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+<html>
+<head>
+  <meta content="text/html; charset=ISO-8859-1"
+ http-equiv="content-type">
+  <title>HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES</title>
+</head>
+<body>
+
+
+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of History of the United States, Vol. I (of VI), by 
+E. Benjamin Andrews
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: History of the United States, Vol. I (of VI)
+
+Author: E. Benjamin Andrews
+
+Release Date: March 28, 2007 [EBook #20925]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Don Kostuch
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+<big><big>[Transcriber's Notes]<br>
+<br>
+The HTML and TXT formats discard page boundaries but retain the year<br>
+references in square brackets. Thus [1492-1495] indicate the following<br>
+text covers this period, until the next such appearance.<br>
+<br>
+Several books on Columbus are available at Gutenberg.org, including "The<br>
+Life of Columbus" by Arthur Helps.<br>
+<br>
+A pound sterling in 1600 is worth about 135 pounds or 235 Dollars US in<br>
+2006.<br>
+<br>
+Here are some unfamiliar (to me) terms.<br>
+<br>
+camlets<br>
+&nbsp; Rich cloth of Asian origin, made of camel's hair and silk and
+later<br>
+&nbsp; made of goat's hair and silk or other combinations. A garment
+made<br>
+&nbsp; from this cloth.<br>
+<br>
+contumacy<br>
+&nbsp; Stubborn perverseness or rebelliousness; obstinate resistance to<br>
+&nbsp; authority.<br>
+<br>
+druggets<br>
+&nbsp; Heavy felted fabric of wool or wool and cotton, used as a floor<br>
+&nbsp; covering.<br>
+<br>
+escheated<br>
+&nbsp; Reversion of property to the state in the absence of legal heirs
+or<br>
+&nbsp; claimants.<br>
+<br>
+fee simple<br>
+&nbsp; An estate of inheritance in land, either absolute and without<br>
+&nbsp; limitation to any particular class of heirs (fee simple) or
+limited to<br>
+&nbsp; a particular class of heirs (fee tail).<br>
+<br>
+glebe<br>
+&nbsp; Plot of land yielding profit to an English parish church or an<br>
+&nbsp; ecclesiastical office.<br>
+<br>
+Pascua Florida<br>
+&nbsp; Feast of flowers; Easter.<br>
+<br>
+quit rent<br>
+&nbsp; A land tax imposed on freehold or leased land by a landowning<br>
+&nbsp; authority, freeing the tenant of a holding from other
+obligations.<br>
+<br>
+New Style (dates)<br>
+&nbsp; Describing dates after the adoption of the Gregorian calendar.
+Various<br>
+&nbsp; nations adopted the Gregorian calendar between 1582 and 1752.<br>
+<br>
+Old Style (dates)<br>
+&nbsp; Describing dates before the adoption of the Gregorian calendar.<br>
+<br>
+pompion<br>
+&nbsp; Pumpkin.<br>
+<br>
+sedulous<br>
+&nbsp; Diligent in application or attention; persevering.<br>
+<br>
+settle<br>
+&nbsp; Long wooden bench with a high back, often including storage space<br>
+&nbsp; beneath the seat.<br>
+<br>
+[End Transcriber's Notes.]<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES<br>
+<br>
+<img style="width: 449px; height: 680px;" alt=""
+ src="images/0Title1_600E.jpg"><br>
+Columbus<br>
+After a Portrait by Herrer.<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+HISTORY OF<br>
+THE UNITED STATES<br>
+FROM THE EARLIEST DISCOVERY OF<br>
+AMERICA TO THE PRESENT TIME<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+BY<br>
+E. BENJAMIN ANDREWS<br>
+CHANCELLOR OF THE UNIVERSITY OF NEBRASKA<br>
+FORMERLY PRESIDENT OF BROWN UNIVERSITY<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+With 650 Illustrations and Maps<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+VOLUME I.<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+NEW YORK<br>
+CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS<br>
+1912<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+COPYRIGHT, 1894, BY<br>
+CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS<br>
+<br>
+<img style="width: 202px; height: 231px;" alt=""
+ src="images/0Title3_Pic600.jpg"><br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+TO MY WIFE<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+PREFACE<br>
+<br>
+Notwithstanding the number of United States histories already in<br>
+existence, and the excellence of many of them, I venture to think that<br>
+no apology is needed for bringing forward another.<br>
+<br>
+1. The work now presented to the public is believed to utilize, more<br>
+than any of its predecessors, the many valuable researches of recent<br>
+years into the rich archives of this and other nations.<br>
+<br>
+2. Most of the briefer treatments of the subject are manuals, intended<br>
+for pupils in schools, the conspicuous articulation so necessary for<br>
+this purpose greatly lessening their interest for the general reader.<br>
+The following narrative will be found continuous as well as of moderate<br>
+compass.<br>
+<br>
+3. I have sought to make more prominent than popular histories have<br>
+usually done, at the same time the political evolution of our country on<br>
+the one hand, and the social culture, habits, and life of the people on<br>
+the other.<br>
+<br>
+4. The work strives to observe scrupulous proportion in treating the<br>
+different parts and phases of our national career, neglecting none and<br>
+over-emphasizing none. Also, while pronouncedly national and patriotic,<br>
+it is careful to be perfectly fair and kind to the people of all<br>
+sections.<br>
+<br>
+5. Effort has been made to present the matter in the most natural<br>
+periods and divisions, and to give such a title to each of these as to<br>
+render the table of contents a truthful and instructive epitome of our<br>
+national past.<br>
+<br>
+6. With the same aim the Fore-history is exhibited in sharp separation<br>
+from the United States history proper, calling due attention to what is<br>
+too commonly missed, the truly epochal character of the adoption of our<br>
+present Constitution, in 1789.<br>
+<br>
+7. Copious illustration has been employed, with diligent study to make<br>
+it for every reader in the highest degree an instrument of instruction,<br>
+delight, and cultivation in art.<br>
+<br>
+8. No pains has been spared to secure perfect accuracy in all references<br>
+to dates, persons, and places, so that the volumes may be used with<br>
+confidence as a work of reference. I am persuaded that much success in<br>
+this has been attained, despite the uncertainty still attaching to many<br>
+matters of this sort in United States history, especially to dates.<br>
+<br>
+BROWN UNIVERSITY, September 15. 1894.<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+PUBLISHERS' NOTE<br>
+<br>
+The last edition of President Andrews's History was issued in 1905, in<br>
+five volumes, and brought the narrative down to the inauguration of<br>
+President Roosevelt in March of that year. In preparing the extension of<br>
+the work by the addition of a sixth volume, entrusted to the competent<br>
+hands of Professor James Alton James of Northwestern University, it has<br>
+been thought desirable to begin this final volume with the chapters<br>
+entitled "The Rise of Roosevelt" and "Mr. Roosevelt's Presidency." This<br>
+has involved some expansion and revision of these chapters as well as<br>
