a href="#Page_165"><b>165</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cicero, <a href="#Page_296"><b>296</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cinnabar, <a href="#Page_153"><b>153</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     Green, <a href="#Page_280"><b>280</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Citrine, <a href="#Page_28"><b>28</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     analysis of, <a href="#Page_329"><b>329</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     as a colour, <a href="#Page_310"><b>310</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     contrast of, <a href="#Page_311"><b>311</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     on the Tertiary, <a href="#Page_310"><b>310</b></a>.</li>
+
+
+
+<li><span class="smcap">Citrine Pigments</span>:&mdash;</li>
+<li><ul class="sample2">
+<li>Brown Pink, <a href="#Page_312"><b>312</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Brown Stil de Grain, <a href="#Page_312"><b>312</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Brun de Mars, <a href="#Page_313"><b>313</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Cassia Fistula, <a href="#Page_316"><b>316</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Citrine Brown, <a href="#Page_317"><b>317</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Citrine Lake, <a href="#Page_312"><b>312</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Mars Brown, <a href="#Page_313"><b>313</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Mixed Citrine, <a href="#Page_314"><b>314</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Quercitron Lake, <a href="#Page_312"><b>312</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Raw Umber, <a href="#Page_315"><b>315</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Umber, <a href="#Page_315"><b>315</b></a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+
+
+<li>Citron Yellow, <a href="#Page_95"><b>95</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Classes of Colours,  on, <a href="#Page_27"><b>27</b></a>-<a href="#Page_30"><b>30</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li><span class="smcap">Classified Pigments</span>:&mdash;</li>
+
+
+<li><ul class="sample2">
+<li>Black, <a href="#Page_409"><b>409</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Blue, <a href="#Page_236"><b>236</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Brown, <a href="#Page_361"><b>361</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Citrine, <a href="#Page_319"><b>319</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Gray, <a href="#Page_380"><b>380</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Green, <a href="#Page_291"><b>291</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Grey, <a href="#Page_386"><b>386</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Marrone, <a href="#Page_371"><b>371</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Olive, <a href="#Page_333"><b>333</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Orange, <a href="#Page_261"><b>261</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Purple, <a href="#Page_308"><b>308</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Red, <a href="#Page_181"><b>181</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Russet, <a href="#Page_324"><b>324</b></a>.</li>
+<li>White, <a href="#Page_80"><b>80</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Yellow, <a href="#Page_125"><b>125</b></a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+
+
+<li>Claude, <a href="#Page_345"><b>345</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cleanliness in painting, <a href="#Page_53"><b>53</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Coal-Tar Colours, <a href="#Page_160"><b>160</b></a>-<a href="#Page_164"><b>164</b></a>, <a href="#Page_247"><b>247</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>        cakes of, <a href="#Page_163"><b>163</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>        in oil, <a href="#Page_247"><b>247</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cobalt Blue, <a href="#Page_192"><b>192</b></a>.</li>
+<li>chalkiness in, <a href="#Page_195"><b>195</b></a>.</li>
+<li>manufacture of, <a href="#Page_192"><b>192</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    Blues, <a href="#Page_189"><b>189</b></a>-<a href="#Page_199"><b>199</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    Green, <a href="#Page_285"><b>285</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    Marrone, <a href="#Page_368"><b>368</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    Prussian Blue, <a href="#Page_227"><b>227</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>       <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   Green, <a href="#Page_282"><b>282</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    Purples, <a href="#Page_305"><b>305</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    Ultramarine, <a href="#Page_192"><b>192</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Coccus <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span><ins class="correction" title="was abies">(Abies</ins> nigra), <a href="#Page_168"><b>168</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   cacti, <a href="#Page_131"><b>131</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   ficus, <a href="#Page_138"><b>138</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   ilicis, <a href="#Page_153"><b>153</b></a>, <a href="#Page_167"><b>167</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cochineal, <a href="#Page_132"><b>132</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>      adulteration of, <a href="#Page_132"><b>132</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>      Dr. Warren de la Rue on, <a href="#Page_132"><b>132</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>      lake,  with Vermilion, <a href="#Page_136"><b>136</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>      Lakes, <a href="#Page_131"><b>131</b></a>-<a href="#Page_137"><b>137</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Co&euml;lin, <a href="#Page_190"><b>190</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>C&oelig;ruleum, <a href="#Page_190"><b>190</b></a>, <a href="#Page_198"><b>198</b></a>, <a href="#Page_217"><b>217</b></a>, <a href="#Page_229"><b>229</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Coffee Black, <a href="#Page_405"><b>405</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   Brown, <a href="#Page_405"><b>405</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cohesion and colour, <a href="#Page_197"><b>197</b></a>, <a href="#Page_208"><b>208</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     durability, <a href="#Page_197"><b>197</b></a>, <a href="#Page_208"><b>208</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cologne Earth, <a href="#Page_344"><b>344</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    Yellow, <a href="#Page_94"><b>94</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Colour and neutrality, <a href="#Page_375"><b>375</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   latent, <a href="#Page_58"><b>58</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   of extreme light objects, <a href="#Page_21"><b>21</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   of shadow, <a href="#Page_21"><b>21</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   on the Relations and Harmony of, <a href="#Page_13"><b>13</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Coloured rays,  mixture of, <a href="#Page_384"><b>384</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Colouring,  ancient, <a href="#chapter_1"><b>3</b></a>-<a href="#Page_7"><b>7</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>      false, <a href="#Page_20"><b>20</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>      importance of, <a href="#Page_10"><b>10</b></a>-<a href="#Page_12"><b>12</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>      on, <a href="#chapter_1"><b>3</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>      vicious, <a href="#Page_11"><b>11</b></a>-<a href="#Page_21"><b>21</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Colours,  ancient, <a href="#Page_5"><b>5</b></a>, <a href="#Page_6"><b>6</b></a>, <a href="#Page_218"><b>218</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    and Pigments Individually,  on, <a href="#Page_57"><b>57</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    broken, <a href="#Page_16"><b>16</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    classes of:&mdash;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>       Neutral, <a href="#Page_27"><b>27</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>       Primary, <a href="#Page_28"><b>28</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>       Secondary, <a href="#Page_28"><b>28</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>       Semi-Neutral, <a href="#Page_29"><b>29</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>       Tertiary, <a href="#Page_28"><b>28</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    complementary, <a href="#Page_391"><b>391</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    discordant, <a href="#Page_17"><b>17</b></a>, <a href="#Page_185"><b>185</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    entire, <a href="#Page_28"><b>28</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    extreme, <a href="#Page_28"><b>28</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    fugacity of ancient, <a href="#Page_6"><b>6</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    held in check, <a href="#Page_106"><b>106</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    hot and cold, <a href="#Page_20"><b>20</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    imaginary, <a href="#Page_115"><b>115</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    individual beauty of, <a href="#Page_57"><b>57</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    light and dark, <a href="#Page_30"><b>30</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    material,  mixture of, <a href="#Page_384"><b>384</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    mixture and compounding of, <a href="#Page_17"><b>17</b></a>-<a href="#Page_19"><b>19</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    not obtainable, <a href="#Page_114"><b>114</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    not pigments, <a href="#Page_305"><b>305</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    perspective of, <a href="#Page_22"><b>22</b></a>.</li>
+
+
+
+<li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_422" id="Page_422">[422]</a></span>Colours,  retiring or advancing, <a href="#Page_186"><b>186</b></a>-<a href="#Page_188"><b>188</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  superfluous, <a href="#Page_124"><b>124</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  unfitted for pigments, <a href="#Page_115"><b>115</b></a>, <a href="#Page_180"><b>180</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  vitrified, <a href="#Page_33"><b>33</b></a>, <a href="#Page_197"><b>197</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  with black, <a href="#Page_27"><b>27</b></a>, <a href="#Page_392"><b>392</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>colours, <a href="#Page_27"><b>27</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>grey, <a href="#Page_382"><b>382</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>white, <a href="#Page_27"><b>27</b></a>, <a href="#Page_63"><b>63</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Common pigments, <a href="#Page_359"><b>359</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Compounding colours,  on, <a href="#Page_242"><b>242</b></a>-<a href="#Page_252"><b>252</b></a>, <a href="#Page_277"><b>277</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Compound pigments, <a href="#Page_36"><b>36</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Constable, <a href="#Page_265"><b>265</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Constantinople, <a href="#Page_7"><b>7</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Constant White, <a href="#Page_65"><b>65</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   free acid in, <a href="#Page_66"><b>66</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Contrast of colour and neutrality, <a href="#Page_15"><b>15</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  gradations and extremes, <a href="#Page_19"><b>19</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  hues, <a href="#Page_13"><b>13</b></a>-<a href="#Page_15"><b>15</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  shades, <a href="#Page_15"><b>15</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  warmth and coolness, <a href="#Page_15"><b>15</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Copper Blues, <a href="#Page_227"><b>227</b></a>-<a href="#Page_230"><b>230</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Borate, <a href="#Page_285"><b>285</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Brown, <a href="#Page_355"><b>355</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Chrome, <a href="#Page_286"><b>286</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Greens, <a href="#Page_271"><b>271</b></a>-<a href="#Page_276"><b>276</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Prussian Black, <a href="#Page_408"><b>408</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Prussiate of, <a href="#Page_323"><b>323</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Reds, <a href="#Page_164"><b>164</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Smalt, <a href="#Page_220"><b>220</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Stannate, <a href="#Page_286"><b>286</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Yellow, <a href="#Page_116"><b>116</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cork Black, <a href="#Page_409"><b>409</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Correggio, <a href="#Page_8"><b>8</b></a>, <a href="#Page_335"><b>335</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cory's Madder or Yellow Madder, <a href="#Page_119"><b>119</b></a>, <a href="#Page_353"><b>353</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cotton Seed Blue, <a href="#Page_230"><b>230</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cremnitz or Crems White, <a href="#Page_72"><b>72</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Crimson Lake, <a href="#Page_135"><b>135</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Crookes,  Mr., <a href="#Page_260"><b>260</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Crowding of pictures, <a href="#Page_364"><b>364</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cudbear, <a href="#Page_303"><b>303</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cullen's Earth, <a href="#Page_344"><b>344</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cuttle Fish, <a href="#Page_348"><b>348</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cuyp, <a href="#Page_136"><b>136</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cyanine, <a href="#Page_198"><b>198</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cyanus, <a href="#Page_198"><b>198</b></a>, <a href="#Page_217"><b>217</b></a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+
+<h5 style="text-align: left; text-indent: 5em;">D.</h5>
+
+<ul class="sample2">
+
+<li>Damonico, <a href="#Page_257"><b>257</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Darkening of mineral colours, <a href="#Page_284"><b>284</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Davy,  Sir H., <a href="#Page_229"><b>229</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Dead Sea,  the, <a href="#Page_337"><b>337</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Deep Cadmium, <a href="#Page_87"><b>87</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> Chrome, <a href="#Page_93"><b>93</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> Vermilion, <a href="#Page_154"><b>154</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> Deoxidation of pigments, <a href="#Page_38"><b>38</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Detractors of modern pigments, <a href="#Page_43"><b>43</b></a>-<a href="#Page_45"><b>45</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Dewint's Green, <a href="#Page_330"><b>330</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Diagram, <a href="#Page_89"><b>89</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Diesbach,  M.<a href="#Page_203"><b>203</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Dilution of colour, <a href="#Page_34"><b>34</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Di Palito, <a href="#Page_109"><b>109</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Direct and diffused light, <a href="#Page_391"><b>391</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Discord of colours, <a href="#Page_17"><b>17</b></a>, <a href="#Page_185"><b>185</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Disinfectants of the palette, <a href="#Page_359"><b>359</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Distance,  law about, <a href="#Page_188"><b>188</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Distilled Verdigris, <a href="#Page_276"><b>276</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Distinction of colours, <a href="#Page_318"><b>318</b></a>, <a href="#Page_320"><b>320</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Dominichino, <a href="#Page_8"><b>8</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Dragon's Blood, <a href="#Page_137"><b>137</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   with White Lead, <a href="#Page_138"><b>138</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Drop Gum, <a href="#Page_96"><b>96</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Drying of pigments, <a href="#Page_50"><b>50</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  oils,  lead in, <a href="#Page_121"><b>121</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Duffield,  Mrs., <a href="#Page_144"><b>144</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Dumas,  M., <a href="#Page_234"><b>234</b></a>, <a href="#Page_414"><b>414</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Dumont's Blue, <a href="#Page_196"><b>196</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Durability of pigments, <a href="#Page_31"><b>31</b></a>-<a href="#Page_45"><b>45</b></a>, <a href="#Page_46"><b>46</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Dussance,  Professor H., <a href="#Page_175"><b>175</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Dutch Pink, <a href="#Page_100"><b>100</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Schools, <a href="#Page_8"><b>8</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  the, <a href="#Page_156"><b>156</b></a>, <a href="#Page_200"><b>200</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Ultramarine, <a href="#Page_189"><b>189</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  White, <a href="#Page_74"><b>74</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Dyeing,  brown for, <a href="#Page_318"><b>318</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  orange for, <a href="#Page_257"><b>257</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Dyes and pigments, <a href="#Page_169"><b>169</b></a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<h5 style="text-align: left; text-indent: 5em;">E.</h5>
+
+<ul class="sample2">
+
+<li>Earth Black, <a href="#Page_404"><b>404</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> Burnt Sienna, <a href="#Page_243"><b>243</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> Cassel,  or Castle, <a href="#Page_343"><b>343</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> Cologne, <a href="#Page_344"><b>344</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> Cullen's, <a href="#Page_344"><b>344</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> Green, <a href="#Page_283"><b>283</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> Raw Sienna, <a href="#Page_113"><b>113</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Egg-shells,  white of, <a href="#Page_80"><b>80</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Egypt,  catacombs of, <a href="#Page_347"><b>347</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  temples of Upper, <a href="#Page_5"><b>5</b></a>, <a href="#Page_217"><b>217</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Egyptian Blue, <a href="#Page_229"><b>229</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Brown, <a href="#Page_347"><b>347</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Egyptians,  the,  colouring and colours of, <a href="#chapter_1"><b>3</b></a>-<a href="#Page_5"><b>5</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Elizabeth,  Queen, <a href="#Page_393"><b>393</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Eisner's Green, <a href="#Page_286"><b>286</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Emerald Green, <a href="#Page_271"><b>271</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Emeraldine, <a href="#Page_162"><b>162</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Enamel Blue, <a href="#Page_189"><b>189</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  colours, <a href="#Page_33"><b>33</b></a>, <a href="#Page_197"><b>197</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>England,  climate and females of, <a href="#Page_9"><b>9</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>English Green, <a href="#Page_280"><b>280</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Pink, <a href="#Page_100"><b>100</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Red, <a href="#Page_149"><b>149</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Vermilion, <a href="#Page_146"><b>146</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Entire colours, <a href="#Page_28"><b>28</b></a>.</li>
+
+
+
+<li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_423" id="Page_423">[423]</a></span>Equations, <a href="#Page_329"><b>329</b></a>, <a href="#Page_330"><b>330</b></a>, <a href="#Page_377"><b>377</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Euchrome, <a href="#Page_342"><b>342</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Exhibition,  International,  of 1862, <a href="#Page_244"><b>244</b></a>, <a href="#Page_354"><b>354</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Experiment, <a href="#Page_213"><b>213</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Exposure of pigments, <a href="#Page_38"><b>38</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Extract of Gamboge, <a href="#Page_97"><b>97</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   Vermilion, <a href="#Page_157"><b>157</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Extreme colours, <a href="#Page_28"><b>28</b></a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<h5 style="text-align: left; text-indent: 5em;">F.</h5>
+
+<ul class="sample2">
+
+<li>Factitious Indigo,  proposed, <a href="#Page_202"><b>202</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Ultramarine, <a href="#Page_215"><b>215</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Falsalo, <a href="#Page_341"><b>341</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fast and fugitive,  pigments both, <a href="#Page_38"><b>38</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ferrate of Baryta, <a href="#Page_165"><b>165</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ferricyanide of Iron, <a href="#Page_208"><b>208</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ferrocyanide <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span><a href="#Page_203"><b>203</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Field's Carmine, <a href="#Page_142"><b>142</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Lakes, <a href="#Page_139"><b>139</b></a>-<a href="#Page_145"><b>145</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Orange Vermilion, <a href="#Page_158"><b>158</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Purple, <a href="#Page_301"><b>301</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Russet, <a href="#Page_321"><b>321</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fineness of texture in pigments, <a href="#Page_50"><b>50</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fire,  action of,  on pigments, <a href="#Page_371"><b>371</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> pigments affected by, <a href="#Page_40"><b>40</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fistula,  Cassia, <a href="#Page_316"><b>316</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Flake White, <a href="#Page_72"><b>72</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Flemish painters, <a href="#Page_406"><b>406</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Schools, <a href="#Page_8"><b>8</b></a>, <a href="#Page_37"><b>37</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  White, <a href="#Page_72"><b>72</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Florentine Lake, <a href="#Page_137"><b>137</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  painters and painting, <a href="#Page_7"><b>7</b></a>, <a href="#Page_8"><b>8</b></a>, <a href="#Page_10"><b>10</b></a>, <a href="#Page_391"><b>391</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Flower pieces,  background tint for, <a href="#Page_279"><b>279</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Foul air,  ochres with, <a href="#Page_359"><b>359</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Frankfort Black, <a href="#Page_406"><b>406</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>French berries, <a href="#Page_312"><b>312</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> Blue, <a href="#Page_215"><b>215</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> Green, <a href="#Page_271"><b>271</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> Prussian Brown, <a href="#Page_355"><b>355</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> Purple,  Solid, <a href="#Page_304"><b>304</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> Ultramarine, <a href="#Page_215"><b>215</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> Veronese Green, <a href="#Page_268"><b>268</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  White, <a href="#Page_71"><b>71</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fresco,  Prussian Blue in, <a href="#Page_206"><b>206</b></a>, <a href="#Page_281"><b>281</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fruit pieces of W. Hunt, <a href="#Page_315"><b>315</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fugacity of pigments, <a href="#Page_31"><b>31</b></a>-<a href="#Page_45"><b>45</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fugitive colours, <a href="#Page_34"><b>34</b></a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<h5 style="text-align: left; text-indent: 5em;">G.</h5>
+
+<ul class="sample2">
+
+<li>Gainsborough, <a href="#Page_20"><b>20</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Galena, <a href="#Page_394"><b>394</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Galleries,  picture, <a href="#Page_363"><b>363</b></a>-<a href="#Page_365"><b>365</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gallstone, <a href="#Page_95"><b>95</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gamboge, <a href="#Page_96"><b>96</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  as a glaze, <a href="#Page_97"><b>97</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  extract of, <a href="#Page_97"><b>97</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gamboge Orange, <a href="#Page_257"><b>257</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gambogiate of Iron, <a href="#Page_357"><b>357</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Garance,  Bleu de, <a href="#Page_209"><b>209</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gas,  effect of,  on colours, <a href="#Page_191"><b>191</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gelbin's Yellow, <a href="#Page_117"><b>117</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>General Qualities of Pigments,  on the, <a href="#Page_46"><b>46</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Genuine Ultramarine, <a href="#Page_216"><b>216</b></a>-<a href="#Page_225"><b>225</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     adulteration of, <a href="#Page_224"><b>224</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     colouring matter of, <a href="#Page_224"><b>224</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     defects in, <a href="#Page_222"><b>222</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     manufacture of, <a href="#Page_220"><b>220</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     price of, <a href="#Page_220"><b>220</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     properties of, <a href="#Page_221"><b>221</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     tests for, <a href="#Page_224"><b>224</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Giallolino, <a href="#Page_103"><b>103</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gilpin, <a href="#Page_351"><b>351</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Giovanni Bellini, <a href="#Page_7"><b>7</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Giulio Romano, <a href="#Page_11"><b>11</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Glazing of colours, <a href="#Page_18"><b>18</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gloucestershire, <a href="#Page_109"><b>109</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gmelin,  M., <a href="#Page_178"><b>178</b></a>, <a href="#Page_210"><b>210</b></a>, <a href="#Page_218"><b>218</b></a>, <a href="#Page_227"><b>227</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gmelin's German Ultramarine, <a href="#Page_209"><b>209</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gold Blue, <a href="#Page_231"><b>231</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> Purple, <a href="#Page_306"><b>306</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> Reds, <a href="#Page_166"><b>166</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> size,  japanner's, <a href="#Page_51"><b>51</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Golden Sulphur of Antimony, <a href="#Page_256"><b>256</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Yellow, <a href="#Page_256"><b>256</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gradation in art, <a href="#Page_328"><b>328</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   nature, <a href="#Page_326"><b>326</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Graham,  Mr., <a href="#Page_398"><b>398</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Graphite, <a href="#Page_393"><b>393</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gray, <a href="#Page_29"><b>29</b></a>, <a href="#Page_372"><b>372</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  analysis of, <a href="#Page_277"><b>277</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  and grey, <a href="#Page_29"><b>29</b></a>, <a href="#Page_372"><b>372</b></a>, <a href="#Page_381"><b>381</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  as a colour, <a href="#Page_372"><b>372</b></a>, <a href="#Page_374"><b>374</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  as a pigment, <a href="#Page_377"><b>377</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  contrast of, <a href="#Page_373"><b>373</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  on the Semi-Neutral, <a href="#Page_372"><b>372</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li><span class="smcap">Gray Pigments</span>:&mdash;</li>
+
+
+<li><ul class="sample2">
+<li>Mineral Gray, <a href="#Page_375"><b>375</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Mixed Gray, <a href="#Page_377"><b>377</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Neutral Tint, <a href="#Page_377"><b>377</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Payne's Gray, <a href="#Page_378"><b>378</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Ultramarine Ash, <a href="#Page_379"><b>379</b></a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Greeks,  colouring of the, <a href="#Page_7"><b>7</b></a>, <a href="#Page_8"><b>8</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> the, <a href="#Page_153"><b>153</b></a>, <a href="#Page_167"><b>167</b></a>, <a href="#Page_296"><b>296</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Green, <a href="#Page_28"><b>28</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  as a colour, <a href="#Page_263"><b>263</b></a>, <a href="#Page_265"><b>265</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  contrast of, <a href="#Page_263"><b>263</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Dewint's, <a href="#Page_330"><b>330</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  discordant, <a href="#Page_265"><b>265</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Olive, <a href="#Page_330"><b>330</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  on the Secondary, <a href="#Page_263"><b>263</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li><span class="smcap">Green Pigments</span>:&mdash;</li>
+
+
+<li><ul class="sample2">
+<li>African Green, <a href="#Page_271"><b>271</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Barium Chrome Green, <a href="#Page_280"><b>280</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_424" id="Page_424">[424]</a></span>Bismuth Chrome Green, <a href="#Page_280"><b>280</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Bladder Green, <a href="#Page_282"><b>282</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Bronze, <a href="#Page_279"><b>279</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Brunswick Green, <a href="#Page_271"><b>271</b></a>, <a href="#Page_279"><b>279</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Chrome Arseniate, <a href="#Page_284"><b>284</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Chrome Greens, <a href="#Page_279"><b>279</b></a>-<a href="#Page_281"><b>281</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Chrome Oxide, <a href="#Page_267"><b>267</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Chrome Oxides, <a href="#Page_266"><b>266</b></a>-<a href="#Page_271"><b>271</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Cobalt Green, <a href="#Page_285"><b>285</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Cobalt Prussian Green, <a href="#Page_282"><b>282</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Copper Borate, <a href="#Page_285"><b>285</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Copper Chrome, <a href="#Page_286"><b>286</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Copper Greens, <a href="#Page_271"><b>271</b></a>-<a href="#Page_276"><b>276</b></a>, <a href="#Page_285"><b>285</b></a>-<a href="#Page_287"><b>287</b></a>,   <a href="#Page_288"><b>288</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Copper Stannate, <a href="#Page_286"><b>286</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Distilled Verdigris, <a href="#Page_276"><b>276</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Elsner's Green, <a href="#Page_286"><b>286</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Emerald Green, <a href="#Page_271"><b>271</b></a>, <a href="#Page_283"><b>283</b></a>.</li>
+<li>English Green, <a href="#Page_280"><b>280</b></a>.</li>
+<li>French Green, <a href="#Page_271"><b>271</b></a>.</li>
+<li>French Veronese Green, <a href="#Page_268"><b>268</b></a>.</li>
+<li>German Mineral Green, <a href="#Page_288"><b>288</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Green Bice, <a href="#Page_287"><b>287</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Green Cinnabar, <a href="#Page_280"><b>280</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Green Earth, <a href="#Page_283"><b>283</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Green Lake, <a href="#Page_288"><b>288</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Green Ochre, <a href="#Page_287"><b>287</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Green Oxide of Chromium, <a href="#Page_267"><b>267</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Green Ultramarine, <a href="#Page_287"><b>287</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Green Verditer, <a href="#Page_287"><b>287</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Holy Green, <a href="#Page_283"><b>283</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Hooker's Green, <a href="#Page_281"><b>281</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Hungary Green, <a href="#Page_274"><b>274</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Imperial Green, <a href="#Page_271"><b>271</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Iris Green, <a href="#Page_282"><b>282</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Malachite Green, <a href="#Page_274"><b>274</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Manganese Green, <a href="#Page_288"><b>288</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Marine Green, <a href="#Page_271"><b>271</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Mineral Green, <a href="#Page_288"><b>288</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Mitis Green, <a href="#Page_271"><b>271</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Mixed Green, <a href="#Page_277"><b>277</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Molybdenum Green, <a href="#Page_289"><b>289</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Mountain Green, <a href="#Page_274"><b>274</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Native Green, <a href="#Page_267"><b>267</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Olympian Green, <a href="#Page_271"><b>271</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Opaque Oxide of Chromium, <a href="#Page_267"><b>267</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Oxide of Chromium, <a href="#Page_267"><b>267</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Patent Green, <a href="#Page_271"><b>271</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Persian Green, <a href="#Page_271"><b>271</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Pickle Green, <a href="#Page_276"><b>276</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Prussian Greens, <a href="#Page_281"><b>281</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Quinine Green, <a href="#Page_289"><b>289</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Rinman's Green, <a href="#Page_285"><b>285</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Roman Green, <a href="#Page_290"><b>290</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Sap Green, <a href="#Page_282"><b>282</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Saxon Green, <a href="#Page_271"><b>271</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Sheele's Green, <a href="#Page_272"><b>272</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Schweinfurt Green, <a href="#Page_271"><b>271</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Silicate of Baryta, <a href="#Page_290"><b>290</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Swedish Green, <a href="#Page_272"><b>272</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Terre Verte, <a href="#Page_283"><b>283</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Titanium Green, <a href="#Page_290"><b>290</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Transparent Oxide of Chromium,   <a href="#Page_268"><b>268</b></a>.</li>
+<li>True Chrome Green, <a href="#Page_267"><b>267</b></a>.</li>
+<li>True Prussian Green, <a href="#Page_281"><b>281</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Uranium Green, <a href="#Page_291"><b>291</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Vanadium Green, <a href="#Page_291"><b>291</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Venetian Green, <a href="#Page_283"><b>283</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Verde Vessie, <a href="#Page_282"><b>282</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Verdetto, <a href="#Page_283"><b>283</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Verdigris, <a href="#Page_276"><b>276</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Verona Green, <a href="#Page_283"><b>283</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Veronese Green, <a href="#Page_268"><b>268</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Vert de Zinc, <a href="#Page_285"><b>285</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Vienna Green, <a href="#Page_271"><b>271</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Viride &AElig;ris, <a href="#Page_276"><b>276</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Viridian, <a href="#Page_269"><b>269</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Zinc Green, <a href="#Page_285"><b>285</b></a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+
+
+<li>Green,  pure,  to obtain, <a href="#Page_277"><b>277</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Greens,  ancient, <a href="#Page_5"><b>5</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Grey, <a href="#Page_28"><b>28</b></a>-<a href="#Page_30"><b>30</b></a>, <a href="#Page_372"><b>372</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   and gray, <a href="#Page_29"><b>29</b></a>, <a href="#Page_381"><b>381</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   as a colour, <a href="#Page_381"><b>381</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   as a pigment, <a href="#Page_382"><b>382</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   colours with, <a href="#Page_382"><b>382</b></a>, <a href="#Page_383"><b>383</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   on the Neutral, <a href="#Page_381"><b>381</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li><span class="smcap">Grey Pigments</span>:&mdash;</li>
+
+
+<li><ul class="sample2">
+<li>Black Lead, <a href="#Page_382"><b>382</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Mixed Grey, <a href="#Page_384"><b>384</b></a>-<a href="#Page_386"><b>386</b></a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+
+
+<li>Grinding of pigments, <a href="#Page_37"><b>37</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Guido, <a href="#Page_8"><b>8</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Guimet,  M., <a href="#Page_210"><b>210</b></a>, <a href="#Page_215"><b>215</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   Outremer de, <a href="#Page_209"><b>209</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Guimet's Ultramarine, <a href="#Page_209"><b>209</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gum,  Drop, <a href="#Page_96"><b>96</b></a></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  tragacanth, <a href="#Page_66"><b>66</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gyges, <a href="#Page_7"><b>7</b></a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<h5 style="text-align: left; text-indent: 5em;">H.</h5>
+
+<ul class="sample2">
+
+
+<li>Haerlem Blue, <a href="#Page_207"><b>207</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hamburgh Lake, <a href="#Page_137"><b>137</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    White, <a href="#Page_74"><b>74</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hampton Court,  cartoons at, <a href="#Page_10"><b>10</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Harding's Tint, <a href="#Page_380"><b>380</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Harmony of colour, <a href="#Page_13"><b>13</b></a>-<a href="#Page_24"><b>24</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hatching of colours, <a href="#Page_18"><b>18</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Haydon, <a href="#Page_293"><b>293</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hercules Tyrius, <a href="#Page_296"><b>296</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Holy Green, <a href="#Page_283"><b>283</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hooker's Green, <a href="#Page_281"><b>281</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Houng hoa, <a href="#Page_396"><b>396</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hues, <a href="#Page_27"><b>27</b></a>, <a href="#Page_30"><b>30</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hungary Blue, <a href="#Page_189"><b>189</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    Green, <a href="#Page_274"><b>274</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hunt,  W., <a href="#Page_315"><b>315</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hypocastanum, <a href="#Page_357"><b>357</b></a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+
+<h5 style="text-align: left; text-indent: 5em;"> I.</h5>
+
+<ul class="sample2">
+
+
+
+<li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_425" id="Page_425">[425]</a></span>Illumination,  Cadmium Orange in, <a href="#Page_246"><b>246</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>             Coal-Tar Colours in, <a href="#Page_163"><b>163</b></a>, <a href="#Page_247"><b>247</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>             Manual of, <a href="#Page_246"><b>246</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>             Viridian in, <a href="#Page_270"><b>270</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Imperial Green, <a href="#Page_271"><b>271</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Indian Blue, <a href="#Page_199"><b>199</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>      Ink, <a href="#Page_349"><b>349</b></a>, <a href="#Page_395"><b>395</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>      Lake, <a href="#Page_138"><b>138</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>      Ochre, <a href="#Page_146"><b>146</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>      Purple, <a href="#Page_298"><b>298</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>      Red, <a href="#Page_148"><b>148</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>      Yellow, <a href="#Page_98"><b>98</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Indicum, <a href="#Page_199"><b>199</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Indigo, <a href="#Page_199"><b>199</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>      adulteration of, <a href="#Page_202"><b>202</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>      possible substitute for, <a href="#Page_235"><b>235</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>      proposed Factitious, <a href="#Page_202"><b>202</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Indigofera, <a href="#Page_200"><b>200</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Indium Yellow, <a href="#Page_117"><b>117</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Individually,  on Colours and Pigments, <a href="#Page_57"><b>57</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Ink,  blue, <a href="#Page_207"><b>207</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    British, <a href="#Page_395"><b>395</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    Chinese, <a href="#Page_395"><b>395</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    green, <a href="#Page_276"><b>276</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    Indelible Brown, <a href="#Page_345"><b>345</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    Indian, <a href="#Page_395"><b>395</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    Liquid Indian, <a href="#Page_397"><b>397</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    red, <a href="#Page_145"><b>145</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Inkfish,  the, <a href="#Page_348"><b>348</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Innoxious pigments, <a href="#Page_53"><b>53</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Intense Blue, <a href="#Page_202"><b>202</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>           manufacture of, <a href="#Page_202"><b>202</b></a>.</li>
+<li>International Exhibition of 1862, <a href="#Page_244"><b>244</b></a>, <a href="#Page_354"><b>354</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Invisible Green, <a href="#Page_329"><b>329</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Iodine, <a href="#Page_118"><b>118</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>      Blue, <a href="#Page_231"><b>231</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>      Pink, <a href="#Page_166"><b>166</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>      Scarlet, <a href="#Page_150"><b>150</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>      Yellow, <a href="#Page_118"><b>118</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Iridium Blue, <a href="#Page_232"><b>232</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Iris, <a href="#Page_228"><b>228</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    Green, <a href="#Page_282"><b>282</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Iron Browns, <a href="#Page_357"><b>357</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    Ferricyanide of, <a href="#Page_208"><b>208</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    Ferrocyanide of, <a href="#Page_203"><b>203</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    Gambogiate of, <a href="#Page_357"><b>357</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    pigments affected by, <a href="#Page_39"><b>39</b></a>, <a href="#Page_90"><b>90</b></a>, <a href="#Page_145"><b>145</b></a>, <a href="#Page_147"><b>147</b></a>, <a href="#Page_149"><b>149</b></a>, <a href="#Page_150"><b>150</b></a>, <a href="#Page_249"><b>249</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    Prussiate of, <a href="#Page_203"><b>203</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    Smalt, <a href="#Page_218"><b>218</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    Yellow, <a href="#Page_102"><b>102</b></a>, <a href="#Page_118"><b>118</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Italian Greens, <a href="#Page_276"><b>276</b></a>, <a href="#Page_277"><b>277</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>       Pink, <a href="#Page_100"><b>100</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Italics,  numbered colours in, <a href="#Page_114"><b>114</b></a>, <a href="#Page_407"><b>407</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Italy,  colouring in modern, <a href="#Page_8"><b>8</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Ivory Black, <a href="#Page_397"><b>397</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>            with Manganese Black, <a href="#Page_407"><b>407</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Ivory Brown, <a href="#Page_340"><b>340</b></a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<h5 style="text-align: left; text-indent: 5em;">J.</h5>
+
+<ul class="sample2">
+
+<li>Japanner's gold size, <a href="#Page_51"><b>51</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Jaune de Cologne, <a href="#Page_94"><b>94</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>       Fer, <a href="#Page_102"><b>102</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>       Mars, <a href="#Page_102"><b>102</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>       Min&eacute;rale, <a href="#Page_94"><b>94</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Jew's Pitch, <a href="#Page_337"><b>337</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Judea,  Bitumen of, <a href="#Page_337"><b>337</b></a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+
+
+<h5 style="text-align: left; text-indent: 5em;">K.</h5>
+
+<ul class="sample2">
+
+<li>Kermes, <a href="#Page_153"><b>153</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>       Lake, <a href="#Page_167"><b>167</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>       Mineral, <a href="#Page_159"><b>159</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Key of colouring, <a href="#Page_40"><b>40</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Khair tree,  the, <a href="#Page_354"><b>354</b></a>.</li>
+<li>King's Yellow, <a href="#Page_111"><b>111</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Knowledge of pigments, <a href="#Page_43"><b>43</b></a>, <a href="#Page_44"><b>44</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Kremnitz or Krems White, <a href="#Page_72"><b>72</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Kremser White, <a href="#Page_75"><b>75</b></a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<h5 style="text-align: left; text-indent: 5em;">L.</h5>
+
+<ul class="sample2">
+
+<li>Lac, <a href="#Page_138"><b>138</b></a>, <a href="#Page_167"><b>167</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    Lake, <a href="#Page_138"><b>138</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Lake,  Asphaltic,  the, <a href="#Page_337"><b>337</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     Burnt, <a href="#Page_198"><b>198</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     Chinese, <a href="#Page_137"><b>137</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     Citrine, <a href="#Page_312"><b>312</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     Crimson, <a href="#Page_135"><b>135</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     Drop, <a href="#Page_131"><b>131</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     Florentine, <a href="#Page_137"><b>137</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     Green, <a href="#Page_288"><b>288</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     Hamburgh, <a href="#Page_137"><b>137</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     Indian, <a href="#Page_138"><b>138</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     Kermes, <a href="#Page_167"><b>167</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     Liquid Madder, <a href="#Page_145"><b>145</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     Madder, <a href="#Page_144"><b>144</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     Marrone, <a href="#Page_369"><b>369</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     Olive, <a href="#Page_331"><b>331</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     Orange, <a href="#Page_258"><b>258</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     Purple, <a href="#Page_137"><b>137</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     Quercitron, <a href="#Page_100"><b>100</b></a>, <a href="#Page_312"><b>312</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     Roman, <a href="#Page_137"><b>137</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     Scarlet, <a href="#Page_136"><b>136</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     Venetian, <a href="#Page_137"><b>137</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     Yellow, <a href="#Page_100"><b>100</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Lakes,  Cochineal, <a href="#Page_131"><b>131</b></a>-<a href="#Page_137"><b>137</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>      Field's, <a href="#Page_139"><b>139</b></a>-<a href="#Page_145"><b>145</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>      Madder, <a href="#Page_139"><b>139</b></a>-<a href="#Page_145"><b>145</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>      Rubric, <a href="#Page_139"><b>139</b></a>-<a href="#Page_145"><b>145</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>      Yellow, <a href="#Page_99"><b>99</b></a>, <a href="#Page_100"><b>100</b></a>.</li>
+
+
+
+<li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_426" id="Page_426">[426]</a></span>Lamblack, <a href="#Page_399"><b>399</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Lamp Black, <a href="#Page_399"><b>399</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Lapis Lazuli, <a href="#Page_209"><b>209</b></a>, <a href="#Page_217"><b>217</b></a>, <a href="#Page_219"><b>219</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Laque de garance, <a href="#Page_142"><b>142</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   Min&eacute;rale, <a href="#Page_258"><b>258</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Latent colour, <a href="#Page_58"><b>58</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Lawson,  Professor, <a href="#Page_168"><b>168</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Lawson's Red, <a href="#Page_168"><b>168</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Layard,  Mr., <a href="#Page_6"><b>6</b></a>, <a href="#Page_218"><b>218</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Lazuline, <a href="#Page_217"><b>217</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Lazulite Blue, <a href="#Page_217"><b>217</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Lazur,  Persian and Tartarian, <a href="#Page_228"><b>228</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Lazurium, <a href="#Page_217"><b>217</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Lazurstein, <a href="#Page_217"><b>217</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Lead,  acetate or sugar of, <a href="#Page_50"><b>50</b></a>-<a href="#Page_52"><b>52</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   Black, <a href="#Page_382"><b>382</b></a>, <a href="#Page_393"><b>393</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   carbonate of, <a href="#Page_68"><b>68</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   Chocolate, <a href="#Page_368"><b>368</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   dicarbonate of, <a href="#Page_69"><b>69</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   hydrated oxide of, <a href="#Page_68"><b>68</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   in drying oils, <a href="#Page_121"><b>121</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   Orange, <a href="#Page_258"><b>258</b></a></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   oxychloride of, <a href="#Page_73"><b>73</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   pigments affected by, <a href="#Page_39"><b>39</b></a>, <a href="#Page_67"><b>67</b></a>, <a href="#Page_97"><b>97</b></a>, <a href="#Page_99"><b>99</b></a>, <a href="#Page_112"><b>112</b></a>, <a href="#Page_120"><b>120</b></a>, <a href="#Page_134"><b>134</b></a>, <a href="#Page_138"><b>138</b></a>, <a href="#Page_139"><b>139</b></a>, <a href="#Page_152"><b>152</b></a>, <a href="#Page_201"><b>201</b></a>, <a href="#Page_206"><b>206</b></a>, <a href="#Page_248"><b>248</b></a>, <a href="#Page_280"><b>280</b></a>, <a href="#Page_312"><b>312</b></a>, <a href="#Page_341"><b>341</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   pigments,  avoidance of, <a href="#Page_67"><b>67</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   Red, <a href="#Page_151"><b>151</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   Sulphate of, <a href="#Page_72"><b>72</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   White, <a href="#Page_67"><b>67</b></a>-<a href="#Page_70"><b>70</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   Whites, <a href="#Page_67"><b>67</b></a>-<a href="#Page_75"><b>75</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Leitch's Blue, <a href="#Page_199"><b>199</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>      Brown, <a href="#Page_346"><b>346</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Leithner's Blue, <a href="#Page_189"><b>189</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Lemon Cadmium, <a href="#Page_91"><b>91</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   Yellow, <a href="#Page_101"><b>101</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Leonardo da Vinci, <a href="#Page_8"><b>8</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Leyden,  Cassius of, <a href="#Page_306"><b>306</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Lichens, <a href="#Page_304"><b>304</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Liege Black, <a href="#Page_394"><b>394</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Light and air,  pigments affected by, <a href="#Page_91"><b>91</b></a>, <a href="#Page_92"><b>92</b></a>, <a href="#Page_95"><b>95</b></a>, <a href="#Page_97"><b>97</b></a>, <a href="#Page_98"><b>98</b></a>, <a href="#Page_99"><b>99</b></a>, <a href="#Page_112"><b>112</b></a>, <a href="#Page_124"><b>124</b></a>, <a href="#Page_134"><b>134</b></a>, <a href="#Page_135"><b>135</b></a>, <a href="#Page_136"><b>136</b></a>, <a href="#Page_139"><b>139</b></a>, <a href="#Page_151"><b>151</b></a>, <a href="#Page_163"><b>163</b></a>, <a href="#Page_199"><b>199</b></a>, <a href="#Page_201"><b>201</b></a>, <a href="#Page_205"><b>205</b></a>, <a href="#Page_208"><b>208</b></a>, <a href="#Page_247"><b>247</b></a>, <a href="#Page_276"><b>276</b></a>, <a href="#Page_282"><b>282</b></a>, <a href="#Page_298"><b>298</b></a>, <a href="#Page_303"><b>303</b></a>, <a href="#Page_313"><b>313</b></a>, <a href="#Page_330"><b>330</b></a>, <a href="#Page_340"><b>340</b></a>, <a href="#Page_343"><b>343</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Light,  direct and diffused, <a href="#Page_391"><b>391</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    electric,  the, <a href="#Page_191"><b>191</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    magnesium,  the, <a href="#Page_191"><b>191</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    Red, <a href="#Page_149"><b>149</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Likes and dislikes of pigments, <a href="#Page_194"><b>194</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Lime,  pigments affected by, <a href="#Page_40"><b>40</b></a>, <a href="#Page_97"><b>97</b></a>, <a href="#Page_98"><b>98</b></a>, <a href="#Page_206"><b>206</b></a>, <a href="#Page_275"><b>275</b></a>, <a href="#Page_281"><b>281</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    with Prussian Blue, <a href="#Page_206"><b>206</b></a>, <a href="#Page_281"><b>281</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Linear perspective, <a href="#Page_22"><b>22</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Linseed oil with White Lead, <a href="#Page_69"><b>69</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Liquid Asphaltum, <a href="#Page_339"><b>339</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    Indian Ink, <a href="#Page_397"><b>397</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    Madder Lake, <a href="#Page_145"><b>145</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    Prout's Brown, <a href="#Page_345"><b>345</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    Rubiate, <a href="#Page_145"><b>145</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Lists of Permanent Pigments:&mdash;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Blue, <a href="#Page_278"><b>278</b></a>, <a href="#Page_300"><b>300</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Green, <a href="#Page_315"><b>315</b></a>, <a href="#Page_329"><b>329</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Orange, <a href="#Page_315"><b>315</b></a>, <a href="#Page_323"><b>323</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Purple, <a href="#Page_323"><b>323</b></a>, <a href="#Page_329"><b>329</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Red, <a href="#Page_253"><b>253</b></a>, <a href="#Page_300"><b>300</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Yellow, <a href="#Page_252"><b>252</b></a>, <a href="#Page_278"><b>278</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Litharge, <a href="#Page_51"><b>51</b></a>, <a href="#Page_120"><b>120</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Litmus, <a href="#Page_303"><b>303</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Local colour, <a href="#Page_24"><b>24</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Lombard School, <a href="#Page_8"><b>8</b></a>.</li>
+<li>London White, <a href="#Page_73"><b>73</b></a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<h5 style="text-align: left; text-indent: 5em;">M.</h5>
+
+<ul class="sample2">
+
+<li>Macpherson's Tint, <a href="#Page_380"><b>380</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Madder, <a href="#Page_139"><b>139</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     adulteration of, <a href="#Page_140"><b>140</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     Brown, <a href="#Page_365"><b>365</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     Burnt, <a href="#Page_305"><b>305</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     Carmine, <a href="#Page_142"><b>142</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>      <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     adulteration of, <a href="#Page_142"><b>142</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     colouring matters of, <a href="#Page_140"><b>140</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     Cory's or Cory's Yellow, <a href="#Page_119"><b>119</b></a>, <a href="#Page_353"><b>353</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     Dr. Schunck on, <a href="#Page_140"><b>140</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     Lake, <a href="#Page_144"><b>144</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     Lakes, <a href="#Page_139"><b>139</b></a>-<a href="#Page_145"><b>145</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>      <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   manufacture of, <a href="#Page_141"><b>141</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     Liquid Lake, <a href="#Page_145"><b>145</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     Orange, <a href="#Page_258"><b>258</b></a>, <a href="#Page_353"><b>353</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     Pink, <a href="#Page_144"><b>144</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     Purple, <a href="#Page_301"><b>301</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     reds in oil, <a href="#Page_144"><b>144</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     Rose, <a href="#Page_143"><b>143</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     Rubens', <a href="#Page_321"><b>321</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     Yellow, <a href="#Page_118"><b>118</b></a>, <a href="#Page_353"><b>353</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Magenta, <a href="#Page_162"><b>162</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Majolica, <a href="#Page_146"><b>146</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Malachite Green, <a href="#Page_274"><b>274</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Manganese as a siccative, <a href="#Page_51"><b>51</b></a>, <a href="#Page_77"><b>77</b></a>, <a href="#Page_406"><b>406</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     Black, <a href="#Page_406"><b>406</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     Blue, <a href="#Page_232"><b>232</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     Brown, <a href="#Page_358"><b>358</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     Green, <a href="#Page_288"><b>288</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     Red, <a href="#Page_168"><b>168</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Manufacture of Cadmium Yellow, <a href="#Page_92"><b>92</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>         Carmine, <a href="#Page_134"><b>134</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>         Cobalt Blue, <a href="#Page_192"><b>192</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>         Intense Blue, <a href="#Page_202"><b>202</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>         Vermilion, <a href="#Page_92"><b>92</b></a>, <a href="#Page_153"><b>153</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Marine Green, <a href="#Page_271"><b>271</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Marrone, <a href="#Page_28"><b>28</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>      analysis of, <a href="#Page_377"><b>377</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>      as a colour, <a href="#Page_362"><b>362</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>      contrasts of, <a href="#Page_362"><b>362</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>      for walls of picture galleries, <a href="#Page_363"><b>363</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>      on the Semi-Neutral, <a href="#Page_362"><b>362</b></a>.</li>
+
+
+<li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_427" id="Page_427">[427]</a></span><span class="smcap">Marrone Pigments</span>:&mdash;</li>
+<li><ul class="sample2">
+<li>Brown Madder, <a href="#Page_365"><b>365</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Chica Marrone, <a href="#Page_367"><b>367</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Chocolate Lead, <a href="#Page_368"><b>368</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Cobalt Marrone, <a href="#Page_368"><b>368</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Madder Marrone, <a href="#Page_369"><b>369</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Marrone Lake, <a href="#Page_369"><b>369</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Marrone Red, <a href="#Page_368"><b>368</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Mars Marrone, <a href="#Page_369"><b>369</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Mixed Marrone, <a href="#Page_367"><b>367</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Purple Black, <a href="#Page_369"><b>369</b></a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Mars Brown, <a href="#Page_313"><b>313</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Brun de, <a href="#Page_313"><b>313</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  colours named after, <a href="#Page_102"><b>102</b></a>, <a href="#Page_146"><b>146</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Orange, <a href="#Page_248"><b>248</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Red, <a href="#Page_145"><b>145</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Rouge de, <a href="#Page_145"><b>145</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Violet, <a href="#Page_290"><b>290</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Violet de, <a href="#Page_290"><b>290</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Yellow, <a href="#Page_102"><b>102</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Massicot, <a href="#Page_120"><b>120</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Mastic varnish, <a href="#Page_50"><b>50</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Mauve, <a href="#Page_163"><b>163</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Mercury,  Chromate of, <a href="#Page_256"><b>256</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  marrone, <a href="#Page_371"><b>371</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  white, <a href="#Page_79"><b>79</b></a>.</li>
+<li>M&eacute;rim&eacute;e, <a href="#Page_121"><b>121</b></a>, <a href="#Page_142"><b>142</b></a>, <a href="#Page_229"><b>229</b></a>, <a href="#Page_284"><b>284</b></a>, <a href="#Page_316"><b>316</b></a>,  <a href="#Page_343"><b>343</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Metallic whites, <a href="#Page_79"><b>79</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Metals,  rare, <a href="#Page_172"><b>172</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Michael Angelo, <a href="#Page_8"><b>8</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Mineral Black, <a href="#Page_407"><b>407</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Blue, <a href="#Page_207"><b>207</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Brown, <a href="#Page_342"><b>342</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  colours,  darkening of, <a href="#Page_284"><b>284</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Gray, <a href="#Page_375"><b>375</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Green, <a href="#Page_288"><b>288</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Green,  German, <a href="#Page_288"><b>288</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Kermes, <a href="#Page_159"><b>159</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Orange, <a href="#Page_258"><b>258</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Pitch, <a href="#Page_337"><b>337</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Purple, <a href="#Page_290"><b>290</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Turbith, <a href="#Page_123"><b>123</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Yellow, <a href="#Page_106"><b>106</b></a>, <a href="#Page_116"><b>116</b></a>, <a href="#Page_121"><b>121</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Min&eacute;rale,  Jaune, <a href="#Page_94"><b>94</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Laque, <a href="#Page_258"><b>258</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Miniature painter,  a, <a href="#Page_401"><b>401</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Minium, <a href="#Page_151"><b>151</b></a>, <a href="#Page_153"><b>153</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Mitis Green, <a href="#Page_271"><b>271</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Mixed Colours:&mdash;
+<span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Black, <a href="#Page_402"><b>402</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Brown, <a href="#Page_346"><b>346</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Citrine, <a href="#Page_314"><b>314</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Gray, <a href="#Page_377"><b>377</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Green, <a href="#Page_277"><b>277</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Grey, <a href="#Page_384"><b>384</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Marrone, <a href="#Page_367"><b>367</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Olive, <a href="#Page_328"><b>328</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Orange, <a href="#Page_249"><b>249</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Purple, <a href="#Page_290"><b>290</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Russet, <a href="#Page_322"><b>322</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Mixed tints,  on, <a href="#Page_249"><b>249</b></a>-<a href="#Page_252"><b>252</b></a>, <a href="#Page_262"><b>262</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Mixture,  a, <a href="#Page_199"><b>199</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  of Bitumen and Mummy,  <a href="#Page_348"><b>348</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  of coloured rays, <a href="#Page_384"><b>384</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  of material colours, <a href="#Page_384"><b>384</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  unnecessary, <a href="#Page_35"><b>35</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Modan or Morat White, <a href="#Page_80"><b>80</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Modern pigments, <a href="#Page_41"><b>41</b></a>-<a href="#Page_45"><b>45</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  detractors of, <a href="#Page_43"><b>43</b></a>-<a href="#Page_45"><b>45</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  inferior, <a href="#Page_41"><b>41</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  superior, <a href="#Page_42"><b>42</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Molybdenum Green, <a href="#Page_289"><b>289</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Monicon, <a href="#Page_257"><b>257</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Montabert,  De, <a href="#Page_405"><b>405</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Montbeillard,  Roman pavement at,  <a href="#Page_218"><b>218</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Montpellier Yellow, <a href="#Page_121"><b>121</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Mountain Blue, <a href="#Page_228"><b>228</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Green, <a href="#Page_274"><b>274</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Mountains, <a href="#Page_254"><b>254</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Mummy, <a href="#Page_347"><b>347</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Brown, <a href="#Page_347"><b>347</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  and Bitumen,  mixed, <a href="#Page_348"><b>348</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Murexide, <a href="#Page_169"><b>169</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Mus&eacute;e Min&eacute;ralogique,  of Paris,  <a href="#Page_219"><b>219</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Mutrie,  Miss, <a href="#Page_143"><b>143</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Yellow, <a href="#Page_92"><b>92</b></a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<h5 style="text-align: left; text-indent: 5em;">N.</h5>
+
+<ul class="sample2">
+
+
+<li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_428" id="Page_428">[428]</a></span>Naphthaline, <a href="#Page_162"><b>162</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Naples Yellow,  modern, <a href="#Page_104"><b>104</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  old, <a href="#Page_103"><b>103</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Napoleon,  Emperor, <a href="#Page_176"><b>176</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Native Bitumen, <a href="#Page_338"><b>338</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Green, <a href="#Page_267"><b>267</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Prussian Blue, <a href="#Page_207"><b>207</b></a>, <a href="#Page_226"><b>226</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Ultramarine, <a href="#Page_216"><b>216</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Natural Ultramarine, <a href="#Page_216"><b>216</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Nature,  colour in, <a href="#Page_311"><b>311</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  gradation in, <a href="#Page_326"><b>326</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  palette of, <a href="#Page_185"><b>185</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  study of, <a href="#Page_24"><b>24</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Negative colours, <a href="#Page_28"><b>28</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Nepos Cornelius, <a href="#Page_295"><b>295</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Neutral colours, <a href="#Page_27"><b>27</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Orange,  Penley's, <a href="#Page_253"><b>253</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Tint, <a href="#Page_377"><b>377</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Neutrality and colour, <a href="#Page_375"><b>375</b></a>, <a href="#Page_376"><b>376</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Neutrals,  colour as applied to the,  <a href="#Page_62"><b>62</b></a>.</li>
+<li>New Blue, <a href="#Page_216"><b>216</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  pigments, <a href="#Page_41"><b>41</b></a>-<a href="#Page_45"><b>45</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Nickel Brown, <a href="#Page_358"><b>358</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Nineveh, <a href="#Page_6"><b>6</b></a>, <a href="#Page_218"><b>218</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Nottingham White, <a href="#Page_73"><b>73</b></a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+
+<h5 style="text-align: left; text-indent: 5em;">O.</h5>
+
+<ul class="sample2">
+
+
+<li>Objectionable pigments,  substitutes for, <a href="#Page_96"><b>96</b></a>, <a href="#Page_104"><b>104</b></a>, <a href="#Page_114"><b>114</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Ochre,  Black, <a href="#Page_404"><b>404</b></a>
+<span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   Blue, <a href="#Page_226"><b>226</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   Brown, <a href="#Page_108"><b>108</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   Browns, <a href="#Page_358"><b>358</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   Burnt Roman, <a href="#Page_255"><b>255</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   Chrome, <a href="#Page_267"><b>267</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   Green, <a href="#Page_287"><b>287</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   Indian, <a href="#Page_148"><b>148</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   Orange, <a href="#Page_255"><b>255</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   Oxford, <a href="#Page_109"><b>109</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   Purple, <a href="#Page_290"><b>290</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   Red, <a href="#Page_147"><b>147</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   Roman, <a href="#Page_107"><b>107</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   Scarlet, <a href="#Page_149"><b>149</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   Spanish, <a href="#Page_255"><b>255</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   Spruce, <a href="#Page_108"><b>108</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   Stone, <a href="#Page_109"><b>109</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   Transparent Gold, <a href="#Page_108"><b>108</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   Yellow, <a href="#Page_106"><b>106</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Ochres and foul air, <a href="#Page_359"><b>359</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   Red, <a href="#Page_146"><b>146</b></a>-<a href="#Page_150"><b>150</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   Yellow, <a href="#Page_105"><b>105</b></a>-<a href="#Page_109"><b>109</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Ocre de Ru, <a href="#Page_108"><b>108</b></a></li>
+<li>Oil,  coal-tar colours in, <a href="#Page_247"><b>247</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   water-colour cakes in, <a href="#Page_50"><b>50</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Oils, <a href="#Page_33"><b>33</b></a>, <a href="#Page_152"><b>152</b></a>, <a href="#Page_194"><b>194</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Olive, <a href="#Page_28"><b>28</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>      analysis of, <a href="#Page_330"><b>330</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>      as a colour, <a href="#Page_325"><b>325</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>      contrast of, <a href="#Page_325"><b>325</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>      on the Tertiary, <a href="#Page_325"><b>325</b></a>.</li>
+
+
+<li><span class="smcap">Olive Pigments</span>:&mdash;</li>
+<li><ul class="sample2">
+<li>Burnt Verdigris, <a href="#Page_331"><b>331</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Dewint's Green, <a href="#Page_330"><b>330</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Mixed Olive, <a href="#Page_328"><b>328</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Olive Green, <a href="#Page_330"><b>330</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Olive Lake, <a href="#Page_331"><b>331</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Olive Oxide of Chromium, <a href="#Page_331"><b>331</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Olive Rinman's Green, <a href="#Page_332"><b>332</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Olive Scheele's Green, <a href="#Page_332"><b>332</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Olive Schweinfurt Green, <a href="#Page_332"><b>332</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Olive Terre Verte, <a href="#Page_333"><b>333</b></a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+
+<li>Olive purples, <a href="#Page_301"><b>301</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Olympian Green, <a href="#Page_271"><b>271</b></a>.</li>
+<li>O'Neill,  Mr., <a href="#Page_159"><b>159</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Opacity of pigments, <a href="#Page_48"><b>48</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Orange, <a href="#Page_28"><b>28</b></a>,
+<span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>      as a colour, <a href="#Page_239"><b>239</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>      as an archeus, <a href="#Page_240"><b>240</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>      contrast of, <a href="#Page_240"><b>240</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>      discordant, <a href="#Page_240"><b>240</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>      on the Secondary, <a href="#Page_239"><b>239</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li><span class="smcap">Orange Pigments</span>:&mdash;</li>
+<li><ul class="sample2">
+<li>Anotta, <a href="#Page_255"><b>255</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Antimony Orange, <a href="#Page_256"><b>256</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Bixine, <a href="#Page_256"><b>256</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Burnt Roman Ochre, <a href="#Page_255"><b>255</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Burnt Sienna, <a href="#Page_243"><b>243</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Burnt Terra di Sienna, <a href="#Page_243"><b>243</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Cadmium Orange, <a href="#Page_36"><b>36</b></a>, <a href="#Page_244"><b>244</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Chinese Orange, <a href="#Page_246"><b>246</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Chromate of Mercury, <a href="#Page_256"><b>256</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Chrome Orange, <a href="#Page_248"><b>248</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Damonico, <a href="#Page_257"><b>257</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Gamboge Orange, <a href="#Page_257"><b>257</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Golden Sulphur of Antimony, <a href="#Page_256"><b>256</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Golden Yellow, <a href="#Page_256"><b>256</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Laque Min&eacute;rale, <a href="#Page_258"><b>258</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Madder Orange, <a href="#Page_258"><b>258</b></a>, <a href="#Page_353"><b>353</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Mars Orange, <a href="#Page_248"><b>248</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Mineral Orange, <a href="#Page_248"><b>248</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Mixed Orange, <a href="#Page_249"><b>249</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Monicon, <a href="#Page_257"><b>257</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Neutral Orange, <a href="#Page_253"><b>253</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Orange Chrome, <a href="#Page_248"><b>248</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Orange Chromate of Lead, <a href="#Page_248"><b>248</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Orange de Mars, <a href="#Page_248"><b>248</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Orange Lake, <a href="#Page_258"><b>258</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Orange Lead, <a href="#Page_258"><b>258</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Orange Ochre, <a href="#Page_255"><b>255</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Orange Orpiment, <a href="#Page_258"><b>258</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Penley's Neutral Orange, <a href="#Page_253"><b>253</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Realgar, <a href="#Page_258"><b>258</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Red Orpiment, <a href="#Page_258"><b>258</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Rocou, <a href="#Page_255"><b>255</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Spanish Ochre, <a href="#Page_255"><b>255</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Terra Orellana, <a href="#Page_255"><b>255</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Thallium Orange, <a href="#Page_259"><b>259</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Uranium Orange, <a href="#Page_260"><b>260</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Zinc Orange, <a href="#Page_261"><b>261</b></a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Orange Russet, <a href="#Page_321"><b>321</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>      Vermilion, <a href="#Page_157"><b>157</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>      Field's, <a href="#Page_158"><b>158</b></a>.</li>
+
+
+<li>Order of Colours:&mdash;</li>
+<li><ul class="sample2">
+<li>White, <a href="#Page_62"><b>62</b></a>-<a href="#Page_80"><b>80</b></a>, <a href="#Page_414"><b>414</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Yellow, <a href="#Page_81"><b>81</b></a>-<a href="#Page_126"><b>126</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Red, <a href="#Page_127"><b>127</b></a>-<a href="#Page_182"><b>182</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Blue, <a href="#Page_183"><b>183</b></a>-<a href="#Page_238"><b>238</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Orange, <a href="#Page_239"><b>239</b></a>-<a href="#Page_262"><b>262</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Green, <a href="#Page_263"><b>263</b></a>-<a href="#Page_293"><b>293</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Purple, <a href="#Page_294"><b>294</b></a>-<a href="#Page_309"><b>309</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Citrine, <a href="#Page_310"><b>310</b></a>-<a href="#Page_319"><b>319</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Russet, <a href="#Page_320"><b>320</b></a>-<a href="#Page_324"><b>324</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Olive, <a href="#Page_325"><b>325</b></a>-<a href="#Page_333"><b>333</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Brown, <a href="#Page_334"><b>334</b></a>-<a href="#Page_361"><b>361</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Marrone, <a href="#Page_362"><b>362</b></a>-<a href="#Page_371"><b>371</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Gray, <a href="#Page_372"><b>372</b></a>-<a href="#Page_380"><b>380</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Grey, <a href="#Page_381"><b>381</b></a>-<a href="#Page_386"><b>386</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Black, <a href="#Page_387"><b>387</b></a>-<a href="#Page_413"><b>413</b></a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+
+<li>Organic pigments with lead chromates, <a href="#Page_248"><b>248</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Orient Yellow, <a href="#Page_42"><b>42</b></a>, <a href="#Page_110"><b>110</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Original pigments, <a href="#Page_35"><b>35</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>       importance of, <a href="#Page_240"><b>240</b></a>-<a href="#Page_242"><b>242</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Orpiment Yellow, <a href="#Page_111"><b>111</b></a>-<a href="#Page_113"><b>113</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Outremer, <a href="#Page_217"><b>217</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Outremer de Guimet, <a href="#Page_209"><b>209</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_429" id="Page_429">[429]</a></span>Oxford Ochre, <a href="#Page_109"><b>109</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Oxidation of pigments, <a href="#Page_38"><b>38</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Oxide,  Chrome, <a href="#Page_267"><b>267</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  of Chromium,  Green, <a href="#Page_267"><b>267</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Opaque, <a href="#Page_267"><b>267</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Transparent, <a href="#Page_268"><b>268</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Oxychloride of Lead, <a href="#Page_73"><b>73</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Oxygenated water, <a href="#Page_69"><b>69</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Oyster-shell,  white of, <a href="#Page_80"><b>80</b></a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<h5 style="text-align: left; text-indent: 5em;">P.</h5>
+
+<ul class="sample2">
+
+
+<li>Paille de Mil, <a href="#Page_170"><b>170</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Painting,  siliceous, <a href="#Page_212"><b>212</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Pale Cadmium, <a href="#Page_90"><b>90</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> Chrome, <a href="#Page_93"><b>93</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> Vermilion, <a href="#Page_154"><b>154</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> washes of a pigment, <a href="#Page_91"><b>91</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Palette,  disinfectants of the, <a href="#Page_359"><b>359</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  motto for the, <a href="#Page_156"><b>156</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  setting the, <a href="#Page_23"><b>23</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Palette-knife,  avoidance of a steel, <a href="#Page_39"><b>39</b></a>, <a href="#Page_50"><b>50</b></a>, <a href="#Page_90"><b>90</b></a>, <a href="#Page_103"><b>103</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Palladium, <a href="#Page_122"><b>122</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Paper Black, <a href="#Page_407"><b>407</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Smalt and Ultramarine in, <a href="#Page_196"><b>196</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  to give a tone to, <a href="#Page_253"><b>253</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Paris Blue, <a href="#Page_192"><b>192</b></a>, <a href="#Page_203"><b>203</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Paris,  Mus&eacute;e Min&eacute;ralogique at, <a href="#Page_219"><b>219</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Soci&eacute;t&eacute; d'Encouragement of, <a href="#Page_210"><b>210</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Particular colour,  predilection for a, <a href="#Page_58"><b>58</b></a>, <a href="#Page_59"><b>59</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Patent Green, <a href="#Page_271"><b>271</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Yellow, <a href="#Page_121"><b>121</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Pattison's White, <a href="#Page_73"><b>73</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Paul Veronese, <a href="#Page_229"><b>229</b></a>, <a href="#Page_335"><b>335</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Payne's Gray, <a href="#Page_378"><b>378</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Peach Black, <a href="#Page_407"><b>407</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Pearl White, <a href="#Page_78"><b>78</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Peganum Harmala, <a href="#Page_171"><b>171</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Penley,  Mr. Aaron, <a href="#Page_85"><b>85</b></a>-<a href="#Page_87"><b>87</b></a>, <a href="#Page_158"><b>158</b></a>, <a href="#Page_268"><b>268</b></a>, <a href="#Page_270"><b>270</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Penley's Neutral Orange, <a href="#Page_253"><b>253</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Perfect pigment,  a, <a href="#Page_46"><b>46</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Perkin,  Mr. W., <a href="#Page_162"><b>162</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Permanent Blue, <a href="#Page_216"><b>216</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   pigments, <a href="#Page_252"><b>252</b></a>, <a href="#Page_278"><b>278</b></a>, <a href="#Page_300"><b>300</b></a>, <a href="#Page_315"><b>315</b></a>, <a href="#Page_323"><b>323</b></a>, <a href="#Page_329"><b>329</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   White, <a href="#Page_65"><b>65</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Peroxidized pigments, <a href="#Page_38"><b>38</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Persian berries, <a href="#Page_312"><b>312</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Green, <a href="#Page_271"><b>271</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  lazur, <a href="#Page_228"><b>228</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Red, <a href="#Page_148"><b>148</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Perspective,  aerial, <a href="#Page_22"><b>22</b></a>, <a href="#Page_23"><b>23</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   linear, <a href="#Page_22"><b>22</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   of colours, <a href="#Page_22"><b>22</b></a>, <a href="#Page_23"><b>23</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Persulphomolybdates, <a href="#Page_171"><b>171</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Philocles, <a href="#Page_7"><b>7</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Phosphine, <a href="#Page_162"><b>162</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Photography,  lamp black in, <a href="#Page_401"><b>401</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   pigments generally in, <a href="#Page_401"><b>401</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Pickle Green, <a href="#Page_276"><b>276</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Picric acid, <a href="#Page_162"><b>162</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Picture galleries, <a href="#Page_363"><b>363</b></a>-<a href="#Page_365"><b>365</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Pictures and pigments, <a href="#Page_292"><b>292</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Pigment and colour, <a href="#Page_31"><b>31</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Pigments,  action of fire and time on<a href="#Page_31"><b>31</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  adulteration of, <a href="#Page_70"><b>70</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  apt to vary, <a href="#Page_126"><b>126</b></a>, <a href="#Page_181"><b>181</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  beauty in, <a href="#Page_46"><b>46</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  blending of, <a href="#Page_37"><b>37</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  common, <a href="#Page_359"><b>359</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  compound, <a href="#Page_36"><b>36</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  drying of, <a href="#Page_50"><b>50</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  fineness of texture in, <a href="#Page_50"><b>50</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  grinding of, <a href="#Page_37"><b>37</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  individual beauty of, <a href="#Page_58"><b>58</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  innoxious, <a href="#Page_53"><b>53</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  on the Durability and Fugacity of, <a href="#Page_31"><b>31</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  on the General Qualities of, <a href="#Page_46"><b>46</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  opacity and transparency of, <a href="#Page_48"><b>48</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  past and present, <a href="#Page_293"><b>293</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  rays from, <a href="#Page_384"><b>384</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  truth of hue in, <a href="#Page_47"><b>47</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  vehicles with, <a href="#Page_48"><b>48</b></a>-<a href="#Page_53"><b>53</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  working well, <a href="#Page_49"><b>49</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Pink,  Brown, <a href="#Page_313"><b>313</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Dutch, <a href="#Page_100"><b>100</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  English, <a href="#Page_100"><b>100</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Italian, <a href="#Page_100"><b>100</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Madder, <a href="#Page_144"><b>144</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Rose, <a href="#Page_173"><b>173</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Saucers, <a href="#Page_174"><b>174</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Pitch,  Jew's, <a href="#Page_337"><b>337</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Mineral, <a href="#Page_337"><b>337</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Pittacal, <a href="#Page_234"><b>234</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Platinum Blue, <a href="#Page_233"><b>233</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Yellow, <a href="#Page_121"><b>121</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Playfair,  Dr. Lyon, <a href="#Page_355"><b>355</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Pliny, <a href="#Page_7"><b>7</b></a>, <a href="#Page_153"><b>153</b></a>, <a href="#Page_198"><b>198</b></a>, <a href="#Page_218"><b>218</b></a>, <a href="#Page_295"><b>295</b></a>, <a href="#Page_338"><b>338</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Plumbago, <a href="#Page_393"><b>393</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Polygnotus, <a href="#Page_9"><b>9</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Pompeii, <a href="#Page_105"><b>105</b></a>, <a href="#Page_229"><b>229</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Porcelain,  blue for, <a href="#Page_235"><b>235</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  green for, <a href="#Page_267"><b>267</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Poussin, <a href="#Page_11"><b>11</b></a>, <a href="#Page_316"><b>316</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Powder Blue, <a href="#Page_196"><b>196</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Power of pigments,  individual, <a href="#Page_59"><b>59</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Powers of colours, <a href="#Page_82"><b>82</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Practice of Sir J. Reynolds, <a href="#Page_37"><b>37</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Precipitate,  Red, <a href="#Page_173"><b>173</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Prevention and cure, <a href="#Page_412"><b>412</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Price,  Dr. D. S., <a href="#Page_69"><b>69</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_430" id="Page_430">[430]</a></span>Primary colours, <a href="#Page_28"><b>28</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Principles of practice, <a href="#Page_35"><b>35</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Process,  Autotype, <a href="#Page_401"><b>401</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Protoxide,  pigments in the state of, <a href="#Page_37"><b>37</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Proust,  M., <a href="#Page_396"><b>396</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Prout,  Samuel, <a href="#Page_346"><b>346</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Prout's Brown,  Liquid, <a href="#Page_345"><b>345</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Prussian Black, <a href="#Page_404"><b>404</b></a>, <a href="#Page_408"><b>408</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   Copper, <a href="#Page_408"><b>408</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Prussian Blue, <a href="#Page_203"><b>203</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> adulteration of, <a href="#Page_203"><b>203</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> character of, <a href="#Page_237"><b>237</b></a>, <a href="#Page_278"><b>278</b></a>, <a href="#Page_301"><b>301</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> Cobalt, <a href="#Page_227"><b>227</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> manufacture of, <a href="#Page_203"><b>203</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> Native, <a href="#Page_207"><b>207</b></a>, <a href="#Page_226"><b>226</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> want of a permanent, <a href="#Page_189"><b>189</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> with alkalies, <a href="#Page_206"><b>206</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Prussian Brown, <a href="#Page_348"><b>348</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> French, <a href="#Page_255"><b>255</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Greens, <a href="#Page_281"><b>281</b></a>, <a href="#Page_282"><b>282</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Red, <a href="#Page_149"><b>149</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Prussiate of Copper, <a href="#Page_323"><b>323</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   Iron, <a href="#Page_203"><b>203</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Pure Scarlet, <a href="#Page_150"><b>150</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Ultramarine, <a href="#Page_216"><b>216</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Purple, <a href="#Page_28"><b>28</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  as a colour, <a href="#Page_295"><b>295</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  as a pigment, <a href="#Page_297"><b>297</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Black, <a href="#Page_369"><b>369</b></a>, <a href="#Page_408"><b>408</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Brown, <a href="#Page_359"><b>359</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  contrast of, <a href="#Page_294"><b>294</b></a>, <a href="#Page_297"><b>297</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Lake, <a href="#Page_137"><b>137</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  on the Secondary, <a href="#Page_294"><b>294</b></a>.</li>
+
+
+<li><span class="smcap">Purple Pigments</span>:&mdash;</li>
+<li><ul class="sample2">
+<li>Archil Purple, <a href="#Page_303"><b>303</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Bismuth Purple, <a href="#Page_304"><b>304</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Burnt Carmine, <a href="#Page_298"><b>298</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Burnt Lake, <a href="#Page_298"><b>298</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Burnt Madder, <a href="#Page_305"><b>305</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Cassius's Purple Precipitate, <a href="#Page_306"><b>306</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Cobalt Purples, <a href="#Page_305"><b>305</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Field's Purple, <a href="#Page_301"><b>301</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Gold Purple, <a href="#Page_306"><b>306</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Indian Purple, <a href="#Page_298"><b>298</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Mars Violet, <a href="#Page_290"><b>290</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Mauve, <a href="#Page_163"><b>163</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Mineral Purple, <a href="#Page_290"><b>290</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Mixed Purple, <a href="#Page_290"><b>290</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Prussian Purple, <a href="#Page_307"><b>307</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Purple Madder, <a href="#Page_301"><b>301</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Purple Ochre, <a href="#Page_290"><b>290</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Purple of Cassius, <a href="#Page_306"><b>306</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Purple Rubiate, <a href="#Page_301"><b>301</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Sandal Wood Purple, <a href="#Page_307"><b>307</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Solid French Purple, <a href="#Page_304"><b>304</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Tin Violet, <a href="#Page_308"><b>308</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Violet Carmine, <a href="#Page_302"><b>302</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Violet de Mars, <a href="#Page_290"><b>290</b></a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+
+<li>Purple,  pure, <a href="#Page_300"><b>300</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Tyrian, <a href="#Page_295"><b>295</b></a>, <a href="#Page_296"><b>296</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Purpurates, <a href="#Page_170"><b>170</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Purree, <a href="#Page_98"><b>98</b></a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+
+
+<h5 style="text-align: left; text-indent: 5em;">Q.</h5>
+
+<ul class="sample2">
+
+<li>Qualities of Pigments,  on the General, <a href="#Page_46"><b>46</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Queen's Yellow, <a href="#Page_123"><b>123</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Quercitron Lake, <a href="#Page_100"><b>100</b></a>, <a href="#Page_312"><b>312</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Yellow, <a href="#Page_100"><b>100</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Quinine Green, <a href="#Page_289"><b>289</b></a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<h5 style="text-align: left; text-indent: 5em;">R.</h5>
+
+<ul class="sample2">
+
+<li>Ramnus infectorius, <a href="#Page_315"><b>315</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Raphael, <a href="#Page_8"><b>8</b></a>, <a href="#Page_9"><b>9</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Rare Metals, <a href="#Page_172"><b>172</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Raw Sienna, <a href="#Page_113"><b>113</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Umber, <a href="#Page_315"><b>315</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Rays from pigments, <a href="#Page_384"><b>384</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Real Ultramarine, <a href="#Page_216"><b>216</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Realgar, <a href="#Page_258"><b>258</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Reboulleau's Blue, <a href="#Page_230"><b>230</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Red, <a href="#Page_28"><b>28</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  as a colour, <a href="#Page_128"><b>128</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  contrasts of, <a href="#Page_128"><b>128</b></a>, <a href="#Page_129"><b>129</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  discordant, <a href="#Page_129"><b>129</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Marrone, <a href="#Page_368"><b>368</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  on the Primary, <a href="#Page_127"><b>127</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Orpiment, <a href="#Page_258"><b>258</b></a>.</li>
+
+
+
+<li><span class="smcap">Red Pigments</span>:&mdash;</li>
+<li><ul class="sample2">
+<li>Almagra, <a href="#Page_147"><b>147</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Antimony Red, <a href="#Page_159"><b>159</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Armenian Bole, <a href="#Page_147"><b>147</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Bloodstone, <a href="#Page_147"><b>147</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Brown Red, <a href="#Page_147"><b>147</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Cadmium Red, <a href="#Page_130"><b>130</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Carmine, <a href="#Page_133"><b>133</b></a>-<a href="#Page_135"><b>135</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Carmine Vermilion, <a href="#Page_156"><b>156</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Carnagione, <a href="#Page_149"><b>149</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Chica Red, <a href="#Page_159"><b>159</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Chinese Lake, <a href="#Page_137"><b>137</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Chinese Rouge, <a href="#Page_174"><b>174</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Chinese Vermilion, <a href="#Page_156"><b>156</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Coal-Tar Colours, <a href="#Page_160"><b>160</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Cobalt Reds, <a href="#Page_164"><b>164</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Cochineal Lakes, <a href="#Page_131"><b>131</b></a>-<a href="#Page_137"><b>137</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Copper Reds, <a href="#Page_164"><b>164</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Crimson Lake, <a href="#Page_135"><b>135</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Deep Vermilion, <a href="#Page_154"><b>154</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Dragon's Blood, <a href="#Page_137"><b>137</b></a>.</li>