+the continuance of the History from 1905 to the present time. The<br>
+Appendices, which include public documents of fundamental importance and<br>
+the significant results in various fields of the Census of 1910, are an<br>
+additional feature of the new edition.<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+CONTENTS<br>
+<br>
+INTRODUCTION<br>
+<br>
+AMERICA BEFORE COLUMBUS<br>
+<br>
+Age and Origin of Man in America.<br>
+Primordial Americans unlike Present Asiatics.<br>
+Resemblances between their Various Branches.<br>
+Two Great Types.<br>
+The Mound-builders' Age.<br>
+Design of the Mounds.<br>
+Different<br>
+Forms.<br>
+Towns and Cities.<br>
+Proofs of Culture.<br>
+Arts.<br>
+Fate of the<br>
+Mound-builders.<br>
+The Indians.<br>
+Their Number.<br>
+Degree of<br>
+Civilization.<br>
+Power of Endurance.<br>
+Religion.<br>
+The Various<br>
+Nations.<br>
+Original Brute Inhabitants of North America.<br>
+Plants, Fruits, and Trees.<br>
+Indian Agriculture.<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+Part First<br>
+<br>
+THE FORE-HISTORY<br>
+<br>
+PERIOD I<br>
+<br>
+DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT<br>
+<br>
+1492-1660<br>
+<br>
+CHAPTER 1. COLUMBUS.<br>
+<br>
+Bretons and Normans in the New World.<br>
+The Northmen Question.<br>
+Marco<br>
+Polo's Travels.<br>
+His Pictures of Eastern Asia.<br>
+Influence on<br>
+Columbus.<br>
+Early Life of Columbus.<br>
+His Cruises and Studies.<br>
+Asia to be Reached by Sailing West.<br>
+Appeals for Aid.<br>
+Rebuffs.<br>
+Success.<br>
+Sails from Palos.<br>
+The Voyage.<br>
+America Discovered.<br>
+Columbus's Later Voyages and Discoveries.<br>
+Illusion Respecting the New Land.<br>
+Amerigo Vespucci.<br>
+Rise of the Name "America."<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+CHAPTER II. EARLY SPANISH AMERICA.<br>
+<br>
+Portugal and Spain Divide the Newly Discovered World.<br>
+Spain gets most of America.<br>
+Voyage of de Solis.<br>
+Balboa Discovers the Pacific.<br>
+Ponce de Leon on the Florida Coast.<br>
+Explorations by Grijalva.<br>
+Cortez Invades Mexico.<br>
+Subjugates the Country.<br>
+De Ayllon's Cruise.<br>
+Magellan Circumnavigates the Globe.<br>
+Narvaez's Expedition into Florida.<br>
+Its Sad Fate.<br>
+De Soto.<br>
+His March.<br>
+Hardships.<br>
+Discovers the Mississippi.<br>
+His Death.<br>
+End of his Expedition.<br>
+French Settlement in Florida.<br>
+St. Augustine.<br>
+French-Spanish Hostilities.<br>
+Reasons for Spain's Failure to Colonize far North.<br>
+Her Treatment of the Natives.<br>
+Tyranny over her own<br>
+Colonies.<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+CHAPTER III. EXPLORATION AND COLONIZATION BY THE FRENCH AND THE ENGLISH<br>
+<br>
+Verrazano.<br>
+"New France."<br>
+Cartier Discovers St. Lawrence Gulf and River.<br>
+Second Voyage.-Montreal.-Third.-De Monts.<br>
+Champlain.<br>
+Founds Quebec.<br>
+Westward Explorations.<br>
+John Cabot, Discoverer of the North American Main.<br>
+Frobisher.<br>
+Tries for a Northwest Passage.<br>
+Second Expedition for Gold.<br>
+Third.<br>
+Eskimo Tradition of Frobisher's Visits.<br>
+Drake Sails round the World.<br>
+Cavendish Follows.<br>
+Raleigh's Scheme.<br>
+Colony at Roanoke Island.<br>
+"Virginia."<br>
+Second Colony.<br>
+Its Fate.<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+CHAPTER IV. THE PLANTING OF VIRGINIA<br>
+<br>
+The Old Virginia Charter.<br>
+Jamestown Settled.<br>
+Company and Colony.<br>
+Character of Early Virginia Population.<br>
+Progress.<br>
+Products.<br>
+Slavery.<br>
+Agriculture the Dominant Industry.<br>
+No Town Life.<br>
+Hardships and Dissensions.<br>
+John Smith.<br>
+New Charter.<br>
+Delaware Governor.<br>
+The "Starving Time."<br>
+Severe Rule of Dale and Argall.<br>
+The Change of 1612.<br>
+Pocahontas.<br>
+Indian Hostilities.<br>
+First American Legislature.<br>
+Sir Thomas Wyatt.<br>
+Self Government.<br>
+Virginia Reflects English Political Progress.<br>
+Dissolution of the Company.<br>
+Charles I. and Virginia.<br>
+Harvey, Wyatt. Berkeley.<br>
+Virginia under Cromwell.<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+CHAPTER V. PILGRIM AND PURITAN AT THE NORTH<br>
+<br>
+The first "Independents."<br>
+John Smyth's Church at Gainsborough.<br>
+The Scrooby Church.<br>
+Plymouth Colony.<br>
+Settles Plymouth.<br>
+Hardships.<br>
+Growth.<br>
+Cape Ann Settlement.<br>
+Massachusetts Bay.<br>
+Size.<br>
+Polity.<br>
+Roger Williams.<br>
+His Views.<br>
+His Exile.<br>
+Anne Hutchinson.<br>
+Rhode Island<br>
+Founded.<br>
+Settlement of Hartford, Windsor, Wethersfield.<br>
+Saybrook.<br>
+New Haven.<br>
+New Hampshire.<br>
+Maine.<br>
+New England Confederation.<br>
+Its Function.<br>
+Its Failure.<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+CHAPTER VI. BALTIMORE AND HIS MARYLAND<br>
+<br>
+Sir George Calvert Plants at Newfoundland.<br>
+Is Ennobled.<br>
+Sails for Virginia.<br>
+Grant of Maryland.<br>
+Lord Baltimore Dies.<br>
+Succeeded by Cecil.<br>
+Government of Maryland.<br>
+Conflict with Virginia.<br>
+Baltimore comes to Maryland.<br>
+Religious Freedom in the Colony.<br>
+Clayborne's Rebellion.<br>
+First Maryland Assembly.<br>
+Anarchy.<br>
+Romanism Established.<br>
+Baltimore and Roger Williams.<br>
+Maryland during the Civil War in England.<br>
+Death of Baltimore.<br>
+Character.<br>
+Maryland under the Long Parliament.<br>
+Puritan Immigration.<br>
+Founds Annapolis.<br>
+Rebellion.<br>
+Clayborne again.<br>
+Maryland and the Commonwealth.<br>
+Deposition of Governor Stone.<br>
+Anti-Catholic Laws.<br>
+Baltimore Defied.<br>
+Sustained by Cromwell.<br>
+Fendall's Rebellion.<br>
+Fails.<br>
+Maryland at the Restoration.<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+CHAPTER VII. NEW NETHERLAND<br>
+<br>
+Henry Hudson and his Explorations.<br>
+Enters Hudson River.<br>
+His Subsequent Career.<br>
+And his Fate.<br>
+Dutch Trade on the Hudson.<br>
+"New Netherland."<br>
+Dutch West India Company.<br>
+Albany Begun.<br>
+New Amsterdam.<br>
+Relations with Plymouth.<br>
+De Vries on the Delaware.<br>
+Dutch Fort at Hartford.<br>
+Conflict of Dutch with English.<br>
+Gustavus Adolphus.<br>
+Swedish Beginnings at Wilmington, Delaware.<br>
+Advent of Kieft.<br>
+Maltreats Indians.<br>
+New Netherland in 1647.<br>
+Stuyvesant's Excellent Rule.<br>
+Conquers New Sweden.<br>
+And the Indians.<br>
+Conquest of Dutch America by England.<br>
+"New York."<br>
+Persistence of Dutch Influence and Traits.<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+CHAPTER VIII. THE FIRST INDIAN WARS<br>
+<br>
+Beginning of Indian Hostility.<br>
+Of Pequot War.<br>
+Mason's Strategy.<br>
+And Tactics.<br>
+Capture of Pequot Fort.<br>
+Back to Saybrook.<br>
+Extermination of Pequot Tribe.<br>
+Peace.<br>
+Miantonomoh and Uncas.<br>
+Dutch War with Indians.<br>
+Caused by Kieft's Impolicy.<br>
+Liquor.<br>
+Underhill Comes.<br>
+Mrs. Hutchinson's Fate.<br>
+Deborah Moody.<br>
+New Haven Refuses Aid.<br>
+Appeal to Holland.<br>
+Underhill's Exploits.<br>
+Kieft Removed.<br>
+Sad Plight of New Netherland.<br>
+Subsequent Hostilities and Final Peace.<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+PERIOD II<br>
+<br>
+ENGLISH AMERICA TILL THE END OF THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR<br>
+<br>
+1660--1763<br>
+<br>
+CHAPTER I. NEW ENGLAND UNDER THE LAST STUARTS.<br>
+<br>
+Charles II. and Massachusetts.<br>
+Massachusetts about 1660.<br>
+Its View of its Political Rights.<br>
+The King's View.<br>
+And Commands.<br>
+Commission of 1664.<br>
+Why Vengeance was Delayed.<br>
+Boldness of the Colony.<br>
+It Buys Maine.<br>
+Fails to get New Hampshire.<br>
+The King's Rage.<br>
+The Charter Vacated.<br>
+Charles II. and Connecticut.<br>
+Prosperity of this Colony.<br>
+Rhode Island.<br>
+Boundary Disputes of Connecticut.<br>
+Of Rhode Island.<br>
+George Fox and Roger Williams.<br>
+James II. King.<br>
+Andros Governor.<br>
+Andros and Southern New England.<br>
+In Massachusetts.<br>
+Revolution of 1688.<br>
+New Charter for Massachusetts.<br>
+Defects and Merits.<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+CHAPTER II. KING PHILIP'S WAR.<br>
+<br>
+Whites' Treatment of Red Men.<br>
+Indian Hatred.<br>
+Causes.<br>
+Alexander's Death.<br>
+Philip<br>
+King.<br>
+Scope of his Conspiracy.<br>
+Murders Sausaman.<br>
+War Begun.<br>
+Nipmucks take Part.<br>
+War in Connecticut Valley.<br>
+Bloody Brook.<br>
+The Swamp Fight at South Kingston, R. I.<br>
+Central Massachusetts Aflame.<br>
+The Rowlandson History.<br>
+Southeastern Massachusetts and Rhode Island again.<br>
+Connecticut Valley once more Invaded.<br>
+Turner's Falls.<br>
+Philip's Death.<br>
+Horrors of the War.<br>
+Philip's Character.<br>
+Fate of his Family.<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+CHAPTER III. THE SALEM WITCHCRAFT<br>
+<br>
+New England Home Life.<br>
+Religion its Centre.<br>
+The Farmhouse.<br>
+Morning Devotions.<br>
+Farm Work.<br>
+Tools.<br>
+Diet.<br>
+Neighborliness.<br>
+New England Superstitions.<br>
+Not Peculiar to New England.<br>
+Sunday Laws.<br>
+Public Worship.<br>
+First Case of Sorcery.<br>
+The Witch Executed.<br>
+Cotton Mather.<br>
+His Experiments.<br>
+His Book.<br>
+The Parris Children Bewitched.<br>
+The Manifestations.<br>
+The Trial.<br>
+Executions.<br>
+George Burroughs.<br>
+Rebecca Nurse.<br>
+Reaction.<br>
+Forwardness of Clergy.<br>
+"Devil's Authority."<br>
+The End.<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+CHAPTER IV. THE MIDDLE COLONIES<br>
+<br>
+English Conquest of New Netherland.<br>
+Duke of York's Government.<br>
+Andros.<br>
+Revolution of 1688.<br>
+Leisler.<br>
+Problems which Teased Royal Governors.<br>
+New Jersey.<br>
+Its Political Vicissitudes.<br>
+William Penn.<br>
+Character.<br>
+Liberality of Pennsylvania<br>
+Charter.<br>
+Penn and James II.<br>
+Penn's Services for his Colony.<br>
+Prosperity of the Latter.<br>
+Fletcher's Rule.<br>
+Gabriel Thomas's History of Pennsylvania.<br>
+Penn's Trials.<br>
+And Victory.<br>
+Delaware.<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+CHAPTER V. MARYLAND, VIRGINIA, CAROLINA<br>
+<br>
+Maryland after the Stuart Restoration.<br>
+Navigation Act.<br>
+Boundary Disputes.<br>
+Liberality of Religion.<br>
+Agitation to Establish Anglicanism.<br>
+Maryland under William and Mary.<br>
+English Church Established.<br>
+Not Oppressive.<br>
+Fate of Virginia after the Restoration.<br>
+Virginia's Spirit, Numbers, Resources.<br>
+Causes of Bacon's Rebellion.<br>
+Evil of the Navigation Acts.<br>
+Worthless Officials.<br>
+Course of the Rebellion.<br>
+Result.<br>
+Dulness of the Subsequent History.<br>
+William and Mary College.<br>
+Governor Spotswood.<br>
+Blackbeard.<br>
+Carolina.<br>
+Its Constitution.<br>
+Conflict of Parties.<br>
+Georgia.<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+CHAPTER VI. GOVERNMENTAL INSTITUTIONS IN THE COLONIES.<br>
+<br>
+Origin of American Political Institutions.<br>
+Local Self-Government.<br>
+Representation.<br>
+Relation of Colonies to England.<br>
+Classification of Colonies.<br>
+Changes.<br>
+Conflict of Legal Views.<br>
+Colonists' Contentions.<br>
+Taxation.<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+CHAPTER VII. SOCIAL CULTURE IN COLONIAL TIMES.<br>
+<br>
+Population of the Colonies at Different Dates.<br>
+Differences according to Sections.<br>
+Intellectual Ability.<br>
+Free Thought.<br>
+Political Bent.<br>
+English Church in the Colonies.<br>
+Its Clergy.<br>
+In New York.<br>
+The New England Establishment.<br>
+Hatred to Episcopacy.<br>
+Counter-hatred.<br>
+Colleges and Schools.<br>
+Newspapers.<br>
+Libraries.<br>
+Postal System.<br>
+Learned Professions.<br>
+Epidemics.<br>
+Scholars and Artists.<br>
+Travelling.<br>
+Manufactures and<br>
+Commerce.<br>
+Houses.<br>
+Food and Dress.<br>
+Wigs.<br>
+Opposition to Them.<br>
+Social Cleavage.<br>
+Redemptioners.<br>
+Penal Legislation.<br>
+Philadelphia Leads in Social Science.<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+CHAPTER VIII.&nbsp; ENGLAND AND FRANCE IN AMERICA<br>
+<br>
+The French in the Heart of the Continent.<br>
+Groseilliers, Radisson, La Salle.<br>
+Joliet and Marquette Reach the Mississippi.<br>
+Baudin and Du Lhut.<br>
+La Salle Descends to the Gulf.<br>
+"Chicago."<br>
+The Portages.<br>
+La Salle's Expedition from France to the Mississippi.<br>
+Its Fate.<br>
+French, Indians, and English.<br>
+France's Advantage.<br>
+Numbers of each Race in America.<br>
+Causes of England's Colonial Strength.<br>
+King William's War.<br>
+The Schenectady Massacre.<br>
+Other Atrocities.<br>
+Anne's War.<br>
+Deerfield.<br>
+Plans for Striking Back.<br>
+Second Capture of Port Royal.<br>
+Rasle's Settlement Raided.<br>
+George's War.<br>
+Capture of Louisburg.<br>
+Saratoga Destroyed.<br>
+Scheme to Retaliate.<br>
+Failure.<br>
+French Vigilance and Aggression.<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+CHAPTER IX. THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR<br>
+<br>
+Struggle Inevitable.<br>
+George Washington.<br>
+Fights at Great Meadows.<br>
+War Begun.<br>
+English Plans of Campaign.<br>
+Braddock's March.<br>
+Defeat and Death.<br>
+Prophecy Regarding Washington.<br>
+The "Evangeline" History.<br>
+Loudon's Incompetence.<br>
+Pitt at the Head of Affairs.<br>
+Will Take Canada.<br>
+Louisburg Recaptured.<br>
+"Pittsburgh."<br>
+Triple Movement upon Canada.<br>
+The Plains of Abraham.<br>
+Quebec Capitulates.<br>
+Peace of Paris.<br>
+Conspiracy of Pontiac.<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS<br>
+<br>
+COLUMBUS. (After a portrait by Herrera)&nbsp; Frontispiece<br>
+TEMPLE MOUND IN MEXICO<br>
+BIG ELEPHANT MOUND, WISCONSIN<br>
+DIGHTON ROCK<br>
+THE OLD STONE MILL AT NEWPORT, R. I.<br>
+PRINCE HENRY OF PORTUGAL--"THE NAVIGATOR." (From an old print)<br>
+QUEEN ISABELLA OF SPAIN.<br>
+COLUMBUS BEGGING AT THE FRANCISCAN CONVENT<br>
+EMBARKATION OF CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS AT PALOS. (From an old print)<br>
+AMERIGO VESPUCCI. (Fac-simile of an old print)<br>
+VASCO DA GAMA. (From an old print)<br>
+BALBOA DISCOVERING THE PACIFIC OCEAN<br>
+PONCE DE LEON<br>
+HERNANDO CORTES, (From an old print)<br>
+MONTEZUMA MORTALLY WOUNDED BY HIS OWN SUBJECTS<br>
+DEATH OF MAGELLAN<br>
+FERDINAND DE SOTO<br>
+A PALISADED INDIAN TOWN IN ALABAMA<br>
+BURIAL OF DE SOTO IN THE MISSISSIPPI AT NIGHT<br>
+FORT CAROLINA ON THE RIVER OF MAY<br>
+PEDRO MELENDEZ<br>
+INDIANS DEVOURED BY DOGS. (From an old print)<br>