+<li>English Red, <a href="#Page_149"><b>149</b></a>.</li>
+<li>English Vermilion, <a href="#Page_146"><b>146</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Extract of Vermilion, <a href="#Page_157"><b>157</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Ferrate of Baryta, <a href="#Page_165"><b>165</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Field's Carmine, <a href="#Page_142"><b>142</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Field's Lakes, <a href="#Page_139"><b>139</b></a>-<a href="#Page_145"><b>145</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Field's Orange Vermilion, <a href="#Page_158"><b>158</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Florentine Lake, <a href="#Page_137"><b>137</b></a>.</li>
+
+
+<li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_431" id="Page_431">[431]</a></span>Gold Reds, <a href="#Page_166"><b>166</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Hamburgh Lake, <a href="#Page_137"><b>137</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Indian Lake, <a href="#Page_138"><b>138</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Indian Ochre, <a href="#Page_146"><b>146</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Indian Red, <a href="#Page_148"><b>148</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Iodine Pink, <a href="#Page_166"><b>166</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Iodine Scarlet, <a href="#Page_150"><b>150</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Kermes Lake, <a href="#Page_167"><b>167</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Lac Lake, <a href="#Page_138"><b>138</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Lawson's Red, <a href="#Page_168"><b>168</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Light Red, <a href="#Page_149"><b>149</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Liquid Madder Lake, <a href="#Page_145"><b>145</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Liquid Rubiate, <a href="#Page_145"><b>145</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Madder Carmine, <a href="#Page_142"><b>142</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Madder Lake, <a href="#Page_144"><b>144</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Madder Lakes, <a href="#Page_139"><b>139</b></a>-<a href="#Page_145"><b>145</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Magenta, <a href="#Page_160"><b>160</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Majolica, <a href="#Page_146"><b>146</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Manganese Red, <a href="#Page_168"><b>168</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Mars Red, <a href="#Page_145"><b>145</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Mineral Kermes, <a href="#Page_159"><b>159</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Minium, <a href="#Page_151"><b>151</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Murexide, <a href="#Page_169"><b>169</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Ochres, <a href="#Page_146"><b>146</b></a>-<a href="#Page_150"><b>150</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Orange Vermilion, <a href="#Page_157"><b>157</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Paille de Mil, <a href="#Page_170"><b>170</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Pale Vermilion, <a href="#Page_154"><b>154</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Peganum Harmala, <a href="#Page_171"><b>171</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Persian Red, <a href="#Page_148"><b>148</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Persulphomolybdates, <a href="#Page_171"><b>171</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Pink Madder, <a href="#Page_144"><b>144</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Pink Saucers, <a href="#Page_174"><b>174</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Prussian Red, <a href="#Page_149"><b>149</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Pure Scarlet, <a href="#Page_150"><b>150</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Purple Lake, <a href="#Page_137"><b>137</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Red Chalk, <a href="#Page_172"><b>172</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Red Chrome, <a href="#Page_151"><b>151</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Red Lead, <a href="#Page_151"><b>151</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Red Ochre, <a href="#Page_147"><b>147</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Red Precipitate, <a href="#Page_173"><b>173</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Redding, <a href="#Page_146"><b>146</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Roman Lake, <a href="#Page_137"><b>137</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Rose Madder, <a href="#Page_143"><b>143</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Rose Pink, <a href="#Page_173"><b>173</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Rose Rubiate, <a href="#Page_145"><b>145</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Rouge, <a href="#Page_173"><b>173</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Rouge de Mars, <a href="#Page_145"><b>145</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Rubric Lakes, <a href="#Page_139"><b>139</b></a>-<a href="#Page_145"><b>145</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Rufigallic Red, <a href="#Page_174"><b>174</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Sandal Red, <a href="#Page_175"><b>175</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Saturnine Red, <a href="#Page_151"><b>151</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Scarlet Chrome, <a href="#Page_151"><b>151</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Scarlet Lake, <a href="#Page_136"><b>136</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Scarlet Ochre, <a href="#Page_149"><b>149</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Scarlet Vermilion, <a href="#Page_156"><b>156</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Sil Atticum, <a href="#Page_147"><b>147</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Silver Red, <a href="#Page_176"><b>176</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Sinoper, <a href="#Page_151"><b>151</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Sorgho Red, <a href="#Page_176"><b>176</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Spanish Brown, <a href="#Page_146"><b>146</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Spanish Red, <a href="#Page_150"><b>150</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Terra Puzzoli, <a href="#Page_149"><b>149</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Terra Sinopica, <a href="#Page_147"><b>147</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Thallium Red, <a href="#Page_177"><b>177</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Tin Pink, <a href="#Page_177"><b>177</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Ultramarine Red, <a href="#Page_178"><b>178</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Uranium Red, <a href="#Page_179"><b>179</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Venetian Lake, <a href="#Page_137"><b>137</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Venetian Red, <a href="#Page_149"><b>149</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Vermilion, <a href="#Page_154"><b>154</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Vermilions, <a href="#Page_153"><b>153</b></a>-<a href="#Page_158"><b>158</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Wongshy Red, <a href="#Page_180"><b>180</b></a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+
+
+<li>Reds,  ancient, <a href="#Page_5"><b>5</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Relations of colour, <a href="#Page_13"><b>13</b></a>-<a href="#Page_24"><b>24</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Relative durability of colour, <a href="#Page_32"><b>32</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Rembrandt, <a href="#Page_11"><b>11</b></a>, <a href="#Page_345"><b>345</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Revelation,  Book of, <a href="#Page_217"><b>217</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Reynolds,  Sir Joshua, <a href="#Page_10"><b>10</b></a>, <a href="#Page_35"><b>35</b></a>, <a href="#Page_37"><b>37</b></a>, <a href="#Page_158"><b>158</b></a>, <a href="#Page_374"><b>374</b></a>, <a href="#Page_410"><b>410</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Rinman's Green, <a href="#Page_285"><b>285</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    Olive, <a href="#Page_332"><b>332</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Rocou, <a href="#Page_255"><b>255</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Roman Green, <a href="#Page_290"><b>290</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Lake, <a href="#Page_137"><b>137</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Ochre, <a href="#Page_107"><b>107</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> Burnt, <a href="#Page_255"><b>255</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  painters and painting, <a href="#Page_7"><b>7</b></a>, <a href="#Page_8"><b>8</b></a>, <a href="#Page_10"><b>10</b></a>, <a href="#Page_391"><b>391</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Sepia, <a href="#Page_351"><b>351</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  White, <a href="#Page_74"><b>74</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Romans,  the, <a href="#Page_153"><b>153</b></a>, <a href="#Page_295"><b>295</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Romulus, <a href="#Page_295"><b>295</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Rosaniline, <a href="#Page_162"><b>162</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Rose,  the, <a href="#Page_327"><b>327</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Rousseau,  M. E., <a href="#Page_414"><b>414</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Rowbotham,  Messrs., <a href="#Page_144"><b>144</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Royal Academy at Burlington House, <a href="#Page_365"><b>365</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Blue, <a href="#Page_196"><b>196</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Rubens, <a href="#Page_11"><b>11</b></a>, <a href="#Page_37"><b>37</b></a>, <a href="#Page_64"><b>64</b></a>, <a href="#Page_157"><b>157</b></a>, <a href="#Page_283"><b>283</b></a>, <a href="#Page_334"><b>334</b></a>, <a href="#Page_374"><b>374</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Brown, <a href="#Page_359"><b>359</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Madder, <a href="#Page_321"><b>321</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Rubia tinctorum, <a href="#Page_139"><b>139</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Rubiate,  Purple, <a href="#Page_301"><b>301</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Rue,  Dr. Warren de la, <a href="#Page_132"><b>132</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Ruskin,  Mr., <a href="#Page_13"><b>13</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Russet, <a href="#Page_28"><b>28</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  analysis of, <a href="#Page_330"><b>330</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  as a colour, <a href="#Page_320"><b>320</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  contrast of, <a href="#Page_321"><b>321</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  on the Tertiary, <a href="#Page_320"><b>320</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li><span class="smcap">Russet Pigments</span>:&mdash;</li>
+<li><ul class="sample2">
+<li>Field's Russet, <a href="#Page_321"><b>321</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Mixed Russet, <a href="#Page_322"><b>322</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Orange Russet, <a href="#Page_321"><b>321</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Prussiate of Copper, <a href="#Page_323"><b>323</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Rubens' Madder, <a href="#Page_321"><b>321</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Russet Rubiate, <a href="#Page_321"><b>321</b></a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+</ul>
+
+<h5 style="text-align: left; text-indent: 5em;">S.</h5>
+
+<ul class="sample2">
+
+
+
+<li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_432" id="Page_432">[432]</a></span>Sacc,  M., <a href="#Page_414"><b>414</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Safflower, <a href="#Page_174"><b>174</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Samuel Prout, <a href="#Page_346"><b>346</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Sandal Red, <a href="#Page_175"><b>175</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Wood Purple, <a href="#Page_307"><b>307</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Sandarac, <a href="#Page_259"><b>259</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Sap Green, <a href="#Page_282"><b>282</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Satin White, <a href="#Page_80"><b>80</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Saturnine Red, <a href="#Page_151"><b>151</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Saucers,  Pink, <a href="#Page_174"><b>174</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Saunders Blue, <a href="#Page_230"><b>230</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Saxon Blue, <a href="#Page_189"><b>189</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Green, <a href="#Page_271"><b>271</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Smalts, <a href="#Page_215"><b>215</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Scarlet Chrome, <a href="#Page_151"><b>151</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Iodine, <a href="#Page_150"><b>150</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Lake, <a href="#Page_136"><b>136</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Ochre, <a href="#Page_149"><b>149</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Pure, <a href="#Page_150"><b>150</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  transparent,  a,  reward for, <a href="#Page_130"><b>130</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  substitute for, <a href="#Page_130"><b>130</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Vermilion, <a href="#Page_156"><b>156</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Scheele's Green, <a href="#Page_272"><b>272</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Olive, <a href="#Page_332"><b>332</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Schools of painting, <a href="#Page_8"><b>8</b></a>-<a href="#Page_10"><b>10</b></a>, <a href="#Page_37"><b>37</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Schunck,  Dr., <a href="#Page_140"><b>140</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Schweinfurt Blue, <a href="#Page_230"><b>230</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Green, <a href="#Page_271"><b>271</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Olive, <a href="#Page_332"><b>332</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Scoffern,  Dr., <a href="#Page_357"><b>357</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Sea,  the Dead, <a href="#Page_337"><b>337</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  transparency of the, <a href="#Page_269"><b>269</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Secondary colours, <a href="#Page_28"><b>28</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  pigments, <a href="#Page_242"><b>242</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Semi-Neutral colours, <a href="#Page_29"><b>29</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  the term, <a href="#Page_334"><b>334</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Semi-stability,  on, <a href="#Page_308"><b>308</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Semi-stable pigments, <a href="#Page_298"><b>298</b></a>, <a href="#Page_313"><b>313</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Sepia, <a href="#Page_348"><b>348</b></a>, <a href="#Page_397"><b>397</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Liquid, <a href="#Page_348"><b>348</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Roman, <a href="#Page_350"><b>350</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Warm, <a href="#Page_351"><b>351</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Shades, <a href="#Page_21"><b>21</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Shadow,  colour of, <a href="#Page_27"><b>27</b></a>, <a href="#Page_30"><b>30</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Siccatives, <a href="#Page_51"><b>51</b></a>-<a href="#Page_53"><b>53</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Sienna,  Burnt, <a href="#Page_243"><b>243</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Raw, <a href="#Page_113"><b>113</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Terra di, <a href="#Page_113"><b>113</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Sil Atticum, <a href="#Page_147"><b>147</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Silicate of Baryta, <a href="#Page_290"><b>290</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Siliceous painting,  Ultramarine in, <a href="#Page_212"><b>212</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Silver Red, <a href="#Page_176"><b>176</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  White, <a href="#Page_71"><b>71</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Sinoper, <a href="#Page_151"><b>151</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Slate Clays, <a href="#Page_380"><b>380</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  powdered, <a href="#Page_380"><b>380</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Smalt, <a href="#Page_195"><b>195</b></a>-<a href="#Page_198"><b>198</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  adulteration of, <a href="#Page_198"><b>198</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Copper, <a href="#Page_229"><b>229</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Smalt,  grinding of, <a href="#Page_197"><b>197</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  in mural decoration, <a href="#Page_198"><b>198</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  in paper, <a href="#Page_196"><b>196</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Iron, <a href="#Page_218"><b>218</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Soap and alkali in brushes, <a href="#Page_52"><b>52</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Soci&eacute;t&eacute; d'Encouragement of Paris, <a href="#Page_210"><b>210</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Society of Arts, <a href="#Page_130"><b>130</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Soda flame, <a href="#Page_191"><b>191</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Solid French Purple, <a href="#Page_304"><b>304</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Sorgho Red, <a href="#Page_176"><b>176</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Sources of pigments, <a href="#Page_60"><b>60</b></a>.</li>
+<li>South America,  chica from, <a href="#Page_368"><b>368</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Spanish Black, <a href="#Page_409"><b>409</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Brown, <a href="#Page_146"><b>146</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Ochre, <a href="#Page_255"><b>255</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Red, <a href="#Page_150"><b>150</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Schools, <a href="#Page_8"><b>8</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  White, <a href="#Page_80"><b>80</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Spence,  Mr., <a href="#Page_68"><b>68</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Spruce Ochre, <a href="#Page_108"><b>108</b></a>.</li>
+<li>St. Petersburg,  palace at, <a href="#Page_219"><b>219</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Starch, <a href="#Page_66"><b>66</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Stil de Grain,  Brown, <a href="#Page_312"><b>312</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Stippling, <a href="#Page_315"><b>315</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Stone,  Armenian, <a href="#Page_228"><b>228</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  lapis lazuli, <a href="#Page_217"><b>217</b></a>, <a href="#Page_219"><b>219</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  malachite, <a href="#Page_274"><b>274</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Ochre, <a href="#Page_109"><b>109</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Strontian Yellow, <a href="#Page_113"><b>113</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Sulphate of Lead, <a href="#Page_72"><b>72</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  zinc, <a href="#Page_51"><b>51</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Sulphide of cadmium,  thallium in, <a href="#Page_260"><b>260</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Sulphur and ochres, <a href="#Page_359"><b>359</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Sulphuretted  hydrogen,   pigments affected by, <a href="#Page_39"><b>39</b></a>, <a href="#Page_67"><b>67</b></a>, <a href="#Page_69"><b>69</b></a>, <a href="#Page_73"><b>73</b></a>, <a href="#Page_78"><b>78</b></a>, <a href="#Page_79"><b>79</b></a>, <a href="#Page_93"><b>93</b></a>, <a href="#Page_103"><b>103</b></a>, <a href="#Page_120"><b>120</b></a>, <a href="#Page_151"><b>151</b></a>, <a href="#Page_152"><b>152</b></a>, <a href="#Page_229"><b>229</b></a>, <a href="#Page_248"><b>248</b></a>, <a href="#Page_275"><b>275</b></a>, <a href="#Page_276"><b>276</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Susa, <a href="#Page_296"><b>296</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Swedish Green, <a href="#Page_272"><b>272</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Synonyms,  value of, <a href="#Page_145"><b>145</b></a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<h5 style="text-align: left; text-indent: 5em;">T.</h5>
+
+<ul class="sample2">
+
+
+<li>Talent of money, <a href="#Page_296"><b>296</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Teniers, <a href="#Page_360"><b>360</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Terra di Sienna, <a href="#Page_113"><b>113</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Burnt, <a href="#Page_243"><b>243</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Orellana, <a href="#Page_255"><b>255</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Puzzoli, <a href="#Page_149"><b>149</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Sinopica, <a href="#Page_147"><b>147</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Terre Bleu, <a href="#Page_228"><b>228</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Verte, <a href="#Page_283"><b>283</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span> Olive, <a href="#Page_333"><b>333</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Terrene whites, <a href="#Page_66"><b>66</b></a>, <a href="#Page_80"><b>80</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Tertiary colours, <a href="#Page_28"><b>28</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  on, <a href="#Page_311"><b>311</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Thallium,  in sulphide of cadmium, <a href="#Page_260"><b>260</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Orange, <a href="#Page_259"><b>259</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Red, <a href="#Page_177"><b>177</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Yellow, <a href="#Page_122"><b>122</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Thebes,  mausoleum at, <a href="#chapter_1"><b>3</b></a>.</li>
+
+
+
+<li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_433" id="Page_433">[433]</a></span>Th&eacute;nard,  M., <a href="#Page_69"><b>69</b></a>, <a href="#Page_192"><b>192</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Th&eacute;nard's Blue, <a href="#Page_192"><b>192</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Theophrastus, <a href="#Page_198"><b>198</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Theory and practice, <a href="#Page_410"><b>410</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Thwaites' Yellow, <a href="#Page_122"><b>122</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Time,  pigments affected by, <a href="#Page_40"><b>40</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Tin Pink, <a href="#Page_177"><b>177</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Violet, <a href="#Page_308"><b>308</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  White, <a href="#Page_79"><b>79</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Tin-Copper Green, <a href="#Page_286"><b>286</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Tint,  Harding's, <a href="#Page_380"><b>380</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Macpherson's, <a href="#Page_380"><b>380</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Neutral, <a href="#Page_377"><b>377</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Tintoret, <a href="#Page_8"><b>8</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Tints, <a href="#Page_27"><b>27</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Titanium Green, <a href="#Page_290"><b>290</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Titian, <a href="#Page_7"><b>7</b></a>, <a href="#Page_8"><b>8</b></a>, <a href="#Page_9"><b>9</b></a>, <a href="#Page_11"><b>11</b></a>, <a href="#Page_37"><b>37</b></a>, <a href="#Page_150"><b>150</b></a>, <a href="#Page_157"><b>157</b></a>, <a href="#Page_293"><b>293</b></a>, <a href="#Page_334"><b>334</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Transparency of pigments, <a href="#Page_48"><b>48</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   to obtain, <a href="#Page_245"><b>245</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Transparent Gold Ochre, <a href="#Page_108"><b>108</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   Oxide of Chromium, <a href="#Page_268"><b>268</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   pigments,  use of, <a href="#Page_237"><b>237</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Troy White, <a href="#Page_80"><b>80</b></a>.</li>
+<li>True Chrome Green, <a href="#Page_267"><b>267</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Prussian Green, <a href="#Page_281"><b>281</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Ultramarine, <a href="#Page_216"><b>216</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Truth of hue in pigments, <a href="#Page_47"><b>47</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Tullus Hostilius, <a href="#Page_295"><b>295</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Tungsten Blue, <a href="#Page_233"><b>233</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  White, <a href="#Page_414"><b>414</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Turacine, <a href="#Page_165"><b>165</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Turbith Mineral, <a href="#Page_123"><b>123</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Turkey Berries, <a href="#Page_312"><b>312</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Turnbull's Blue, <a href="#Page_208"><b>208</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Turner, <a href="#Page_309"><b>309</b></a>, <a href="#Page_328"><b>328</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Turner's Yellow, <a href="#Page_121"><b>121</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Tyrian Purple, <a href="#Page_295"><b>295</b></a>, <a href="#Page_296"><b>296</b></a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<h5 style="text-align: left; text-indent: 5em;">U.</h5>
+
+<ul class="sample2">
+
+<li>Ultramarine,  Artificial, <a href="#Page_209"><b>209</b></a>-<a href="#Page_216"><b>216</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  acid pigments with, <a href="#Page_214"><b>214</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  adulteration of, <a href="#Page_215"><b>215</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  experiment with, <a href="#Page_213"><b>213</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  green in, <a href="#Page_211"><b>211</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  gum with, <a href="#Page_214"><b>214</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  in siliceous painting, <a href="#Page_212"><b>212</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  test for, <a href="#Page_212"><b>212</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Ultramarine Ash, <a href="#Page_379"><b>379</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Beggars', <a href="#Page_409"><b>409</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Brilliant, <a href="#Page_215"><b>215</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Cobalt, <a href="#Page_192"><b>192</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Dutch, <a href="#Page_189"><b>189</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Factitious, <a href="#Page_215"><b>215</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  French, <a href="#Page_215"><b>215</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Ultramarine,  Genuine, <a href="#Page_216"><b>216</b></a>-<a href="#Page_225"><b>225</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    adulteration of, <a href="#Page_224"><b>224</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    colouring matter of, <a href="#Page_224"><b>224</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    defects in, <a href="#Page_222"><b>222</b></a>, <a href="#Page_223"><b>223</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    manufacture of, <a href="#Page_220"><b>220</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    price of, <a href="#Page_220"><b>220</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    properties of, <a href="#Page_221"><b>221</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    tests for, <a href="#Page_224"><b>224</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Ultramarine,  Gmelin's German, <a href="#Page_209"><b>209</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Green, <a href="#Page_287"><b>287</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Guimet's, <a href="#Page_209"><b>209</b></a>-<a href="#Page_211"><b>211</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Native, <a href="#Page_216"><b>216</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Natural, <a href="#Page_216"><b>216</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Pure, <a href="#Page_217"><b>217</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Real, <a href="#Page_216"><b>216</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Red, <a href="#Page_178"><b>178</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  True, <a href="#Page_216"><b>216</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Umber, <a href="#Page_315"><b>315</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Burnt, <a href="#Page_341"><b>341</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  grounds primed with, <a href="#Page_316"><b>316</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Raw, <a href="#Page_315"><b>315</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Unnecessary mixture, <a href="#Page_35"><b>35</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Uranium Brown, <a href="#Page_360"><b>360</b></a>, </li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Green, <a href="#Page_291"><b>291</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Orange, <a href="#Page_260"><b>260</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Red, <a href="#Page_179"><b>179</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Yellow, <a href="#Page_123"><b>123</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Ure,  Dr., <a href="#Page_73"><b>73</b></a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<h5 style="text-align: left; text-indent: 5em;">V.</h5>
+
+<ul class="sample2">
+
+<li>Vanadium Green, <a href="#Page_291"><b>291</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Vandyke, <a href="#Page_11"><b>11</b></a>, <a href="#Page_150"><b>150</b></a>, <a href="#Page_220"><b>220</b></a>, <a href="#Page_351"><b>351</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Brown, <a href="#Page_351"><b>351</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Van Eyck, <a href="#Page_167"><b>167</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Varnishes, <a href="#Page_33"><b>33</b></a>, <a href="#Page_152"><b>152</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Vegetal charcoal, <a href="#Page_398"><b>398</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Vehicles with pigments, <a href="#Page_48"><b>48</b></a>-<a href="#Page_53"><b>53</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Velasquez, <a href="#Page_389"><b>389</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Venetian Green, <a href="#Page_283"><b>283</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Lake, <a href="#Page_137"><b>137</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  painters,  painting,  and pigments, <a href="#Page_7"><b>7</b></a>, <a href="#Page_8"><b>8</b></a>, <a href="#Page_34"><b>34</b></a>, <a href="#Page_37"><b>37</b></a>, <a href="#Page_139"><b>139</b></a>, <a href="#Page_167"><b>167</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Red, <a href="#Page_149"><b>149</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  White, <a href="#Page_75"><b>75</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Verde Vessie, <a href="#Page_282"><b>282</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Verdetto, <a href="#Page_283"><b>283</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Verdigris, <a href="#Page_51"><b>51</b></a>, <a href="#Page_276"><b>276</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Burnt, <a href="#Page_331"><b>331</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Distilled, <a href="#Page_276"><b>276</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Verditer,  Blue, <a href="#Page_228"><b>228</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Green, <a href="#Page_287"><b>287</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Vermilion, <a href="#Page_153"><b>153</b></a>-<a href="#Page_158"><b>158</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   adulteration of, <a href="#Page_156"><b>156</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   Carmine, <a href="#Page_156"><b>156</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   Chinese,  and English, <a href="#Page_156"><b>156</b></a>, <a href="#Page_146"><b>146</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   Deep, <a href="#Page_154"><b>154</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   European and Chinese, <a href="#Page_154"><b>154</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   Extract of, <a href="#Page_157"><b>157</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   Field's Orange, <a href="#Page_158"><b>158</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   manufacture of, <a href="#Page_154"><b>154</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   Orange, <a href="#Page_157"><b>157</b></a>.</li>
+
+
+
+<li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_434" id="Page_434">[434]</a></span>Vermilion Pale, <a href="#Page_154"><b>154</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>      Scarlet, <a href="#Page_156"><b>156</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>      with cochineal lake, <a href="#Page_136"><b>136</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>      with iodide of mercury, <a href="#Page_155"><b>155</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Verona Brown, <a href="#Page_353"><b>353</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   Green, <a href="#Page_283"><b>283</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Veronese Green, <a href="#Page_268"><b>268</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     French, <a href="#Page_268"><b>268</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Vert de Zinc, <a href="#Page_285"><b>285</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Vicious extremes in colouring, <a href="#Page_59"><b>59</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Vienna Blue, <a href="#Page_192"><b>192</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   Green, <a href="#Page_271"><b>271</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   White, <a href="#Page_72"><b>72</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Vine Black, <a href="#Page_394"><b>394</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Violet,  Carmine, <a href="#Page_302"><b>302</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    de Mars, <a href="#Page_290"><b>290</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    Mars, <a href="#Page_290"><b>290</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    Tin, <a href="#Page_308"><b>308</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Viride &AElig;ris, <a href="#Page_276"><b>276</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Viridian, <a href="#Page_42"><b>42</b></a>, <a href="#Page_269"><b>269</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Vision,  derangement of, <a href="#Page_59"><b>59</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Vitrification and permanence, <a href="#Page_197"><b>197</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Vitrified colours, <a href="#Page_33"><b>33</b></a>, <a href="#Page_103"><b>103</b></a>, <a href="#Page_197"><b>197</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Vitruvius, <a href="#Page_229"><b>229</b></a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<h5 style="text-align: left; text-indent: 5em;">W.</h5>
+
+<ul class="sample2">
+
+<li>Wall colour for picture galleries, <a href="#Page_363"><b>363</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  space in    <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>        <a href="#Page_364"><b>364</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Walpole,  Mrs., <a href="#Page_220"><b>220</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Warm Sepia, <a href="#Page_350"><b>350</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Water-colour cakes in oil, <a href="#Page_50"><b>50</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Watts,  Mr., <a href="#Page_165"><b>165</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Weppen, <a href="#Page_398"><b>398</b></a>.</li>
+<li>White, <a href="#Page_27"><b>27</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    as a colour, <a href="#Page_62"><b>62</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    as a pigment, <a href="#Page_64"><b>64</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    Chalk, <a href="#Page_79"><b>79</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    colour as applied to, <a href="#Page_62"><b>62</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Whitelac varnish, <a href="#Page_50"><b>50</b></a>.</li>
+<li>White Lead, <a href="#Page_67"><b>67</b></a>-<a href="#Page_70"><b>70</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  adulteration of, <a href="#Page_70"><b>70</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  colour restored in, <a href="#Page_69"><b>69</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  hydrated oxide in, <a href="#Page_68"><b>68</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  loss of opacity in, <a href="#Page_68"><b>68</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  use of, <a href="#Page_70"><b>70</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  with Blue Black, <a href="#Page_395"><b>395</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Bone Brown, <a href="#Page_341"><b>341</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Brown Pink, <a href="#Page_312"><b>312</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Cadmium Yellow, <a href="#Page_89"><b>89</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Carmine, <a href="#Page_134"><b>134</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Dragon's Blood, <a href="#Page_138"><b>138</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Gamboge, <a href="#Page_97"><b>97</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Indian Lake, <a href="#Page_139"><b>139</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Indigo, <a href="#Page_201"><b>201</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Massicot, <a href="#Page_120"><b>120</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Orpiment, <a href="#Page_112"><b>112</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Prussian Blue, <a href="#Page_206"><b>206</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Red Lead, <a href="#Page_152"><b>152</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Yellow Lakes, <a href="#Page_99"><b>99</b></a>.</li>
+<li>White,  on the Neutral, <a href="#Page_62"><b>62</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    perfect, <a href="#Page_62"><b>62</b></a>, <a href="#Page_64"><b>64</b></a>.</li>
+
+
+
+<li><span class="smcap">White Pigments</span>:&mdash;</li>
+<li><ul class="sample2">
+<li>Antimony White, <a href="#Page_79"><b>79</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Arsenic White, <a href="#Page_79"><b>79</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Barytic White, <a href="#Page_65"><b>65</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Blanc d'Argent, <a href="#Page_71"><b>71</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Body White, <a href="#Page_72"><b>72</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Cadmium White, <a href="#Page_78"><b>78</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Ceruse, <a href="#Page_74"><b>74</b></a>.</li>
+<li>China White, <a href="#Page_80"><b>80</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Chinese White, <a href="#Page_75"><b>75</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Constant White, <a href="#Page_65"><b>65</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Cremnitz or Kremnitz White, <a href="#Page_72"><b>72</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Crems or Krems White, <a href="#Page_72"><b>72</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Dutch White, <a href="#Page_74"><b>74</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Flake White, <a href="#Page_72"><b>72</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Flemish White, <a href="#Page_72"><b>72</b></a>.</li>
+<li>French White, <a href="#Page_71"><b>71</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Hamburgh White, <a href="#Page_74"><b>74</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Kremser White, <a href="#Page_75"><b>75</b></a>.</li>
+<li>London White, <a href="#Page_73"><b>73</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Mercury White, <a href="#Page_79"><b>79</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Modan or Morat White, <a href="#Page_80"><b>80</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Nottingham White, <a href="#Page_73"><b>73</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Oxychloride of Lead, <a href="#Page_73"><b>73</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Pattison's White, <a href="#Page_73"><b>73</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Pearl White, <a href="#Page_78"><b>78</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Permanent White, <a href="#Page_65"><b>65</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Roman White, <a href="#Page_74"><b>74</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Rouen White, <a href="#Page_80"><b>80</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Satin White, <a href="#Page_80"><b>80</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Silver White, <a href="#Page_71"><b>71</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Spanish White, <a href="#Page_80"><b>80</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Sulphate of Lead, <a href="#Page_72"><b>72</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Tin White, <a href="#Page_79"><b>79</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Tungsten White, <a href="#Page_414"><b>414</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Troy White, <a href="#Page_80"><b>80</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Venetian White, <a href="#Page_75"><b>75</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Vienna White, <a href="#Page_72"><b>72</b></a>.</li>
+<li>White Lead, <a href="#Page_67"><b>67</b></a>-<a href="#Page_70"><b>70</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Zinc White, <a href="#Page_76"><b>76</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Zinc Whites, <a href="#Page_75"><b>75</b></a>-<a href="#Page_78"><b>78</b></a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+
+<li>White,  properties of, <a href="#Page_62"><b>62</b></a>-<a href="#Page_64"><b>64</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    use of, <a href="#Page_64"><b>64</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Whites,  classified, <a href="#Page_80"><b>80</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     in old pictures, <a href="#Page_65"><b>65</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Williamson,  Professor, <a href="#Page_205"><b>205</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Wilson, <a href="#Page_336"><b>336</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Winter scene,  a water-colour, <a href="#Page_352"><b>352</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Wongshy Red, <a href="#Page_180"><b>180</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Wood-Tar Blue, <a href="#Page_233"><b>233</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Working well in pigments, <a href="#Page_49"><b>49</b></a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<h5 style="text-align: left; text-indent: 5em;">Y.</h5>
+
+<ul class="sample2">
+
+<li>Yellow, <a href="#Page_28"><b>28</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    as a colour, <a href="#Page_82"><b>82</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>    contrasts of, <a href="#Page_82"><b>82</b></a>, <a href="#Page_83"><b>83</b></a>.</li>
+
+
+
+<li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_435" id="Page_435">[435]</a></span>Yellow,  discordant, <a href="#Page_83"><b>83</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     Golden, <a href="#Page_256"><b>256</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     Madder,  Cory's, <a href="#Page_353"><b>353</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>     on the Primary, <a href="#Page_81"><b>81</b></a>.</li>
+
+<li><span class="smcap">Yellow Pigments</span>:&mdash;</li>
+
+<li><ul class="sample2">
+<li>Antimony Yellow, <a href="#Page_105"><b>105</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Arsenic Yellow, <a href="#Page_116"><b>116</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Aureolin, <a href="#Page_83"><b>83</b></a>-<a href="#Page_87"><b>87</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Bismuth Yellow, <a href="#Page_116"><b>116</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Brown Ochre, <a href="#Page_108"><b>108</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Cadmium Yellows, <a href="#Page_87"><b>87</b></a>-<a href="#Page_92"><b>92</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Cassel Yellow, <a href="#Page_121"><b>121</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Chinese Yellow, <a href="#Page_111"><b>111</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Chrome Yellows, <a href="#Page_93"><b>93</b></a>-<a href="#Page_95"><b>95</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Citron Yellow, <a href="#Page_95"><b>95</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Cologne Yellow, <a href="#Page_94"><b>94</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Copper Yellow, <a href="#Page_116"><b>116</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Deep Cadmium, <a href="#Page_87"><b>87</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Deep Chrome, <a href="#Page_93"><b>93</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Di Palito, <a href="#Page_109"><b>109</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Drop Gum, <a href="#Page_96"><b>96</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Dutch Pink, <a href="#Page_100"><b>100</b></a>.</li>
+<li>English Pink, <a href="#Page_100"><b>100</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Extract of Gamboge, <a href="#Page_97"><b>97</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Gallstone, <a href="#Page_95"><b>95</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Gamboge, <a href="#Page_96"><b>96</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Gelbin's Yellow, <a href="#Page_117"><b>117</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Giallolino, <a href="#Page_103"><b>103</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Indian Yellow, <a href="#Page_98"><b>98</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Indium Yellow, <a href="#Page_117"><b>117</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Iodine Yellow, <a href="#Page_118"><b>118</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Iron Yellow, <a href="#Page_102"><b>102</b></a>, <a href="#Page_118"><b>118</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Italian Pink, <a href="#Page_100"><b>100</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Jaune de Cologne, <a href="#Page_94"><b>94</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Jaune de Fer, <a href="#Page_102"><b>102</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Jaune de Mars, <a href="#Page_102"><b>102</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Jaune Min&eacute;rale, <a href="#Page_94"><b>94</b></a>.</li>
+<li>King's Yellow, <a href="#Page_111"><b>111</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Lakes, <a href="#Page_99"><b>99</b></a>, <a href="#Page_100"><b>100</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Lemon Cadmium, <a href="#Page_91"><b>91</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Lemon Yellow, <a href="#Page_101"><b>101</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Litharge, <a href="#Page_120"><b>120</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Madder Yellow, <a href="#Page_118"><b>118</b></a>, <a href="#Page_353"><b>353</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Mars Yellow, <a href="#Page_102"><b>102</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Massicot, <a href="#Page_120"><b>120</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Mineral Yellow, <a href="#Page_106"><b>106</b></a>, <a href="#Page_116"><b>116</b></a>, <a href="#Page_121"><b>121</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Montpellier Yellow, <a href="#Page_121"><b>121</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Mutrie Yellow, <a href="#Page_92"><b>92</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Naples Yellow, <a href="#Page_103"><b>103</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Ochres, <a href="#Page_105"><b>105</b></a>-<a href="#Page_109"><b>109</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Ocre de Ru, <a href="#Page_108"><b>108</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Orient Yellow, <a href="#Page_110"><b>110</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Orpiment or Yellow Orpiment, <a href="#Page_111"><b>111</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Oxford Ochre, <a href="#Page_109"><b>109</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Pale Cadmium, <a href="#Page_90"><b>90</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Pale Chrome, <a href="#Page_93"><b>93</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Patent Yellow, <a href="#Page_121"><b>121</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Platinum Yellow, <a href="#Page_121"><b>121</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Purree, <a href="#Page_98"><b>98</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Queen's Yellow, <a href="#Page_123"><b>123</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Quercitron Lake,  or Yellow, <a href="#Page_100"><b>100</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Raw Sienna, <a href="#Page_113"><b>113</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Roman Ochre, <a href="#Page_107"><b>107</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Spruce Ochre, <a href="#Page_108"><b>108</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Stone Ochre, <a href="#Page_109"><b>109</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Strontian Yellow, <a href="#Page_113"><b>113</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Terra di Sienna, <a href="#Page_113"><b>113</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Thallium Yellow, <a href="#Page_122"><b>122</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Thwaites' Yellow, <a href="#Page_122"><b>122</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Transparent Gold Ochre, <a href="#Page_108"><b>108</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Turbith Yellow, <a href="#Page_123"><b>123</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Turner's Yellow, <a href="#Page_121"><b>121</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Uranium Yellow, <a href="#Page_123"><b>123</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Yellow Carmine, <a href="#Page_123"><b>123</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Yellow Lake, <a href="#Page_100"><b>100</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Yellow Ochre, <a href="#Page_106"><b>106</b></a>.</li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li>Yellows,  ancient, <a href="#Page_5"><b>5</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>      classified, <a href="#Page_125"><b>125</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>      former paucity of, <a href="#Page_83"><b>83</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>      various, <a href="#Page_124"><b>124</b></a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<h5 style="text-align: left; text-indent: 5em;">Z.</h5>
+
+<ul class="sample2">
+
+<li>Zaffre, <a href="#Page_189"><b>189</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Zeuxis and Apelles, <a href="#Page_7"><b>7</b></a>.</li>
+<li>Zinc Brown, <a href="#Page_360"><b>360</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Cobalt Blue, <a href="#Page_235"><b>235</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Green, <a href="#Page_285"><b>285</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Orange, <a href="#Page_261"><b>261</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  siccatives, <a href="#Page_51"><b>51</b></a>, <a href="#Page_77"><b>77</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Vert de, <a href="#Page_285"><b>285</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  White, <a href="#Page_76"><b>76</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   adulteration of, <a href="#Page_77"><b>77</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  <span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>   over White Lead, <a href="#Page_76"><b>76</b></a>.</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 2em; padding-right: 2em;">"</span>  Whites, <a href="#Page_75"><b>75</b></a>-<a href="#Page_78"><b>78</b></a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+
+<table summary="errata" style="width: 450px; font-size: 90%;">
+<colgroup span="4">
+<col width="10px"></col>
+<col width="10px"></col>
+<col width="10px"></col>
+<col width="420px"></col>
+</colgroup>
+<tr>
+<th colspan="4" style="padding-bottom: 2em; padding-top: 2em;">ERRATA</th>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd">Page</td>
+<td class="tda2">16</td>
+<td class="tdb"><i>for</i></td>
+<td class="tdb4">inharmonious <i>read</i> harmonious</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd">"</td>
+<td class="tda2">35</td>
+<td class="tdb"><i>for</i></td>
+<td class="tdb4">There prevails <i>read</i> There prevail</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd">"</td>
+<td class="tda2">48</td>
+<td class="tdb"><i>for</i></td>
+<td class="tdb4">as whiteness, or light do, <i>read</i> as whiteness or light does</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd">"</td>
+<td class="tda2">166</td>
+<td class="tdb"><i>for</i></td>
+<td class="tdb4">purple of cassius <i>read</i> purple of Cassius</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd">"</td>
+<td class="tda2">182</td>
+<td class="tdb"><i>for</i></td>
+<td class="tdb4">which manufactures <i>read</i> which manufactures pictures</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd">"</td>
+<td class="tda2">258</td>
+<td class="tdb"><i>for</i></td>
+<td class="tdb4"><i>Laque Min&eacute;ral</i> <i>read</i> <i>Laque Min&eacute;rale</i></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd">"</td>
+<td class="tda2">342</td>
+<td class="tdb"><i>for</i></td>
+<td class="tdb4">rivals <i>read</i> rivels</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd">"</td>
+<td class="tda2">378</td>
+<td class="tdb"><i>for</i></td>
+<td class="tdb4">predominate <i>read</i> predominates</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<h5>THE END.</h5>
+
+<h6>
+LONDON:<br />
+Printed by A. Schulze, 13, Poland Street.<br />
+</h6>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<table summary="transcriber note" style="width: 510px; font-size: 80%;">
+<colgroup span="3">
+<col width="10px"></col>
+<col width="150px"></col>
+<col width="350px"></col>
+</colgroup>
+<tr>
+<th colspan="3" style="padding-bottom: 2em; padding-top: 2em;">Transcriber's Notes</th>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3" style="padding-bottom: 2em;"><ins class="transgreek" title="greek text shown with dashed marrone line below">Greek characters</ins> may not be visible in all browser on all computers. <ins class="correction" title="dashed blue line below">The errata</ins> above and <ins class="trans" title="dashed green line below">the following</ins> have been corrected in the text:</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd">Page</td>
+<td class="tda2"><a href="#Page_vi">vi</a></td>
+<td class="tdb4">Semi-neutral changed to Semi-Neutral</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd">"</td>
+<td class="tda2"><a href="#Page_10">10</a></td>
+<td class="tdb4">life less changed to lifeless</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd">"</td>
+<td class="tda2"><a href="#Page_17">17</a></td>
+<td class="tdb4">sun-rise changed to sunrise</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd">"</td>
+<td class="tda2"><a href="#Page_20">20</a></td>
+<td class="tdb4">in the the changed to in the</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd">"</td>
+<td class="tda2"><a href="#Page_22">22</a></td>
+<td class="tdb4">perpective changed to perspective</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd">"</td>
+<td class="tda2"><a href="#Page_29">29</a></td>
+<td class="tdb4">marone changed to marrone</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd">"</td>
+<td class="tda2"><a href="#Page_69">69</a></td>
+<td class="tdb4">di-carbonate changed to dicarbonate</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd">"</td>
+<td class="tda2"><a href="#Page_73">73</a></td>
+<td class="tdb4">hydrogren changed to hydrogen</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd">"</td>
+<td class="tda2"><a href="#Page_77">77</a></td>
+<td class="tdb4">imimical changed to inimical</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd">"</td>
+<td class="tda2"><a href="#Page_81">81</a></td>
+<td class="tdb4">feuillemorte changed to feuillemort</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd">"</td>
+<td class="tda2"><a href="#Page_91">91</a></td>
+<td class="tdb4">Item numbering has been left consistent with the omission of item no. 23</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd">"</td>
+<td class="tda2"><a href="#Page_129">129</a></td>
+<td class="tdb4">extemes changed to extremes</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd">"</td>
+<td class="tda2"><a href="#Page_169">169</a></td>
+<td class="tdb4">muroxide changed to murexide</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd">"</td>
+<td class="tda2"><a href="#Page_188">188</a></td>
+<td class="tdb4">dullness changed to dulness</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd">"</td>
+<td class="tda2"><a href="#Page_192">192</a></td>
+<td class="tdb4">gaslight changed to gas-light</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd">"</td>
+<td class="tda2"><a href="#Page_200">200</a></td>
+<td class="tdb4">durablity changed to durability</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd">"</td>
+<td class="tda2"><a href="#Page_206">206</a> and <a href="#Page_293">293</a></td>
+<td class="tdb4">developement changed to development</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd">"</td>
+<td class="tda2"><a href="#Page_212">212</a></td>
+<td class="tdb4">decolorized changed to decolourised</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd">"</td>
+<td class="tda2"><a href="#Page_235">235</a></td>
+<td class="tdb4">indentical changed to identical</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd">"</td>
+<td class="tda2"><a href="#Page_241">241</a></td>
+<td class="tdb4">re-acting changed to reacting</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd">"</td>
+<td class="tda2"><a href="#Page_250">250</a></td>
+<td class="tdb4">Exibition changed to Exhibition</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd">"</td>
+<td class="tda2"><a href="#Page_273">273</a></td>
+<td class="tdb4">childrens' changed to children's</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd">"</td>
+<td class="tda2"><a href="#Page_336">336</a></td>
+<td class="tdb4">toneing changed to toning</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd">"</td>
+<td class="tda2"><a href="#Page_352">352</a></td>
+<td class="tdb4">fine tooth-comb changed to fine-tooth comb</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd">"</td>
+<td class="tda2"><a href="#Page_408">408</a></td>
+<td class="tdb4">analagous changed to analogous</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd">"</td>
+<td class="tda2"><a href="#Page_414">414</a></td>
+<td class="tdb4">announceed changed to announced</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdd">"</td>
+<td class="tda2"><a href="#Page_421">421</a></td>
+<td class="tdb4">abies changed to Abies</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3">Inconsistencies in the use of analyse/analyze, harmonise/harmonize and neutralise/neutralize have been retained as in the original text, as have the use of a&euml;rial and aerial.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Field's Chromatography, by George Field
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+</pre>
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+</body>
+</html>
diff --git a/old/2007-03-27-20915-h/images/fig01.png b/old/2007-03-27-20915-h/images/fig01.png
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@@ -0,0 +1,12807 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Field's Chromatography, by George Field
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Field's Chromatography
+       or Treatise on Colours and Pigments as Used by Artists
+
+Author: George Field
+
+Editor: Thomas Salter
+
+Release Date: March 27, 2007 [EBook #20915]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FIELD'S CHROMATOGRAPHY ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Barbara Tozier, Bill Tozier, Jacqueline Jeremy
+and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+_SALTER'S EDITION._
+
+FIELD'S CHROMATOGRAPHY;
+
+OR,
+
+TREATISE ON COLOURS AND PIGMENTS
+
+AS USED BY ARTISTS.
+
+_AN ENTIRELY NEW AND PRACTICAL EDITION_;
+
+REVISED, REWRITTEN, AND BROUGHT DOWN TO THE PRESENT TIME.
+
+BY
+
+THOMAS W. SALTER, F.C.S.
+
+
+Ars probat artificem.
+
+LONDON:
+
+WINSOR AND NEWTON, 38, RATHBONE PLACE,
+
+Manufacturing Artists' Colourmen by Special Appointment
+to Her Majesty, and Their Royal Highnesses the Prince and
+Princess of Wales.
+
+[The Right of Translation is reserved.]
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+PART I.
+ON COLOURS AND COLOURING.
+
+Chapter.                                                        Page.
+
+    I.--On Colouring                                               3
+
+   II.--On the Relations and Harmonies of Colours                 13
+
+
+PART II.
+ON COLOURS AND PIGMENTS GENERALLY.
+
+  III.--On Classes of Colours                                     27
+
+   IV.--On the Durability and Fugacity of Pigments                31
+
+    V.--On the General Qualities of Pigments                      46
+
+
+PART III.
+ON COLOURS AND PIGMENTS INDIVIDUALLY.
+
+   VI.--On Colours and Pigments individually                      57
+
+  VII.--On the Neutral, White                                     62
+
+ VIII.--On the Primary, Yellow                                    81
+
+   IX.--On the Primary, Red                                      127
+
+    X.--On the Primary, Blue                                     183
+
+   XI.--On the Secondary, Orange                                 239
+
+  XII.--On the Secondary, Green                                  263
+
+ XIII.--On the Secondary, Purple                                 294
+
+  XIV.--On the Tertiary, Citrine                                 310
+
+   XV.--On the Tertiary, Russet                                  320
+
+  XVI.--On the Tertiary, Olive                                   325
+
+ XVII.--On the Semi-Neutral, Brown                               334
+
+XVIII.--On the Semi-Neutral, Marrone                             362
+
+  XIX.--On the Semi-Neutral, Gray                                372
+
+   XX.--On the Neutral, Grey                                     381
+
+  XXI.--On the Neutral, Black                                    387
+
+        Addendum                                                 414
+
+        Index                                                    417
+
+
+
+
+NOTICE.
+
+
+Among the works consulted in this Edition are the following, from most
+of which extracts have been taken:
+
+    Bancroft's Philosophy of Colours.
+
+    Brande's Manual of Chemistry.
+
+    Chemical News.
+
+    Chevreul on Colour.
+
+    Fownes' Manual of Chemistry.
+
+    Gmelin's Handbook of Chemistry.
+
+    Handbooks on Art.
+
+    Liebig and Kopp's Annual Report of the Progress of Chemistry.
+
+    Merimee's Painting in Oil.
+
+    Muspratt's Dictionary of Chemistry.
+
+    Normandy's Commercial Handbook of Chemical Analysis.
+
+    O'Neill's Chemistry of Calico Printing.
+
+    Quarterly Journal of the Chemical Society.
+
+    Ruskin's Elements of Drawing.
+
+    Watts' Dictionary of Chemistry.
+
+
+
+
+PART I.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+ON COLOURS AND COLOURING.
+
+
+
+
+CHROMATOGRAPHY;
+
+OR,
+
+A TREATISE ON COLOURS AND PIGMENTS.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+ON COLOURING.
+
+
+How early, and to what extent, colouring may have attained the rank of
+science among the ancients, are questions not easily set at rest; but
+that some progress had been made, even at a very remote period, is
+proved by the magnificent tombs of the Egyptian kings at Thebes, where
+the walls of the royal mausoleum are described as being covered with
+paintings so fresh and perfect, as to require neither restoration nor
+improvement. So far from this, indeed, that with all care in copying, it
+was difficult to equal the brilliancy of the originals, which, as far as
+colours went, threw all others in the background. And yet, in spite of
+the scale having comprised pure vermilion, ochres, and indigo, it was
+not gaudy, owing to the judicious balance of the colours, and the
+artful management of the black. Nor was there an ornament throughout the
+dresses, wherein the red, yellow, and blue, were not so employed as to
+produce a delicious harmony.
+
+Moreover, it is stated that in one painting eighty feet high and
+proportionably broad, which was divided into two ranges of gigantic
+figures, these were glowing with most exquisite colours, suited to the
+drapery and naked parts; and in which the azure, yellow, green, &c.,
+were as well preserved as though they had been laid on yesterday. Again,
+an apartment was discovered among the stupendous ruins at Carnac, on the
+site of ancient Thebes, one hundred paces wide and sixty deep,
+completely crowded with pillars, which, together with the ceiling, roof,
+and walls, were decorated with figures in basso-relievo, and
+hieroglyphics--all marvellously beautiful and finely painted, and as
+fresh, splendid and glorious, after so many ages, as if they had just
+been finished.
+
+In various accounts these colourings of the Egyptians are described in
+the warmest terms of admiration. The most charming are undoubtedly those
+on the tombs and temples: others of less merit have been found on the
+cases and cloths of mummies, and on papyrus rolls; but it is to the
+patterns on the walls and ceilings of their houses that they seem to
+have been most partial, and paid the most attention. The ordinary
+colours employed by them were red, yellow, green, and blue. Of the last
+there were two tints; black also was common. For white, the finely
+prepared stone-coloured ground was deemed sufficient. These colours were
+occasionally modified by mixture with chalk; but were always, or nearly
+always, applied singly, in an unmixed state. With regard to their
+composition, chemical analysis has shown several of the _blues_ to be
+oxide of copper with a small proportion of iron; none containing cobalt.
+There is little doubt, however, that the most brilliant specimens--those
+which retain all their original force and beauty in the temples of Upper
+Egypt after an exposure of three thousand years, consist of
+ultramarine--the celebrated Armenian blue, possibly, of the ancients.
+The _reds_ seem for the most part to be composed of oxide of iron mixed
+with lime, and were probably limited to iron earths and ochres, with a
+native cinnabar or vermilion. The _yellows_ are said to have been, in
+many cases, vegetable colours; but it is likely earths and ochres were
+their chief source. The _greens_ consist of yellow mixed with copper
+blue. The bluish-green which sometimes appears on Egyptian antiquities,
+is merely a faded blue. The _blacks_ are both of vegetable and mineral
+origin, having been obtained from a variety of substances in a variety
+of ways.
+
+But, as shown by Layard in his discoveries at Nineveh, a knowledge of
+colouring was not confined to the Egyptians; it was likewise possessed
+by the Assyrians. The painted ornaments of the latter are stated to have
+been remarkably elegant; and although the colours were limited to blue,
+red, white, yellow, and black, yet they were arranged with so much taste
+and skill, and the contrasts were so judiciously preserved, that the
+combinations were in general agreeable to the eye. The pale
+yellowish-white ground on which the designs were painted, resembled the
+tint on the walls of Egyptian monuments, and a strong well-defined black
+outline was found to be as peculiar a feature in Assyrian as in Egyptian
+painting, black frequently combining with white alone, or alternating
+with other colours. As far as they have been analysed, the pigments
+employed were mineral, the brightest being a blue derived from copper.
+No traces of vegetable colours have been found; it is presumed that they
+existed, but being subject to more rapid decay than the mineral
+pigments, they have disappeared. That all the colours, indeed, employed
+by the ancients were not permanent, was proved by the fact of certain
+blues and reds, brilliant and vivid when the earth was removed from
+them, fading rapidly when exposed to the air.
+
+From Philocles, the Egyptian, and Gyges, a Lydian, both of whom,
+according to Pliny, acquired the knowledge of the art of painting in
+Egypt, the Greeks obtained the knowledge of their _Ars Chromatica_,
+which they are said to have carried by gradual advances during several
+centuries, from the monochromatic of their earlier painters, to the
+perfection of colouring under Zeuxis and Apelles, 450 to 350 B.C.
+Unfortunately, not long after, or about 300 B.C., art rapidly
+deteriorated; the invasion of the Romans commenced; and the principles
+of light, shade, and colours in painting as understood by the Greeks,
+together with their valuable treatises on the subject were lost. The
+early Roman and Florentine painters, so eminent in other respects, were
+almost destitute of those principles, and of truly refined feeling for
+the effects of colouring.
+
+The partial restoration of this branch seems to have been coeval with
+the earliest practice of painting in oil. The glory of it belongs to the
+Venetians, to whom the art of painting passed with the last remains of
+the Greek schools after the capture of Constantinople at the beginning
+of the thirteenth century. Giovanni Bellini laid the foundation of
+colouring, and Titian carried it to its highest practical perfection.
+From the Venetian it extended to the Lombard, Flemish, and Spanish
+schools. In the practice of these, however, there was perhaps as much of
+instinct as principle, colouring still remaining to be established in
+its perfection as a science.
+
+According to the true, natural, and philosophical classification of
+painting, there are but three principal classes or schools; viz.: the
+gross and _material_ which is content with mere nature, and to which
+belong the Dutch and Flemish schools; the _sensible_, which aims at
+refined and select nature, and accords with the Venetian school; and the
+_intellectual_, which aspires to the ideal in beauty, grandeur, and
+sublimity, and corresponds with the Greek, Roman, and Florentine
+schools. Modern art as founded upon the _intellectual_ school of the
+ancient Greeks, became grand, scientific, and severe in the practice of
+Michael Angelo, and Leonardo da Vinci; graceful, beautiful and
+expressive in Raphael, Correggio, Dominichino, and Guido; and, aiming at
+_sensible_ perfection, it attained harmony of colouring and effect in
+the works of Titian and Tintoret; but it sunk into grossness and
+sensuality while perfecting itself _materially_ among the Flemish and
+Dutch.
+
+In the practice of the individual in painting, as well as in all
+revolutions of pictorial art, in ancient Greece as in modern Italy,
+colouring in its perfection has been the last attainment of excellence
+in every school. It has been justly observed, indeed, that for near
+three hundred years, since painting was revived, we could hardly reckon
+six painters that had been good colourists, among the thousands who had
+laboured to become such. But there is reason to hope that as Zeuxis
+succeeded and excelled Polygnotus, and Titian Raphael, the artists of
+Britain will transcend all preceding schools in the chromatic department
+of painting. It is even probable that they may surpass them in all other
+branches, and in every mode and application of the art, as they have
+already more particularly done in an original and unrivalled use of
+water-colours.
+
+Happily, too, there has arisen among us a school of colouring that
+confirms this expectation, strengthened as it is, by the suitableness of
+our climate to perfect vision. For in it we have that mean degree of
+light which is best adapted to the distinguishing of colours, a
+boundless diversity of hue in nature relieved by those fine effects of
+light and shade which are denied to more vertical suns, besides those
+beauties of complexion and feature in our females peculiar to England;
+respects in which at least our country is not unfavourable to art.
+
+Even now it is urged by some to the _disparagement_ of the British
+school, that it excels in colouring; as if this were incompatible with
+any other excellence, or as if nature, the great prototype of art, ever
+dispensed with it. The graphic branches of painting, owe everything to
+colour, which, if it does not constitute a picture, is its flesh and
+blood. Without it, the finest performances remain lifeless skeletons,
+and yield no pleasure. Painting is the art of representing visible
+things by light, shade, form, and colour; but of these, colour--and
+colour alone--is the immediate object which attracts the eye. Colouring
+is, therefore, the first requisite--the one thing imparting warmth and
+life--the chief quality engaging attention; in short, the best
+introduction to a picture, and that which continues to give it value so
+long as it is regarded. It is a power, too, which is with the most
+difficulty retained, being the first to leave the artist himself, and
+the first to quit a school on its decline. Graphic art without
+colouring, is as food without flavour; and it was the deficiency of
+colouring in the great works of the Roman and Florentine schools that
+caused Sir Joshua Reynolds to confess a certain want of attraction in
+them. To relish and estimate truly their greatness, required, he said, a
+forced and often-repeated attention, and "it was only those persons
+incapable of appreciating such divine performances, who made pretensions
+to instantaneous raptures on first beholding them." Gainsborough also,
+with a candour similar to that of Reynolds, upon viewing the cartoons at
+Hampton Court, acknowledged that their beauty was of a class he could
+neither appreciate nor enjoy.
+
+Colouring, then, is a necessity; but there is in it a vicious extreme;
+that in which it is rendered so principal as, by want of subordination,
+to overlay the subject. There is also a negative excellence which
+consists in not always employing pleasing tints, but of sometimes taking
+advantage of the effects to be derived from impure hues, as Poussin did
+in his "Deluge." In this work, neither black nor white, blue, red, nor
+yellow appears; the whole mass being, with little variation, of a sombre
+grey, the true resemblance of a dark and humid atmosphere, by which
+every object is rendered indistinct and almost colourless. This absence
+of colour, however, is a merit, and not a fault. Vandyke employed such
+means with admirable effect in the background of a Crucifixion, and in
+his Pieta; and the Phaeton of Giulio Romano is celebrated for a
+suffusion of smothered red, which powerfully excites the idea of a world
+on fire.
+
+Of the rank and value of this department of painting, there will be, as
+there has been, difference of judgment and opinion, as there is variety
+in the powers of the eye and understanding. But take from Rubens,
+Rembrandt, Titian, and other distinguished masters, the estimation of
+their colouring, and we fear all that is left to them would hardly
+preserve their names from oblivion. Art cannot, indeed, attain its
+appropriate end, that of pleasing, without excellence in colouring. It
+is colour which the true artist most loves, and it is colouring in all
+its complex and high relations, that he ever seeks to attain. Looking
+above, and around, and beneath him, with the intelligent eye of the
+colourist, he finds a boundless source of never-ceasing enjoyment. With
+harmonies and accordances lost to the untutored gaze, colour meets him
+in every stone he treads on--in the mineral, vegetable, and animal
+creation--in the heavens, sea, and earth. For him, in truth, colour is
+as equally diffused as light, spreading itself over the entire face of
+nature, and clothing the whole world with beauty.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+ON THE RELATIONS AND HARMONY OF COLOUR.
+
+
+Assured as we must be of the importance of colouring as a branch of art,
+colours in all their bearings become interesting to the artist, and on
+their use and arrangement his reputation as a colourist must depend.
+
+Colour, remarks Ruskin, is wholly _relative_; each hue throughout a work
+is altered by every touch added in other places. Thus, to place white
+beside a colour is to heighten its tone; to set black beside a colour is
+to weaken its tone; while to put grey beside a colour, is to render it
+more brilliant. If a dark colour be placed near a different, but lighter
+colour, the tone of the first is heightened, while that of the second is
+lowered. An important consequence of this principle is, that the first
+effect may neutralize the second, or even destroy it altogether. What
+was cold before, becomes warm when a colder colour is set near it, and
+what was in harmony before, becomes discordant as other colours are put
+beside it. For example, to place a light blue beside a yellow, tinges
+it orange, and consequently heightens its tone. Again, there are some
+blues so dark relatively to the yellow that they weaken it, and not only
+hide the orange tint, but even cause sensitive eyes to feel that the
+yellow is rather green than orange--a very natural result when it is
+considered that the paler the yellow becomes, the more it tends to
+appear green.
+
+We learn from these relations of colours, why dapplings of two or more
+produce effects in painting so much more clear and brilliant than
+uniform tints obtained by compounding the same colours: and why
+hatchings, or a touch of their contrasts, thrown as it were by accident
+upon local tints, have the same effect. We see, too, why colours mixed
+deteriorate each other, which they do more--in many cases--by
+imperfectly neutralizing or subduing each other chromatically, than by
+any chemical action. Finally, we are impressed with the necessity, not
+only of using colours pure, but of using pure colours; although pure
+colouring and brilliancy differ as much from crudeness and harshness, as
+tone and harmony from murkiness and monotony.
+
+The powers of colours in contrasting each other agree with their
+correlative powers of light and shade, and are to be distinguished from
+their powers individually on the eye, which are those of light alone.
+Thus, although orange and blue are equal powers with respect to each
+other, as regards the eye they are totally different and opposed. Orange
+is a luminous colour, and has a powerfully irritating effect, while blue
+is a shadowy colour, possessing a soothing quality--and it is the same,
+in various degrees, with other colours.
+
+There are yet further modes of contrast or antagonism in colouring,
+which claim the attention and engage the skill of the colourist. Of the
+contrast of _hues_, upon which depend the brilliancy, force, and harmony
+of colouring, we have just spoken; but there is, secondly, the contrast
+of _shades_. To this belong all the powers of chiaroscuro, by which term
+the painter denotes the harmonious effects of light and shade; and
+though they form the simplest part of colouring, yet they cannot be
+separated from it--light and shade, the chiaroscuro, being a distinct
+and important branch of painting. A third mode of contrast in colouring
+is that of _warmth_ and _coolness_, upon which depend the toning and
+general effect of a picture. Fourthly, there is the contrast of _colour_
+and _neutrality_, the chromatic and achromatic, or hue and shade. By the
+right management of this, local colours acquire value, gradation,
+keeping, and connection: whence come breadth, aerial perspective, and
+the due distribution of greys and shadows in a picture.
+
+This principle of contrast applies even to _individual colours_, and
+conduces greatly to good colouring. It may be carried with advantage
+into the variety of hue and tint in the same colour, not only as regards
+light and shade, but likewise with respect to warmth and coolness, as
+well as to colour and neutrality. Hence the judicious landscape-painter
+knows how to avail himself of warmth and coolness in the juxtaposition
+of his greens, in addition to their lightness and darkness, or
+brilliancy and brokenness, in producing the most beautiful and varied
+effects; effects which spring in other cases from a like management of
+blue, white, &c. These powers of a colour upon itself are highly
+important to the artist, and lead to that gratification from fine
+colouring, which a good eye ever enjoys.
+
+In landscape we see nature employing broken colours in harmonious
+consonance and variety, while, equally true to picturesque relations,
+she uses also broken forms and figures, in conjoint harmony with
+colours; occasionally throwing into the composition a regular form, or a
+primary colour, for the sake of animation and contrast. And if we
+inspect her works more closely, we shall find that they have no uniform
+tints. Whether in the animal, vegetable or mineral creation--flesh or
+foliage, earth or sky, flower or stone--however uniform the colour may
+appear at a distance, it will, when examined nearly, be found to
+consist of a variety of hues and shades, compounded with harmony and
+intelligence.
+
+It is for this reason that no two colours are ever found discordant in
+nature, however much so they may be in art. Blue and green have been
+termed discordant, and in painting they may undoubtedly be made so. Yet
+those are two colours which nature seems to intend never to be
+separated, and never to be felt, either of them, in its full beauty,
+without the other--a blue sky through green leaves, or a blue wave with
+green lights through it, being precisely the loveliest things, next to
+clouds at sunrise, in this coloured world of ours. A good eye for colour
+will soon discover how constantly nature puts green and purple together,
+purple and scarlet, green and blue, yellow and neutral grey, and the
+like; and how she strikes these colour-concords for general tones,
+before working into them with innumerable subordinate ones.
+
+Upon the more intimate union, or the blending and gradience of contrasts
+from one to another mutually, depend some of the most fascinating
+effects of colouring. The practical principle employed in producing them
+is important, and consists in the blending and gradating by _mixture_,
+while we avoid the _compounding_ of contrasting colours. That is, the
+colours must be kept distinct in the act of blending them, or otherwise
+they will run into dusky neutrality and defile each other. This is the
+case in blending and gradating from green to red, or from hue to
+hue--from blue to orange, or to and from coldness and warmth--from
+yellow to purple, or to and from advancing and retiring colours. It is
+the same in light and shade, or white and black, which _mix_ with
+clearness. Now, there are only two ways in which this distinctness in
+union of contrasts can be effected in practice: the one is by hatching
+or breaking them together in mixture, without compounding them
+uniformly; and the other is by glazing, in which the colours unite and
+penetrate mutually, without monotonous composition.
+
+The former process may be said to be the carrying out of the principle
+of separate colours to the utmost possible refinement, by using atoms of
+colour in juxtaposition, instead of in large spaces. And it is to be
+noted, in filling up minute interstices of this kind, that if the colour
+with which they are filled be wanted to show brightly, a rather positive
+point of it had better be put, with a little white left beside or round
+it in the interstice. This plan is preferable to laying a pale tint of
+the colour over the whole interstice. Yellow or orange, for instance,
+will hardly show, if pale, in small spaces; but they show brightly in
+free touches, however small, with white beside them. The latter mode is
+founded on the fact, that if a dark colour be laid first, and a little
+blue or white body-colour struck lightly over it, a more beautiful gray
+will be obtained than by mixing the colour and the blue or white.
+Similarly, if over a solid and perfectly dry touch of vermilion there be
+quickly washed a little very wet carmine, a much more brilliant red will
+be produced than by mixing the two colours.
+
+Transparency and opacity constitute another contrast of colouring, the
+former of which belongs to shade and blackness, the latter to light and
+whiteness. Even contrast has its contrast, for _gradations_ or
+_intermedia_ are opposed to contrasts or _extremes_; and, upon the right
+management of contrasts and gradations depend the harmony and melody,
+the tone, effect, and general expression of a picture. Thus, painting is
+an affair of judicious contrasting so far as regards colour, if even it
+be not such altogether.
+
+Colour, it has already been observed, is wholly _relative_. In
+contrasting, therefore, any colour, if we wish it to have light or
+brilliancy, we cast its opposite into the shade; if we would have it
+warm, we cool its antagonist; and if transparent, we oppose it by an
+opaque contrary, and _vice versa_: indeed, in practice, all these must
+be in some measure combined.
+
+Such are some of the powers of contrast in colouring alone, and such is
+the diversity of art upon which skill in colouring depends. It must not
+be forgotten, however, that contrasts or extremes, whether of light and
+shade, or of colours, become violent and offensive when they are not
+reconciled by the interposition of their media, or intermediates, which
+partake of both extremes of the contrasts. Thus blue and orange in
+contrast become reconciled, softened in effect, and harmonized, when a
+broken colour composed of the two intervenes. The same may be said of
+other colours, shades, and contrasts.
+
+Seeing that the management and mastery of colours are to a great extent
+dependent on the same principles as light and shade, it might become a
+point of good discipline, after acquiring the use of black and white in
+the chiaroscuro, to paint designs in contrast; that is, with two
+contrasting colours only, in conjunction with black and white--for
+example, with blue and orange, before attempting the whole. Indeed,
+black can be dispensed with in these cases, because it may be
+compounded, since the neutral grey and third colours always arise from
+the compounding of contrasting colours. In this way, even flesh may be
+painted--for instance, with red and green alone, as Gainsborough is said
+at one period to have done.
+
+Some artists have produced pictures in the above hot and cold colours
+only; which, although captivating to the eye, and true in theory with
+respect to colour, light and shade, are generally false in practice with
+regard to nature, which rarely employs such extreme accordances.
+Colouring like this, therefore, is more beautiful than true. It is as
+though a painter were to execute a landscape in the full light of day,
+as he saw it looking through a prism, so that every object glowed with
+rainbow hues. Such a picture would present a beautiful fairy scene, and
+be true as regards colours, but as respects nature, it would be false.
+
+Colour, and what in painting is called transparency, belong chiefly to
+shade. It has been a common error to ascribe those properties to light
+only, and hence many have employed a uniform shade tint, regarding
+shadows as simply darkness, blackness, or the mere absence of light;
+when, in truth, shadows are infinitely varied by colour, and always so
+by the colours of the lights which produce them. But while we incline
+attention toward the relation of colour to shade, both light and shade
+being strictly co-essential to colour, a vicious extreme must be
+avoided. For although, as transparent, colour inclines to shade, and, as
+opaque, it partakes of light; yet the general tendency of colour is to
+transparency and shade, all colour being a departure from light. Hence
+it becomes a maxim, which he who aspires to good colouring must never
+lose sight of, that _the colour of shadow is always transparent, and
+only that of extreme light objects opaque_. It follows, that white is to
+be kept as much as possible out of shadow, and black, for the same
+reason, out of colour. In their stead, whenever it is necessary to
+cover, opaque tints may be employed, glazed over with transparent
+colours. Such practice would also be more favourable to durability of
+the tones of pictures, than the shades and tints produced with black and
+white. The hues and shadows of nature are in no ordinary case either
+black or white, which, except as local colours, are always poor and
+frigid. The perfection of colouring is to combine harmony with
+brilliancy, unity with variety, and freshness with force, without
+violating the laws of nature.
+
+With regard to the _perspective of colours_, or the manner in which they
+affect the eye, according to position and distance, it is a branch of
+aerial perspective or the perspective of light and shade. This is
+distinguished from linear perspective, or the perspective of drawing, as
+drawing is from colouring; and they have progressed alike in the art.
+The most ancient painters seem to have known little of either; and
+linear perspective was established as science before the aerial, as
+drawing and composition preceded colouring.
+
+The perspective of colours depends upon their powers to reflect the
+elements of light, powers which are by no means uniform. Accordingly,
+blue is lost in the distance before red, and yellow is seen at a point
+at which red would disappear; yet blue preserves its hue better than
+yellow, because colours are cooled in the distance. In this respect,
+the compound colours partake of the powers of their components, in
+obedience to a general rule, by which local colours closely connected
+with black are first lost in the distance, and those nearly related to
+white disappear last. The same may be said of local light and shade, the
+latter of which is totally lost at great distances; and it is for this
+reason the shadowed side of the moon is not generally seen. These powers
+of colours are, however, varied by mist, air, altitude, and mixture,
+which produce evanescence; and by contrast, which preserves the force of
+colours by distinguishing them. Colours do not decline in force so much
+by height as by horizontal distance, because the upper atmosphere is
+less dense and clouded with vapour: and hence it is that mountains of
+great elevation appear much nearer than they really are. From all these
+circumstances, it is evident that a simple scumbling or uniform
+degradation of local colours will not effect a true perspective--for
+this will be the aerial of light and shade only--but such a
+subordination of hues and tints, as the various powers of colours
+require, and as is always observable in nature.
+
+In furnishing or _setting the palette_ philosophically and upon
+principle, it is necessary to supply it with pure blue, red, and yellow;
+to oppose to these an orange, of a hue that will neutralise the
+blue--green, of a hue that will neutralise the red--and purple, of a hue
+that will neutralise the yellow; and so on to black and white, which
+will neutralise each other. As in nature, the general colour of the sky
+is blue, and the colour of light is always opposite to that of the sky
+and shade, so the white which is to represent light should be tinged
+with the orange of the palette sufficiently to neutralise the
+predominant coldness of black. Pure neutral white may thus be reserved
+as a "local" colour, which is a technical term for the _natural_ colour
+of an object, unvaried by distance, reflection, or anything interfering
+with distinct vision; although, properly speaking, local colours are
+subject to all the relations and effects of the places they occupy in a
+composition--whether of light, shade, reflection, or distance.
+
+From what we have said, it will be seen that the relations and harmony
+of colours form a complex subject, requiring constant and careful study;
+one, indeed, into which he who would become a colourist must enter heart
+and soul. For as colouring is the beginning and end of a painter's
+craft, so colour in all its aspects must be the chief lesson of his
+life. And this lesson can only be learnt, by ever watching with a loving
+eye those wondrous colourings of nature, in which there is nothing
+inharmonious or out of place.
+
+
+
+
+PART II.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+ON COLOURS AND PIGMENTS GENERALLY.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+ON CLASSES OF COLOURS.
+
+
+By mixing his _colours with white_, the artist obtains his _tints_. By
+mixing _colours with colours_, he produces compound colours, or _hues_.
+And by mixing _colours or tints with black_, he gets _shades_. It is a
+common error to confound these distinctions.
+
+The above classification of colours enables us to understand the
+simplicity of relation which exists among an infinity of tints, hues,
+and shades of colour. Also, it is calculated to give precision to
+language respecting colours, the nomenclature of which has too often
+been vague and uncertain.
+
+There are five classes of colours, viz.:--the _Neutral_, the _Primary_,
+the _Secondary_, the _Tertiary_, and the _Semi-neutral_.
+
+_Neutral Colours_ are three only, _white_, _black_, and grey. According
+to the laws of Optics, the two first comprise all other colours
+synthetically, and afford them all by analysis. These are sometimes
+called "extreme" colours, grey being their intermediate.
+
+_Primary Colours_ are three only, _yellow_, _red_, and _blue_. They are
+such as yield others by being compounded, but are not themselves capable
+of being produced by composition of other colours. By way of
+distinction, they are occasionally designated "entire" colours.
+
+_Secondary Colours_, are three only, _orange_, _green_, and _purple_.
+Each of these is composed of, or can be resolved into, two primaries.
+Thus, orange is composed of red and yellow; green, of yellow and blue;
+and purple, of blue and red.
+
+_Tertiary Colours_ are three only, _citrine_, _russet_, and _olive_.
+Each of these is composed of, or can be resolved into, either two
+secondary colours, or the three primaries. Thus, citrine consists of
+green and orange, or of a predominant yellow with blue and red; russet
+is compounded of orange and purple, or of a predominant red with blue
+and yellow; and olive is composed of purple and green, or of a
+predominant blue with yellow and red.
+
+The last three genera of colours comprehend in an orderly gradation all
+those which are _positive_ or definite; and the three colours of each
+genus, united or compounded in such subordination that neither of them
+predominates to the eye, constitute the _negative_ or neutral colours,
+of which _black_ and _white_ have been stated to be the opposed
+extremes, and _greys_ their intermediates. Thus black and white are
+constituted of, and comprise latently, the principles of all colours,
+and accompany them in their depth and brilliancy as shade and light.
+
+_Semi-neutral Colours_ belong to a class of which _brown_, _marrone_,
+and _gray_ may be considered types. They are so called, because they
+comprehend all the combinations of the primary, secondary, and tertiary
+colours, with the neutral _black_. Of the various combinations of black,
+those in which yellow, orange, or citrine predominates, have obtained
+the name of brown, &c. A second class in which the compounds of black
+are of a predominant red, purple, or russet hue, comprises marrone,
+chocolate, &c. And a third class, in which the combinations of black
+have a predominating hue of blue, green, or olive, includes gray, slate,
+&c.
+
+While treating of the classes of colours, it may not be out of place to
+note here the difference between gray as spelt with an _a_, and grey as
+spelt with an _e_, the two names being occasionally confounded. _Gray_
+is semi-neutral, and denotes a class of cool cinereous colours, faint of
+hue; whence we have blue grays, olive grays, green grays, purple grays,
+and grays of all hues in which blue predominates; but no yellow or red
+grays, the predominance of such hues carrying the compounds into the
+classes of brown and marrone, of which gray is the natural opposite.
+_Grey_ is neutral, and is composed of or can be resolved into black and
+white alone, from a mixture of which two colours it springs in an
+infinite series.
+
+It must be observed that each colour may comprehend an indefinite series
+of _shades_ between the extremes of light and dark, as each compound
+colour also may comprise a similar series of _hues_ between the extremes
+of the colours composing it. And as the relations of colours have been
+deduced regularly, from white or light to black or shade; so the same
+may be done, inversely, from black to white. On this plan the
+tertiaries, olive, russet, and citrine, take the place of the primaries,
+blue, red, and yellow; while the secondaries still retain their
+intermediate station and relation to both.
+
+Thus, _russet and olive_ compose or unite in _dark purple_; _citrine and
+olive_ in _dark green_; _russet and citrine_ in _dark orange_. The
+tertiaries have, therefore, the same order of relation to black that the
+primaries have to white; and we have black primaries, secondaries, and
+tertiaries, inversely, as we have white primaries, secondaries, and
+tertiaries, directly. In other words, we have light and dark colours in
+all classes.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+ON THE DURABILITY AND EVANESCENCE OF PIGMENTS.
+
+
+Pigments may be defined as colours in a solid or insoluble state,
+prepared for the artists' use. Hitherto, we have treated of colours in
+the abstract sense, as appealing to the eye only: we have now to
+consider them as material bodies.
+
+As colour itself is relative, so is durability of colour relative. For
+the reason that all material substances are changeable and in perpetual
+action and reaction, no pigment is so permanent as that nothing will
+alter its colour. On the other hand, none is so fugitive as not to last
+under some favouring circumstances. Time, of long or short continuance,
+has often the effect of fire, more or less intense. Indeed, it is some
+sort of criterion of the stability and changes of colour in pigments,
+that time and fire are apt to produce similar effects thereon. Thus, if
+fire deepen, or cool, or warm a colour, so may time; if it vary its
+hues, so may time; if it destroy a colour altogether, so may time
+ultimately. The power of time, however, varies extremely with regard to
+the period in which it produces those effects, that are instantly
+accomplished by fire.
+
+That there is no absolute but only relative durability of colour may be
+proved from the most celebrated pigments. For instance, the colour of
+native ultramarine, which will endure a hundred centuries under ordinary
+circumstances, may be at once destroyed by a drop of lemon juice; and
+the generally fugitive and changeable carmine of cochineal will, when
+secluded from light and air, continue fifty years or more; while fire or
+time, which merely deepen the former colour, will completely dissipate
+the latter. Again, there have been works of art in which the white of
+lead has retained its freshness for ages in a pure atmosphere, but has
+been changed to blackness after a few days' or even hours' exposure to
+foul air. These and other peculiarities of colours will be noticed, when
+we come to speak of pigments individually; not for the purpose of
+destroying the artist's confidence, but as a caution, and a guide to the
+availing himself of their powers properly.
+
+It is, therefore, the lasting under the usual conditions of painting,
+and the common circumstances to which works of art are exposed, that
+entitles a colour to the character of permanency; and it is the
+not-so-enduring which attaches to it rightly the opposite character of
+evanescence: while a pigment may obtain a false repute for either, by
+accidental preservation or destruction under unusually favourable or
+fatal circumstances.
+
+Many have imagined that colours vitrified by intense heat are
+consequently durable when levigated for painting in oil or water. Had
+this been the case, the artist need not have looked farther for the
+furnishing of his palette than to a supply of well-burnt and levigated
+enamel pigments. But though such colours for the most part stand well
+when fluxed on glass, or in the glazing of enamel, they are nearly,
+without exception, subject to the most serious changes when ground to
+the degree of fineness necessary to their application as pigments, and
+become liable to all the chemical changes and affinities of the
+substances which compose them. These remarks even apply in a measure to
+native products, such as coloured earths and metallic ores.
+
+Others have not unreasonably supposed that when pigments are locked up
+in varnishes and oils, they are safe from all possibility of change. The
+assumption would be more warranted if we had an impenetrable
+varnish--and even that would not resist the action of light, however
+well it might exclude the influence of air and moisture. But, in fact,
+varnishes and oils themselves yield to changes of temperature, to the
+action of a humid atmosphere, and to other influences: their protection
+of colour from change is therefore far from perfect.
+
+Want of attention to the unceasing mutability of all chemical
+substances, as well as to their reciprocal actions, has occasioned those
+changes of colour to be ascribed to fugitiveness of the pigment, which
+belong to the affinities of other substances with which it has been
+improperly mixed and applied. It is thus that the best pigments have
+suffered in reputation under the injudicious processes of the painter;
+although, owing to a desultory practice, the effects and results have
+not been uniform. If a colour be not extremely permanent, dilution will
+render it in some measure more weak and fugitive; and this occurs in
+several ways--by a too free use of the vehicle; by complex mixture in
+the formation of tints; by distribution, in glazing or lackering, of
+colours upon the lights downward, or scumbling colours upon the shades
+upward; or by a mixed mode very common among the Venetian painters, in
+which opaque pigments are combined, as umber and lake.
+
+The fugitive colours do less injury in the shadows than in the lights of
+a picture, because they are employed pure, and in greater body in
+shadows, and are therefore less liable to decay by the action of light,
+and by mixture. Through partially fading, moreover, they balance any
+tendency to darken, to which the dead colouring of earthy and metallic
+pigments is disposed.
+
+The foregoing circumstances, added to the variableness of pigments by
+nature, preparation, and sophistication, have often rendered their
+effects equivocal, and their powers questionable. These considerations
+enforce the expediency of using colours as pure and free from
+unnecessary mixture as possible; for simplicity of composition and
+management is equally a maxim of good mechanism, good chemistry, and
+good colouring. Accordingly, in respect to the latter, Sir Joshua
+Reynolds remarks, "Two colours mixed together will not preserve the
+brightness of either of them single, nor will three be as bright as two:
+of this observation, simple as it is, an artist who wishes to colour
+bright will know the value."
+
+There prevail, notwithstanding, two principles of practice on the
+palette, opposed to each other--the one, simple; the other, multiple.
+The first is that of having as few pigments as possible; and consists,
+when carried to the extreme, in employing the three primary colours
+only. The second is that of having a number of pigments; and consists,
+also when carried to the extreme, of employing as many, if possible, as
+there are hues and shades of colour.
+
+On the former plan, every tint requires to be compounded; on the latter,
+one pigment supplies the place of two or more. Now, the more pigments
+are mixed, the more they are deteriorated in colour, attenuated, and
+chemically set at variance. Original pigments, that is, such as are not
+made up of two or more colours, are purer in hue and generally more
+durable than those compounded. Hence pure intermediate tints in single,
+permanent, original pigments, are to be preferred to pigments
+compounded, often to the dilution and injury of their colours. Cadmium
+Orange, for instance, which is _naturally_ an orange pigment and not
+composed of red and yellow, is superior to many mixtures of those
+colours in a chemical sense, and to all such mixtures in an artistic
+sense. At the same time, it is quite possible for the artist to multiply
+his pigments unnecessarily. Colours are sometimes brought out under new
+names which have no claim to be regarded as new colours, being, indeed,
+mere mixtures. Compound pigments like these may most frequently be
+dispensed with, in favour of hues and tints composed extemporaneously of
+original colours upon the palette.
+
+It may be inferred from the foregoing that, between the modes of
+employing as few pigments as possible, and of having as many as there
+are hues and shades of colour, a middle course is the best. But,
+whatever the practice adopted, permanent _original_ pigments should be
+used as often as the case will admit; it being borne in mind, that a
+pigment may be compound, although its colour may be primary. As a rule,
+the less colours are mixed, the purer, brighter, and more lasting they
+will be found.
+
+To the practice of producing tints and hues by _grinding_ pigments
+together, instead of _blending_ them on the palette, may be attributed
+some of the peculiarities of the tints and textures of the Flemish
+school; they being, perhaps, results of intimate combination from
+grinding, and consequently of a more powerful chemical action among the
+ingredients compounded. This method has, in a great measure, fallen into
+disuse, and undoubtedly it conduced to foulness when the colours of the
+pigments ground were not pure and true, and did not assimilate well in
+mixture chemically.
+
+The superiority of Rubens and the Flemings, and of Titian and the
+Venetian school, in colouring and effect, is due in a considerable
+degree to their sketching their designs in colours experimentally with a
+full palette. This practice, as derived from Reynolds, is common with
+the best masters of our own school, who, in executing their works,
+resort also to nature, with an improved knowledge of colours and
+colouring. Such attention to colouring and effect, from the first study
+and ground of a picture to the finishing, contributes a beauty to the
+painting no superinduced colouring can accomplish.
+
+The durability of colour in substances is to a great extent dependent
+upon the condition in which they exist chemically. If pigments, for
+example, be in a state which chemists have termed _pro_toxide, they are
+liable to absorb oxygen on exposure to light, air, or moisture, and
+becoming what is called _per_oxidized, may, by consequence, change or
+fade. In like manner, lakes and carmines thrown down upon a base, may
+owe some of their fugacity to the oxidation of that base, as well as to
+the natural infirmity of their colouring matter. On the other hand,
+pigments and bases are subject to _de_oxidation, or to a loss of oxygen,
+in which case the colour is apt to deepen. Pigments generally are more
+affected by oxidation and fading in a water vehicle, and by deoxidation
+and darkening in one of oil.
+
+A principal test of permanency in pigments is the impunity with which
+they bear exposure to light and air, an artistic proof of their
+stability the mere chemist is apt to neglect. Provided the colour remain
+unaffected by sulphuretted hydrogen, &c., he seldom hesitates to
+pronounce it safe. But a pigment may be fast in one sense and fugitive
+in another, believed in by the laboratory, and found wanting by the
+studio. It has happened before now that the same colour has been dubbed
+durable and the reverse, by the man of science and the man of art. The
+former, we take it, looks upon a pigment as a coloured substance of a
+certain composition, possessing maybe an acid and a base, either, or
+neither, or both of which, gases and other reagents may injure or
+destroy. The latter views a colour chiefly as part and parcel of his
+picture--that picture which _may_ meet with foul exhalations, but _must_
+be exposed to light and air. And he too often thinks as little of the
+effects of an impure atmosphere or injudicious admixture, as the chemist
+considers the action of air and light.
+
+With the exception of madder, those colours mostly affected by _light
+and air_ are of organic origin, such as gallstone, Indian yellow, and
+the yellow dye-wood lakes; the red and purple lakes of cochineal;
+indigo; and sap green. To these may be added the semi-organic Prussian
+blue; and the inorganic yellows and orange of arsenic.
+
+The pigments liable to injury from _sulphuretted hydrogen_, &c., are
+notably those obtained from lead and copper; and that treacherous
+compound of iodine and mercury, known as pure scarlet.