+VERRAZANO, THE FLORENTINE NAVIGATOR<br>
+JACQUES CARTIER, (From an old print)<br>
+SEBASTIAN CABOT, (From an old print)<br>
+AN INDIAN VILLAGE AT THE ROANOKE SETTLEMENT<br>
+SIR HUMPHREY GILBERT<br>
+SIR WALTER RALEIGH<br>
+QUEEN ELIZABETH<br>
+KING JAMES I. (From Mr. Henry Irving's Collection)<br>
+TOBACCO PLANT.<br>
+CAPTAIN JOHN SMITH.<br>
+POCAHONTAS SAVING CAPTAIN SMITH'S LIFE. (From Smith's "General History
+")<br>
+THE COUNCIL OF POWHATAN. (From Smith's "General History ")<br>
+POCAHONTAS.<br>
+SIGNATURE OF BERKELEY.<br>
+PLYMOUTH HARBOR, ENGLAND.<br>
+HARBOR OF PROVINCETOWN, CAPE COD, WHERE THE PILGRIMS LANDED.<br>
+THE LIFE OF THE COLONY AT CAPE COD.<br>
+SIGNATURES TO PLYMOUTH PATENT.<br>
+SITE OF FIRST CHURCH AND GOVERNOR BRADFORD'S HOUSE AT PLYMOUTH.<br>
+GOVERNOR WINTHROP.<br>
+FIRST CHURCH IN SALEM.<br>
+SEAL OF MASSACHUSETTS BAY COMPANY.<br>
+ROGER WILLIAMS' HOUSE AT SALEM.<br>
+EDWARD WINSLOW.<br>
+MARYLAND SHILLING.<br>
+HENRIETTA MARIA.<br>
+SUPPOSED PORTRAIT OF WILLIAM CLAYBORNE.<br>
+CLAYBORNE'S TRADING POST ON KENT ISLAND.<br>
+FIGHT BETWEEN CLAYBORNE AND THE ST. MARY'S SHIP.<br>
+OLIVER CROMWELL.<br>
+SEAL OF NEW AMSTERDAM.<br>
+PETER STUYVESANT.<br>
+SEAL OF NEW NETHERLAND.<br>
+EARLIEST PICTURE OF NEW AMSTERDAM.<br>
+DE VRIES.<br>
+COSTUMES OF SWEDES.<br>
+THE OLD STADT HUYS AT NEW AMSTERDAM.<br>
+NEW AMSTERDAM IN THE MIDDLE OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.<br>
+THE DUKE OF YORK, AFTERWARDS JAMES II.<br>
+THE TOMB OF STUYVESANT.<br>
+ATTACK ON THE FORT OF THE PEQUOTS ON THE MYSTIC RIVER.<br>
+ATTACK ON THE PEQUOT FORT.<br>
+SIGNATURE OF MIANTONOMOH.<br>
+THE GRAVE OF MIANTONOMOH.<br>
+TOTEM OR TRIBE MARK OF THE FIVE NATIONS.<br>
+KING CHARLES II.<br>
+JOHN WINTHROP THE YOUNGER.<br>
+SIR EDMOND ANDROS.<br>
+THE CHARTER OAK AT HARTFORD.<br>
+BOX IN WHICH THE CONNECTICUT CHARTER WAS KEPT.<br>
+THE MONUMENT AT BLOODY BROOK.<br>
+GOFFE AT HADLEY.<br>
+INCREASE MATHER.<br>
+COTTON MATHER.<br>
+OLD TITUBA THE INDIAN.<br>
+LIEUTENANT-GOVERNOR STOUGHTON.<br>
+FAC-SIMILE OF SHERIFF'S RETURN OF AN EXECUTION.<br>
+SLOUGHTER SIGNING LEISLER'S DEATH WARRANT.<br>
+SEAL OF THE CARTERETS.<br>
+SEAL OF EAST JERSEY.<br>
+WAMPUM RECEIVED BY PENN IN COMMEMORATION OF THE INDIAN TREATY.<br>
+WILLIAM PENN.<br>
+THE TREATY MONUMENT, KENSINGTON.<br>
+THE PENN MANSION IN PHILADELPHIA.<br>
+CHARLES, SECOND LORD BALTIMORE.<br>
+REV, DR. BLAIR, FIRST PRESIDENT OF WILLIAM AND MARY COLLEGE.<br>
+GEORGE MONK, DUKE OF ALBEMARLE.<br>
+LORD SHAFTESBURY.<br>
+SEAL OF THE PROPRIETORS OF CAROLINA.<br>
+JOHN LOCKE.<br>
+SAVANNAH. (From a print of 1741)<br>
+JAMES OGLETHORPE.<br>
+COSTUMES ABOUT THE MIDDLE OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.<br>
+JAMES LOGAN.<br>
+KING WILLIAM.<br>
+QUEEN MARY<br>
+CHIEF JUSTICE SEWALL.<br>
+THE PILLORY.<br>
+SIGNATURE OF JOLLIET. (old spelling)<br>
+TOTEM OF THE SIOUX.<br>
+A SIOUX CHIEF.<br>
+TOTEM OF THE ILLINOIS.<br>
+THE RECEPTION OF JOLIET AND MARQUETTE BY THE ILLINOIS.<br>
+LOUIS XIV.<br>
+COINS STRUCK IN FRANCE FOR THE COLONIES.<br>
+ASSASSINATION OF LA SALLE.<br>
+NEW ORLEANS IN 1719.<br>
+SIGNATURE OF D'IBERVILLE.<br>
+THE ATTACK ON SCHENECTADY.<br>
+HANNAH DUSTIN'S ESCAPE.<br>
+QUEEN ANNE.<br>
+GOVERNOR SHIRLEY.<br>
+SIR WILLIAM PEPPERRELL<br>
+THE AMBUSCADE<br>
+THE DEATH OF BRADDOCK.<br>
+MONTCALM.<br>
+WILLIAM PITT.<br>
+GENERAL WOLFE.<br>
+LANDING OF WOLFE.<br>
+QUEBEC IN 1730. (From an old print)<br>
+BOUQUET'S REDOUBT AT PITTSBURGH.<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+LIST OF MAPS<br>
+<br>
+GLOBUS MARTINI BEHAIM NARINBERGENSIS, 1492<br>
+EUROPEAN PROVINCES IN 1655.<br>
+MARQUETTE'S MAP.<br>
+PLAN OF PORT ROYAL, NOVA SCOTIA.<br>
+MAP SHOWING POSITION OF FRENCH AND ENGLISH FORTS AND SETTLEMENTS.<br>
+BRADDOCK'S ROUTE.<br>
+MAP OF BRADDOCK'S FIELD.<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+INTRODUCTION<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+AMERICA BEFORE COLUMBUS<br>
+<br>
+Man made his appearance on the western continent unnumbered ages ago,<br>
+not unlikely before the close of the glacial period. It is possible that<br>
+human life began in Asia and western North America sooner than on either<br>
+shore of the Atlantic. Nothing wholly forbids the belief that America<br>
+was even the cradle of the race, or one of several cradles, though most<br>
+scientific writers prefer the view that our species came hither from<br>
+Asia. De Nadaillac judges it probable that the ocean was thus crossed<br>
+not at Behring Strait alone, but along a belt of equatorial islands as<br>
+well. We may think of successive waves of such immigration--perhaps the<br>
+easiest way to account for certain differences among American races.<br>
+<br>
+It is, at any rate, an error to speak of the primordial Americans as<br>
+derived from any Asiatic stock at present existing or known to history.<br>
+The old Americans had scarcely an Asiatic feature. Their habits and<br>
+customs were emphatically peculiar to themselves. Those in which they<br>
+agreed with the trans-Pacific populations, such as fashion of weapons<br>
+and of fortifications, elements of folk-lore, religious ideas,<br>
+traditions of a flood, belief in the destruction of the world by fire,<br>
+and so on, are nearly all found the world over, the spontaneous<br>
+creations of our common human intelligence.<br>
+<br>
+The original American peoples, various and unlike as they were, agreed<br>
+in four traits, three of them physical, one mental, which mark them off<br>
+as in all likelihood primarily of one stock after all, and as different<br>
+from any Old World men: (1) They had low, retreating foreheads. (2)<br>
+Their hair was black. (3) It was also of a peculiar texture, lank, and<br>
+cylindrical in section, never wavy. And (4) their languages were<br>
+polysynthetic, forming a class apart from all others in the world. The<br>
+peoples of America, if from Asia, must date back to a time when speech<br>
+itself was in its infancy.<br>
+<br>
+<img style="width: 416px; height: 347px;" alt=""
+ src="images/023Pic600e.jpg"><br>
+Temple Mound In Mexico.<br>
+<br>
+The numerous varieties of ancient Americans reduce to two distinct types<br>
+--the Dolicocephalous or long-skulled, and the Brachycephalous or<br>
+short-skulled. Morton names these types respectively the Toltecan and<br>
+the American proper. The Toltecan type was represented by the primitive<br>
+inhabitants of Mexico and by the Mound-builders of our Mississippi<br>
+Valley; the American proper, by the Indians. The Toltecans made far the<br>
+closer approach to civilization, though the others possessed a much<br>
+greater susceptibility therefor than the modern Indians of our prairies<br>
+would indicate.<br>
+<br>
+Of the Mound-builders painfully little is known. Many of their mounds<br>
+still remain, not less mysterious or interesting than the pyramids of<br>
+Egypt, perhaps almost equally ancient. The skeletons exhumed from them<br>
+often fly into dust as soon as exposed to air, a rare occurrence with<br>
+the oldest bones found in Europe. On the parapet-crest of the Old Fort<br>
+at Newark, 0., trees certainly five hundred years old have been cut, and<br>
+they could not have begun their growth till long after the earth-works<br>
+had been deserted. In some mounds, equally aged trees root in the<br>
+decayed trunks of a still anterior growth.<br>
+<br>
+Much uncertainty continues to shroud the design of these mounds. Some<br>
+were for military defence, others for burial places, others for lookout<br>
+stations, others apparently for religious uses. Still others, it is<br>
+supposed, formed parts of human dwellings. That they proceeded from<br>
+intelligence and reflection is clear. Usually, whether they are squares<br>
+or circles, their construction betrays nice, mathematical exactness,<br>
+unattainable save by the use of instruments. Many constitute<br>
+effigies--of birds, fishes, quadrupeds, men. In Wisconsin is a mound 135<br>
+feet long and well proportioned, much resembling an elephant; in Adams<br>
+County, 0., a gracefully curved serpent, 1,000 feet long, with jaws<br>
+agape as if to swallow an egg-shaped figure in front; in Granville, in<br>
+the same State, one in the form of a huge crocodile; in Greenup County,<br>
+Ky., an image of a bear, which seems leaning forward in an attitude of<br>
+observation, measuring 53 feet from the top of the back to the end of<br>
+the foreleg, and 105-1/2 feet from the tip of the nose to the rear of<br>
+the hind foot.<br>
+<br>
+</big><img src="images/025Pic600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big>&nbsp; Big Elephant Mound, Wisconsin.<br>
+<br>
+The sites of towns and cities were artfully selected, near navigable<br>
+rivers and their confluences, as at Marietta, Cincinnati, and in<br>
+Kentucky opposite the old mouth of the Scioto. Points for defence were<br>
+chosen and fortified with scientific precision. The labor expended upon<br>
+these multitudinous structures must have been enormous, implying a vast<br>
+population and extensive social, economic, and civil organization. The<br>
+Cahokia mound, opposite St. Louis, is 90 feet high and 900 feet long.<br>
+<br>
+The Mound-builders made elegant pottery, of various design and accurate<br>
+shapes, worked bone and all sorts of stones, and even forged copper.<br>
+There are signs that they understood smelting this metal. They certainly<br>
+mined it in large quantities, and carried it down the Mississippi<br>
+hundreds of miles from its source on Lake Superior. They must have been<br>
+masters of river navigation, but their mode of conveying vast burdens<br>
+overland, destitute of efficient draft animals as they apparently were,<br>
+we can hardly even conjecture.<br>
+<br>
+The Mound-builders, as we have said, were related to the antique<br>
+populations of Mexico and Central America, and the most probable<br>
+explanation of their departure from their Northern seats is that in face<br>
+of pestilence, or of some overpowering human foe, they retreated to the<br>
+Southwest, there to lay, under better auspices, the foundations of new<br>
+states, and to develop that higher civilization whose relics, too little<br>
+known, astound the student of the past, as greatly as do the stupendous<br>
+pillars of Carnac or the grotesque animal figures of Khorsabad and<br>
+Nimrud.<br>
+<br>
+So much has been written about the American Indians that we need not<br>
+discuss them at length. They were misnamed Indians by Columbus, who<br>
+supposed the land he had discovered to be India. At the time of his<br>
+arrival not more than two hundred thousand of them lived east of the<br>
+Mississippi, though they were doubtless far more numerous West and<br>
+South. Whence they came, or whether, if this was a human deed at all,<br>
+they or another race now extinct drove out the Mound-builders, none can<br>
+tell.<br>
+<br>
+Of arts the red man had but the rudest. He made wigwams, canoes, bone<br>
+fish-hooks with lines of hide or twisted bark, stone tomahawks,<br>
+arrow-heads and spears, clothing of skins, wooden bows, arrows, and<br>
+clubs. He loved fighting, finery, gambling, and the chase. He<br>
+domesticated no animals but the dog and possibly the hog. Sometimes<br>
+brave, he was oftener treacherous, cruel, revengeful. His power of<br>
+endurance on the trail or the warpath was incredible, and if captured,<br>
+he let himself be tortured to death without a quiver or a cry. Though<br>
+superstitious, he believed in a Great Spirit to be worshipped without<br>
+idols, and in a future life of happy hunting and feasting.<br>
+<br>
+Whether, at the time of which we now speak, the Indians were an old<br>
+race, already beginning to decline, or a fresh race, which contact with<br>
+the whites balked of its development, it is difficult to say. Their<br>
+career since best accords with the former supposition. In either case we<br>
+may assume that their national groupings and habitats were nearly the<br>
+same in 1500 as later, when these became accurately known. In the<br>
+eighteenth century the Algonquins occupied all the East from Nova Scotia<br>
+to North Carolina, and stretched west to the Mississippi. At one time<br>
+they numbered ninety thousand. The Iroquois or Five Nations had their<br>
+seat in Central and Western New York. North and west of them lived the<br>
+Hurons or Wyandots. The Appalachians, embracing Cherokees, Creeks,<br>
+Choctaws, Chickasaws, Seminoles and a number of lesser tribes, occupied<br>
+all the southeastern portion of what is now the United States. West of<br>
+the Mississippi were the Dakotas or Sioux.<br>
+<br>
+Since the white man's arrival upon these shores, very few changes have<br>
+occurred among the brute inhabitants of North America. A few species, as<br>
+the Labrador duck and the great auk, have perished. America then<br>
+possessed but four animals which had appreciable economic value; the<br>
+dog, the reindeer at the north, which the Mound-builders used as a<br>
+draft animal but the Indians did not, and the llama and the paco south<br>
+of the equator. Every one of our present domestic animals originated<br>
+beyond the Atlantic, being imported hither by our ancestors. The Indians<br>
+of the lower Mississippi Valley, when De Soto came, had dogs, and also<br>
+what the Spaniards called hogs, perhaps peccaries, but neither brute was<br>
+of any breed now bred in the country. A certain kind of dogs were native<br>
+also to the Juan Fernandez and the Falkland Islands.<br>
+<br>
+Mr. Edward John Payne is doubtless correct in maintaining, in his<br>
+"History of the New World called America," that the backwardness of the<br>
+American aborigines was largely due to their lack of animals suitable<br>
+for draft or travel or producing milk or flesh good for food. From the<br>
+remotest antiquity Asiatics had the horse, ass, ox and cow, camel and<br>
+goat--netting ten times the outfit in useful animals which the<br>
+Peruvians, Mexicans, or Indians enjoyed.<br>
+<br>
+The vegetable kingdom of Old America was equally restricted, which also<br>
+helps explain its low civilization. At the advent of the Europeans the<br>
+continent was covered with forests. Then, though a few varieties may<br>
+have since given out and some imported ones run wild, the undomesticated<br>
+plants and trees were much as now. Not so the cultivated kinds. The<br>
+Indians were wretched husbandmen, nor had the Mound-builders at all the<br>