+
+Many colours are apt to change from the action of white _lead_ and other
+lead pigments, &c., principally those which are altered by light and
+air.
+
+Many, too, cannot safely come into contact with iron, or ferruginous
+pigments; especially the yellows of arsenic, the lakes of cochineal, and
+the blues and greens of copper. With these an iron palette knife is best
+avoided, one of ivory or horn being used instead. The latter, indeed, is
+preferable in all cases, several pigments being slightly affected by
+iron, cadmium yellow among the number.
+
+Numerous colours are likewise injured by _lime_ and _fire_, and cannot
+therefore be employed in fresco, or enamel painting.
+
+Of substances which may act deleteriously on colours, there remain the
+_vehicles and varnishes_ with which they are mixed. Many of these have
+been blamed, and often with justice, for their injurious effects on
+pigments. The reputation of the most permanent colour may be ruined, if
+the vehicle, &c., employed with it be untrustworthy. The presence of
+lead, for instance, in such materials renders them liable to be
+blackened by foul air, and by consequence the pigments used therewith.
+
+Time produces in many cases a mellow and harmonious change in pictures,
+but occasionally alterations altogether unfavourable. To ensure the
+former and prevent the latter, the attention of the artist in the course
+of his colouring should be to the employment of such pigments and
+colours as are prone to adapt themselves, in changing, to the intended
+key of his colouring, and the right effect of his picture. Thus, if he
+design a cool effect, ultramarine has a tendency through time to
+predominate and aid the natural key of blue. He will, therefore,
+compromise the permanence of this effect, if in such case he employ a
+declining or changeable blue, or if he introduce such reds and yellows
+as have a tendency to warmth or foxiness, by which the colouring of
+many pictures has been destroyed. In a glowing or warm key, the case is
+in some measure reversed--not wholly so, for it is observable that those
+pictures have best preserved their colouring and harmony in which the
+blue has been most lasting, by the pigment counteracting the change of
+colour in the vehicle, and that suffusion of dusky yellow which time is
+wont to bestow upon pictures even of the best complexion.
+
+Unless introduced and guaranteed by houses of acknowledged reputation,
+newly discovered pigments are to be used with caution. Good colours have
+ever been prized with so true an estimation of their value, that to
+produce such, after so many ages of research is no ordinary
+accomplishment. But too many resplendent pigments, fruits of the
+fecundity of modern chemistry, have been found deficient. The yellow and
+orange chromates of lead, for instance, withstanding as they do the
+action of the sunbeam, become by time, foul air, and the influence of
+other pigments, inferior to the ochres. So the dazzling scarlet of
+iodine and mercury must yield the palm of excellence to the more sober
+vermilion, being a chameleon colour, subject to the most sudden and
+opposite changes. And the blues of cobalt, as always tending to
+greenness and obscurity, cannot rank beside ultramarine.
+
+We are far from asserting, however, that all modern pigments are
+inferior, or that pigments should be looked upon with suspicion because
+they are modern. Several most valuable colours have lately claimed
+attention, notably the permanent transparent yellow called _Aureolin_.
+Seeing that, until its introduction, a yellow combining transparency
+with a perfect stability was unknown to the palette, the importance of
+such an addition, so long wanted and wished for, cannot be overrated.
+Equal in beauty and durability with the preceding, but possessing
+greater richness and depth, and of a semi-opacity, another yellow of the
+highest order merits regard, _Orient Yellow_, distinguished for its
+lustrous golden hue, resembling a bright Indian yellow. Dazzling in
+brilliancy, and absolute in permanency. _Cadmium Red_ next attracts
+notice. This new aspirant for artistic fame is a most vivid
+orange-scarlet, the latter colour predominating, of intense fire, but
+with no approach to rankness or harshness, yielding delicate pale
+washes, and blending happily with white in the formation of flesh tints.
+With it may be coupled _Cadmium Orange_, a colour equally brilliant and
+stable, and equally without rankness or harshness, but of a true orange
+hue, admirably adapted for sunsets and the like. Last of all the fresh
+pigments of whose thorough durability there is _no_ doubt, comes the
+splendid _Viridian_, a green nothing but fire will change, and no
+mixture of blue and yellow will afford. Clear, bright, and transparent
+as the emerald, it rivals velvet in its soft gorgeous richness. With
+this and Aureolin a series of beautiful foliage tints may be formed,
+sparkling with sunshine, as it were.
+
+Other colours there are which have been brought forward within the last
+few years, not possessing the absolute permanency of the five foregoing,
+but equal, or superior, to many formerly used. It were folly, therefore,
+and a silly conservatism on the part of the artist to limit himself to
+such pigments only as were employed by his forefathers, especially as
+their merits were often more than doubtful. New colours, it is true,
+have to be _learnt_, for each pigment has its own peculiar habitudes,
+chemical, physical, artistic; but if they be good and durable, no amount
+of time and study spent upon them is thrown away. To think less of the
+quality of one's materials than of the effects which can be produced
+with them is mistaken policy; and to be content with that quality when
+better can be had, shows no real love of art, but rather indolence and
+apathy.
+
+Perhaps one reason why freshly introduced pigments have not as fair a
+chance as they are entitled to, is due to the fashion which prevails of
+exclaiming against the fugacity of modern colours. If their detractors
+would confine themselves to certain colours, there could be no denial;
+but to assert, as is often done, that the cause of modern pictures not
+standing is owing to modern pigments generally, is unjust. It is not
+the materials which should be blamed, but those who use them. The fact
+is, that the artist's knowledge has not increased in proportion to the
+greater variety of colours at his command. In the early periods of art,
+when the palette was chiefly confined to native pigments, the painter
+could not very well go wrong. Now-a-days but too many, wanting the skill
+of the old masters, seek to make amends for it by brilliancy of
+colouring: with imperfect knowledge of their materials the result is
+obvious. The palette, we admit, wants weeding; not only of the bad new
+colours, but of the bad old colours. This, however, must be a work of
+time, and depend, not upon the colourman--for where there is a demand
+there will be a supply--but upon the artists themselves. To this end an
+increased acquaintance with the properties of pigments is required,
+whereby they may be able to choose the fast from the fugitive. It may be
+fairly assumed that the painter will be assisted in his task by the
+progress of chemical science, which will doubtless add from time to time
+to the list of stable pigments. We have heard it remarked that there are
+too many colours already--to which we reply, there are not too many good
+colours, and scarcely can be. The more crowded the palette is with
+reliable pigments, the more likely are the worthless to be pushed from
+their places. In our opinion, there is ample room for fresh colours,
+provided they be durable; and we have as little sympathy with the
+stereotyped cry of there being too many, as with the fashionable
+unbelief in modern pigments. Certainly, the artist who seeks for
+permanence among the whites, reds, or blues, will not be troubled with a
+superfluity. Certainly, too, colours are as good as ever they were, and
+better--better made, better ground, better prepared for use. But, fast
+and fugitive, pigments are more numerous, and for that reason need more
+careful selection.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+ON THE GENERAL QUALITIES OF PIGMENTS.
+
+
+The general attributes of a perfect pigment are beauty of colour,
+comprehending pureness and richness, brilliancy and intensity, delicacy
+and depth,--truth of hue--transparency or opacity, well-working,
+crispness, setting up, or keeping its place, and desiccation, or drying
+well. To all of these must be superadded _durability_ when used, a
+quality to which the health and vitality of a picture belong, and one so
+essential that all other properties put together without it are of no
+esteem with the artist who merits reputation. We have, therefore, given
+it a previous distinct consideration.
+
+It must be observed that no pigment possesses all the foregoing
+qualifications in perfection, some being naturally at variance or
+opposed; nor is there any, perhaps, that cannot boast excellence in one
+or more of them.
+
+_Beauty_ commonly comprises in the same pigment delicacy, purity, and
+brilliancy; or depth, richness, and intensity. Delicacy and depth in
+the beauty of colours are at variance in the production of all pigments,
+so that perfect success in producing the one is attended with more or
+less of failure in the other, and when they are united--as they
+occasionally are--it is with some sacrifice of both. Hence the judicious
+artist purveys for his palette at least two pigments of each colour, one
+eminent for delicate beauty, the other for richness and depth.
+
+_Truth of hue_ is a relative quality in all colours, except the extreme
+primaries, in the relations of which, blue, being of nearest affinity to
+black or shade, has properly but one other relation, in which it
+inclines to red and becomes purple-blue: it is, therefore, faulty or
+false, when, tending to yellow, it becomes of a green hue. But red,
+which is of equal affinity to light and shade, has two relations, by one
+of which it verges upon blue and becomes a purple-red or crimson; and by
+the other it leans to yellow, and becomes an orange-red or scarlet,
+neither of which is individually false or discordant. Yet yellow, which
+is of nearest affinity to white or light, has strictly but one true
+relation, by which it inclines to red, and becomes a warm or orange
+yellow, for by uniting with blue it becomes a defective green-yellow.
+The best example of true yellow in a pigment, tending neither to red nor
+blue, is furnished by _Aureolin_, alluded to in the last chapter. The
+secondary and tertiary colours, having all duplex relations, may
+incline without default to either of their relatives.
+
+_Transparency_ is an essential property of all glazing pigments, and
+adds greatly to the value of dark or shading colours; indeed it is the
+prime quality upon which depth and darkness depend, as whiteness, or
+light, does upon opacity or reflecting power. _Opacity_ is, therefore,
+the antagonist of transparency, and qualifies pigments to cover in
+dead-colouring, or solid painting, as well as to combine with
+transparent colours in forming tints; and hence it is that
+semi-transparent pigments are suited in a mean degree both for dead
+colouring and for finishing. As excellencies, therefore, transparency
+and opacity are relative only--the first being as indispensable to shade
+in all its gradations, as the latter is to light. With regard to
+transparent and opaque colours generally, it is worthy of attention in
+the practice of the oil-painter, that the best effects of the former are
+produced when they are used with a resinous varnish; as opaque pigments
+are best employed in oil, and the two become united with best effect in
+a mixture of these vehicles. The natural and artificial powers, or depth
+and brilliancy, of every colour lie within the extremes of black and
+white; hence it follows that the most powerful effects of transparent
+colours are obtained by glazing them over black and white. As, however,
+few transparent pigments have sufficient body, or tinging power for
+this, it is often necessary to glaze them over tints, or deep opaque
+colours of the required hues. There is a charm in transparent colours
+which frequently leads to an undue use thereof in glazing; but glazing,
+scumbling, and their combined process must be employed with discretion,
+according to the objects and effects of a picture.
+
+_Working well_ is a quality which depends principally upon fineness of
+texture, and what is called _body_ in colours; yet every pigment has its
+peculiarities in respect to working both in water and oil, and these
+must become matter of every artist's special experience. Some of the
+best pigments are most difficult of management, while some ineligible
+colours are rich in body and free in working. Accidental circumstances,
+however, may influence all pigments in these respects, according to the
+painter's particular mode of operation, and his vehicle; upon the
+affinities of colours with which depend their general faculties of
+working--such as keeping their place, crispness or setting up, and
+drying well. These latter, with other properties and accidents of
+pigments, will be particularly considered in treating of their
+individual characters; but it may be remarked that crispness or setting
+up, as well as keeping their place and form in which they are applied,
+are contrary to the nature of many pigments, and depend in painting with
+them upon a gelatinous mixture of their vehicle. For example, mastic
+and other resinous varnishes impart this texture to oils which have been
+rendered drying by the acetate, or sugar of lead:--simple water, also
+albumen, and animal jelly made of glue and isinglass, give the same
+quality to oils and colours; and bees-wax has a similar effect in pure
+oils. Whitelac varnish, and other spirit varnishes, rubbed into the
+colours on the palette likewise enable them to keep their place very
+effectually in most instances. This is important, because glazing cannot
+be performed except with a vehicle which keeps its place, or with
+pigments which lend this property to the vehicle, as some lakes and
+transparent colours do.
+
+_Fineness of texture_ is produced by extreme grinding and levigation.
+Pigments ground in water in the state of a thick paste, are miscible in
+oil and dry therein firmly; and in case of utility or necessity, any
+water-colour in cake, being rubbed off thick in water may be diffused in
+oil, the gum acting as a medium of union between the two. Thus, pigments
+which cannot otherwise be employed in oil, or varnish, may be forced
+into the service and add to the resources of the oil-painter, care being
+taken to use the palette-knife, if of steel, with caution.
+
+_Desiccation or drying._ The well-known additions of the acetate, or
+sugar of lead, litharge, and sulphate of zinc, either mechanically
+ground, or in solution, for light colours; and japanner's gold size, or
+oils boiled upon litharge, for lakes; or, in some cases, manganese and
+verdigris for dark colours, are resorted to when the pigments or
+vehicles are not sufficiently good dryers alone. It would be well if
+lead and copper could be banished from the list of siccatives
+altogether: assuredly, no artist with any regard for the permanent
+texture of his work should employ them except in extreme cases, and in
+the smallest possible quantity. The best of pigments may be ruined by
+their injudicious use, and obtain a character for fugacity which they in
+no way deserve. It requires attention that an excess of dryer renders
+oil saponaceous, is inimical to drying, and is otherwise injurious. Some
+colours dry badly from not being sufficiently edulcorated or washed.
+Sulphate of zinc, as a siccative, is less powerful than acetate of lead,
+but is far preferable in a chemical sense. It is supposed erroneously to
+set the colours running; which is not positively the case, though it
+will not retain those disposed to move, because it wants the property
+the acetate of lead possesses, of gelatinizing the mixture of oil and
+varnish. These two dryers should not be employed together, since they
+counteract and decompose each other, forming two new substances--acetate
+of zinc, which is a bad siccative, and sulphate of lead, which is
+insoluble and opaque. The inexperienced ought here to be guarded against
+the highly improper practice of some artists, who strew their pictures
+while wet with acetate of lead, or use that substance in some other
+mode, without grinding or solution; which, though it may promote present
+drying, will ultimately effloresce on the surface of the work, throw off
+the colour in sandy spots, and expose the paintings to peculiar risk
+from the damaging influence of impure air.
+
+It is not always that ill drying is to be attributed to the pigments or
+vehicles, the states of the weather and atmosphere have great influence
+thereon. The direct rays of the sun are powerfully active in rendering
+oils and colours siccative, and were probably resorted to before dryers
+were--not always wisely--added to oils, particularly in the warm climate
+of Italy. The ground may also advance or retard drying, because some
+pigments united by mixing or glazing, become either more or less
+siccative by their conjunction. Many other accidental circumstances may
+likewise affect drying; and among these none is to be more guarded
+against by the artist than the presence of soap and alkali, too often
+left in the washing of his brushes, and which, besides other bad
+results, decompose and are decomposed by acetate of lead and most
+siccatives. In such cases desiccation is retarded, streaks and patches
+are formed on the painting, and the odium of ill drying falls upon some
+unlucky pigment. To free brushes from this disadvantage, they should be
+cleansed with linseed oil and turpentine. Dryers should be added to
+colours only at the time of using them, because they exercise their
+drying property while chemically combining with the oils employed,
+during which the latter become thick or fatten. Too much of the
+siccative will, as before noticed, often retard drying.
+
+The various affinities of pigments occasion each to have its more or
+less appropriate dryer; and it would be a matter of useful experience if
+the habits of every colour in this respect were ascertained. It is
+probable that siccatives of less power generally than the compounds of
+lead and copper might come into use in particular cases, such as the
+oxides of manganese, to which umber and the Cappagh browns owe their
+drying quality.
+
+To other good attributes of pigments, it would be well if we could in
+all cases add the property of being _innoxious_. As this, however,
+cannot be, and colours are by no means to be sacrificed on that account,
+cleanliness and avoiding the habit of putting the brush unnecessarily to
+the mouth, so common in water-painting, are sufficient guards against
+any possibly pernicious effects from the use of any pigment. No colour
+which is not imbibed by the stomach will in the slightest degree injure
+the health of the artist.
+
+
+
+
+
+PART III.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+ON COLOURS AND PIGMENTS INDIVIDUALLY.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+ON COLOURS AND PIGMENTS INDIVIDUALLY.
+
+
+Having briefly discussed the relations and attributes of colours and
+pigments generally, we come to their powers and properties
+individually--a subject pregnant with materials and of unlimited
+connexions, every substance in nature and art possessing colour, the
+first quality of pigments.
+
+With regard to _colours_ individually, it is a general law of their
+relations, confirmed by nature and the impressions of sense, that those
+colours which lie nearest in nature to light have their greatest beauty
+in their lightest tints: and that those which tend similarly towards
+shade are most beautiful in their greatest depth or fulness, a rule of
+course applying to black and white particularly. Thus, the most
+beautiful yellow, like white, is that which is lightest and most vivid;
+blue is most beautiful when deep and rich; while red is of greatest
+beauty when of intermediate depth, or somewhat inclined to light; and
+their compounds partake of these relations. We speak here only of the
+individual beauty of colours, and not of that relative beauty by which
+every tint, hue, and shade of colour become pleasing, or otherwise
+according to space, place, and reference; for this latter beauty belongs
+to the general nature and harmony of colours.
+
+In respect to _pigments_ individually, it may be observed that--other
+things being equal--those pigments are the most beautiful which possess
+the most colour, whether they be light or dark, opaque or transparent,
+bright or subdued. There are some which exhibit all their colour at a
+glance: there are others that the more they are looked into the more
+colour they are found to have--containing, as they do, an amount of
+_latent colour_, not immediately apparent. Apart from the beauty which a
+wealth of colour imparts, those pigments imbued with it are, as a rule,
+the most permanent. And not unnaturally so, for the more colour there is
+present, the longer it takes to be affected, either by exposure or
+impure air. Colour within colour, therefore, not only lends charm to a
+pigment, but contributes to its safety.
+
+There is often a vicious predilection of some artists in favour of a
+particular colour, from which many of our best colourists have not been
+totally free, and which arises from organic defect, or mental
+association. Such predilection is greatly to be guarded against by the
+colourist, who is every way surrounded by dangers. On the one hand,
+there is fear lest he fall into whiteness or chalkiness; on the other,
+into blackness or gloom: in front he may run into fire and foxiness, or
+he may slide backward into cold and leaden dulness: all of which are
+extremes he must avoid. There are also other important prejudices to
+which the eye is liable in regard to colours individually, that demand
+his particular attention. These are occasioned by the various specific
+powers of single colours acting on the eye according to their masses and
+the activity of light, or the length of time they are viewed. By
+consequence, vision becomes over-stimulated, unequally exhausted, and
+endued, even before it is fatigued, with a spectrum which not only
+clouds the colour itself, but gives a false brilliancy by contrast to
+surrounding hues, so as totally or partially to throw the eye off its
+balance, and mislead the judgment. This derangement of the organ may be
+caused by a powerful tint on the palette, a mass of drapery, the colour
+of a wall, the light of a room, or other accidental circumstance; and
+the remedy is to refresh the eye with a new object--of nature, if
+possible--or to give it rest. The powers of colours in these respects,
+as well as of pigments individually, together with their reciprocal
+action and influence chemically, will be adverted to under their
+distinct heads.
+
+The attention of the artist to the individual powers of pigments,
+although it may be of less concern than the attention to general effect
+in colouring, is by no means less necessary in practice. For he who
+would excel in colouring must study it from several points of view, in
+respect to the whole and the parts of a picture, as regards mind and
+body, and concerning itself alone. To this end, is needed a knowledge of
+his pigments individually.
+
+If nature has arrayed herself in all the colours of the rainbow, she has
+not been niggardly in offering man the materials wherewith to copy them.
+The mineral, animal, vegetable kingdom--each helps him to realize,
+however faintly, her many manifold beauties: to give some idea, however
+slight, of that glorious flood of colour, which light lets loose upon
+the world. Metal, ore, earth, stone; root, plant, flower, fruit; beast,
+fish, insect--in turn aid the arduous task. The painter's box is a very
+museum of curiosities, from every part of the universe. For it, the
+mines yield their treasures, as well as the depths of the sea: to it
+come Arab camel, and English ox, cuttle-fish and crawling coccus: in it
+the Indian indigo lies next the madder of France, and the gaudy
+vermilion of China brightens the mummy of Egypt. Varied, indeed, are the
+sources whence we derive our pigments; and if they still leave much to
+desire, improvement is clearly manifest. Slowly but surely, year by
+year, we are advancing. With the growth of science, the exhaustless
+stores of creation, will there at last be attained--step by step, though
+it be--that summit of the artist's hopes, a perfect palette?
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+ON THE NEUTRAL, WHITE.
+
+
+The term "colour" is equivocal when applied to the neutrals, yet the
+artist is bound to consider them as colours; for a thing cannot but be
+that of which it is composed, and neutrals are composed of, or
+comprehend, all colours.
+
+With regard to colour, then, _white_ in a perfect state should be
+neutral in hue, and absolutely opaque; that white being the best which
+reflects light most brilliantly. This property in white is called
+_body_; by which in other pigments, especially those that are
+transparent, is meant _tingeing power_. White, besides its uses as a
+colour, is the instrument of light in painting, and compounds when pure
+with all colours, without changing their class. Yet it dilutes and cools
+all colours except blue, which is specifically cold; and, though it does
+not change nor defile any colour, it is changed and defiled by all
+colours. This pureness of white, if it be not in some degree broken or
+tinged, will cast down or degrade every other colour in a picture, and
+itself become harsh and crude. Hence the lowness of tone which has been
+thought a necessity in painting, but is such only because our other
+colours do not approach to the purity of white. Had we all necessary
+colours thus relatively pure as white, colouring in painting might be
+carried up to the full brilliancy of nature; and, in fact, more progress
+has already been made in that respect, than the prejudice for dulness is
+disposed to tolerate.
+
+Locally, white is the most advancing of all colours in a picture, and
+produces the effect of throwing others back in different degrees,
+according to their specific retiring and advancing powers. These latter,
+however, are not absolute qualities of colours, but depend on the
+relations of light and shade, which are variously appropriate to all
+colours. Hence it is that a white object rightly adapted, appears to
+detach, distribute, and put in keeping; as well as to give relief,
+decision, distinctness, and distance to every thing around it: hence,
+too, the use and requirement of a white or light object, in each
+separate group of a composition. White itself is advanced or brought
+forward, unless indeed white surround a dark object, in which case they
+retire together. In mixture, white communicates these properties to its
+tints, and harmonizes in conjunction with, or in opposition to all
+colours; but lies nearest in series to yellow, and remotest from blue,
+of which, next to black, it is the most thorough contrast. It is
+correlative with black, which is the opposite extreme of neutrality.
+
+Perfect white is opaque, and perfect black transparent; hence when added
+to black in minute proportion, white gives it solidity; and from a like
+small proportion of black combined with white, the latter acquires
+locality as a colour, and better preserves its hue in painting. Both
+white and black communicate these properties to other colours, in
+proportion to their lightness or depth; while they cool each other in
+mixture, and equally contrast each other when opposed. These extremes of
+the chromatic scale are each in its way most easily denied, as green,
+the mean of the scale, is the greatest defiler of all colours. Rubens
+regarded white as the nourishment of light, and the poison of shadow.
+
+In a picture, white should not be merely glittering or brilliant, but
+tender as well as bright. The eye should seek it for rest, brilliant
+though it may be; and feel it as a space of strange heavenly paleness in
+the midst of the flushing of the colours. This effect can only be
+reached by general depth of middle tint, by the perfect absence of any
+white, save where it is needed, and by keeping the white itself subdued
+by grey, except at a few points of chief lustre.
+
+White, as a pigment, is of more extensive use than any other colour in
+oil painting and fresco, owing to its local quality, its representing
+light, and its entering into composition with all colours in the
+formation of tints. The old masters have been supposed by some to
+possess whites superior to our own, but this may be questioned. The
+pureness of whites in some celebrated old pictures is rather to be
+attributed to a proper method of using, careful preservation of the
+work, and in many instances to the introduction of ultramarine or a
+permanent cold colour into the white--such as plumbago--helped also by
+judicious contrast.
+
+Notwithstanding white pigments are tolerably numerous, a thoroughly
+unexceptionable white is still a desideratum--one combining the perfect
+opacity or body of white lead with the perfect permanency of zinc white.
+The nearest approach to it that has yet been made, is Chinese white,
+which possesses in a great measure the property of the former, and,
+being a preparation of zinc, has wholly that of the latter.
+Unfortunately Chinese white is a water-colour pigment only, not
+retaining its several advantages, stability excepted, when employed in
+oil.
+
+1. CONSTANT WHITE,
+
+Also called _Permanent white_, and _Barytic white_, is, when well
+prepared, of superior body in water, but has less opacity in oil. It
+works in a somewhat unsatisfactory and unpleasant manner, and is
+considerably lower in its tone while wet than when dry, a fault which
+subjects even an experienced artist to great uncertainty where he uses
+it in compound tints. The semi-transparency of the white, while wet,
+prevents his judging of the true tint until his colour has dried, when
+he frequently finds it harsh and chalky, and out of tone with the rest
+of his painting. As little gum as possible should be employed with it,
+gum being inimical to its body, or whiteness. The best way of preparing
+this pigment, as well as other terrene whites, so as to preserve their
+opacity, is to grind them in simple water, and to add towards the end of
+the grinding sufficient only of clear _cold_ jelly of gum tragacanth as
+will connect them into a body, and attach them to the paper in painting.
+Cold starch will answer the same purpose.
+
+Constant white is a sulphate of baryta, found native and known under the
+name of heavy-spar, or prepared artificially by adding sulphuric acid,
+or a soluble sulphate, to a solution of a barytic salt. In the first
+mode, if the white be not well purified from free acid, it is apt to act
+injuriously on some pigments. Sulphate of baryta is often used for the
+purpose of adulterating white lead, the native salt being ground to fine
+powder, and washed with dilute sulphuric acid, by which its colour is
+improved, and a little oxide of iron probably dissolved out. Whether
+native or artificial, the compound is quite unaffected by impure air,
+and is not poisonous.
+
+
+LEAD WHITES
+
+Comprise and are known under the names of:--_White lead_, _Flake white_
+and _Body-white_, _Cremnitz_, or _Kremnitz_, _Crems_ or _Krems white_,
+_London_ and _Nottingham white_, _Flemish white_, _Pattison's white_,
+_Blanc d'argent_ or _Silver white_, _Ceruse_, _Dutch white_, _French
+white_, _Venetian white_, _Hamburgh white_, _Kremser white_, _Sulphate
+of lead_, &c.
+
+The heaviest and whitest of these are the best, and in point of colour
+and body, are superior to all other whites. When pure and properly
+applied in oil and varnish, they are comparatively safe and durable,
+drying well without addition; but excess of oil discolours them, and in
+water-painting they are changeable even to blackness. Upon all vegetable
+lakes, except those of madder, they have a destructive effect; and are
+injurious to gamboge, as well as to those almost obsolete pigments, red
+and orange leads, king's and patent yellow, massicot, and orpiment. With
+ultramarine, however, red and orange vermilions, yellow and orange
+chromes, yellow and orange and red cadmiums, aureolin, the ochres,
+viridian and other oxides of chromium, Indian red &c., they compound
+with little or no injury. Lead colours must not be employed in
+water-colour or crayon painting, distemper, or fresco. The whites of
+lead are carbonates of that metal, with two exceptions:--Flemish white
+or the sulphate, and Pattison's white or the oxychloride. In using all
+pigments of which lead is the basis, cleanliness is essential to health.
+
+White lead, by which we must be understood to mean the carbonate, always
+contains when commercially prepared a certain proportion of hydrated
+oxide. The less of the latter there is present, the better does the
+white cover, and the less liable is it to turn brown. The products
+formed by precipitation have proved to be inferior in body: otherwise,
+pure mono-carbonate of lead-oxide, obtained by mixing solutions of
+carbonate of potash and a lead-salt, might be best adapted for a
+pigment. However, such a carbonate has been lately produced by Mr.
+Spence's process of passing carbonic acid gas into a caustic soda or
+potash solution of lead, and for this white an opacity is claimed equal
+to that of the ordinary compound.
+
+Great as is the opacity of white lead, it is apt to lose that property
+in some measure in course of time, and become more or less transparent.
+If, over a series of dry oil-colour rubs of varied hues, there were
+brushed sufficient white lead paint to utterly obscure them, after some
+years those rubs would indistinctly appear, and by degrees become more
+and more visible, until at last their forms--if not their very
+colours--could be recognised. From this it would seem that white lead
+must slowly but surely part with some of its carbonic acid, and be at
+length converted into dicarbonate, a compound possessing less carbonic
+acid, and less coating power.
+
+Impure air, or sulphuretted hydrogen, browns or blackens white lead,
+converting it partially or wholly into sulphide. It would appear from
+the recent investigations of Dr. D. S. Price, that white lead is less
+liable to be thus affected, when the pictures in which it is used are
+exposed to a strong light; also, that when such pictures have so
+suffered, a like exposure will restore them. We have ourselves noticed
+the rapidity with which an oil rub of white lead that has been damaged
+by foul gas, regains its former whiteness when submitted to air and
+sunshine. The action of drying oils has been likewise proved to be very
+powerful upon sulphide of lead, an exposure to light for a few days only
+being sufficient to change a surface of it, coated with a thin layer of
+boiled linseed oil, into a white one. Probably, these agents may have a
+similar effect upon other pigments injured by sulphuretted hydrogen, and
+many of the colours in paintings may be restored by treating them with
+boiled linseed oil, and submitting them to a strong light. That the
+result is due to oxidation, there can be no doubt. Indeed, the eminent
+French chemist, M. Thenard, was consulted some years back upon the means
+of bringing to their original whiteness the black spots which had formed
+upon a valuable drawing, by the changing of the white lead, and
+employed for that purpose oxygenated water. He had ascertained its power
+of converting the black sulphide of lead into the white sulphate, and,
+by touching the spots with a brush dipped in the fluid, soon succeeded
+in restoring the drawing to its primitive state. Here, again, the use of
+the agent might doubtless be extended to other colours, to which foul
+air is inimical.
+
+In oil painting white lead is essential in the ground, in dead
+colouring, in the formation of tints of all colours, and in scumbling,
+either alone or mixed with other pigments. It is also the best local
+white, when neutralized with ultramarine or black; and it is the true
+representative of light, when warmed with Naples yellow, or orange
+vermilion or cadmium, or with a mixture of the yellow and either of the
+orange pigments, according to the light.
+
+Ordinary white lead is often mixed with considerable quantities of heavy
+spar, gypsum, or chalk. These injure it in body and brightness, dispose
+it to dry more slowly, keep its place less firmly, and discolour the oil
+with which it is applied, as well as prevent it dissolving completely in
+boiling dilute potash-ley, a test by which pure white lead may be known.
+
+The adulteration of pigments, which we have in some instances found
+practised to a large extent abroad, is comparatively unfrequent in our
+own country, so far at least as regards the superior class of colours
+employed by artists. As a rule, such colours when manufactured in
+England may be fairly assumed to be genuine; and certainly the
+respectable colourmen of the present day are not in the habit of
+sophisticating them. We must bear testimony, indeed, to the zeal with
+which they purvey, regardless of necessary expense, the choicest and
+most perfect materials. This should be a matter of congratulation to the
+painter, who must of necessity rely on the faith and honesty of his
+colour-dealer; for if he were ever so good a chemist, it would be
+impossible for him to analyse each pigment before proceeding to use it.
+The fault must rest with himself, therefore, if, through a mistaken
+economy, he do not frequent the best houses and pay the best prices. Of
+a surety, the colours of the artist are not among those things in which
+quality can, or should, be sacrificed to cheapness.
+
+2. BLANC D'ARGENT, OR SILVER WHITE.
+
+These are false appellations of a white lead, called also _French
+white_. It is brought from Paris in the form of drops, is exquisitely
+white, but of less body than flake white, and has all the properties of
+the best white leads. Being subject to the same changes, it is unfit
+for general use as a water-colour, though good in oil or varnish.
+
+3. CREMNITZ WHITE,
+
+Known likewise as _Kremnitz_, _Crems_, or _Krems white_, is a carbonate
+of lead which derives its names from Kremnitz in Hungary, or Crems or
+Krems in Austria. It is also called _Vienna white_, being brought from
+Vienna in cakes of a cubical form. Cremnitz white is the brightest white
+that is used in oil: it possesses rather less body than flake white,
+because the particles are finer. When newly prepared, it gives out a
+strong smell of vinegar.
+
+4. FLAKE WHITE,
+
+Called, when levigated, _Body white_, is an English white lead in the
+form of scales or plates, sometimes grey on the surface. It takes its
+name from its figure, is occasionally equal to Crems white in colour,
+and generally surpasses in body all other white leads. In composition,
+it is a mixture of protocarbonate and hydrated oxide of lead, the latter
+decreasing the opacity of the product according to the greater
+proportion in which it is present.
+
+5. FLEMISH WHITE, OR SULPHATE OF LEAD
+
+Is an exceedingly white precipitate from any solution of lead by
+sulphuric acid, much resembling the blanc d'argent. It is inferior,
+however, both in body and permanence to the ordinary carbonate. Hence,
+white lead which has more or less been converted by sulphuretted
+hydrogen into sulphide, and again been converted into sulphate by
+oxidation, with a view to restoring its colour, becomes peculiarly
+liable to the influence of impure air.
+
+6. LONDON AND NOTTINGHAM WHITES.
+
+The best of these do not essentially differ from each other, nor from
+the white leads of other manufactories. The latter variety, being
+prepared from flake white, is usually the greyer of the two.
+
+7. PATTISON'S WHITE, OR OXYCHLORIDE OF LEAD
+
+Is a mixture of chloride and oxide of lead, formed by precipitating a
+solution of chloride of lead with soda, potash, lime, or baryta, in the
+caustic or hydrated state. It would appear that when the oxychloride is
+used as a paint, the oxide contained in it gives rise to an oleate of
+lead, and, in consequence of this saponaceous matter, is capable of
+spreading over an extended surface. The product has been described as
+possessing properties which are superior to those of white lead,
+inasmuch as it does not so readily blacken as the latter body. Dr. Ure,
+however, found that water removes the chloride of lead from the paint
+compounded of this article, and, consequently, that it is not so
+effectual as the carbonate. As an artist's pigment, a partially soluble
+compound of lead can decidedly not be eligible.
+
+8. ROMAN WHITE
+
+Is of the purest white colour, and differs only from blanc d'argent in
+the warm flesh tint of the external surface of the large square masses
+in which it is commonly prepared.
+
+Besides the foregoing, there are other white leads, generally foreign,
+cheaper, and adulterated. Many of these are mixed with a small quantity
+of charcoal, indigo, or Prussian blue, so that the dead yellowish shade
+which they present may be enlivened to a brighter hue. Among them may be
+named--
+
+9. CERUSE.
+
+A French variety, not necessarily, but not unfrequently, mixed with
+different chalky earths in various proportions; and the following
+Belgian kinds:
+
+10. DUTCH WHITE,
+
+Containing three fourths of sulphate of baryta.
+
+11. HAMBURGH WHITE.
+
+A mixture of two parts of heavy spar and one of the plumbous compound.
+
+12. KREMSER WHITE,
+
+Differing from the rest in being unadulterated.
+
+13. VENETIAN WHITE
+
+Composed of heavy spar and the carbonate in equal proportions.
+
+
+ZINC WHITES.
+
+14. CHINESE WHITE.
+
+The introduction, in 1834, of this peculiar preparation of oxide of zinc
+has proved an incalculable boon to water-colour painters, who formerly
+had no white which combined perfect permanency with good body in
+working. Its invention obviated the necessity for using white lead, a
+pigment which, though it may be employed with comparative safety in oil,
+is quite unfitted for water. Since the period of its production, Chinese
+white has been generally preferred by water-colour artists, as being the
+most eligible in their peculiar department. Previous to that period, the
+complaints of whites changing were of constant occurrence; but in no
+instance has any picture, in which this white has been used, suffered
+from its employment. To the colour of oxide of zinc, sulphuretted
+hydrogen is altogether harmless; sulphide of zinc being itself white.
+The variety under notice works and washes well, possesses no pasty or
+clogging properties, and is prepared beautifully white. Moreover, it has
+the desirable quality of dense body; so much so, that, as the painter
+works, his effects remain unaltered by the drying of the colour. It may
+likewise be safely mixed with all other pigments, the following blending
+very satisfactorily with the white for opaque lights--cadmium yellow,
+orange, and red; gamboge; aureolin; yellow ochre; vermilion; and light
+red. Without the artistic drawbacks of constant white or the chemical
+defects of white lead, and retaining the advantages of both, Chinese
+white cannot but be considered as a most important addition. It is a
+matter of regret that this pigment is not equally efficacious in oil.
+
+15. ZINC WHITE
+
+Is either the anhydrous oxide, the hydrate oxide, or hydrated basic
+carbonate of zinc. It varies in opacity and colour according to the mode
+of manufacture, and the purity of the compound, but may always be relied
+upon as permanent. The whiteness of the best samples rivals that of
+white lead, and it is not tarnished like the latter by sulphurous
+vapours. In opacity it never equals white lead, and might perhaps serve
+advantageously as a glaze over that pigment, either alone or compounded
+with other colours; as well as act as a medium of interposition between
+white lead and those colours which are injured by it, such as gamboge,
+crimson lake, &c. When duly and skilfully prepared the colour and body
+of this pigment are sufficient to qualify it for a general use upon the
+palette in oil: in water it has been superseded by Chinese white.
+
+Occasionally, starch, chalk, white clay, and carbonate of baryta, are
+employed as adulterants; none of which, however, are inimical to
+stability.
+
+As a pigment, zinc white may be said to be innoxious. As oxide of zinc
+does not readily form a saponaceous compound with fats or oil like white
+lead, the paint prepared with it and ordinary linseed oil does not dry
+or harden so rapidly. For the purpose of causing it to be more
+siccative, the oil was boiled with a large quantity of litharge, but by
+this method the white was liable to tarnish on meeting with foul air.
+Instead of litharge, experiments have led to the choice of salts of
+zinc, such as the chloride or sulphate, a small percentage of which, on
+being mixed with the oil or oxide, confers upon it the property of
+rapidly hardening. The same result is attained by employing an oil,
+dried by boiling with about five per cent of peroxide of manganese. In
+either case, a paint retaining its white colour permanently is produced.
+These agents might, with advantage, be more generally used in the place
+of litharge for rendering oils siccative. Many pigments which are not
+naturally affected by sulphurous emanations are apt to suffer if mixed
+with an oil made drying by means of lead.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+16. _Cadmium White._
+
+Provided the metal be freed from iron, which we have commonly found to
+be more or less present, a white of considerable beauty may be produced;
+either directly by precipitation as hydrated oxide or carbonate, or
+indirectly by exposing the brown anhydrous oxide to air and light--the
+latter mode yielding a product of greater opacity. However prepared,
+cadmium white is deficient in body, and apt to assume a yellow tint on
+meeting with an impure atmosphere.
+
+17. _Pearl White_
+
+Is an insoluble basic nitrate of bismuth, a pearly white powder of loose
+texture, turning grey on exposure, and blackened by sulphuretted
+hydrogen. It is chiefly used as a cosmetic, but is said to injure the
+skin, rendering it yellow and leather-like; and it has been known to
+cause a spasmodic trembling of the face, ending in paralysis.
+
+Another preparation under this name, and now obsolete we believe as a
+pigment, was obtained from mother-of-pearl. It is described as
+exquisitely white, and of good body in water, but of little force in oil
+or varnish.
+
+18. _Tin White_
+
+Resembles zinc white in some respects, but has less body and colour, and
+dries badly. According to its composition, it is liable to turn either
+black or a dull yellow in contact with sulphurous vapours.
+
+19. _White Chalk_
+
+Is a well-known native carbonate of lime, employed by the artist only as
+a crayon, or for tracing his designs, for which purpose it is sawed into
+suitable lengths. White crayons and tracing chalks, to be good, must
+work and cut free from grit. From this material are prepared whitening
+and lime, which form the bases of many cheap pigments and colours, used
+in distemper, paper-staining, &c.
+
+Besides those mentioned, there are other metallic whites varying in
+beauty and opacity, such as those of mercury, arsenic, and antimony; but
+none of them are of any value or reputation in painting, on account of
+their great disposition to change of colour, whether by light or foul
+air, both in water and oil.
+
+There are also other terrene whites, under equivocal names, among which
+are Morat or Modan white, Spanish white, Troys or Troy white, Rouen
+white, China white, and Satin white; the latter being a sulphate of lime
+and alumina, which dries with a glossy surface. The common oyster-shell
+contains a soft white in its thick part, and there is the white of
+egg-shells. There is, too, an endless variety of native earths, in
+addition to those prepared by art. The whole of them, however, are
+destitute of body in oil; and several, owing to their alkaline nature,
+are injurious to many colours in water, as well as to all colours which
+cannot be employed in fresco.
+
+Among the infinitude of white substances, the artist finds that there
+are but three white pigments--those of lead, zinc, and baryta. The first
+possesses the greatest opacity, while the second and third are most
+durable. The last, however, has so many objectionable qualities, that
+the number of eligible whites, may almost be said to be two--lead and
+zinc. Of these, the former is blackened by foul air, and in oil, the
+latter is wanting in body. In fact, there is but one white pigment which
+approaches perfection--Chinese white; and this is only a water-colour.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+ON THE PRIMARY, YELLOW.
+
+
+Yellow is the first of the primary or simple colours, nearest in
+relation to, and partaking most of the nature of, the neutral white; it
+is accordingly a most advancing colour, of great power in reflecting
+light. Compounded with the primary _red_, it constitutes the secondary
+_orange_, as well as its relatives, scarlet, and other warm colours.
+
+It is the archeus, or prime colour, of the tertiary _citrine_;
+characterises in like manner the endless number of semi-neutral colours
+called _brown_, and enters largely into the complex hues termed buff,
+bay, tawny, tan, dan, dun, drab, chestnut, roan, sorrel, hazel, auburn,
+isabela, fawn, feuillemort, &c. Yellow is naturally associated with red
+in transient and prismatic colours, and is the principal power with it
+in representing the effects of warmth, heat, and fire. Combined with the
+primary _blue_, yellow furnishes all the variety of the secondary
+_green_, as well as, subordinately, the tertiaries _russet_ and _olive_.
+It also enters in a very subdued degree into cool, semi-neutral, and
+broken colours, and assists in minor proportion with blue and red in the
+composition of _black_.
+
+As a pigment, yellow is a tender delicate colour, easily defiled, when
+pure, by other colours. In painting it diminishes the power of the eye
+by its action in a strong light, at the same time becoming less distinct
+as a colour; while, on the contrary, it assists vision and becomes more
+distinct as a colour in a neutral somewhat declining light. These powers
+of colours upon vision require the particular attention of the
+colourist. To remedy the ill effect arising from the eyes having dwelt
+upon a colour, they should be either passed gradually to its opposite
+colour, and refreshed amid compound or neutral tints, or washed in the
+clear light of day. Hence, in viewing large collections of pictures,
+their colours will be more duly estimated by sometimes walking to the
+window, or by taking an occasional glance at a millboard, which may be
+carried in the hand, painted a cool gray.
+
+In a warm light, yellow becomes totally lost, but is less diminished
+than all other colours, except white, by distance. The stronger tones of
+any colour subdue its fainter hues in the same proportion as opposite
+colours and contrasts exalt them. The contrasting colours of yellow are
+a purple inclining to blue when the yellow leans to orange, and a purple
+inclining to red when the yellow tends to green, in the mean
+proportions of _thirteen_ purple to _three_ yellow, measured in surface
+or intensity. Being nearest to the neutral white in the natural scale of
+colours, yellow accords with it in conjunction; while, of all colours,
+except white, it contrasts black most powerfully. Yellow is discordant
+when standing alone with orange, unsupported by other colours.
+
+On account of the paucity of fine yellows among the ancients, we find
+that in many paintings and beautiful illuminated MSS. of old, glowing
+with vermilion and ultramarine, the place of yellow was supplied by
+gilding. Now, certainly, no such scarcity exists; of the three primary
+colours, good yellows being the most numerous. It may be observed of
+yellow pigments that their colour being primary and therefore simple,
+they cannot be composed by any mixture of other colours. The same remark
+of course applies to pigments which are red or blue.
+
+20. AUREOLIN.
+
+In these days a new pigment soon finds its level, standing or falling
+according to its merits. There are too many colours already on the
+palette for a fresh comer to have much chance, unless it possess some
+great distinguishing quality, or can take a place which has never been
+occupied. Such a void aureolin fills. This "magnificent yellow
+pigment," says the _Chemical News_, "supplies a desideratum hitherto in
+vain sought for by artists. It is the nearest approach to a perfect
+yellow in existence, and more closely resembles the purity of the
+prismatic spectrum than any other artificial colour. It is transparent,
+has great brilliancy and richness, both pure and in combination, and is
+very permanent, being entirely unaffected by exposure to sulphuretted
+hydrogen and other atmospheric impurities, or to the direct rays of the
+sun during an entire summer. Aureolin, with ultramarine and madder red,
+completes the triad of brilliant, permanent, and transparent primitive
+colours." The above only tallies with the statements of several
+scientific chemists and artists of note, statements which a prolonged
+personal experience of the colour enables us to endorse. To our
+knowledge, aureolin is quite uninjured by the severest tests to which a
+pigment can be subjected. We have found it bear with impunity, even in
+its lightest and faintest tints, the foulest gas and the brightest
+sunshine. Damp has no effect upon it; and in oil, water, or fresco, it
+is equally eligible. With all other colours aureolin mixes safely and
+readily, forming combinations of the utmost variety and value. It
+affords beautiful transparent tints, well defined, and of exceeding
+purity; the paler washes being at once clear and delicate, and admitting
+the most subtle gradations of tone. The artistic properties of
+aureolin, however, will be best described by quoting the following
+extract from Mr. Aaron Penley's _English School of Painting in Water
+Colours_:--
+
+    "I have fully tested the qualifications of _Aureolin_ for the
+    Landscape Painter, and, without hesitation, pronounce it to be
+    the most valuable addition to the 'colour box' since the
+    introduction of Rose Madder. It has supplied a deficiency of a
+    very important character. Hitherto, no Primitive Yellow has been
+    quite satisfactory as to its persistence; so that the Aureolin
+    will not only be regarded by the _artist_ as a great boon in the
+    production of his works, but it must also be considered as a
+    _real_ and _lasting benefit_ to pictorial art in general. The
+    permanence and unaltered purity of its lightest and faintest
+    tints we are assured may be confidently relied upon, inasmuch as
+    they have been fully established by the most severe tests to
+    which colour can be subjected, by several of our ablest and most
+    talented chemists. It is, therefore, needless to enlarge upon
+    its merits, other than that I, for one, feel grateful for its
+    introduction. Its uses are manifold, and may be considered
+    available for every purpose requiring a Yellow of its character.
+    As to Gray--perhaps it is not possible to obtain more delicately
+    pure and transparent aerial tints than are to be produced from
+    a combination of Cobalt, Rose Madder and Aureolin; all of which
+    are of a light description and well suited for the
+    representation of soft and thin effects of the atmosphere. These
+    colours are each of them beautiful, and yield a most exquisite
+    range of tones, which, as they mix together most kindly, render
+    them desirable where purity and delicacy are sought. As to
+    Foliage.--In speaking of Aureolin as adapted for the colouring
+    of foliage and herbage, it is impossible to say too much in its
+    praise. It imparts the vividness and freshness of nature to
+    every colour with which it is combined--a quality of the highest
+    order. As a colour for drapery it has no equal, and may be
+    employed with perfect success, either by itself or with any of
+    the other pigments.
+
+    "The following table of compound tints will be found extremely
+    useful:--
+
+    Aureolin.     | Aureolin.         | Aureolin.    | Aureolin.
+    Burnt Sienna. | Vandyke Brown.    | Sepia.       | Sepia, or Rose
+    Indigo, or    | Indigo, or French |              |   Madder.
+      French Blue.|   Blue.           |              | Cobalt.
+
+    Aureolin.     | Aureolin.         | Aureolin.    | Aureolin.
+    Indigo.       | Oxide of Chromium.| Emerald      | Light Red.
+                  |                   |   Green.     | Cobalt, or
+                  |                   |              |   Indigo.
+
+    Aureolin.     | Aureolin.         | Aureolin.    | Aureolin.
+    Burnt Sienna. | Burnt Umber.      | Brown Madder.| Rose Madder.
+
+    "Aureolin, in combination with Cobalt and Sepia, or Rose Madder,
+    gives most agreeable and delicate tints for distant trees, when
+    under the influence of a soft light, or hazy state of the
+    atmosphere. Having most impartially and diligently tested the
+    qualities of the Aureolin, I can and do most conscientiously
+    recommend its adoption by all who practise water-colour
+    painting."
+
+The foregoing sufficiently proves the value of aureolin in water, and
+similar flattering notices have been given of the colour in oil. Both in
+a chemical and artistic sense, therefore, this new primitive yellow
+merits the highest regard, and justly claims a foremost place among that
+little band of pigments which are without fear and without reproach.
+
+For mural decoration, aureolin is admirably adapted, but it cannot be
+used in enamel, the colour being destroyed by great heat.
+
+
+CADMIUM YELLOWS.
+
+Of these there are three tints, _Deep_, a so-called _Pale_, and _Lemon_.
+
+21. DEEP CADMIUM.
+
+Cadmium Yellow is comparatively a recent introduction, the metal itself
+not having been discovered till 1818. The cadmium yellows of commerce
+are (the chromate excepted) all sulphides, and therefore not affected by
+impure air. Until lately, they were not manufactured in England but
+imported from abroad, and as a rule were sadly doctored. We have found
+in them a large proportion of orpiment, chromate of lead, &c., together
+with quantities of soluble salt, extracted by boiling water. Owing to
+careless preparation, there was also present an unnecessary amount of
+dirt, which interfered as much with the purity of the colour, as
+sophistication lessened its stability. For these reasons, doubtless,
+cadmium yellows got to be regarded by some with disfavour and suspicion;
+and it may fairly be said that they did not attain their present
+popularity, until they became an article of home produce.
+
+Deep cadmium yellow, if genuine, may without hesitation be declared
+permanent, both with respect to foul gas, and exposure to light or air.
+The variety under notice is of extreme depth, inclining to orange,
+glowing, lustrous, and brilliant. It is not very transparent, but
+wonderfully clear and bright, of great power, and the most richly toned
+yellow known. For draperies it is particularly adapted, and for gorgeous
+sunsets is invaluable. It works and washes well, readily throws all
+other yellows into the shade when used alone, and combines admirably
+with Chinese white for the light touches of bright clouds or mountains.
+
+By admixture with white, cadmium gives a series of beautiful clear
+tints. When compounded with white lead, however, the colour has been
+stated to be destroyed. Theoretically, this might very well happen.
+Cadmium yellow is composed of cadmium and sulphur--white lead of lead
+and carbonic acid. If the former parted with some of its sulphur to the
+latter, sulphide of lead would result, which is black. Hence, the partly
+decomposed yellow and white would be mixed with black, and there would
+be formed a blackish-yellow or a yellowish-black. Again, if the cadmium
+parted with the whole of its sulphur to the lead, receiving in exchange
+the carbonic acid of the latter, a mixture of black sulphide of lead
+with white carbonate of cadmium would be furnished, the result being a
+grey. Perhaps the following rough diagram may serve to make our meaning
+plainer:--
+
+
+  Cadmium Yellow {Cadmium.    __________ Carbonate of Cadmium (White.)
+                 {Sulphur.             /
+                           \          /
+                            \        /
+                             \      /
+                              \    /
+                               \  /
+                                \/
+                                /\
+                           ____/__\
+  White Lead {Lead.           /          Sulphide of Lead (Black.)
+             {Carbonic Acid.
+
+Such is the theory of the reaction which might take place, but which, as
+far as our own experience goes, does not. Some deep cadmium yellow which
+we ourselves prepared was intimately mixed and ground with an equal
+quantity by weight of Cremnitz white, and an oil rub of the compound
+laid upon a tile. Having placed the latter on a shelf in the laboratory,
+we watched from week to week to see if any approach to blackness
+occurred, any diminution in the beauty of the tint; but could perceive
+none. Hence, while admitting the possibility of the colour being
+damaged or destroyed in the case of an inferior and spurious article, we
+conclude that an unadulterated cadmium yellow, containing no free
+sulphur, neither injures, nor is injured by, white lead, and may safely
+be used therewith. At the same time, the artist should be warned to
+satisfy himself of the genuineness of his pigment, or otherwise to
+employ the white of zinc, at least as a medium of intervention.
+
+A good sample of cadmium yellow may rather advantageously than otherwise
+be compounded with white lead, for we have found that a mixture of equal
+parts by weight of the two will bear an atmosphere of sulphuretted
+hydrogen that completely blackens the white alone.
+
+With all the sulphides of cadmium a steel palette knife is best avoided.
+
+22. PALE CADMIUM.
+
+The cadmium yellow so-called, is not strictly pale, but pale only when
+compared with the preceding. It is, in fact, a full rich colour,
+brilliant and permanent, but without that tendency to orange which
+distinguishes the deep. For some purposes, when a warm tone is not
+required, such a tint is preferable. In water, especially, where
+delicacy of colouring can be carried to a greater degree of refinement
+than in oil, these differences of hue are important. In the first
+medium the faint washes show with a clearness which is not so apparent
+in the last, and the most subtle gradation of tone tells with a force in
+some measure lost in oil. As a consequence, the colour of the lightest
+tints in the distance must be as true as that of the deepest shades in
+the foreground, and hence the warmth or coldness of the pale washes of a
+pigment should be duly considered.
+
+Pale cadmium yellow with or without aureolin, is adapted for golden
+sunsets, and yields with French blue a beautiful sea-green.
+
+24. LEMON CADMIUM.
+
+Very pale cadmium yellows are not permanent, and lemon cadmiums are
+decidedly fugitive. Being, like the deep and 'pale' varieties,
+sulphides, they are of course unaltered by sulphurous gas; but they will
+not stand exposure to light and air, or even to light alone. Some which
+were submitted in an air-tight bottle to the action of light gradually
+whitened next the glass. Yet they were almost identical in composition
+with the deepest and most orange hues, and might have reasonably been
+presumed stable. Repeated experiments, however, both with samples of our
+own making and of others' manufacture, have shown that for a cadmium to
+be durable, it must be of a full, rich, comparatively deep yellow; and
+that any paler product than the 'pale' alluded to cannot be depended
+on. It is true that a light or lemon tint will fade quicker in water
+than in oil, but a colour which is fugitive in the one vehicle cannot be
+regarded as eligible in the other. From a somewhat long acquaintance
+with cadmiums, we have derived the opinion that their stability rests
+much on the mode of preparation, and that an amount of heat is needed
+sufficient to make the sulphur _bite into_ the base. This opinion,
+indeed, extends to all metallic sulphides, and our belief is, that if
+vermilions were made generally by wet processes, they would not be found
+the permanent pigments they undoubtedly are.
+
+25. MUTRIE YELLOW.
+
+Under this name a lemon sulphide of cadmium has lately appeared, to
+which the foregoing remarks are applicable. A water colour rub on
+exposure to air and light faded rapidly, no trace of yellow remaining in
+the pale wash. The sample which came under our notice contained a
+quantity of free sulphur.
+
+It is to be regretted that these lemon cadmiums are fugacious, so
+bright, so clear, are they, and of so pure a lemon tint can they be
+obtained. But as no beauty of colour compensates for want of durability,
+their place should be supplied by lemon yellow proper, or chromate of
+baryta.
+
+26. CHROME YELLOWS,
+
+Also called _Jaune Minerale_, _Jaune de Cologne_ or _Cologne Yellow_,
+_Pale Chrome_, and _Deep Chrome_, are chromates of lead, in which the
+latter metal more or less exists, according to the paleness or depth of
+the colour. Of modern introduction, they are distinguished for their
+brilliancy, their opacity and body, and their going cordially into tint
+with white, both in water and oil. Owing, however, to a harshness and
+hardness of tone for which they are peculiar, a coarse and disagreeable
+effect is apt to be produced by their use. In general, they do not
+accord with the modest hues of nature, nor harmonize well with the
+softer beauty of other colours. Rivalling the cadmiums in brightness,
+they are wanting in the mellow richness which belongs to the deeper
+varieties of those pigments, as well as in their permanency. Although
+they resist the sun's rays for a lengthened period, after some time they
+lose their original hue, whether employed alone or in tint, and may even
+become black in impure air. Upon several pigments they produce serious
+changes, ultimately destroying Prussian and Antwerp blues, when
+compounded therewith in the composition of greens, &c. Ranging from
+lemon to deep yellow, in oil, provided the atmosphere be good, the
+chromes may be found comparatively durable; but, on the whole, the
+artist cannot trust to them his reputation as a colourist.
+
+The chromates are often mixed with sulphate of lead, as well as with the
+sulphates of baryta and lime. The presence of the first is especially
+objectionable, as increasing the tendency of the yellows to be blackened
+by foul gas. The sulphates of baryta and lime, however, are sometimes
+formed in the process of preparation, in which case they are rather an
+advantage than otherwise; inasmuch as they not only lend a softness to
+the colour, but decrease the proportion of leaden base, and consequently
+the tendency referred to. We may remark, indeed, with respect to
+pigments, that it is difficult in many instances to say where
+manufacture ends and adulteration begins. A substance may be present
+which, although not absolutely essential to the colour itself, has been
+legitimately employed to impart a desired quality, or a certain tint.
+
+27. COLOGNE YELLOW
+
+Is a cheap inferior chrome yellow, unfit for artistic purposes, and
+consists of twenty-five parts of chromate of lead, fifteen of sulphate
+of lead, and sixty of sulphate of lime.
+
+28. JAUNE MINERALE
+
+Is prepared in Paris, and differs in no essential particular from
+ordinary chromate of lead, except in the paleness of its colour. The
+chrome yellows have also obtained other names from places or persons,
+whence they have been brought or by whom they have been made. Another
+lead yellow, not a chromate, has likewise been called jaune minerale.
+
+29. CITRON YELLOW
+
+Is chromate of zinc, a bright pale lemon-like yellow, slightly soluble
+in water. It is not affected by foul gas, but does not preserve its
+colour on exposure to light and air, or even when kept in a book. In
+contact with organic substances it is apt to turn green. Compounded,
+especially for foliage tints, this yellow is eligible; but if purity of
+hue be desired, it should certainly not be employed alone. In this
+chromate, as in many others, the affinity of the chromic acid to the
+base is small; the former is liable to separate from the latter, and, by
+deoxidation, to become converted into green oxide of chromium.
+
+30. GALLSTONE
+
+Is a deep-toned gorgeous yellow, affording richer tints than most other
+yellows, but it cannot be depended on for permanency, and therefore is
+seldom employed. Its colour is soon changed and destroyed by strong
+light, though not subject to alteration by impure air. In oil it is
+ineligible. A true gallstone is an animal calculus formed in the
+gall-bladder, chiefly of oxen; but the pigment sold under that name is
+often replaced by a substitute, resembling the original in colour, but
+of greater stability.
+
+31. GAMBOGE,
+
+Sometimes designated _Drop Gum_, and variously written _Gamboge_,
+_Camboge_, _Gamboage_, _Cambogia_, _Cambadium_, _Cambogium_,
+_Gambodium_, _Gambogium_, &c., is the produce of several kinds of trees.
+The natives of the coast of Coromandel call the tree from which it is
+principally obtained Gokathu, which grows also in Ceylon and Siam. From
+the wounded leaves and young shoots the gamboge is collected in a liquid
+state and dried. Our indigenous herb Celandine yields abundantly, in the
+same manner, a beautiful yellow juice of the same properties as gamboge.
+Gamboge is of a gum-resinous nature and clear yellow colour. It is
+bright and transparent, but not of great depth, and in its deepest
+touches shines too much and verges upon brown. When properly used, it is
+more durable than generally reputed, both in water and oil; and
+conduces, when mixed with other colours, to their stability and keeping
+their place, on account of its gum and resin. It is deepened in some
+degree by ammoniacal and impure air, and somewhat weakened, but not
+easily discoloured, by the action of light. Time effects less change on
+this colour than on other bright vegetal yellows; but white lead and
+other metalline pigments injure, while terrene and alkaline substances
+redden it. In water it works remarkably well, and forms an opaque
+emulsion without grinding or preparation, by means of its natural gum;
+but is with difficulty employed in oil, &c., in a dry condition. It
+dries well, however, in its natural state, and lasts in glazing when
+deprived of its gum. With regard to other colours it is perfectly
+innocent, and though a strong medicine, is not dangerous or deleterious
+in use. Gamboge has been employed as a yellow lake, precipitated upon an
+aluminous base; but a better way of preparing it is to form a paste of
+the colour in water, and mix it with lemon yellow, with which pigment
+being diffused it goes readily into oil or varnish. Glazed over other
+colours in water, its resin acts as a varnish which protects them; and
+under other colours its gum acts as a preparation which admits
+varnishing. It is injured by a less degree of heat than most pigments.
+
+In landscape, gamboge affords with indigo or Antwerp blue clear bright
+greens, and with sepia a very useful sober tint. For sunrise and sunset
+clouds, a mixture of gamboge and cadmium yellow will be found useful.
+
+32. EXTRACT OF GAMBOGE
+
+Is the colouring matter separated from its greenish gum and impurities
+by solution in alcohol, filtration and precipitation, by which it
+acquires a powdery texture, rendering it miscible in oil, &c., and
+capable of being employed in glazing. At the same time it is improved in
+colour, and retains its original property of working well in water with
+gum. Gamboge is likewise soluble in caustic potash, forming a red
+liquid, from which it is thrown down by acids.
+
+33. INDIAN YELLOW
+
+Is a pigment long employed in India under the name _Purree_, but has not
+many years been introduced generally into painting in Europe. It is
+imported in the form of balls of a fetid odour, and is produced from the
+urine of the camel. It appears to be a urio-phosphate of lime, and is of
+a beautiful pure yellow colour and light powdery texture; of greater
+body and depth than gamboge, but inferior in these respects to
+gallstone. Indian yellow resists the sun's rays with singular power in
+water painting; yet in ordinary light and air, or even in a book, the
+beauty of its colour is not lasting. In oil it is exceedingly fugitive,
+both alone and in tint. Owing probably to its alkaline nature, it has an
+injurious effect upon cochineal lakes and carmine when used with them.
+The colour is not damaged by foul air, and, as lime does not destroy it,
+the pigment may be employed in fresco according to its powers.
+
+Indian yellow washes and works extremely well, and is adapted for
+draperies and for compounding landscape greens--where permanency is not
+required. Blackness in the darkest shadows of the foliage will sometimes
+result from too great a use of indigo; should this evil exist, no colour
+is so fitted to regain the proper tone as Indian yellow employed
+thickly.
+
+
+LAKES.
+
+There are several pigments of this denomination, varying in colour and
+appearance according to the substances used and modes of preparation.
+Usually they are in the form of drops, and their colours are in general
+bright yellow, very transparent, and not liable to change in an impure
+atmosphere--qualities which would render them very valuable, were they
+not soon discoloured and even destroyed on exposure to air and light,
+both in water and oil. In the latter vehicle, they are bad driers, like
+most lakes, and they do not stand the action of white lead and other
+metallic pigments. If used, therefore, it should be as simple as
+possible. Of these lakes, the following are the best; but it must be
+borne in mind that, as not one of them is permanent, the compounds they
+afford are of necessity unstable.
+
+34. YELLOW LAKE
+
+Is a bright transparent yellow, a difficult drier, and liable to be
+destroyed by light. It affords beautiful foliage tints, and would, if it
+could be depended on, be of extreme value in what is called "glazing."
+
+35. ITALIAN PINK,
+
+Also called _English_ and _Dutch Pink_, is an absurd name for a stronger
+and richer kind of yellow lake, warmer in tint and more powerful than
+the preceding. It is a rich transparent yellow, yielding a variety of
+fine foliage tints by admixture with indigo and sepia in different
+proportions. These three colours with burnt sienna will produce almost
+every variety of sunny foliage. It gives likewise good olive greens with
+lamp black.
+
+36. QUERCITRON LAKE,
+
+Or _Quercitron Yellow_, is what its name implies. It is dark in
+substance, in grains of a glossy fracture, perfectly transparent, and
+when ground is of a beautiful yellow colour. In painting it follows, and
+adds richness and depth to, gamboge in water, and goes well into
+varnish; but any lead used in rendering oils siccative, browns it, and
+for the same reason it is useless in tints.
+
+37. LEMON YELLOW,
+
+Or chromate of baryta, is exceedingly difficult to make well. Upon the
+mode of manufacture depend not only the beauty of the colour but its
+stability. If properly and carefully prepared, it is of a vivid lemon
+tint, deep or pale, very clear, very pure and permanent. It also washes
+well, and is entirely free from the slightest tinge of orange. This may
+be pronounced the only chromate which possesses durability, not being
+liable to change by damp or foul air, by the action of light or the
+steel palette-knife, or by mixture with white lead and other pigments,
+either in water or oil, in both of which it works pleasantly. Lemon
+yellow is chiefly adapted to points of high light, and has a peculiarly
+happy effect when glazed over greens in both modes of painting. In water
+it exceeds gamboge in brightness, and compounded therewith improves its
+beauty. This mixture also goes readily into oil; indeed it is the best
+and easiest way of rendering gamboge diffusible as an oil colour--simple
+emulsion of the gamboge in a little water, and trituration of the lemon
+yellow therewith, being all that is requisite for the purpose.
+
+Lemon yellow has not much power, and is semi-opaque. In distance, its
+light wash is used with great effect for cool sunny greens, for which a
+minute quantity of emerald green may be added to it. Being uninjured by
+lime, the colour is eligible in fresco and crayons.
+
+38. MARS YELLOW,
+
+_Jaune de Mars_, _Jaune de Fer_, _Iron Yellow_, &c., is an artificially
+prepared iron ochre, of the nature of sienna earth. In its general
+qualities it resembles the ochres, with the same eligibilities and
+exceptions, but is more transparent, as well as purer, clearer, richer,
+and brighter. Like them it is quite permanent. The colours of iron exist
+in endless variety in nature, and are capable of the same variation by
+art, from sienna yellow, through orange and red, to a species of purple,
+brown, and black, among which are useful and valuable distinctions. They
+were formerly introduced by the author, and have been received under the
+names of Mars yellow, Mars orange, Mars red, Mars violet, and Mars
+brown. All of them are brighter and purer than native ochres, and
+equally stable. When carefully prepared, these pigments dry well in
+proportion to their depth, are marked by a subdued richness rather than
+brilliancy, and have the general habits of sienna earths and ochres.
+Their faint washes possess the desirable quality of transparent
+clearness.
+
+We have occasionally found Mars yellow mixed with orpiment, or chromate
+of lead, for the purpose of brightening the colour.
+
+39. NAPLES YELLOW
+
+Was a compound of lead and antimony, anciently prepared at Naples under
+the name of _Giallolino_, and was variously of a pleasing light, warm
+yellow tint. It was opaque and of good body, not altered by the light of
+the sun, and might be used with comparative safety in oil or varnish,
+under the same management as the whites of lead. Like these, however, it
+was liable to change even to blackness by damp and impure air when
+employed in water. Iron was also destructive of the colour of this
+yellow, on which account great care was requisite, in grinding and using
+it, not to touch it with the common steel palette knife, but to compound
+its tints with a spatula of ivory or horn. For the same reason, it was
+apt to suffer in composition with ochres, Prussian and Antwerp blues,
+and other pigments of which iron was a principal or ingredient. Used
+pure or with white lead it was eligible in oil, in which it worked and
+dried well. It was also employed in enamel painting as it vitrified
+without change. In this state it was called _Giallolino di fornace_, and
+was introduced as a pigment for artists, under the erroneous conception
+that vitrification gives permanence to colours, when in truth it only
+increases the difficulty of levigation, and injures their texture for
+working. We have spoken of Naples yellow in the past tense, because the
+pigment now sold as such is generally, or always, a compound colour, or
+manufactured with a zinc instead of a lead base. In either case the
+preceding remarks are not applicable to the present product, which is
+perfectly durable and trustworthy. The new Naples yellow presents an
+example of an old objectionable pigment being replaced by a different
+and superior preparation. However fugitive certain colours may have
+been, the fact of their once having had a place on the palette would
+seem to be sufficient recommendation to some. At any rate, they are
+still in occasional request, and we cannot but approve the pious fraud
+which offers under the same name a good substitute for a bad original.
+If an artist must needs demand a worthless pigment, he had better buy a
+colour like it that will stand, even if it be not what he asked for.
+
+The tints of Naples yellow are readily and accurately imitated by
+admixture of deep cadmium yellow and white.
+
+40. ANTIMONY YELLOW,
+
+As its name denotes, was likewise a preparation of that metal, of a
+deeper colour than Naples yellow, but similar in its properties. It was
+principally used in enamel and porcelain painting, and differed greatly
+in tint. One variety, brighter than the rest, is stated not to have
+been affected by foul air, and therefore could not have had a lead
+basis.
+
+
+OCHRES,
+
+Known as _Yellow Ochre_, _Brown Ochre_, _Roman Ochre_, _Transparent Gold
+Ochre_, _Oxford Ochre_, _Stone Ochre_, _Di Palito_, &c., are native
+earths, consisting chiefly of silica and alumina in combination with
+iron, which latter forms the principal colouring matter. They are among
+the most ancient of pigments, and their permanency is proved by the
+state of the old pictures. In a box of colours found at Pompeii, and
+analyzed by Count Chaptal, he discovered yellow ochre purified by
+washing, which had preserved its original freshness. They may all be
+produced artificially in endless variety as they exist in nature, and
+are all converted by burning into reds or reddish-browns. Several ochres
+are found in the natural state of so very fine a quality, that they
+require no other preparation than that of being washed. Their colours
+may be imitated to a certain extent by means of iron alone, uncombined
+with silica and alumina; but such ferruginous preparations are not
+equally durable, and as their chemical action is stronger, they are more
+likely to affect those pigments which are damaged by iron. It often
+happens in colours that one component of weak stability, or powerful
+for evil, is strengthened and held in check by another; thus in the case
+of the ochres, the silica and alumina by keeping a tight hand on the
+iron, both ensure its safety, and prevent it injuring others.
+
+41. YELLOW OCHRE,
+
+Called also _Mineral Yellow_, is found in most countries, and abundantly
+in our own. It differs much both in constitution and colour, ranging
+from a tolerably bright though not vivid yellow to a brown-yellow, and
+is generally of a warm cast. Its natural variety is much increased by
+artificial dressing and compounding. The best yellow ochres possess no
+great force, but as far as they go are valuable pigments, particularly
+in fresco and distemper, being neither subject to change by ordinary
+light, nor sensibly affected by impure air, or the action of lime. By
+time, however, and the direct rays of the sun, they are somewhat
+darkened. Like other ochres, they may be safely used in admixture with
+pigments which are themselves permanent. With carmine and the cochineal
+lakes, or intense blue, the ochres are best not employed.
+
+The impunity with which yellow ochre bears foul gas is one of its many
+recommendations. No immediate effect whatever is produced by
+sulphuretted hydrogen, and only a slight dirty brown tint is imparted
+by its prolonged action. This discolouration a short exposure to air and
+light quickly removes. By keeping the ochre sufficiently long in contact
+with sulphide of ammonium a jet black is obtainable, but a rub of it in
+a moist unwashed state completely regains its yellow hue in a day or so.
+Hence, yellow ochre compounded with pigments which suffer from an impure
+atmosphere doubtless acts as a preservative agent.
+
+Yellow ochre is usually employed in the distance and middle ground of a
+landscape. It possesses a slight degree of turbidness, and is esteemed
+for this property, which is considered to give it a retiring quality. By
+admixture with Antwerp blue or indigo it affords a fine range of quiet
+greens, also a very serviceable yellowish drab with Vandyke brown. The
+ochre is valuable in warm skies, the sails of ships and boats, sandstone
+rocks and cliffs, buildings, hay, sheep, &c. It does not compound kindly
+with any of the cold colours, and should therefore be used as a wash
+over others that are dry, when required to qualify their tints.
+
+42. ROMAN OCHRE
+
+Is rather deeper and more powerful than the preceding, as well as more
+transparent and cool in tint. In other respects it is similar, and forms
+with Antwerp blue and indigo a like excellent range of greens. We may
+observe, however, that as indigo is not a permanent pigment, the colours
+it yields by admixture cannot be durable as far as the blue is
+concerned. Roman ochre and brown madder are admirably adapted for red
+sails, and autumnal effects of foliage.
+
+43. BROWN OCHRE,
+
+Likewise known as _Spruce Ochre_ and _Ocre de Rue_, or, more correctly
+_Ru_, is a dense, deep-toned brownish yellow, fine in sandy foregrounds.
+With Indian yellow it gives a dark autumnal tint of great richness, but
+stable only as respects the ochre. When mixed with other colours, it
+furnishes a series of rich yet sober tones of extensive use. It covers
+well, without being too opaque; and compounded with black and a little
+brown-red is good for backgrounds, &c.
+
+44. TRANSPARENT GOLD OCHRE
+
+Resembles in a great degree Roman ochre, but is clearer in its tints,
+and more transparent. It is also brighter and much less opaque than
+yellow ochre. It approaches somewhat the character of clear bright raw
+sienna, though more pure and brilliant, serving for strong
+semi-transparent greens and sunny effects.
+
+45. OXFORD OCHRE
+
+Is a native pigment from the neighbourhood of Oxford, semi-opaque, of a
+warm yellow colour and soft argillaceous texture, absorbent of water and
+oil, in both of which it may be safely employed. It is one of the best
+of yellow ochres.
+
+46. STONE OCHRE
+
+Has been confounded with the last variety, to which, as well as to Roman
+ochre, it is frequently similar. True stone ochres are found in balls or
+globular masses of various sizes in the solid body of stones, lying near
+the surface of rocks among the quarries of Gloucestershire and
+elsewhere. These balls are smooth and compact, in general free from
+grit, and of a powdery fracture. They vary exceedingly in colour, from
+yellow to brown, murrey, and gray, but otherwise do not differ from
+ordinary ochres.
+
+In enamel they may be used for browns and dull reds.
+
+47. DI PALITO
+
+Is a light yellow ochre, with no special distinguishing quality, except
+that its tints are rather purer in colour than most ochres.
+
+48. ORIENT YELLOW
+
+Is an entirely new preparation of absolute permanence, and perfectly
+unexceptionable in all respects, both in water and oil. We can give it
+no higher praise than by saying it equals aureolin in stability, as well
+as in neither injuring, nor being injured by, other colours. Not
+possessed of the same amount of transparency, it is distinguished by
+greater richness and depth. Of a soft golden hue, lustrous and luminous,
+it resembles a brilliant and somewhat opaque Indian yellow. A gorgeous
+and durable substitute for that fugitive pigment is produced by
+compounding the orient with aureolin, or by using the latter as a glaze.
+Being more transparent than cadmiums and less obtrusive, the new yellow
+is adapted for mellow sunset and sunrise clouds, or for sunshine on
+distant mountains. With French blue it affords a beautiful sea green;
+and, mixed with aureolin, gives fine foliage tints. It is also eligible
+for draperies and illumination. For enamelling it is inadmissible, the
+colour being destroyed by great heat; but in fresco it may safely be
+employed.
+
+As in the case of aureolin, we have had a prolonged personal experience
+of this new yellow, an experience which justifies us in asserting that
+there is none more permanent. In the whole range of artistic colours
+there is no pigment less affected by chemical or physical agents. Acid
+and ammoniacal fumes, foul gases, and exposure to damp, air, light, or
+sunshine, equally fail to injure it. The perfect impunity with which it
+bears the action both of sulphuretted hydrogen and sulphide of ammonium
+is remarkable. The former gas may be continuously passed into the colour
+suspended in water, or a strong solution of the latter sulphide be
+poured upon it, and the yellow remains unchanged. Submitted to the
+direct rays of the sun during an entire summer, its lightest and
+faintest tints have preserved their original hue.
+
+In a preceding chapter we remarked that, provided the colour be stable,
+the more colour a pigment possesses the better. The "latent colour"
+there alluded to, is one of the advantages of orient yellow. The more it
+is looked into, the more colour is seen--there is no suspicion of a base
+coloured, the pigment is colour itself.
+
+49. ORPIMENT,
+
+Also called _King's Yellow_, _Chinese Yellow_, _Yellow Orpiment_, &c.,
+was known in ancient times: the Romans called it _auri pigmentum_ or
+gold colour, whence, by corruption, its present name is derived. It is
+found in the native state in China and elsewhere, the best quality being
+in masses, consisting of plates of a fine golden hue, intermixed with
+portions of a vermilion or orange-red colour; the inferior kinds are
+yellow or greenish yellow. Of orpiment, or sulphuret of arsenic, which
+is produced artificially, there are two distinct varieties; one of a
+bright pure yellow tint, in which the sulphur predominates, and one of
+an orange hue, in which the arsenic is in excess. The former is the most
+lasting, but it is not durable in water, and still less so in oil,
+although not discoloured by impure air. Compounded with white lead it is
+soon destroyed, nor can it be mixed with any colours into which lead
+enters, such as chrome yellow, the old Naples yellow, &c. The sulphur in
+combination with the arsenic, having less affinity for that metal than
+for lead, lets it go, and forms a sulphuret of lead of a dark greyish
+hue. Moreover, as orpiment is apt to deprive other pigments of their
+oxygen, and therefore to change and be changed by all pigments whose
+colour depends on that element--metallic pigments especially--it is
+probable that the orpiment after some time withdraws the oxygen from the
+lead; and this would be an additional cause for the darkening of the
+tint composed of the two colours. With sulphides or pigments containing
+sulphur, orpiment may be used with less danger. If employed at all,
+however, it had better be in a pure and unmixed state. We are far from
+recommending orpiment as an eligible colour, and it is highly
+poisonous.
+
+Brick dust and yellow ochre are sometimes found as adulterants.
+
+50. RAW SIENNA,
+
+Known likewise as _Raw Sienna Earth_, _Terra di Sienna_, &c., is a
+ferruginous native pigment, firm in substance, of a glossy fracture, and
+very absorbent. It is of rather an impure yellow colour, and much used
+in landscape, being very serviceable both in distance and foreground.
+Unless proper skill is exercised in its preparation, the sienna has the
+objection of being somewhat pasty in working. Being little liable to
+change by the action of either light, time, or impure air, it may safely
+be employed according to its powers, in oil, water, and other modes of
+practice. It possesses more body and transparency than the ochres; and
+by burning becomes deeper, orange-russet, as well as more transparent
+and drying.
+
+Raw sienna compounded with cobalt, indigo, or Prussian blue, and a very
+little bistre, yields good sea greens, that with indigo being the most
+fugitive. Alone, it is adapted for shipping, sails, baskets, decayed
+leaves, brooks and running streams.
+
+51. STRONTIAN YELLOW,
+
+To justify its name, should be a chromate of strontia, a compound very
+slightly soluble in water, and not more stable than the zinc chromate.
+The pigment, however, now sold as strontian yellow is usually formed by
+admixture, and contains no strontia whatever. Its absence cannot be
+considered a disadvantage, for the substitute possesses a durability to
+which the original could lay no claim. Other things being equal, we
+prefer an original pigment to one compounded, but a good mixture is
+decidedly better than a bad original. A light primrose, clear and
+delicate.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The foregoing comprise those yellows more generally employed, advisedly
+or not, as the case may be. The following are for the most part not
+commercially obtainable, a remark that will apply in ensuing chapters to
+all numbered colours printed in italics. As a rule, these have become
+obsolete as pigments, or have never been introduced as such. The former
+could not well be omitted in a work of this kind, and the latter deserve
+notice as being at least suggestive. At present, many of them must be
+regarded as mere curiosities, being obtainable only from materials of
+excessive rarity. In time, however, the sources whence they are derived
+may possibly be found in greater abundance, and these now fancy products
+prove of value to the palette. The new metal indium, for instance,
+furnishes a bright yellow sulphide, like that of cadmium. The colour
+could not be affected by foul air, and might possess other advantages
+which would render indium yellow a desirable pigment. With regard to
+those compounds available for artistic use, but which have not to our
+knowledge been adopted, several are quite ineligible. It may be thought
+that they are needlessly referred to, but they are mentioned as a
+warning and a guide. Strange preparations have been offered as pigments,
+and sometimes accepted, witness turbith mineral, iodine yellow, &c. In
+these days of chemistry there is less chance for them, but they are
+continually submitted to one's notice, their merits being enlarged upon
+in proportion to their worthlessness. Through an exceptional ignorance
+they may still gain a place, and it has been deemed, therefore, not
+superfluous to allude to them. At the same time we do not pretend to
+exhaust the list, any more than we claim to note all substances
+possessing colour, but yet not admissible as pigments. Some there are
+which do not retain that colour on drying; others, whose preparation
+involves processes too nice, complicated, or expensive, for
+manufacturing purposes. There are many colours, again, which exist only
+on paper. We have too often found the imaginations of chemical writers
+far more vivid than the colours they describe. Gorgeous yellows turn
+out dingy drabs; dazzling scarlets dirty reds; and brilliant blues dusky
+slates. As respects colours, most books of science need revising.
+
+52. _Arsenic Yellow_,
+
+Called also _Mineral Yellow_, has improperly been classed as an
+orpiment, from which it differs in not being a sulphide, and in
+containing lead. It is prepared from arsenic fluxed with litharge, and
+reduced to powder. It is much like orpiment in colour, dries better, and
+not being affected by lead, is less liable to change in tint. The
+presence of the litharge, however, renders it subject to be blackened by
+sulphuretted hydrogen. Of course it is poisonous.
+
+53. _Bismuth Yellow_,
+
+Or chromate of bismuth, may be obtained either as a lemon or an orange
+yellow, sparingly soluble in water. The colour is not permanent, and
+turns greenish-brown even when excluded from light and air.