+diversity of agricultural products so familiar to us. Tobacco, Indian<br>
+corn, cocoa, sweet potatoes, potatoes, the custard apple, the Jerusalem<br>
+artichoke, the guava, the pumpkin and squash, the papaw and the<br>
+pineapple, indigenous to North America, had been under cultivation here<br>
+before Columbus came, the first four from most ancient times. The manioc<br>
+or tapioca-plant, the red-pepper plant, the marmalade plum, and the<br>
+tomato were raised in South America before 1500.&nbsp; The persimmon,
+the<br>
+cinchona tree, millet, the Virginia and the Chili strawberry are natives<br>
+of this continent, but have been brought under cultivation only within<br>
+the last three centuries.<br>
+<br>
+The four great cereals, wheat, rye, oats, and rice, constituting all our<br>
+main food crops but corn, have come to us from Europe. So have cherries,<br>
+quinces, and pears, also hops, currants, chestnuts, and mushrooms. The<br>
+banana, regarded by von Humboldt as an original American fruit, modern<br>
+botanists derive from Asia. With reference to apples there may be some<br>
+question. Apples of a certain kind flourished in New England so early<br>
+after the landing of the Pilgrims that it is difficult to suppose the<br>
+fruit not to have been indigenous to this continent.&nbsp;&nbsp;
+Champlain, in<br>
+1605 or 1606, found the Indians about the present sites of Portland,<br>
+Boston, and Plymouth in considerable agricultural prosperity, with<br>
+fields of corn and tobacco, gardens rich in melons, squashes, pumpkins,<br>
+and beans, the culture of none of which had they apparently learned from<br>
+white men. Mr. Payne's generalization, that superior food-supply<br>
+occasioned the Old World's primacy in civilization, and also that of the<br>
+Mexicans and Peruvians here, seems too sweeping, yet it evidently<br>
+contains large truth.<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+PART FIRST<br>
+<br>
+THE FORE-HISTORY<br>
+<br>
+PERIOD I.<br>
+<br>
+DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT<br>
+<br>
+1492-1660<br>
+<br>
+CHAPTER I.<br>
+<br>
+COLUMBUS<br>
+<br>
+[1000]<br>
+<br>
+There is no end to the accounts of alleged discoveries of America before<br>
+Columbus. Most of these are fables. It is, indeed, nearly certain that<br>
+hardy Basque, Breton, and Norman fishermen, adventuring first far north,<br>
+then west, had sighted Greenland and Labrador and become well acquainted<br>
+with the rich fishing-grounds about Newfoundland and the Saint Lawrence<br>
+Gulf. Many early charts of these regions, without dates and hitherto<br>
+referred to Portuguese navigators of a time so late as 1500, are now<br>
+thought to be the work of these earlier voyagers. They found the New<br>
+World, but considered it a part of the Old.<br>
+<br>
+Important, too, is the story of supposed Norse sea-rovers hither,<br>
+derived from certain Icelandic manuscripts of the fourteenth century. It<br>
+is a pleasing narrative, that of Lief Ericson's sail in 1000-1001 to<br>
+Helluland, Markland, and at last to Vineland, and of the subsequent<br>
+tours by Thorwald Ericson in 1002, Thorfinn Karlsefne, 1007-1009, and of<br>
+Helge and Finnborge in 1011, to points still farther away. Such voyages<br>
+probably occurred. As is well known, Helluland has been interpreted to<br>
+be Newfoundland; Markland, Nova Scotia; and Vineland, the country<br>
+bordering Mount Hope Bay in Bristol, R. I. These identifications are<br>
+possibly correct, and even if they are mistaken, Vineland may still have<br>
+been somewhere upon the coast of what is now the United States.<br>
+<br>
+In the present condition of the evidence, however, we have to doubt<br>
+this. No scholar longer believes that the writing on Dighton Rock is<br>
+Norse, or that the celebrated Skeleton in Armor found at Fall River was<br>
+a Northman's, or that the old Stone Mill at Newport was constructed by<br>
+men from Iceland. Even if the manuscripts, composed between three and<br>
+four hundred years after the events which they are alleged to narrate,<br>
+are genuine, and if the statements contained in them are true, the<br>
+latter are far too indefinite to let us be sure that they are applicable<br>
+to United States localities.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/039Pic600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>Dighton Rock.<br>
+<br>
+[l260]<br>
+<br>
+But were we to go so far as to admit that the Northmen came here and<br>
+began the settlements ascribed to them, they certainly neither<br>
+appreciated nor published their exploits. Their colony, wherever it was,<br>
+endured but for a day, and it, with its locality, speedily passed from<br>
+knowledge in Scandinavia itself. America had not yet, in effect, been<br>
+discovered.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/040Pic600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>The Old Stone Mill at Newport, R. I.<br>
+<br>
+[1300]<br>
+<br>
+We must remember that long anterior to Columbus's day unbiassed and<br>
+thoughtful men had come to believe the earth to be round. They also knew<br>
+that Europe constituted but a small part of it. In the year 1260 the<br>
+Venetian brothers Niccolo and Maffeo Polo made their way to China, the<br>
+first men from Western Europe ever to travel so far. They returned in<br>
+1269, but in 1271 set out again, accompanied by Niccolo's son, a youth<br>
+of seventeen. This son was the famous Marco Polo, whose work, "The<br>
+Wonders of the World," reciting his extended journeys through China and<br>
+the extreme east and southeast of Asia, and his eventful voyage home by<br>
+sea, ending in 1295, has come down to our time, one of the most<br>
+interesting volumes in the world. Friar Orderic's eastern travels in<br>
+1322-1330, as appropriated by Sir John Mandeville, were published before<br>
+1371.<br>
+<br>
+Columbus knew these writings, and the reading and re-reading of them had<br>
+made him an enthusiast. In Polo's book he had learned of Mangi and Far<br>
+Cathay, with their thousands of gorgeous cities, the meanest finer than<br>
+any then in Europe; of their abounding mines pouring forth infinite<br>
+wealth, their noble rivers, happy populations, curious arts, and benign<br>
+government. Polo had told him of Cambalu (Peking), winter residence of<br>
+the Great Khan, Kublai--Cambalu with its palaces of marble,<br>
+golden-roofed, its guard of ten thousand soldiers, its imperial stables<br>
+containing five thousand elephants, its unnumbered army, navy, and<br>
+merchant marine; of oxen huge as elephants; of richest spices, nuts<br>
+large as melons, canes fifteen yards long, silks, cambrics, and the<br>
+choicest furs; and of magic Cipango (Japan), island of pearls, whose<br>
+streets were paved with gold.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/042Pic.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>Globus Martini Behaim Narinbergensis 1492.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><big><big>[1456]<br>
+<br>
+Columbus believed all this, and it cooperated with his intense and even<br>
+bigoted religious faith to kindle in him an all-consuming ambition to<br>
+reach this distant Eden by sea, that he might carry the Gospel to those<br>
+opulent heathen and partake their unbounded temporal riches in return.<br>
+Poor specimen of a saint as Columbus is now known to have been, he<br>
+believed himself divinely called to this grand enterprise.<br>
+<br>
+Christopher Columbus, or Christobal Colon, as he always signed himself<br>
+after he entered the service of Spain, was born in Genoa about 1456.<br>
+Little is certainly known of his early life. His father was a humble<br>
+wool-carder. The youth possessed but a sorry education, spite of his few<br>
+months at the University of Pavia. At the age of fourteen he became a<br>
+sailor, knocking about the world in the roughest manner, half the time<br>
+practically a pirate. In an all-day's sea fight, once, his ship took<br>
+fire and he had to leap overboard; but being a strong swimmer he swam,<br>
+aided by an oar, eight leagues to land.<br>
+<br>
+[1470]<br>
+<br>
+From 1470 to 1484 we find him in Portugal, the country most interested<br>
+and engaged then in ocean-going and discovery. Here he must have known<br>
+Martin Behem, author of the famous globe, finished in 1492, whereon Asia<br>
+is exhibited as reaching far into the same hemisphere with Europe.<br>
+Prince Henry of Portugal earnestly patronized all schemes for<br>
+exploration and discovery, and the daughter, Philippa, of one of his<br>
+captains, Perestrello, Columbus married. With her he lived at Porto<br>
+Santo in the Madeiras, where he became familiar with Correo, her<br>
+sister's husband, also a distinguished navigator. The islanders fully<br>
+believed in the existence of lands in the western Atlantic. West winds<br>
+had brought to them strange woods curiously carved, huge cane-brakes<br>
+like those of India described by Ptolemy, peculiarly fashioned canoes,<br>
+and corpses with skin of a hue unknown to Europe or Africa.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/045Pic600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>Prince Henry of Portugal--"The Navigator." From an old print<br>
+<br>
+[1475-1484]<br>
+<br>
+Reflecting on these things, studying Perestrello's and Correo's charts<br>
+and accounts of their voyages, corresponding with Toscanelli and other<br>
+savans, himself an adept in drawing maps and sea-charts, for a time his<br>
+occupation in Lisbon, cruising here and there, once far northward to<br>
+Iceland, and talking with navigators from every Atlantic port, Columbus<br>
+became acquainted with the best geographical science of his time.<br>
+<br>
+This had convinced him that India could be reached by sailing westward.<br>
+The theoretical possibility of so doing was of course admitted by all<br>
+who held the earth to be a sphere, but most regarded it practically<br>
+impossible, in the then condition of navigation, to sail the necessary<br>
+distance. Columbus considered the earth far smaller than was usually<br>
+thought, a belief which we find hinted at so early as 1447, upon the<br>
+famous mappe-Monde of the Pitti Palace in Florence, whereon Europe<br>
+appears projected far round to the northwest. Columbus seems to have<br>
+viewed this extension as a sort of yoke joining India to Scandinavia by<br>
+the north. He judged that Asia, or at least Cipango, stretched<br>
+two-thirds of the way to Europe, India being twice as near westward as<br>
+eastward. Thirty or forty days he deemed sufficient for making it.<br>
+Toscanelli and Behem as well as he held this belief; he dared boldly to<br>
+act upon it.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/048Pic600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>Queen Isabella of Spain.<br>
+<br>
+But to do so required resources. There are indications that Columbus at<br>
+some time, perhaps more than once, urged his scheme upon Genoa and<br>
+Venice. If so it was in vain. Nor can we tell whether such an attempt,<br>
+if made, was earlier or later than his plea before the court of<br>
+Portugal, for this cannot be dated. The latter was probably in 1484.<br>
+King John II. was impressed, and referred Columbus's scheme to a council<br>
+of his wisest advisers, who denounced it as visionary. Hence in 1485 or<br>
+1486 Columbus proceeded to Spain to lay his project before Ferdinand and<br>
+Isabella.<br>
+<br>
+On the way he stopped at a Franciscan convent near Palos, begging bread<br>
+for himself and son. The Superior, Marchena, became interested in him,<br>
+and so did one of the Pinzons--famous navigators of Palos. The king and<br>
+queen were at the time holding court at Cordova, and thither Columbus<br>
+went, fortified with a recommendation from Marchena. The monarchs were<br>
+engrossed in the final conquest of Granada, and Columbus had to wait<br>
+through six weary and heart-sickening years before royal attention was<br>
+turned to his cause. It must have been during this delay that he<br>
+despatched his brother Bartholomew to England with an appeal to Henry<br>
+VII. Christopher had brought Alexander Geraldinus, the scholar, and also<br>
+the Archbishop of Toledo, to espouse his mission, and finally, at the<br>
+latter's instance, Ferdinand, as John of Portugal had done, went so far<br>
+as to convene, at Salamanca, a council of reputed scholars to pass<br>
+judgment upon Columbus and his proposition.&nbsp; By these, as by the<br>
+Portuguese, he was declared a misguided enthusiast. They were too much<br>
+behind the age even to admit the spherical figure of the earth.<br>
+According to Scripture, they said, the earth is flat, adding that it was<br>
+contrary to reason for men to walk heads downward, or snow and rain to<br>
+ascend, or trees to grow with their roots upward.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/050Pic600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>Columbus begging at the Franciscan Convent.<br>
+<br>
+[1484-1492]<br>
+<br>
+The war for Granada ended, Santangel and others of his converts at court<br>
+secured Columbus an interview with Isabella, but his demands seeming to<br>
+her arrogant, he was dismissed. Nothing daunted, the hero had started<br>
+for France, there to plead as he had pleaded in Portugal and Spain<br>
+already, when to his joy a messenger overtook him with orders to come<br>
+once more before the queen.<br>
+<br>
+Fuller thought and argument had convinced this eminent woman that the<br>
+experiment urged by Columbus ought to be tried and a contract was soon<br>
+concluded, by which, on condition that he should bear one-eighth the<br>
+expense of the expedition, the public chest of Castile was to furnish<br>
+the remainder. The story of the crown jewels having been pledged for<br>
+this purpose is now discredited. If such pledging occurred, it was<br>
+earlier, in prosecuting the war with the Moors. The whole sum needed for<br>
+the voyage was about fifty thousand dollars. Columbus was made admiral,<br>
+also viceroy of whatever lands should be discovered, and he was to have<br>
+ten per cent of all the revenues from such lands. For his contribution<br>
+to the outfit he was indebted to the Pinzons.<br>
+<br>
+This arrangement was made in April or May, 1492, and on the third of the<br>
+next August, after the utmost difficulty in shipping crews for this sail<br>