+
+54. _Copper Yellow_,
+
+Or chromate of copper-potassa, is of a bright yellow tint, not insoluble
+in water. It is discoloured both by foul gas and exposure.
+
+55. _Gelbin's Yellow_,
+
+Or chromate of lime, is a pale whitish yellow, poor in colour, partly
+soluble, and not at all to be depended on.
+
+56. _Indium Yellow._
+
+Whether the new metal indium will ever be found in sufficient quantity
+to render it practically useful remains to be seen. The most abundant
+source at present known is the Freiberg blende, 100,000 parts of which
+only yield from twenty-five to forty parts of indium. The metal is
+chiefly interesting in an artistic sense on account of its sulphide, a
+fine bright yellow resembling cadmium, and best obtained by
+precipitating an acetic acid solution with sulphuretted hydrogen, or
+sulphide of ammonium. In the latter, the yellow dissolves on being
+heated, but deposits again on cooling of a rather paler tint. With one
+modification, what was said in a former edition of this Treatise
+concerning cadmium yellow may be repeated of indium yellow. "The metal
+from which it is prepared being hitherto scarce, it has not been
+employed as a pigment, and its habits are not therefore ascertained."
+All we can tell is, that the colour does not suffer from impure air.
+
+Indium is likewise distinguished by a straw-yellow oxide.
+
+57. _Iodine Yellow_,
+
+Or iodide of lead, is one of those compounds whose presence on the
+palette should never have been allowed. Exceedingly brilliant, it is
+also utterly fugitive, destroyed by exposure or foul gas, and useless in
+admixture. We may state here that, whatever its colour, no pigment
+containing iodine can in the slightest degree be relied upon. One of the
+most unstable of substances, being slowly volatile even at common
+temperatures, iodine is or ought to be quite inadmissible as a
+constituent. Combined with lead, which is in itself objectionable, it
+forms a yellow possessing every bad quality.
+
+58. _Iron Yellow_,
+
+Or oxalate of protoxide of iron, has very unadvisedly been recommended
+as a pigment. It is a bright pale yellow, but soon loses the beauty of
+its tint when submitted to air and light, becoming, by peroxidation, red
+and buffy. Even in a book the colour changes.
+
+59. _Madder Yellow._
+
+As our (the Editor's) experience of this product is somewhat at variance
+with that of the author, we subjoin his original statement. "Madder
+yellow is a preparation from the madder-root. The best is of a bright
+colour, resembling Indian yellow, but more powerful and transparent,
+though hardly equal to it in durability of hue; metallic, terrene, and
+alkaline substances acting on and reddening it as they do gamboge: even
+alone it has by time a natural tendency to become orange and foxy. We
+have produced it of various hues and tints, from an opaque and ochrous
+yellow, to a colour the most brilliant, transparent, and deep. Upon the
+whole, however, after an experience of many years, we do not consider
+them eligible pigments."
+
+While agreeing with Mr. Field as to the character given of these
+yellows, we must confess that we have never been able to obtain, nor
+have we ever seen, a "most brilliant" madder yellow. Colours bearing
+that name have come under our notice, but if their hue was pure and
+vivid, they have always proved to be falsely so called, the madder being
+conspicuous by its absence. What we have succeeded in producing, and the
+genuine samples we have met with, have been fawns, buffs, drabs, &c.,
+decidedly "ochrous" yellows, and wanting in stability. It is certain
+that no true madder yellow, brilliant and pure, ranks as a pigment at
+the present day. A variety known as Cory's Yellow Madder may be briefly
+described as Cory's _Brown_ Madder.
+
+60. _Massicot_,
+
+Or _Masticot_, is a protoxide of lead, varying from the purest and most
+tender straw colour to a dull orange yellow, and known as Light, Yellow,
+and Golden Massicot. It has in painting all the properties of white
+lead, from which it may be prepared by gentle calcination in an open
+furnace. In tint with that pigment, however, it soon loses its colour
+and returns to white, probably extracting some carbonic acid therefrom.
+If used in an unmixed state, it is permanent in oil under the same
+conditions as white lead, but should not be employed in water, on
+account of its changing even to blackness by the action of damp or
+impure air. It is an admirable dryer, and has much the same effect as
+litharge in rendering oils siccative.
+
+_Litharge_ is merely fused massicot. Old writers speak of litharge of
+silver and litharge of gold, oxides of lead, pale and reddish yellow
+respectively. Commercial litharge, especially that which is foreign,
+contains sometimes a considerable proportion of oxide of copper and
+iron. The principal impurity, however, is generally silica, left
+undissolved on treating the litharge with nitric or acetic acid.
+Litharge is commonly used in preparing drying oils, which contain a
+greater or less amount of the oxide in the form of oleate of lead. Oils
+made siccative by means of litharge are therefore liable to be damaged
+by foul gas. It is a matter of congratulation that such injury is not
+lasting, and that the oil, like white lead, recovers its original colour
+on exposure to air and light. Some drying oil which we exposed on a tile
+to an atmosphere of sulphuretted hydrogen until it was completely
+blackened, regained its former yellow hue on being submitted for a day
+or so to air and light. Hence, although the employment of lead as a
+siccative is not desirable, its effects are not so deleterious as might
+be imagined.
+
+61. _Patent Yellow_,
+
+_Turner's Yellow_, _Montpellier Yellow_, _Mineral Yellow_, _Cassel
+Yellow_, &c., is a mixture of chloride and oxide of lead, obtainable
+either as a pale or a deep yellow. It is a hard, ponderous, sparkling
+substance, of a crystalline texture and bright colour; hardly inferior,
+when ground, to chrome yellow. Of an excellent body, and working well in
+oil and water, but soon injured both by the sun's light and impure air.
+A variety, mentioned by Merimee, in which bismuth and antimony are also
+used, is of greater durability.
+
+62. _Platinum Yellow._
+
+Our own opinion of this costly preparation is that the good qualities of
+the product do not justify its price. It may be obtained as a bright,
+rich, deep yellow, of considerable transparency; but the colour is acted
+upon by foul gas and exposure. Even in a book we have found it assume a
+dirty greyish cast, and a specimen which had been kept in a drawer,
+wrapped up in paper, became perfectly black in a few years. The presence
+of palladium interferes with the beauty of the original tint, but does
+not affect its stability.
+
+63. _Thallium Yellow._
+
+The new metal thallium yields in combination with chromic acid two
+yellow colours, a pale and an orange. They are not absolutely insoluble
+in water, and the sulphide of thallium being brown, would probably be
+damaged by impure air. But whatever their properties as pigments may be,
+their habitudes as such are not yet known. The present scarcity of the
+metal renders the colours produced from it mere scientific curiosities.
+
+64. _Thwaites' Yellow._
+
+Under this name chromate of cadmium was introduced some few years back.
+If well prepared, it is a fine soft powder of a very vivid light yellow
+colour. The compound is too soluble, however, to be of value, its
+washings even with cold water being continually tinged yellow. Hence it
+turns green after a time, and becomes otherwise discoloured. Like
+citron yellow and other chromates apt to assume a green cast, it should
+only be employed, if at all, when compounded for foliage tints, &c. This
+want of durability is to be regretted, for a good sample of cadmium
+chrome is marked by exceeding beauty, unsurpassed for clearness and
+purity by any other yellow.
+
+65. _Turbith Mineral_,
+
+Or _Queen's Yellow_, is a subsulphate of mercury, of a beautiful lemon
+yellow colour, but so liable to change by the action of light or impure
+air, that it cannot be used safely, and hardly deserves attention as a
+pigment.
+
+66. _Uranium Yellow_
+
+Can be produced of a pale or orange tint, differing in brightness and
+depth of colour according to the mode of preparation. It is fairly
+eligible as a pigment, and far superior to the many fugitive compounds
+which have from time to time appeared. Being very expensive, however,
+and not possessing the good qualities of its compeers lately introduced,
+uranium yellow has but little chance of being employed now.
+
+67. _Yellow Carmine_
+
+Is a rich transparent colour, somewhat resembling an ochre compounded
+with Indian yellow. On exposure to light, it behaves much as a mixture
+of those pigments would do, the rich _yellowness_ entirely disappearing,
+and the sober-coloured earth being left behind.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+From several metals besides those mentioned, yellows more or less vivid
+and durable may be obtained--from tin, nickel, cerium, molybdenum, &c.;
+but we do not know that any one of them would be a really desirable
+addition. To justify its being brought out, a new pigment should own
+some special advantage, chemical or artistic, by which it may be
+distinguished from other colours. No purpose would be answered by
+crowding the palette with mere repetitions, even though they were
+stable. If, for instance, indium yellow were found exactly similar to
+that of cadmium, in colour, opacity, permanence, its presence would be
+quite superfluous. The mistake is often made of offering a fresh
+compound for a pigment when something as good or better, and cheaper may
+be, already exists. We remember a patient experimenter, who had produced
+a pink from cobalt, wondering why his colour should be so generally
+declined. The product was not wanting in either beauty or stability, but
+he forgot that the lakes of madder were far more beautiful, at least as
+durable, and much less expensive. We have said that we do not join in
+the cry of there being too many pigments, or share the opinion that
+there is not room for more, but we do enforce the necessity of progress.
+Let us have as many good colours as possible, but let the new be
+superior to the old, and all be distinct from each other.
+
+As far as yellows are concerned, the palette possesses both variety and
+durability. Opaque or transparent, bright or subdued, deep or pale, it
+presents a sufficiency of permanent pigments. Most noteworthy are
+aureolin, the deep and 'pale' cadmiums, lemon yellow, Mars yellow, the
+modern Naples yellow, the ochres, orient yellow, and raw sienna. Whether
+used alone or in tint these are, if genuine, perfectly reliable, and
+comprise the list of those durable colours which may be called pigments
+of the first class.
+
+Among pigments of the second class, or the semi-stable, gamboge holds
+the foremost place, for although not strictly durable in itself, it
+conduces to the permanence of other colours. Chrome yellows, citron
+yellow, strontian yellow, and Thwaites' yellow, also belong to this
+division.
+
+As third class pigments, or the fugitive, must be ranked Mutrie yellow
+and other lemon cadmiums, the true gallstone, Indian yellow, the lakes,
+orpiment, Gelbin's yellow, massicot, patent yellow, and turbith mineral.
+
+It must not be forgotten, however, that these three classes are subject
+to modification. A durable pigment may be so adulterated as to descend
+to the second or even the third division, while a semi-stable or
+fugitive colour may be replaced by a permanent or comparatively
+permanent substitute, as in the case of strontian yellow and gallstone.
+It should likewise be remembered that pigments are apt to vary in
+stability according to the mode of their preparation; and that, as there
+are different degrees of permanence, there are different degrees of
+fugacity.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+ON THE PRIMARY, RED.
+
+
+Red is the second and intermediate of the primary colours, standing
+between _yellow_ and _blue_; and is also in like intermediate relation
+to _white_ and _black_, or light and shade. Hence red is pre-eminent
+among colours, as well as the most positive of all, forming with yellow
+the secondary _orange_ and its near relatives, scarlet, &c.; and with
+blue, the secondary _purple_ and its allies, crimson, &c. It gives some
+degree of warmth to all colours, especially to those which partake of
+yellow.
+
+Red is the archeus, or principal colour in the tertiary _russet_; enters
+subordinately into the two other tertiaries, _citrine_ and _olive_; goes
+largely into the composition of the various hues and shades of the
+semi-neutral _marrone_ or chocolate, and its relations, puce, murrey,
+morelle, mordore, pompadour, &c.; and is more or less present in
+_browns_, _grays_, and all broken colours. It is likewise the second
+power in harmonizing and contrasting other colours, as well as in
+compounding _black_ and all other neutrals, into which it enters in the
+proportion of five,--to blue, eight,--and yellow, three.
+
+Red is a colour of double power in this respect too; that, in union or
+connexion with yellow, it becomes hot and _advancing_; but mixed or
+combined with blue, cool and _retiring_. It is, however, more congenial
+with yellow than with blue, and thence partakes more of the character of
+the former in its effects of warmth, the influence of light and
+distance, and action on the eye, by which the power of vision is
+diminished on viewing this colour in a strong light. On the other hand,
+red appears to deepen in colour rapidly in a declining light as night
+comes on, or in shade. These qualities of red give it great importance,
+render it difficult of management, and require it to be generally kept
+subordinate in painting. It is therefore rarely used unbroken, as the
+ruling or predominating colour, or for toning a picture; on which
+account it will always seem detached or insulated, unless repeated and
+subordinated. Hence Nature is sparing with her red, employing it with as
+much reserve in the decoration of her works as she is profuse in
+lavishing green upon them. This latter is of all colours the most
+soothing to the eye, and the true contrasting or harmonizing equivalent
+of red, in the proportional quantity of eleven to five, according to
+surface or intensity: being, when the red inclines to scarlet or orange,
+a _blue_-green; and when it tends to crimson or purple, a
+_yellow_-green.
+
+Red breaks and diffuses with white with peculiar loveliness. It is
+discordant when standing with orange only, requiring to be joined or
+accompanied by their proper contrast, to resolve or harmonize the
+dissonance. In landscapes, &c., abounding with hues allied to green, a
+red object properly placed as regards light, shade, or distance,
+conduces wonderfully to the life, beauty, harmony, and connexion of the
+colouring. Red is, indeed, the chief element of beauty in floral nature,
+the prime ornament of the green garb of the vegetal kingdom.
+
+Being the most _positive_ of colours, and holding the middle station of
+the primaries, red contrasts and harmonizes with black and white, which
+are the _negative_ powers or neutrals of colours, and the extremes of
+the scale. Moreover, as red is less nearly allied to black or shade than
+to white or light, this harmony is most remarkable in the union or
+opposition of white and red, and this contrast most powerful in black
+and red.
+
+As a primary and simple colour, red cannot be composed by mixture of
+other colours. So much is it the instrument of beauty in nature and art
+in flesh, flowers, &c., that good pigments of this genus are most
+indispensable. On the whole, the palette cannot be considered so well
+furnished with reds as with yellows. Especially is there wanting a
+permanent transparent scarlet, a colour for which a prize of L500 has
+for many years been offered by the Society of Arts.
+
+68. CADMIUM RED.
+
+The deep, pale, and lemon yellows which cadmium at first afforded, were
+followed by an orange, which has quite recently been succeeded by a red.
+This is a most vivid orange-scarlet, the red predominating, of exceeding
+depth, and intense fire. It is a simple original pigment, containing no
+base but cadmium, and possessing a large amount of latent colour. It is
+more orange in hue than vermilion, and has the advantages of flowing and
+drying well, of greater brilliancy, of retaining that brilliancy when
+dry, and of considerable transparency. Hence this red is preferably
+employed where opacity is to be avoided--in sunset clouds for instance.
+As day declines or by artificial light, the colour approaches very
+nearly to a deep pure scarlet; and the best substitute for a permanent
+transparent scarlet which has yet been obtained is furnished by
+admixture of cadmium red with madder carmine, or by using the latter as
+a glaze. Compounded with white, the red yields a series of fine flesh
+tints; and it mixes readily and safely with other colours. Without
+harshness or rankness, neither injured by an impure atmosphere nor
+exposure to light and air, cadmium red is eligible in every department
+of art, enamel painting only excepted. In illumination, the red
+contrasted by viridian will be found most beautiful and effective.
+Seeing that previous to its introduction the number of bright reds, not
+being crimson, nor of a crimson cast, was limited to vermilions, pure
+scarlet, red chrome, and red lead, of which the first alone were
+permanent, there was room on the palette for a strictly durable and
+somewhat transparent pigment like cadmium red, with its many distinctive
+properties.
+
+
+COCHINEAL LAKES.
+
+Lake, a term derived from the _lac_ or _lacca_ of India, is the name of
+a number of transparent red and other coloured pigments of great beauty,
+prepared for the most part by precipitating coloured tinctures of dyeing
+drugs upon aluminous bases. Consequently, the lakes form a numerous
+class, both with respect to the variety of their appellations, and the
+substances whence they are produced. Those under notice are known as
+_Carmine_, _Crimson Lake_, _Scarlet Lake_, _Purple Lake_, _Chinese
+Lake_, _Florentine Lake_, _Hamburgh Lake_, _Roman Lake_, _Venetian
+Lake_, &c., and are obtained from the "coccus cacti," an insect found on
+a species of cactus, from the juice of which it extracts its
+nourishment. This coccus is a native of Mexico, where two kinds are
+recognised, under names which signify wild cochineal and fine cochineal.
+The latter may be considered a cultivated product, its food and wants
+being carefully attended to, while the former is left in a natural
+state, and is less valuable. Wild cochineal is distinguished by having a
+woolly downy coat, which is not the case with the fine cochineal. The
+females, of which there are from one hundred and fifty to two hundred
+for each male, are marked by the absence of wings, and constitute the
+commercial article. They are generally killed by immersion in boiling
+water, which causes them to swell to twice their natural size, and are
+then dried and packed for market. The insects shrivel in drying, and
+assume the form of irregular grains, fluted and concave. The best sorts
+have a silvery-grey colour, with a purplish reflection, and seem to be
+dusted with a white powder. This appearance is often given by means of
+heavy spar, carbonate of lead, Venice talc, &c. A good lens, however,
+will mostly expose the fraud; or it may be detected by macerating the
+insect in water, and allowing the loosened pulverised particles to
+settle.
+
+Cochineal is a very rich colouring substance, yielding about half its
+weight of real colouring matter, which may be easily extracted by
+boiling in water. Dr. Warren De La Rue, who examined the living animal,
+states that on piercing the side of the insect a purplish-red fluid
+exuded, containing the colouring matter in minute granules. This
+colouring matter he succeeded in obtaining pure, in the form of a
+purple-brown friable mass, pulverizable to a fine red powder,
+transparent when viewed by the microscope, and soluble both in water and
+alcohol in all proportions. At temperatures above 136 deg. it decomposed,
+and by alkalies its colour was turned to purple. These facts account for
+the care required in drying cochineal lakes, and for their liability to
+change of hue when in contact with alkaline substances, as in mural
+decoration.
+
+The lakes of cochineal may be known from those of the dye-woods by their
+solubility in ammonia, a liquid which purples but does not dissolve the
+colours produced from the latter.
+
+69. CARMINE.
+
+A name once given only to the fine feculences of kermes and cochineal
+tinctures, now denotes generally any pigment which resembles them in
+beauty, richness of hue, and powdery texture. We have, therefore, blue
+and other coloured carmines, though the term is usually confined to the
+crimson and scarlet lakes of cochineal. As at present commonly
+understood, carmine is that preparation of cochineal which contains the
+most colouring matter and the least aluminous base. Hence it is the
+richest, deepest, most intense, and most permanent. Although not to be
+classed as durable, yet by reason of its extreme depth, carmine is more
+stable than the weaker crimson, scarlet, and purple lakes. When
+well-made, pure, and employed alone and in body, it has been known to
+retain its colour for years, especially if protected by oil or varnish.
+In tint with white lead, however, it has no stability; and though little
+affected by impure air, in glazing it is soon discoloured and destroyed
+by the action of light. Of great power in its full touches, it possesses
+considerable clearness in the pale washes, and works admirably. In
+landscape, carmine is seldom used, the colour being chiefly valued in
+flower painting and illumination.
+
+It has been erroneously stated that the finest carmines cannot be made
+in England, owing to a want of clearness in the atmosphere and a
+scarcity of sunshine. For many years, however, they have been produced
+in this country, not only finer than any foreign preparations, but
+equally good in winter as in summer.
+
+Carmine is sometimes sophisticated with starch, vermilion, and with
+alumina not formed in the process of manufacture. Occasionally also, a
+portion of the animal matter of the cochineal from which it has been
+obtained is left mixed with it. These accidental or intentional
+impurities may mostly be detected by heating the carmine with liquid
+ammonia, which entirely dissolves the colouring matter and leaves the
+impurities in an insoluble state.
+
+70. CRIMSON LAKE
+
+Is a cochineal pigment containing more aluminous base than carmine, and
+is consequently weaker in colour and less stable. Deficient in much of
+the depth and brilliancy which belong to the latter, it is more commonly
+employed and more generally useful. This lake is of service in mixing
+tints, to impart richness, in flower painting and illumination, and is,
+like all cochineal colours, of greater utility in water than in oil.
+With cobalt and gamboge it yields an excellent gray, and with cobalt
+alone a fine purple for heather. Distant hills may be strengthened with
+a tint of French blue and lake, and Vandyke brown with the crimson will
+be found admirable for a rich coloured foreground. Many other beautiful
+tints, unexceptionable in an artistic sense, are afforded by crimson
+lake on admixture. It should be remembered, however, that not one of
+them is permanent as far as the lake is concerned. All cochineal
+pigments are more or less affected by strong light, which weakens their
+tints, and in time deprives them of colour; and it is not by being
+compounded that a fugitive colour is rendered durable.
+
+71. SCARLET LAKE
+
+Is prepared in the form of drops from cochineal, and is of a fine
+transparent red colour and excellent body, though, like other lakes, it
+dries slowly. Discoloured and destroyed by strong light both in water
+and oil, and not permanent in tint with white lead or in combination
+with other pigments, it possesses the common attributes of cochineal
+lakes. Yet when well prepared, used in sufficient body, and not unduly
+exposed, it has been found to last a lengthened period; but it ought
+never to be employed in glazing, nor at all in works that aim at high
+reputation and stability. It is in general tinted with vermilion, which
+has probably been mixed with lakes at all times to give their scarlet
+hue and add to their weight; for upon examining with a powerful lens
+some fine pictures of ancient masters, in which lake had been used in
+glazing, particles of vermilion were apparent, from which lake had
+evidently flown. Unfortunately, these lakes are injured by vermilion as
+they are by lead, so that glazings of cochineal over vermilion or lead
+are particularly apt to vanish. This effect is very remarkable in
+several pictures of Cuyp, where he has introduced a figure in red from
+which the shadows have disappeared, owing to their having been formed
+with lake over vermilion. The scarlet hue of this lake should properly
+be imparted to it during the process of manufacture, and not by
+subsequent mechanical admixture.
+
+72. PURPLE LAKE
+
+Is a species of crimson lake with a purple cast, transparent and
+deep-toned, and useful in shadows: in other respects resembling that
+pigment. Red being its predominant colour, we have preferred classing
+this so-called purple among the reds, in spite of its name. On the whole
+it is more durable than crimson lake.
+
+73. FLORENTINE LAKE
+
+Differs from scarlet lake only in the mode of preparation. Formerly the
+lake so called was extracted from the shreds of scarlet cloth. The same
+may be said of _Chinese Lake_.
+
+74. HAMBURGH LAKE
+
+Is a lake of great power and depth of colour, purplish or inclining to
+crimson, which dries with extreme difficulty, but differs in no other
+essential respect from preceding cochineal lakes--an observation which
+applies to _Roman Lake_, _Venetian Lake_, and many others; none of
+which, however beautiful or reputed, is entitled to the character of
+stability either in hue, shade, or tint.
+
+75. DRAGON'S BLOOD
+
+Is a resin brought from the East Indies. It is of a warm
+semi-transparent, rather dull red colour, which is deepened by impure
+air, and darkened by light. There are two or three sorts, but that in
+drops is the best. White lead soon destroys it, and in oil it dries with
+extreme difficulty. It is sometimes used to colour varnishes and
+lackers, being soluble in oils and alcohol. Although it has been
+recommended as a pigment, dragon's blood does not merit the attention of
+the artist.
+
+76. INDIAN LAKE,
+
+Likewise called _Lac Lake_. This is obtained from the lac or lacca of
+India, a resinous secretion which seems to depend upon the puncture of a
+small insect--_coccus ficus_--made for the sake of depositing its ova on
+the branches of several plants, found in Siam, Assam, and Bengal. The
+twigs soon become encrusted with a mammelated substance of a red colour
+more or less deep, nearly transparent, hard, and having a brilliant
+conchoidal fracture. The roughly-prepared coating is imported in two
+forms, called lac-lake and lac-dye, which contain about 50 per cent of
+colouring matter, combined with more or less resin, and with earthy
+matters, consisting chiefly of carbonate and sulphate of lime and
+silica.
+
+Indian lake is rich, transparent, and deep,--less brilliant and more
+durable than the colours of cochineal, but inferior in both respects to
+those of madder. Used thickly or in strong glazing, as a shadow colour,
+it is of great body and much permanence; but in thin glazing it changes
+and flies, as it also does in tint with white lead. In the properties of
+drying, &c., it resembles other lakes. The pigment may be dispensed with
+in favour of madder lake and madder brown, whose combinations serve for
+every purpose to which it can be applied, and are stable.
+
+Lac appears to be the lake which has stood best in old pictures, and was
+probably employed by the Venetians, who had the trade of India when
+painting flourished at Venice.
+
+
+MADDER LAKES.
+
+_Rubric Lakes_, or _Field's Lakes_, are derived from the root of "rubia
+tinctorum," a plant largely grown in France and Holland, whence the bulk
+of that used in England is obtained. The French madders are in a state
+of very fine powder, containing one half their weight of gum, sugar,
+salts, and other soluble substances, which water speedily dissolves.
+Madder roots in the unground state are imported from the Levant, and
+called Turkey roots. Good qualities of Turkey madder yield near sixty
+per cent of extractive matters, a term that includes everything
+removable by water and dilute alkalis: the woody fibre is therefore
+about forty per cent. This is presuming the root to be genuine, for
+madder is often adulterated with brickdust, red ochre, red sand, clay,
+mahogany sawdust, logwood, sandal and japan-wood, and bran.
+
+Unlike cochineal, madder possesses several colouring matters; the
+question of which, despite the learned researches of Dr. Schunck and
+others, is far from settled yet. The following remarks embody our own
+experience of the root, simply as a pigment-producing product:--
+
+Madder contains five colouring matters--yellow, red, orange, purple, and
+brown. Of these, the first colour is soluble in cold water. By washing
+the powdered root quickly with it by decantation, the yellow and brown
+are extracted in the form of an opaque liquid. If this be decanted and
+allowed to stand, the brown deposits, leaving a clear buffish-yellow
+supernatant liquor. In the root from which the extract was poured, the
+remaining three colours are left. On adding a strong boiling solution of
+alum, these are dissolved, yielding a fine red liquid. From this there
+can be thrown down, by the agency of different chemicals, a red, an
+orange, or a purple precipitate. Or, supposing the whole of the
+colouring matter to be deposited as a red lake, it is possible to
+convert this--also by the agency of different chemicals--either into
+orange or purple. Hence, for all practical purposes, madder contains but
+three colouring matters: a yellow, soluble in cold water; a brown, not
+soluble in, but capable of being extracted by cold water; and a red,
+soluble in boiling alum, and furnishing at will a purple or an orange.
+
+As was observed in the previous chapter, no good pigment is obtained
+from the yellow, of which the less there is present the better; but the
+brown affords a valued product, which will be duly noticed. It is
+essential to the purity of the reds, that the madder should be freed
+from both these colours; and it was probably due to insufficient aqueous
+washing of the root, that the old lakes were dull and muddy, mere
+brick-reds of ochrous hues. For many years, however, lakes have been
+prepared perfectly transparent, and literally as beautiful and pure in
+colour as the rose; qualities in which they are unrivalled by the lakes
+and carmine of cochineal. They have justly been considered as supplying
+a desideratum, and as among the most valuable acquisitions of the
+palette in modern times, since permanent transparent red and rose
+pigments were previously unknown. The red varieties range from rich
+crimson to a delicate rose, and are known as _Madder Carmine_, _Field's
+Carmine_, _Pink Madder_, _Rose Madder_, _Madder Lake_, and _Liquid
+Rubiate_ or _Liquid Madder Lake_.
+
+77. MADDER CARMINE,
+
+Or _Field's Carmine_, like that of cochineal, is the richest and deepest
+lake prepared, containing most colouring matter and least base. It
+differs from the paler products chiefly in transparency and intensity,
+and is the only durable carmine for painting either in water or oil; for
+both which it is qualified by texture without previous grinding. In
+common with the other reds of madder, its faint washes possess greater
+clearness than those of cochineal. This carmine is a difficult colour to
+make well, exceeding care and nicety being required to obtain the
+fullest tint: hence it is apt to vary in hue according to the skill of
+the manufacturer. Being expensive also, the price increasing according
+to depth of colour, the lake has been the most liable to adulteration,
+of all the reds of madder. Merimee states that samples were sent to him
+from Berlin, under the name of "carmine madder," which evidently owed
+their brightness to tincture of cochineal. It is certain that madder
+lakes have been imitated on the Continent with various success by those
+of lac, cochineal, and carthamus or safflower. The best we have seen is
+the _laque de garance_, which was tinged with the rouge of carthamus,
+and was of course inferior in durability. As, however, liquid ammonia
+and alkalis generally dissolve the colours of cochineal, lac, and
+safflower, the test is simple. If the liquid remain uncoloured on
+adding ammonia to an assumed madder lake, in all probability the pigment
+is genuine.
+
+78. ROSE MADDER.
+
+The exquisite flowers of Bartholomew, Miss Mutrie, and others, give
+evidence of the beauty, purity, and stability of the reds of madder,
+both in water and oil. This variety, less intense than the preceding and
+without its carmine hue, is of a rich rose colour--a true rose--tending
+neither to crimson, scarlet, nor purple. Marked by a peculiar softness,
+and an unusual clearness in its pale washes, rose madder affords the
+most perfect carnation tints known. Not liable to change by the action
+of light, impure air, or admixture with white lead and other colours, it
+resembles all madder lakes in these respects. Like them, too, it is but
+a tardy dryer in oil unless thoroughly edulcorated, and does not work in
+water with the entire fulness and facility of cochineal pigments. When,
+therefore, permanence is of no consideration, the latter may still be
+preferred. In those works, however, where the hues and tints of nature
+are to be imitated with stability and pure effect, the rose colours of
+madder are become indispensable. They have this advantage, moreover,
+that they possess the property of ultramarine of improving in hue by
+time--their tendency being to their own specific prismatic red colour.
+As they are too beautiful and require saddening for the general use of
+the painter, the addition of manganese brown, cappagh brown, or burnt
+umber, adds to their powers, and improves their drying in oils; for
+which last purpose a little japanner's gold size may be likewise
+employed.
+
+In the light touches of bright clouds or mountains, where a mixture of
+cadmium yellow and Chinese white is used, rose madder is invaluable for
+glazing over such touches when dry, should they be required of a warmer
+hue. The red portion of sunset skies may be improved by a thin wash of
+this pigment, tinged perhaps with the above yellow, or with gamboge.
+Most serviceable landscape tints are afforded by admixture of rose
+madder with cobalt, Indian red, purple madder, yellow ochre, lamp black,
+&c. In painting flesh, the lake cannot be dispensed with.
+
+79. PINK MADDER
+
+Was a weaker preparation of the preceding, paler in hue and possessing
+less colour. It was formerly employed in miniature painting, but with
+the decline of that art became less and less used, until it may now be
+said to be obsolete. The name, however, still lives, but is applied to
+rose madder, which is indeed indifferently called _Rose Madder_, _Pink
+Madder_, or _Madder Lake_. Speaking of pink roses, Mrs. Duffield remarks
+that "the local colour is best imitated with pink madder," and the
+Messrs. Rowbotham observe "this heather may be best represented by
+cobalt and madder lake." In trade catalogues several names are often
+given, as in this instance, to one and the same pigment. The seeming
+superfluity is rendered necessary through some artists knowing a pigment
+by one name and some by another. Hence arises the value of a list of
+synonyms.
+
+80. LIQUID RUBIATE,
+
+_Rose Rubiate_, or _Liquid Madder Lake_, is a concentrated tincture of
+madder of the most beautiful and perfect rose colour and transparency.
+It is used as a water colour only in its simple state, diluted with
+water, and with or without gum. In oil it dries by acting as a
+siccative. Mixed or ground with all other madder colours, with or
+without gum, it forms combinations which work freely in water, and
+produce the most charming and stable effects. The rubiate also furnishes
+a fine red ink, and is a durable stain for printing on cotton, &c. To
+the tinting of maps and charts permanently, it is peculiarly suited.
+
+81. MARS RED
+
+Or _Rouge de Mars_, is an artificial iron ochre, similar in subdued tint
+and permanence to the native earths. Its chemical affinities, however,
+are greater than those of the latter, and it therefore requires to be
+employed cautiously with pigments affected by iron. In this respect the
+red resembles its compeers, Mars yellow, Mars orange, Mars violet, and
+Mars brown, all of which are iron ochres artificially prepared.
+Possessing the richness and depth of Indian red, it is distinguished by
+the russet-orange hue of light red. Its pale washes are marked by
+considerable clearness. In keeping the Mars colours separate from the
+ochres, we have followed the plan of the author.
+
+
+OCHRES
+
+Comprise _Red Ochre_, _Indian Red_, _Light Red_, _Venetian Red_,
+_English Red_, _Persian Red_, _Prussian Red_, _Spanish Red_, _Brown
+Red_, _Indian Ochre_, _Scarlet Ochre_, _Carnagione_, _Terra Puzzoli_,
+_English Vermilion_, _Spanish Brown_, _Majolica_, _Redding_, _Ruddle_,
+_Bole_, _Almagra_, _Sil Atticum_, _Terra Sinopica_, &c. They are rather
+hues and tints than definite colours, or more properly belong to the
+tertiary, semi-neutral, and broken colours. As a rule they are native
+pigments, found in most countries, and very abundantly and fine in our
+own; but some are products of manufacture, and obtainable in the variety
+of nature by art.
+
+The colouring matter of these earths is the red oxide of iron, as that
+of the yellow ochres is the yellow oxide. All the yellow ochres are more
+or less reddened by being burnt, as yellow oxide of iron itself becomes
+red on calcination. It was observed in the fourth chapter that time has
+often the effect of fire, more or less intense; and hence it is that
+yellow ochres occasionally assume a buffish-red hue, by the gradual
+peroxidation of the iron. Similarly, if a yellow ochre be but partially
+calcined, the red so obtained is apt to deepen or darken. Especially do
+these changes take place when the iron oxides are not associated with an
+earthy base; when, in fact, the so-called ochres cannot be classed as
+such. In this case, too, as was lately remarked, the pigments are more
+chemically active, and more likely to affect those colours to which iron
+is inimical.
+
+82. RED OCHRE
+
+Is a native earth; sometimes brown ochre burnt, and called _Brown Red_.
+It is less pure in hue and clear in its tints than light red, and is
+best reserved for dark and vigorous shades and touches. For draperies of
+a dusky red it is well suited, or even for the shadows of bright-red
+drapery. In dead colouring it is very valuable. Like all ochres, it is
+characterized by permanence in water, oil, crayons, and fresco; and is,
+like most of them, available in enamel-painting.
+
+Almagra, the Sil Atticum of the ancients, is a deep red ochre found in
+Andalusia; as is also their Terra Sinopica or Armenian Bole, dug
+originally in Cappadocia, and now found in New Jersey and elsewhere
+under the name of Bloodstone.
+
+83. INDIAN RED,
+
+Once known as _Persian Red_, is brought from Bengal. It is a natural
+earth rich in peroxide of iron, of a purple russet hue and good body,
+and valued when fine for the clearness and soft lakey tone of its tints.
+In a crude state it is a coarse powder, full of extremely hard and
+brilliant particles of a dark appearance and sometimes magnetic. It is
+greatly improved by grinding and washing over, and is very permanent.
+Neither light, impure air, mixture with other colours, time, nor fire,
+effects any sensible change in it; but being opaque and not keeping its
+place well, it is unsuited for glazing. This pigment differs
+considerably in its hues, that which is most rosy being esteemed the
+best, and affording the purest tints. Inferior ochres were formerly
+substituted for Indian red, which procured it a variable character; but
+the colour being now obtained abundantly can in general be had genuine.
+It is a good drier.
+
+Mixed with Indian ink, it furnishes useful shadows; and compounded with
+cobalt or indigo, most serviceable grays. For sunsets, where deep purple
+lines are louring over the horizon's brink, a mixture of French blue
+with a little Indian red and lake is admirably adapted. In twilight and
+stormy clouds, in sails and buildings, in shade carnations of portraits
+and backgrounds, &c., the red is often employed.
+
+84. LIGHT RED
+
+Is an ochre of an orange-russet hue, chiefly valued for its tints. The
+principal yellow ochres afford this colour best, and the brighter and
+clearer the yellow ochre is from which it is prepared, the brighter will
+the red be, and the better flesh tints will it yield with white. Light
+red has the good properties common to ochres, dries capitally, and
+furnishes an excellent crayon. It is much used both in figure and
+landscape painting, giving fine grays with cobalt, and serviceable
+compounds with yellow ochre, indigo, lamp black, rose madder, Payne's
+grey, brown madder, &c.
+
+Terra Puzzoli, a volcanic production, is a species of light red, as is
+the Carnagione of the Italians.
+
+85. VENETIAN RED,
+
+Less known as _English Red_, _Prussian Red_, and _Scarlet Ochre_. True
+Venetian red, that is, the red of the Venetians, was probably brought
+from India, and similar to our modern Indian red. The Venetian red of
+the present day, however, is an artificial product, containing no earthy
+base, and therefore improperly classed among the ochres. It is prepared
+by calcining sulphate of iron, to which a little nitre may be
+advantageously added. The result is a peroxide of iron, resembling light
+red, but more powerful, and of a more scarlet hue. It is very permanent,
+but being a purely iron pigment, should be cautiously employed with
+colours affected by that metal. Though not bright, its tints are clear,
+and it mixes and works kindly with cobalt or French blue, affording fine
+pearly grays. Heightened by madder lake, it furnishes a glowing red,
+very useful in some descriptions of skies; and saddened by black, it
+gives low toned reds of good quality for buildings. With white it
+produces carnation tints nearly approaching to nature, and much employed
+by Titian, Vandyke, and others. Compounded with aureolin, Venetian red
+yields a clear orange of considerable transparency.
+
+_Spanish Red_ is an ochre differing little from the above.
+
+86. PURE SCARLET,
+
+Or _Iodine Scarlet_, is an iodide of mercury, having the body and
+opacity of vermilion, and being as much inferior to it in permanence as
+it is superior in brilliancy. Of all artistic pigments, it is at once
+the most dazzling and the most fugitive, and should have no place on the
+palette. If used, it should be with an ivory knife, as iron and most
+metals change it to colours varying from yellow to black; hence it
+should never be compounded with metallic pigments. So sensitive, indeed,
+is it to the slightest touch of metal, that it has been known to turn to
+a dull brown merely by being washed over with a colour which had been
+taken out of its saucer with a penknife. In the cake, it must be
+carefully kept wrapped up in paper, otherwise the presence of metal
+tubes or a knife in the colour-box may spoil it. By a foul atmosphere,
+the scarlet is soon utterly destroyed, and even metallized. In contact
+with the air, it quickly fades away; and has been found to vanish
+completely, when exposed to light alone. Employed in water, a thick
+glaze of gum-arabic or gamboge adds to its stability. As a landscape
+pigment, the colour is out of the general scale of nature; but in
+flower-painting its charms are almost irresistible. Nothing certainly
+can approach it as a colour for scarlet geraniums, but its beauty is
+almost as fleeting as the flowers.
+
+87. RED CHROME,
+
+Also called _Scarlet Chrome_, is a bright chromate of lead of an
+orange-red colour, the red being predominant. Rank in tone, it is liable
+to the changes of the yellow chromes, though in a less degree. The
+recent introduction of cadmium red renders the use of this unnecessary.
+
+88. RED LEAD,
+
+_Minium_, or _Saturnine Red_, is an ancient pigment, by some old writers
+confounded with cinnabar, and termed Sinoper or Synoper. It is an oxide
+of uncertain composition, prepared by subjecting massicot to the heat of
+a furnace with an expanded surface and free accession of air. Of a
+scarlet colour and fine hue, it is warmer than common vermilion, whose
+body and opacity it possesses, and with which it was once customary to
+mix it. Bright, but not so vivid as the iodide of mercury, it is more
+durable, although far less so than vermilion. When pure and alone, light
+does not affect its colour, which soon flies, however, on being mixed
+with white lead or any preparation of that metal. By impure air, red
+lead is blackened and ultimately metallized.
+
+On account of its extreme fugacity when compounded with white lead, this
+red cannot be used in tints; but employed, unmixed with other pigments,
+in simple varnish or oil not rendered drying by any metallic oxide, it
+may stand a long time under favourable circumstances. It is an excellent
+dryer in oil, and has often been used as a siccative with other colours,
+but it cannot safely be so employed except with the ochres, earths, and
+blacks in general. Oils, varnishes, and, in some measure, strong
+mucilages, are preventive of chemical action in the compounding of
+colours, by intervening and clothing the particles of pigments; and
+hence heterogeneous and injudicious tints and mixtures have sometimes
+stood well, but are not to be relied upon in practice. Altogether, red
+lead is a dangerous pigment in any but skilled hands, and has naturally
+had a variable character for permanence. It is frequently adulterated
+with earthy substances, such as brickdust, red ochre, and colcotha.
+
+
+VERMILIONS.
+
+Vermilion is so called from the Italian word _vermiglio_ (little worm,)
+given to the kermes or "coccus ilicis," which was used as a scarlet dye
+before the introduction of cochineal. It is a sulphuret of mercury,
+which previous to levigation is called Cinnabar; and is found native in
+quicksilver mines, as well as produced artificially. This is an ancient
+pigment, the [Greek: kinnabari] of the Greeks, and the _minium_--a term
+now confined to red lead--of older writers. Pliny states that it was so
+esteemed by the Romans, as to have its price fixed by express law of
+state. Among other places, the natural product is met with in
+California, Spain, and Peru; and in China there is a native cinnabar so
+pure as only to require grinding to become very perfect vermilion.
+Whether the natural possesses any advantages over the artificial,
+appears to admit of doubt: Bouvier thought that the former blackened
+more than the latter, and others coincide with him. As, however, native
+vermilion has become commercially obsolete, the question of their
+comparative permanence is of little importance. Theoretically, it is
+difficult to assign a reason why there should be any difference between
+the two.
+
+Vermilion is capable of being made by both wet and dry processes, but
+the last are almost exclusively adopted on a scale, and are, we
+believe, preferable. Our opinion, expressed with some diffidence, is,
+that pigments whose colour depends on the union of sulphur with a
+metal--such as vermilion and cadmium yellow--are more stable when the
+sulphur is forced to bite into the base. This can only be effected by a
+considerable degree of heat, far greater than can be obtained in any
+moist method. We hold that in pigments so produced, the sulphur is less
+liable to oxidation by air and light, and that therefore the colour
+better withstands exposure to those agents. Before now, vermilions have
+been taxed with fading in a strong light: supposing them genuine, it
+would be interesting to know by what mode they were manufactured.
+
+There are two kinds of vermilion in common use, European and Chinese, of
+which the first inclines to orange and the second to purple. These
+include the several varieties known as--_Vermilion_, _Deep Vermilion_,
+_Pale Vermilion_, _Scarlet Vermilion_, _Chinese Vermilion_, _Carmine
+Vermilion_, _Extract of Vermilion_, _Orange Vermilion_, and _Field's
+Orange Vermilion_.
+
+89. VERMILION,
+
+Deep or pale, when well made and pure is of strict permanence, not
+sensibly affected by light, time, or foul air; and eligible either in
+water, oil, or fresco. For an enamel colour it is unsuited, being
+dissipated at a red heat, a test that detects the presence of any
+non-volatile adulterant. The best vermilion is a powerful vivid colour,
+higher in tone than all reds, except the scarlet iodide of mercury. With
+this it should not be compounded, but with other pigments it may safely
+be used in admixture, as far as its own colour is concerned. Of great
+body, weight, and opacity, it is a somewhat slow drier; and does not
+retain that brilliancy when dry, which is peculiar to it while wet. A
+want of transparency, and not drying well, prevent its being so
+generally employed as would be desirable. Pictures should seem to be
+painted with colour, not with pigment, the material being lost amid the
+hues, tints, and shades; but with such compounds as vermilion, the art
+of concealing art becomes difficult indeed. The pigment is apt to
+predominate over the colour, and the painting to look mechanical rather
+than natural: particles are apparent where hues alone should be seen,
+and all sense of reality is destroyed. For these reasons, vermilion is a
+dangerous pigment in unskilled hands, needing an intimate acquaintance
+with its physical properties. The extreme weight or specific gravity of
+the red renders it liable to sink and separate when compounded with
+other colours; hence the heavier those mixed with it the better. Its
+almost equal opacity, too, and habit of washing up, militate against its
+use by young painters. With experience, however, and due care, this is
+a serviceable colour; yielding with white most delicate flesh tints, and
+in minute proportion with cobalt or French blue and white, tender aerial
+grays.
+
+Being cheaper than formerly, vermilion is not so much adulterated as it
+once was; although, even now, brickdust, orpiment, &c. sometimes
+sophisticate it. The knavish practices to which the pigment has been
+subjected, have acquired it an ill-fame both with authors and artists.
+Vermilion has been charged with fading in the light, and with being
+blackened by impure air; but it was the custom to crimson the colour by
+means of lake, or tone it to a scarlet hue by red lead. With pigments as
+with persons, evil communications corrupt good manners--a motto that
+might be written with advantage on every palette.
+
+90. SCARLET VERMILION
+
+Resembles the preceding in all respects, except in being more scarlet in
+its tint, and washing better; advantages which render it more useful
+when the tone is required to be very bright and pure. At one time, the
+Dutch alone in Europe possessed the secret of giving to vermilion a rich
+scarlet colour.
+
+91. CHINESE VERMILION,
+
+Or _Carmine Vermilion_, partakes of a crimson hue, and is adapted,
+mixed with white, for the rose and lilac-tints of some complexions. Like
+other vermilions, however, the colour needs much nicety of management;
+and it must not be attempted to further enrich it by admixture of
+cochineal lakes. Those colours, as we have remarked, cannot safely be
+brought into contact with vermilion, either compounded or as a glaze.
+The reds of madder should be substituted for them.
+
+92. EXTRACT OF VERMILION,
+
+A somewhat curious name for a metallic colour, was a peculiar
+preparation of the author, possessing in its time certain advantages
+over other vermilions, and especially distinguished by a more scarlet
+hue. Now, however, extract of vermilion and scarlet vermilion are
+synonymous terms.
+
+93. ORANGE VERMILION
+
+Is rather more transparent than ordinary vermilion, with a clear but not
+bright orange hue. It also washes better, and is for landscape purposes
+more generally useful. Resembling red-lead in appearance, it is not
+subject to its changes, being perfectly durable in oil and water. A most
+powerful tinger of white, its tints are warmer than red-lead's,
+affording delicate carnations similar to those of Titian and Rubens.
+This pigment--or, preferably, the succeeding variety--may be employed
+with excellent results in scumbling of flesh, for which Sir Joshua
+Reynolds improperly used the so-called red orpiment. It dries in simple
+linseed oil, but works with best effect in water with a considerable
+portion of gum. In speaking of sunset and sunrise clouds, Mr. Penley
+observes--"Orange vermilion if used so thin as to get rid of its
+opacity, is a fine tone; but it must be remembered that _transparency_
+is the character of the sunset or sunrise, and hence arises the
+difficulty of employing such opaque colour effectively." Before the
+introduction of cadmium red, this and the following pigment were the
+best and only unexceptionable orange-reds known. It is probable,
+however, that the new colour will in a great measure supersede these
+latter in cases where transparency is sought. Orange vermilion is often
+a mixture, in which case the yellow employed is apt to separate from the
+red and float on its surface.
+
+94. FIELD'S ORANGE VERMILION
+
+Is a superior preparation to the preceding, being brighter, purer, and
+clearer. It possesses also, less opacity, and is not a compound. Both
+pigments are rather reds with an orange cast than strictly orange
+colours, and are therefore inserted in this chapter.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+95. _Antimony Red_,
+
+Or Mineral Kermes. We have obtained this colour ranging from light
+orange to deep carmine, of different degrees of brightness and
+stability. Some of the tints stood well in a book, but faded on exposure
+to light and air; and some even vanished when secluded from those
+agents. It has more than once been recommended as a pigment, but our
+experience is against its adoption by artists. The colour is not
+affected by sulphuretted hydrogen.
+
+96. _Chica Red_
+
+Is extracted from the leaves of a tree growing in central and southern
+America. A sample examined by Mr. O'Neill was in small irregular lumps,
+of a bright scarlet colour, adherent to the tongue like indigo, and
+taking a metallic polish of a greenish reflection, when rubbed against a
+hard smooth body, as the finger nail. So far it seems to be only
+employed by the Indians as a paint for their bodies, mixed up with fatty
+matters. It has doubtless been used in painting: for in the old churches
+of those parts of America there is a good deal of red colour, which
+remains brilliant and sound after a couple of centuries; and from the
+appearance of it, and such accounts as can be collected, it is probably
+this chica. A portion was forwarded to an eminent artist in England, to
+ascertain whether it would be of any value as a pigment in the fine
+arts. His report is stated to have been unfavourable; and the chica,
+contained in a gourd labelled "Chica d'Andiguez," was then tested as to
+its capabilities for dyeing and printing. Fine and durable reds were
+found to be produced by it upon woollen, equal to those of cochineal. To
+mordanted calico the shades imparted were dull and heavy, but very
+solid. Chica is described as a very strong colouring matter, a small
+quantity dyeing a large amount of cloth, and as more nearly resembling
+lac lake than anything else.
+
+No information existing as to its price, or the quantity that could be
+obtained if it were wanted, chica remains in the state of an unapplied
+product. If it really possess, however, the durability assigned to it,
+this red is worth attention. With regard to the artist's disapproval,
+the chica sent him may not have been properly or sufficiently prepared
+to adapt it for a pigment.
+
+97. _Coal-Tar Colours._
+
+Our work might be considered incomplete without some allusion to the
+coal-tar colours, even though they are rather dyes than pigments, not
+possessing sufficient stability for the palette. To avoid repeated
+reference, we have preferred grouping them in this chapter, irrespective
+of hue. Consequently, yellow, red, blue, orange, green, purple, brown,
+and black, will be all comprised under the heading of coal-tar colours.
+
+Previous to the year 1856 the colouring matters derived from coal-tar
+were practically unknown. Until then, that black evil-smelling substance
+was looked upon as almost worthless; but gradually the unsightly grub
+emerged into a beautiful butterfly, clothed first in mauve and next in
+magenta. After its long winter of neglect, there sprung from coal-tar
+the most vivid and varied hues, like flowers from the earth at spring.
+At a touch of the fairy wand of science, the waste land became a garden
+of tropic tints, and colour succeeded colour, until the whole gamut had
+been gone through. Never was transformation more dazzling or more
+complete. The once despised refuse was now a valued commercial
+product--indeed a trade in itself. Perfectly fascinated by the study,
+chemists threw themselves heart and soul into coal-tar, and coal-tar
+colours were to be seen everywhere.
+
+It were beside our purpose to enter into the various stages through
+which coal has to pass to become colour. Enough to state that to the
+introduction of gas-light we are indebted for the acquisition of
+coal-tar colours, the starting point for the production of mauve,
+magenta, &c., being the manufacture of coal-gas. From the destructive
+distillation of coal, coal-tar oil results; and from this are obtained
+the products which yield the colours in question. Among these products
+may be mentioned aniline, rosaniline, napthaline, chinoline, carbolic
+acid, picric acid, &c., with their derivatives.
+
+Of the fifty-one compounds furnished by the distillation of coal,
+perhaps the most popularly associated with coal-tar colours is aniline,
+to which we will therefore confine ourselves. Discovered in 1826, this
+body was formerly prepared from indigo--in Spanish, _anil_, whence the
+name; but is now produced on a larger scale from benzol, a coal-tar
+product. As the source of mauve and magenta, aniline must be considered
+the parent of coal-tar colours generally. Little was known of it at one
+time except that on being mixed with a solution of chloride of lime
+there was formed a splendid purple liquid, which immediately gave place
+to a dingy reddish precipitate. From the investigation of this simple
+fact, however, by Mr. W. Perkin, there was created a new and important
+branch of chemical industry--the manufacture of coal-tar colours. The
+violet mauve led the way, followed by the red magenta, the blue azuline,
+the yellow phosphine, the green emeraldine, the orange aurine, by
+purple, and brown, and black. Such were the hues, with many intermediate
+tints and shades, which one reaction brought forth. The world rubbed its
+eyes with astonishment; and truly it seemed almost as wonderful to
+produce the colours of the rainbow from a lump of coal, as to extract
+sunshine from cucumbers.
+
+The history of these colours reads more like a romance than a sober
+story, but to the artist it is of slight practical interest.
+Sufficiently stable as dyes, though they be, coal-tar colours are not
+adapted to the palette. Mauve, magenta, with a few others, hare been
+introduced as pigments and fairly tried, but a want of permanence has
+been fatal to their success. Mauve is more durable than magenta, and the
+rest vary in stability, but none of them have proved really fitted for
+artists' colours. Exposed to light and air, they all more or less fade,
+especially in thin washes; and they have mostly the objection of
+staining and permeating the paper or canvas on which they are employed.
+Used in body, some may be found eligible in portfolio illuminations and
+the like, where the brilliancy of their colours shows to advantage; but
+in landscapes and pictures of life, coal-tar pigments are best avoided.
+
+Cakes of red, blue, violet, and other hues, may be prepared for
+painting, by combining the colours with a mixture of starch and alumina,
+or with soap and alumina in a moist state--thus: 150 parts of white curd
+soap, dissolved in 1000 parts of hot water, are mixed with an alcoholic
+or a methylated spirit solution of six parts of the crystallized or
+solid coal-tar colour. To this are added 250 parts by weight of washed
+gelatinous alumina. The whole is then well stirred, collected on a
+filter, drained, and dried. Several hues, tints, and shades may be
+obtained by compounding: for instance, an orange is produced on
+admixture of picric yellow with aniline red, or a green by adding the
+same yellow to aniline blue.
+
+98. _Cobalt Reds._
+
+There are obtainable from cobalt by different processes rose and red
+colours of more or less beauty and intensity, but all vastly inferior to
+those of madder, in whose absence alone they could gain a place on the
+palette. Durable as a rule, they are in general characterized by a fatal
+chalkiness, and poorness of hue. More expensive than the madder colours,
+and without their purity, delicacy, depth, or transparency, cobalt reds
+have often been offered as pigments, and as often declined. A colour may
+be good in itself, but if there is something better and at the same time
+cheaper, its introduction into commerce is out of the question.
+
+99. _Copper Reds._
+
+A somewhat finely coloured red oxide is produced by exposing to a white
+heat for twenty minutes, a mixture of certain proportions of blue
+vitriol, mono-carbonate of soda, and copper filings. The product,
+however, is affected by impure air, and is otherwise not so desirable as
+an iron oxide.
+
+An interesting account has lately been given by Professor Church of a
+new animal pigment, containing copper, found in the feathers of the
+violet plantain-eater and two species of Turacus, natives respectively
+of the Gold Coast, the Cape, and Natal. _Turacine_, the name proposed
+for it, is noticed here only because it is the first animal or vegetable
+pigment, with copper as an essential element, which has been hitherto
+isolated. The colour is extracted by solution in an alkali, and
+precipitation by an acid, and is changed on long exposure to air and
+moisture to a green hue. As the entire plumage of a bird yields not more
+than three grains of pigment, turacine must be looked upon as a mere
+curiosity.
+
+100. _Ferrate of Baryta_,
+
+Produced by adding aqueous ferrate of potash to an excess of dilute
+solutions of baryta salts, has been described as carmine-coloured and
+permanent. We have not found it to be so--an experience which has
+evidently not been confined to ourselves; and we cannot help thinking
+that this is one of those errors which get copied from one chemical work
+into another, to the special confusion of students. It is but fair,
+however, to add that in Mr. Watts' Dictionary of Chemistry, the latest
+and best work of the kind, this ferrate is said to become "brick-red
+after washing and drying at 100 deg. C.," and to be only "tolerably stable."
+
+101. _Gold Reds._
+
+Many organic substances added to gold solutions throw down either the
+metallic gold or the red oxide, which then unites with the organic
+compound more or less decomposed and forms a red precipitate. Sugar,
+gum, the decoctions of cochineal, gamboge, fustic, turmeric, sumach,
+catechu, and Brazil wood, all afford red pulverulent colours. Boiled
+with sugar, gold solution gives first a light and then a dark red.
+Whatever their merits, the excessive costliness of these preparations
+renders them inadmissible as pigments. At one time, indeed, a gold
+compound known as purple of Cassius was so employed, but this soon
+became obsolete on the introduction of madder purple.
+
+102. _Iodine Pink._
+
+There may be obtained from iodine and mercury a very pretty pink colour,
+analogous in composition to pure scarlet. It is apt to pass into the
+scarlet modification, and is in other respects even less to be depended
+on than that variety.
+
+103. _Kermes Lake_
+
+Is an ancient pigment, perhaps the earliest of the European lakes, and
+so called from the Arabic Alkermes. It is sometimes spelt _cermes_,
+whence probably cermosin and crimson, and kermine and carmine. In old
+books it is named vermilion, in allusion to the insect, or _vermes_,
+from which it is prepared. This insect is the "coccus ilicis," which
+feeds upon the leaves of the prickly oak in the south of Europe. Like
+the "coccus cacti," it is covered with a whitish dust, and yields a
+tinctorial matter soluble in water and alcohol. Kermes and the lac of
+India doubtless afforded the lakes of the Venetians, and appear to have
+been used by the earliest painters in oil of the school of Van Eyck. The
+former, under the appellation [Greek: kurno kokino], is said to be
+employed by the modern Greeks for dyeing their caps red.
+
+Some old specimens of this pigment which the author obtained were in
+drops of a powdery texture and crimson colour, warmer than cochineal
+lakes, and having less body and brilliancy. They worked well, however,
+and withstood the action of light better than the latter, though the sun
+ultimately discoloured and destroyed them. In other respects, they
+resembled the lakes of cochineal. As a colouring matter, kermes is only
+about one-twelfth part as powerful as that substance.
+
+104. _Lawson's Red._
+
+In 1861 it was stated that Professor Lawson had prepared a new dye of
+great richness, in the laboratory of Queen's College, Canada, from an
+insect, a species of coccus, found the previous summer for the first
+time on a tree of the common black spruce (_Abies nigra_), in the
+neighbourhood of Kingston. Having been but recently observed, a
+sufficient quantity had not been obtained for a complete series of
+experiments as to its nature and uses; but the habits of the insect, as
+well as the properties of the dye, seemed to indicate that it might
+become of practical importance. In colour it closely resembled ordinary
+cochineal, but was rather more scarlet in hue. It was described as
+capable of being produced in temperate countries. The colouring matter
+had not then been thrown upon a base, nor do we know that it has since
+been introduced as a pigment. If it possessed greater stability than
+cochineal, with equal brilliancy and depth, this dye might form one of
+those colours of the future, to whose possible sources we would direct
+attention.
+
+105. _Manganese Red._
+
+Bisulphide of arsenic combines with basic metallic sulphides forming a
+class of sulphur-salts, called by Berzelius, hyposulpharsenites. The
+hyposulpharsenite of manganese is a dark red precipitate, uninjured by
+sulphuretted hydrogen, and so far applicable as a pigment. Containing
+arsenic, it would of course be poisonous; and would probably be found to
+fade on exposure to air and light.
+
+106. _Murexide._
+
+The red obtained from this substance created a great deal of interest
+among printers and dyers on its introduction in 1857, or thereabouts.
+For purity and brilliancy of shade it was not excelled by any other
+colour, but not being able to stand the effects of air and light, its
+employment was limited. We are not aware that murexide has yet been
+brought forward as a pigment, and judging from its character as a dye,
+it would scarcely enrich the palette. Dyes and pigments have much in
+common, and a fugitive dye cannot be expected to furnish a permanent
+pigment.
+
+Murexide is produced by the action of ammonia on alloxan, which is
+itself derived from the uric acid of guano by treatment with nitric
+acid, and was known nearly forty years back to stain the fingers and
+nails red. The first murexide sent into the market was a reddish-purple
+powder, dissolving in water with a fine purple tint, leaving a little
+residue undissolved. Owing to improvements in manufacture, it is now
+capable of being prepared almost chemically pure, and with that green
+metallic reflection peculiar to several coal-tar salts and the wings of
+certain insects. When sulphuretted hydrogen is passed through a
+concentrated solution of murexide, it is immediately decoloured; a fact
+which renders it likely that murexide pigments would be as liable to
+suffer from an impure atmosphere, as from exposure to light and air.
+
+When an alkaline solution of murexide is precipitated by an acid, a
+light shining powder results, called purpuric acid. This dissolves in
+alkalies, and combines with metalline bases to form various coloured
+compounds, termed _Purpurates_. Among them may be mentioned a red
+purpurate of lead, a purple-red and a rose-coloured purpurate of
+mercury, a purple-red purpurate of silver, a dark red-brown purpurate of
+strontia, a crystalline red purpurate of cobalt, a scarlet purpurate of
+platinum, a yellow purpurate of zinc, and a green purpurate of baryta.
+All of these, however, being more or less soluble in water, and owing
+their colours to murexide, would be ill adapted for pigments.
+
+107. _Paille de Mil,_
+
+Or African Cochineal, is a substance obtained from Africa. Whether it
+has received its name of cochineal from its appearance or origin is not
+clear, but it behaves more like galls and sumac than cochineal, though
+it does give a kind of red with alumina mordants. The colours it yields
+are deficient in brightness, and it has otherwise been reported
+unfavourably of.
+
+108. _Peganum Harmala,_
+
+The seeds of which afford a red colour, has been investigated by the
+French, but described as inferior to existing reds both in brilliancy
+and stability.
+
+109. _Persulphomolybdates._
+
+The metallic compounds formed by the combination of persulphomolybdic
+acid with a base are pulverulent, in many cases of a red colour, and for
+the most part insoluble in water. With barium, the acid furnishes a
+yellowish-red powder, insoluble in, but made denser by water, which
+imparts to it a cinnabar colour. With calcium it is said to yield a
+scarlet, sparingly soluble in water. With chromium, uranium, lead,
+platinum, and copper, it gives a dark red; that from the last metal
+turning brown when collected on a filter. It likewise produces reds with
+zinc, cadmium, iron, mercury, and tin; of which the last is slightly
+soluble in water.
+
+Molybdenum being a rare metal, and persulphomolybdate of potash, the
+salt used in the foregoing reactions, difficult to prepare, it is
+unlikely that the colours named will rank among the pigments of this
+generation. Nevertheless, as we have observed before, such fancy
+products should not be altogether ignored, it being quite as well to
+have some knowledge of our resources, even though those resources be not
+at present available. All the rare metals afford coloured compounds:
+tantalum, niobium, pelopium, vanadium, tellurium, titanium, yttrium,
+lanthanum, didymium, glucinum, cerium, thorinum, zirconium, palladium,
+rhodium, iridium, ruthenium, osmium, indium, thallium, &c.; and it is
+just possible that some of these may one day scrape acquaintance with
+the palette.
+
+110. _Red Chalk_,
+
+The colouring matter of which is sesquioxide of iron, is used as a
+crayon. Some specimens are excessively hard, so much so that they are
+difficult to crush, even in an iron mortar; while others have the
+consistence of the softest iron-ochres. They vary too in tint from a
+fawn colour to the softest brick-red, occasionally being almost as
+bright as a mixture of equal weights of vermilion and Venetian red. The
+amount of iron oxide present has been found to range from four to
+thirty-seven per cent, according to the depth and hardness of the
+samples. When a specimen of red chalk tolerably rich, but not too rich,
+in iron oxide is finely powdered and strongly ignited, it offers a
+remarkable change of colour, becoming a dull sage-green. Perhaps this,
+if it were permanent, might prove useful in foliage tints.
+
+111. _Red Precipitate_,
+
+Or mercuric oxide, may be obtained either of a brick-red or
+orange-yellow colour. It is destroyed by impure air, and on exposure to
+sunshine gradually turns black, being superficially decomposed into
+oxygen and metallic mercury or mercurous oxide.
+
+112. _Rose Pink_
+
+Is a coarse kind of lake, produced by dyeing chalk or whitening with
+decoction of Brazil wood, peachwood, sapan, bar, camwood, &c. It is a
+pigment much used by paper-stainers, and in the commonest distemper
+painting, &c., but is too perishable to merit the attention of the
+artist.
+
+Chevreul obtained a crystalline substance from Brazil wood, which he
+looked upon as the pure colouring matter, or as containing the pure
+colouring matter, and which gave red and crimson precipitates with many
+salts. Possibly some of these might prove more durable than the roughly
+made rose pink.
+
+113. _Rouge_,
+
+The rouge vegetale of the French, is a species of carmine, prepared
+from safflower or carthamus, which is the flower of a plant growing in
+the north of Africa, India, and other warm climates. Safflower yields
+two colours--a valueless yellow which dissolves in cold water, and about
+five per cent of red, insoluble in water but dissolved by alkalies. The
+red, or carthamin, furnishes a pigment of exquisite beauty, marked by
+richness, transparency, and free working. Its extreme fugacity, however,
+militates against its employment by artists. As a dye, its manner of
+fixing upon fibre is different from that of any other colouring matter;
+requiring no mordant, like madder or cochineal, and needing no solution,
+like indigo or anotta, but fixing at once as soon as the cloth is
+brought into contact with it. But even for a dye the colour is fugitive,
+fading after a few hours' exposure to sunshine, and sometimes being
+quite bleached in the course of a day. It is when combined with
+levigated talc to form the paint of the toilette that the red becomes
+most serviceable. Possessing a peculiar softness and velvety glow, rouge
+is an unrivalled--and a most harmless--aid to beauty.
+
+_Chinese Rouge_ and _Pink Saucers_ have much of the qualities of, and
+appear to be also prepared from, the safflower.
+
+114. _Rufigallic Red._
+
+When a duly proportioned mixture of gallic acid and oil of vitriol is
+carefully and gradually heated to 140 deg., a viscid wine-red liquid
+results. If this be poured into cold water, after cooling, a heavy
+brown-red granular precipitate is formed, soluble in 3333 parts of
+boiling water. It dissolves in potash-ley, and to fabrics impregnated
+with alum or iron mordants, imparts the same shades of colour as madder;
+the colours so produced withstanding soap but not chlorine.
+
+Whether brilliant lakes could be obtained from the potash solution of
+the red, and whether those reds would be stable, it might be worth while
+to ascertain.
+
+115. _Sandal Red._
+
+We have kept this separate from other reds derived from woods, because
+it is said (by Professor H. Dussance) to be obtainable not only equal in
+beauty and brightness to carmine, but of greater permanence. The process
+of preparation is as follows:--The powdered root exhausted by alcohol
+gives a solution to which hydrated oxide of lead is added in excess. The
+combination of colouring matter and lead oxide is then collected on a
+filter, washed with alcohol, dried, dissolved in acetic acid, and mixed
+with a quantity of water. The red being insoluble therein is
+precipitated, while the acetate of lead remains dissolved. After being
+washed, the colour is dried at a low temperature. The Professor affirms
+that the red so produced is unaffected by sulphuretted hydrogen, or by
+light and air; and it is stated that the colour which was used to paint
+the carriages of the Emperor Napoleon, remained as bright at the end of
+nine years as when it was put on. Possessing such properties, it is
+curious that the red has never been--in this country at
+least--introduced as an artistic pigment, the more especially as
+seventeen years have elapsed since its discovery.
+
+116. _Silver Red._
+
+By adding monochromate of potash to an acid solution of nitrate of
+silver, a particularly fine ochre-red is obtained. It is, however, apt
+to be injured both by foul air and exposure.
+
+117. _Sorgho Red._
+
+Some nine years back there was found to be a carmine colouring matter in
+most parts of the Chinese sorgho, chiefly in the unpressed stem. The
+red, which is extracted in an impure state, is dissolved in weak
+potash-ley, thrown down by sulphuric acid, and washed with water. This
+purified product, soluble in alcohol, caustic alkalies, and dilute
+acids, has been employed in Austria, Baden, &c., for the dyeing of silks
+and woollens with the common tin mordants. The colours produced from it
+are unchanged, they say, by warm soapsuds or light. We do not know
+whether the red found its way to England, but it has certainly not
+appeared here as a pigment.
+
+118. _Thallium Red._
+
+The orange-yellow precipitate formed by mixing a neutral salt of
+protoxide of thallium with bichromate of potash, is converted by nitric
+acid into an orange-red. The latter compound, which is a terchromate, is
+almost insoluble in cold water, 2814 parts being required to dissolve
+it. If the colour be boiled in a large excess of moderately strong
+nitric acid it is dissolved, yielding magnificent cinnabar red crystals
+on the solution cooling. These crystals likewise seem to be the
+terchromate.
+
+119. _Tin Pink._
+
+By igniting strongly for some hours a mixture of stannic oxide, chalk,
+chromate of potash, and a little silica and alumina, a dingy red mass is
+obtained, which acquires a beautiful rose-red colour on being washed
+with water containing hydrochloric acid. For the same reason that the
+pinks of cobalt are superfluous as artistic pigments, this tin product
+is commercially ineligible. Having, however, the advantage of being
+cheap, and being probably durable, it would be well adapted for the
+common purposes of painting, in place of the fugitive rose pink.
+
+120. _Ultramarine Red?_
+
+In Gmelin's Handbook of Chemistry it is remarked that "Hydrogen gas
+passed over ignited ultramarine, colours it light red, from formation of
+liver of sulphur, hydrosulphuric acid gas and water being evolved at the
+same time." On most carefully making the experiment with a sample of
+native blue (the variety referred to) we did not succeed in effecting
+this change: no alteration to red or even to purple took place, the only
+result being that the colour was entirely spoilt, having assumed a
+leaden slate-gray hue. At our request, the trial was kindly repeated by
+well-known chemists, who took every precaution to ensure success.
+Several specimens of ultramarine were acted upon, but in no case was a
+red or anything like a red obtained, the products ranging from a
+slate-gray to a drab-grey. Sufficient hydrosulphuric acid gas was
+evolved to blacken paper moistened with acetate of lead, a fact which
+proved that the blue had lost some of its sulphur. Seeing that not only
+no red was produced, but that no tendency to red was imparted, is it
+possible the change described by Gmelin occurred under exceptional
+circumstances? All conversant with chemical matters will admit that
+results are obtained occasionally which cannot be repeated, owing it may
+be to some slight difference in the materials employed, or some slight
+variation of the process. Perhaps a link, considered of no importance
+at the time and overlooked, has been lost, and thus the whole chain of
+proceeding becomes useless. It is, therefore, within the bounds of
+probability that the red ultramarine of the great German chemist was
+furnished either by a peculiar specimen of blue, or by a modified form
+of the method he gives. We have noticed the subject at some length
+because if a red ultramarine, brilliant and durable, could be obtained,
+the colour might prove of value. A permanent artificial compound
+corresponding to French blue would certainly be an acquisition.
+
+121. _Uranium Red._
+
+By treating the yellow sulphite of uranium with a prolonged current of
+sulphuretted hydrogen, and saturating gradually with ammonia, a red
+finally results. This colour is insoluble in water, and it has the
+objection of remaining partially suspended for an almost indefinite
+time, colouring the liquid light red. The product is brighter and more
+beautiful while moist; when dried and powdered, its tone--slightly
+approaching vermilion--is duller. The colour may be obtained of several
+degrees of brilliancy, but, apart from the question of expense, it would
+be inadmissible in oil, the red gradually altering by contact therewith.
+The most persistent tint at length resembles burnt Sienna.
+
+122. _Wongshy Red._
+
+There was imported a few years ago from Batavia a new colouring
+principle, under the name of _wongshy_, and consisting of the
+seed-capsule of a species of gentian. The aqueous extract, freed from
+the pectin which it contains, yields with baryta- and lime-water yellow
+precipitates, from which acids separate the colouring matter of a
+vermilion hue. When thus prepared it is insoluble in water, and would so
+far be adapted for a pigment. The red has not, however, been employed as
+such, and we are unacquainted with its habitudes.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The concluding remarks appended to the chapter on yellow apply equally
+to red, and indeed to all other colours. It is not assumed that the list
+is exhausted: there are other reds, but they are, like some we have
+mentioned, ineligible as pigments, either by reason of their fugacity,
+their costliness, the difficulty of producing them on a scale, or the
+sources whence they are derived being commercially unavailable. While
+endeavouring throughout the work to render complete the collection of
+pigments actually in use, it is our object to give a selection only of
+numbered italicised colours; ample enough, however, to include those
+which have become obsolete or nearly so, and full enough to afford some
+insight into our resources. The nearer we approach perfection, the more
+eager we are to arrive at it: the path before us, therefore, cannot fail
+to be of interest.
+
+Looking back, and noting those pigments commonly employed, we find that
+the reds like the yellows are divisible into three classes--the good,
+bad, and indifferent; or the permanent, the semi-stable, and the
+fugitive.
+
+Among permanent reds, rank cadmium red, madder reds, Mars red, the
+ochres, and vermilions.
+
+In the second or semi-stable class, must be placed cochineal lakes,
+Indian lake, and red chrome.
+
+To the third division, or the fugitive, belong dragon's blood, pure
+scarlet, red lead, and the coal-tar reds.
+
+With regard to the foregoing classification, it must be borne in mind
+that the properties and effects of pigments are much influenced by
+adventitious circumstances. Sometimes pigments are varied or altogether
+changed by the grounds on which they are employed, the vehicles in which
+they are used, the siccatives and colours with which they are mixed, and
+the varnishes by which they are covered. And as there is no exact and
+constant agreement in different specimens of like pigments, so there is
+no exact and constant result in their use. Artists vary as much as the
+pigments they employ: some resemble the old masters in the delicacy with
+which they treat their colours, the cleanliness with which they surround
+them, and the care with which they compound them: in the hands of such
+artists pigments have every chance. Some, however, are characterized by
+a careless manipulation, a dirty mode of working, an utter disregard for
+all rules of admixture: with such painters the best colours may be
+ruined. And here, indeed, it may be asked, whether these latter are not
+more properly termed painters than artists, chiefly belonging as they do
+to that slap-dash school which manufactures pictures simply to sell
+them. Duly subordinated, the commercial side of art has a value which it
+were affectation to ignore; but to paint merely for the present,
+heedless of the future, is to sink art to the level of a trade, not the
+most honest. For it is the purchaser who suffers from the want of
+thought bestowed on the materials, the sloppy manipulation, the careless
+compounding; sins of omission and commission that cause him, on finding
+his picture becoming chaos, to join the detractors of modern pigments.
+In classifying colours therefore, those also should be classified who
+use them:--into artists, whose love for art would render it more lasting
+than themselves; and into painters, whose motto is _Vita brevis est, Ars
+quoque_.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+ON THE PRIMARY, BLUE.
+
+
+The third and last of the primary or simple colours is _blue_, which
+bears the same relation to shade as yellow to light. Hence it is the
+most retiring and diffusive of all colours, except purple and black; and
+all colours have the power of throwing it back in painting, to a greater
+or less extent, in proportion to the intimacy of their relations to
+light--first white, then yellow, orange, red, &c.
+
+Blue alone possesses entirely the quality technically called 'coldness'
+in colouring, and it communicates this property variously to all other
+colours with which it happens to be compounded. Most powerful in a
+strong light, it seems to become neutral and pale in a declining light,
+owing to its ruling affinity with black or shade, and its power of
+absorbing light. Consequently, the eye of the artist is liable to be
+deceived when painting with blue in too low a light, or toward the close
+of day, to the endangering of the warmth and harmony of his picture.
+Entering into combination with yellow in the composition of all
+_greens_, and with red in all _purples_, blue characterizes the tertiary
+_olive_, and is also the prime colour or archeus of the neutral _black_,
+&c., as well as of the semi-neutral _gray_, &c.: it therefore is changed
+in hue less than any other colour by mixture with black, as it is
+likewise by distance. Blue is present subordinately in all tertiary and
+broken colours, and being nearest in the scale to black, breaks and
+contrasts powerfully and agreeably with white, as in pale blues, skies,
+&c. Being less active than the other primaries in reflecting light, it
+is sooner lost as a local colour by assimilation with distance. There is
+an ancient doctrine that the azure of the sky is a compound of light and
+darkness, and some have argued hence that blue is not a primary colour,
+but a mixture of black and white; but pure or _neutral_ black and white
+compound in infinite shades, all of which are neutral also, or _grey_.
+It is true that a mixture of black and white is of a _cool_ hue, because
+black is not a primary colour, but a compound of the three primary
+colours in which blue predominates, a predominance which is rendered
+more sensible when black is diluted with white. As to the colour of the
+sky, in which light and shade are combined, that is likewise neutral,
+and never blue except by contrast; thus, the more the light of the sun
+partakes of a golden or orange hue, and the more parched and burnt the
+earth is, the bluer appears the sky, as in Italy and all hot countries.
+In England, where the sun is cooler, and a perpetual verdure reigns,
+infusing blue latently into the landscape, the sky is warmer and nearer
+to neutrality, partaking of a diversity of greys, which beautifully
+melodize with blue as their key, and harmonize with the light and
+landscape. Therefore the colour of the sky is always a contrast to the
+direct and reflected light of the scene: if this light were of a rose
+colour, the neutral of the sky would be converted into green, or if
+purple, the sky would become yellow. Similarly would it be in all cases,
+according to the laws of chromatic equivalence and contrast, as may be
+often seen in the openings of coloured clouds at the rising and setting
+of the sun.
+
+In art, blue is apt to be discordant in juxtaposition with green, and
+less so with purple, both which are cool colours; consequently blue
+requires its contrast, _orange_, in equal proportion whether of surface
+or intensity, to compensate or resolve its dissonances and correct its
+coldness. In nature, however, blue is not discordant with either green
+or purple, nor are any two colours (as we have said before) ever found
+so. On the palette of nature each _colour_ is an example of _colouring_:
+no colour is too absolute or defined, no perfectly pure blue appears
+beside a perfectly pure green. A blue flower nestled in its green leaves
+does not offend the nicest eye, but the blue and green are not blue and
+green alone. There is, perhaps, but a single gleam of pure colour in
+each: the rest is composed of such varied hues and tints and shades, so
+broken and blended and beautifully harmonized, that no jarring discord
+is possible. Hue melts into hue, tint into tint, shade into shade; and
+thus does the simplest weed teach a lesson in colouring the proudest
+painter may stoop to learn.
+
+We have spoken of blue, which is termed a cold colour, as retiring; and
+of yellow and red, which are called warm colours, as advancing. By this
+we must not be understood to mean that blue, as blue, expresses
+distance; or that yellow and red, as yellow and red, express nearness.
+Colours are advancing or retiring in their _quality_--as depth,
+delicacy, &c., not in their hue. A blue object set side-by-side a yellow
+one will not look an inch farther off, but a red or orange cloud, in the
+upper sky, will always seem to be beyond a blue cloud close to us, as it
+is in reality. We grant that in certain objects, blue is a _sign_ of
+distance, but that is not because blue, as a mere colour, is retiring;
+but because the mist in the air is blue, and therefore any warm colour
+which has not strength of light enough to pierce the mist is lost or
+subdued in its blue. Blue in itself, however, is no more, on this
+account, retiring, than brown is retiring, because when stones are seen
+through brown water, the deeper they lie, the browner they appear.
+Neither blue nor yellow nor red possesses, as such, the smallest power
+of expressing either nearness or distance; they merely express
+themselves under the peculiar circumstances which render them at the
+moment, or in that place, signs of nearness or distance. Thus, purple in
+a violet is a sign of nearness, because the closer it is looked at the
+more purple is seen; but purple in a mountain is a sign of distance,
+because a mountain close at hand is not purple, but green or grey. It
+may, indeed, be generally assumed that a tender or pale colour will more
+or less denote distance, and a powerful or dark colour nearness; but
+even this is not always so. Heathery hills will usually give a pale and
+tender purple near, and an intense or dark purple far away: the rose
+colour of sunset on snow is pale on the snow at one's feet, but deep and
+full on the snow in the distance; and the green of a Swiss lake is pale
+in the clear waves on the beach, but intense as an emerald in the
+sunstreak, six miles from shore. And in any case, when the foreground is
+in strong light, with much water about it or white surface, casting
+intense reflections, all its colours may be perfectly delicate, pale,
+and faint; while the distance, when it is in shadow, may relieve the
+whole foreground with deepest shades of purple, blue green, or
+ultramarine blue.
+
+There is one law, however, about distance, which has some claims to be
+considered constant, namely, that dulness and heaviness of colour are
+more or less indicative of nearness. All distant colour is pure colour:
+it may not be bright, but it is clear and lovely, not opaque nor soiled;
+for the air and light coming between us and any earthy or imperfect
+colour, purify or harmonize it; hence a bad colourist is peculiarly
+incapable of expressing distance. It is not of course meant that bad
+colours are to be used in the foreground by way of making it come
+forward; but only that a failure in colour there will not put it out of
+its place. A failure in colour in the distance will at once do away with
+its remoteness; a dull-coloured foreground will still be a foreground,
+though coloured badly; but an ill-painted distance will not be merely a
+dull distance, it will be no distance at all.
+
+This seeming digression is not out of place, as it will enable the
+artist better to understand that it is in their quality, not in their
+hue, that colours are advancing or retiring; and that he must rely on
+the depth, delicacy, &c., of his pigments, and not simply on their
+colours, to produce effects of distance.
+
+Of all colours, except black, blue contrasts white most powerfully. In
+all harmonious combinations of colours, whether of mixture or
+neighbourhood, blue is the natural, prime, or predominating power.
+Accordingly, blue is universally agreeable to the eye in due relation to
+the composition, and may more frequently be repeated therein, pure or
+unbroken, than either of the other primaries; whence the employment of
+ultramarine by some masters throughout the colouring of a picture.
+
+Blue pigments, like blue flowers, are more rare than those of the other
+primary colours. In permanent blues the palette is very deficient, the
+list being exhausted when the native and artificial ultramarines and the
+cobalts have been mentioned. That there is room for new blues, durable
+and distinct, cannot therefore be denied. A good addition has been made
+of late years in the German _Coelin_, known here as Cerulian Blue and
+Coeruleum. What is chiefly wanted, however, is a colour combining the
+wonderful depth, richness, and transparency of Prussian blue with the
+strict stability of ultramarine. A permanent Prussian blue would be the
+most valued gift the palette could receive.
+
+
+COBALT BLUES
+
+comprise _Cerulian Blue_ or _Coeruleum_, _Cobalt Blue_, _Smalt_,
+_Royal Blue_, _Dumont's Blue_, _Saxon Blue_, _Thenard's Blue_,
+_Leithner's Blue_, _Hungary Blue_, _Dutch Ultramarine_, _Zaffre or
+Enamel Blue_, _Vienna Blue_, _Paris Blue_, _Azure_, &c., and are
+obtained by the action of heat on mixtures of earthy or metallic bases
+with cobalt. They are divisible into three classes--the stannic cerulian
+blue, the aluminous cobalt blues, and the siliceous smalts. Of these,
+the first possesses the least depth; the second hold a middle position;
+while the third are marked by exceeding richness. Although not to be
+ranked with ultramarine, the stannic and aluminous blues may be
+described as durable, or at least as durable rather than semi-stable.
+There are, as we have before observed, different degrees of permanence,
+and the blues in question are not readily affected. With regard to
+smalts, they are, as artist's pigments, inferior in stability to other
+blues of cobalt.
+
+123. CERULIAN BLUE,
+
+or _Coeruleum_. Under the name Coelin there has of late years been
+imported from Germany the cobalt blue with a tin base to which reference
+has just been made. This comparatively new pigment--which likewise
+contains or is mixed with gypsum, silica, and sometimes magnesia--has
+the distinctive property of appearing a pure blue by artificial light,
+tending neither to green on the one hand nor to purple on the other.
+This advantage, added to its permanence, has conferred a popularity upon
+coeruleum which its mere colour would scarcely have gained for it. A
+light and pleasing blue, with a greenish-grey cast by day, it possesses
+little depth or richness, and is far excelled in beauty by a good
+aluminous cobalt. A certain chalkiness, moreover, somewhat detracts from
+its transparency, and militates against its use in water. It is in oil,
+and as a night colour, that coeruleum becomes of service, as our
+present system of lighting picture galleries by gas affects the purity
+of blues generally. If those galleries were illuminated by means of the
+electric light, we have it on the authority of Chevreul that all colours
+and shades would show as well as by day: the same purpose would be
+answered by the magnesium light. Some artificial lights are the ruin of
+colours; in the soda flame (alcohol and salt) for instance, yellow
+chromate of lead appears white, while red ochre and aniline blue appear
+black.
+
+Like other blues of cobalt, coeruleum assumes a greenish obscurity in
+time, but like them it resists for a lengthened period both the action
+of light and impure air, although chemically it is more open to the
+influence of the latter, owing to its tin base. In admixture it may
+safely be employed, as well as in fresco or enamel. For stage skies,
+&c., in high-art scenery, the blue is admirably adapted. Now that there
+are so many scene-painters who are artists--and so many artists who are
+scene-painters--in bringing Nature to the foot-lights the effect of gas
+on colours is of importance.
+
+124. COBALT BLUE,
+
+to which the various appellations have been given of _Thenard's Blue_,
+_Vienna Blue_, _Paris Blue_, _Azure_, _Cobalt-Ultramarine_, &c., is the
+name now exclusively confined to that preparation of cobalt which has a
+base of alumina. It may, therefore, be not improperly called a blue
+lake, the colour of which is brought up by fire, in the manner of enamel
+blues. The discovery of this important pigment was made in 1802 by M.
+Thenard, who obtained it by calcining a well-combined mixture of alumina
+and crystals of cobalt. There may be employed with the aluminous base,
+either the arseniate, the borate, or the phosphate of cobalt; but the
+latter in preference, as it produces the purest colour. The arseniate
+has always a violet tinge, more visible by gas-light than by day; while,
+on account of the arsenic, the blue is more apt to be greened by impure
+air, by reason of the formation of yellow sulphide of arsenic. The
+purity of the colour, however, does not altogether depend on the
+compound of cobalt used; in a great measure--as with other pigments--it
+rests on the purity of the materials. To obtain a perfect blue, neither
+inclining to purple nor green, the cobalt and alumina should be freed
+from iron, and the former, as much as possible, from nickel also. With
+the absence of these and proper skill, a true and brilliant blue may be
+produced, almost rivalling the finest ultramarine. Apart, too, from its
+increased beauty, a cobalt blue containing no iron or nickel is of
+greater permanence than the ordinary products, being less liable to that
+greenness and obscurity which time confers.
+
+Though not possessing the body, transparency, and depth of ultramarine,
+nor its natural and modest hue, commercial cobalt blue works better in
+water than that pigment in general does; and is hence an acquisition to
+those who have not the management of the latter. Resisting the action of
+strong light and acids, its beauty declines by time, while impure air
+greens and ultimately blackens it. Nevertheless, these changes are not
+readily effected, especially in well made samples full of colour, and
+sometimes the green tone is mechanically imparted. What wheat is to a
+loaf, colour is to a pigment--it has to be ground and made up for use;
+in the one vehicle to be mixed with gums, in the other with oils. It
+often happens that colours have an antipathy to the latter, and refuse
+to compound kindly therewith. Occasionally this repugnance manifests
+itself in a few days, occasionally not for months. We know of a green
+which flatly declines to have anything to do with oils, sinking and
+separating therefrom in the course of a week, and leaving the clear oil
+on the top. Repeatedly have colours to be coaxed to behave themselves as
+pigments, coaxed not to 'run,' to work well, to dry well, &c.; and in
+the humouring of their likes and dislikes the skill and patience of the
+artist-colourman are sometimes severely taxed. Given a colour, it might
+puzzle most chemists to convert it into a pigment; luckily Commerce
+lends her aid. Lasting success, it is true, does not always follow, and
+oils will rise to the surface now and then, giving green hues to blues,
+orange hues to reds, and buff hues to yellows. Hence changes of colour
+have been imputed before now to chemical alteration, when in reality the
+results have been physical, caused by the subsidence of the pigments,
+and the floating of the vehicles employed.
+
+Cobalt blue dries well in oil, does not injure or suffer injury from
+pigments in general, and may be used with a proper flux in enamel, as
+well as in fresco. It affords clear bright tints in skies and distances,
+but is apt to cause opacity if brought too near the foreground, and to
+assume a violet tinge by artificial light. With madder brown it yields a
+range of fine pearly neutrals; and with light red, in any proportion,
+gives beautiful cloud tints. In combination with aureolin and sepia, or
+rose madder, cobalt furnishes most agreeable and delicate tints for
+distant trees, when under the influence of a soft light, or hazy state
+of the atmosphere. In water-colour painting, cobalt is tolerably firm on
+paper, and consequently answers better for some purposes than French
+blue. In middle distances, if the cobalt possess a tendency to
+chalkiness, the addition of a little indigo is a good corrective,
+especially where the blue tone is required to be sombre and dark: it
+should, however, be observed that the change is but temporary, indigo
+being a fugitive pigment. In marine painting in water-colours, cobalt is
+most useful for the remotest parts of seas and headlands. When dry, it
+can be changed by going over it with a slight wash of vermilion or light
+red, whereby a prismatic character is realized. Any strength of tone can
+be obtained by repeating the washes, and should the colour be too
+powerful, it may be reduced by pouncing it with a soft wet sponge; or if
+too cold and blue, by a thin wash of burnt Sienna, merely the water
+stained.
+
+The blues of cobalt, on whatever base they may be prepared, are
+distinguished from native and artificial ultramarines by not being
+decolorised by acids.
+
+125. SMALT,
+
+Invented about the year 1540, in Saxony, is a vitreous compound of
+cobalt and silica, in fact a blue glass. Since the fifteenth century,
+cobalt has been used in different parts of Europe to tinge glass; and
+so intense is the colouring power of its oxide, that pure white glass is
+rendered sensibly blue by the addition of one thousandth part, while one
+twenty-thousandth part communicates a perceptible azure tint. In common
+with cobalt blue, the name _Azure_ has sometimes been given to it.
+Varying exceedingly in quality and colour, the rougher kinds have been
+employed by the laundress, and in the making of porcelain, pottery,
+stained glass, encaustic tiles, &c.; as well as to cover the yellow
+tinge of paper. For this last purpose, however, smalt is not perfectly
+adapted, the colour being difficult to lay on uniformly, and the paper
+when written on blunting the nibs of pens. Hence it has been superseded
+to a great extent by artificial ultramarine, the presence of which may
+be detected by the yellow spot which a drop of acid leaves on the paper.
+
+A coarse gritty texture is peculiar to smalt, whether it be the _Powder
+Blue_ of the washtub and _Blue Sand_ of the pottery, or the _Dumont's_
+and _Royal Blue_ of the artist and high-class manufacturer. But the
+strict stability which is a feature in smalt when used for painting on
+glass and enamel does not follow it to the studio: both in water and oil
+its beauty soon decays, as is often the case with other vitrified
+pigments; nor is it in other respects eligible, being, notwithstanding
+its richness and depth, very inferior to the cobalts preceding. It may
+seem a paradox that the same colour should be at once so durable and so
+fugitive, but we may briefly explain it by saying _when vitreous
+pigments are reduced to that extreme state of division which the palette
+requires, they lose the properties they possess in a less finely divided
+state_. The best smalt in lumps appears black, yields a blue powder on
+grinding, becomes paler on further grinding, and may be almost
+decolourised by continued and excessive grinding. Smalt, it has been
+stated, is merely a blue glass; and when a piece of blue glass, or a
+blue crystal of sulphate of copper, is reduced to the fineness of flour,
+the blue is lost. In vitrified and crystallised compounds, colour
+depends on cohesion: sufficiently separate the particles, and the colour
+more or less disappears. Not only, moreover, does grinding effect an
+optical change in vitreous pigments, but it imposes further alteration.
+That colour which was safe when locked up in a mass, crushed to minute
+atoms is no longer so: imbedded in glass or enamel it will endure for
+ages, but ground to impalpable powder becomes as liable to influence as
+though it had never been subjected to heat at all. To sum up, vitreous
+pigments are durable in a coarse or compact form, but are not more
+stable than others when reduced to extreme division. As far as regards
+artists' colours, therefore, vitrification does _not_ impart
+permanence.
+
+The grittiness to which we have referred is one of the defects of smalt,
+which cannot, consistently with preserving its colour be entirely freed
+from that drawback--an objection which pertains to vitreous pigments in
+general. Hence it does not wash well, and in mural decoration is
+sometimes applied to work by strewing the dry powdered colour upon a
+flat ground of white or blue oil paint immediately after the latter is
+laid on, whilst it yet remains wet. Of little body, it is a vivid and
+gorgeous blue; bright, deep, and transparent, bordering on the violet
+hue. It is chiefly employed in illumination and flower painting. The
+inferior kinds of smalt are occasionally adulterated with chalk.
+
+126. CYANINE.
+
+Beckmann is fully convinced that the _cyanus_ of Theophrastus and the
+_coeruleum_ of Pliny were a blue copper earth. However that may be, in
+these days both names signify cobalt compounds, coeruleum being a
+stannate of cobalt, and cyanine a mixture of cobalt and Prussian blue.
+Unlike the former, cyanine, being composed of two old colours, can lay
+no claim to originality. In the fourth chapter it was observed, "it is
+quite possible for the artist to multiply his pigments unnecessarily.
+Colours are sometimes brought out under new names which have no claim to
+be regarded as new colours, being, indeed, mere mixtures. Compound
+pigments like these may most frequently be dispensed with, in favour of
+hues and tints composed extemporaneously of original colours upon the
+palette." Whether these remarks are applicable to cyanine or not is a
+question for artists to decide: in our opinion, with so many semi-stable
+original pigments, the introduction of semi-stable compounds is to be
+deprecated. Cyanine is a rich, deep, transparent blue, but its richness
+and depth, as well as to a great extent its transparency, depend upon
+Prussian blue, which is not strictly stable. Hence the peculiar
+properties of cyanine remain unchanged only so long as the Prussian blue
+itself, the pigment losing its colour by degrees on exposure to air and
+light, and gradually assuming the tint of the paler but more permanent
+cobalt. A mixture, be it remembered, necessarily partakes of the
+qualities of its constituents, and if one of these be fugitive, the
+compound cannot preserve its original hue.
+
+Within the last few years, a compound similar to cyanine has appeared,
+under the name of _Leitch's Blue_.
+
+127. INDIGO,
+
+or _Indian Blue_, was known to the ancients under the name of _Indicum_,
+whence its present appellation. In modern Europe, it first came into
+extensive use in Italy; but about the middle of the sixteenth century,
+the Dutch began to import and employ it in considerable quantity.
+Present in the woad plant, which is a native of Great Britain, indigo is
+chiefly derived from a genus of leguminous plants called _Indigofera_,
+found in India, Africa, and America. The colouring matter of these is
+wholly in the cellular tissue of the leaves, as a secretion or juice;
+not, however, in the blue state in which one is accustomed to see
+indigo, but as a colourless substance, which continues white only so
+long as the tissue of the leaf remains perfect: when this is by any
+means destroyed, oxygen is absorbed from the atmosphere, and the
+principle becomes blue. The best indigo is so light as to swim upon
+water, but the commercial article seldom contains more than 50 per cent.
+of blue colouring matter or true indigo, the remainder consisting of
+either accidental or intentional impurities.
+
+In painting, indigo is not nearly so bright as Prussian blue, but it is
+extremely powerful and transparent, and may be described as a Prussian
+blue in mourning. Of great body, it glazes and works well both in water
+and oil. Its relative permanence as a dye has obtained it a false
+character of extreme durability as a pigment, a quality in which it is
+nevertheless very inferior even to Prussian blue. By impure air it is
+injured, and in glazing some specimens are firmer than others, but not
+durable; while in tint with white lead they are all fugitive. Employed
+in considerable body in shadow, it is more permanent, but in all
+respects Prussian blue is superior.
+
+Despite this want of stability, indigo is a favourite colour with many
+artists, who sacrifice by its use future permanence to present effect.
+It is so serviceable a pigment for so many purposes, especially in
+admixture, that its sin of fugacity is overlooked. Hence we find indigo
+constantly mentioned in works on painting, their authors forgetting or
+not caring to remember that wholesome axiom, a fugitive colour is not
+rendered durable by being compounded. Artistically, it is adapted for
+moonlights, and when mixed with a little lamp black, is well suited for
+night clouds, distant cliffs, &c. With a little raw umber and madder it
+is used for water in night effects. With the addition of a little madder
+it forms a good gray; and with madder and burnt Sienna is useful for
+dark rocks, this combination, with raw Sienna, being also eligible for
+boats. For these and other mixed tints, however, Prussian blue saddened
+by black with a suspicion of green in it, is equally fitted, and is more
+permanent. Indeed, it would be perhaps justifiable to introduce such a
+compound, under the name say, of Factitious Indigo.
+
+Indigo in dust, or in small bits, is often adulterated with sand,
+pulverized slate, and other earthy substances. That indigo is best which
+is lightest, brightest, most copper-coloured, most fine-grained, and
+inodorous.
+
+128. INTENSE BLUE
+
+is indigo refined by solution and precipitation. By this process, indigo
+becomes more durable, and, being separated from impurities, is rendered
+much more powerful, transparent, and deep. It washes and works admirably
+in water; in other respects it possesses the common properties of
+indigo. It is apt, however, to penetrate the paper on which it is
+employed, if not well freed by washing from the acid and saline matter
+used in its preparation. This is not always easily effected, and we
+cannot help thinking that in the manufacture of intense blue a dry
+method would be preferable. Indigo may, by cautious management, be
+volatilized, and therefore be most thoroughly purified without the aid
+of acids and alkalies. The best mode of subliming this substance is to
+mix one part of indigo with two parts of plaster of Paris, make the
+whole into a paste with water, spread it upon an iron plate, and, when
+quite dry, heat it by a spirit lamp. The volatilization of the indigo
+is aided by the vapour of water disengaged from the gypsum, and the
+surface of the mass becomes covered with beautiful crystals of pure
+indigo, which may be readily removed by a thin spatula. At a higher
+temperature, charring and decomposition take place.
+
+129. PRUSSIAN BLUE,
+
+otherwise called _Berlin Blue_, _Paris Blue_, _Prussiate of Iron_,
+_Ferrocyanide of Iron_, &c., was accidentally discovered in 1710 by
+Diesbach, a colour-maker at Berlin. It is a compound of iron and
+cyanogen, of varying composition, formed by adding yellow prussiate of
+potash to a persalt of iron, or by oxidizing the precipitate obtained
+from the prussiate and a protosalt. The finest blue is furnished by
+sesquinitrate of iron, but the salt almost exclusively employed is the
+protosulphate, the freedom of which from copper is essential to the
+colour of the blue. As is the case with other pigments, Prussian blue
+differs considerably in colour, in depth, and in permanence, according
+to the purity of the materials, the mode of manufacture, and the absence
+of adulterants. Like smalt, it is known in the washtub as well as in the
+studio; and in the cheaper varieties, alumina, starch, chalk, oxide of
+iron, &c., are often largely present. A good unsophisticated sample in
+the dry state is intense blue, almost black, hard and brittle, much
+resembling in appearance the best indigo, and having a similar
+copper-red fracture. It does not effervesce with acids, as when
+adulterated with chalk; nor become pasty with boiling water, as when
+sophisticated with starch. Further, it feels light in the hand, adheres
+to the tongue, is inodorous, tasteless, not poisonous, and is insoluble
+in water. Forming a bulky mass while moist, Prussian blue shrinks to a
+comparatively small compass when well washed and dried by gentle heat;
+and, when once dried, being difficult to reduce again to the state of
+extreme division which it possessed while wet, it is frequently sold and
+used in paste for common purposes. We have said that a good sample of
+Prussian blue is insoluble in water, and for artistic use it should
+certainly be so, as otherwise it has a tendency to stain the fabric on
+which it is employed, a defect formerly very prevalent. All Prussian
+blues, however, are not insoluble, and these are not only liable to the
+drawback named, but are less to be depended on for permanence. Improper
+proportions, for instance, of sesquichloride of iron and
+potash-ferrocyanide will yield a blue which, when washed even with cold
+water, continually imparts to it a yellow or green colour, through the
+partial solution of the prussiate. All commercial Prussian blue, and
+indeed that which is prepared by careful chemical processes, give up the
+ferrocyanide to boiling water, thereby colouring it greenish yellow; but
+a sample which parts with its prussiate to _cold_ water is quite
+unfitted for the palette, for which the most perfect specimen is none
+too stable.
+
+In spite of the learned researches of Professor Williamson, whose name
+is as closely connected with the pigment as are the names of Schunck and
+De La Rue with madder and cochineal, Prussian blue is not yet entirely
+understood. Complex and uncertain in composition, uncertain too in its
+habitudes, our best course perhaps will be not to attempt a complete
+survey, but to state briefly those facts which bear on the artist's
+craft.
+
+Prussian blue is a colour of vast body and wonderful transparency, with
+a soft velvety richness, and of such intense depth as to appear black in
+its deepest washes. Notwithstanding it lasts a long time under
+favourable circumstances, its tints fade by the action of strong light;
+becoming white, according to Chevreul, in the direct rays of the sun,
+but regaining its blue colour in the dark; hence that subdued light
+which is favourable to all colours is particularly so to this blue. Its
+colour has the singular property of fluctuating, or of coming and going,
+under certain conditions; and which it owes to the action and reaction
+by which it acquires or relinquishes oxygen alternately. It also becomes
+greenish sometimes by a development of the oxide of iron; and is
+purpled, darkened, or otherwise discoloured by damp or impure air. Time
+has a neutralizing tendency upon its colour, which forms tints of much
+beauty with white lead, though they are not equal either in purity,
+brilliancy, or permanence to those of cobalt and ultramarine. When
+carefully heated, Prussian blue gives off water and assumes a pale green
+hue; its colour, therefore, depending on the presence of water, must not
+be exposed to a high temperature. And as it is likewise injured or
+destroyed by alkalis, which decompose it into oxide of iron and a
+soluble prussiate, the blue should be avoided in fresco, on account of
+the lime; neither should it be employed with pigments of an alkaline
+nature, nor with hard water containing bicarbonate of lime in solution,
+but with clean rain or distilled water, either of which is preferable
+for colours generally.
+
+Prussian blue dries and glazes well in oil, but its great and principal
+use is in painting deep blues, in which its body helps to secure its
+permanence, and its transparency gives force to its depth. It is also
+valuable in compounding deep purples with lake, and is a powerful
+neutralizer and component of black, to the intensity of which it adds
+considerably. Prussian blue borders slightly on green, a quality which
+militates against its use in skies and distances. In spite, however, of
+its want of, or deficiency in, durability, the old water-colour painters
+so employed it, neutralized by the addition of a little crimson lake. It
+is serviceable in mixed tints of greens, affording with light red a
+sea-green neutral. Dissolved in oxalic acid, the blue is available as an
+ink, or for tinting maps.
+
+Besides the preceding, there is a _Basic Prussian Blue_, formed by
+simply submitting to the air the bluish-white precipitate which falls on
+adding yellow prussiate of potash to green vitriol. This compound
+dissolves entirely by continued washing with water, yielding a beautiful
+deep blue solution, from which the colour may be thrown down in a solid
+form by the addition of any salt. Probably it was this basic
+preparation, so cheaply and easily made, that conferred upon Prussian
+blue the character of staining paper. In name, there is also another
+variety of this pigment, known as _Native Prussian Blue_; which is
+really a native phosphate of iron, occurring as a blue earthy powder, or
+as a white powder that becomes blue by exposure.
+
+130. ANTWERP BLUE,
+
+_Haerlem Blue_, _Berlin Blue_, _Mineral Blue_, is a lighter and
+somewhat brighter Prussian blue, with less depth and less permanence. It
+is a species of lake, having a considerable proportion of aluminous
+base, to which its paler tint is due. As the stability of Prussian blue
+rests in a great measure on the marvellous amount of latent colour the
+pigment contains, when its particles of colour are set farther apart by
+the intervention of the alumina, the permanence of its hue is
+endangered. It was remarked, with respect to vitrified pigments, that
+colour depends on cohesion. More or less, this holds good as regards all
+pigments; but not only, as was also observed, does colour rest on
+cohesion, in many instances durability depends likewise. It is only when
+a colour is stable in itself that its particles will bear separating:
+native ultramarine, for example, may be weakened almost to white, and
+will still preserve its hue. If, however, a colour be naturally
+fugitive, and rely chiefly on its extreme depth for what permanence it
+possesses, that colour cannot with impunity be paled: witness the
+cochineal lakes, which the deeper they are, the more durable they are
+found; and so it is with Prussian blue. Antwerp blue is distinguished
+from the latter by its more earthy fracture.
+
+131. TURNBULL'S BLUE,
+
+Or _Ferricyanide of Iron_, is formed by adding the red prussiate of
+potash to a protosalt of iron. This blue is lighter and more delicate
+than ordinary Prussian blue, and is believed to resist the action of
+alkalies longer. It is a question whether the common Prussian blue
+obtained by oxidizing the precipitate yielded by green vitriol and the
+yellow prussiate is not in reality this variety. However that may be,
+there is, as far as permanence goes, little or no difference between the
+two kinds.
+
+
+ULTRAMARINES.
+
+ARTIFICIAL ULTRAMARINES
+
+comprise the varieties known as _French Ultramarine_, _French Blue_,
+_Brilliant Ultramarine_, _Factitious Ultramarine_, _Guimet's
+Ultramarine_, _New Blue_, _Permanent Blue_, _Gmelin's German
+Ultramarine_, _Bleu de Garance_, _Outremer de Guimet_, &c. The
+unrivalled qualities of native ultramarine prepared from the lapis
+lazuli rendered it most desirable to obtain an artificial compound
+which, while possessing similar properties, could be produced in
+quantity, and at a less costly rate. In demolishing some furnaces
+employed in making soda, by means of decomposing sulphate of soda, some
+earth had been found impregnated with a light blue, which was proved to
+have so close a resemblance to ultramarine as to foster hopes of
+success. As a stimulus, there was offered a prize of six thousand francs
+or L500 for the production of artificial ultramarine by the _Societe
+d'Encouragement_ of Paris, which was won in 1828 by M. Guimet. It is
+fitting that the discoverer of a colour should excel in its manufacture,
+and to this day Guimet's ultramarine is the finest made. As an instance
+of how the researches of different men may, almost simultaneously, lead
+to the same results, it is curious that very shortly after the problem
+was also solved by Gmelin.
+
+The cause of the blue colour of ultramarine was long a matter of
+controversy, but was believed generally to be due to iron. When,
+however, the discovery of artificial ultramarine was made, this
+assumption was shown to be false, by the fact that a blue could be
+obtained with materials perfectly free from iron. The absolutely
+necessary constituents of ultramarine are silica, alumina, sulphur, and
+soda; and there is little doubt that the colouring matter consists of
+hyposulphite of soda and sulphide of sodium: it is certain that the blue
+colour is dependant on the soda, inasmuch as potash yields an analogous
+compound which is purely white. A number of substances, such as iron,
+lime, magnesia, and potash, may be present as impurities, and were, in
+part at least, purposely added to the earlier manufactures; but they are
+found to be superfluous. Nevertheless, as regards iron, it is probable
+that a very small portion, such as is usually contained in the
+ingredients, greatly facilitates the production of the blue, and may
+even be essential in some cases.
+
+The colour of ultramarine is brought out by successive heatings. Green
+portions, more or less in quantity, are often formed in the crucibles,
+especially on the first ignition. On repeated heating they pass into a
+blue tint. Artificial ultramarines are said to be seldom entirely freed
+from all traces of the green modification, and are therefore less
+beautiful than the natural varieties, having a shade of green or grey.
+This defect, however, is certainly not discernible in Guimet's products,
+which sometimes incline so much to purple as to require neutralizing
+with a little Prussian blue. Depth for depth, the artificial are darker
+and less azure than the natural varieties, but the superiority of the
+latter consists not so much in their greater purity of hue, although
+this is considerable, as in their far greater transparency. The finest
+French ultramarine is never so transparent as the native; it is
+brilliant, it is powerful, it is permanent, it is nearly--but only
+nearly--transparent. Possessing in a subdued degree the characteristics
+and qualities of the genuine, it works, washes, and dries well; and is
+useful either in figures, draperies, or landscape. Rivalling in depth,
+although not equalling in colour, the pure azure of native ultramarine,
+it answers to the same acid tests, but is sometimes distinguished
+therefrom by the effervescence which ensues on the addition of an acid.
+Not a bubble escapes in such case from the natural blue; unless, indeed,
+as occasionally happens, it retain a portion of alkali, with which it
+may have been combined in the preparation, but from which it should have
+been freed. Darkened as a rule by fire, factitious ultramarine becomes
+dingy blue, and at last white, when strongly ignited for a long time;
+and is, like the true variety, decolourised by ignition in an atmosphere
+of hydrogen gas. At a high temperature, this effect is even produced by
+silica, whence the unfitness of ultramarine for painting on glass or
+porcelain; and simply by a prolonged red heat the blue is rendered
+white. Being unaffected by alkalis, it is eligible in mural decoration,
+and is particularly adapted to siliceous painting, on account of the
+silica and alumina which it contains, two substances with which a
+soluble silicate readily unites. If artificial ultramarine be mixed with
+a soluble silicate, for example silicate of potash, and be laid on a
+properly prepared ground, it will become so firmly fixed, says Mr.
+Barff, that no amount of washing nor the slow action of moisture will
+remove it, or affect its brilliancy. Judging from the behaviour of
+ultramarine, therefore, if the colours employed in siliceous painting
+contain silica and alumina, they should adhere as firmly to the surface
+on which they are placed; and this is really the case. It is possible to
+produce a mixed solution of aluminate and silicate of potash which will
+remain liquid for twenty-four hours. If, while in the liquid state,
+colours are saturated with this solution and allowed to dry, their
+particles will be very intimately mixed with silica and alumina
+chemically combined with potash. According to the author quoted, the
+admixture of silica and alumina does not interfere with the brilliancy
+or depth of the colours, and the method may be used for all those which
+are not injured by potash, and are in themselves adapted to the art.
+
+With respect to permanence, the finer varieties of artificial
+ultramarines may, undoubtedly, be pronounced stable; but, like all other
+colours, these blues are apt to vary in quality, and inferior kinds are
+liable to lose their purity in a measure, and become grayer. Moreover,
+they are made by different processes, and the mode adopted for the
+manufacture of a pigment not only tells upon the colour, but may
+influence to some extent its durability. From the following experiment
+of an ingenious artist and friend of the author, it is evident that the
+production of artificial ultramarine was not carried in its early days
+to that state of perfection at which it has now arrived. He took a
+picture, the sky of which had been recently painted in the ordinary
+manner with Prussian blue and white; and having painted over the clear
+part of the sky uniform portions with tints formed of the best
+factitious ultramarine, cobalt blue, and genuine ultramarine, so as to
+match the ground of the sky, and to disappear to the eye thereon by
+blending with the ground, when viewed at a moderate distance, he set the
+picture aside for some months. Upon examination, it appeared that the
+colour of these various blue pigments had taken different ways, and
+departed from the hue of the ground: the factitious ultramarine had
+_blackened_, the cobalt blue _greened_, the genuine ultramarine remained
+a _pure azure_, like a spot of light, while their ground, the Prussian
+blue sky, seemed by contrast with the ultramarine of a _grey_ or _slate
+colour_.
+
+Other things being equal, those artificial ultramarines are most durable
+which possess the most colour; and all are, perhaps, most permanent in
+water. If used in that vehicle, care should be taken to employ a gum
+free from acid; also, whether in water or oil, not to compound the blue
+with a pigment which may possibly contain acid, such as constant white.
+Acid, as we have said, is the great test for ultramarine; whence if a
+sample be sophisticated with cobalt, its blue colour will not be
+entirely destroyed. With high-class artistic pigments, however,
+adulteration is the exception and not the rule. It is as a powder-blue
+for the washtub that ultramarine gets disguised, when it is ground up
+with soda-ash, chalk, gypsum, &c., and sold sometimes under its own
+name, but more frequently as superfine Saxon smalts.
+
+132. BRILLIANT ULTRAMARINE,
+
+lately called _Factitious Ultramarine_, is a specially fine preparation
+of M. Guimet, presenting the nearest approach to the natural product of
+any artificial ultramarine, both in transparency, purity of hue, and
+chemical characteristics. Equalling in depth and power the ordinary
+French ultramarine, it possesses greater clearness, beauty, and
+brightness; and has, in a subdued degree, that quality of light in it,
+and of the tint of air, which forms so distinguishing a feature in the
+native blue.
+
+133. FRENCH ULTRAMARINE,
+
+or _French Blue_, is a rich deep colour, but less transparent and vivid
+than the preceding variety, which is preferable in unmixed tints. For
+compound hues, French blue is sufficiently well adapted, and is
+extremely useful. With aureolin and burnt Sienna, or Vandyke brown, it
+affords valuable autumn greens; and with lamp black, or lamp black and
+light red, good stormy clouds. A sombre gray for distant mountains is
+furnished by French blue and madder brown, with a very little gamboge;
+and a deep purple for sunsets, by the blue and purple madder, or Indian
+red and rose madder. With cadmium and orient yellows, sepia, viridian,
+and many other colours, this ultramarine is of service.
+
+134. NEW BLUE
+
+Is confined to water-colour painting, and is an artificial ultramarine,
+holding a middle position between French blue and permanent blue, being
+less deep than the one and less pale than the other. It may be said to
+hover in tint between a rich ultramarine and cobalt.
+
+135. PERMANENT BLUE
+
+Is a pale ultramarine, with a cobalt hue; and, in spite of its name,
+less permanence than belongs to the richer and deeper sorts. What
+Antwerp blue is to Prussian blue, this is to French blue--that is, as
+regards colour. With respect to durability, however, permanent and
+Antwerp blues cannot be compared; the former being a weakened variety of
+a stable, and the latter a weakened variety of a semi-fugitive, pigment.
+Hence permanent blue justifies its name, although that name would be
+more suited to the brilliant, or French, ultramarine.
+
+136. GENUINE ULTRAMARINE,
+
+_Native Ultramarine_, _Natural Ultramarine_, _Real Ultramarine_, _True
+Ultramarine_, _Ultramarine_, _Pure _Ultramarine_, _Azure_, _Outremer_,
+_Lazuline_, _Lazulite Blue_, and _Lazurstein_. This most costly, most
+permanent, and most celebrated of all pigments, is obtained by isolating
+the blue colouring matter of the _lapis lazuli_, a stone chiefly brought
+from China, Thibet, and the shores of Lake Baikal. About the antiquity
+of the stone, and its colour, much has been written, and many
+conflicting statements have been made; but there is little doubt that
+our lapis lazuli was the sapphire of the ancients; and that the first
+certain mention of ultramarine occurs in a passage of Arethas, who lived
+in the eleventh century, and who, in his exposition of a verse in the
+book of Revelation, says, the sapphire is that stone of which
+_lazurium_, as we are told, is made. It has been common to confound
+ultramarine with the _cyanus_ and _coeruleum_ of the ancients; but
+their cyanus, or Armenian blue, was a kind of mineral or mountain blue,
+tinged with copper; and their coeruleum, although it may sometimes
+have been real ultramarine, was properly and in general a copper ochre.
+That ultramarine was known to the ancients there seems every
+probability, for it is certain they were acquainted with the stone; and
+modern travellers describe the brilliant blue painting still remaining
+in the ruins of temples of Upper Egypt as having all the appearance of
+ultramarine. Whether it is so or not, however, could only be proved by
+analysis; for, be it recollected, although the colour had preserved its
+hue during so many centuries, it had been completely buried, and
+therefore most perfectly secluded from light and air. Mr. Layard, in his
+'Nineveh,' referring to some painted plaster, remarks that "The colours,
+particularly the blues and reds, were as brilliant and vivid when the
+earth was removed from them as they could originally have been; but, on
+exposure to the air, they faded rapidly." In all likelihood, these were
+of organic, or semi-organic, origin, prepared in some such manner as
+that mentioned by Pliny, who speaks of an earth which, when boiled with
+plants, acquired their blue colour, and was in some measure inflammable.
+As a pigment, cobalt was unknown to the ancients; but to these vegetable
+and copper blues of theirs, a third blue may perhaps be added.
+Experiments made upon blue tiles, found in a Roman tesselated
+foot-pavement at Montbeillard, showed that the colour was due to iron.
+M. Gmelin has proved that a blue tint can be imparted to glass and
+enamel by means of iron; and it is probable that the ancients were first
+induced by the blue slag of their smelting-houses to study the colouring
+of glass with iron; that in this art they acquired a dexterity not
+possessed at present, and that they employed their iron-smalt as a
+pigment, as we do our smalt of cobalt. To sum up, there are grounds for
+believing that the ancients were acquainted with copper blues,
+vegetable blues, and iron blues; and that, consequently, the blue
+described by travellers as having all the appearance of ultramarine may,
+or may not, be that pigment.
+
+Lapis lazuli, or lazulite, is usually disseminated in a rock, which
+contains, among other substances, a fine white lazulite. In the _Musee
+Mineralogique_ of Paris are two splendid specimens of the stone, in
+which is seen the transition from the azure to the white. According to
+the quantity and quality of blue present, the lapis varies from an
+almost uniform tint of the deepest indigo-blue to grayish-white, dotted
+and streaked at intervals with pale blue. The exceeding beauty of good
+samples has caused the lazulite to be much sought after, both as a gem
+for adorning the person, and for inlaid works in ornamental decoration.
+In China the stone is highly esteemed, being worn by mandarins as badges
+of nobility conferred only by the Emperor; and in the apartments of a
+summer palace near St. Petersburg, the walls are covered with amber,
+interspersed with plates of this costly lapis. Besides the colouring
+principle of the lazulite, there are always more or less mica and iron
+pyrites, the latter a lustrous yellow bisulphide of iron, which has
+often been mistaken for pellets of gold. Having chosen portions of the
+stone most free from these impurities, it is simply requisite to reduce
+them to an impalpable powder to obtain a blue pigment; and probably this
+was the original mode of preparing it before the discovery of the modern
+process. This curious method, which is mechanical rather than chemical,
+depends for its success on the character and proportions of the
+materials employed, as well as on the nicety of working. When well
+carried out, it perfectly isolates the blue from all extraneous matter,
+yielding the colour at first deep and rich, then lighter and paler, and
+lastly of that gray tint which is known by the name of Ultramarine Ash.
+The refuse, containing little or no blue, furnishes the useful pigment,
+Mineral Gray.
+
+The immense price of ultramarine--or, as it was at first called, azurrum
+ultramarinum, blue beyond-the-sea--was almost a prohibition to its use
+in former times. It is related that Charles I. presented to Mrs.
+Walpole, and possibly to Vandyke also, five hundred pounds worth of
+ultramarine, which lay in so small a compass as only to cover his hand.
+Even in these days, despite the introduction of artificial ultramarines,
+the native product continues costly, commanding in proportion to its
+intensity and brightness, from two to eight guineas an ounce. To say,
+however, that the merits of the blue at least equal its expense, is to
+give the genuine ultramarine no more than its due. It has, indeed, not
+earned its reputation upon slight pretensions, being, when of fine
+quality, and skilfully prepared, of the most exquisitely beautiful blue,
+ranging from the utmost depth of shadow to the highest brilliancy of
+light and colour,--transparent in all its shades, and pure in all its
+tints. A true medial blue, when perfect, partaking neither of purple on
+the one hand, nor of green on the other, it sustains no injury either by
+damp and impure air, or by the intensest action of light, and is so
+eminently durable, that it remains unchanged in the oldest paintings.
+Drying well, working well in oil and fresco, ultramarine may be safely
+compounded with pigments generally, excepting only an acid sulphate of
+baryta or constant white. The blue has so much of the property of light
+in it, and of the tint of air--is so purely a sky-colour, and hence so
+singularly adapted to the direct and reflex light of the sky, and to
+become the antagonist of sunshine--that it is indispensable to the
+painter. Moreover, it is so pure, so true, so unchangeable in its tints
+and glazings, as to be no less essential in imitating the marvellous
+colouring of nature in flesh and flowers. To this may be added that it
+enters so admirably into purples, blacks, greens, grays, and broken
+hues, that it has justly obtained the character of clearing or carrying
+light and air into all colours, both in mixture and glazing, as well as
+gained a sort of claim to universality throughout a picture.
+
+Nevertheless, ultramarine is not always entitled to the whole of this
+commendation. Frequently it is coarse in texture, in which case it is
+apparently more deep and valuable; yet such blue cannot be used with
+effect, nor ground fine without injuring its colour. Again, it is apt to
+be separated in an impure state from the lapis lazuli, which is an
+exceedingly varying and compound mineral, abounding with earthy and
+metallic parts in different states of oxidation and composition: hence
+ultramarine sometimes contains iron as a red oxide, when it has a purple
+cast; and sometimes the same metal as a yellow oxide, when it is of a
+green tone; while often it retains a portion of black sulphuret of iron,
+which imparts a dark and dusky hue. Occasionally, it is true, artists
+have preferred ultramarine for each of these tones; still are they
+imperfections which may account for various effects and defects of this
+pigment in painting. Growing deeper by age has been attributed to
+ultramarine; but it is only such specimens as would acquire depth in the
+fire that could be subject to the change; and it has been reasonably
+supposed that in pictures wherein other colours have faded, it may have
+taken this appearance by contrast. Ultramarine, prepared from calcined
+lapis, is not liable to so deepen; but this advantage may be purchased
+at some sacrifice of the vivid, warm, and pure azure colour of the blue
+produced from unburnt stone. We have frequently found ultramarine to be
+darkened, dimmed, and somewhat purpled by ignition; and the same results
+ensue, in many instances, when the lazulite is calcined. In burning the
+stone, the sulphur of the pyrites is in a great measure expelled, and
+during its expulsion has probably a deteriorating influence on the
+beauty of the colour: our belief in this being so is strengthened by the
+fact that certain samples of ultramarine, ignited with sulphur, were not
+improved thereby. Similar effects are likewise caused by a careless or
+improper mode of treatment, for the finest lapis may yield dingy blues,
+containing particles of mica, metal, &c., and possessing a dull green,
+black, or purple hue. Of course the perfection of the pigment is
+dependant to a large extent upon the quality of the stone itself.
+
+Though unexceptionable as an oil-colour, both in solid painting and
+glazing, it does not work so well as some other blues in water; nor is
+it, unless carefully prepared, so well adapted for mixed tints, on
+account of a gritty quality, of which no grinding will entirely divest
+it, and which causes it to separate from other pigments. When extremely
+fine in texture, however, or when a considerable portion of gum, which
+renders it transparent, can be employed to give connexion or adhesion
+while flowing, it becomes no less valuable in water than in oil; but
+when its vivid azure is to be preserved, as in illuminated manuscripts
+and missals, little gum must be used. The fine greens, purples, and
+grays of the old masters, are often unquestionably compounds of
+ultramarine; and formerly it was the only blue known in fresco. Pure
+ultramarine varies in shade from light to dark, and in hue from pale
+warm azure to the deepest cold blue.
+
+Native ultramarine consists of silica, alumina, sulphur, and soda; its
+colouring matter seeming to be due to hyposulphite of soda and sulphide
+of sodium. In these respects, as well as in that of being decolourised
+by acids, the natural product resembles the artificial. As a precious
+material, the former has been subject to adulteration; and it has been
+dyed, damped, and oiled to enrich its appearance; attempts of fraud,
+however, which may be easily detected. In the preceding edition of this
+work the author adds--"and the genuine may be as easily distinguished
+from the spurious by dropping a few particles of the pigment into
+lemon-juice, or any other acid, which almost instantly destroys the
+colour of the true ultramarine totally, and without effervescence." With
+this statement, so far as it pretends to be a test for the two kinds, we
+are not inclined to agree. Genuine ultramarine is always decolourised by
+acids; but it depends on the mode and nicety of its preparation whether
+it is decolourised without effervescence: that this is the case the
+author himself admits in his article on artificial ultramarine.
+Moreover, the "violent effervescence" which he describes as ensuing on
+the latter being dropped into an acid, does not of necessity take place:
+in M. Guimet's finest variety, the brilliant ultramarine, acid produces
+little or no effervescence. Seeing, therefore, that both sorts are
+decolourised by acids, and that both may or may not effervesce
+therewith, the acid test must be considered fallacious. Experiments made
+with different samples of each, showed that native ultramarines offered
+greater resistance to acid than the artificial, taking longer to
+decolourise; and that the residues of the first were in general of a
+purer white than those of the last. It was also found that the brilliant
+ultramarine, above referred to, was less readily decolourised than other
+French or German kinds.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+137. _Blue Carmine._
+
+In a former edition of this work there appeared the following:--"Blue
+carmine is a blue oxide of molybdenum, of which little is known as a
+substance or as a pigment. It is said to be of a beautiful blue colour,
+and durable in a strong light, but is subject to be changed in hue by
+other substances, and blackened by foul air: we may conjecture,
+therefore, that it is not of much value in painting." In his estimate of
+this colour the author was certainly right. It is formed when a
+solution of bichloride of molybdenum is poured into a saturated, or
+nearly saturated, solution of molybdate of ammonia. A blue precipitate
+falls, which is a molybdate of molybdic oxide, hydrated, and abundantly
+soluble in water. When dried, it furnishes a dark blue powder,
+resembling powdered indigo, having a bitter, rough, metallic taste, and
+reddening litmus strongly. The solubility of this hydrated oxide is
+alone fatal to its employment as a pigment. It may, indeed, be rendered
+comparatively insoluble in water by ignition; but the anhydrous oxide so
+obtained is nearly black, and as a colour worthless.
+
+A more eligible preparation is the molybdate of baryta, produced by
+mixing solutions of molybdate of potash and acetate of baryta. A white,
+flocculent precipitate results, which rapidly condenses to a crystalline
+powder, and turns blue on ignition. It is, however, a costly compound,
+of little merit, and not likely to come into use. It is insoluble in
+water.
+
+138. _Blue Ochre_,
+
+which has been improperly called Native Prussian Blue, is a native
+hydrated phosphate of iron of rare occurrence, found with iron pyrites
+in Cornwall, and also in North America. What Indian red is to the colour
+red, and Oxford ochre to yellow, this pigment is to the colour blue,
+being sober and subdued rather than brilliant. It has the body of other
+ochres, more transparency, and is of considerable depth. Both in water
+and oil it works well, dries readily, and does not suffer in tint with
+white lead, nor change when exposed to the action of strong light, damp,
+or impure air. As far as its powers extend, therefore, it is an eligible
+pigment, though not generally employed nor easily procured; it may,
+however, be artificially prepared. Answering to similar acid tests as
+ultramarine, it is distinguished therefrom by assuming an olive-brown
+hue on exposure to a red heat.
+
+139. _Cobalt Prussian Blue._
+
+Gmelin states that yellow prussiate of potash yields with a solution of
+oxalate of sesquioxide of cobalt a blue resembling Prussian blue--that,
+in fact, there can be obtained a Prussian blue with a base of cobalt
+instead of iron. In the moist state, the similarity is sufficiently
+great, but when washed and dried, the product is, with us, a dingy slate
+colour. Possibly, if such a blue could be produced, it might exceed in
+permanence the ferro- and ferri-cyanides of iron. Of course the compound
+would be much more expensive.
+
+
+_Copper Blues_
+
+are now seldom or never employed as artists' pigments. The following
+are the principal varieties:--
+
+140. _Bice_,
+
+Blue Bice, Iris, Terre Bleu, was prepared, when true, from the Armenian
+stone, which is a calcareous kind of stone coloured with copper. It was
+of a light bright hue, but is completely superseded by pale ultramarine.
+The Persian lazur appears to have been a similar pigment, being a sort
+of copper ore, which, when the stone was pounded and sifted, furnished a
+fine paint, very bright and pleasant. It could not, however, stand the
+effects of the atmosphere like the Tartarian lazur or lapis lazuli, in
+the course of time becoming of a dark and dismal colour.
+
+Ground smalts, blue verditer, and other pigments, have passed under the
+name of bice.
+
+141. _Blue Ashes_, or _Mountain Blue_,
+
+are both hydrated carbonates of copper, the first being artificially
+prepared, and the second found native in Cumberland. Neither is durable,
+especially in oil; and, as pigments, both are precisely of the character
+of verditer. By treating the natural malachite green with an alkali, it
+may be converted into blue.
+
+142. _Blue Verditer_,
+
+or Verditer, is an oxide of copper, formed by precipitating nitrate of
+copper with lime. It is of a beautiful light blue colour, little
+affected by light, but greened and ultimately blackened by time, damp,
+and impure air--changes which ensue even more rapidly in oil than in
+water. It is mostly confined to distemper painting and paper-staining.
+
+143. _Egyptian Blue_,
+
+called by Vitruvius, Coeruleum, is frequently found on the walls of
+the temples in Egypt, as well as on the cases enclosing mummies. Count
+Chaptal, who analysed some of it discovered in 1809 in a shop at
+Pompeii, found that it was blue ashes, not prepared in the moist manner,
+but by calcination. He considers it a kind of frit, of a semi-vitreous
+nature; and this would appear to be the case from Sir H. Davy obtaining
+a similar colour by exposing to a strong heat, for two hours, a mixture
+of fifteen parts of carbonate of soda, twenty of powdered flints, and
+three of copper. The colour is very brilliant when first made, and
+retains its hue well in distemper and decorative painting; but it has
+the common defect of copper blues of turning green in oil, when ground
+impalpably for artistic use. One remarkable effect of this copper
+smalt--for it is nothing else--is, that by lamp-light it shows somewhat
+greenish, but shines by day with all the brightness of azure. Merimee
+believes that Paul Veronese employed this sort of blue in many of his
+pictures where the skies have become green.
+
+144. _Saunders Blue_,
+
+a corrupt name from _Cendres Bleues_, the original denomination probably
+of ultramarine ashes, is of two kinds, the natural and artificial. The
+first is a blue mineral found near copper mines, while the last is
+simply a verditer.
+
+145. _Schweinfurt Blue_,
+
+or Reboulleau's Blue, is prepared by fusing together equal weights of
+ordinary arseniate of protoxide of copper and arseniate of potash, and
+adding one-fifth its weight of nitre to the fused mass. The result is,
+so to speak, a sort of blue Scheele's green, into which latter colour it
+soon passes when rubbed with oil.
+
+146. _Cotton Seed Blue._
+
+Cotton seed oil is bleached by treatment with either carbonate of soda
+or caustic lime. In both cases, a considerable residue is left after
+drawing off the bleached oil. This residue is treated with sulphuric
+acid, and distilled at a high temperature, when there is left a compact
+mass of a deep greenish-blue colour. On further treatment of this mass
+with strong sulphuric acid, the green tint disappears, and a very
+intense pure blue colour is produced. The blue mass is a mixture of the
+coloured substance with some sulphuric acid, sulphate of soda, and fats.
+The two former may be removed by washing with water; the latter by
+treatment with naptha. Alcohol now dissolves the blue colour, and water
+precipitates it from the solution chemically pure.
+
+This blue has not been introduced as a pigment; and of its permanence,
+and other attributes, we know nothing.
+
+147. _Gold Blue._
+
+Gold purple, under the name of Purple of Cassius, was once very well
+known: a like compound of tin and gold may be made to yield a blue.
+Resembling indigo, the colour is not remarkably brilliant, and, unless
+several precautions are carefully observed, is rather violet than blue.
+When obtained, the colour must be quickly washed by decantation, or it
+changes first to violet and then to purple. Its costliness, lack of
+brightness, and tendency to redden, are against its employment on the
+palette. In enamelling it would doubtless preserve its colour, and in
+exceptional cases might be useful.
+
+148. _Iodine Blue._
+
+It is curious that iodine, which gives a yellow with lead, should also
+afford a blue with the same metal. When a solution of iodine in aqueous
+soda (carbonate of soda is not so good) is added to nitrate or acetate
+of lead-oxide, a transient violet-red precipitate falls, which
+decomposes spontaneously under water, yielding iodine and a beautiful
+blue powder. The colour, however, is exceedingly fugitive, even the
+carbonic acid of the air separating iodine from it and forming a lead
+salt. Bearing in mind the scarlet iodide of mercury, iodine is capable
+of furnishing the three primary colours, distinguished alike by their
+brilliancy and fugacity.
+
+149. _Iridium Blue._
+
+The rare metal iridium affords a blue which is a mixture of the oxide
+and the sesquioxide. But being slightly soluble in water and
+decolourised by sulphuretted hydrogen, it would not, other
+considerations apart, be an acquisition.
+
+150. _Manganese Blue._
+
+An aqueous solution of permanganate of potash yields with baryta-water a
+violet mixture, which afterwards becomes colourless, and deposits a blue
+precipitate. This retains its colour after washing and drying, but
+cannot be recommended as a pigment, being liable to suffer in contact
+with organic substances, which deoxidize and decolourize the manganates
+and permanganates.
+
+151. _Platinum Blue._
+
+With mercurous nitrate, the platinocyanide of potassium forms a thick
+smalt blue, and the platinidcyanide a dark blue precipitate. The
+compound is a mixture of platino- or platinidcyanide of mercury and
+mercurous nitrate. Upon the presence of the latter the colour seems to
+depend, for on washing with cold water containing nitric acid, the
+nitrate is not removed nor the blue affected; but boiling water extracts
+the nitrate and leaves a white residue. A blue containing mercurous
+nitrate must necessarily be injured by impure air, and be otherwise
+objectionable.
+
+152. _Tungsten Blue_
+
+is an oxide formed by the action of various deoxidizing agents on
+tungstic acid. It remains unaltered in the air at ordinary temperatures,
+is opaque, and of a blackish indigo-blue colour. As a pigment, there is
+little to recommend it.
+
+153. _Wood-Tar Blue._
+
+The colours obtained from coal-tar have become household words, and it
+is not impossible that those from wood-tar may be some day equally
+familiar. At present wood-tar is comparatively unexplored, but the fact
+that picamar furnishes a blue is at least as suggestive and hopeful as
+that transient purple colouration by which aniline was once chiefly
+distinguished. As aniline is a product of coal-tar, so picamar is a
+product of wood-tar; and as the former gives a purple with
+hypochlorites, so the latter yields a blue with baryta-water. Both are
+distinguished by coloured tests, but there is this advantage in the
+picamar blue--it is comparatively permanent.
+
+Picamar blue is produced when a few drops of baryta-water are added to
+an alcoholic solution of impure picamar, or even to wood-tar oil
+deprived of its acid. The liquor instantly assumes a bright blue tint,
+which in a few minutes passes into an indigo colour. From [Greek: pitta]
+pitch, and [Greek: kallos] ornament, the blue is named _Pittacal_.
+
+The mode of separating pittacal has not been clearly described. Dumas
+states, that when precipitated in a flocculent state from its solutions,
+or obtained by evaporation, it closely resembles indigo, and, like it,
+acquires a coppery hue when rubbed. It is inodorous, tasteless, and not
+volatile; and is abundantly soluble in acetic acid, forming a red
+liquid, which, when saturated by an alkali, becomes of a bright blue. It
+is represented as a more delicate test of acid and alkalis than litmus.
+With acetate of lead, protochloride of tin, ammonio-sulphate of copper,
+and acetate of alumina, it yields a fine blue colour with a tint of
+violet, said not to be affected by air or light, and therefore
+recommended for dyeing.
+
+Like indigo, pittacal is believed to contain nitrogen, but its ultimate
+composition has not been accurately determined. Dumas considers it
+identical with a blue product obtained in 1827 from coal-tar by MM.
+Barthe and Laurent. If this be the case, its greater stability over
+coal-tar blues and colours generally admits of doubt. That, however, has
+yet to be ascertained. Our object in noticing this blue has been
+two-fold: first, to direct attention to wood-tar as a possible source of
+colour; and secondly, to point to pittacal as a possible substitute for
+indigo, possessing greater durability.
+
+154. _Zinc-Cobalt Blue._
+
+Cobalt, as furnishing a blue colour, is usually associated with alumina,
+silica, or tin; and, as furnishing a green colour, with zinc. But there
+is obtainable a compound of zinc and cobalt which gives a blue not only
+free from green, but inclining rather to red. It is made by adding to a
+solution of ordinary phosphate of soda in excess a solution first of
+sulphate of zinc and then of sulphate of cobalt, and washing and
+igniting the precipitate. The result is a vitreous blue with a purple
+cast, of little body, and exceedingly difficult to grind. Altogether, it
+is not unlike smalt, over which it has no advantages as an artistic
+pigment either in colour or permanence. For tinting porcelain, however,
+it is admirably adapted, imparting thereto a very pure dark blue of
+extraordinary beauty. This blue is distinguished from smalt by
+dissolving in acetic acid.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Compared with the wide range of yellows, or even with reds, the artist
+finds the number of his blues limited. The perfect native and excellent
+artificial ultramarines, the good blues of cobalt, the fair Prussian
+blue, and the doubtful indigo, are the four varieties he has for years
+been in the habit of using, and is still mainly dependent on. Our
+division, therefore, into permanent, semi-stable, and fugitive, is
+easily effected.
+
+In the front rank, pre-eminent among blues as among pigments generally,
+stands genuine ultramarine. Behind it, are the artificial ultramarines;
+and behind them again, cobalt and cerulian blue. To a greater or less
+extent, all these are durable.
+
+Among the semi-stable, must be classed cyanine or Leitch's blue, smalt,
+and Prussian blue.
+
+To the fugitive, belong indigo and the somewhat more permanent intense
+blue, Antwerp blue, and the copper blues.
+
+In this list of blues, which grace or disgrace the palette of the
+present day, there is one colour which, although not permanent, is
+almost indispensable. As yet, the chemist cannot in all cases lay down
+the law as to what pigments may or may not be employed. The painter who
+unnecessarily uses fugitive colours must have little love for his
+craft, and a poor opinion of the value of his work; but, even with the
+best intentions and the utmost self-esteem, the artist cannot always
+confine himself to strictly stable pigments. He has no right to use
+orpiment instead of cadmium yellow, or red lead instead of vermilion, or
+copper blue instead of cobalt: he has no business to employ indigo when
+Prussian blue saddened by black will answer his purpose; but--what
+pigment can he substitute for Prussian blue itself? None. In its
+wondrous depth, richness, and transparency, it stands alone: there is no
+yellow to compare with it, no red to equal it, no blue to rival it. In
+force and power it is a colour among colours, and transparent beyond
+them all. The great importance of transparent pigments is to unite with
+solid or opaque colours of their own hues, giving tone and atmosphere
+generally, together with beauty and life; to convert primary into
+secondary, and secondary into tertiary colours, with brilliancy; to
+deepen and enrich dark colours and shadows, and to impart force and tone
+to black itself. For such effects, no pigment can vie with Prussian
+blue. What purples it produces, what greens it gives, what a matchless
+range of grays; what velvety glow it confers, how it softens the
+harshness of colours, and how it subdues their glare. No; until the
+advent of a perfect palette, the artist can scarcely part with his
+Prussian blue; nor can the chemist, who has nothing better to offer,
+hold him to blame. It is for Art to copy Nature with the best materials
+she possesses: it is for Science to learn the secrets of Nature, and
+turn them to the benefit of Art.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI.
+
+ON THE SECONDARY, ORANGE.
+
+
+Orange is the first of the secondary colours in relation to light, being
+in all the variety of its hues composed of _yellow_ and _red_. A true or
+perfect orange is such a compound of red and yellow as will neutralize a
+perfect blue in equal quantity either of surface or intensity; and the
+proportions of such compound are five of perfect red to three of perfect
+yellow. When orange inclines to red, it takes the names of _scarlet_,
+_poppy_, &c.: in gold colour, &c., it leans towards yellow. Combined
+with green it forms the tertiary _citrine_, and with purple the tertiary
+_russet_: it also furnishes a series of warm semi-neutral colours with
+black, and harmonizes in contact and variety of tints with white.
+
+Orange is an advancing colour in painting:--in nature it is effective at
+a great distance, acting powerfully on the eye, diminishing its
+sensibility in accordance with the strength of the light in which it is
+viewed. It is of the hue, and partakes of the vividness of sunshine, as
+it likewise does of all the powers of its components, red and yellow.
+Pre-eminently a _warm_ colour, being the equal contrast of or antagonist
+to blue, to which the attribute of _coolness_ peculiarly belongs, it is
+discordant when standing alone with yellow or with red, unresolved by
+their proper contrasts or harmonizing colours, purple and green. As an
+archeus or ruling colour, orange is one of the most agreeable keys in
+toning a picture, from the richness and warmth of its effects. If it
+predominate therein, for the colouring to be true, the violet and purple
+should be more or less red, the red more or less scarlet, the yellow
+more or less intense and orange, and the orange itself be intense and
+vivid. Further, the greens must lose some of their blue and consequently
+become yellower, the light blues be more or less light grey, and the
+deep indigo more or less marrone.
+
+Although the secondary colours are capable of being obtained by
+admixture of the primaries in an infinitude of hues, tints, and shades;
+yet simple original pigments of whatever class--whether secondary,
+tertiary, or semi-neutral--are, it has been said before, often superior
+to those compounded, both in a chemical and artistic sense. Hence a
+thoroughly good original orange is only of less value and importance
+than a thoroughly good original yellow, a green than a blue, or a
+purple than a red. To produce pure and permanent compound hues requires
+practice and knowledge, and we too often see in the works of painters
+combinations neither pleasing nor stable. Colours are associated with
+each other which do not mix kindly, and compounds formed of which one or
+both constituents are fugitive. As a consequence, mixed tints are
+frequently wanting in clearness, and, where they do not disappear
+altogether, resolve themselves into some primary colour; orange becoming
+red by a fading of the yellow, green yellow by a fading of the blue, and
+purple blue by a fading of the red. Again, with regard to compound
+tints, there is the danger of one colour reacting upon and injuring
+another, as in the case of greens obtained from chrome yellow and
+Prussian blue, where the former ultimately destroys the latter. Of
+course a mixture of two permanent pigments which do not react on each
+other will remain permanent; the green, for instance, furnished by
+aureolin and native ultramarine lasting as long as the ground itself. To
+produce, however, the effects desired, the artist does not always stop
+to consider the fitness and stability of his colours in compounding,
+even if he possess the needed acquaintance with their physical and
+chemical properties. At all times, therefore, but especially when such
+knowledge is slight, good orange, &c., pigments are of more or less
+value, as by their use the employment of inferior mixtures is to a great
+extent avoided. In mingling primary with primary, if one colour does not
+compound well with the other, or is fugacious, the result is failure;
+but a secondary is not so easily affected by admixture: a green, for
+example, is seldom quite ruined by the injudicious addition of blue or
+yellow; and even if either of the latter be fugitive, the green will
+remain a green if originally durable. Thus the secondaries, if they are
+not already of the colour required, may be brightened or subdued,
+deepened or paled, with comparative impunity. The artist who, from long
+years of experience, knows exactly the properties and capabilities of
+the colours he employs, may in a measure dispense with secondary
+pigments, and obtain from the primaries mixed tints at once stable,
+beautiful, and pure; but even he must sometimes resort to them, as when
+a green like emerald or viridian is required, which no mixture of blue
+and yellow will afford. The primaries, by reason of their not being able
+to be composed of other colours, occupy the first place on the palette,
+and are of the first importance; but the secondaries are far too useful
+to be disregarded, and have a value of their own, which both veteran and
+tyro have cause to acknowledge.
+
+The list of original orange pigments was once so deficient, that in some
+old treatises on the subject of colours, they are not even mentioned.
+This may have arisen, not merely from their paucity, but from the
+unsettled signification of the term orange, as well as from improperly
+calling these pigments reds, yellows, &c. In these days, however, orange
+pigments are sufficiently numerous to merit a chapter to themselves;
+they indeed comprise some of the best colours on the palette.
+
+155. BURNT SIENNA,
+
+or _Burnt Terra di Sienna_, is calcined raw Sienna, of a rich
+transparent brown-orange or orange-russet colour, richer, deeper, and
+more transparent than the raw earth. It also works and dries better, has
+in other respects the qualities of its parent colour, and is a most
+permanent and serviceable pigment in painting generally. For the warm
+tints in rocks, mud banks, and buildings, this colour is excellent. When
+mixed with blue it makes a good green; furnishing a bright green with
+cobalt, and one much more intense with Prussian blue. For the foresea,
+whether calm or broken by waves, it may be employed with a little
+madder; while compounded with a small portion of the latter and lamp
+black, it meets the hues of old posts, boats, and a variety of near
+objects, as the tints may be varied by modifying the proportions of the
+component colours. Used with white, it yields a range of sunny tones;
+and with aureolin or French blue and aureolin will be found of service,
+the last compound giving a fine olive green. Similar but fugitive greens
+are afforded by admixture of burnt Sienna with indigo and yellow or
+Roman ochre, or raw Sienna; tints which may be saddened into olive
+neutrals by the addition of sepia, and rendered more durable by
+substituting for indigo Prussian blue and black. Mixed with viridian, it
+furnishes autumnal hues of the utmost richness, beauty, and permanence;
+and, alone, is valuable as a glaze over foliage and herbage. For the
+dark markings and divisions of stones a compound of Payne's gray and
+burnt Sienna will prove serviceable; while for red sails the Sienna,
+either by itself, with brown madder, or with Indian red, cannot be
+surpassed. For foregrounds, banks and roads, cattle and animals in
+general, burnt Sienna is equally eligible, both alone and compounded. It
+has a slight tendency to darken by time.
+
+156. CADMIUM ORANGE
+
+was first introduced to the art-world at the International Exhibition of
+1862, where it was universally admired for its extreme brilliancy and
+beauty, a brilliancy equalled by few of the colours with which it was
+associated, and a beauty devoid of coarseness. We remember well the
+power it possessed of attracting the eye from a distance; and how, on
+near approach, it threw nearly all other pigments into the shade. It has
+in truth a lustrous luminosity not often to be met with, added to a
+total absence of rankness or harshness. A simple original colour,
+containing no base but cadmium, it is of perfect permanence, being
+uninjured by exposure to light, air or damp, by sulphuretted hydrogen,
+or by admixture. Having in common with cadmium sulphides a certain
+amount of transparency, it is invaluable for gorgeous sunsets and the
+like, either alone or compounded with aureolin. Of great depth and power
+in its full touches, the pale washes are marked by that clearness and
+delicacy which are so essential in painting skies. As day declines, and
+blue melts into green, green into orange, and orange into purple, the
+proper use of this pigment will produce effects both glowing and
+transparent. Transparency signifies the quality of being seen through or
+into; and in no better way can it be arrived at than by giving a number
+of thin washes of determined character, each lighter than the preceding
+one. With due care in preserving their forms, from the commencement to
+the termination, such washes of orange will furnish hues the softest and
+most aerial. For bits of bright drapery, a glaze over autumn leaves, and
+mural decoration, this colour is adapted; while in illumination it
+supplies a want formerly much felt. "With the exception of scarlet or
+bright orange," said Mr. Bradley, nine or ten years since, in his Manual
+of Illumination, "our colours are everything we could wish." As an
+original pigment, a permanent scarlet does not yet exist; but the
+brilliancy of cadmium orange cannot be disputed, nor its claim to be the
+only unexceptionable bright orange known. It even assists the formation
+of the other colour: remarks the author mentioned, "Brilliancy is
+obtained by gradation. Suppose a scarlet over-curling leaf, for example.
+The whole should be painted in pure orange, with the gentlest possible
+after-touch of vermilion towards the corner under the curl. When dry, a
+firm line--not wash--of carmine, (of madder, preferable.--_Ed._), passed
+within the outline on the shade side only of the leaf, will give to the
+whole the look of a bright scarlet surface, but with an indescribable
+superadded charm, that no merely flat colour can possess." In the same
+branch of art, illumination, cadmium orange, opposed to viridian,
+presents a most dazzling contrast, especially if relieved by purple.
+
+157. CHINESE ORANGE
+
+belongs to the coal-tar colours, and ought strictly to have been classed
+therewith. We have preferred, however, to keep it separate, because, as
+Chinese Orange, it was introduced as a pigment, and has not been
+employed as a dye. In colour, it somewhat resembles burnt Sienna,
+enriched, reddened, brightened, and made more transparent, by admixture
+with crimson lake. From its behaviour, it would seem to be composed of
+yellow and red, such a compound as magenta and aniline yellow would
+afford. Its pale washes are uncertain, being apt to resolve themselves
+into red and yellow, of which the latter appears the most permanent;
+for, on exposure to light and air, the red more or less flies, leaving
+here a yellow, and there a reddish-yellow ground: in places both red and
+yellow disappear. Like all fugitive colours, it is comparatively stable
+when used in body; but even then it entirely loses its depth and
+richness, and in a great measure its redness, becoming faded and
+yellowish. In thin washes or glazing it is totally inadmissible; and,
+being neither a red, an orange, nor a brown, is unsuited to pure
+effects. Nevertheless, where it need not be unduly exposed; in portfolio
+illuminations, for instance, the richness, subdued brilliancy, and
+transparency of this pigment, justify its adoption. It is not affected
+by an impure atmosphere.
+
+Aniline colours may be adapted for oil painting by dissolving them in
+the strongest alcohol, saturating the solution with Dammar resin,
+filtering the tincture, and pouring the filtrate either on pure water or
+solution of common salt, stirring well all the time. The water or brine
+solution must be at least twenty times the bulk of the tincture. The
+colour after being collected on a filter, washed, and dried, can be
+ground with linseed oil, poppy oil, or oil varnishes.
+
+158. CHROME ORANGE,
+
+_Orange Chrome_, or _Orange Chromate of Lead_, is a sub-chromate of lead
+of an orange-yellow colour, produced by the action of an alkali on
+chrome yellow. Like all the chromates of lead, it is characterized by
+power and brilliancy; but also by a rankness of tone, a want of
+permanence, and a tendency to injure organic pigments. By reason of its
+lead base it is subject to alteration by impure air, but is on the whole
+preferable to the chrome yellows, being liable in a somewhat less degree
+to their changes and affinities. As, however, a colour has no business
+to be used if a better can be procured, the recent introduction of
+cadmium orange renders all risk unnecessary.
+
+159. MARS ORANGE,
+
+_Orange de Mars_, is a subdued orange of the burnt Sienna class, but
+without the brown tinge that distinguishes the latter. Marked by a
+special clearness and purity of tone, with much transparency, it affords
+bright sunny tints in its pale washes, and combines effectively with
+white. Being an artificial iron ochre it is more chemically active than
+native ochres, and needs to be cautiously employed with pigments
+affected by iron, such as the lakes of cochineal and intense blue.
+
+160. MIXED ORANGE.
+
+Orange being a compound colour, the place of original orange pigments
+can be supplied by mixtures of yellow and red; either by glazing one
+over the other, by stippling, or by other modes of breaking and
+intermixing them, according to the nature of the work and the effect
+required. For reasons lately given, mixed pigments are apt to be
+inferior to the simple or homogeneous both in colour, working, and other
+properties; yet some pigments mix and combine more cordially and with
+better results than others; as is the case with liquid rubiate and
+gamboge. Generally speaking, the compounding of colours is easier in oil
+than in water; but in both vehicles trouble will be saved by beginning
+with the predominating colour, and adding the other or others to it.
+
+Perhaps in this, our first chapter on the secondary colours, and
+consequently on colours that can be compounded, a few remarks on mixed
+tints from a chemical point of view will not be deemed superfluous.
+
+There are two ways, we take it, of looking at a picture--from a purely
+chemical, and from a purely artistic, point of view. Regarded in the
+first light, it matters little whether a painting be a work of genius or
+a daub, provided the pigments employed on it are good and properly
+compounded. The effects produced are lost sight of in a consideration of
+the materials, their permanence, fugacity, and conduct towards each
+other. Painting is essentially a chemical operation: with his pigments
+for reagents, the artist unwittingly performs reaction after reaction,
+not with the immediate results indeed of the chemist in his laboratory,
+but often as surely. As colour is added to colour, and mixture to
+mixture, acid meets alkali, metal animal, mineral vegetable, inorganic
+organic. With so close a union of opposite and opposing elements, the
+wonder is not so much that pictures sometimes perish, but that they ever
+live. It behoves the artist, then, not only to procure the best and most
+permanent pigments possible, but to compound them in such a manner that
+his mixed tints may be durable as well as beautiful. To effect or aid in
+effecting this, although he may not always be able to act upon them, the
+following axioms should be borne in mind:--
+
+1. If they do not react on each other, a permanent pigment added to a
+permanent pigment yields a permanent mixture.
+
+2. If they do react on each other, a permanent pigment added to a
+permanent pigment yields a semi-stable or fugitive mixture.
+
+3. A permanent pigment added to a semi-stable pigment yields a
+semi-stable mixture.
+
+4. A permanent pigment added to a fugitive pigment yields a fugitive
+mixture.
+
+Consequently--
+
+5. A permanent pigment may be rendered fugitive or semi-stable by
+improper compounding.
+
+6. A semi-stable or fugitive pigment is not rendered durable by being
+compounded.
+
+7. As a chain is only as strong as its weakest link, so a mixture is
+only as permanent as its least durable constituent.
+
+To give illustrations--
+
+1. Ultramarine added to Chinese white yields a permanent mixture.
+
+2. Ultramarine added to an acid constant white yields a semi-stable or
+fugitive mixture.
+
+3. Ultramarine added to Prussian blue yields a semi-stable mixture.
+
+4. Ultramarine added to indigo yields a fugitive mixture.
+
+Except in the second instance, where the blue is either partially or
+wholly destroyed--in time, be it remembered, not at once--according to
+the quantity and strength of the acid in the white, the ultramarine
+remains unchanged. Hence at first sight our third and fourth conclusions
+may appear wrong; inasmuch as, it may be argued, a blue mixture cannot
+be semi-stable or fugitive when blue is left. To this we reply, unless
+both constituents are fugitive, a mixture will always more or less
+possess colour; but, if even one constituent be semi-stable or fugitive,
+a mixture will slowly but surely lose _the_ colour for which it was
+compounded, and be _as a mixture_ semi-stable or fugitive.
+
+It need hardly be observed that the number of permanent orange, green,
+and purple hues which the artist can compound, depends mainly on the
+number of permanent yellows, reds, and blues at his disposal. In mixed
+orange, therefore, a selection of durable yellows and reds is of the
+first importance. It should, however, be remarked that mixed orange,
+more sober and less decided, is obtainable by the use of citrine and
+russet; in the former of which yellow predominates, and in the latter,
+red: consequently orange results when yellow is added to russet, red to
+citrine, or citrine to russet.
+
+    PERMANENT YELLOWS.     | PERMANENT REDS.
+                           |
+    Aureolin.              | Cadmium Red.
+    Cadmium, deep.         | Liquid Rubiate.
+    Cadmium, pale.         | Madder Carmine.
+    Lemon Yellow.          | Rose Madder.
+    Mars Yellow.           | Mars Red.
+    Naples Yellow, modern. | Ochres.
+    Ochres.                | Vermilions.
+    Orient Yellow.         |
+    Raw Sienna.            |
+
+None of these pigments react on each other, and from them can be
+produced the most durable mixed orange that yellow and red will afford.
+
+161. NEUTRAL ORANGE,
+
+or _Penley's Neutral Orange_, is a permanent compound pigment composed
+of yellow ochre and the russet-marrone known as brown madder: it is
+chiefly valuable in water-colour. Paper, being white, is too opaque to
+paint upon, without some wash of colour being first passed over it;
+otherwise the light tones of the sky are apt to look crude and harsh. It
+must, therefore, be gone over with some desirable tint, that shall
+break, in a slight degree, the extreme brilliancy of the mere paper. For
+this purpose, a thin wash of the orange is to be put over the whole
+surface of the paper with a large flat brush, care being taken never to
+drive the colour too bare, _i.e._ never to empty the brush too closely,
+but always to replenish before more is actually required. This first
+wash of colour not only gives a tone to the paper, but secures the
+pencil sketch from being rubbed out.
+
+The reason why, in this compound, yellow ochre, as a yellow, is
+preferred to any of the others, is, that it is a broken yellow, that is,
+a yellow slightly altered by having another hue, such as red, or brown,
+in its composition. It is somewhat opaque too, and hence, from this
+quality, is especially adapted for distances. Brown madder also is a
+subdued red, which, when in combination with the former, produces a
+neutral orange, partaking of the character of soft light. As a general
+rule, yellow ochre is to predominate in broad daylight, and brown madder
+in that which is more sombre and imperfect: hence the pigment can be
+yellowed or reddened, by the addition of one or the other. For a clear
+sunset, the neutral orange must be repeated, with a preponderance of
+ochre at the top, assisted by a little cadmium yellow near the sun; the
+madder being added downwards.
+
+In treating of distant mountains, a distinction is to be made between
+them and the clouds, the former requiring solidity, while the latter are
+only to be regarded as vapour and air. Mountains, being opaque bodies,
+are acted upon by atmosphere more or less, according to their position,
+their distance, and the state of the weather. To express this
+distinction, recourse must be had to an under tint, except where the
+tone is decidedly blue--an uncommon case. No mixture can give this with
+such truth as the neutral orange. A wash, therefore, should be passed
+over the mountains, with nearly all yellow in the high lights, or in the
+gleams of sunshine, and, on the contrary, almost all brown madder for
+the shadows. These two degrees of tone must be run into each other
+while the drawing is wet. A beautiful and soft under tone will thus be
+given to receive the greys.
+
+162. ORANGE, OR BURNT ROMAN OCHRE,
+
+called also _Spanish Ochre_, is a very bright yellow or Roman ochre
+burnt, by which operation it acquires warmth, colour, transparency, and
+depth. Moderately bright, it forms good flesh tints with white, dries
+and works well both in water and oil, and is a very good and eligible
+pigment. It may be used in enamel painting, and has all the properties
+of its original ochre in other respects.
+
+A redder hue is imparted by mixing the ochre with powdered nitre before
+ignition, the orange red being subsequently washed with hot water.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+163. _Anotta_,
+
+Annotto, Annatto, Arnotto, Arnotta, Terra Orellana, Rocou, &c., is met
+with in commerce under the names of cake anotta, and flag or roll
+anotta. The former, which comes almost exclusively from Cayenne, should
+be of a bright yellow colour: the latter, which is imported from the
+Brazils, is brown outside and red within. It is prepared from the pods
+of the _bixa orellana_, and appears generally to contain two colouring
+matters, a yellow and a red, which are apt to adhere to each other and
+produce orange. Anotta dissolves with difficulty in water, but readily
+in alcohol and alkaline solutions, from which last it may be thrown down
+as a lake by means of alum. Being, however, exceedingly fugitive and
+changeable, it is not fit for painting; but is chiefly employed in
+dyeing silk, and colouring varnishes and cheese. Very red cheese should
+be looked upon with suspicion, for although the admixture of anotta is
+in no way detrimental to health provided the drug be pure, it is
+commonly adulterated with red lead and ochre. Several instances are on
+record that Gloucester and other cheeses have been found contaminated
+with red lead, through having been coloured with anotta containing it,
+and that this contamination has produced serious consequences.
+
+_Bixine_ is a purified extract of anotta made in France, and used by
+dyers.
+
+164. _Antimony Orange_,
+
+Golden Sulphur of Antimony, or Golden Yellow, is a hydro-sulphuret of
+antimony of an orange colour, which is destroyed by the action of strong
+light. It is a bad dryer in oil, injurious to many pigments, and in no
+respect eligible either in water or oil.
+
+165. _Chromate of Mercury_
+
+has been improperly classed as a red with vermilion, for though it is of
+a bright ochrous red in powder, when ground it becomes a bright
+ochre-orange, and affords with white very pure orange tints.
+Nevertheless it is a bad pigment, since light soon changes it to a deep
+russet colour, and foul air reduces it to extreme blackness.
+
+166. _Damonico_,
+
+or Monicon, is an iron ochre, being a compound of raw Sienna and Roman
+ochre burnt, and having all their qualities. It is rather more russet in
+hue than the pigment known as orange or burnt Roman ochre, has
+considerable transparency, is rich and durable in colour, and furnishes
+good flesh tints. As in orange ochre, powdered nitre may be employed in
+its preparation. Notwithstanding its merits, it is obsolete or nearly
+so; doubtless because burnt Sienna mixed with burnt Roman ochre
+sufficiently answers the purpose.
+
+167. _Gamboge Orange._
+
+On adding acetate of lead to a potash solution of gamboge, a rich bright
+orange is precipitated, which may be washed on a filter till the
+washings are colourless, and preserves its hue with careful drying. The
+orange which we thus obtained stood well in a book, but it cannot be
+recommended as an artistic pigment. Perhaps in dyeing, the lead and
+gamboge solutions might be worth a trial.
+
+168. _Laque Minerale_
+
+is a French pigment, a species of chromic orange, similar to the orange
+chromate of lead. This name is likewise given to orange oxide of iron.
+
+169. _Madder Orange_,
+
+or Orange Lake. It has been said that the yellows so-called produced
+from madder are not remarkable for stability, differing therein from the
+reds, purples, russets, and browns. Like them, this 'orange' is of
+doubtful colour and permanence, and not to be met with, brilliant and
+pure, on the palette of to-day. The russet known as Rubens' madder has a
+tendency to orange.
+
+170. _Orange Lead_,
+
+of a dull orange colour, is an orange protoxide of lead or massicot.
+Like litharge, it may be employed in the preparation of drying oils,
+and, being a better drier than white lead, may be substituted for it in
+mixing with pigments which need a siccative, as the bituminous earths.
+
+Minium sometimes leans to orange; and there is made from ceruse a
+peculiar red, _Mineral Orange_.
+
+
+_Orange Orpiment_,
+
+or Realgar, has also been called Red Orpiment, improperly, since it is
+a brilliant orange, inclining to yellow. There are two kinds, a native
+and an artificial, of which the former is the _sandarac_ of the
+ancients, and is rather redder than the latter. They possess the same
+qualities as pigments, and as such resemble yellow orpiment, to which
+the old painters gave the orange hue by heat, naming it alchemy and
+burnt orpiment. Orange orpiment contains more arsenic and less sulphur
+than the yellow, and is of course highly poisonous. It is often
+sophisticated with brickdust and yellow ochre.
+
+172. _Thallium Orange_
+
+is produced when bichromate of potash is added to a neutral salt of the
+protoxide of thallium, as an orange-yellow precipitate. The scarcity of
+the metal precludes their present introduction as pigments, but if the
+chromates of thallium were found to resist the action of light and air,
+and not to become green by deoxidation of the chromic acid, they might
+possibly prove fitted for the palette. It is a question whether their
+_very_ slight solubility in water would be a fatal objection; and,
+although they would be liable to suffer from a foul atmosphere, we are
+inclined to think the effects would not be so lasting as in the
+chromates of lead. Like lead sulphide, the sulphide of thallium ranges
+from brown to brownish-black, or grey-black; and, like it too, is
+subject to oxidation and consequent conversion into colourless sulphate.
+It is, however, much more readily oxidized than sulphate of lead; and
+hence the thallium chromates would doubtless soon regain their former
+hue on exposure to a strong light.
+
+Mr. Crookes, who discovered this new metal in 1861, believes that the
+deep orange shade observable in some specimens of sulphide of cadmium is
+due to the presence of thallium. He has frequently found it, he says, in
+the dark-coloured varieties, and considers the variations of colour in
+cadmium sulphide to be owing to traces of thallium. That thallium
+affects the colour is most probable, but it is not necessarily the cause
+of the orange hue. The tint of cadmium sulphide is a mere matter of
+manufacture, seeing that from the same sample of metal there can be
+obtained lemon-yellow, pale yellow, deep yellow, orange-yellow, and
+orange-red. With deference to the opinion of a chemist so distinguished,
+we hold that thallium rather impairs the beauty of cadmium sulphide than
+imparts to it an orange shade, the thallium being likewise in the form
+of sulphide, and therefore more or less black. On chromate of cadmium,
+made with bichromate of potash, thallium would naturally confer an
+orange hue.
+
+173. _Uranium Orange_
+
+is obtainable by wet and dry methods as a yellowish-red, or, when
+reduced to powder, an orange-yellow, uranate of baryta. It is an
+expensive preparation, superfluous as a pigment.
+
+174. _Zinc Orange._
+
+When hydrochloric acid and zinc are made to act on nitro-prusside of
+sodium, a corresponding zinc compound is formed of a deep orange colour,
+slightly soluble in water, and not permanent.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+For a secondary colour, orange is well represented on the modern
+palette, and can point to some pigments as good and durable as any to be
+found among the primaries. Burnt Sienna, cadmium orange, Mars orange,
+neutral orange, and orange or burnt Roman ochre, are all strictly
+permanent. The so-called orange vermilions were, it will be remembered,
+classed among the reds.
+
+As semi-stable, must be ranked chrome orange; and as fugitive, Chinese
+orange, orange orpiment, and orange lead.
+
+From the foregoing division, the predominance of eligible orange
+pigments over those less trustworthy is manifest. Unfortunately, with
+many painters it is not so manifest that their secondary and compound
+colours should receive as much attention as the primaries, and that it
+is their duty, not only to the art which they practice, but to the
+patrons for whom they practice it, that their orange and green and
+purple hues, should be as durable as their yellows, reds, and blues. For
+such, the introduction of a new permanent pigment is of little interest,
+unless its colour be primary; so wedded are they to that passion for
+compounding which the chemist views with dismay. With dismay, because he
+knows that the rules of mixture are severe, and cannot with impunity be
+altered; that, although disguised in oil or gum, each pigment is a
+chemical compound, with more or less of affinity and power, more or less
+likely to act or be acted upon. Because he knows that, except with the
+most experienced artists, compounding leads to confusion; and that in it
+the temptations to use semi-stable or fugitive colours are strong. Look
+at those tables of mixed tints of which artist-authors are so fond, and
+tell us whether they always bear scrutiny--surely not. Admirable,
+perfect as these tints may be in an artistic sense, how often is their
+beauty like the hectic flush of consumption, which carries with it the
+seeds of a certain death. Will that orange where Indian yellow figures
+ever see old age, or that green with indigo, or purple with cochineal
+lake? Will they not rather spread over the picture the Upas-tree of
+fugacity, and kill it as they die themselves!
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII.
+
+ON THE SECONDARY, GREEN.
+
+
+Green, which occupies the middle station in the natural scale of colours
+and in relation to light and shade, is the second of the secondary
+colours. It is composed of the extreme primaries, _yellow_ and _blue_,
+and is most perfect in hue when constituted in the proportions of three
+of yellow to eight of blue of equal intensities; because such a green
+will exactly neutralize and contrast a perfect red in the ratio of
+eleven to five, either of space or power. Of all compound colours, green
+is the most effective, distinct, and striking, causing surprise and
+delight when first produced by a mixture of blue and yellow, so
+dissimilar to its constituents does it appear to the untutored eye.
+Compounded with orange, green converts it into the one extreme tertiary
+_citrine_; while mixed with purple, it becomes the other extreme
+tertiary _olive_: hence its relations and accordances are more general,
+and its contrasts more agreeable with all colours, than those of any
+other individual colour. Accordingly it has been adopted very wisely in
+nature as the common garb of the vegetal creation. It is, indeed, in
+every respect a central or medial colour, being the contrast,
+compensatory in the proportion of eleven to five, of the middle primary
+_red_, on the one hand, and of the middle tertiary _russet_, on the
+other; while, unlike the other secondaries, all its hues, whether
+tending to blue or yellow, are of the same denomination.
+
+These attributes of green, which render it so universally effective in
+contrasting colours, cause it also to become the least useful in
+compounding them, and the most apt to defile other colours in mixture.
+Nevertheless it forms valuable semi-neutrals of the olive class with
+_black_, for of such subdued tones are those greens by which the more
+vivid tints of nature are opposed. Accordingly, the various greens of
+foliage are always more or less semi-neutral in hue. As green is the
+most general colour of vegetal nature and principal in foliage; so red,
+its harmonizing colour, with compounds of red, is most general and
+principal in flowers. Purple flowers are commonly contrasted with
+centres or variegations of bright yellow, as blue flowers are with like
+relievings of orange; and there is a prevailing hue, or character, in
+the green colour of the foliage of almost every plant, by which it is
+harmonized with the colours of its flowers.
+
+The chief discord of green is blue; and when they approximate or
+accompany each other, they require to be resolved by the opposition of
+warm colours. It is in this way that the warmth of distance and the
+horizon reconciles the azure of the sky with the greenness of a
+landscape. Its less powerful discord is yellow, which needs to be
+similarly resolved by a purple-red, or its principles. In tone, green is
+cool or warm, sedate or gay, either as it inclines to blue or to yellow;
+yet in its general effects it is cool, calm, temperate, and refreshing.
+Having little power in reflecting light, it is a retiring colour, and
+readily subdued by distance: for the same reason, it excites the retina
+less than most colours, and is cool and grateful to the eye. As a colour
+individually, green is eminently beautiful and agreeable, but it is more
+particularly so when contrasted by its compensating colour, red, as it
+often is in nature, even in the green leaves and young shoots of plants
+and trees. "The autumn only is called the painter's season," remarks
+Constable, "from the great richness of the colours of the dead and
+decaying foliage, and the peculiar tone and beauty of the skies; but the
+spring has, perhaps, more than an equal claim to his notice and
+admiration, and from causes not wholly dissimilar,--the great variety of
+tints and colours of the living foliage, accompanied by their flowers
+and blossoms. The beautiful and tender hues of the young leaves and
+buds are rendered more lovely by being contrasted, as they now are, with
+the sober russet browns of the stems from which they shoot, and which
+still show the drear remains of the season that is past."
+
+The number of pigments of any colour is in general proportioned to its
+importance; hence the variety of greens is very great, though the
+classes of those in common use are not very numerous. Of the three
+secondaries, green is the colour most often met with, and, consequently,
+the most often compounded: for this last reason, perhaps, the palette is
+somewhat deficient in really good original greens--more deficient than
+there is any necessity for.
+
+
+CHROME OXIDES.
+
+By numerous methods both wet and dry, oxides of chromium are obtainable
+pale and deep, bright and subdued, warm and cool, opaque and
+transparent: sometimes hydrated, in which case they cannot be employed
+in enamelling; and sometimes anhydrous, when they are admissible
+therein. But whatever their properties may be, chemical, physical, or
+artistic, they are all strictly stable. Neither giving nor receiving
+injury by admixture, equally unaffected by foul gas and exposure to
+light, air, or damp, these oxides are perfectly unexceptionable in every
+respect. For the most part they are eligible in water and oil, drying
+well in the latter vehicle, and requiring in the former much gum. They
+have long been known as affording pure, natural, and durable tints; but,
+until within the last few years, have been rather fine than brilliant
+greens. Lately, however, processes have been devised, yielding them
+almost as bright, rich, and transparent, as the carmine of cochineal
+itself.
+
+175. OXIDE OF CHROMIUM,
+
+_Opaque Oxide of Chromium_, _Green Oxide of Chromium_, _Chrome Oxide_,
+_True Chrome Green_, _Native Green_, _&c._, is found native in an impure
+state as Chrome Ochre, but is always artificially prepared for artistic
+use. Obtained anhydrous by dry modes, this is the only chrome oxide
+available in enamelling, and is the one seen on superior porcelain. It
+is a cold, sober sage green, deep-toned, opaque, and, although dull,
+agreeable to the eye. Its tints with white are peculiarly delicate and
+pleasing, possessing a silvery luminous quality, and giving the effect
+of atmosphere. Being very dense and powerful, it must be employed with
+care to avoid heaviness, and is preferably diluted with a large quantity
+of white, or compounded with transparent yellow. In the hands of a
+master, this gray-green furnishes lustrous hues with brown pink, Italian
+pink, and Indian yellow; three beautiful but fugitive pigments, of
+which the two last may be replaced by aureolin. Of this Mr. Penley
+observes, "as adapted for the colouring of foliage and herbage, it is
+impossible to say too much in its praise. It imparts the vividness and
+freshness of nature to every colour with which it is combined;" and he
+brackets oxide of chromium with aureolin as a compound hue "extremely
+useful." In flat tints, the oxide sometimes does not wash well in water.
+
+176. TRANSPARENT OXIDE OF CHROMIUM
+
+being deficient in body, is only eligible in oil. A very pale
+greyish-white green in powder, it gives an agreeable yellowish green of
+some depth in oil, moderately bright, but not very pure or clear.
+
+We are acquainted with another transparent chrome oxide of far greater
+beauty, brightness, purity, and clearness than the above. Of a bluish
+green hue, a difficulty in getting it to mix with oil renders it at
+present unavailable.
+
+177. VERONESE GREEN,
+
+or _French Veronese Green_, is a comparatively recent introduction,
+similar in colour and general properties to the following; beside which,
+however, it appears dull, muddy, and impure. It is often adulterated
+with arsenic to an enormous extent, which interferes with its
+transparency, mars its beauty, and renders it of course rankly
+poisonous.
+
+178. VIRIDIAN
+
+is a still later addition to the palette, and the only permanent green
+which can be described as gorgeous, being not unlike the richest velvet.
+Pure and clear as the emerald, it may be called the Prussian Blue of
+Greens, of such richness, depth, and transparency is it. In hue of a
+bluish-green, its deepest shades verge on black, while its light tints
+are marked by transparent clearness unsurpassed. No compound of blue and
+yellow will afford a green at once so beautiful and stable, so gifted
+with the quality of light, and therefore so suited for aerial and liquid
+effects. Used with aureolin, it gives foliage greens sparkling with
+sunshine; and, fitly compounded, will be found invaluable for the glassy
+liquidity of seas, in painting which it becomes incumbent to employ
+pigments more or less transparent. "The general failing in the
+representation of the sea is, that instead of appearing liquid and thin,
+it is made to bear the semblance of opacity and solidity. In order to
+convey the idea of transparency, some object is often placed floating on
+the wave, so as to give reflection; and it is strange that we find our
+greatest men having recourse to this stratagem. To say it is not true in
+all cases, is saying too much; but this we do assert, that as a general
+principle it is quite false, and we prove it in this way: water has its
+motion, more or less, from the power of the wind; it is acted upon in
+the mass, and thus divided into separate waves, and these individually
+have their surface ruffled, which renders them incapable of receiving
+reflection. The exception to this will be, where the heaving of the sea
+is the result of some gone-by storm, when the wind is hushed, and the
+surface becomes bright and glassy. In this state, reflections are
+distinctly seen. Another exception will be in the hollow portion of the
+waves, as they curl over, and dash upon the shore."
+
+As viridian, like the sea, is naturally "liquid and thin, bright and
+glassy," the extract we have quoted from Mr. Penley, points to this
+green as a pigment peculiarly adapted for marine painting; in which, it
+may be added, its perfect permanence and transparency will be
+appreciated in glazing. Its fitness for foliage has been remarked; but
+in draperies the colour will prove equally useful, and in illumination
+will be found unrivalled. In the last branch of art, indeed, viridian
+stands alone, not only through its soft rich brilliancy, but by the
+glowing contrast it presents with other colours: employed as a ground,
+it throws up the reds, &c., opposed to it, in a marvellous manner. Like
+the three preceding oxides of chromium, viridian neither injures nor is
+injured by other pigments; is unaffected by light, damp, or impure air;
+and is admissible in fresco. In enamelling it cannot be used; the
+colour, depending on the water of hydration, being destroyed by a strong
+heat.
+
+
+COPPER GREENS
+
+are commercially known as _Emerald Green_, _Malachite Green_, _Scheele's
+Green_, _Schweinfurt Green_, _Verdigris_, _Green Bice_, _Green
+Verditer_, _Brunswick Green_, _Vienna Green_, _Hungary Green_, _Green
+Lake_, _Mineral Green_, _Patent Green_, _Mountain Green_, _Marine
+Green_, _Saxon Green_, _French Green_, _African Green_, _Persian Green_,
+_Swedish Green_, _Olympian Green_, _Imperial Green_, _Mitis Green_,
+_Pickle Green_, &c.
+
+The general characteristics of these greens are brightness of colour,
+well suited to the purposes of house-painting, but seldom adapted to the
+modesty of nature in fine art; considerable permanence, except when
+exposed to the action of damp and impure air, which ultimately blacken
+most of them; and good body. They have a tendency to darken by time, dry
+well as a rule in oil, and are all more or less poisonous, even those
+not containing arsenic.
+
+179. EMERALD GREEN,
+
+_Schweinfurt Green_, _Vienna Green_, _Imperial Green_, _Brunswick
+Green_, _Mitis Green_, &c., is a cupric aceto-arsenite, prepared on the
+large scale by mixing arsenious acid with acetate of copper and water.
+It differs from Scheele's Green, or cupric arsenite, in being lighter,
+more vivid, and more opaque. Powerfully reflective of light, it is
+perhaps the most durable pigment of its class, not sensibly affected by
+damp nor by that amount of impure air to which pictures are usually
+subject: indeed it may be ranked as permanent both in itself and when in
+tint with white. It works better in water than in oil, in which latter
+vehicle it dries with difficulty. Bearing the same relation to greens
+generally as Pure Scarlet bears to reds, its vivid hue is almost beyond
+the scale of other bright pigments, and immediately attracts the eye to
+any part of a painting in which it may be employed. Too violent in
+colour to be of much service, it has the effect, when properly placed,
+of toning down at once, by force of contrast, all the other greens in a
+picture. If discreetly used, it is occasionally of value in the drapery
+of a foreground figure, where a bright green may be demanded; or in a
+touch on a gaily painted boat or barge. When required, no mixture will
+serve as a substitute. Compounded with aureolin, it becomes softened and
+semi-transparent, yielding spring tints of extreme brilliancy and
+beauty.
+
+180. SCHEELE'S GREEN,
+
+or _Swedish Green_, resembles the preceding variety in being a compound
+of copper and arsenic, and therefore rankly poisonous; but differs from
+it in containing no acetic acid, in possessing less opacity, and in
+having a darker shade. It is a cupric arsenite, with the common
+attributes of emerald green, under which name it is sometimes sold. Of
+similar stability, it must not be employed with the true Naples yellow
+or antimoniate of lead, by which it is soon destroyed.
+
+Upon the lavish use of this dangerous pigment in colouring toys,
+dresses, paper-hangings, artificial leaves, and even cheap
+confectionery, it is not our province to enlarge: the constant-recurring
+diseases and deaths, which, directly or indirectly, result from the
+employment of arsenical pigments, are such every-day facts that they are
+merely deplored and forgotten. With arsenic on our heads, our clothes,
+our papers, our sweets, our children's playthings, we are so accustomed
+to live--and die--in a world of poison, that familiarity with it has
+bred contempt. Into the fatal popularity, therefore, of arsenical
+colours for decorative purposes, we shall not further enter; but it
+behoves us to deprecate their presence, and the presence of all
+poisonous pigments, in colour-boxes for the young. It is one of the
+pleasures of childhood to suck anything attractive that comes in its
+way, openly if allowed, furtively otherwise: and as in early life we
+have a preference for brilliancy, so vivid a pigment as Scheele's green
+is an object of special attention. Artistically, it matters little
+whether a pigment is noxious or not, but we hold that poison should not
+be put into the hands of the young; and indeed are of opinion that a box
+of colours is about the worst present a child can receive.
+
+181. MALACHITE GREEN,
+
+or _Mountain Green_, is met with in Cumberland, and is also found in the
+mountains of Kernhausen, whence it is sometimes called _Hungary Green_.
+It is prepared from malachite, a beautiful copper ore employed by
+jewellers, and is a hydrated dicarbonate of copper, combined with a
+white earth, and often striated with veins of mountain blue, to which it
+bears the same relation that green verditer bears to blue verditer. The
+colour, which may be extracted from the stone by the process followed
+for native ultramarine, varies from emerald-green to grass-green, and
+inclines to grey. It has been held in great esteem by some, and
+considered strictly stable, on the assumption, probably, that a pigment
+obtained from a stone like ultramarine, and by the same method, could
+not be otherwise than permanent. That it is so, with respect to light
+and air, there is no denying; but the green, when separated from the ore
+and purified for artistic use, is merely a carbonate of copper, and
+therefore subject to the influence of damp and impure air, in common
+with other non-arsenical copper colours. As a pigment, native malachite
+green has the same composition, or very nearly the same, as that which
+can be artificially produced, and answers to the same tests. Water-rubs
+of the two varieties which we exposed to an atmosphere of sulphuretted
+hydrogen became equally blackened by the gas. Practically, there is
+little or no difference between them: both preserve their colour if kept
+from damp and foul air, both are injured by those agents, and both are
+liable to darken in time, especially when secluded from light. The
+artificial, however, can be obtained of a much finer colour than the
+natural, which it may be made to resemble by admixture with mineral
+gray. On the whole, they can scarcely be recommended for the palette,
+and are certainly inferior in durability to Scheele's and Schweinfurt
+greens. In fresco painting they have been pronounced admissible; but,
+apart from the question of damp, we should deem the conjunction of lime
+with carbonate of copper not favourable to permanence. By the action of
+alkalies, even the native green malachite may be converted into blue;
+and it becomes a question whether the dingy greenish-blue on some
+ancient monuments was not originally malachite green.
+
+182. VERDIGRIS,
+
+or _Viride AEris_, is of two kinds, common or impure, and crystallized or
+_Distilled Verdigris_, or, more properly, refined verdigris. The best is
+made at Montpellier in France, and is a sub-acetate of copper of a
+bright green colour inclining to blue. The least durable of the copper
+greens, it soon fades as a water-colour by the action of light, &c., and
+becomes first white and ultimately black by damp and foul gas. In oil,
+verdigris is permanent with respect to light and air, but moisture and
+an impure atmosphere change its colour, and cause it to effloresce or
+rise to the surface through the oil. It dries rapidly, and is
+exceptionally useful with other greens or very dark colours. In varnish
+it stands better; but cannot be considered safe or eligible, either
+alone or compounded. Vinegar dissolves it, forming a solution used for
+tinting maps, and formerly much employed for colouring pickles, &c.
+
+The painters, who lived at the time when the arts were restored in
+Italy, used this pigment; and the bright greens seen in some old
+pictures are made by glazings of verdigris. It is often largely
+adulterated with chalk and sulphate of copper.
+
+183. MIXED GREEN
+
+Green, being a compound of blue and yellow, may be got by combining
+those colours in the several ways of working--by mixing, glazing,
+hatching, or otherwise blending them in the proportions of the various
+hues required. To obtain a _pure_ green, which consists of blue and
+yellow only, a blue should be chosen tinged with yellow rather than with
+red, and a yellow tinged with blue. If either a blue or a yellow were
+taken, tinged with red, this latter colour would go to produce some grey
+in the compound, which would tarnish the green. The fine nature-like
+greens, which have lasted so well in some of the pictures of the Italian
+schools, appear to have been compounded of ultramarine, or ultramarine
+ashes and yellow. Whatever pigments are employed on a painting in the
+warm yellow hues of the foreground, and blue colouring of the distance
+and sky, are advantageous for forming the greens in landscape, &c.,
+because they harmonize better both in colouring and chemically, and
+impart homogeneity to the whole: a principle conducive to a fine tone
+and durability of effect, and applicable to all mixed tints. In
+compounding colours, it is desirable not only that they should agree
+chemically, but that they should have, as far as possible, the same
+degree of durability. In these respects, aureolin and ultramarine,
+gamboge and Prussian blue, Indian yellow and indigo, are all judicious
+mixtures, although not all to be recommended.
+
+    PERMANENT YELLOWS.     | PERMANENT BLUES.
+                           |
+    Aureolin.              | Cerulian Blue.
+    Cadmium Yellow, pale.  | Cobalt Blue.
+    Cadmium Yellow, deep.  | Genuine Ultramarine.
+    Lemon Yellow.          | Brilliant Ultramarine.
+    Mars Yellow.           | French Ultramarine.
+    Naples Yellow, modern. | New Blue.
+    Ochres.                | Permanent Blue.
+    Orient Yellow.         |
+    Raw Sienna.            |
+
+The foregoing yellows and blues are in no wise inimical to each other,
+and yield the best mixed greens, chemically considered, the palette can
+afford. In an artistic sense, we confess, the result is not so
+satisfactory: the list of blues, it must be admitted, being somewhat
+scant. Among the latter there is no pigment with the wonderful depth,
+richness, and transparency of Prussian blue, and none consequently which
+will furnish with yellow a green of similar quality. That the artist,
+therefore, will dispense with Prussian blue, it would be too much to
+expect. There is, however, less necessity for it since the introduction
+of viridian, a green resembling that which is produced by admixture of
+Prussian blue and yellow, and which may be varied in hue by being
+compounded with aureolin or ultramarine. Our object in this work is to
+give precedence to the chemical rather than the artistic properties of
+pigments, to separate the strictly stable from the semi-stable, and the
+semi-stable from the fugitive. A colour or a mixture may be chemically
+bad but artistically good, and vice versa; but the chemist looks upon no
+pigment or compound with favour unless it be perfectly permanent, and
+ignores its mere beauty when void of durability. Hence, all artistic
+considerations are set aside in our lists of permanent pigments: if it
+be possible to use them alone, so much the better for the permanence of
+painting; if not, so much the worse will it be, according to the degree
+of fugacity of the colours employed.
+
+184. BRONZE,
+
+and the three succeeding varieties, are greens resembling each other in
+being semi-stable, and more or less transparent. Bronze is a species of
+Prussian green, of a dull blue-black hue. In its deep washes it appears
+a greenish-black with a coppery cast. It is used in ornamental work, and
+sometimes as a background tint for flower pieces.
+
+185. CHROME GREENS,
+
+commonly so called, are compounds of chromate of lead and Prussian blue,
+a mixture which is also known as _Brunswick Green_. Fine bright greens,
+they are suited to the ordinary purposes of mechanic painting, but are
+quite unfit for the artist's craft, chrome yellow reacting upon and
+ultimately destroying Prussian blue when mixed therewith. For the
+latter, cheap cobalts and ultramarines are preferably substituted,
+although they do not yield greens of like power and intensity.
+
+Under the names of English Green, Green Cinnabar, &c., 'new' green
+pigments have been from time to time introduced, which have turned out
+mixtures of Prussian blue and chromate of lead; not made, however, by
+compounding the two, but directly by processes similar to the
+following:--A mixed solution of the acetates of lead and iron is added
+to a mixed solution of the yellow prussiate and chromate of potash, the
+necessary acetate of iron being obtained by precipitating a solution of
+acetate of lead by sulphate of iron, and filtering the supernatant
+liquid. Or; to a solution of Prussian blue in oxalic acid, first
+chromate of potash is added, and then acetate of lead.
+
+By the last process, superior and more permanent chrome greens may be
+produced, free from lead, by using chloride of barium or nitrate of
+bismuth in place of the acetate of lead. Chromate of baryta, or chromate
+of bismuth is then formed, neither of which acts on the Prussian blue.
+
+It should be added that where the latter pigment is present, no green
+will serve for painting walls containing lime, as its action alters the
+tint of the Prussian blue.
+
+186. HOOKER'S GREEN
+
+is a compound of Prussian blue and gamboge, two pigments possessing a
+like degree of stability, and perfectly innocuous to each other. It is a
+mixture more durable and more transparent than chrome greens made with
+chromate of lead. There are two varieties in common use--No. 1, a light
+grass green, in which the yellow predominates; and No. 2, a deeper and
+more powerful green, with a larger amount of blue.
+
+187. PRUSSIAN GREEN,
+
+like the preceding, is composed of Prussian blue and gamboge; but
+contains a very great excess of the former, and is therefore a
+bluish-green of the utmost depth and transparency, verging on black in
+its deep washes. Yellow ochre may be employed instead of gamboge, but is
+not so eligible.
+
+A true Prussian green, which has been recommended as a pigment, can be
+produced as a simple original colour, with a base wholly of iron. It is
+got by partially decomposing the yellow oxalate of protoxide of iron
+with red prussiate of potash. We have made this green and given it a
+fair trial, but our verdict is decidedly against it. In colour it is
+far from being equal to a good compound of Prussian blue and gamboge,
+and it assumes a dirty buff-yellow on exposure to light and air, the
+film of blue on the oxalate more or less disappearing.
+
+Another Prussian green, with a base of cobalt, is obtained by
+precipitating the nitrate of that metal with yellow prussiate of potash.
+According to the mode adopted, and the degree of heat, either a light or
+dark green results; but this also is inferior in colour, and presents no
+advantage as to permanence.
+
+188. SAP GREEN,
+
+_Verde Vessie_, or _Iris Green_, is a vegetal pigment prepared from the
+juice of the berries of the buckthorn, the green leaves of the woad, the
+blue flowers of the iris, &c. It is usually preserved in bladders, and
+is thence sometimes called _Bladder Green_. When good, it is of a dark
+colour and glossy fracture, extremely transparent, and a fine natural
+yellowish green. This gummy juice, inspissated and formed into a cake,
+is occasionally employed in flower painting. It is, however, a very
+imperfect pigment, disposed to attract the moisture of the atmosphere,
+and to mildew; while, having little durability in water and less in oil,
+it is not eligible in the one and is totally useless in the other.
+
+Similar pigments, obtained from coffee-berries, and named Venetian and
+Emerald Greens, are of a colder colour, equally defective and fugitive,
+and now obsolete.
+
+189. TERRE VERTE,
+
+or _Green Earth_, is a sober bluish green with a grey cast. It is a
+species of ochre, containing silica, oxide of iron, magnesia, potash,
+and water. Not bright and of little power, it is a very durable pigment,
+being unaffected by strong light or impure air, and combining with other
+colours without injury. It has not much body, is semi-transparent, and
+dries well in oil. Veins of brownish or reddish ochre are often found
+mixed with terre verte, to the detriment of its colour; and there are
+varieties of this pigment with copper for their colouring matter, which,
+although generally brighter, are inferior in other respects, and not
+true terre vertes. Verona Green and Verdetto or Holy Green, are
+ferruginous native pigments of a warmer hue. These are met with in the
+Mendip Hills, France, Italy, and the island of Cyprus, and have been
+used as pigments from the earliest times. Rubens has availed himself
+much of terre verte, not in his landscapes merely, but likewise in the
+carnation tints in his figures of a dead Christ. It is evident that much
+of the glazing is done with this colour: it is, in fact, most useful in
+glazing; because, having only a thin substance, it can be rendered pale
+by a small portion of white; although in the end it becomes darker by a
+concentration of its molecules. Merimee states that in the greater part
+of Alexander Veronese's works--in his Death of Cleopatra, in the Louvre,
+for instance--there are some demi-tints which are too green, and which
+it is certain were not so originally. Terre verte, therefore, must be
+employed with caution; and it would be well to ascertain beforehand
+whether a mineral colour will in time become darker than when first laid
+on the picture, by putting a drop of oil on the powder in its natural
+state. If the tone this gives to it be more intense than that which it
+acquires by being ground up, it may fairly be assumed that it will
+attain to the same degree of strength whenever, having completely dried,
+its molecules shall have re-united as closely as it is possible. Umber
+and terra di Sienna are of this class.
+
+In combination with Indian red and Naples yellow, terre verte forms a
+series of mild russet greens, of much use in middle distance.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+190. _Chrome Arseniate_
+
+is an agreeable apple-green colour, prepared from arseniate of potash
+and salts of chromic oxide. It is durable, but possesses no advantages
+over the chrome oxides, and is of course poisonous.
+
+191. _Cobalt Green_,
+
+Rinman's Green, Vert de Zinc or Zinc Green. True cobalt green is made by
+igniting a very large quantity of carbonate of zinc with a very small
+quantity of carbonate of cobalt. To give a green tint to an enormous
+proportion of the former, an inappreciable amount of the latter will
+suffice. Some samples which were analysed, consisted almost entirely of
+zinc, there being only two or three per cent. of cobalt present. This
+green presents an example of a pigment being chemically good and
+artistically bad, or at least indifferent. It is a moderately bright
+green, apt to vary in hue according to the mode of manufacture,
+permanent both alone and compounded, but so sadly deficient in body and
+power, as to have become almost obsolete. With other physical defects,
+and a colour inferior to the chrome oxides, cobalt green has never been
+a favourite with artists, though justly eulogised by chemists.
+
+192. _Copper Borate_
+
+is obtained by precipitating sulphate of copper with borax, washing the
+residue with cold water, and, after drying, igniting it, fusion being
+carefully avoided. In this manner, a pretty yellowish green is produced,
+which upon longer ignition assumes a dark green shade: the mass is
+levigated for use. The compound has the objection of being glassy, and
+possessing little body, but is preferable to verdigris as to permanence.
+
+193. _Copper Chrome_
+
+may be prepared by several methods, but the colour is in no case so fine
+as Scheele's or Schweinfurt green, nor is it as stable.
+
+194. _Copper Stannate_,
+
+or Tin-Copper Green, equals in colour any of the copper greens free from
+arsenic. The cheapest way of making it is to heat 59 parts of tin in a
+Hessian crucible with 100 parts nitrate of soda, and dissolve the mass
+when cold in a caustic alkali. To the clear solution, diluted with
+water, a cold solution of sulphate of copper is added: a reddish-yellow
+precipitate falls, which on being washed and dried, becomes a beautiful
+green. On the palette it would be superfluous, but for common purposes
+might be found of service.
+
+195. _Elsner's Green_
+
+is also a combination of tin and copper. It is made by adding to a
+solution of sulphate of copper a decoction of fustic, previously
+clarified by a solution of gelatine. To this mixture are added ten or
+eleven per cent. of protochloride of tin, and lastly an excess of
+caustic potash or soda. The precipitate is then washed and dried,
+whereupon it takes a green colour tinged with blue, but without the
+brightness or durability of the preceding stannate.
+
+196. _Green Bice_,
+
+or Green Verditer, is the same in substance as blue verditer, which is
+converted into green verditer by boiling. This pigment is one of the
+least eligible of copper greens.
+
+197. _Green Ochre._
+
+By partially decomposing yellow ochre with prussiate of potash, we have
+produced a fine dark blue-green, resembling Prussian green, of great
+depth and transparency. There are, however, difficulties in the process;
+and the results do not warrant us in pronouncing this green superior or
+equal to a mixture of the ochre and Prussian blue.
+
+198. _Green Ultramarine_
+
+is French or artificial ultramarine before the final roasting. It is a
+somewhat bright bluish-green, becoming a dull greenish-blue on continued
+exposure. Chemically, it is not a bad colour; but artists generally have
+decided against it.
+
+199. _Manganese Green_,
+
+or Cassel Green. By several methods, manganate of baryta may be obtained
+either as an emerald-green, a bluish-green, or a pale green. The
+manganates, however, are decomposed by contact with organic matter; and
+hence the green would be liable to suffer from the vehicles employed, as
+well as by being compounded with animal or vegetal pigments.
+
+200. _Mineral Green_
+
+is the commercial name of _Green Lakes_, prepared from sulphate of
+copper. These vary in hue and shade, have all the properties of the
+common non-arsenical copper-greens, and, not being subject to change of
+colour by oxygen and light, stand the weather well, and are excellent
+for the use of the house-painter, &c. Having a tendency to darken and
+blacken by time and foul air, they are not eligible in the nicer works
+of fine art.
+
+Another Mineral Green adopted in Germany as a substitute for the
+poisonous Schweinfurt green, is composed of chromate of lead, carbonate
+of copper, oxide of iron, and chalk. Valueless for the palette, it has
+not the beauty of Schweinfurt green, but is recommended as being free
+from arsenic. It is not, however, altogether harmless, and should not
+be used in confectionery or the like.
+
+201. _Molybdenum Green._
+
+A clear malachite green colour, when dried, is produced from molybdate
+of soda and potash-chrome-alum, or from the molybdate and alum with
+ammonia. Being more expensive than the chrome oxides and not better, its
+introduction, for use by artists, would be attended with no advantage.
+
+There is likewise obtainable a copper molybdate, by adding neutral
+molybdate of soda in excess to sulphate of copper. The precipitate is a
+very pale green colour, flocculent at first, but crystalline after
+washing. Like the chrome molybdate it would be superfluous as a pigment.
+
+202. _Quinine Green_
+
+is rather adapted for a dye than an artist-colour. It is furnished by
+acting on quinine with hypochlorite of lime, hydrochloric acid, and
+ammonia, successively. Thus prepared, the green resembles a resin,
+insoluble in water, but soluble in alcohol, and turned blue by acetic
+acid. Its alcoholic solution dyes silk green, and also woollen and
+cotton when mordanted with albumen.
+
+203. _Roman Green_,
+
+brought from Rome some years back by a President of the Royal Academy,
+appeared to be a mixture of Prussian blue and Dutch or Italian pink. It
+was a fugitive compound, which became blue in fading.
+
+204. _Silicate of Baryta._
+
+One part of silica heated to whiteness with three parts of baryta,
+yields a pale green solid mass, permanent, but deficient in colour when
+ground. It might be employed in enamelling.
+
+205. _Titanium Green_
+
+has been proposed as a substitute for the green arsenical pigments in
+common use; but, apart from its expense, the colour is very inferior to
+Scheele's green, &c. Titanium green is a ferrocyanide of that metal,
+produced by adding yellow prussiate of potash to a solution of titanic
+acid in dilute hydrochloric acid, and heating the mixture to ebullition
+rapidly. The dark green precipitate is washed with water acidulated with
+hydrochloric acid, and dried with great care, since it decomposes at
+temperatures above 100 deg..
+
+206. _Uranium Green_
+
+is an oxide of a deep dull green colour, inclining to olive, and nearly
+black when in lumps. A durable but unattractive preparation, equalled in
+permanence and far surpassed in beauty by many cheaper compounds.
+
+207. _Vanadium Green_
+
+falls when ferrocyanide of potassium is added to vanadic acid dissolved
+in a strong acid. It is a beautiful green precipitate, but at present
+simply a curiosity, owing to the rarity of the metal vanadium.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Adopting our usual custom of separating the wheat from the chaff, we
+point to the opaque and transparent oxides of chromium, Veronese green,
+viridian, emerald green, Scheele's green, and terre verte, as more or
+less worthy of being dubbed durable.
+
+As semi-stable, malachite green, bronze, Hooker's green, and Prussian
+green, must be classed.
+
+Verdigris, chrome greens, and sap green, should be branded as fugitive:
+the chrome greens, because they are always commercially composed of
+chromate of lead and Prussian blue, two compounds which are semi-stable
+in themselves, but become fugacious when compounded.
+
+A reference to the numbered italicised greens will show that there are
+many not known to the palette, which are nevertheless very greatly
+superior, as regards permanence, to some that disgrace it. Why these
+latter are suffered to hold their position is a mystery not easily
+explained: it is hard to reconcile the deplored degeneracy of modern
+pigments with the popularity of semi-stable and fugitive colours.
+Pictures do not stand, is the common cry; therefore, says the public,
+there are no good pigments now-a-days. To which we answer, newly built
+houses are constantly falling down; therefore there are no good bricks
+in these times. Of a truth, one conclusion is as reasonable as the
+other: in either case, if rotten materials be used, the result cannot be
+lasting; but in neither case does it follow, because such materials are
+employed, that there are no better obtainable. A well-built house
+implies a conscientious builder, and a well-painted picture implies a
+conscientious artist. It is because, we fear, that there are so few
+conscientious artists, that there are so few permanent paintings; not,
+certainly, because there are no good pigments. In this last belief,
+however, the public is encouraged by certain painters, who seek thereby
+to excuse their own shortcomings, forgetting that it is a bad workman
+who finds fault with his tools. It has been well observed that when
+artists speak regrettingly of lost 'systems,' or pigments enjoyed by the
+mediaevalists and unattainable now, it would be far better were they to
+make the best use of existing materials, and study their further
+development. There is no need for this cant cry of fugacity, which casts
+such a blight on modern art. Durable pigments are not yet obsolete, they
+have only to be employed and employed properly to furnish paintings
+equal in permanence to those of the old masters. "Titian," says Haydon,
+"got his colours from the colour shops on the Rialto, as we get ours
+from Brown's; and if Apelles or Titian were living now, they would paint
+just as good works with our brushes and colours as with their own."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII.
+
+ON THE SECONDARY, PURPLE.
+
+
+Purple, the third and last of the secondary colours, is composed of
+_red_ and _blue_, in the proportions of five of the former to eight of
+the latter; proportions which constitute a perfect purple, or one of
+such a hue as will neutralize and best contrast a perfect yellow, in the
+ratio of thirteen to three, either of surface or intensity. When mixed
+with its co-secondary colour, green, purple forms the tertiary _olive_;
+and, when compounded with the remaining secondary, orange, it
+constitutes in like manner the tertiary _russet_. Of the three secondary
+colours it is the coolest, as well as the nearest in relation to _black_
+or shade; in which respect, and in never being a warm colour, it
+resembles blue. In other respects also, purple partakes of the
+properties of blue, which is its archeus, or ruling colour; hence it is
+to the eye a retiring colour, that reflects light little, and loses
+rapidly in power in a declining light, and according to the distance at
+which it is viewed. By reason of its being the mean between black and
+blue it becomes the most retiring of all positive colours. Nature
+employs this hue beautifully in landscape, as a sub-dominant, in
+harmonizing the broad shadows of a bright sunshine ere the light sinks
+into deep orange or red. Girtin, who saw Nature as she is, and painted
+what he saw, delighted in this effect of sunlight and shadow. As a
+ruling colour, whether in flesh or otherwise, purple is commonly too
+cold, or verges on ghastliness, a fault which is to be as much avoided
+as the opposite extreme of viciousness in colouring, stigmatized as
+foxiness.
+
+Yet, next to green, purple is the most generally pleasing of the
+consonant colours; and has been celebrated as a regal or imperial
+colour, as much perhaps from its rarity in a pure state, as from its
+individual beauty. Romulus wore it in his trabea or royal mantle, and
+Tullus Hostilius, after having subdued the Tuscans, assumed the pretexta
+or long robe, broadly striped with purple. Under the Roman emperors, it
+became the peculiar emblem or symbol of majesty, and the wearing of it
+by any who were not of the Imperial family, was deemed a "treasonable
+usurpation," punishable by death. At the decline of the empire, the
+Tyrian purple was an important article of commerce, and got to be common
+in the clothing of the people. Pliny says, "Nepos Cornelius, who died in
+the reign of Augustus Caesar, when I was a young man, assured me that
+the light violet purple had been formerly in great request, and that a
+pound of it usually fetched 100 denaria (about L4 sterling): that soon
+after the tarentine or reddish purple came into fashion; and that this
+was followed by the Tyrian dibapha, which could not be bought for less
+than 1000 denaria (nearly L40 sterling) the pound; which was its price
+when P. Lentulus Spinter was AEdile, Cicero being then Consul. But
+afterwards, the double-dyed purple became less rare, &c." The Tyrian
+purple alluded to was obtained from the purpurae, a species of shell-fish
+adhering to rocks and large stones in the sea adjoining Tyre. On
+account, probably, of its extreme costliness, it was frequently the
+custom to dye the cloth with a ground of kermes or alkanet, previous to
+applying the Tyrian purple. This imparted to the latter a crimson hue,
+and explains doubtless the term, double-dyed. The Greeks feigned the
+ancient purple to be the discovery of Hercules Tyrius, whose dog, eating
+by chance of the fish from which it was produced, returned to him with
+his mouth tinged with the dye. Alexander the Great is said to have found
+in the royal treasury, at the taking of Susa, purple to the enormous
+value of 5000 talents,[A] which had lain there one hundred and
+ninety-two years, and still preserved its freshness and beauty.
+
+When inclining to red, purple takes the name of _crimson_, &c.; and when
+leaning to blue, the names of _violet_, _lilac_, _mauve_, _&c._ Blue is
+a colour which it serves to mellow, or follows well into shade. The
+contrast or harmonizing colour of purple is yellow on the side of light
+and the primaries; while purple itself is the harmonizing contrast of
+the tertiary _citrine_ on the side of shade, and less perfectly so of
+the semi-neutral _brown_. As the extreme primaries, blue and yellow,
+when either compounded or opposed, afford, though not the most perfect
+harmony, yet the most pleasing consonance of the primary colours; so the
+extremes, purple and orange, yield the most pleasing of the secondary
+consonances. This analogy extends likewise to the extreme tertiary and
+semi-neutral colours, while the mean or middle colours furnish the most
+agreeable contrasts or harmonies.
+
+In nature pure purple is not a common colour, and on the palette purple
+pigments are singularly few. They lie under a peculiar disadvantage as
+to apparent durability and beauty of colour, owing to the neutralizing
+power of yellowness in the grounds upon which they are laid; as well as
+to the general warm colour of light, and the yellow tendency of almost
+all vehicles and varnishes, by which the colour of purple is subdued.
+
+208. BURNT CARMINE
+
+is the carmine of cochineal partially charred till it resembles in
+colour the purple of gold, for which, in miniature and water-painting,
+it is substituted. It is a magnificent reddish purple of extreme
+richness and depth, eligible in flower-painting and the shadow of
+draperies. As it is generally impossible, however, to alter the nature
+of a pigment by merely changing its colour, burnt carmine is scarcely
+more permanent than the carmine from which it is produced. If used,
+therefore, it should be in body, and not in thin washes or as a glaze.
+Durable pigments are admissible in any form; but semi-stable pigments
+(gamboge excepted) should only be employed in body.
+
+209. BURNT LAKE
+
+holds the same relation to crimson lake as burnt carmine to ordinary
+carmine; and is hence a weaker variety of the preceding, with less
+richness, and likewise less permanence.
+
+210. INDIAN PURPLE
+
+is prepared by precipitating an extract of cochineal with sulphate of
+copper. It is a very deep-toned but rather cold and subdued purple,
+neither so red nor so brilliant as burnt carmine; and is chiefly of
+service in draperies. It is apt to lose its purple colour in a great
+measure on exposure to light and air, and assume an inky blackness; a
+defect which becomes less apparent when the pigment is used in bulk.
+
+211. MARS VIOLET,
+
+_Violet de Mars_, _Purple Ochre_, or _Mineral Purple_, is a dark ochre,
+native of the Forest of Dean in Gloucestershire. It is of a murrey or
+chocolate colour, and forms cool tints of a purple hue with white. It is
+of a darker colour than Indian red, which has also been classed among
+purples, but has a similar body and opacity, and generally resembles
+that pigment. It may be prepared artificially, and some natural red
+ochres burn to this colour. Being difficult and sometimes impossible to
+procure, Mars violet is often compounded; in which case it is liable to
+vary both in hue and stability. As, however, Indian red is always taken
+for its basis, the mixture is never wholly fugitive, nor exhibits any
+very glaring contrast on exposure.
+
+212. MIXED PURPLE.
+
+Purple being a secondary colour, composed of _blue_ and _red_, it
+follows of course that any blue and red pigments, which are not
+chemically at variance, may be employed in producing mixed purples of
+any required hue, either by compounding or grinding them together ready
+for use, or by combining them in the various modes of operation in
+painting. In such compounding, the more perfect and permanent the
+original colours are, the more perfect and permanent will be the purple
+obtained. To produce a pure purple, neither the red nor the blue must
+contain or incline to yellow; while to compound a durable purple, both
+the red and the blue must be durable also. Ultramarine and the reds of
+madder yield beautiful and excellent purples, equally stable in water or
+oil, in glazing or tint, whether under the influence of light or impure
+air. Cobalt blue and madder red likewise afford good purples; and some
+of the finest and most delicate purples in ancient paintings appear to
+have been composed of ultramarine and vermilion, which furnish tints
+equally permanent, but less transparent than the above, and less easily
+compounded. Facility of use, and other advantages, are obtained at too
+great a sacrifice by the employment of perishable mixtures, such as the
+lakes of cochineal with indigo.
+
+    PERMANENT REDS. | PERMANENT BLUES.
+                    |
+    Cadmium Red.    | Cerulian Blue.
+    Liquid Rubiate. | Cobalt Blue.
+    Madder Carmine. | Genuine Ultramarine.
+    Rose Madder.    | Brilliant Ultramarine.
+    Mars Red.       | French Ultramarine.
+    Ochres.         | New Blue.
+    Vermilions.     | Permanent Blue.
+
+It should be noted that all the above reds do not afford pure purples
+with blue; those which contain more or less yellow, as cadmium red and
+orange vermilion, furnish purples partaking more or less of olive, which
+is a compound of purple and green. To those reds may be added the russet
+Rubens Madder and the marrone Madder Brown, two pigments which are alike
+eligible for mixed purple and mixed orange. No purple, it will be
+remarked, equal in gorgeous richness to that produced from crimson lake
+and Prussian blue is obtainable from the colours given; just as no mixed
+green is of such depth and power if that blue be wanting as a
+constituent. But, as our compound tints are given rather as examples of
+durability than beauty, all semi-stable or fugitive mixtures are of
+necessity ignored.
+
+213. PURPLE MADDER,
+
+_Field's Purple_, or _Purple Rubiate_, is the only durable organic
+purple the palette possesses. Marked by a soft subdued richness rather
+than by brilliancy, it leans somewhat towards marrone, and affords the
+greatest depth of shadow without coldness of tint. Unfortunately, in the
+whole range of artistic pigments there is no colour obtainable in such
+small quantity as madder purple; hence its scarcity and high price cause
+it to be confined to water-colour painting, in which the clearness and
+beauty of its delicate tones render it invaluable in every stage of a
+drawing. With raw Sienna and indigo or Prussian blue, subdued by black,
+it gives beautiful shadow tints, and will be found useful in sky and
+other effects compounded with cobalt, rose madder, French blue and
+sepia, yellow ochre and cobalt, lamp black and cobalt, light red,
+Vandyke brown, burnt Sienna, or aureolin. With great transparency, body,
+and depth, it is pure and permanent in its tints, neither gives nor
+sustains injury on admixture, dries and glazes well in oil, works well,
+and is altogether most perfect and eligible. For fresco it is admirably
+adapted, being quite uninjured by lime.
+
+There is a lighter and slightly brighter sort, containing less colouring
+matter and more base, which has all the properties of the above with
+less intensity of colour. For the sake of cheapness, the purple is
+sometimes compounded in oil, generally of brown madder and a blue.
+Provided the latter be stable, transparent, and mix kindly, no greater
+objection can be taken to this than to the neutral orange of brown
+madder and yellow ochre.
+
+214. VIOLET CARMINE
+
+is a brilliant bluish purple of much richness, employed in draperies and
+the like. It is prepared by precipitating an alcoholic extract of the
+root of the _Anchusa tinctoria_, commonly known as alkanet, a plant
+growing in the Levant, and some other warm countries. It was used by the
+ancients as a dye, or as a groundwork to those stuffs which were to be
+dyed purplish-red: the ladies in ancient times also employed it as a
+paint. Its colouring matter or _anchusin_ has the character of a resin,
+and is dark-red, softened by heat, insoluble in water, soluble in
+alcohol and alkalis, and freely so in ether, fats, and volatile oils, to
+all of which it imparts a brilliant red hue. To obtain anchusin, all the
+soluble matters are first abstracted from the bruised root by water: it
+is then digested in a solution of carbonate of potash, from which it may
+be readily precipitated by an acid. Its alcoholic solution yields with
+different reagents crimson, flesh-coloured, blue, and violet
+precipitates, none of which, however, can be classed as durable. The
+variety under notice, violet carmine, resembles the other colours
+afforded by alkanet in not being able to withstand the action of light.
+On continued exposure, it loses its beauty and brightness, together with
+much of its colour, and, like Indian purple, assumes an inky blackness.
+Hence it is unsuited to permanently pure effects, and should only be
+used in body.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+215. _Archil Purple._
+
+Archil may be regarded as the English, cudbear as the Scotch, and litmus
+as the Dutch name for one and the same substance, extracted from
+several species of lichens by various processes. These lichens, which
+are principally collected on rocks adjacent to the sea, are cleaned and
+ground into a pulp with water, treated from time to time with ammoniacal
+liquor, and exposed with frequent agitation to the action of the
+atmosphere. Peculiar principles existing in the lichens are, by the
+joint instrumentality of the air, water, and ammonia, so changed as to
+generate colouring matter, which, when perfect, is expressed. Soluble in
+water and alcohol, this colouring principle yields by precipitation with
+chloride of calcium a compound known as 'Solid French Purple', a pigment
+more stable than the archil colours generally, but all too fugitive for
+the palette.
+
+216. _Bismuth Purple._
+
+A purple powder is capable of being produced from bismuth by passing
+chlorine gas through the hydrated oxide suspended in a saturated
+solution of potash. As soon as the oxide becomes brown-red, the mixture
+is boiled and the liquid decanted off at once, the residue being
+immediately washed first with alcohol and then with water. On the whole,
+the result is not, for an artistic pigment, worth the trouble involved
+in the preparation.
+
+217. _Burnt Madder_
+
+is obtained by carefully charring madder carmine until it becomes of the
+hue required. Bearing the same relation to madder carmine as burnt
+carmine to the carmine of cochineal, burnt madder is a permanent and
+perfectly unexceptionable pigment. By reason, probably, of its great
+price, it is not mentioned in trade catalogues, and must be held as
+commercially unknown.
+
+218. _Cobalt Purples_
+
+are obtainable ranging from the richest crimson purple to the most
+delicate violet. We have produced them by wet and dry methods, varying
+in brilliancy and beauty, but characterised generally by want of body,
+and frequently by a smalt-like grittiness. Chemically, good and stable
+colours, they are not received with favour on the palette, and certainly
+may be very well replaced by mixtures of cobalt blue and madder red.
+When a permanent compound is obtainable equal in colour to an original
+pigment, and superior in its physical attributes, no objection can
+fairly be taken to its artistic preference. There are other things to be
+considered in a pigment besides permanence, or even permanence and
+colour combined. The two together do not constitute a perfect pigment,
+that is, a material of practical utility and value. In the last
+chapter, allusion was made to a green which possesses both the one and
+the other, and yet is--at present, at least--quite unfitted for artistic
+use. Hence, with a strong partiality for simple original pigments, we
+are bound to confess there are cases where mixtures are justifiably
+preferred. All we contend for is, that each constituent of such mixtures
+should be stable, and neither give nor receive injury by being
+compounded.
+
+219. _Gold Purple_,
+
+Purple of Cassius, or Cassius's Purple Precipitate, was discovered in
+1683 by Cassius of Leyden. It is a compound of tin and gold, best formed
+by mixing aqueous perchloride of iron with aqueous protochloride of tin,
+till the colour of the liquid has a shade of green, and then adding this
+liquid, drop by drop, to a solution of perchloride of gold, which is
+free from nitric acid and very dilute: after twenty-four hours the
+purple is deposited. When recently prepared, the colour is brightened by
+boiling nitric acid. Not brilliant, but rich and powerful, this purple
+varies in hue according to the mode of manufacture from deep crimson to
+murrey or dark purple: it also differs in degrees of transparency.
+Working well in water, it is an excellent though costly pigment, once
+popular in miniatures, but at present rarely, if ever used, as purple
+madder is cheaper, and perfectly well supplies its place. Retaining its
+colour at a high red heat, it is now confined to enamel and porcelain
+painting, and to tinging glass of a fine red. If, whilst in its hydrated
+state, it be washed with ammonia, a bright purple liquid results, from
+which a violet colour, somewhat less expensive, can be produced, by
+combining the gold purple with alumina, and calcining the product in the
+same way that is practised with cobalt. This compound may be exposed to
+the action of the sun's rays for a year without being sensibly affected.
+
+220. _Prussian Purple._
+
+A prussiate of iron is obtainable of a violet hue, affording good shadow
+tints and clear pale washes. It has not, however, been introduced as a
+pigment, as ordinary Prussian blue tinged with red furnishes a similar
+colour.
+
+221. _Sandal Wood Purple._
+
+Sandal wood contains about 16 per cent. of colouring matter, soluble
+with difficultly in water, but readily dissolved by alcohol. From the
+latter solution, chloride of tin throws down a purple, and sulphate of
+iron a deep violet precipitate; neither of which is remarkable for
+permanence.
+
+222. _Tin Violet._
+
+By heating chromate of stannic oxide to bright redness, a dark violet
+mass is obtained, which is better adapted to enamel painting than to the
+palette. It communicates in glazings a variety of tints, from rose-red
+to violet.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+So scant is the number of good purples in common use, that there are but
+two which can be classed as durable, namely, purple madder and the true
+Mars violet.
+
+Foremost in the second group stands burnt carmine. As there are
+different degrees both of permanence and fugacity, so are there
+different degrees of semi-stability. Burnt carmine, burnt lake, Indian
+purple, and violet carmine, all belong to this division; but the first
+certainly is more permanent than the rest.
+
+Rich and beautiful as it is, purple madder cannot be called brilliant;
+while Mars violet is, of course, ochrous. Unlike green and orange,
+therefore, purple can point to no original pigment at once vivid and
+durable: as regards purple, brilliancy implies a semi-stability that
+borders more or less closely on fugacity. Until the advent of a perfect
+palette, however, brilliancy and semi-stability will doubtless hold
+their own. Their present popularity may be seen by a glance at the lists
+of artist-colours--lists compiled, be it remembered, in obedience to
+the law of demand and supply. If art were really so much honoured as
+some of its disciples pretend, none but durable colours would be
+employed. In our opinion, if a picture be worth painting at all, it is
+worth painting with permanent pigments; but many evidently think
+otherwise. Deploring an error neither flattering to the craft they
+practise nor to themselves, we would urge such to bear in mind this
+axiom, semi-stable pigments become fugitive when used in thin washes.
+Even in body they do not preserve their primitive hue, but in glazing
+and the like, their colour altogether flies or is wholly destroyed.
+
+It is this semi-stability, recommended to the thoughtless and
+indifferent by the beauty which generally accompanies it, that is the
+bane of modern art. Even our greatest painters have yielded to its
+fascination. Who has not gazed upon one of Turner's fading pictures with
+still more of sadness than enjoyment, that anything so grand, so
+beautiful, so true, should slowly but surely be passing away? A feeling
+akin to pity is conjured up at the sight of the helpless wreck,
+abandoned amid the treacherous materials employed, and sinking deeper
+and deeper. Mournful, indeed, is that mighty ruin of mind amid matter;
+mournful the thought that in years to come, the monument sought for will
+not be found.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[A] A talent of money, _i.e._, a talent's weight of silver, was equal to
+nearly L244.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV.
+
+ON THE TERTIARY, CITRINE.
+
+
+Citrine, or the colour of the citron, is the first of the tertiary class
+of colours, or ultimate compounds of the primary triad, yellow, red, and
+blue; in which yellow is the archeus or predominating colour, and blue
+the extreme subordinate. For citrine being an immediate compound of the
+secondaries, _orange_ and _green_, of both which yellow is a
+constituent, the latter colour is of double occurrence therein, while
+the other two primaries enter singly into its composition. The mean or
+middle hue comprehends eight blue, five red, and six yellow, of equal
+intensities.
+
+Hence citrine, according to its name, which is that of a class of
+colours and used commonly for a dark yellow, partakes in a subdued
+degree of all the powers of its archeus yellow. In estimating,
+therefore, its properties and effects in painting, it is to be regarded
+as participating of all the relations of yellow. By some this colour is
+improperly called brown, as almost all broken colours are. The
+harmonizing contrast of citrine is a _deep purple_, which may be seen
+beautifully opposed to it in nature, when the green of summer declines.
+As autumn advances, citrine tends towards its orange hues, including the
+colours termed aurora, chamoise, and others before enumerated under the
+head of yellow. It is the most advancing of the tertiary colours, or
+nearest in relation to light; and is variously of a tender, modest,
+cheering character.
+
+To understand and relish the harmonious relations and expressive powers
+of the tertiary colours, require a cultivation of perception and a
+refinement of taste for which study and practice are needed. To a great
+extent the colourist, like the poet, is born not made; but although he
+must have an innate sense of the beautiful and the true, hard work
+alone, with his head, his eyes, and his hands, will enable him to learn
+and turn to account the complex beauties and relations of tertiary
+colours. They are at once less definite and less generally evident, but
+more delightful--more frequent in nature, though rarer in common art,
+than the like relations of the secondaries and primaries. There is very
+little pure colour in the world: now and then a gleam dazzles us, like a
+burst of sunshine through grey mists; but as a rule, nature prefers
+broken colours to absolute hues. Most pure in spring, most full in
+summer, most mellow in autumn, most sober in winter, her tints and
+shades of colour are always more or less interlaced, from white and the
+primaries to the semi-neutral and black.
+
+Of original citrine-coloured pigments there are only a few, unless we
+include several imperfect yellows which might not improperly be called
+citrines. The following are best entitled to this appellation:--
+
+223. BROWN PINK,
+
+_Brown Stil de Grain_, _Citrine Lake_, or _Quercitron Lake_ is usually
+prepared from the berries of Avignon (ramnus infectorius), better known
+as French, Persian, or Turkey berries; but a more durable and quicker
+drying species is obtained from the quercitron bark. If produced from
+the former, it must be branded as fugitive, but if from the latter, it
+may be termed semi-stable. In either case it is a lake, precipitated
+from the alkaline decoction by means of alum, in such proportions that
+the alkali shall not be more than half saturated. The excess of soda or
+potash employed imparts a brown hue; but the lake being in general an
+orange broken by green, falls into the class of citrine colours,
+sometimes inclining to greenness, and sometimes towards the warmth of
+orange. It works well both in water and oil, in the latter of which it
+is of great depth and transparency, but its tints with white lead are
+very fugitive, and in thin glazing it does not stand: the berry variety
+dries badly. A fine rich colour, more beautiful than eligible, it is
+popular in landscape for foliage in foregrounds. Modified by admixture
+with burnt Sienna or gamboge, it yields a compound which, with the
+addition of a small quantity of indigo, gives a warm though not very
+durable green. In many of the Flemish pictures the foliage has become
+blue from the yellowish lake, with which the ultramarine was mixed,
+having faded.
+
+It has been remarked that the alteration made by time in semi-stable
+pigments is not so observable when they are employed in full body. Their
+use generally has been deprecated, but in shadows such vegetable colours
+as brown pink are sometimes of advantage, as they are transparent, lose
+part of their richness by the action of the air, and do not become
+black. Moreover, if mixed with pigments which have a tendency to darken,
+they mitigate it very much. This last, indeed, is the most legitimate
+purpose to which semi-stable pigments whose colour fades on exposure can
+be put.
+
+224. MARS BROWN,
+
+or _Brun de Mars_, is either a natural or artificial ochre containing
+iron, or iron and manganese. Of much richness and strict permanence, it
+resembles raw umber in being a brown with a citrine cast, but is
+generally marked by a flush of orange which is not so observable in the
+latter pigment.
+
+225. MIXED CITRINE.
+
+What has been before remarked of the mixed secondary colours is more
+particularly applicable to the tertiary, it being more difficult to
+select three homogeneous substances of equal powers as pigments than
+two, that shall unite and work together cordially. Hence the mixed
+tertiaries are still less perfect and pure than the secondaries; and as
+their hues are of extensive use in painting, original pigments of these
+colours are proportionably estimable to the artist. Nevertheless there
+are two evident principles of combination, of which he may avail himself
+in producing these colours in the various ways of working; the one being
+that of combining two original secondaries; and the other, of uniting
+the three primaries in such a manner that the archeus shall predominate.
+Thus in the case of citrine, either orange and green may be directly
+compounded; or yellow, red, and blue be so mixed that the yellow shall
+be in excess.
+
+These colours are, however, obtained in many instances with best and
+most permanent effect, not by the intimate combination of pigments upon
+the palette, but by intermingling them, in the manner of nature, on the
+canvas, so as to produce the appearance at a proper distance of a
+uniform colour. Thus composed is the _citrine_ colour of fruit and
+foliage, on inspecting which we distinctly trace the stipplings of
+orange and green, or of yellow, red, and green. The truth and beauty
+resulting from such stipplings in art may be seen in the luscious
+fruit-pieces of the late W. Hunt, where the bloom on the plum, the down
+of the peach, &c., are given with wondrous fidelity to nature. In the
+_russet_ hues of autumn foliage, where purple and orange have broken or
+superseded the summer green, this interlacing of colour appears; and
+also in the _olive_ foliage of the rose-tree, formed in the individual
+leaf by the ramification of purple in green. Besides the durable
+yellows, reds, and blues, the following orange and green pigments are
+eligible for mixed citrines. They may likewise, however, be safely and
+simply compounded by slight additions, to an original brown, of that
+primary or secondary tone which is requisite to give it the required
+hue.
+
+    PERMANENT ORANGE.  | PERMANENT GREEN.
+                       |
+    Burnt Roman Ochre. | Oxide of Chromium, opaque.
+    Burnt Sienna.      | Oxide of Chromium, transparent.
+    Cadmium Orange.    | Veronese Green.
+    Mars Orange.       | Viridian.
+    Neutral Orange.    | Emerald Green.
+                       | Scheele's Green.
+                       | Terre Verte.
+
+226. RAW UMBER,
+
+or Umber, is a natural ochre, chiefly composed of oxide of manganese,
+oxide of iron, silica, and alumina. It is said to have been first
+brought from ancient Ombria, now Spoleto, in Italy. Found in England,
+and in most parts of the world, that which comes from Cyprus, under the
+name of Turkish or Levant umber, is the best. Of a quiet brown-citrine
+colour, semi-opaque, it dries rapidly, and injures no other good pigment
+with which it may be mixed. By time it grows darker, a disadvantage
+which may be obviated by compounding it with colours which pale on
+exposure. For light shadow tones and delicate grays it is extremely
+useful, and yields with blue most serviceable neutral greens. To mud
+walls, tints for stone, wood, gray rocks, baskets, yellow sails, and
+stormy seas, this citrine is suited. Some artists have painted on
+grounds primed with umber, but it has penetrated through the lighter
+parts of the work. Merimee states that there are several of Poussin's
+pictures so painted; that fine series, "The Seven Sacraments," being
+clearly among the number.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+227. _Cassia Fistula_
+
+is a native vegetal pigment, though it is more commonly employed as a
+medicinal drug. It is brought from the East and West Indies in a sort of
+cane, in which it is naturally produced. As a pigment it is deep,
+transparent, of an imperfect citrine colour, inclining to dark green,
+and diffusible in water without grinding, like gamboge and sap green.
+Once sparingly used in water as a sort of substitute for bistre, it is
+not now to be met with on the palette.
+
+228. _Citrine Brown._
+
+From boiling, hot, or cold solutions of bichromate of potash and
+hyposulphite of soda in excess, we have obtained an agreeable
+citrine-brown colour, varying in hue and tint according to the mode of
+preparation and proportions of materials employed. It is a hydrated
+oxide of chromium which, when washed and carefully dried, yields a soft
+floury powder. Transparent, and affording clear, delicate pale washes,
+the oxide has not been introduced as a pigment; partly owing to certain
+physical objections, and partly to a tendency to greenness. This
+tendency is peculiar to all the brown chrome oxides of whatever hue,
+whether hydrated or anhydrous; and indeed distinguishes more or less
+nearly all the compounds of chromium. Green, in fact, is the natural
+colour of such compounds, the colour which they are constantly
+struggling to attain; and hence it is that the green oxides of chromium,
+being clothed in their native hue, are of such strict stability. The
+inclination to green which the citrine under notice possesses, may be
+seen by washing the precipitate with boiling water. It has been
+supposed that hydrated brown oxide of chromium is not a distinct
+compound of chromium and oxygen, but a feeble union of the green oxide
+with chromic acid. If this be the case, the citrine cast of the brown
+oxide is easily explained, as well as the gradual addition to its green
+by the deoxidation of the chromic acid.
+
+In mixed tints for autumn foliage and the like, the tendency to green of
+this citrine brown would be comparatively unimportant; but whether the
+oxide be adapted to the palette or not, we believe the colour might be
+utilized. In dyeing, for instance, the solutions of bichromate of potash
+and hyposulphite of soda would be worth a trial, the liquids of course
+being kept separate, and the brown washed with cold water. Various
+patterns could be printed with the bichromate on a ground previously
+treated with hyposulphite.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Several other browns, and ochrous earths, partake of a citrine hue, such
+as Cassel Earth, Bistre, &c. But in the confusion of names, infinity of
+tones and tints, and variations of individual pigments, it is impossible
+to arrive at an unexceptionable or universally satisfactory arrangement.
+We have therefore followed a middle and general course in distributing
+pigments under their proper heads.
+
+Of the three citrines in common use, Mars brown and raw umber are
+strictly stable; while brown pink, the purest original citrine the
+palette possesses, is either semi-stable or fugitive, according to the
+colouring substance used in its preparation.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV.
+
+ON THE TERTIARY, RUSSET.
+
+
+Russet, the second or middle tertiary colour, is, like citrine,
+constituted ultimately of the three primaries, red, yellow, and blue;
+but with this difference--instead of yellow as in citrine, the archeus
+or predominating colour in russet is red, to which yellow and blue are
+subordinates. For _orange_ and _purple_ being the immediate constituents
+of russet, and red being a component part of each of those colours, it
+follows that red enters doubly into russet, while yellow and blue appear
+but once therein. The proportions of its middle hue are eight blue, ten
+red, and three yellow, of equal intensities. Thus composed, russet takes
+the relations and powers of a subdued red; and many pigments and dyes of
+the latter denomination are strictly of the class of russet colours. In
+fact, nominal distinction of colours is only relative; the gradation
+from hue to hue, as from tint to tint, and shade to shade, being of such
+unlimited extent, that it is impossible to pronounce absolutely where
+one hue, tint, or shade ends, and another begins.
+
+The harmonizing, neutralizing, or contrasting colour of russet, is a
+_deep green_; or when the russet inclines to orange, a _gray_ or
+_subdued blue_. These are often beautifully opposed in nature, being
+medial accordances or in equal relation to light, shade and other
+colours, and among the most agreeable to sense.
+
+Russet, as we have said, partakes of the relations of red, but it is a
+hue moderated in every respect, and qualified for greater breadth of
+display in the colouring of nature and art; less so, perhaps, than its
+fellow-tertiaries in proportion as it is individually more beautiful.
+The powers of beauty are ever most effective when least obtrusive; and
+its presence in colour should be chiefly evident to the eye that seeks
+it--not so much courting as being courted.
+
+Of the tertiary colours, russet is the most important to the artist; and
+there are many pigments classed as red, purple, &c., which are of russet
+hues. But there are few true russets, and only one original pigment of
+that colour is now known on the palette, to wit--
+
+229. RUBENS' MADDER,
+
+_Orange Russet_, _Russet Rubiate_, or _Field's Russet_. This is a very
+rich crimson russet with a flush of orange; pure, transparent, and of a
+middle hue between orange and purple. Prepared from the madder root, it
+is not subject to change by the action of light, time, or mixture of
+other pigments. Although not so much employed as the marrone Madder
+Brown, it is serviceable both as a local and auxiliary colour in
+compounding and producing with yellow the glowing hues of autumnal
+foliage, &c.; and with blue, the beautiful and endless variety of grays
+in skies, flesh, &c. A good glazing colour, its thin washes afford fine
+flesh tints in water: as an oil pigment it dries indifferently, and
+requires to be forced by the addition of a little gold size or varnish.
+Cappah brown and burnt umber sadden it to the rich tones adapted for
+general use in shadows. So saddened, this lake meets admirably the dark
+centres of the upper petals of certain fancy geraniums, while alone its
+pale washes are equally well suited to the lower leaves.
+
+230. MIXED RUSSET.
+
+What has been remarked in the preceding chapter upon the production of
+mixed citrine colours, is likewise applicable to mixed russet. By the
+immediate method of producing it materially from its secondaries, good
+and durable colours are obtained by compounding the following orange and
+purple pigments--
+
+    PERMANENT ORANGE.  | PERMANENT PURPLE.
+                       |
+    Burnt Roman Ochre. | Mars Violet, true.
+    Burnt Sienna.      | Purple Madder.
+    Cadmium Orange.    |
+    Mars Orange.       |
+    Neutral Orange.    |
+
+Many other less eligible duple and triple compounds of russet are
+obvious upon principle, and it may be produced by adding red in due
+predominance to some browns; but these, like most mixtures, are inferior
+to original pigments. To the orange colours there may be added cadmium
+red and the orange vermilions, pigments which were classed among the
+reds, but which contain sufficient yellow to render them adapted for
+either compound russets or compound citrines. And as of original purple
+pigments there are two only which are stable, such mixtures as madder
+red and French blue will help to swell the list of available permanent
+purples. Rubens' madder itself may be changed in hue by being first
+mixed with blue and then with orange.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+231. _Prussiate of Copper_
+
+differs chemically from Prussian blue only in having copper instead of
+iron for its basis. It varies in hue from russet to purple brown, is
+transparent and deep, but, being very liable to change in colour by the
+action of light and by other pigments, has never been much used, and is
+now obsolete. The compound has the objection of containing free
+prussiate of potash, not removable by continued washing--sometimes as
+much as five per cent.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+There are several other pigments which enter imperfectly into, or verge
+upon, the class of russet, which, having obtained the names of other
+classes to which they are allied, will be found under other heads; such
+are some of the ochres, as Indian red. Burnt carmine is often of the
+russet hue, or convertible to it by due additions of yellow or orange;
+as are burnt Sienna and various browns, by like additions of lake or
+other reds.
+
+The one pigment in this chapter known to the modern palette, Rubens'
+madder, is permanent.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI.
+
+ON THE TERTIARY, OLIVE.
+
+
+Olive is the third and last of the tertiary colours, and nearest in
+relation to shade. Like its co-tertiaries, citrine and russet, it is
+composed of the three primaries, blue, red, and yellow; but is formed
+more directly of the secondaries, _purple_ and _green_, in each of which
+blue is a constituent: hence blue occurs twice in the latter mode of
+forming olive, while red and blue enter therein singly and
+subordinately. Blue is, therefore, in every instance the archeus or
+predominating colour of olive; its perfect or middle hue comprehending
+sixteen of blue to five of red and three of yellow. It partakes in a
+proportionate measure of the powers, properties, and relations of its
+archeus: accordingly, the antagonist or harmonizing contrast of olive is
+a _deep orange_. Like blue, olive is a retiring colour, the most so of
+all the colours, being the penultimate of the scale, or nearest of all
+in relation to black, and last, theoretically, of the regular
+distinctions of colours. Hence its importance in nature and painting is
+almost as great as that of black; it divides the office of clothing the
+face of creation with green and blue; with both which, as with black and
+grey, it enters into innumerable compounds and accordances, changing its
+name as either hue prevails, into green, gray, ashen, slate, &c. Thus
+the olive hues of foliage are called green, and the purple hues of
+clouds are called gray, &c.; but such terms are general only, and
+unequal to the infinite particularity of nature.
+
+This infinity, or endless variation of hue, tint, and relation, of which
+the tertiaries are susceptible, gives a boundless license to the revelry
+of taste, in which the genius of the pencil may display the most
+captivating harmonies of colouring, and the most chaste and delicate
+expressions; too subtle to be defined, too intricate to be easily
+understood, and often too exquisite to be felt by the untutored eye.
+Nature always melodizes by imperceptible gradations, while she
+harmonizes by distinct contrasts. At different seasons we have blossoms
+of all hues, variously subordinated; and when the time of flowers may be
+considered past, as if she had no further use for her fine colours, or
+were willing to display her ultimate skill and refinement, Nature
+lavishes the contents of her palette, not disorderly, but in multiplied
+relations, over all vegetal creation, in those rich and beautiful
+accordances of broken and finishing colours with which autumn is
+decorated ere the year decays and sinks into olive darkness.
+
+As a rule, no colour exists in nature without gradation, which is to
+colours what curvature is to lines. The difference in mere beauty
+between a gradated and ungradated colour may be seen by laying an even
+tint of rose-colour on paper, and putting a rose leaf beside it. The
+victorious beauty of the rose, as compared with other flowers, depends
+wholly on the delicacy and quantity of its colour gradations, all other
+flowers being either less rich in gradation, not having so many folds of
+leaf; or less tender, being patched and veined instead of flushed. It is
+not enough, however, that colour should be gradated in painting by being
+made simply paler or darker at one place than another. Generally, colour
+changes as it diminishes, and is not only darker at one spot, but also
+purer at one spot than elsewhere; although it does not follow that
+either the darkest or the lightest spot should be the purest. Very often
+the two gradations more or less cross each other, one passing in one
+direction from paleness to darkness, another in another direction from
+purity to dulness; but there will almost always be both of them, however
+reconciled. Hence, every piece of blue, say, laid on should be quite
+pure only at some given spot, from which it must be gradated into blue
+less pure--greyish blue, or greenish blue, or purplish blue--over all
+the rest of the space it occupies. In Turner's largest oil pictures,
+there is not one spot of colour as large as a grain of wheat ungradated;
+and it will be found in practice that brilliancy of hue, vigour of
+light, and even the aspect of transparency in shade, are essentially
+dependent on this character alone; hardness, coldness, and opacity,
+resulting far more from equality of colour than from nature of colour.
+Given some mud off a city crossing, some ochre out of a gravel pit, a
+little whitening, and some coal-dust, and a luminous picture might be
+painted, if time were allowed to gradate the mud, and subdue the dust.
+But not with the red of the ruby, the blue of the gentian, snow for the
+light, and amber for the gold, could such a picture be produced, if the
+masses of those colours were kept unbroken in purity, and unvarying in
+depth.
+
+Olive being usually a compound colour both with the artist and mechanic,
+there are few olive pigments in commerce.
+
+232. MIXED OLIVE
+
+may be compounded in several ways; directly, by mixing green and purple;
+or indirectly, by adding to blue a smaller proportion of yellow and red,
+or by breaking much blue with little orange. Cool black pigments,
+combined with yellow ochre, afford eligible olives; hues which are
+called _green_ in landscape, and _invisible green_ in mechanic painting.
+It is to be noted that in producing these and other compound colours on
+the palette or canvass, those mixtures will most conduce to the harmony
+of the performance which are formed of pigments otherwise generally
+employed in the picture. Thus, presuming aureolin to be the principal
+yellow used, the same yellow should be chosen for compounding orange and
+green, or for obtaining indirectly citrine, russet, and olive.
+
+    PERMANENT GREEN.                | PERMANENT PURPLE.
+                                    |
+    Oxide of Chromium, opaque.      | Mars Violet, true.
+    Oxide of Chromium, transparent. | Purple Madder.
+    Veronese Green.                 |
+    Viridian.                       |
+    Emerald Green.                  |
+    Scheele's Green.                |
+    Terre Verte.                    |
+
+As in the case of russet, there may be added to the two original
+purples, mixtures composed of durable reds and blues. There are so many
+ways of producing the tertiaries, that no difficulty can be found in
+compounding them with stable pigments. Each tertiary may be represented
+as follows:--
+
+    CITRINE = Orange          + Green.
+       "    = (Yellow + Red)  + (Yellow + Blue.)
+       "    = 2 Yellow + Red  + Blue.
+
+    RUSSET  = Orange          + Purple.
+       "    = (Yellow + Red)  + (Red + Blue.)
+       "    = 2 Red + Yellow  + Blue.
+
+    OLIVE   = Green           + Purple.
+       "    = (Yellow + Blue) + (Red + Blue.)
+       "    = 2 Blue + Yellow + Red.
+
+From the above equations, and by consulting the lists given of permanent
+primary and secondary colours, the artist will at once see how easily
+and safely he may vary his mode of compounding the tertiaries.
+
+233. OLIVE GREEN,
+
+sometimes called _Dewint's Green_, is an arbitrary compound, or mixed
+green, of a fine deep olive colour and sober richness. Advisedly or not,
+it is used in landscape, sketching, &c.; but only in water, olive lake
+supplying its place in oil. Like many other compound pigments, it is
+either permanent, semi-stable, or fugitive, according to the
+constituents of which it is composed. Generally speaking, it is more
+beautiful than durable, and is often decidedly fugacious, fading on
+exposure. It is impossible for a writer to pronounce an absolute opinion
+on the stability of all mixtures sold in a separate form, inasmuch as
+the compounds of one firm may differ from those of another. We have
+before expressed our dislike to such pigments, and this uncertainty with
+regard to their composition serves to strengthen it. Nevertheless, as
+there are exceptions to every rule, it must be admitted that the palette
+possesses compounds always to be relied upon.
+
+234. OLIVE LAKE
+
+is in commerce exclusively an oil colour. When true, it is a lake
+prepared from the green ebony, or laburnum, and is of considerable
+permanence, transparency, and depth, both in water and oil; in which
+latter vehicle it dries well. This variety, however, may be said to be
+obsolete; having given way to a mixture, usually semi-stable, and liable
+to blacken.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+235. _Burnt Verdigris_
+
+is what its name expresses, and is an olive-coloured oxide of copper
+deprived of acid. It dries remarkably well in oil, is more durable than
+the original verdigris, and is in other respects an improved and more
+eligible pigment, although not to be recommended.
+
+236. _Olive Oxide of Chromium._
+
+An olive oxide of this metal is obtainable, transparent, of strict
+stability, and altogether superior to any original or compound olive
+pigment as yet known. Eligible either in water or oil, it is admirably
+adapted for autumn foliage, where a quiet, subdued, nature-like green
+is required. It has not, however, been introduced, partly because of its
+expense, and partly because a mixture of other pigments with the
+ordinary chrome oxides sufficiently answers the purpose. There are more
+good colours in the world than are dreamt of in the palette's
+philosophy, but either they are not wanted, or are too costly to sell.
+In a great measure, both art and science are dependent on commerce.
+
+237. _Olive Rinman's Green._
+
+A compound analogous to cobalt green may be made, of an olive hue, with
+more body, and equally stable.
+
+238. _Olive Scheele's Green._
+
+Cupric arsenite, when heated, gives off arsenious acid and water,
+leaving a residue of arsenide of copper and copper arseniate. A series
+of olive colours is so afforded, which are as durable as their original
+pigment, and might with advantage be substituted for the doubtful
+compounds at present in use.
+
+239. _Olive Schweinfurt Green_
+
+is likewise furnished by gentle calcination. It may be directly prepared
+by mixing boiling aqueous solutions of equal parts of crystallised
+verdigris and arsenious acid. An olive-green precipitate is immediately
+formed, which is apt, without due precaution, to pass into an emerald
+green. A durable copper colour.
+
+240. _Olive Terre Verte._
+
+We have obtained a very beautiful olive from terre verte by simply
+changing its hue. In oil, especially, the colour so produced would be
+found of service for autumn foliage, or richly painted foregrounds. A
+simple original pigment, consisting wholly of the earth, it resembles
+ordinary terre verte in being unaffected by strong light or impure air,
+and uninjured by admixture; but differs from it in not darkening by
+time. Semi-transparent, of sober richness and drying well in oil, it is,
+according to its powers, a perfectly unexceptionable colour, of strict
+stability.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Of the two olive colours in common use, olive lake and olive green, the
+first is generally semi-stable, and apt to blacken; while the second is
+usually fugitive, and liable to fade: both are compounds. The palette,
+therefore, possesses no original olive pigment, good or bad. A glance at
+the numbered italicised olives will show that the doubtful mixtures
+referred to might with advantage be superseded. It is clear that the
+olive pigments which the palette does not know, are better than those
+with which it is acquainted.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII.
+
+ON THE SEMI-NEUTRAL, BROWN.
+
+
+As colour, according to the regular scale descending from white, ceases
+properly with the last of the tertiaries, olive, in theory the neutral
+black would here form a fitting conclusion. Practically, however, every
+coloured pigment, of every class or tribe, combines with black as it
+exists in pigments--not simply being deepened or lowered in tone
+thereby, but likewise defiled in colour, or changed in class. Hence
+there arises a new series or scale of coloured compounds, having black
+for their basis, which, though they differ not theoretically from the
+preceding order inverted, are yet in practice imperfect or impure. These
+broken compounds of black, or coloured blacks and greys, we have
+distinguished by the term, semi-neutral, and divided them into three
+classes: Brown, Marrone, and Gray. What tints are with respect to white,
+they are with regard to black, being, so to speak, black tints or
+shades.
+
+The first of the series is BROWN, a term which, in its widest
+acceptation, has been used to include vulgarly every kind of dark broken
+colour, and is, in a more limited sense, the rather indefinite name of a
+very extensive class of colours of warm or tawny hues. Accordingly there
+are browns of every denomination except blue; to wit, yellow-brown,
+red-brown, orange-brown, purple-brown, citrine-brown, russet-brown, &c.
+But there is no such thing as a blue-brown, nor, strictly, any other
+coloured brown in which blue predominates; such predominance of a cold
+colour at once carrying the compound into the class of gray, ashen, or
+slate. Brown comprises the hues called dun, hazel, auburn, feuillemort,
+mort d'ore, &c.; several of which have been already mentioned as allied
+to the tertiary colours.
+
+The term _brown_, then, denotes rightly a warm broken colour, of which
+_yellow_ is a chief constituent: hence brown is in some measure to shade
+what yellow is to light. Hence, also, proper quantities of either the
+three primaries, the three secondaries, or the three tertiaries, produce
+variously a brown mixture. Browns contribute to coolness and clearness
+by contrast when opposed to pure colours, and Rubens more especially
+appears to have employed them upon this principle; although the same may
+be said of Titian, Correggio, Paulo Veronese, and all the best
+colourists. Being a sort of intermedia between positive colours and
+neutrality, browns equally contrast colour and shade. This accounts for
+their vast importance in painting, and the necessity of preserving them
+distinct from other colours, to which they give foulness in mixture; and
+to this is due their use in backgrounds and in relieving of coloured
+objects.
+
+The tendency in the compounds of colours to run into brownness and
+warmth is one of the common natural properties of colours which
+occasions them to deteriorate or defile each other in mixture. Brown by
+consequence is synonymous with foul or dirty, as opposed to fair or
+clean; and hence brown, which is the nearest of the semi-neutrals in
+relation to light, is to be avoided in mixture with light colours. Yet
+is it an example of the wisdom of nature's Author that brown is
+rendered, like green, a prevailing hue, and in particular an earth
+colour, as a contrast which is harmonized by the blueness and coldness
+of the sky.
+
+This tendency will likewise explain the use of brown in harmonizing and
+toning, as well as the great number of natural and artificial pigments
+and colours so called. It was the fertility and abundance of browns that
+caused our great landscape-colourist Wilson, when a friend went
+exultingly to tell him that he had discovered a new brown, to check him
+in his characteristic way, with--"I'm sorry for it: we have gotten too
+many of them already." Nevertheless, fine transparent browns are
+obviously very valuable.
+
+If red or blue in excess be added to brown, it falls into the other
+semi-neutral classes, marrone or gray. The wide acceptation of the term
+brown has occasioned much confusion in the naming of colours, since
+broken colours in which red, &c. predominate, have been improperly
+called brown. That term, therefore, should be confined to the
+semi-neutral colours, compounded of, or like in hue to, either the
+primary _yellow_, the secondary orange, or the tertiary _citrine_, with
+a _black_. The general contrast or harmonizing colour of such compounds
+will consequently be more or less purple or blue.
+
+The number of browns is great, as may be seen by the following list.
+This list, however, is good, and includes a considerable proportion of
+permanent pigments.
+
+241. ASPHALTUM,
+
+_Asphalt_, _Bitumen_, _Mineral Pitch_, _Jew's Pitch_, _Antwerp Brown_,
+_Liquid Asphaltum_, &c., is a sort of mineral pitch or tar which, rising
+liquid to the surface of the Lacus Asphaltites or Asphaltic Lake (the
+Dead Sea) concretes there by the natural action of the atmosphere and
+sun, and, floating in masses to the shores, is gathered by the Arabs.
+The French give it an additional name from the region of the lake, to
+wit, Bitumen of Judea; and with the English, from the same cause, it has
+the alias of Jew's pitch. Asphaltum is not so called, however, after
+the lake, as is asserted by a writer in the Encyclopaedia: it is just the
+reverse--Pliny says, "The Asphaltic lake produces nothing but bitumen
+(in Greek, asphaltos); and hence its name."
+
+A substance resembling asphalt is found at Neufchatel in Switzerland,
+and in other parts of Europe. A specimen of the native bitumen, brought
+from Persia, and of which the author made trial, had a powerful scent of
+garlic when rubbed. In the fire it softened without flowing, and burnt
+with a lambent flame; did not dissolve by heat in turpentine, but ground
+easily as a pigment in pale drying oil, affording a fine deep
+transparent brown colour, resembling that of commercial asphaltum; dried
+firmly almost as soon as the drying-oil alone, and worked admirably both
+in water and oil. Asphaltum may be used as a permanent brown in water,
+for which purpose the native is superior to the artificial. The former,
+however, is now seldom to be met with, the varieties employed on the
+palette being the residua of various resinous and bituminous matters,
+distilled for the sake of their essential oils. These residua are all
+black and glossy like common pitch, which differs from them only in
+having been less acted upon by fire, and thence in being softer. At
+present asphaltum is prepared in excessive abundance as a product of the
+distillation of coal at the gas manufactories, and is chiefly confined
+to oil-painting, being first dissolved in turpentine, which fits it for
+glazing and shading. Its fine brown colour and perfect transparency are
+lures to its free use with many artists, notwithstanding the certain
+destruction that awaits the work on which it is much employed, owing to
+its tendency to contract and crack by changes of temperature and the
+atmosphere; but for which, and a slight liability to blacken, it would
+be a most beautiful, durable, and eligible pigment. The solution of
+asphaltum in turpentine, united with drying oil by heat, or the bitumen
+torrefied and ground in linseed or drying-oil, acquires a firmer
+texture, but becomes less transparent and dries with difficulty. If
+common asphaltum, as usually prepared with turpentine, be used with some
+addition of Vandyke brown, umber, or Cappah brown ground in drying oil,
+it will gain body and solidity which will render it much less disposed
+to crack. Nevertheless, asphaltum is to be regarded in practice rather
+as a dark varnish than as a solid pigment, and all the faults of a bad
+varnish are to be guarded against in employing it.
+
+It is common to call the solution in turpentine _Asphaltum_, and the
+mixture with drying-oil _Bitumen_: the latter is likewise known as
+_Antwerp Brown_. A preparation for the use of water-colour artists is
+employed under the name of _Liquid Asphaltum_.
+
+242. BISTRE
+
+is extracted by watery solution from the soot of wood fires, whence it
+derives a strong pyroligneous scent. It is a very powerful
+citrine-brown, washes well, and has a clearness suited to architectural
+subjects. Its use is confined to water-colour painting, in which it was
+much employed by the old masters for tinting drawings and shading
+sketches, before the general application of Indian ink to such purposes.
+Of a wax-like texture, it is perfectly durable, but unfitted for oil,
+drying therein with the greatest difficulty.
+
+A substance of this kind collects at the back of fire-places in cottages
+where peat is the constant fuel burnt; which, purified by solution and
+evaporation, yields a fine bistre, similar to the Scotch. All kinds of
+bistre attract moisture from the atmosphere.
+
+243. BONE BROWN
+
+and _Ivory Brown_ are obtained by roasting bone and ivory until by
+partial charring they become of a brown colour throughout. Though much
+esteemed by some artists, they are not quite eligible pigments, being
+bad driers in oil, the only vehicle in which they are now used.
+Moreover, their lighter shades are not permanent either in water or oil
+when exposed to the action of strong light, or mixed in tint with white
+lead. The palest of these colours are the most opaque: the deepest are
+more durable, and most so when approaching black. Neither bone nor ivory
+brown is often employed, but the former may be occasionally applied in
+forming clear, silvery, warm grays, in combination with zinc white.
+
+244. BURNT UMBER
+
+is what its name denotes, and has a deeper shade with a more russet hue
+than the raw umber. A quiet brown, it affords clear and warm shadows,
+but is apt to look rather turbid if used in great depth. It washes and
+works capitally in water, and dries quickly in oil, in which it is
+employed as a siccative. Perfectly stable in either vehicle, it may
+sometimes be substituted for Vandyke brown, is eligible in fresco, and
+invaluable in buildings. Where the lakes of madder require saddening,
+the addition of burnt umber increases their powers, and improves their
+drying in oil. It contains manganese and iron, and may be produced
+artificially. The old Italians called it _falsalo_.
+
+245. CALEDONIAN BROWN
+
+is a permanent native pigment, the use of which is confined to oil. A
+magnificent orange-russet brown of considerable transparency, it is
+marked by great depth and richness, and will be found serviceable where
+a powerful brown of the burnt Sienna class is required.
+
+246. CAPPAH BROWN,
+
+or _Cappagh Brown_, is likewise a colour peculiar to oil. It is a
+species of bog-earth or peat, mixed with manganese in various
+proportions, and found on the estate of Lord Audley at Cappagh, near
+Cork. The specimens in which the peat earth most abounds are of light
+weight, friable texture, and dark colour; while those which contain more
+of the metal are heavy and paler.
+
+As pigments, the peaty Cappah brown is the most transparent and rich in
+colour. A prompt drier in oil, its surface rivels during drying where it
+lies thick. The other and metallic sort is a more opaque, a lighter and
+warmer brown pigment, which dries rapidly and smoothly in a body or
+thick layer. The first may be regarded as a superior Vandyke brown, the
+second as a superior umber. The two extreme kinds should be
+distinguished as light and deep Cappah browns; the former excellent for
+dead colouring and grounds, the latter for glazing and graining. These
+pigments work well in oil and varnish; they do not, however, keep their
+place while drying in oil by fixing the oil, like the driers of lead,
+but run. Under the names of _Euchrome_ and _Mineral Brown_, they have
+been introduced into commerce for civil and marine painting.
+
+247. CASSEL EARTH,
+
+_Terre de Cassel_, or, corruptly, _Castle Earth_, is specially an oil
+pigment, similar to burnt umber but of a more russet hue. It is an earth
+containing bitumen, a substance which, with pit-coal, lignite or brown
+coal, jet, petroleum or rock oil, naphtha, &c., is looked upon as a
+product of the decomposition of organic matter, beneath the surface of
+the earth, in situations where the conditions of contact with water, and
+almost total exclusion of atmospheric air, are fulfilled. Deposited at
+the bottom of seas, lakes, or rivers, and subsequently covered up by
+accumulations of clay and sand, the organic tissue undergoes a kind of
+fermentation by which the bodies in question are slowly produced. The
+true bitumens appear to have arisen from coal or lignite by the action
+of subterranean heat; and very closely resemble some of the products
+yielded by the destructive distillation of those bodies.
+
+Rich as is the tone of colour of Cassel earth, it is apt to lose this in
+some measure on exposure to light. Merimee remembers to have seen a
+head, the brown hair of which had been painted partly with the earth
+alone, and partly with a mixture of the earth and white; yet the hair
+where the white was employed was darker than that painted solely with
+the brown, the white having fixed the colour. To compensate for its
+thus fading, it should be mixed with pigments that are permanent, such
+as umber and lamp black. Like all bituminous earths, it needs the
+strongest drying oil. By calcination, a greater degree of intensity may
+be imparted to the colour, and perhaps a little more solidity. In
+landscapes it is of much service for the most vigorous portions of
+foregrounds and the trunks of trees, as well as for painting cavernous
+rocks or deep recesses in architecture. Compounded with burnt lake and a
+little Prussian blue, it gives a black the most profound.
+
+248. CHALON'S BROWN
+
+is a water-colour pigment, transparent and inclining to red; deep, full,
+and very rich. On exposure to light it becomes less russet, but is
+otherwise strictly stable.
+
+249. COLOGNE EARTH,
+
+incorrectly called _Cullen's Earth_, is a native bituminous earth,
+containing less bitumen than Cassel earth, and therefore drying more
+quickly. Darker than that variety, it is less transparent, and covers
+better. In its general qualities it resembles Vandyke brown, except that
+in combination with white, it affords a range of cooler brown tints.
+Useful for the shadows of buildings, it does not wash so well as sepia,
+and is preferred occasionally on that account. By some it has been
+called durable, by others branded as fugacious. According to Bouvier,
+brown hair represented by this colour has been known to disappear in six
+months, all the brown vanishing, and nothing remaining but a few black
+lines of the sketch. As it is similar in composition to Cassel earth,
+the safest course would be to mix it with umber, and not to employ it
+alone. Calcined, it acquires a reddish hue.
+
+250. INDELIBLE BROWN INK.
+
+Although this cannot be classed as a pigment, yet, being very useful in
+water-colours, it may be proper to describe its qualities. The ink is a
+rich brown fluid, and, as its name imports, is indelibly fixed on the
+paper as soon as it is dry; thus allowing the artist to work or wash
+over it repeatedly, without its being disturbed. If diluted with water
+to its faintest tint, it still continues to retain its indelible
+properties undiminished. It is generally used with a reed pen, and
+employed chiefly in architectural details and outlines.
+
+Various brown inks, principally solutions of bistre and sepia, were
+adopted in sketching by Claude, Rembrandt, and many of the old masters.
+In modern times, a beautiful transparent brown for water-colour artists,
+known as _Liquid Prout's Brown_, has been extensively employed. This
+contains less fixative than the indelible ink, and is the vehicle with
+which nearly all Samuel Prout's drawings were executed.
+
+251. LEITCH'S BROWN
+
+is a permanent pigment peculiar to water painting. A most beautiful
+olive brown, soft and rich, it is admirably adapted for autumnal foliage
+tints and the like, either alone or compounded with burnt Sienna or
+cadmium orange. Transparent and clear in its washes, this is a most
+serviceable colour in landscape generally.
+
+252. MIXED BROWN
+
+can be produced in endless variety, either by adding a warm colour to
+black, such as yellow, orange, or citrine, or else by combining the
+three primaries, secondaries, or tertiaries in suitable proportions. By
+consulting the lists given of permanent pigments belonging to those
+classes, and by referring to the chapter on Black, it will be seen that
+no difficulty exists in obtaining durable mixed browns when required.
+For example, there may be formed from the primaries, a compound of
+aureolin, rose madder, and ultramarine; or from the secondaries, a
+mixture of cadmium orange, viridian, and madder purple. Of course, as
+with other mixed tints, the brown hue can be furnished not only by
+direct compounding of the colours on the palette, but by laying one
+colour over the other on the paper or canvass, or by stippling.
+
+253. MUMMY,
+
+_Mummy Brown_, or _Egyptian Brown_, is a bituminous product mixed with
+animal remains, brought from the catacombs of Egypt, where liquid
+bitumen was employed three thousand years ago in embalming. By a slow
+chemical change, it has combined during so many ages with substances
+which give it, as a rule, a more solid and lasting texture than simple
+asphaltum. Generally resembling the latter in its other properties and
+uses as a pigment, mummy is often substituted for it, being less liable
+to crack or move on the canvass. It must be remembered, however, that
+mummy varies exceedingly both in its composition and qualities; and as
+from its very nature and origin nothing certain can be said of it, but
+little reliance should be placed on this brown. Mummy belongs to the
+class of pigments which are either good or bad, according as they turn
+out. On the whole, we agree with the American artist, who has been more
+than once quoted in these pages, that nothing is to be gained by
+smearing one's canvass with a part, perhaps, of the wife of Potiphar.
+With a preference for materials less frail and of a more sober
+character, we likewise hold with Bouvier, that it is not particularly
+prudent to employ without necessity these crumbled remains of dead
+bodies, which must contain ammonia and particles of fat in a concrete
+state and so be more or less apt to injure the colours with which they
+may be united. The use of mummy is now confined to oil, in which, says
+Mr. Carmichael, a mixture of mummy and bitumen will dry and never crack.
+If this be the case, the compound would be preferable to either
+separate.
+
+254. PRUSSIAN BROWN
+
+is an iron oxide, containing more or less alumina, and prepared by
+calcining an aluminous Prussian blue, or treating an aluminous
+ferrocyanide of peroxide of iron with an alkali. Possessing the nature
+and properties of burnt Sienna, it is transparent, permanent, and dries
+well in oil. Of an orange hue, it is neither so rich nor so powerful as
+that pigment, and is better employed as a glaze than in body.
+
+255. SEPIA,
+
+_Liquid Sepia_, _Seppia_, or _Animal AEthiops_, is named after the sepia
+or cuttle-fish, also called the ink-fish, from its affording a dark
+liquid, which was used as an ink and pigment by the ancients. All the
+species of cuttle-fish are provided with a dark-coloured fluid,
+sometimes quite black, which they emit to obscure the water, when it is
+wanted to favour their escape from danger, or, by concealing their
+approach, to enable them with greater facility to seize their prey. The
+liquid consists of a mass of extremely minute carbonaceous particles,
+intermixed with an animal gelatine or glue, and is capable of being so
+widely spread, than an ounce of it will suffice to darken several
+thousand ounces of water. From this liquid, brought chiefly from the
+Adriatic, but likewise obtainable from our own coasts, is derived the
+pigment sepia, as well as, partially, the Indian ink of the Chinese.
+
+Sepia is a powerful dusky brown, of a fine texture, transparent, works
+admirably in water, combines cordially with other pigments, and is very
+permanent. It is much used as a water-colour, and for making drawings in
+the manner of bistre and Indian ink; but is not employed in oil, as it
+dries therein very reluctantly. Extremely clear in its pale tints, and
+perhaps the best washing colour known, sepia must be used with caution,
+or otherwise heaviness will be engendered in the shades, so strong is
+its colouring property. Mixed with indigo, or, preferably, Prussian blue
+and black, it is eligible for distant trees, for a general shadow tint
+in light backgrounds, and for the shade of white linen or white
+draperies. With madder red it forms a fine hue, somewhat resembling
+brown madder, and with crimson lake and indigo gives an artistically
+excellent black. Sometimes alone and sometimes in combination with lamp
+black, or madder red and Prussian blue saddened by the black, it will be
+found useful in dark foreground boats, rocks, near buoys, sea-weed, &c.
+Compounded with aureolin, sepia yields a series of beautiful and durable
+neutral greens for landscape; and mixed with Prussian blue, affords low
+olive greens, which may be deepened into very cool dark greens by the
+addition of black. For hills and mountains in mid-distance, sepia
+combined with cobalt and brown madder is of service; or, for the dark
+markings and divisions of stones in brooks and running streams, the same
+compound without the cobalt. Mixed with purple madder, it furnishes a
+fine tint for the stems and branches of trees; and with French blue and
+madder red gives a really good black. Compounds of sepia and yellow
+ochre, gamboge, raw Sienna, or cobalt and aureolin, are severally
+useful. A rich and strong brown is formed by the admixture of madder
+red, burnt Sienna, and sepia; a tint which may be modified by omitting
+the sepia or the Sienna, or reducing the proportions of either. For
+Dutch craft, this tint and its variations are of great value. A wash of
+sepia over green very agreeably subdues the force of the colour.
+
+256. WARM SEPIA
+
+is the natural sepia warmed by mixture with other browns of a red hue,
+and is intended for drawings where it would be difficult to keep the
+whole work of the same tint, unless the compound were made in the cake
+of colour.
+
+257. ROMAN SEPIA
+
+is a preparation similar to the preceding, but with a yellow instead of
+a red cast.
+
+258. VANDYKE BROWN.
+
+This pigment, hardly less celebrated than the great painter whose name
+it bears, is a species of peat or bog-earth of a fine, deep,
+semi-transparent brown colour. The pigment so much esteemed and used by
+Vandyke is said to have been brought from Cassel; an assertion which
+seems to be justified by a comparison of Cassel earth with the browns of
+his pictures. Gilpin in his Essays on Picturesque Beauty, remarks that
+"In the tribe of browns--in oil-painting, one of the finest earths is
+known, at the colour shops, by the name of Castle-earth, or Vandyke's
+brown." The Vandyke brown of the present day is a bituminous ochre,
+purified by grinding and washing over. Apt to vary in hue, it is durable
+both in water and oil, but, like all bituminous earths, dries tardily as
+a rule in the latter vehicle. Clear in its pale tints, deep and glowing
+in shadows, in water it has sometimes the bad property of working up:
+for this reason, where it is necessary to lay on a great body of it,
+the moist tube colour should be preferred to the cake. With madder red,
+the brown gives a fine tint, most useful as a warm shadow colour; and
+with Prussian blue, clear, very sober neutral greens for middle
+distances. In banks and roads, Vandyke brown is the general colour for
+dragging over the surface, to give roughness of texture: compounded with
+yellow ochre, it affords a good ground tint, and with purple madder a
+rich shadow colour. In sunrise and sunset clouds, a mixture of the brown
+with cobalt yields a cold neutral green, adapted for those clouds at the
+greatest distance from the sun. For foliage tints, aureolin, French
+blue, and Vandyke brown, will be found of service; or as a glaze over
+such tints, the yellow and the brown. With raw Sienna, brown madder,
+Payne's gray, gamboge, and Roman ochre, this brown is useful. In a
+water-colour winter scene, when the trees are denuded of foliage, the
+net work of the small branches at the tops of them may be prettily given
+with cobalt and Vandyke brown, used rather dry, and applied with a brush
+having its hairs spread out either by the fingers or by drawing them
+through a fine-tooth comb before working. Grass is likewise represented
+readily by this means, and so are small trees on the summit of a cliff
+or in like positions.
+
+The Campania Brown of the old Italian painters was a similar earth.
+
+259. VERONA BROWN,
+
+a pigment peculiar to oil painting, is a native ferruginous earth. A
+citrine brown of great service in tender drab greens, it forms with
+terre verte and the madder lakes rich autumnal tints of much beauty and
+permanence.
+
+260. YELLOW MADDER,
+
+_Cory's Yellow Madder_, or _Cory's Madder_, is classed among the browns
+for the same reason that Italian Pink was ranked among the yellows. It
+was stated in the eighth chapter that no true madder yellow, brilliant
+and pure, exists as a pigment at the present day, and certainly this
+preparation can lay no claim to the title. Except in name, it is an
+orange-brown of the burnt Sienna hue, and might therefore with more
+reason have been called Orange Madder. It is a good and permanent
+colour, rich and transparent, at present used only in oil, we believe,
+and chiefly as a glaze.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+261. _Cadmium Brown_.
+
+By igniting the white carbonate of cadmium, among other methods, a
+cinnamon-brown oxide is obtainable, of a very clear and beautiful colour
+if the process be well conducted. It is, however, not eligible as a
+pigment, owing to the rapidity with which the oxide is acted upon by the
+air. In water, especially, we have found this brown so eagerly absorb
+carbonic acid from the atmosphere as to become in a few months once more
+a carbonate, and as purely white as before. The same result is
+observable when the powder is exposed: some shown at the International
+Exhibition of 1862, on a glass stand, had to be removed, its label
+marked 'Cadmium Brown' being at last found attached to a sample of
+cadmium white. In oil, the conversion takes place less readily, that
+vehicle having the property of protecting, to some extent, pigments from
+oxidation. It is curious that even in a book a water-rub of the brown
+slowly but surely changes to white.
+
+262. _Catechu Browns._
+
+Catechu is an extract of the Khair tree or _acacia catechu_ of Bombay,
+Bengal, and other parts of India. With the exception of such earthy
+matters as are communicated to it during the preparation, or are added
+purposely as adulterants, catechu is entirely soluble both in water and
+alcohol. An aqueous solution has a reddish-brown colour, and gives the
+following results:--protosalts of iron thrown down olive-brown and
+persalts greenish-brown precipitates; salts of tin and lead yield
+brownish-yellow and brick-coloured deposits respectively; while acetate
+of copper or bichromate of potash furnishes brown residues. To our
+knowledge, none of these have been introduced as pigments, but a brown
+prepared by Dr. Lyon Playfair some years back from the catechu bark has
+been described as exceedingly rich, transparent, and beautiful; and
+recommended for painting _if not too thinly applied_.
+
+263. _Chrome Browns_
+
+are produced by various methods of several hues, tints, and shades, both
+by wet and dry processes. We have obtained them by many methods, of
+different degrees of permanence. Some very intense in colour have stood
+well, while others paler and more delicate have gradually greened, but
+none possessed the strict stability of the green oxides. Presuming a
+paucity of browns, these preparations of chromium would be worth further
+attention; but, with the objection of being--for browns--somewhat
+expensive, they have the far more fatal objection of not being wanted.
+
+264. _Copper Brown_,
+
+varying in hue, is obtainable, in the form of prussiate, &c., but cannot
+be recommended, however made.
+
+265. _French Prussian-Brown._
+
+According to Bouvier, a colour similar to that of bistre, and rivalling
+asphaltum in transparency, is produced by partially charring a
+moderately dark Prussian blue; neither one too intense, which gives a
+heavy and opaque brownish-red, nor one too aluminous and bright, which
+yields a feeble and yellowish tint. Yielding to a rapture we cannot
+wholly share, he describes its qualities in the warmest terms. In his
+opinion, it has the combined advantages of asphaltum, mummy, and raw
+Sienna, without their drawbacks. "I cannot," he says, "commend too
+highly the use of this charming bistre-tint: it is as beautiful and good
+in water as in oil, perfectly transparent, of a most harmonious tone,
+and dries better than any other colour suitable for glazing. Closely
+resembling asphaltum in tint as well as in transparency, this brown is
+preferable to it in every point of view." As the colour is very quickly
+and easily obtained, the artist can judge for himself of its proper
+value. M. Bouvier's process is, to place upon a clear fire a large iron
+spoon, into which, when red hot, some pieces of the Prussian blue are
+put about the size of a small nut: these soon begin to crackle, and
+throw off scales in proportion as they grow hot. The spoon is then
+removed, and allowed to cool: if suffered to remain too long on the
+fire, the right colour will not be produced. When the product is crushed
+small, some of it will be found blackish, and the rest of a yellowish
+brown: this is quite as it should be. Chemically, the result is a
+mixture of oxide of iron and partly undecomposed or carbonised
+prussiate.
+
+266. _Gambogiate of Iron._
+
+Dr. Scoffern read a paper at the Meeting of the British Association of
+Science, in 1851, describing this combination as a rich brown, like
+asphaltum, but richer, as well as more durable in oil. It has not been,
+however, employed as a pigment, or at least is not at present.
+
+267. _Hypocastanum_,
+
+or Chestnut Brown, is a brown lake prepared from the horse-chestnut.
+This now obsolete pigment is transparent and rich in colour, warmer than
+brown pink, and very durable both in water and oil; in the latter of
+which it dries moderately well.
+
+268. _Iron Browns_,
+
+native or artificial, are well represented on the palette, but nothing
+would be easier than to increase their number. Of all metals, iron is
+the richest source of colour, capable of affording all colours with the
+exception of white. None of them, however, are so numerous as the
+browns, a description of which would fill this chapter. Suffice it to
+state they are obtainable of every hue, tint, and shade, and are
+generally permanent. They are made on a large scale and sold under
+various names for house-painting, &c.
+
+269. _Manganese Brown_
+
+is an oxide of manganese, which is quite durable both in water and oil,
+and dries admirably in the latter. A fine, deep, semi-opaque brown of
+good body, it is deficient in transparency, but might be useful for
+glazing or lowering the tone of white without tinging it, and as a local
+colour in draperies, &c.
+
+270. _Nickel Brown._
+
+A very pleasing yellowish brown is obtainable from nickel, bright and
+clear in its pale washes, and of some richness in oil. Unless thoroughly
+washed, it has a tendency to greenness in time.
+
+271. _Ochre Browns._
+
+The slight affinity of sulphur for yellow ochre, with its merely
+temporary effect thereon, was observed in the eighth chapter, where
+allusion was made to the action of sulphuretted hydrogen and sulphide of
+ammonium on the earth. Sulphur alone, and in the dry state, ignited with
+yellow or other native ochres converts them into browns, varying in hue,
+and of greater or less durability. Those browns, however, which we have
+made by this process, although standing well in a book, have not
+withstood exposure to light and air. They have all become pale, whitish,
+or of a drab cast, evidently through the oxidation of the sulphur, or
+rather the sulphide of iron formed during the calcination. Practically,
+therefore, ochres have an antipathy to sulphur, moist or dry, by itself
+or in combination; and are, so to speak, the disinfectants of the
+palette. Ever waging war against sulphurous vapours, the native earths
+serve to protect a picture from the damaging influence of impure air,
+whether they be used alone, or employed in admixture with such pigments
+as are injured thereby.
+
+272. _Purple Brown_
+
+is a refuse manufacture from Indian red washings. A dull, heavy, coarse
+colour, it belongs to the class of common pigments which are
+unexceptionable for decorative painting, but scarcely suited to the
+higher branches of art. As this work professes simply to treat of
+artistic pigments, that have been, are, or might be, more than a passing
+reference to those colours exclusively adopted by house-painters, &c.,
+would be out of place.
+
+273. _Rubens' Brown_,
+
+still in use in the Netherlands under this appellation, is an earth of
+a lighter colour and more ochrous texture than the Vandyke brown of
+English commerce: it is also of a warmer or more tawny hue than the
+latter pigment. Beautiful and durable, it works well both in water and
+oil, and much resembles the brown employed by Teniers.
+
+274. _Uranium Brown._
+
+Yellow, red, orange, green, have been previously noticed as being
+derived from uranium, and to this list of colours may now be added
+brown. A warm rich hue of the utmost intensity may be produced, which
+possesses considerable permanence, although not equal to that of uranium
+yellow.
+
+275. _Zinc Brown._
+
+A yellow-brown, so yellow that it might fairly have been classed with
+the ochrous colours of that denomination, is made by combining zinc with
+another metal by the aid of heat. Experience tells us that it is,
+chemically, a thoroughly good and stable pigment. Safely to be used in
+admixture, it is a clear, bright colour, affording good greens by
+compounding with blue. Of no great power, and semi-opaque, this
+yellow-brown or brown-yellow is superior to some of the pigments at
+present used, but is probably too much like them in hue and other
+properties to be of any special value.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Besides the preceding, there are those browns of a citrine or russet
+cast which are elsewhere described, such as raw umber, madder brown, &c.
+Moreover, there are numberless other varieties, obtainable from most of
+the metals, from many organic substances, and from a combination of the
+two. Of all colours, a 'new' brown is the most easily discovered:
+success may not be met with in seeking a yellow, red, or blue, or an
+orange, green, or purple; but it is strange if in the course of one's
+experiments a brown does not turn up. No difficulty, therefore, would
+have been found in greatly extending the present list; but it was felt
+that no advantage could have accrued by further multiplying the notices
+of a colour, with which we are already furnished so abundantly by nature
+and art, and which is capable of being produced in such profusion by
+admixture.
+
+With the exception of ivory and bone browns, and perhaps Cassel and
+Cologne earths, all the browns commonly employed may be considered more
+or less durable.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII.
+
+ON THE SEMI-NEUTRAL, MARRONE.
+
+
+We have adopted the term MARRONE, or _maroon_ as it is sometimes called,
+for our second and middle semi-neutral, as applicable to a class of
+impure colours composed of black and red, black and purple, or black and
+russet, or of black and any other denomination in which red
+predominates. It is a mean between the warm, broken, semi-neutral
+_browns_, and the cold, semi-neutral _grays_. Marrone is practically to
+shade, what red is to light; and its relations to other colours are
+those of red, &c., when we invert the scale from black to white. It is
+therefore a following, or shading, colour of red and its derivatives;
+and hence its accordances, contrasts, and expressions agree with those
+of red degraded; consequently red added to dark brown converts it into
+marrone if in sufficient quantity to prevail. In smaller proportions,
+red gives to lighter browns the names of bay, chestnut, sorrel, &c.
+
+Owing to confused nomenclature, most of the colours and pigments of
+this class have been assigned to other denominations--puce, murrey,
+morelle, chocolate, columbine, pavonazzo, &c., being variously ranked
+among reds, browns, and purples. This vagueness also accounts for
+pigments having been ranged under heads not suited to the names they
+bear, and explains why Brown Ochre has been classed among the yellows,
+Italian Pink among the same, Brown Pink among the citrines, &c.
+
+As adapted to the walls of a picture gallery, marrone, more or less deep
+and inclined to crimson, is one of the best colours known. For the
+reason that each colour has its antagonist, and consequently may affect
+a picture well or ill, according to its tone or general hue, there can
+be no universally good colour for such a purpose. What suits one picture
+or style of painting may not suit another: with a blood-red sunset, for
+instance, or portrait with crimson drapery, marrone would be out of
+place. But as it is impossible to provide each picture with a separate
+background, all that can be done in large collections is to study the
+general effect, sacrificing the interests of the few to the good of the
+many. If cool-coloured landscapes predominate, with blue skies and green
+foliage, it will be found that the orange-yellow of the frames agreeably
+contrasts the former, and the crimson-marrone of walls as agreeably sets
+off the latter. If portraits and historic paintings prevail, which are
+in general of a warm advancing nature, then a modest green may prove
+eligible. And if engravings form the staple, the grey hue of the print
+is best opposed by a bright fawn colour. Where several rooms are devoted
+to pictures, a suitable wall colour is most easily secured by
+classifying the paintings as far as possible according to their general
+hue, and placing them in different chambers: in each there will be a
+prevailing character in the colouring of its pictures, and each can be
+painted or papered accordingly. However, whether this plan is adopted or
+not--and it may be objected to as involving a certain monotony--care
+should be taken to have a wall colour of some sort or other, that is, to
+let it be seen. Pictures crammed together kill each other: without a
+pin's point between them, a speck of wall space visible, much of the
+illusion is destroyed. "It is only," says Chevreul, "the intelligent
+connoisseur and amateur who, on seeing a picture exhibited in a gallery,
+experience all the effect which the artist has wished to produce;
+because they alone know the best point of view, and because, while their
+attention is fixed on the work they are observing, they alone end by no
+longer seeing the surrounding pictures, or even the frame of that one
+they contemplate." Amid a moving crowd of people, inseparable from
+nearly all public exhibitions, it becomes difficult for the visitor,
+intelligent or otherwise, thus to concentrate his attention on one work.
+As far, therefore, as space will allow, paintings should be kept
+separate: larger rooms, or fewer pictures, are what is wanted.[B]
+
+From this digression, pardonable, let us hope, because in the interests
+of art, we will pass on to a consideration of marrone pigments.
+
+276. BROWN MADDER
+
+is an exceedingly rich marrone or russet-marrone brown, bearing the same
+relation to the colour marrone that raw umber bears to the colour
+citrine. One of the most valuable products of the madder root, it has
+supplied a great desideratum, and in water especially is indispensable,
+both as a local and auxiliary colour. Of intense depth and transparency,
+if made with skill, it affords the richest description of shadows,
+either alone or compounded with blue, and the most delicate pale tints.
+Being quite permanent, a good drier, and working most kindly, it is a
+pigment which cannot be too strongly recommended to the landscape
+painter's notice. Containing a large proportion of red, it is eligible,
+with yellow or blue, for mixed orange or mixed purple of a subdued tone.
+It may be used tolower red curtains or draperies, and for the darkest
+touches in flesh. Mixed with cobalt, it forms a fine shadow colour for
+distant objects; and with indigo or Prussian blue and black, is
+serviceable for the shades of those nearer the foreground. It is
+similarly useful when mixed with black, and will be found advantageous
+in rusty iron, as anchors, chains, &c. For the deepest and richest parts
+of foregrounds it may be employed alone, as also for deep dark cracks
+and fissures, or strong markings in other near objects, as boats and
+figures. With French blue, or cobalt and white, a set of beautiful warm
+or cold grays may be obtained, in proportion as the brown or blue
+predominates. Compounded with blues and bright yellows such as aureolin,
+it gives fine autumnal russet greens. A good purple for soft aerial
+clouds is furnished by cobalt and brown madder, or for stormy clouds
+by the brown, Prussian blue, and black: an equally good slate colour
+is obtained from cobalt, sepia, and the brown. For glazing over foliage
+and herbage, a mixture of the madder with aureolin or gamboge is adapted;
+and for brooks and running streams compounds of this brown with raw Sienna,
+cobalt and raw Sienna, Vandyke brown, and French blue, will each be found
+useful. Black sails are well represented by burnt Sienna, French blue, and
+brown madder; and red sails by light red or burnt Sienna with the brown.
+
+277. MIXED MARRONE.
+
+Marrone is a retiring colour easily compounded in all its hues and
+shades by the mixture variously of red, and black or brown; or of any
+other warm colours in which red and black predominate. A reference to
+the permanent brown, black, and red or reddish pigments will show to
+what extent the colour marrone may safely be produced by admixture. In
+compounding marrone, the brown or black may be itself compounded, before
+the addition of the red, reddish-purple, or russet, requisite for its
+conversion.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+278. _Chica Marrone_.
+
+Chica, the red colouring principle alluded to in the ninth chapter, is
+extracted from the _Bignonia chica_, by boiling its leaves in water,
+decanting the decoction, and allowing it to cool, when a red matter
+falls down, which is formed into cakes and dried. Insoluble in cold
+water, it dissolves in alcohol and alkalies; is precipitated from
+alkaline solutions by acids without alteration; and is bleached by
+chlorine. Another variety of the same substance, obtained from Para in
+Brazil, and known as crajuru, carajuru, or caracuru, behaves in a
+similar manner. This is said to be superior to the former sort.
+
+A chica pigment, brought from South America, and examined by the author,
+was of a soft powdery texture, and rich marrone colour. Somewhat
+resembling Rubens' madder in hue, it was equal in body and transparency
+to the carmine of cochineal, though by no means approaching it in
+beauty, or even in durability. Simply exposed to the light of a window,
+without sun, the colour was soon changed and destroyed. Conclusive
+evidence as this is that the sample submitted to Mr. Field was
+worthless, it remains to be seen whether all the colours to be derived
+from chica, by different modes and from different kinds, are equally
+valueless as pigments.
+
+279. _Chocolate Lead_,
+
+or Marrone Red, is a pigment prepared by calcining oxide of lead with
+about a third of copper oxide, and reducing the compound to a uniform
+tint by levigation. It is of a chocolate hue, strong opaque body, and
+dries freely. Like all lead and copper colours, it is blackened by
+impure air.
+
+280. _Cobalt Marrone._
+
+There is obtainable from cobalt a very rich marrone brown, which, like
+many other colours, is more beautiful while moist than when dried.
+Permanent, if carefully made and most thoroughly washed, it is an
+expensive compound, and must rank among those colours which are
+interesting in the laboratory but superfluous in the studio.
+
+281. _Madder Marrone_,
+
+or Marrone Lake, was a preparation of madder, of great depth,
+transparency, and stability. Working well in water, glazing and drying
+in oil, and in every respect a good pigment, it was one of those colours
+which gradually--and often, as in this case, unfortunately--become
+obsolete, on account of their hues being easily given by admixture of
+other pigments. There was likewise a deeper kind, called Purple Black. A
+good madder marrone may be produced by adding to brown madder either
+rose madder, madder carmine, or Rubens' madder, with a slight portion of
+black or blue if required.
+
+282. _Mars Marrone._
+
+Under the heading of a New Marrone Pigment there appeared some months
+back in a chemical journal the following:--"The blood-red compound
+obtained by adding a soluble sulphocyanide to a salt of iron in solution
+can be made (apparently at least) to combine with resin thus: To a
+concentrated solution of sesquichloride of iron and sulphocyanide of
+potassium in ether, an etherial solution of common resin is added, and
+the whole well shaken together. There is then mixed with it a
+sufficiency of water to cause a precipitate, when it will be found,
+after the mixture has stood a few hours, that the whole or nearly the
+whole of the red-coloured iron compound has united with the precipitated
+resin, forming the marrone-coloured pigment in question. When this
+coloured substance is finely powdered and mixed with water, the liquid
+is not the least coloured; whence it is inferred that the red iron
+compound has chemically united itself with the resin."
+
+The foregoing account is rather to be regarded as of scientific interest
+than of practical utility. The blood-red solution of sulphocyanide of
+iron is in itself not stable: when the red solution of this salt is so
+exposed to the sun, that the rays pass through the glass jar containing
+it, it is rendered colourless, but the colour is retained or restored
+when the rays pass directly from the air into the fluid; so that when a
+properly diluted solution is placed in a cylindrical glass vessel in
+direct sunshine, it loses colour in the morning till about eleven in the
+forenoon, when the rays beginning to fall upon the surface exposed to
+the air, gradually restore the colour, which attains its maximum about
+two o'clock. Moreover, the solution is immediately decolourised by
+sulphuretted hydrogen and other deoxidizing agents, as well as by
+alkalies and many acids. It is scarcely probable that the union of the
+red colouring matter with the resin would suffice to secure it from
+change; and there is little doubt that the new marrone pigment would be
+a chameleon colour.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Failures in the process of burning carmines, and preparing the purple of
+gold, frequently afford good marrones. Compounds more or less of that
+hue are likewise furnished by copper, mercury, &c. Some ochres incline
+to marrone when calcined: indeed we have remarked in many instances that
+the action of fire anticipates the effects of long continued time; and
+that several of the primary and secondary colours may, by different
+degrees of burning, be converted into their analogous secondary,
+tertiary, or semi-neutral colours.
+
+The one marrone or brown-marrone pigment at present employed, brown
+madder, is permanent.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[B] This was written previous to the opening of the new rooms of the
+Royal Academy at Burlington House. In these, among other improvements,
+the subject of wall space has been considered.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX.
+
+ON THE SEMI-NEUTRAL, GRAY.
+
+
+Of the tribe of semi-neutral colours, GRAY is third and last, being
+nearest in relation to black. In its common acceptation, and that in
+which we here use it, gray, as was observed in the third chapter,
+denotes a class of cool cinereous colours faint of hue; whence we have
+blue grays, olive grays, green grays, purple grays, and grays of all
+hues, in which blue predominates; but no yellow or red grays, the
+prevalence of such hues carrying the compounds into the classes of brown
+and marrone, of which gray is the natural opposite. In this sense the
+_semi-neutral_ Gray is distinguished from the _neutral_ Grey, which
+springs in an infinite series from the mixture of the neutral black and
+white. Between gray and grey, however, there is no intermediate, since
+where colour ends in the one, neutrality commences in the other, and
+vice versa. Hence the natural alliance of the semi-neutral
+gray--definable as a cool coloured grey--with black or shade; an
+alliance which is strengthened by the latent predominance of blue in the
+synthesis of black, so that in the tints resulting from the mixture of
+black and white, so much of that hue is developed as to give apparent
+colour to the tints. This explains why the tints of black and dark
+pigments are colder than their originals, so much so as in some
+instances to answer the purposes of positive colours. It accounts in
+some measure for the natural blueness of the sky, yet not wholly, for
+this is in part dependent, by contrast, upon the warm colour of sunshine
+to which it is opposed; for, if by any accident the light of nature
+should be rendered red, the colour of the sky would not appear purple,
+in consequence, but green. Again, if the sun shone green, the sky would
+not be green, but red inclined to purple; and so would it be with all
+colours, not according to the laws of composition, but of contrast;
+since, if it were otherwise, the golden rays of the sun would render a
+blue sky green.
+
+The grays are the natural cold correlatives, or contrasts, of the warm
+semi-neutral browns, as well as degradations of blue and its allies.
+Hence blue added to brown throws it into or toward the class of grays,
+and hence grays are equally abundant in nature and necessary in art: in
+both they comprehend a widely diffused and beautiful play of retiring
+colours in skies, distances, carnations, and the shadowings and
+reflections of pure light, &c. Gray is, indeed, the colour of space, and
+has therefore the property of diffusing breadth in a picture, while it
+furnishes at the same time good connecting tints, or media, for
+harmonizing the general colouring. Consequently the grays are among the
+most essential hues of the art, though they must not be suffered to
+predominate where the subject or sentiment does not require it, lest
+they cast over the painting that gloom or leaden dulness reprobated by
+Sir Joshua Reynolds; yet in solemn works they are wonderfully effective,
+and proper ruling colours. Nature supplies these hues from the sky
+abundantly and effectively throughout landscape, and Rubens has employed
+them as generally to correct and give value to his colouring, with fine
+natural perception in this branch of his art: witness his works in the
+National Gallery, and in that of the Luxembourg.
+
+According to the foregoing relations, grays favour the effects and force
+of warm colours, which in their turn also give value to grays. It is
+hence that the tender gray distances of a landscape are assisted,
+enlivened, and kept in place by warm and forcible colouring in the
+foreground, gradually connected through intermediate objects and middle
+distances by demi-tints declining into gray; a union which secures full
+value to the colours and objects, and by reconciling opposites gives
+repose to the eye. As a general rule, it may be inferred that half of a
+picture should be of a neutral hue, to ensure the harmony of the
+colouring; or at least that a balance of colour and neutrality is quite
+as essential to the best effect of a painting as a like balance of light
+and shade.
+
+283. MINERAL GRAY,
+
+or Mineral Gr_e_y, as it is often improperly spelt, is obtainable from
+the lapis lazuli, after the blue and ash have been worked out. So
+derived, it is a refuse article, worthless if the stone has been
+skilfully exhausted of its ultramarine. As this is now generally the
+case, the best mineral gray is no longer a waste product, but a lower
+species of ash, a pale whitish blue with a grey cast. Possessing the
+permanence of ultramarine, it may be regarded in colour as a very weak
+variety of that blue, diluted with a large quantity of white slightly
+tinged by black. A pigment peculiar to oil painting, it is admirably
+adapted to that gray semi-neutrality, the prevalence of which in nature
+has been just remarked. For misty mornings, cloudy skies, and the like,
+this gray will be found useful.
+
+284. MIXED GRAY
+
+is formed by compounding black and blue, black and purple, black and
+olive, &c.; and is likewise produced by adding blue in excess to madder
+brown, sepia, &c., transparent mixtures which are much employed. It
+should be borne in mind that the semi-neutrals, like the secondaries and
+tertiaries, may be so compounded as to be permanent, semi-stable, or
+fugitive. The due remembrance of this cannot be too strongly insisted
+upon, seeing that in every picture the browns and grays are of frequent
+occurrence. These it is that lend such charm to the whole, flowing, as
+it were, like a quiet under-current of colour beneath the troubled
+surface of more decided hues. In the work of every true artist--between
+whom and the mere painter there is as much difference as between the
+poet and the poetaster--there is sentiment as well as colour, whether
+the subject be an exciting battle-scene or a bit of still life. This
+sentiment, as strongly felt as the colour is clearly seen, is imparted
+in no small degree by the skilful use of semi-neutrality, the
+compounding of which, as time goes on, will therefore affect a picture
+for good or for evil.
+
+Subjoined is an analysis of the three semi-neutrals, which serves partly
+to show in what great variety they may be obtained by admixture.
+
+    Brown   = Black                 + Yellow }
+       "    =   "                   + Orange }   + Red, Purple, &c.
+       "    =   "                   + Citrine}
+       "    = 2 Yellow              + Red        + Blue
+       "    = 2 Orange              + Green      + Purple
+       "    = 2 Citrine             + Russet     + Olive
+    Marrone = Black                 + Red
+       "    =     "                 + Purple-red
+       "    =     "                 + Russet
+       "    = 2 Red       }
+       "    = 2 Purple-red}         + Dark Brown or Black
+       "    = 2 Russet    }
+    Gray    = Black + Blue       }
+       "    =   "   + Purple-blue}  + 2 White
+       "    =   "   + Olive      }
+       "    = 2 Blue       }
+       "    = 2 Purple-blue}        + Light Brown, or Black + 2 White
+       "    = 2 Olive      }
+
+In the last division, the White has been added to remind the reader that
+grays are coloured greys, not coloured blacks; and are therefore faint
+of hue. This paleness, however, need not necessarily be produced by
+admixture with white: it can be gained by means of thin washes. As a
+pigment, gray may be to all appearance black in bulk.
+
+285. NEUTRAL TINT,
+
+or, more correctly, _Semi_-Neutral Tint, is a compound shadow colour of
+a cool character. It is permanent, except that on exposure the gray is
+apt to become grey, a change which may be prevented by a slight addition
+of ultramarine ash. So protected, it becomes serviceable in landscape
+for the extreme distance, which, it may be laid down as a general
+principle, should be painted rather cold than otherwise. Blue being the
+principal compound of atmosphere, it is of the utmost importance to
+obtain this in the first instance, particularly as, from its being only
+of a blue tint, not blue colour, it is so immediately altered and acted
+upon by subsequent washes; whereas, the blue tone once lost, it will be
+found very difficult to be recovered. Wherever a picture is wanting in
+air effect, the cause will, upon examination, be seen to rest entirely
+upon the absence of pure grays, bordering upon a bluish tone, not
+tending, be it observed, to brown or purple. A bluish gray, then, of
+rather a cold tone, such as the neutral tint, is recommended as the
+prevailing hue with which to begin the extreme distances; and, as a
+rule, it is better to pass with this over as much of the landscape as
+possible, and thus lay the foundation for a general atmosphere.
+
+286. PAYNE'S GRAY
+
+resembles the preceding in being a compound colour and liable to assume
+a grey cast by time, but differs from it in having more lilac in its
+hue, and being therefore of a warmer tone. Giving by itself a clear
+violet shadow, it may be rendered more neutral by a small portion of
+burnt Sienna, an admixture which, whether the gray or Sienna
+predominates, affords useful tints. Compounded with light red or Vandyke
+brown, the gray is good for shipping and sails, or the stems and
+branches of trees; while with gamboge or aureolin it is suited to glossy
+leaves in high light, also to very cold tones in foregrounds, herbage,
+&c. Yellow ochre, light red, and Payne's gray form a mixture for banks
+and roads; the ochre, gray, and sepia, a most beautiful tint for stones;
+and brown madder and the gray, a fine shade for the black head and feet
+of cattle. Alone, the gray is serviceable for slate; and compounded with
+light red, for bricks or tiles in shadow.
+
+287. ULTRAMARINE ASH
+
+is obtained from the stone after the richer and more intense blue has
+been extracted. Although not equal in beauty, and inferior in strength
+of colour to ultramarine, it is a valuable bye-product varying in shade
+from light to dark, and in hue from pale azure to cold blue. With a grey
+cast, it affords delicate and extremely tender tints, not so positive as
+ultramarine, but which, as water-colours, wash much better. It furnishes
+grays softer, purer, and more suited to the pearly tints of flesh,
+skies, distances, foliage, shadows of drapery, &c. than those composed
+of other blues, with white and black, which the old masters were wont to
+employ. Ultramarine, however, produces the same effects when broken with
+black and white, and is thus sometimes carried throughout the colouring
+of a picture. The ash, compounded with lamp black, gives a soft cold
+gray for dark louring clouds, or for twilight away from the sun's
+influence. Alone it is adapted to very remote hills or mountains, and
+with orient yellow or aureolin to distant foliage.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The native phosphate of iron, which has been already described in the
+tenth chapter under its name of Blue Ochre, might have been classed
+among the grays, being similar in colour to the deeper hues of
+ultramarine ashes. Powdered slate, slate clays, and several native
+earths, likewise rank with grays; but some of the earths we have tried
+are not durable, being apt to become brown by the oxidation of the iron
+they contain. It may be proper here to mention those other pigments,
+known as tints, which, being the result of the experience of accredited
+masters in their peculiar modes of practice, serve to facilitate the
+progress of their amateur pupils, while they are more or less eligible
+for artists. Such are _Harding's_ and _Macpherson's Tints_, composed of
+pigments which associate cordially, and sold ready prepared in cakes and
+boxes for miniature and water painting.
+
+Of the four grays in use--mineral gray, ultramarine ash, neutral tint,
+and Payne's gray--the two first are quite unchangeable, and the others
+sufficiently stable to be classed as permanent.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XX.
+
+ON THE NEUTRAL, GREY.
+
+
+Grey is the second and intermediate of the neutral colours, standing
+between _white_ and _black_. True or normal grey is only obtainable by
+admixture of pure white with pure black, various proportions of which
+afford numerous tones of pure grey. In practice it may likewise be
+produced by a thin wash of black over white. The neutral gr_e_y differs
+from the semi-neutral gr_a_y in not being coloured by any primary,
+secondary, tertiary, or semi-neutral; hence any blue, purple, olive, or
+gray added to it, at once destroys the neutrality of grey, and converts
+it into gray. Thus easily defiled and changed in class, grey is rather a
+theoretical than a practical colour. To our knowledge, there has never
+been a true grey pigment, that is, one composed exclusively of pure
+white and pure black; the gr_a_ys known to the palette as Mineral Grey
+and Payne's Grey having been incorrectly named. Practically, the nearest
+approach to a normal grey is furnished by Black Lead, which forms grey
+tints of greater permanence and purity than the blacks in general use,
+and is now employed for this purpose with approved satisfaction by
+experienced artists.
+
+Being compounded of white and black, grey partakes in some measure of
+the qualities of both those colours--for colours, as a matter of
+convenience, they must be called; although white is often spoken of as
+no colour, and black as the complete extinction of all colour. With
+white predominant, grey is used, pure or coloured, for the general
+lights of a picture; just as, with black predominant, grey is employed,
+pure or coloured, for the shades. It helps to subdue the absolute white,
+and to make the absolute black conspicuous. Black and white are in some
+respects complementary to each other, and when in contact, appear to
+differ more from each other than when viewed separately: both show with
+best effect when harmonised by a medium of grey, normal or otherwise.
+The primary colours, also, gain in brilliancy and purity by the
+proximity of grey. With dark colours, such as blue and violet, and deep
+tones in general, grey forms assortments of analogous harmonies; while
+with the luminous colours, such as red, orange, yellow, and the light
+tints of green, it forms harmonies of contrast. Although grey never
+produces a bad effect in its assortments with two luminous colours, in
+most cases the association is dull and inferior to black and white. The
+only instance in which grey associates with two such colours more
+happily than white is that with red and orange. Grey is inferior to both
+white and black with red and green, red and yellow, orange and yellow,
+orange and green, yellow and green; and is not so good as white with
+yellow and blue. In association with sombre colours, such as blue and
+violet, and with broken tones of luminous colours, grey gives rise to
+harmonies of analogy which have not the vigour of those with white; but
+if the colours do not combine well together, it has the advantage of
+separating them from each other. Associated with two colours, one
+sombre, the other luminous, grey will perhaps be better than white, if
+white produces too strong a contrast of tone: on the other hand, grey
+will be preferable to black, if that has the inconvenience of increasing
+too much the proportion of sombre colours. Grey associates more happily
+than black with orange and violet, green and blue, or green and violet.
+
+288. MIXED GREY.
+
+When a ray of solar light (a sunbeam) is passed through a prism of flint
+glass, and the image or 'prismatic spectrum' received upon a screen of
+white paper, it is found to consist of numerous rays of different
+colours, which are conveniently divided into six groups--red, orange,
+yellow, green, blue, violet. Optically, the union of red, yellow, and
+blue, in proper proportions, constitutes white light; whether the rays
+of the three separate colours are mixed, or of one with the other two in
+combination: the same result ensues when red is mixed with green as if
+it were mixed with blue and yellow, because green is composed of blue
+and yellow. Consequently, any primary mixed with a secondary composed of
+the other two primaries, forms the complement of rays necessary to
+constitute or make up white light, and vice versa.
+
+There is, however, a very great difference between the results arising
+from the mixture of the pure coloured rays of the spectrum, and those
+from material colours or pigments. When, by means of a convex lens, we
+reunite the coloured rays of the spectrum white light is reproduced; but
+when we mix coloured materials, blues, yellows, and reds, the compound
+is never white, but grey or black; even if these coloured pigments are
+taken in the exact proportions in which their colours exist in the
+spectrum. Ultramarine, our purest blue, reflects red rays as well as
+blue rays; aureolin, our purest yellow, reflects blue as well as yellow
+rays; and carmine reflects yellow as well as red rays. Now whenever the
+third primary colour is present in any mixture of coloured materials, it
+tends to form grey, by mixing with a sufficient quantity of the other
+coloured rays to neutralize it, and the presence of this grey breaks or
+tarnishes the pure colour. Hence it is that to obtain a pure green, a
+blue should be taken tinged with yellow rather than with red, and a
+yellow tinged with blue: if there were chosen either a blue or a yellow
+tinged with red, this latter colour would go to form some grey in the
+compound, which would tarnish the green. In like manner, to produce pure
+orange, neither the red nor the yellow must contain blue; and similarly
+with pure purple, neither the blue nor red should contain yellow.
+
+As regards pigments, then, a proper mixture of yellow, red, and blue; or
+of yellow and purple, red and green, or blue and orange; or of orange,
+green, and purple, affords black if sufficiently intense, and grey if
+sufficiently diluted. The black may be rendered grey by spreading a thin
+wash over a white ground, or by the direct addition of white. It must be
+remembered, however, that suitable proportions of the component colours
+are essential. When all three of the primaries, for example, are mixed
+together, colour is neutralised according as they are compounded of
+equal strength and in right quantities: if proper proportions are
+observed, pure black or normal grey results; but if not, there will be
+produced a coloured black or a coloured grey, an excess of one or two of
+the primaries giving rise to brown, marrone, or gray.
+
+A reference to the lists of permanent primary and secondary pigments
+will show to what extent durable greys can be compounded. As these
+pigments differ so widely in hue and other properties, no fixed rules
+can be given for their admixture: to ensure neutrality, practice and a
+correct eye are indispensable. Without perfect neutrality, difficult to
+attain and rarely to be met with, grey ceases to exist. In pure white,
+pure grey, and pure black, colour is, so to speak, conspicuous by its
+absence.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXI.
+
+ON THE NEUTRAL, BLACK.
+
+
+Black is the last and lowest in the series or scale of colours
+descending--the opposite extreme from white--the maximum of colour. To
+be perfect, it must be neutral with respect to colours individually, and
+absolutely transparent, or destitute of reflective power as regards
+light; its use in painting being to represent shade or depths, of which
+black is the element in a picture and in colours, as white is of light.
+
+As there is no perfectly pure and transparent black pigment, black
+deteriorates all colours in deepening them, as it does warm colours by
+partially neutralizing them, but it combines less injuriously with cold
+colours. Though black is the antagonist of white, yet added to it in
+minute portion, it in general renders white more neutral, solid, and
+local, with less of the character of light. Impure black is brown, but
+black in its purity is a cold colour, and communicates a coolness to all
+light colours; thus it _blues_ white, _greens_ yellow, _purples_ red,
+and _cools_ blue. Hence the artist errs with ill effect who regards
+black as of nearest affinity to hot and brown colours, and will do well
+to keep in mind--"The glow of sunshine and the _cool_ of shade."
+
+It is a fault of even some of our best colourists, as evinced by their
+pictures, to be too fond of black upon their palettes, and thence to
+infuse it needlessly into their tints and colours. With such it is a
+taste acquired from the study of old pictures; but in nature hardly any
+object above ground is black, or in daylight is rendered neutral
+thereby. Black, therefore, should be reserved for a local colour, or
+employed only in the under-painting properly called grounding and dead
+colouring. As a local colour, black has the effect of connecting or
+amassing surrounding objects, and is the most retiring of all colours, a
+property which it communicates to other colours in mixture. It heightens
+the effect of warm as well as light colours, by a double contrast when
+opposed to them, and in like manner subdues that of cold and deep
+colours. In mixture or glazing, however, these effects are reversed, by
+reason of the predominance of cold colour in the constitution of black.
+Having, therefore, the double office of colour and of shade, black is
+perhaps the most important of all colours to the artist, both as to its
+use and avoidance.
+
+It may be laid down as a rule that the black must be conspicuous.
+However small a point of black may be, it ought to catch the eye,
+otherwise the work is too heavy in the shadow. All the ordinary shadows
+should be of some _colour_--never black, nor approaching black, they
+should be evidently and always of a luminous nature, and the black
+should look strange among them; never occurring except in a black
+object, or in small points indicative of intense shade in the very
+centre of masses of shadow. Shadows of absolutely negative grey,
+however, may be beautifully used with white, or with gold; but still
+though the black thus, in subdued strength, becomes spacious, it should
+always be conspicuous: the spectator should notice this grey neutrality
+with some wonder, and enjoy, all the more intensely on account of it,
+the gold colour and the white which it relieves. Of all the great
+colourists, Velasquez is the greatest master of the black chords: his
+black is more precious than other people's crimson. Yet it is not simply
+black and white that must be made valuable, rare worth must be given to
+each colour employed; but the white and black ought to separate
+themselves quaintly from the rest, while the other colours should be
+continually passing one into the other, being all plainly companions in
+the same gay world; while the white, black, and neutral grey should
+stand monkishly aloof in the midst of them. Crimson may be melted into
+purple, purple into blue, and blue into green, but none of them must be
+melted into black.
+
+All colours are comprehended in the synthesis of black, consequently the
+whole sedative power of colour is comprised in black. It is the same in
+the synthesis of white; and, with like relative consequence, white
+includes all the stimulating powers of colour in painting. It follows
+that a little white or black is equivalent to much colour, and hence
+their use as colours requires judgment and caution. By due attention to
+the synthesis of black, it may be rendered a harmonizing medium to all
+colours, to all which it lends brilliancy by its sedative effect on the
+eye, and its powers of contrast: nevertheless, we repeat, it must be
+introduced with caution when _hue_ is of greater importance than shade.
+Even when employed as a shadow, without much judgment in its use, black
+is apt to appear as local colour rather than as privation of light; and
+black pigments obtained by charring have a tendency to rise and
+predominate over other hues, subduing the more delicate tints by their
+chemical bleaching power upon other colours, and their own disposition
+to turn brown or dusky. For these reasons deep and transparent colours,
+which have darkness in their constitution, are better adapted as a rule
+for producing the true natural and permanent effects of shade. Many
+pictures of the early masters, and especially of the Roman and
+Florentine schools, evince the truth of our remarks; and it is to be
+feared the high reputation of these works has betrayed their admirers
+into this defective employment of black.
+
+Black substances reflect a small quantity of white light, which receives
+the complementary of the colour contiguous to the black. By
+'complementary' is meant that colour which is required with another
+colour to form white light; thus, green is the complementary of red,
+blue of orange, and yellow of violet, or vice versa; because green and
+red, blue and orange, and yellow and violet, each make up the full
+complement of rays necessary to form white light. Briefly digressing, we
+give the following mode of observing complementary colours:--Place a
+sheet of white paper on a table opposite to one of two windows admitting
+diffused daylight[C] into a room; take a piece of coloured glass and so
+place it that the coloured light transmitted through it falls over the
+surface of the paper; then put an opaque object on the paper close to
+the coloured glass. The shadow of this object will not appear black or
+of the colour of the glass, as might be supposed, but of its
+complementary colour; thus if the glass is red, the colour of the
+shadow will be green, although the whole of the paper surrounding it
+appears red. Similarly, if the glass is blue, the shadow will appear
+orange; if it is green, the shadow will appear red; and so with other
+colours. It is absolutely essential, however, to the success of this
+experiment, that the paper be also illuminated with the white light
+admitted from the other window.
+
+It has been said that black substances reflect a small quantity of white
+light, which receives the complementary of the colour contiguous to the
+black. If this colour is deep, it gives rise to a luminous
+complementary, such as orange, or yellow, and enfeebles the black; while
+the other complementaries, such as violet or green, strengthen and
+purify it. In colours associated with black, if green is juxtaposed
+therewith, its complementary red, added to the black, makes it seem
+rusty. Those colours which best associate with black are orange, yellow,
+blue, and violet. It would be well to remember that black, being always
+deeper than the juxtaposed colour, entails contrast of tone, and tends
+to lower the tone of that colour.
+
+Most of the black pigments in use are obtained by charring, and owe
+their colour to the carbon they contain. As the objects of vegetal and
+animal nature may be blackened through every degree of impurity by the
+action of fire, black substances more or less fitted for pigments
+abound. The following are the chief native and artificial black
+pigments, or colours available as such:--
+
+289. BLACK LEAD,
+
+_Plumbago_, or _Graphite_, contains in spite of its name no lead, being
+simply a species of carbon or charcoal. In most specimens iron is
+present, varying in quantity from a mere trace up to five per cent,
+together with silica and alumina. Sometimes manganese and titanic acid
+are likewise found. It is curious that carbon should occur in two
+distinct and very dissimilar forms--as diamond, and as graphite; one,
+white, hard, and transparent; the other, black, soft, and opaque: the
+artist, therefore, who uses a pigment of plumbago, paints with nothing
+more or less than a black diamond. The best graphite, the finest and
+most valuable for pencils, is yielded by the mine of Borrowdale, at the
+west end of Derwent Lake, in Cumberland, where it was first wrought
+during the reign of Elizabeth. A kind of irregular vein traverses the
+ancient slate-beds of that district, furnishing the carbon of an
+iron-grey colour, metallic lustre, and soft and greasy to the touch.
+Universally employed in the form of crayons, &c. in sketching,
+designing, and drawing, until of late years it was not acknowledged as a
+pigment: yet its powers in this respect claim a place for it. As a
+water-colour, levigated in gum in the usual manner, it may be
+effectively used with rapidity and freedom in the shading and finishing
+of pencil drawings, or as a substitute therein for Indian ink. Even in
+oil it may be employed occasionally, as it possesses remarkably the
+property of covering, forms very pure grey, dries quickly, injures no
+colour chemically, and endures for ever. These qualities render it the
+most eligible black for adding to white in minute quantity to preserve
+the neutrality of its tint.
+
+Although plumbago has usurped the name of Black Lead, there is another
+substance more properly entitled to this appellation, and which may be
+used in the same way, and with like effects as a pigment. This substance
+is the sulphide of lead, found native in the beautiful lead ore, or
+Galena, of Derbyshire. An artificial sulphide can be prepared by dry and
+wet processes, which is subject to gradual oxidation on exposure to the
+air, and consequent conversion into grey or white. Neither variety can
+be compared to graphite for permanence, although the native is
+preferable to the artificial.
+
+Plumbago, or the so-called Black Lead, is often adulterated to an
+enormous extent with lamp black.
+
+290. BLUE BLACK,
+
+_Charcoal_, _Liege_, or _Vine Black_, is a well-burnt and levigated
+charcoal prepared from vine twigs, of weaker body than ivory or lamp
+black, and consequently better suited to the grays and general mixed
+tints of landscape painting, in which it is not so likely to look black
+and sooty as the others may do. Of a cool neutral tint, it has, in
+common with all carbonaceous blacks, a preserving influence on white
+when duly mixed therewith; which it owes, chemically, to the bleaching
+power of carbon, and, chromatically, to the neutralizing and contrasting
+power of black with white. Compounded slightly with blue black, and
+washed over with zinc white, white lead may be exposed to any ordinary
+impure atmosphere with comparative impunity. It would be well for art if
+carbon had a like power upon the colour of oils, but of this it is
+deficient; and although chlorine destroys their colour temporarily, they
+re-acquire it at no very distant period.
+
+Alone, blue black is useful as a cool shade for white draperies; and
+compounded with cobalt, affords a good gray for louring clouds.
+
+291. BRITISH INK
+
+is a compound black, preferred by some artists to Indian ink, on account
+of its not being liable to wash streaky, as the latter does: at the same
+time it is not so perfectly fixed on the paper as Indian ink.
+
+292. INDIAN INK,
+
+sometimes called _China_ or _Chinese Ink_, is chiefly brought from
+China in oblong cakes, of a musky scent, ready prepared for painting in
+water. Varying considerably in body and colour, the best has a shining
+black fracture, is finely compact, and homogeneous when rubbed with
+water, in which, when largely diluted, it yields no precipitate. Without
+the least appearance of particles, its dry surface is covered with a
+pellicle of a metallic appearance. When dry on the paper, it resists the
+action of water, yet it will give way at once to that action, when it
+has been used and dried on marble or ivory, a fact which proves that the
+alummed paper forms a strong combination with the ink; possibly a
+compound of the latter on an aluminous base, might even be employed in
+oil. Different accounts are given of the mode of making this ink, the
+principal substance or colouring matter of which is a smoke black,
+having all the properties of our lamp black; the variety of its hues and
+texture seeming wholly to depend on the degree of burning and levigating
+it receives. From certain Chinese documents, we learn that the ink of
+Nan-king is the most esteemed; and among the many sorts imported into
+this country, we find those of the best quality are prepared with lamp
+black of the oil of Sesame; with which are combined camphor, and the
+juice of a plant named _Houng hoa_ to give it brightness of tone.
+According to an analysis by M. Proust, the better kinds contain about
+two per cent. of camphor. By some, the pigment known as Sepia has been
+supposed to enter into their composition.
+
+_Liquid Indian Ink_ is a solution for architects, surveyors, &c.
+
+293. IVORY BLACK
+
+is ivory charred to blackness by strong heat in closed vessels.
+Differing chiefly through want of care or skill in preparing, when well
+made it is the richest and most transparent of all the blacks, a fine
+neutral colour perfectly durable and eligible both in water and oil.
+When insufficiently burnt, however, it is brown, and dries badly; or if
+too much burnt, it becomes cineritious, opaque, and faint in hue. With a
+slight tendency to brown in its pale washes, this full, silky black is
+serviceable where the sooty density of lamp black would be out of place.
+It is occasionally adulterated with bone black, a cheaper and inferior
+product.
+
+Being nothing more nor less than animal charcoal, ivory or bone black
+had best not be compounded with organic pigments, in water at least. It
+is well known that this charcoal possesses the singular property of
+completely absorbing the colour of almost any vegetal or animal
+solution, and of rendering quite limpid and colourless the water charged
+with it. If a solution of indigo in concentrated sulphuric acid be
+diluted with water, and animal charcoal added in sufficient quantity,
+the solution will soon be deprived of colour. The more perfect the ivory
+or bone black, the more powerful is its action likely to be: either over
+or under calcined, animal charcoal is less energetic; in the former
+case, because it is less porous; in the latter, because the animal
+matter, not being wholly consumed, makes a kind of varnish in the
+charcoal which interferes with its acting. To a greater or less extent,
+gums, oils, and varnishes serve similarly as preventives, thereby
+decreasing the danger of employing these blacks in admixture; but, in
+the compounding of colours, nothing is gained by needless risk. To mix
+with organic pigments, therefore, blue or lamp blacks should be
+substituted for those of ivory or bone; that is, vegetal charcoal should
+be used instead of animal. It is a question whether even with inorganic
+pigments the adoption of the former in admixture would not be advisable.
+It was once the general opinion that the action of animal charcoal was
+limited to bodies of organic origin, but it has since been found that
+inorganic matters are likewise influenced. "Through its agency," says
+Graham, "even the iodine is separated from iodide of potassium;" whence
+probably pigments containing iodine would suffer by contact. The
+investigation of Weppen appears to prove that the action of the charcoal
+extends to all metallic salts; with the following, no doubt remains of
+this being so, to wit:--the sulphates of copper, zinc, chromium, and
+protoxide of iron; the nitrates of lead, nickel, silver, cobalt,
+suboxide and oxide of mercury; the protochlorides of tin and mercury;
+the acetates of lead and sesquioxide of iron; and the tartrate of
+antimony. Whether animal charcoal exercises any deleterious influence on
+pigments consisting of these metals, and, if so, how far and under what
+circumstances, can only be answered when our knowledge of the properties
+of pigments is greater than it now is. At present, perhaps, it is safer
+to choose vegetal charcoal for mixed tints, inasmuch as, although it
+shares the property of bleaching in a certain degree, it does not
+possess the same energy.
+
+294. LAMP BLACK,
+
+or _Lamblack_, is a smoke black, being the soot procured by the burning
+of resins or resinous woods. It is a pure vegetal charcoal of fine
+texture, not quite so intense nor so transparent as the black made from
+ivory, but less brown in its pale tones. It has a very strong body that
+covers readily every underlay of colour, works well, but dries badly in
+oil. On emergency, it may be prepared extemporaneously for
+water-painting by holding a plate over the flame of a lamp or candle,
+and adding gum to the colour: the nearer the plate is held to the wick
+of the lamp, the more abundant and warm will be the hue of the black
+obtained; at a greater distance it will be more effectually charred, and
+blacker.
+
+Mixed with French blue or cobalt, lamp black gives good cloudy grays,
+which are useful for the shadows of heavy storm clouds. With French blue
+and this black alone various beautiful stormy skies may be represented;
+the contrast of the blue causing the black to assume, if desired, a warm
+tone in shadows. For like purposes, the black with ultramarine ash
+affords a very soft hue, and with light red and cobalt in different
+proportions yields silvery tones most serviceable. To the dark marking
+of murky and dirty clouds, a compound of lamp black and light red is
+particularly suited; while a mixture of the black with cobalt and purple
+madder is adapted for slate-coloured sunset and sunrise clouds. French
+blue softened with a little lamp black is fitted for mountains or hills,
+very remote; and the same blue and black with rose madder meet their
+tints if nearer. In seas the black is useful with raw Sienna and other
+colours; while, whether in storm or calm, vessels and boats may be
+painted with tints of lamp black, madder brown, and burnt Sienna,
+varying in degrees of strength according to the distances. Lamp black
+alone, or with French blue, cobalt and purple madder, emerald green, or
+rose madder, is good for rocks; and for dark foreground objects when
+mixed with madder lake and burnt Sienna. With aureolin the black
+furnishes a sober olive for foliage, and with rose madder a fine colour
+for the stems and branches of trees. Compounded with light red, it is
+suited to the first general tones of the ground for banks and roads; and
+with yellow ochre or madder red, to parts of buildings and cattle. A
+very eminent miniature painter recommends for hair tints, lamp black,
+Indian red, and burnt Sienna. Being a dense solid colour, this black
+must be used sparingly to avoid heaviness.
+
+Hitherto confined to painting and engraving, lamp black has lately
+refuted the assertion that there is nothing new under the sun by making
+its appearance in photography. By a method which combines the fidelity
+of that art with the permanence of prints, there is produced a species
+of photographic engraving, so to speak, having lamp black or carbon for
+its colouring matter. Indeed, in this 'Autotype' process, as it is
+called, any other durable pigment or pigments may be used, and a
+photographic picture thus obtained. In copying the works of artists,
+especially, the mode promises to be of value, inasmuch as by its agency
+the same pigments may be made the colouring matter of the reproduction
+as are employed in the original. If this be in sepia or bistre, the copy
+can be autotyped in those colours; or if a red chalk drawing be required
+to be multiplied, the proofs may be in red chalk, the copy when
+produced to the same scale being scarcely distinguishable from the
+original. In like manner, any single colour of the artist's palette is
+applicable without restriction or limitation, so that not only are every
+line and touch rendered absolutely, but the very pigment used in the
+original is found in the copy. Moreover, as the pigments are quite
+unchanged by the action of the other agents employed, the resulting
+colour of the print is determined once for all, just as the artist mixes
+those pigments on his palette for his picture. As extending the use of
+lamp black and permanent pigments in general, this brief digression on
+Autotypography may be pardoned in a treatise on colours.
+
+295. MIXED BLACK.
+
+Black is to be considered as a synthesis of the three primary colours,
+the three secondaries, or the three tertiaries, or of all these
+together; and, consequently, also of the three semi-neutrals, and may
+thus be composed of due proportions of either tribe or triad. All
+antagonistic colours, or contrasts, likewise afford the neutral black by
+composition; but in all the modes of producing black by compounding
+colours, blue is to be regarded as its archeus or predominating colour,
+and yellow as subordinate to red, in the proportions, when their hues
+are true, of eight blue, five red, and three yellow. It is owing to
+this predominance of blue in the constitution of black, that it
+contributes by mixture to the pureness of hue in white colours, which
+usually incline to warmth, and that it produces the cool effect of
+blueness in glazing and tints, or however otherwise diluted or dilated.
+It accords with the principle here inculcated that in glass-founding the
+oxide of manganese, which gives the _red_ hue, and that of cobalt, which
+furnishes the _blue_, are added to brown or _yellow_ frit, to obtain a
+velvety black glass. Similarly the dyer proceeds to dye black upon a
+deep blue basis of indigo, with the ruddy colour of madder and the
+yellow of quercitron, &c.
+
+Some of the best blacks and neutrals of the painter are those formed
+with colours of sufficient power and transparency upon the palette.
+Prussian blue and burnt lake afford a powerful though not very durable
+black; and compound blacks in which transparent pigments are employed
+will generally go deeper and harmonize better with other colours than
+any original black pigment alone. Hence lakes and deep blues, added to
+the common blacks, greatly increase their clearness and intensity: in
+mixture and glazing of the fine blacks of some old pictures, ultramarine
+has evidently been used. In this view, black altogether compounded of
+blue with red and yellow, each deep and transparent, and duly
+subordinated according to its powers, will give the most powerful and
+transparent blacks; although, like most other blacks, they dry badly in
+oil. Of course, as with all compound colours, it depends entirely on the
+pigments employed whether these mixed blacks are permanent or not: a
+compound black can very well pass through the stages of black to grey,
+gray, or dirty white, if each link in the chain of combination be not as
+strong as its fellows.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+296. _Black Chalk_
+
+is an indurated clay, of the texture of white chalk, and chiefly used
+for cutting into crayons. Fine specimens have been found near Bantry in
+Ireland, and in Wales, but the Italian has the most reputation. Crayons
+for sketching and drawing are also artificially prepared, which are
+deeper in colour and free from grit. Wood charcoal is likewise cut into
+crayons, that of soft woods, such as lime, poplar, &c., being best
+adapted for the purpose.
+
+297. _Black Ochre_,
+
+Earth Black, or Prussian Black, is a native earth, combined with iron
+and alluvial clay. It is found in most countries, and should be washed
+and exposed to the atmosphere before being employed. Sea-coal, and
+other black mineral substances, have been and may be used as substitutes
+for the more perfect blacks, when the latter are not procurable, which
+now seldom or never happens.
+
+298. _Bone Black_,
+
+obtained by charring, is similar to that of ivory, except that it is a
+little warmer in tone, having a reddish or orange tinge, and is a worse
+drier in oil. Like ivory black, it is very transparent. Immense
+quantities of bone black are consumed with sulphuric acid in the
+manufacture of shoe blacking.
+
+299. _Coffee Black_,
+
+though little known and not on sale, has been strongly recommended by
+Bouvier as one of the best blacks that can be used. Soft without being
+greasy, light, almost impalpable, even before being ground, it gives
+tints of a very bluish gray when mixed with white, a quality precious
+for making the blues of the sketch, and dull greens. It is said to dry
+better than blue or vine black, and to combine admirably with other
+colours. De Montabert prefers calling it Coffee Brown, giving it as an
+exemplification of a bluish-brown, but probably this brown hue is owing
+to want of skill in its manufacture. We have not had personal experience
+of the colour, but there is no theoretical reason why a carbonaceous
+black should not be produced from coffee. The mode of proceeding is to
+calcine the berry in a covered vessel, and well wash the resulting
+charcoal with boiling water by decantation. In order to prevent the
+powder, which is of great lightness, from floating, it is made into
+paste with a few drops of alcohol before adding the water.
+
+300. _Frankfort Black_
+
+is said to be made of the lees of wine from which the tartar has been
+washed, by burning, in the manner of ivory black; although the inferior
+sort is merely the levigated charcoal of woods, of which the hardest,
+such as box and ebony, yield the best. Fine Frankfort black, though
+almost confined to copper-plate printing, is one of the best black
+pigments extant, being of a neutral colour, next in intensity to lamp
+black, and more powerful than that of ivory. Strong light has the effect
+of deepening its colour. It is probable that this was the black used by
+some of the Flemish painters, and that the pureness of the greys formed
+therewith is due to the property of charred substances of preventing
+discolourment.
+
+301. _Manganese Black_,
+
+the common black oxide of that metal, is the best of all blacks for
+drying in oil without addition. It is also a colour of vast body and
+tingeing power. As a siccative, it might be advantageously employed with
+ivory black.
+
+302. _Mineral Black_
+
+is a native impure carbon of soft texture, found in Devonshire. Blacker
+than plumbago, and free from its metallic lustre, it is of a neutral
+colour, greyer and more opaque than ivory black, and forms pure neutral
+tints. Being perfectly durable, and drying well in oil, it is of value
+in dead colouring on account of its solid body, as a preparation for
+black and deep colours before glazing. It would likewise be the most
+permanent and best possible black for frescoes.
+
+303. _Paper Black_,
+
+a pigment unknown to the modern palette, like most of our numbered
+italicised colours, is of the nature of blue or vine black. Very soft
+and of a fine bluish-gray, it is fitted for flesh, or for mixing with
+whites or yellows in landscapes.
+
+304. _Peach Black_,
+
+or Almond Black, made by burning the stones of fruits, the shell of the
+cocoa-nut, &c., is a violet-black, once much used by Parisian artists.
+Bouvier believes it to be a good black, but at the same time sensibly
+asks, of what use is it to have a black of this cast, which can always
+be given by lake, without diminishing but rather increasing the
+intensity of the black it may be mixed with.
+
+305. _Prussian Black._
+
+The same Prussian blue which gives a brown when burnt in the open air,
+yields a black when calcined in a close crucible. Very intense, very
+soft and velvety, and very agreeable to work, this bluish-black dries
+much more promptly than most other blacks, and scarcely requires
+grinding. On account of its extreme division, however, it would probably
+be found more energetic as a decolourising agent in admixture with
+organic pigments than most carbonaceous blacks.
+
+Another Prussian black, containing copper, and made by a wet process, is
+obtained when a dilute solution of cupric sulphate and ferrous sulphate,
+in proper proportions, is mixed with a quantity of ferrocyanide of
+potassium not in excess. A very bulky deep black precipitate is formed,
+which is difficult to wash, and is deep black when dry. It is insoluble
+in water, and appears to be a compound analogous to Prussian blue. As a
+pigment, this black is inferior to the preceding.
+
+306. _Purple Black_
+
+is, or rather was, a preparation of madder, of a deep purple hue
+approaching black. Powerful and very transparent, it glazed and dried
+well in oil, and was a durable and eligible pigment. Its tints with
+white lead were of a purple cast.
+
+307. _Spanish Black_,
+
+or Cork Black, is a soft black, obtained by charring cork, and differs
+not essentially from Frankfort black, except in being of a lighter and
+softer texture. "Some of my friends," says Bouvier, "call it _Beggars'
+Ultramarine_, because it produces, by combinations, tints almost as fine
+as ultramarine." A blue but not a velvet black, where intensity is
+required some other is to be preferred. For mixtures, however, it is
+stated to be admirable, and especially for linen, skies, distances, and
+the various broken tints of carnations, &c.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Besides those blacks which have been mentioned, there are others
+furnished by several of the metals and by many organic substances
+employed as dyes; but as the blacks in common use are all permanent, and
+have been found sufficient for every purpose, it is scarce needful to
+swell the list. Nor is it more needful, the Editor considers, to swell
+the book; lest his aim be defeated of reflecting in a _moderate_-sized
+mirror the palette as it is and might be at the present day. Arrived at
+age, as it were, in its twenty-first chapter, this treatise may fitly
+conclude with Black, the last of the series of colours. Let us hope the
+maxim of Sir Joshua Reynolds, that success in some degree was never
+denied to earnest work may apply here.
+
+Still, by way of finale, we would offer a few remarks. In no branch of
+the science, perhaps, is it more hazardous to commit oneself to a
+positive dictum than in the chemistry of colours, so liable are theory
+and practice to clash, and so often does the experience of one person or
+one time differ from that of another. He who has turned his attention to
+pigments, finds nearly every assertion must be qualified, for to nearly
+every rule there is some exception, and learns that theory alone may
+mislead. For example, a colour known to be fugacious may last, in
+certain cases, a surprisingly long time; while, on the contrary, a
+pigment permanent when used alone, may be rendered fugitive by improper
+compounding. Again, what holds good of a colour produced by one process,
+or employed in one vehicle or by one artist, may not be true of the same
+colour made by a different mode, or used in another vehicle or by
+another artist. It is because, then, colours are of every degree of
+durability, from the perfectly stable to the utterly fugitive, and
+because each one is liable to influence by every condition of time,
+place, and circumstance, that the chemist's theory is opposed as often
+to the painter's practice as the experience of artists themselves
+varies. This may explain the charges of inconsistency and contradiction
+which have been brought against writers on pigments, faults that lie
+rather with the nature of the subject than with the authors.
+
+Even at the risk of being tiresome, we have throughout insisted on the
+choice of permanent pigments, not simply for use alone but for mixed
+tints. To quote Cennini, "I give you this advice, that you endeavour
+always to use ... good colours.... And if you say that a poor person
+cannot afford the expense, I answer, that if you work well (and give
+sufficient time to your works), and paint with good colours, you will
+acquire so much fame that from a poor person you will become a rich one;
+and your name will stand so high for using good colours, that if some
+masters receive a ducat for painting one figure, you will certainly be
+offered two, and your wishes will be fulfilled, according to the old
+proverb, 'good work, good pay.'" Of a truth, if man cannot dip his brush
+in the rainbow and paint with the aerial colours of the skies, he can at
+least select the best pigments that earth and the sea afford him;
+preferring, where he cannot get brilliancy and permanence combined,
+sobriety and permanence to brilliancy and fugacity. It must be the wish
+of every real artist to leave behind him a lasting record of his skill,
+a permanent panorama of those hues of nature which in life he loved so
+well. To effect this, genius alone is powerless: there must be first a
+proper choice of materials, and next a proper use of them. The painter's
+pigments are the bricks wherewith the mortar of his mind must be mixed,
+either to erect an edifice that shall endure for ages, or one which will
+quickly topple over like a house of cards. Now in nothing more than in
+painting is prevention better than cure--indeed cure may be said to be
+here out of the question: for good or for evil a picture once painted is
+painted for ever. Without a strong constitution there is no hope for it;
+no chemistry can strengthen the sickly frame, restore the faded colour,
+stop the ravages of consumption: Science stands helpless before dying
+Art.
+
+And yet, she sighs to think, it might have been otherwise. If durable
+pigments had been employed, if her counsel had been sought, this need
+not have been. In the history of modern art the use and abuse of colours
+would furnish a sad chapter, telling of gross ignorance, and a grosser
+indifference. Happily there is promise of a healthier state of things.
+When this comes, Art will be less shy to consult her sister: in the
+interests of both there should be closer union. Without waiting till the
+picture is finished--for then it will be too late--let her, if in doubt,
+frankly display the contents of her palette and ask advice. Now, not
+knowing what pigments are chosen or how they are used, never standing
+by and watching the progress of the work, how can Science lend her aid?
+She would willingly, for she herself needs help: at present her
+knowledge is limited, not so much of the chemistry of colours as of the
+properties of pigments. She seeks to mix her pound of theory with an
+ounce of practice, and craves a warmer welcome to the studio. For any
+approximation to the truth to be arrived at, facts must be noted with
+the conditions under which they occur, not by one sister alone nor by
+the other alone, but by both. In future, Art and Science should go hand
+in hand, mutually dependent on each other, mutually trustful of each
+other, working with and for each other, earnestly and patiently.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[C] Light is either direct or diffused--direct, when the sun's rays fall
+upon any object; diffused, when ordinary daylight illumines objects with
+white light, causing them to appear of their peculiar colours.
+
+
+
+
+ADDENDUM.
+
+With the present rapid progress of applied chemistry, an addendum in a
+work of this kind is quite excusable. Even while the book is being
+printed some fact may be announced which the author or editor would wish
+to insert. In our case this has happened. Very recently there has been
+introduced in France as a pigment
+
+308. TUNGSTEN WHITE,
+
+or _Tungstate of Baryta_. "At the request of a landscape painter," says
+M. Sacc in a letter to M. Dumas, "I was induced to examine in succession
+all our insoluble white compounds, with regard to their adaptability to
+painting purposes. Tungstate of baryta answers perfectly, covers as well
+as white lead, and is as unalterable as zinc white. It has been employed
+by this artist for three months, and was found equally successful in oil
+or water colours, chromolithography, and even in making white
+impressions on a black ground. This harmless substitute for the
+injurious white lead is prepared on a large scale in Paris by M. E.
+Rousseau." We have not met with a sample of that gentleman's
+manufacture, but judging from our own specimens, made both by wet and
+dry processes, and carefully tried in water and oil, it would seem that
+a perfect white pigment has yet to be discovered. With us, at least,
+tungstate of baryta is far from having the body of white lead, and
+indeed is inferior in opacity to good zinc white. Unaffected by foul
+air, the tungstate appears to possess the common fault of all whites
+when compared with white lead--want of body, moreover it is a bad dryer.
+However, M. Rousseau's preparation may not be open to these objections,
+and we therefore reserve our final opinion of tungsten white. It is
+intended to publish from time to time a fresh edition of Field's
+Chromatography, and we hope in the next issue to give a more detailed
+and favourable account of the new pigment.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX.
+
+
+A.
+
+Acacia catechu, 354.
+
+Academy, Royal, at Burlington House, 365.
+
+Acetate of lead, as a siccative, 51.
+  "        improper use of, 52.
+
+Adulteration, 70.
+  "  of Anotta, 256.
+  "     Artificial Ultramarine, 214.
+  "     Black Lead, 394.
+  "     Cadmium Yellow, 88.
+  "     Carmine, 134.
+  "     Chrome Yellow, 94.
+  "     Cochineal, 132.
+  "     Genuine Ultramarine, 214.
+  "     Indigo, 202.
+  "     Ivory Black, 397.
+  "     Madder, 140.
+  "     Madder Carmine, 142.
+  "     Mars Yellow, 102.
+  "     Prussian Blue, 203.
+  "     Red Lead, 152.
+  "     Smalt, 198.
+  "     Verdigris, 276.
+  "     Vermilion, 156.
+  "     Veronese Green, 268.
+  "     White Lead, 70, 74, 75.
+  "     Yellow and Orange Orpiment, 113, 259.
+  "     Zinc White, 77.
+
+Advancing and retiring colours, 186-188.
+
+Advice, Cennini's, 411.
+
+Aerial perspective, 22.
+
+African cochineal, 170.
+  "     green, 271.
+
+Air and light, action of, on pigments, 39.
+
+Air effect, want of, 378.
+
+Albumen, 50.
+
+Alchemy, 259.
+
+Alexander the Great, 296.
+  "       Veronese, 284.
+
+Alkanet, 302.
+
+Almagra, 147.
+
+Almond Black, 407.
+
+American artist, an, 347.
+
+Analysis of Brown, 377.
+  "         Citrine, 329.
+  "         Gray, 377.
+  "         Marrone, 377.
+  "         Olive, 330.
+  "         Russet, 330.
+
+Anchusa tinctoria, 302.
+
+Ancients, colouring of the, 3.
+  "       colours of the, 5, 6, 218.
+
+Aniline, 162.
+  "      colours, 162.
+  "        "      cakes of, 163.
+  "        "      in oil, 247.
+
+Animal AEthiops, 348.
+  "    charcoal, 397-399.
+  "    jelly, 50.
+
+Anotta, 255.
+
+Antimony, Golden Sulphur of, 256.
+  "       Orange, 256.
+  "       Red, 159.
+  "       White, 79.
+  "       Yellow, 105.
+
+Antipathies of pigments, 193.
+
+Antwerp Blue, 207.
+  "     Brown, 339.
+
+Apelles, 7, 293.
+
+Archil, 303.
+  "     Purple, 303.
+
+Arethas, 217.
+
+Armenian blue, 5, 217, 228.
+  "      bole, 147.
+  "      stone, 228.
+
+Arsenical pigments, 273.
+
+Arsenic green, substitutes for, 288, 290.
+  "     white, 79.
+  "     yellow, 116.
+
+Art and Science, 238, 412.
+
+Artificial Ultramarine, 209-216.
+  "        acid pigments with, 214.
+  "        adulteration of, 215.
+  "        green in, 211.
+  "        gum with, 214.
+
+Artificial Ultramarine, in siliceous painting, 212.
+  "        origin of, 209.
+  "        prize for, 209.
+  "        test for, 212.
+
+Artists and painters, 182.
+
+Arts, Society of, 130.
+
+Ash, Ultramarine, 379.
+
+Ashes, Blue, 228.
+
+Asphaltic Lake, the, 337.
+
+Asphaltum and Asphalt, 337.
+  "       Liquid, 339.
+
+Association of Science, British, 357.
+
+Assyrians, colouring and colours of, 6.
+
+Augustus Caesar, 295.
+
+Aureolin, 42, 47, 83-87.
+  "       Chemical News on, 84.
+  "       in admixture, 86.
+  "       Mr. Aaron Penley on, 85.
+  "       the purest yellow, 84, 384.
+
+Aurine, 162.
+
+Autotype process, the, 401.
+
+Avignon, berries of, 312.
+
+Axiom, a wholesome, 201.
+
+Axioms for compounding, 250.
+
+Azuline, 162.
+
+Azure, 192, 196, 217.
+
+
+B.
+
+Barff, Mr., 212.
+
+Barium and Bismuth chrome greens, 280.
+
+Barthe and Laurent, MM., 235.
+
+Bartholomew, Mr., 143.
+
+Baryta, Ferrate of, 165.
+  "     Silicate of, 290.
+
+Barytic White, 65.
+
+Beauty in Pigments, 46.
+
+Beeswax, 50.
+
+Berries, French, Persian, and Turkey, 212.
+
+Berzelius, 169.
+
+Bice, Green, 187.
+
+Bignonia chica, 367.
+
+Bismuth Purple, 304.
+
+Bixa Orellana, 255.
+
+Bixine, 256.
+
+Black, 27.
+  "    ancient, 5.
+  "    as a colour, 387, 391.
+  "    as a pigment, 389.
+  "    colours with, 392.
+  "    on the Neutral, 387.
+
+BLACK PIGMENTS:--
+  Almond Black, 407.
+  Beggars' Ultramarine, 409.
+  Black Chalk, 404.
+  Black Lead, 382, 393.
+  Black Ochre, 404.
+  Blue Black, 394.
+  Bone Black, 405.
+  British Ink, 395.
+  Charcoal Black, 394.
+  Chinese Ink, 395.
+  Coffee Black, 405.
+  Copper Prussian Black, 408.
+  Cork Black, 409.
+  Earth Black, 404.
+  Frankfort Black, 406.
+  Galena, 394.
+  Graphite, 393.
+  Indian Ink, 395.
+  Ivory Black, 397.
+  Lamp Black, 399.
+  Liege Black, 394.
+  Manganese Black, 406.
+  Mineral Black, 407.
+  Mixed Black, 402.
+  Paper Black, 407.
+  Peach Black, 407.
+  Plumbago, 393.
+  Prussian Black, 404, 408.
+  Purple Black, 408.
+  Spanish Black, 409.
+  Vine Black, 394.
+
+Bladder Green, 282.
+
+Blanc d'Argent, 71.
+
+Blending of pigments, 37.
+
+Blood, Dragon's, 137.
+
+Bloodstone, 147.
+
+Blue, 28.
+  "   ancient, 5, 217.
+  "   Armenian, 5, 217.
+  "   as a colour, 183.
+  "   contrast of, 185, 188.
+  "   discordant, 185.
+  "   on the Primary, 183.
+
+BLUE PIGMENTS:--
+  Antwerp Blue, 207.
+  Artificial Ultramarines, 209-216.
+  Azure, 192, 217.
+  Basic Prussian Blue, 207.
+  Berlin Blue, 203, 207.
+  Bice, 228.
+  Bleu de Garance, 209.
+  Blue Ashes, 228.
+  Blue Bice, 228.
+  Blue Carmine, 228.
+  Blue Ochre, 226, 380.
+  Blue Sand, 196.
+  Blue Verditer, 228.
+  Brilliant Ultramarine, 215.
+  Cerulian Blue, or Coeruleum, 190.
+  Cobalt Blue, 192.
+  Cobalt Blues, 189-199.
+  Cobalt Prussian Blue, 227.
+  Cobalt Ultramarine, 192.
+  Coelin, 190.
+  Copper Blues, 227-230.
+  Cotton Seed Blue, 230.
+  Cyanine, 198.
+  Dumont's Blue, 196.
+  Dutch Ultramarine, 189.
+  Enamel Blue, 189.
+  Egyptian Blue, 229.
+  Factitious Ultramarine, 215.
+  Ferricyanide of Iron, 208.
+  Ferrocyanide of Iron, 203.
+  French Blue, 215.
+  French Ultramarine, 215.
+  Genuine Ultramarine, 216-225.
+  Gmelin's German Ultramarine, 209.
+  Gold Blue, 231.
+  Guimet's Ultramarine, 209.
+  Haerlem Blue, 207.
+  Hungary Blue, 189.
+  Indian Blue, 199.
+  Indicum, 199.
+  Indigo, 199.
+  Intense Blue, 202.
+  Iodine Blue, 231.
+  Iridium Blue, 232.
+  Iris, 228.
+  Lazuline, 217.
+  Lazulite Blue, 217.
+  Lazurstein, 217.
+  Leitch's Blue, 199.
+  Leithner's Blue, 189.
+  Manganese Blue, 232.
+  Mineral Blue, 207.
+  Mountain Blue, 228.
+  Native Prussian Blue, 207.
+  Native Ultramarine, 216.
+  Natural Ultramarine, 216.
+  New Blue, 216.
+  Outremer, 217.
+  Outremer de Guimet, 209.
+  Paris Blue, 192, 203.
+  Permanent Blue, 216.
+  Platinum Blue, 233.
+  Powder Blue, 196.
+  Prussian Blue, 203.
+  Prussiate of Iron, 203.
+  Pure Ultramarine, 217.
+  Real Ultramarine, 216.
+  Reboulleau's Blue, 230.
+  Royal Blue, 196.
+  Saunders' Blue, 230.
+  Saxon Blue, 189.
+  Schweinfurt Blue, 230.
+  Smalt, 195-198.
+  Terre Bleu, 228.
+  Thenard's Blue, 192.
+  True Ultramarine, 216.
+  Tungsten Blue, 233.
+  Turnbull's Blue, 208.
+  Ultramarines, 209-225.
+  Verditer, 228.
+  Vienna Blue, 192.
+  Wood-Tar Blue, 233.
+  Zaffre, 189.
+  Zinc-Cobalt Blue, 235.
+
+Body White, 72.
+
+Bole, Armenian, 147.
+
+Borrowdale, 393.
+
+Bouvier, 153, 345, 347, 355, 405, 407, 409.
+
+Box, the painter's, 60.
+
+Bradley, Mr., 246.
+
+British School, 9.
+
+Broken colours, 16.
+
+Bronze, 279.
+
+Brown, 28.
+  "    analysis of, 377.
+  "    as a colour, 335.
+  "    Citrine, 317.
+  "    contrast of, 337.
+  "    Liquid, Prout's, 345.
+  "    Madder, 305.
+  "    Mars, 313.
+  "    on the Semi-Neutral, 334.
+
+BROWN PIGMENTS:--
+  Animal AEthiops, 348.
+  Antwerp Brown, 339.
+  Asphaltum or Asphalt, 337.
+  Bistre, 340.
+  Bitumen, 339.
+  Bitumen of Judea, 337.
+  Bone Brown, 340.
+  Burnt Umber, 341.
+  Cadmium Brown, 353.
+  Caledonian Brown, 341.
+  Campania Brown, 352.
+  Cappah Brown, 342.
+  Cassel Earth, 343.
+  Castle Earth, 343.
+  Catechu Browns, 374.
+  Chalon's Brown, 344.
+  Chestnut Brown, 357.
+  Chrome Browns, 355.
+  Cologne Earth, 344.
+  Copper Brown, 355.
+  Cory's Madder or Yellow Madder, 353.
+  Cullen's Earth, 344.
+  Egyptian Brown, 347.
+  Euchrome, 342.
+  French Prussian Brown, 355.
+  Gambogiate of Iron, 357.
+  Hypocastanum, 357.
+  Iron Browns, 357.
+  Ivory Brown, 340.
+  Jew's Pitch, 337.
+  Leitch's Brown, 346.
+  Manganese Brown, 358.
+  Mineral Brown, 342.
+  Mineral Pitch, 337.
+  Mixed Brown, 346.
+  Mummy, 347.
+  Mummy Brown, 347.
+  Nickel Brown, 358.
+  Ochre Browns, 358.
+  Prussian Brown, 348.
+  Purple Brown, 359.
+  Roman Sepia, 351.
+  Rubens' Brown, 359.
+  Sepia, 348.
+  Terre de Cassel, 343.
+  Uranium Brown, 360.
+  Vandyke Brown, 351.
+  Verona Brown, 353.
+  Warm Sepia, 350.
+  Yellow Madder, 353.
+  Zinc Brown, 360.
+
+Brown Pink, 312.
+  "   Red, 147.
+  "   Spanish, 146.
+  "   Stil de Grain, 312.
+
+Browns, abundance of, 336, 361.
+
+Brun de Mars, 313.
+
+Brunswick Green, 271, 279.
+
+Brushes, soap and alkali in, 52.
+
+Burlington House, Royal Academy at, 365.
+
+Burnt Carmine, 298.
+  "   Lake, 298.
+  "   Madder, 305.
+  "   Orpiment, 259.
+  "   Roman Ochre, 255.
+  "   Sienna, 243.
+  "   Terra di Sienna, 243.
+  "   Verdigris, 331.
+
+
+C.
+
+Cadmium Brown, 353.
+  "     Orange, 36, 42, 244.
+  "     Red, 42, 130.
+  "     White, 78.
+  "     Yellow, 87, 92.
+  "       "     adulteration of, 88.
+  "       "     manufacture of, 92.
+  "       "     when fugacious, 92.
+  "       "     with White Lead, 89.
+
+Caledonian Brown, 341.
+
+Campania Brown, 352.
+
+Camphor, 396.
+
+Cappah or Cappagh Brown, 342.
+
+Carajuru, 367.
+
+Carbolic acid, 162.
+
+Carbon, 393.
+
+Carmichael, Mr., 348.
+
+Carmine, 133, 135.
+  "      adulteration of, 134.
+  "      Blue, 225.
+  "      Burnt, 298.
+  "      Field's, 142.
+
+Carmine, Madder, 142.
+  "      manufacture of, 134.
+  "      Vermilion, 156.
+  "      Violet, 302.
+  "      with Indian Yellow, 98.
+  "        "  White Lead, 134.
+
+Carnac, ruins at, 4.
+
+Carnagione, 149.
+
+Carthamus, 174.
+
+Cartoons at Hampton Court, 10.
+
+Cassel Earth, 343.
+  "    Green, 288.
+  "    Terre de, 343.
+  "    Yellow, 121.
+
+Cassius, Purple of, 306.
+
+Cassius's Purple Precipitate, 306.
+
+Castle Earth, 343.
+
+Catechu Browns, 354.
+
+Celandine, 96.
+
+Cendres Bleues, 230.
+
+Cennini, advice of, 411.
+
+Cerulian Blue or Coeruleum, 190.
+
+Ceruse, 74.
+
+Chalk, Black, 404.
+  "    Green, 173.
+  "    Red, 172.
+  "    White, 79.
+
+Chalon's Brown, 344.
+
+Chaptal, Count, 105, 229.
+
+Charcoal, animal, 397, 399.
+  "       Black, 394.
+  "       vegetal, 398, 406.
+
+Charles I., 220.
+
+Charred blacks, 390, 395, 406.
+
+Cheese, anotta in, 256.
+
+Chemical News, extract from, 84.
+
+Chestnut Brown, 357.
+
+Chevreul, M., 173, 191, 205, 364.
+
+Chiaroscuro, 15.
+
+Chica d'Andiguez, 160.
+  "   Marrone, 367.
+  "   Red, 159.
+
+China, Mandarins of, 219.
+  "    White, 80.
+
+Chinese Ink, 395.
+  "     Lake, 137.
+  "     Orange, 246.
+  "     Rouge, 174.
+  "     Vermilion, 156.
+  "     White, 75.
+  "     Yellow, 111.
+
+Chinoline, 162.
+
+Chocolate Lead, 368.
+
+Chromate of Mercury, 256.
+
+Chromates of lead, organic pigments with, 248, 280.
+
+Chrome Arseniate, 284.
+  "    Browns, 355.
+  "    Green, True, 267.
+  "    Greens, 279-281.
+  "    Ochre, 267.
+
+Chrome Orange, 248.
+  "    Oxide, 267.
+  "    Oxides, 266-271.
+  "    Red, 151.
+  "    Scarlet, 151.
+  "    Yellows, 93-95.
+  "      "      adulteration of, 94.
+
+Chromium, Green Oxide of, 267.
+  "       Opaque Oxide of, 267.
+  "       Oxide of, 267.
+  "       Transparent Oxide of, 268.
+
+Church, Professor, 165.
+
+Cicero, 296.
+
+Cinnabar, 153.
+  "       Green, 280.
+
+Citrine, 28.
+  "      analysis of, 329.
+  "      as a colour, 310.
+  "      contrast of, 311.
+  "      on the Tertiary, 310.
+
+CITRINE PIGMENTS:--
+  Brown Pink, 312.
+  Brown Stil de Grain, 312.
+  Brun de Mars, 313.
+  Cassia Fistula, 316.
+  Citrine Brown, 317.
+  Citrine Lake, 312.
+  Mars Brown, 313.
+  Mixed Citrine, 314.
+  Quercitron Lake, 312.
+  Raw Umber, 315.
+  Umber, 315.
+
+Citron Yellow, 95.
+
+Classes of Colours, on, 27-30.
+
+CLASSIFIED PIGMENTS:--
+  Black, 409.
+  Blue, 236.
+  Brown, 361.
+  Citrine, 319.
+  Gray, 380.
+  Green, 291.
+  Grey, 386.
+  Marrone, 371.
+  Olive, 333.
+  Orange, 261.
+  Purple, 308.
+  Red, 181.
+  Russet, 324.
+  White, 80.
+  Yellow, 125.
+
+Claude, 345.
+
+Cleanliness in painting, 53.
+
+Coal-Tar Colours, 160-164, 247.
+  "               cakes of, 163.
+  "               in oil, 247.
+
+Cobalt Blue, 192.
+             chalkiness in, 195.
+             manufacture of, 192.
+  "    Blues, 189-199.
+  "    Green, 285.
+  "    Marrone, 368.
+  "    Prussian Blue, 227.
+  "      "      Green, 282.
+  "    Purples, 305.
+  "    Ultramarine, 192.
+
+Coccus (Abies nigra), 168.
+  "    cacti, 131.
+  "    ficus, 138.
+  "    ilicis, 153, 167.
+
+Cochineal, 132.
+  "        adulteration of, 132.
+  "        Dr. Warren de la Rue on, 132.
+  "        lake, with Vermilion, 136.
+  "        Lakes, 131-137.
+
+Coelin, 190.
+
+Coeruleum, 190, 198, 217, 229.
+
+Coffee Black, 405.
+  "    Brown, 405.
+
+Cohesion and colour, 197, 208.
+  "      durability, 197, 208.
+
+Cologne Earth, 344.
+  "     Yellow, 94.
+
+Colour and neutrality, 375.
+  "    latent, 58.
+  "    of extreme light objects, 21.
+  "    of shadow, 21.
+  "    on the Relations and Harmony of, 13.
+
+Coloured rays, mixture of, 384.
+
+Colouring, ancient, 3-7.
+  "        false, 20.
+  "        importance of, 10-12.
+  "        on, 3.
+  "        vicious, 11-21.
+
+Colours, ancient, 5, 6, 218.
+  "      and Pigments Individually, on, 57.
+  "      broken, 16.
+  "      classes of:--
+  "        "          Neutral, 27.
+  "        "          Primary, 28.
+  "        "          Secondary, 28.
+  "        "          Semi-Neutral, 29.
+  "        "          Tertiary, 28.
+  "      complementary, 391.
+  "      discordant, 17, 185.
+  "      entire, 28.
+  "      extreme, 28.
+  "      fugacity of ancient, 6.
+  "      held in check, 106.
+  "      hot and cold, 20.
+  "      imaginary, 115.
+  "      individual beauty of, 57.
+  "      light and dark, 30.
+  "      material, mixture of, 384.
+  "      mixture and compounding of, 17-19.
+  "      not obtainable, 114.
+  "      not pigments, 305.
+  "      perspective of, 22.
+
+Colours, retiring or advancing, 186-188.
+  "      superfluous, 124.
+  "      unfitted for pigments, 115, 180.
+  "      vitrified, 33, 197.
+  "      with black, 27, 392.
+  "        "  colours, 27.
+  "        "  grey, 382.
+  "        "  white, 27, 63.
+
+Common pigments, 359.
+
+Compounding colours, on, 242-252, 277.
+
+Compound pigments, 36.
+
+Constable, 265.
+
+Constantinople, 7.
+
+Constant White, 65.
+  "      free acid in, 66.
+
+Contrast of colour and neutrality, 15.
+  "      gradations and extremes, 19.
+  "      hues, 13-15.
+  "      shades, 15.
+  "      warmth and coolness, 15.
+
+Copper Blues, 227-230.
+  "    Borate, 285.
+  "    Brown, 355.
+  "    Chrome, 286.
+  "    Greens, 271-276.
+  "    Prussian Black, 408.
+  "    Prussiate of, 323.
+  "    Reds, 164.
+  "    Smalt, 220.
+  "    Stannate, 286.
+  "    Yellow, 116.
+
+Cork Black, 409.
+
+Correggio, 8, 335.
+
+Cory's Madder or Yellow Madder, 119, 353.
+
+Cotton Seed Blue, 230.
+
+Cremnitz or Crems White, 72.
+
+Crimson Lake, 135.
+
+Crookes, Mr., 260.
+
+Crowding of pictures, 364.
+
+Cudbear, 303.
+
+Cullen's Earth, 344.
+
+Cuttle Fish, 348.
+
+Cuyp, 136.
+
+Cyanine, 198.
+
+Cyanus, 198, 217.
+
+
+D.
+
+Damonico, 257.
+
+Darkening of mineral colours, 284.
+
+Davy, Sir H., 229.
+
+Dead Sea, the, 337.
+
+Deep Cadmium, 87.
+  "  Chrome, 93.
+  "  Vermilion, 154.
+  "  Deoxidation of pigments, 38.
+
+Detractors of modern pigments, 43-45.
+
+Dewint's Green, 330.
+
+Diagram, 89.
+
+Diesbach, M. 203.
+
+Dilution of colour, 34.
+
+Di Palito, 109.
+
+Direct and diffused light, 391.
+
+Discord of colours, 17, 185.
+
+Disinfectants of the palette, 359.
+
+Distance, law about, 188.
+
+Distilled Verdigris, 276.
+
+Distinction of colours, 318, 320.
+
+Dominichino, 8.
+
+Dragon's Blood, 137.
+  "      with White Lead, 138.
+
+Drop Gum, 96.
+
+Drying of pigments, 50.
+  "    oils, lead in, 121.
+
+Duffield, Mrs., 144.
+
+Dumas, M., 234, 414.
+
+Dumont's Blue, 196.
+
+Durability of pigments, 31-45, 46.
+
+Dussance, Professor H., 175.
+
+Dutch Pink, 100.
+  "   Schools, 8.
+  "   the, 156, 200.
+  "   Ultramarine, 189.
+  "   White, 74.
+
+Dyeing, brown for, 318.
+  "     orange for, 257.
+
+Dyes and pigments, 169.
+
+
+E.
+
+Earth Black, 404.
+  "   Burnt Sienna, 243.
+  "   Cassel, or Castle, 343.
+  "   Cologne, 344.
+  "   Cullen's, 344.
+  "   Green, 283.
+  "   Raw Sienna, 113.
+
+Egg-shells, white of, 80.
+
+Egypt, catacombs of, 347.
+  "    temples of Upper, 5, 217.
+
+Egyptian Blue, 229.
+  "      Brown, 347.
+
+Egyptians, the, colouring and colours of, 3-5.
+
+Elizabeth, Queen, 393.
+
+Eisner's Green, 286.
+
+Emerald Green, 271.
+
+Emeraldine, 162.
+
+Enamel Blue, 189.
+  "    colours, 33, 197.
+
+England, climate and females of, 9.
+
+English Green, 280.
+  "     Pink, 100.
+  "     Red, 149.
+  "     Vermilion, 146.
+
+Entire colours, 28.
+
+Equations, 329, 330, 377.
+
+Euchrome, 342.
+
+Exhibition, International, of 1862, 244, 354.
+
+Experiment, 213.
+
+Exposure of pigments, 38.
+
+Extract of Gamboge, 97.
+  "     Vermilion, 157.
+
+Extreme colours, 28.
+
+
+F.
+
+Factitious Indigo, proposed, 202.
+  "        Ultramarine, 215.
+
+Falsalo, 341.
+
+Fast and fugitive, pigments both, 38.
+
+Ferrate of Baryta, 165.
+
+Ferricyanide of Iron, 208.
+
+Ferrocyanide  "  203.
+
+Field's Carmine, 142.
+  "     Lakes, 139-145.
+  "     Orange Vermilion, 158.
+  "     Purple, 301.
+  "     Russet, 321.
+
+Fineness of texture in pigments, 50.
+
+Fire, action of, on pigments, 371.
+  "   pigments affected by, 40.
+
+Fistula, Cassia, 316.
+
+Flake White, 72.
+
+Flemish painters, 406.
+  "     Schools, 8, 37.
+  "     White, 72.
+
+Florentine Lake, 137.
+  "        painters and painting, 7, 8, 10, 391.
+
+Flower pieces, background tint for, 279.
+
+Foul air, ochres with, 359.
+
+Frankfort Black, 406.
+
+French berries, 312.
+  "    Blue, 215.
+  "    Green, 271.
+  "    Prussian Brown, 355.
+  "    Purple, Solid, 304.
+  "    Ultramarine, 215.
+  "    Veronese Green, 268.
+  "    White, 71.
+
+Fresco, Prussian Blue in, 206, 281.
+
+Fruit pieces of W. Hunt, 315.
+
+Fugacity of pigments, 31-45.
+
+Fugitive colours, 34.
+
+
+G.
+
+Gainsborough, 20.
+
+Galena, 394.
+
+Galleries, picture, 363-365.
+
+Gallstone, 95.
+
+Gamboge, 96.
+  "      as a glaze, 97.
+  "      extract of, 97.
+
+Gamboge Orange, 257.
+
+Gambogiate of Iron, 357.
+
+Garance, Bleu de, 209.
+
+Gas, effect of, on colours, 191.
+
+Gelbin's Yellow, 117.
+
+General Qualities of Pigments, on the, 46.
+
+Genuine Ultramarine, 216-225.
+  "     adulteration of, 224.
+  "     colouring matter of, 224.
+  "     defects in, 222.
+  "     manufacture of, 220.
+  "     price of, 220.
+  "     properties of, 221.
+  "     tests for, 224.
+
+Giallolino, 103.
+
+Gilpin, 351.
+
+Giovanni Bellini, 7.
+
+Giulio Romano, 11.
+
+Glazing of colours, 18.
+
+Gloucestershire, 109.
+
+Gmelin, M., 178, 210, 218, 227.
+
+Gmelin's German Ultramarine, 209.
+
+Gold Blue, 231.
+  "  Purple, 306.
+  "  Reds, 166.
+  "  size, japanner's, 51.
+
+Golden Sulphur of Antimony, 256.
+  "    Yellow, 256.
+
+Gradation in art, 328.
+  "       nature, 326.
+
+Graham, Mr., 398.
+
+Graphite, 393.
+
+Gray, 29, 372.
+  "   analysis of, 277.
+  "   and grey, 29, 372, 381.
+  "   as a colour, 372, 374.
+  "   as a pigment, 377.
+  "   contrast of, 373.
+  "   on the Semi-Neutral, 372.
+
+GRAY PIGMENTS:--
+  Mineral Gray, 375.
+  Mixed Gray, 377.
+  Neutral Tint, 377.
+  Payne's Gray, 378.
+  Ultramarine Ash, 379.
+
+Greeks, colouring of the, 7, 8.
+  "     the, 153, 167, 296.
+
+Green, 28.
+  "    as a colour, 263, 265.
+  "    contrast of, 263.
+  "    Dewint's, 330.
+  "    discordant, 265.
+  "    Olive, 330.
+  "    on the Secondary, 263.
+
+GREEN PIGMENTS:--
+  African Green, 271.
+  Barium Chrome Green, 280.
+  Bismuth Chrome Green, 280.
+  Bladder Green, 282.
+  Bronze, 279.
+  Brunswick Green, 271, 279.
+  Chrome Arseniate, 284.
+  Chrome Greens, 279-281.
+  Chrome Oxide, 267.
+  Chrome Oxides, 266-271.
+  Cobalt Green, 285.
+  Cobalt Prussian Green, 282.
+  Copper Borate, 285.
+  Copper Chrome, 286.
+  Copper Greens, 271-276, 285-287, 288.
+  Copper Stannate, 286.
+  Distilled Verdigris, 276.
+  Elsner's Green, 286.
+  Emerald Green, 271, 283.
+  English Green, 280.
+  French Green, 271.
+  French Veronese Green, 268.
+  German Mineral Green, 288.
+  Green Bice, 287.
+  Green Cinnabar, 280.
+  Green Earth, 283.
+  Green Lake, 288.
+  Green Ochre, 287.
+  Green Oxide of Chromium, 267.
+  Green Ultramarine, 287.
+  Green Verditer, 287.
+  Holy Green, 283.
+  Hooker's Green, 281.
+  Hungary Green, 274.
+  Imperial Green, 271.
+  Iris Green, 282.
+  Malachite Green, 274.
+  Manganese Green, 288.
+  Marine Green, 271.
+  Mineral Green, 288.
+  Mitis Green, 271.
+  Mixed Green, 277.
+  Molybdenum Green, 289.
+  Mountain Green, 274.
+  Native Green, 267.
+  Olympian Green, 271.
+  Opaque Oxide of Chromium, 267.
+  Oxide of Chromium, 267.
+  Patent Green, 271.
+  Persian Green, 271.
+  Pickle Green, 276.
+  Prussian Greens, 281.
+  Quinine Green, 289.
+  Rinman's Green, 285.
+  Roman Green, 290.
+  Sap Green, 282.
+  Saxon Green, 271.
+  Sheele's Green, 272.
+  Schweinfurt Green, 271.
+  Silicate of Baryta, 290.
+  Swedish Green, 272.
+  Terre Verte, 283.
+  Titanium Green, 290.
+  Transparent Oxide of Chromium, 268.
+  True Chrome Green, 267.
+  True Prussian Green, 281.
+  Uranium Green, 291.
+  Vanadium Green, 291.
+  Venetian Green, 283.
+  Verde Vessie, 282.
+  Verdetto, 283.
+  Verdigris, 276.
+  Verona Green, 283.
+  Veronese Green, 268.
+  Vert de Zinc, 285.
+  Vienna Green, 271.
+  Viride AEris, 276.
+  Viridian, 269.
+  Zinc Green, 285.
+
+Green, pure, to obtain, 277.
+
+Greens, ancient, 5.
+
+Grey, 28-30, 372.
+  "   and gray, 29, 381.
+  "   as a colour, 381.
+  "   as a pigment, 382.
+  "   colours with, 382, 383.
+  "   on the Neutral, 381.
+
+GREY PIGMENTS:--
+  Black Lead, 382.
+  Mixed Grey, 384-386.
+
+Grinding of pigments, 37.
+
+Guido, 8.
+
+Guimet, M., 210, 215.
+  "     Outremer de, 209.
+
+Guimet's Ultramarine, 209.
+
+Gum, Drop, 96
+  "  tragacanth, 66.
+
+Gyges, 7.
+
+
+H.
+
+Haerlem Blue, 207.
+
+Hamburgh Lake, 137.
+  "      White, 74.
+
+Hampton Court, cartoons at, 10.
+
+Harding's Tint, 380.
+
+Harmony of colour, 13-24.
+
+Hatching of colours, 18.
+
+Haydon, 293.
+
+Hercules Tyrius, 296.
+
+Holy Green, 283.
+
+Hooker's Green, 281.
+
+Houng hoa, 396.
+
+Hues, 27, 30.
+
+Hungary Blue, 189.
+  "     Green, 274.
+
+Hunt, W., 315.
+
+Hypocastanum, 357.
+
+
+I.
+
+Illumination, Cadmium Orange in, 246.
+  "           Coal-Tar Colours in, 163, 247.
+  "           Manual of, 246.
+  "           Viridian in, 270.
+
+Imperial Green, 271.
+
+Indian Blue, 199.
+  "    Ink, 349, 395.
+  "    Lake, 138.
+  "    Ochre, 146.
+  "    Purple, 298.
+  "    Red, 148.
+  "    Yellow, 98.
+
+Indicum, 199.
+
+Indigo, 199.
+  "     adulteration of, 202.
+  "     possible substitute for, 235.
+  "     proposed Factitious, 202.
+
+Indigofera, 200.
+
+Indium Yellow, 117.
+
+Individually, on Colours and Pigments, 57.
+
+Ink, blue, 207.
+  "  British, 395.
+  "  Chinese, 395.
+  "  green, 276.
+  "  Indelible Brown, 345.
+  "  Indian, 395.
+  "  Liquid Indian, 397.
+  "  red, 145.
+
+Inkfish, the, 348.
+
+Innoxious pigments, 53.
+
+Intense Blue, 202.
+  "       "   manufacture of, 202.
+
+International Exhibition of 1862, 244, 354.
+
+Invisible Green, 329.
+
+Iodine, 118.
+  "     Blue, 231.
+  "     Pink, 166.
+  "     Scarlet, 150.
+  "     Yellow, 118.
+
+Iridium Blue, 232.
+
+Iris, 228.
+  "   Green, 282.
+
+Iron Browns, 357.
+  "  Ferricyanide of, 208.
+  "  Ferrocyanide of, 203.
+  "  Gambogiate of, 357.
+  "  pigments affected by, 39, 90, 145, 147, 149, 150, 249.
+  "  Prussiate of, 203.
+  "  Smalt, 218.
+  "  Yellow, 102, 118.
+
+Italian Greens, 276, 277.
+  "     Pink, 100.
+
+Italics, numbered colours in, 114, 407.
+
+Italy, colouring in modern, 8.
+
+Ivory Black, 397.
+  "     "    with Manganese Black, 407.
+
+Ivory Brown, 340.
+
+
+J.
+
+Japanner's gold size, 51.
+
+Jaune de Cologne, 94.
+  "    " Fer, 102.
+  "    " Mars, 102.
+  "   Minerale, 94.
+
+Jew's Pitch, 337.
+
+Judea, Bitumen of, 337.
+
+
+K.
+
+Kermes, 153.
+  "     Lake, 167.
+  "     Mineral, 159.
+
+Key of colouring, 40.
+
+Khair tree, the, 354.
+
+King's Yellow, 111.
+
+Knowledge of pigments, 43, 44.
+
+Kremnitz or Krems White, 72.
+
+Kremser White, 75.
+
+
+L.
+
+Lac, 138, 167.
+  "  Lake, 138.
+
+Lake, Asphaltic, the, 337.
+  "   Burnt, 198.
+  "   Chinese, 137.
+  "   Citrine, 312.
+  "   Crimson, 135.
+  "   Drop, 131.
+  "   Florentine, 137.
+  "   Green, 288.
+  "   Hamburgh, 137.
+  "   Indian, 138.
+  "   Kermes, 167.
+  "   Liquid Madder, 145.
+  "   Madder, 144.
+  "   Marrone, 369.
+  "   Olive, 331.
+  "   Orange, 258.
+  "   Purple, 137.
+  "   Quercitron, 100, 312.
+  "   Roman, 137.
+  "   Scarlet, 136.
+  "   Venetian, 137.
+  "   Yellow, 100.
+
+Lakes, Cochineal, 131-137.
+  "    Field's, 139-145.
+  "    Madder, 139-145.
+  "    Rubric, 139-145.
+  "    Yellow, 99, 100.
+
+Lamblack, 399.
+
+Lamp Black, 399.
+
+Lapis Lazuli, 209, 217, 219.
+
+Laque de garance, 142.
+  "   Minerale, 258.
+
+Latent colour, 58.
+
+Lawson, Professor, 168.
+
+Lawson's Red, 168.
+
+Layard, Mr., 6, 218.
+
+Lazuline, 217.
+
+Lazulite Blue, 217.
+
+Lazur, Persian and Tartarian, 228.
+
+Lazurium, 217.
+
+Lazurstein, 217.
+
+Lead, acetate or sugar of, 50-52.
+  "   Black, 382, 393.
+  "   carbonate of, 68.
+  "   Chocolate, 368.
+  "   dicarbonate of, 69.
+  "   hydrated oxide of, 68.
+  "   in drying oils, 121.
+  "   Orange, 258
+  "   oxychloride of, 73.
+  "   pigments affected by, 39, 67, 97, 99, 112, 120, 134, 138, 139, 152, 201, 206, 248, 280, 312, 341.
+  "   pigments, avoidance of, 67.
+  "   Red, 151.
+  "   Sulphate of, 72.
+  "   White, 67-70.
+  "   Whites, 67-75.
+
+Leitch's Blue, 199.
+  "      Brown, 346.
+
+Leithner's Blue, 189.
+
+Lemon Cadmium, 91.
+  "   Yellow, 101.
+
+Leonardo da Vinci, 8.
+
+Leyden, Cassius of, 306.
+
+Lichens, 304.
+
+Liege Black, 394.
+
+Light and air, pigments affected by, 91, 92, 95, 97, 98, 99, 112, 124, 134, 135, 136, 139, 151, 163, 199, 201, 205, 208, 247, 276, 282, 298, 303, 313, 330, 340, 343.
+
+Light, direct and diffused, 391.
+  "    electric, the, 191.
+  "    magnesium, the, 191.
+  "    Red, 149.
+
+Likes and dislikes of pigments, 194.
+
+Lime, pigments affected by, 40, 97, 98, 206, 275, 281.
+  "   with Prussian Blue, 206, 281.
+
+Linear perspective, 22.
+
+Linseed oil with White Lead, 69.
+
+Liquid Asphaltum, 339.
+  "    Indian Ink, 397.
+  "    Madder Lake, 145.
+  "    Prout's Brown, 345.
+  "    Rubiate, 145.
+
+Lists of Permanent Pigments:--
+  "   Blue, 278, 300.
+  "   Green, 315, 329.
+  "   Orange, 315, 323.
+  "   Purple, 323, 329.
+  "   Red, 253, 300.
+  "   Yellow, 252, 278.
+
+Litharge, 51, 120.
+
+Litmus, 303.
+
+Local colour, 24.
+
+Lombard School, 8.
+
+London White, 73.
+
+
+M.
+
+Macpherson's Tint, 380.
+
+Madder, 139.
+  "     adulteration of, 140.
+  "     Brown, 365.
+  "     Burnt, 305.
+  "     Carmine, 142.
+  "       "      adulteration of, 142.
+  "     colouring matters of, 140.
+  "     Cory's or Cory's Yellow, 119, 353.
+  "     Dr. Schunck on, 140.
+  "     Lake, 144.
+  "     Lakes, 139-145.
+  "       "    manufacture of, 141.
+  "     Liquid Lake, 145.
+  "     Orange, 258, 353.
+  "     Pink, 144.
+  "     Purple, 301.
+  "     reds in oil, 144.
+  "     Rose, 143.
+  "     Rubens', 321.
+  "     Yellow, 118, 353.
+
+Magenta, 162.
+
+Majolica, 146.
+
+Malachite Green, 274.
+
+Manganese as a siccative, 51, 77, 406.
+  "       Black, 406.
+  "       Blue, 232.
+  "       Brown, 358.
+  "       Green, 288.
+  "       Red, 168.
+
+Manufacture of Cadmium Yellow, 92.
+  "         Carmine, 134.
+  "         Cobalt Blue, 192.
+  "         Intense Blue, 202.
+  "         Vermilion, 92, 153.
+
+Marine Green, 271.
+
+Marrone, 28.
+  "      analysis of, 377.
+  "      as a colour, 362.
+  "      contrasts of, 362.
+  "      for walls of picture galleries, 363.
+  "      on the Semi-Neutral, 362.
+
+MARRONE PIGMENTS:--
+  Brown Madder, 365.
+  Chica Marrone, 367.
+  Chocolate Lead, 368.
+  Cobalt Marrone, 368.
+  Madder Marrone, 369.
+  Marrone Lake, 369.
+  Marrone Red, 368.
+  Mars Marrone, 369.
+  Mixed Marrone, 367.
+  Purple Black, 369.
+
+Mars Brown, 313.
+  "  Brun de, 313.
+  "  colours named after, 102, 146.
+  "  Orange, 248.
+  "  Red, 145.
+  "  Rouge de, 145.
+  "  Violet, 290.
+  "  Violet de, 290.
+  "  Yellow, 102.
+
+Massicot, 120.
+
+Mastic varnish, 50.
+
+Mauve, 163.
+
+Mercury, Chromate of, 256.
+  "      marrone, 371.
+  "      white, 79.
+
+Merimee, 121, 142, 229, 284, 316,  343.
+
+Metallic whites, 79.
+
+Metals, rare, 172.
+
+Michael Angelo, 8.
+
+Mineral Black, 407.
+  "     Blue, 207.
+  "     Brown, 342.
+  "     colours, darkening of, 284.
+  "     Gray, 375.
+  "     Green, 288.
+  "     Green, German, 288.
+  "     Kermes, 159.
+  "     Orange, 258.
+  "     Pitch, 337.
+  "     Purple, 290.
+  "     Turbith, 123.
+  "     Yellow, 106, 116, 121.
+
+Minerale, Jaune, 94.
+  "       Laque, 258.
+
+Miniature painter, a, 401.
+
+Minium, 151, 153.
+
+Mitis Green, 271.
+
+Mixed Colours:--
+  "   Black, 402.
+  "   Brown, 346.
+  "   Citrine, 314.
+  "   Gray, 377.
+  "   Green, 277.
+  "   Grey, 384.
+  "   Marrone, 367.
+  "   Olive, 328.
+  "   Orange, 249.
+  "   Purple, 290.
+  "   Russet, 322.
+
+Mixed tints, on, 249-252, 262.
+
+Mixture, a, 199.
+  "      of Bitumen and Mummy,  348.
+  "      of coloured rays, 384.
+  "      of material colours, 384.
+  "      unnecessary, 35.
+
+Modan or Morat White, 80.
+
+Modern pigments, 41-45.
+  "    detractors of, 43-45.
+  "    inferior, 41.
+  "    superior, 42.
+
+Molybdenum Green, 289.
+
+Monicon, 257.
+
+Montabert, De, 405.
+
+Montbeillard, Roman pavement at,  218.
+
+Montpellier Yellow, 121.
+
+Mountain Blue, 228.
+  "      Green, 274.
+
+Mountains, 254.
+
+Mummy, 347.
+  "    Brown, 347.
+  "    and Bitumen, mixed, 348.
+
+Murexide, 169.
+
+Musee Mineralogique, of Paris,  219.
+
+Mutrie, Miss, 143.
+  "     Yellow, 92.
+
+
+N.
+
+Naphthaline, 162.
+
+Naples Yellow, modern, 104.
+  "    old, 103.
+
+Napoleon, Emperor, 176.
+
+Native Bitumen, 338.
+  "    Green, 267.
+  "    Prussian Blue, 207, 226.
+  "    Ultramarine, 216.
+
+Natural Ultramarine, 216.
+
+Nature, colour in, 311.
+  "     gradation in, 326.
+  "     palette of, 185.
+  "     study of, 24.
+
+Negative colours, 28.
+
+Nepos Cornelius, 295.
+
+Neutral colours, 27.
+  "     Orange, Penley's, 253.
+  "     Tint, 377.
+
+Neutrality and colour, 375, 376.
+
+Neutrals, colour as applied to the,  62.
+
+New Blue, 216.
+  "       pigments, 41-45.
+
+Nickel Brown, 358.
+
+Nineveh, 6, 218.
+
+Nottingham White, 73.
+
+
+O.
+
+Objectionable pigments, substitutes for, 96, 104, 114.
+
+Ochre, Black, 404
+  "    Blue, 226.
+  "    Brown, 108.
+  "    Browns, 358.
+  "    Burnt Roman, 255.
+  "    Chrome, 267.
+  "    Green, 287.
+  "    Indian, 148.
+  "    Orange, 255.
+  "    Oxford, 109.
+  "    Purple, 290.
+  "    Red, 147.
+  "    Roman, 107.
+  "    Scarlet, 149.
+  "    Spanish, 255.
+  "    Spruce, 108.
+  "    Stone, 109.
+  "    Transparent Gold, 108.
+  "    Yellow, 106.
+
+Ochres and foul air, 359.
+  "    Red, 146-150.
+  "    Yellow, 105-109.
+
+Ocre de Ru, 108
+
+Oil, coal-tar colours in, 247.
+  "  water-colour cakes in, 50.
+
+Oils, 33, 152, 194.
+
+Olive, 28.
+  "    analysis of, 330.
+  "    as a colour, 325.
+  "    contrast of, 325.
+  "    on the Tertiary, 325.
+
+OLIVE PIGMENTS:--
+  Burnt Verdigris, 331.
+  Dewint's Green, 330.
+  Mixed Olive, 328.
+  Olive Green, 330.
+  Olive Lake, 331.
+  Olive Oxide of Chromium, 331.
+  Olive Rinman's Green, 332.
+  Olive Scheele's Green, 332.
+  Olive Schweinfurt Green, 332.
+  Olive Terre Verte, 333.
+
+Olive purples, 301.
+
+Olympian Green, 271.
+
+O'Neill, Mr., 159.
+
+Opacity of pigments, 48.
+
+Orange, 28,
+  "     as a colour, 239.
+  "     as an archeus, 240.
+  "     contrast of, 240.
+  "     discordant, 240.
+  "     on the Secondary, 239.
+
+ORANGE PIGMENTS:--
+  Anotta, 255.
+  Antimony Orange, 256.
+  Bixine, 256.
+  Burnt Roman Ochre, 255.
+  Burnt Sienna, 243.
+  Burnt Terra di Sienna, 243.
+  Cadmium Orange, 36, 244.
+  Chinese Orange, 246.
+  Chromate of Mercury, 256.
+  Chrome Orange, 248.
+  Damonico, 257.
+  Gamboge Orange, 257.
+  Golden Sulphur of Antimony, 256.
+  Golden Yellow, 256.
+  Laque Minerale, 258.
+  Madder Orange, 258, 353.
+  Mars Orange, 248.
+  Mineral Orange, 248.
+  Mixed Orange, 249.
+  Monicon, 257.
+  Neutral Orange, 253.
+  Orange Chrome, 248.
+  Orange Chromate of Lead, 248.
+  Orange de Mars, 248.
+  Orange Lake, 258.
+  Orange Lead, 258.
+  Orange Ochre, 255.
+  Orange Orpiment, 258.
+  Penley's Neutral Orange, 253.
+  Realgar, 258.
+  Red Orpiment, 258.
+  Rocou, 255.
+  Spanish Ochre, 255.
+  Terra Orellana, 255.
+  Thallium Orange, 259.
+  Uranium Orange, 260.
+  Zinc Orange, 261.
+
+Orange Russet, 321.
+  "    Vermilion, 157.
+  "      "        Field's, 158.
+
+Order of Colours:--
+  White, 62-80, 414.
+  Yellow, 81-126.
+  Red, 127-182.
+  Blue, 183-238.
+  Orange, 239-262.
+  Green, 263-293.
+  Purple, 294-309.
+  Citrine, 310-319.
+  Russet, 320-324.
+  Olive, 325-333.
+  Brown, 334-361.
+  Marrone, 362-371.
+  Gray, 372-380.
+  Grey, 381-386.
+  Black, 387-413.
+
+Organic pigments with lead chromates, 248.
+
+Orient Yellow, 42, 110.
+
+Original pigments, 35.
+  "      importance of, 240-242.
+
+Orpiment Yellow, 111-113.
+
+Outremer, 217.
+
+Outremer de Guimet, 209.
+
+Oxford Ochre, 109.
+
+Oxidation of pigments, 38.
+
+Oxide, Chrome, 267.
+  "    of Chromium, Green, 267.
+  "     " Opaque, 267.
+  "     " Transparent, 268.
+
+Oxychloride of Lead, 73.
+
+Oxygenated water, 69.
+
+Oyster-shell, white of, 80.
+
+
+P.
+
+Paille de Mil, 170.
+
+Painting, siliceous, 212.
+
+Pale Cadmium, 90.
+  "  Chrome, 93.
+  "  Vermilion, 154.
+  "  washes of a pigment, 91.
+
+Palette, disinfectants of the, 359.
+  "      motto for the, 156.
+  "      setting the, 23.
+
+Palette-knife, avoidance of a steel, 39, 50, 90, 103.
+
+Palladium, 122.
+
+Paper Black, 407.
+  "   Smalt and Ultramarine in, 196.
+  "   to give a tone to, 253.
+
+Paris Blue, 192, 203.
+
+Paris, Musee Mineralogique at, 219.
+  "    Societe d'Encouragement of, 210.
+
+Particular colour, predilection for a, 58, 59.
+
+Patent Green, 271.
+  "    Yellow, 121.
+
+Pattison's White, 73.
+
+Paul Veronese, 229, 335.
+
+Payne's Gray, 378.
+
+Peach Black, 407.
+
+Pearl White, 78.
+
+Peganum Harmala, 171.
+
+Penley, Mr. Aaron, 85-87, 158, 268, 270.
+
+Penley's Neutral Orange, 253.
+
+Perfect pigment, a, 46.
+
+Perkin, Mr. W., 162.
+
+Permanent Blue, 216.
+  "       pigments, 252, 278, 300, 315, 323, 329.
+  "       White, 65.
+
+Peroxidized pigments, 38.
+
+Persian berries, 312.
+  "     Green, 271.
+  "     lazur, 228.
+  "     Red, 148.
+
+Perspective, aerial, 22, 23.
+  "          linear, 22.
+  "          of colours, 22, 23.
+
+Persulphomolybdates, 171.
+
+Philocles, 7.
+
+Phosphine, 162.
+
+Photography, lamp black in, 401.
+  "          pigments generally in, 401.
+
+Pickle Green, 276.
+
+Picric acid, 162.
+
+Picture galleries, 363-365.
+
+Pictures and pigments, 292.
+
+Pigment and colour, 31.
+
+Pigments, action of fire and time on 31.
+  "       adulteration of, 70.
+  "       apt to vary, 126, 181.
+  "       beauty in, 46.
+  "       blending of, 37.
+  "       common, 359.
+  "       compound, 36.
+  "       drying of, 50.
+  "       fineness of texture in, 50.
+  "       grinding of, 37.
+  "       individual beauty of, 58.
+  "       innoxious, 53.
+  "       on the Durability and Fugacity of, 31.
+  "       on the General Qualities of, 46.
+  "       opacity and transparency of, 48.
+  "       past and present, 293.
+  "       rays from, 384.
+  "       truth of hue in, 47.
+  "       vehicles with, 48-53.
+  "       working well, 49.
+
+Pink, Brown, 313.
+  "   Dutch, 100.
+  "   English, 100.
+  "   Italian, 100.
+  "   Madder, 144.
+  "   Rose, 173.
+  "   Saucers, 174.
+
+Pitch, Jew's, 337.
+  "    Mineral, 337.
+
+Pittacal, 234.
+
+Platinum Blue, 233.
+  "      Yellow, 121.
+
+Playfair, Dr. Lyon, 355.
+
+Pliny, 7, 153, 198, 218, 295, 338.
+
+Plumbago, 393.
+
+Polygnotus, 9.
+
+Pompeii, 105, 229.
+
+Porcelain, blue for, 235.
+  "        green for, 267.
+
+Poussin, 11, 316.
+
+Powder Blue, 196.
+
+Power of pigments, individual, 59.
+
+Powers of colours, 82.
+
+Practice of Sir J. Reynolds, 37.
+
+Precipitate, Red, 173.
+
+Prevention and cure, 412.
+
+Price, Dr. D. S., 69.
+
+Primary colours, 28.
+
+Principles of practice, 35.
+
+Process, Autotype, 401.
+
+Protoxide, pigments in the state of, 37.
+
+Proust, M., 396.
+
+Prout, Samuel, 346.
+
+Prout's Brown, Liquid, 345.
+
+Prussian Black, 404, 408.
+  "      Copper, 408.
+
+Prussian Blue, 203.
+  "      adulteration of, 203.
+  "      character of, 237, 278, 301.
+  "      Cobalt, 227.
+  "      manufacture of, 203.
+  "      Native, 207, 226.
+  "      want of a permanent, 189.
+  "      with alkalies, 206.
+
+Prussian Brown, 348.
+  "        "    French, 255.
+  "      Greens, 281, 282.
+  "      Red, 149.
+
+Prussiate of Copper, 323.
+  "       Iron, 203.
+
+Pure Scarlet, 150.
+  "  Ultramarine, 216.
+
+Purple, 28.
+  "     as a colour, 295.
+  "     as a pigment, 297.
+  "     Black, 369, 408.
+  "     Brown, 359.
+  "     contrast of, 294, 297.
+  "     Lake, 137.
+  "     on the Secondary, 294.
+
+PURPLE PIGMENTS:--
+  Archil Purple, 303.
+  Bismuth Purple, 304.
+  Burnt Carmine, 298.
+  Burnt Lake, 298.
+  Burnt Madder, 305.
+  Cassius's Purple Precipitate, 306.
+  Cobalt Purples, 305.
+  Field's Purple, 301.
+  Gold Purple, 306.
+  Indian Purple, 298.
+  Mars Violet, 290.
+  Mauve, 163.
+  Mineral Purple, 290.
+  Mixed Purple, 290.
+  Prussian Purple, 307.
+  Purple Madder, 301.
+  Purple Ochre, 290.
+  Purple of Cassius, 306.
+  Purple Rubiate, 301.
+  Sandal Wood Purple, 307.
+  Solid French Purple, 304.
+  Tin Violet, 308.
+  Violet Carmine, 302.
+  Violet de Mars, 290.
+  Purple, pure, 300.
+    "     Tyrian, 295, 296.
+
+Purpurates, 170.
+
+Purree, 98.
+
+
+Q.
+
+Qualities of Pigments, on the General, 46.
+
+Queen's Yellow, 123.
+
+Quercitron Lake, 100, 312.
+  "        Yellow, 100.
+
+Quinine Green, 289.
+
+
+R.
+
+Ramnus infectorius, 315.
+
+Raphael, 8, 9.
+
+Rare Metals, 172.
+
+Raw Sienna, 113.
+  " Umber, 315.
+
+Rays from pigments, 384.
+
+Real Ultramarine, 216.
+
+Realgar, 258.
+
+Reboulleau's Blue, 230.
+
+Red, 28.
+  "  as a colour, 128.
+  "  contrasts of, 128, 129.
+  "  discordant, 129.
+  "  Marrone, 368.
+  "  on the Primary, 127.
+  "  Orpiment, 258.
+
+RED PIGMENTS:--
+  Almagra, 147.
+  Antimony Red, 159.
+  Armenian Bole, 147.
+  Bloodstone, 147.
+  Brown Red, 147.
+  Cadmium Red, 130.
+  Carmine, 133-135.
+  Carmine Vermilion, 156.
+  Carnagione, 149.
+  Chica Red, 159.
+  Chinese Lake, 137.
+  Chinese Rouge, 174.
+  Chinese Vermilion, 156.
+  Coal-Tar Colours, 160.
+  Cobalt Reds, 164.
+  Cochineal Lakes, 131-137.
+  Copper Reds, 164.
+  Crimson Lake, 135.
+  Deep Vermilion, 154.
+  Dragon's Blood, 137.
+  English Red, 149.
+  English Vermilion, 146.
+  Extract of Vermilion, 157.
+  Ferrate of Baryta, 165.
+  Field's Carmine, 142.
+  Field's Lakes, 139-145.
+  Field's Orange Vermilion, 158.
+  Florentine Lake, 137.
+
+RED PIGMENTS:--
+  Gold Reds, 166.
+  Hamburgh Lake, 137.
+  Indian Lake, 138.
+  Indian Ochre, 146.
+  Indian Red, 148.
+  Iodine Pink, 166.
+  Iodine Scarlet, 150.
+  Kermes Lake, 167.
+  Lac Lake, 138.
+  Lawson's Red, 168.
+  Light Red, 149.
+  Liquid Madder Lake, 145.
+  Liquid Rubiate, 145.
+  Madder Carmine, 142.
+  Madder Lake, 144.
+  Madder Lakes, 139-145.
+  Magenta, 160.
+  Majolica, 146.
+  Manganese Red, 168.
+  Mars Red, 145.
+  Mineral Kermes, 159.
+  Minium, 151.
+  Murexide, 169.
+  Ochres, 146-150.
+  Orange Vermilion, 157.
+  Paille de Mil, 170.
+  Pale Vermilion, 154.
+  Peganum Harmala, 171.
+  Persian Red, 148.
+  Persulphomolybdates, 171.
+  Pink Madder, 144.
+  Pink Saucers, 174.
+  Prussian Red, 149.
+  Pure Scarlet, 150.
+  Purple Lake, 137.
+  Red Chalk, 172.
+  Red Chrome, 151.
+  Red Lead, 151.
+  Red Ochre, 147.
+  Red Precipitate, 173.
+  Redding, 146.
+  Roman Lake, 137.
+  Rose Madder, 143.
+  Rose Pink, 173.
+  Rose Rubiate, 145.
+  Rouge, 173.
+  Rouge de Mars, 145.
+  Rubric Lakes, 139-145.
+  Rufigallic Red, 174.
+  Sandal Red, 175.
+  Saturnine Red, 151.
+  Scarlet Chrome, 151.
+  Scarlet Lake, 136.
+  Scarlet Ochre, 149.
+  Scarlet Vermilion, 156.
+  Sil Atticum, 147.
+  Silver Red, 176.
+  Sinoper, 151.
+  Sorgho Red, 176.
+  Spanish Brown, 146.
+  Spanish Red, 150.
+  Terra Puzzoli, 149.
+  Terra Sinopica, 147.
+  Thallium Red, 177.
+  Tin Pink, 177.
+  Ultramarine Red, 178.
+  Uranium Red, 179.
+  Venetian Lake, 137.
+  Venetian Red, 149.
+  Vermilion, 154.
+  Vermilions, 153-158.
+  Wongshy Red, 180.
+
+Reds, ancient, 5.
+
+Relations of colour, 13-24.
+
+Relative durability of colour, 32.
+
+Rembrandt, 11, 345.
+
+Revelation, Book of, 217.
+
+Reynolds, Sir Joshua, 10, 35, 37, 158, 374, 410.
+
+Rinman's Green, 285.
+  "      Olive, 332.
+
+Rocou, 255.
+
+Roman Green, 290.
+  "   Lake, 137.
+  "   Ochre, 107.
+  "     "    Burnt, 255.
+  "   painters and painting, 7, 8, 10, 391.
+  "   Sepia, 351.
+  "   White, 74.
+
+Romans, the, 153, 295.
+
+Romulus, 295.
+
+Rosaniline, 162.
+
+Rose, the, 327.
+
+Rousseau, M. E., 414.
+
+Rowbotham, Messrs., 144.
+
+Royal Academy at Burlington House, 365.
+  "   Blue, 196.
+
+Rubens, 11, 37, 64, 157, 283, 334, 374.
+  "     Brown, 359.
+  "     Madder, 321.
+
+Rubia tinctorum, 139.
+
+Rubiate, Purple, 301.
+
+Rue, Dr. Warren de la, 132.
+
+Ruskin, Mr., 13.
+
+Russet, 28.
+  "     analysis of, 330.
+  "     as a colour, 320.
+  "     contrast of, 321.
+  "     on the Tertiary, 320.
+
+RUSSET PIGMENTS:--
+  Field's Russet, 321.
+  Mixed Russet, 322.
+  Orange Russet, 321.
+  Prussiate of Copper, 323.
+  Rubens' Madder, 321.
+  Russet Rubiate, 321.
+
+
+S.
+
+Sacc, M., 414.
+
+Safflower, 174.
+
+Samuel Prout, 346.
+
+Sandal Red, 175.
+  "    Wood Purple, 307.
+
+Sandarac, 259.
+
+Sap Green, 282.
+
+Satin White, 80.
+
+Saturnine Red, 151.
+
+Saucers, Pink, 174.
+
+Saunders Blue, 230.
+
+Saxon Blue, 189.
+  "   Green, 271.
+  "   Smalts, 215.
+
+Scarlet Chrome, 151.
+  "     Iodine, 150.
+  "     Lake, 136.
+  "     Ochre, 149.
+  "     Pure, 150.
+  "     transparent, a, reward for, 130.
+  "       "          substitute for, 130.
+  "     Vermilion, 156.
+
+Scheele's Green, 272.
+  "       Olive, 332.
+
+Schools of painting, 8-10, 37.
+
+Schunck, Dr., 140.
+
+Schweinfurt Blue, 230.
+  "         Green, 271.
+  "           "   Olive, 332.
+
+Scoffern, Dr., 357.
+
+Sea, the Dead, 337.
+  "  transparency of the, 269.
+
+Secondary colours, 28.
+  "       pigments, 242.
+
+Semi-Neutral colours, 29.
+  "  the term, 334.
+
+Semi-stability, on, 308.
+
+Semi-stable pigments, 298, 313.
+
+Sepia, 348, 397.
+  "    Liquid, 348.
+  "    Roman, 350.
+  "    Warm, 351.
+
+Shades, 21.
+
+Shadow, colour of, 27, 30.
+
+Siccatives, 51-53.
+
+Sienna, Burnt, 243.
+  "     Raw, 113.
+  "     Terra di, 113.
+
+Sil Atticum, 147.
+
+Silicate of Baryta, 290.
+
+Siliceous painting, Ultramarine in, 212.
+
+Silver Red, 176.
+  "    White, 71.
+
+Sinoper, 151.
+
+Slate Clays, 380.
+  "   powdered, 380.
+
+Smalt, 195-198.
+  "    adulteration of, 198.
+  "    Copper, 229.
+
+Smalt, grinding of, 197.
+  "    in mural decoration, 198.
+  "    in paper, 196.
+  "    Iron, 218.
+
+Soap and alkali in brushes, 52.
+
+Societe d'Encouragement of Paris, 210.
+
+Society of Arts, 130.
+
+Soda flame, 191.
+
+Solid French Purple, 304.
+
+Sorgho Red, 176.
+
+Sources of pigments, 60.
+
+South America, chica from, 368.
+
+Spanish Black, 409.
+  "     Brown, 146.
+  "     Ochre, 255.
+  "     Red, 150.
+  "     Schools, 8.
+  "     White, 80.
+
+Spence, Mr., 68.
+
+Spruce Ochre, 108.
+
+St. Petersburg, palace at, 219.
+
+Starch, 66.
+
+Stil de Grain, Brown, 312.
+
+Stippling, 315.
+
+Stone, Armenian, 228.
+  "    lapis lazuli, 217, 219.
+  "    malachite, 274.
+  "    Ochre, 109.
+
+Strontian Yellow, 113.
+
+Sulphate of Lead, 72.
+  "      zinc, 51.
+
+Sulphide of cadmium, thallium in, 260.
+
+Sulphur and ochres, 359.
+
+Sulphuretted hydrogen, pigments affected by, 39, 67, 69, 73, 78, 79, 93, 103, 120, 151, 152, 229, 248, 275, 276.
+
+Susa, 296.
+
+Swedish Green, 272.
+
+Synonyms, value of, 145.
+
+
+T.
+
+Talent of money, 296.
+
+Teniers, 360.
+
+Terra di Sienna, 113.
+  "    "   "     Burnt, 243.
+  "   Orellana, 255.
+  "   Puzzoli, 149.
+  "   Sinopica, 147.
+
+Terre Bleu, 228.
+  "   Verte, 283.
+  "     "    Olive, 333.
+
+Terrene whites, 66, 80.
+
+Tertiary colours, 28.
+  "      on, 311.
+
+Thallium, in sulphide of cadmium, 260.
+  "       Orange, 259.
+  "       Red, 177.
+  "       Yellow, 122.
+
+Thebes, mausoleum at, 3.
+
+Thenard, M., 69, 192.
+
+Thenard's Blue, 192.
+
+Theophrastus, 198.
+
+Theory and practice, 410.
+
+Thwaites' Yellow, 122.
+
+Time, pigments affected by, 40.
+
+Tin Pink, 177.
+  "       Violet, 308.
+  "       White, 79.
+
+Tin-Copper Green, 286.
+
+Tint, Harding's, 380.
+  "   Macpherson's, 380.
+  "   Neutral, 377.
+
+Tintoret, 8.
+
+Tints, 27.
+
+Titanium Green, 290.
+
+Titian, 7, 8, 9, 11, 37, 150, 157, 293, 334.
+
+Transparency of pigments, 48.
+  "   to obtain, 245.
+
+Transparent Gold Ochre, 108.
+  "         Oxide of Chromium, 268.
+  "         pigments, use of, 237.
+
+Troy White, 80.
+
+True Chrome Green, 267.
+  "  Prussian Green, 281.
+  "  Ultramarine, 216.
+
+Truth of hue in pigments, 47.
+
+Tullus Hostilius, 295.
+
+Tungsten Blue, 233.
+  "      White, 414.
+
+Turacine, 165.
+
+Turbith Mineral, 123.
+
+Turkey Berries, 312.
+
+Turnbull's Blue, 208.
+
+Turner, 309, 328.
+
+Turner's Yellow, 121.
+
+Tyrian Purple, 295, 296.
+
+
+U.
+
+Ultramarine, Artificial, 209-216.
+  "          acid pigments with, 214.
+  "          adulteration of, 215.
+  "          experiment with, 213.
+  "          green in, 211.
+  "          gum with, 214.
+  "          in siliceous painting, 212.
+  "          test for, 212.
+
+Ultramarine Ash, 379.
+  "         Beggars', 409.
+  "         Brilliant, 215.
+  "         Cobalt, 192.
+  "         Dutch, 189.
+  "         Factitious, 215.
+  "         French, 215.
+
+Ultramarine, Genuine, 216-225.
+  "          adulteration of, 224.
+  "          colouring matter of, 224.
+  "          defects in, 222, 223.
+  "          manufacture of, 220.
+  "          price of, 220.
+  "          properties of, 221.
+  "          tests for, 224.
+
+Ultramarine, Gmelin's German, 209.
+  "          Green, 287.
+  "          Guimet's, 209-211.
+  "          Native, 216.
+  "          Natural, 216.
+  "          Pure, 217.
+  "          Real, 216.
+  "          Red, 178.
+  "          True, 216.
+
+Umber, 315.
+  "    Burnt, 341.
+  "    grounds primed with, 316.
+  "    Raw, 315.
+
+Unnecessary mixture, 35.
+
+Uranium Brown, 360,
+  "     Green, 291.
+  "     Orange, 260.
+  "     Red, 179.
+  "     Yellow, 123.
+
+Ure, Dr., 73.
+
+
+V.
+
+Vanadium Green, 291.
+
+Vandyke, 11, 150, 220, 351.
+  "      Brown, 351.
+
+Van Eyck, 167.
+
+Varnishes, 33, 152.
+
+Vegetal charcoal, 398.
+
+Vehicles with pigments, 48-53.
+
+Velasquez, 389.
+
+Venetian Green, 283.
+  "      Lake, 137.
+  "      painters, painting, and pigments, 7, 8, 34, 37, 139, 167.
+  "      Red, 149.
+  "      White, 75.
+
+Verde Vessie, 282.
+
+Verdetto, 283.
+
+Verdigris, 51, 276.
+  "        Burnt, 331.
+  "        Distilled, 276.
+
+Verditer, Blue, 228.
+  "       Green, 287.
+
+Vermilion, 153-158.
+  "        adulteration of, 156.
+  "        Carmine, 156.
+  "        Chinese, and English, 156, 146.
+  "        Deep, 154.
+  "        European and Chinese, 154.
+  "        Extract of, 157.
+  "        Field's Orange, 158.
+  "        manufacture of, 154.
+  "        Orange, 157.
+
+Vermilion Pale, 154.
+  "       Scarlet, 156.
+  "       with cochineal lake, 136.
+  "       with iodide of mercury, 155.
+
+Verona Brown, 353.
+  "    Green, 283.
+
+Veronese Green, 268.
+  "      French, 268.
+
+Vert de Zinc, 285.
+
+Vicious extremes in colouring, 59.
+
+Vienna Blue, 192.
+  "    Green, 271.
+  "    White, 72.
+
+Vine Black, 394.
+
+Violet, Carmine, 302.
+  "     de Mars, 290.
+  "     Mars, 290.
+  "     Tin, 308.
+
+Viride AEris, 276.
+
+Viridian, 42, 269.
+
+Vision, derangement of, 59.
+
+Vitrification and permanence, 197.
+
+Vitrified colours, 33, 103, 197.
+
+Vitruvius, 229.
+
+
+W.
+
+Wall colour for picture galleries, 363.
+  "  space in     "       "        364.
+
+Walpole, Mrs., 220.
+
+Warm Sepia, 350.
+
+Water-colour cakes in oil, 50.
+
+Watts, Mr., 165.
+
+Weppen, 398.
+
+White, 27.
+  "    as a colour, 62.
+  "    as a pigment, 64.
+  "    Chalk, 79.
+  "    colour as applied to, 62.
+
+Whitelac varnish, 50.
+
+White Lead, 67-70.
+  "   adulteration of, 70.
+  "   colour restored in, 69.
+  "   hydrated oxide in, 68.
+  "   loss of opacity in, 68.
+  "   use of, 70.
+  "   with Blue Black, 395.
+  "     "  Bone Brown, 341.
+  "     "  Brown Pink, 312.
+  "     "  Cadmium Yellow, 89.
+  "     "  Carmine, 134.
+  "     "  Dragon's Blood, 138.
+  "     "  Gamboge, 97.
+  "     "  Indian Lake, 139.
+  "     "  Indigo, 201.
+  "     "  Massicot, 120.
+  "     "  Orpiment, 112.
+  "     "  Prussian Blue, 206.
+  "     "  Red Lead, 152.
+  "     " Yellow Lakes, 99.
+
+White, on the Neutral, 62.
+  "    perfect, 62, 64.
+
+WHITE PIGMENTS:--
+  Antimony White, 79.
+  Arsenic White, 79.
+  Barytic White, 65.
+  Blanc d'Argent, 71.
+  Body White, 72.
+  Cadmium White, 78.
+  Ceruse, 74.
+  China White, 80.
+  Chinese White, 75.
+  Constant White, 65.
+  Cremnitz or Kremnitz White, 72.
+  Crems or Krems White, 72.
+  Dutch White, 74.
+  Flake White, 72.
+  Flemish White, 72.
+  French White, 71.
+  Hamburgh White, 74.
+  Kremser White, 75.
+  London White, 73.
+  Mercury White, 79.
+  Modan or Morat White, 80.
+  Nottingham White, 73.
+  Oxychloride of Lead, 73.
+  Pattison's White, 73.
+  Pearl White, 78.
+  Permanent White, 65.
+  Roman White, 74.
+  Rouen White, 80.
+  Satin White, 80.
+  Silver White, 71.
+  Spanish White, 80.
+  Sulphate of Lead, 72.
+  Tin White, 79.
+  Tungsten White, 414.
+  Troy White, 80.
+  Venetian White, 75.
+  Vienna White, 72.
+  White Lead, 67-70.
+  Zinc White, 76.
+  Zinc Whites, 75-78.
+
+White, properties of, 62-64.
+  "    use of, 64.
+
+Whites, classified, 80.
+  "     in old pictures, 65.
+
+Williamson, Professor, 205.
+
+Wilson, 336.
+
+Winter scene, a water-colour, 352.
+
+Wongshy Red, 180.
+
+Wood-Tar Blue, 233.
+
+Working well in pigments, 49.
+
+
+Y.
+
+Yellow, 28.
+  "     as a colour, 82.
+  "     contrasts of, 82, 83.
+
+Yellow, discordant, 83.
+  "     Golden, 256.
+  "     Madder, Cory's, 353.
+  "     on the Primary, 81.
+
+YELLOW PIGMENTS:--
+  Antimony Yellow, 105.
+  Arsenic Yellow, 116.
+  Aureolin, 83-87.
+  Bismuth Yellow, 116.
+  Brown Ochre, 108.
+  Cadmium Yellows, 87-92.
+  Cassel Yellow, 121.
+  Chinese Yellow, 111.
+  Chrome Yellows, 93-95.
+  Citron Yellow, 95.
+  Cologne Yellow, 94.
+  Copper Yellow, 116.
+  Deep Cadmium, 87.
+  Deep Chrome, 93.
+  Di Palito, 109.
+  Drop Gum, 96.
+  Dutch Pink, 100.
+  English Pink, 100.
+  Extract of Gamboge, 97.
+  Gallstone, 95.
+  Gamboge, 96.
+  Gelbin's Yellow, 117.
+  Giallolino, 103.
+  Indian Yellow, 98.
+  Indium Yellow, 117.
+  Iodine Yellow, 118.
+  Iron Yellow, 102, 118.
+  Italian Pink, 100.
+  Jaune de Cologne, 94.
+  Jaune de Fer, 102.
+  Jaune de Mars, 102.
+  Jaune Minerale, 94.
+  King's Yellow, 111.
+  Lakes, 99, 100.
+  Lemon Cadmium, 91.
+  Lemon Yellow, 101.
+  Litharge, 120.
+  Madder Yellow, 118, 353.
+  Mars Yellow, 102.
+  Massicot, 120.
+  Mineral Yellow, 106, 116, 121.
+  Montpellier Yellow, 121.
+  Mutrie Yellow, 92.
+  Naples Yellow, 103.
+  Ochres, 105-109.
+  Ocre de Ru, 108.
+  Orient Yellow, 110.
+  Orpiment or Yellow Orpiment, 111.
+  Oxford Ochre, 109.
+  Pale Cadmium, 90.
+  Pale Chrome, 93.
+  Patent Yellow, 121.
+  Platinum Yellow, 121.
+  Purree, 98.
+  Queen's Yellow, 123.
+  Quercitron Lake, or Yellow, 100.
+  Raw Sienna, 113.
+  Roman Ochre, 107.
+  Spruce Ochre, 108.
+  Stone Ochre, 109.
+  Strontian Yellow, 113.
+  Terra di Sienna, 113.
+  Thallium Yellow, 122.
+  Thwaites' Yellow, 122.
+  Transparent Gold Ochre, 108.
+  Turbith Yellow, 123.
+  Turner's Yellow, 121.
+  Uranium Yellow, 123.
+  Yellow Carmine, 123.
+  Yellow Lake, 100.
+  Yellow Ochre, 106.
+
+Yellows, ancient, 5.
+  "      classified, 125.
+  "      former paucity of, 83.
+  "      various, 124.
+
+
+Z.
+
+Zaffre, 189.
+
+Zeuxis and Apelles, 7.
+
+Zinc Brown, 360.
+  "  Cobalt Blue, 235.
+  "  Green, 285.
+  "  Orange, 261,
+  "  siccatives, 51, 77.
+  "  Vert de, 285.
+  "  White, 76.
+  "   "     adulteration of, 77.
+  "   "     over White Lead, 76.
+  "  Whites, 75-78.
+
+
+
+
+ERRATA.
+
+
+Page  16 _for_ inharmonious _read_ harmonious
+  "   35 _for_ There prevails _read_ There prevail
+  "   48 _for_ as whiteness, or light do, _read_ as whiteness or light does
+  "  166 _for_ purple of cassius _read_ purple of Cassius
+  "  182 _for_ which manufactures _read_ which manufactures pictures
+  "  258 _for_ _Laque Mineral_ _read_ _Laque Minerale_
+  "  342 _for_ rivals _read_ rivels
+  "  378 _for_ predominate _read_ predominates
+
+
+THE END.
+
+
+LONDON:
+Printed by A. Schulze, 13, Poland Street.
+
+
++------------------------------------------------------+
+|Transcriber's Note:                                   |
+|                                                      |
+|The errata above and the following have been corrected|
+|in the text:                                          |
+|                                                      |
+|Page  vi Semi-neutral changed to Semi-Neutral         |
+|      10 life less changed to lifeless                |
+|      17 sun-rise changed to sunrise                  |
+|      20 in the the changed to in the                 |
+|      22 perpective changed to perspective            |
+|      29 marone changed to marrone                    |
+|      69 di-carbonate changed to dicarbonate          |
+|      73 hydrogren changed to hydrogen                |
+|      77 imimical changed to inimical                 |
+|      81 feuillemorte changed to feuillemort          |
+|      91 Item numbering has been left consistent      |
+|         with the omission of item no. 23             |
+|     129 extemes changed to extremes                  |
+|     169 muroxide changed to murexide                 |
+|     188 dullness changed to dulness                  |
+|     192 gaslight changed to gas-light                |
+|     200 durablity changed to durability              |
+|     206 and 293 developement changed to development  |
+|     212 decolorized changed to decolourised          |
+|     235 indentical changed to identical              |
+|     241 re-acting changed to reacting                |
+|     250 Exibition changed to Exhibition              |
+|     273 childrens' changed to children's             |
+|     336 toneing changed to toning                    |
+|     352 fine tooth-comb changed to fine-tooth comb   |
+|     408 analagous changed to analogous               |
+|     414 announceed changed to announced              |
+|     421 abies changed to Abies                       |
+|                                                      |
+|Inconsistencies in the use of analyse/analyze,        |
+|harmonise/harmonize and neutralise/neutralize have    |
+|been retained as in the original text, as have the    |
+|use of aerial and aerial.                             |
++------------------------------------------------------+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Field's Chromatography, by George Field
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