+into the sea of darkness, Columbus put out from Palos with one hundred<br>
+and twenty men, on three ships. These were the Santa Maria, the Nina,<br>
+and the Pinta. The largest, the Santa Maria, was of not over one hundred<br>
+tons, having a deck-length of sixty-three feet, a keel of fifty-one<br>
+feet, a draft of ten feet six inches, and her mast-head sixty feet above<br>
+sea-level. She probably had four anchors, with hemp cables.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/053Pic600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>Embarkation of Christopher Columbus at Palos. From an old
+print.<br>
+<br>
+From Palos they first bore southward to the Canary Islands, into the<br>
+track of the prevalent east winds, then headed west, for Cipango, as<br>
+Columbus supposed, but really toward the northern part of Florida. When<br>
+a little beyond what he regarded the longitude of Cipango, noticing the<br>
+flight of birds to the southwest, he was induced to follow these, which<br>
+accident made his landfall occur at Guanahani (San Salvador), in the<br>
+Bahamas, instead of the Florida coast.<br>
+<br>
+Near midnight, between October 11th and 12th, Columbus, being on the<br>
+watch, descried a light ahead. About two o'clock on the morning of the<br>
+12th the lookout on the Pinta distinctly saw land through the moonlight.<br>
+When it was day they went on shore. The 12th of October, 1492,<br>
+therefore, was the date on which for the first time, so far as history<br>
+attests with assurance, a European foot pressed the soil of this<br>
+continent. Adding nine days to this to translate it into New Style, we<br>
+have October 21st as the day answering to that on which Columbus first<br>
+became sure that his long toil and watching had not been in vain.<br>
+<br>
+[1493-1500]<br>
+<br>
+The admiral having failed to note its latitude and longitude, it is not<br>
+known which of the Bahamas was the San Salvador of Columbus, whether<br>
+Grand Turk Island, Cat (the present San Salvador), Watling, Mariguana,<br>
+Acklin, or Samana, though the last named well corresponds with his<br>
+description. Mr. Justin Winsor, however, and with him a majority of the<br>
+latest critics, believes that Watling's Island was the place. Before<br>
+returning to Spain, Columbus discovered Cuba, and also Hayti or<br>
+Espagnola (Hispaniola), on the latter of which islands he built a fort.<br>
+<br>
+In a second voyage, from Cadiz, 1493-1496, the great explorer discovered<br>
+the Lesser Antilles and Jamaica. In a third, 1498-1500, he came upon<br>
+Trinidad and the mainland of South America, at the mouth of the Orinoco.<br>
+This was later by thirteen months and a week than the Cabots' landfall<br>
+at Labrador or Nova Scotia, though a year before Amerigo Vespucci saw<br>
+the coast of Brazil. It was during this third absence that Columbus,<br>
+hated as an Italian and for his undeniable greed, was superseded by<br>
+Bobadilla, who sent him and his brother home in chains. Soon free again,<br>
+he sets off in 1502 upon a fourth cruise, in which he reaches the coast<br>
+of Honduras.<br>
+<br>
+To the day of his death, however, the discoverer of America never<br>
+suspected that he had brought to light a new continent. Even during this<br>
+his last expedition he maintained that the coast he had touched was that<br>
+of Mangi, contiguous to Cathay, and that nineteen days of travel<br>
+overland would have taken him to the Ganges. He arrived in Spain on<br>
+September 12, 1504, and died at Segovia on May 20th of the next year.<br>
+His bones are believed to rest in the cathedral at Santo Domingo,<br>
+transported thither in 1541, the Columbus-remains till recently at<br>
+Havana being those of his son Diego. The latter, under the belief that<br>
+they were the father's, were transferred to Genoa in 1887, and deposited<br>
+there on July 2d of that year with the utmost ecclesiastical pomp.<br>
+<br>
+[1500-1507]<br>
+<br>
+As Columbus was ignorant of having found a new continent, so was he<br>
+denied the honor of giving it a name, this falling by accident, design,<br>
+or carelessness of truth, to Amerigo Vespucci, a native of Florence,<br>
+whose active years were spent in Spain and Portugal. Vespucci made three<br>
+voyages into the western seas. In the second, 1501, he visited the coast<br>
+of Brazil, and pushed farther south than any navigator had yet done,<br>
+probably so far as the island of South Georgia, in latitude 54 degrees.<br>
+His account of this voyage found its way into print in 1504, at<br>
+Augsburg, Germany, the first published narrative of any discovery of the<br>
+mainland. Although, as above noted, it was not the earliest discovery of<br>
+the main, it was widely regarded such, and caused Vespucci to be named<br>
+for many years as the peer, if not the superior of Columbus. The<br>
+publication ran through many editions. That of Strassburg, 1505,<br>
+mentioned Vespucci on its title-page as having discovered a new<br>
+"Southern Land." This is the earliest known utterance hinting at the<br>
+continental nature of the new discovery, as separate from Asia, an idea<br>
+which grew into a conviction only after Magellan's voyage, described in<br>
+the next chapter. In 1507 appeared at St. Die, near Strassburg, a<br>
+four-page pamphlet by one Lud, secretary to the Duke of Lorraine,<br>
+describing Vespucci's voyages and speaking of the Indians as the<br>
+"American race." This pamphlet came out the same year in another form,<br>
+as part of a book entitled "Introduction to Cosmography," prepared by<br>
+Martin Waldseemuller, under the nom de plume of "Hylacomylus." In this<br>
+book the new "part of the world" is distinctly called "THE LAND OF<br>
+AMERICUS, OR AMERICA," There is some evidence that Vespucci at least<br>
+connived at the misapprehension which brought him his renown--as<br>
+undeserved as it has become permanent--but this cannot be regarded as<br>
+proved.<br>
+</big></big><big><big><br>
+</big></big><img src="images/059Pic600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>Amerigo Vespucci. Fac-simile of an old print.<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+CHAPTER II.<br>
+<br>
+EARLY SPANISH AMERICA<br>
+<br>
+[1498]<br>
+<br>
+As we have seen, Spain by no means deserves the entire credit of<br>
+bringing the western continent to men's knowledge. Columbus himself was<br>
+an Italian. So was Marco Polo, his inspirer, and also Toscanelli, his<br>
+instructor, by whose chart he sailed his ever-memorable voyage. To<br>
+Portugal as well Columbus was much indebted, despite his rebuff there.<br>
+Portugal then led the world in the art of navigation and in enthusiasm<br>
+for discovery. Nor, probably, would Columbus have asked her aid in vain,<br>
+had she not previously committed herself to the enterprise of reaching<br>
+India eastward, a purpose brilliantly fulfilled when, in 1498, Vasco da<br>
+Gama rounded the Cape of Good Hope and sailed to Calicut, on the coast<br>
+of Malabar. Already before this Spain and Portugal were rivals in the<br>
+search for new lands, and Pope Alexander VI. had had to be appealed to,<br>
+to fix their fields. By his bull of May 3, 4, 1493, he ordained as the<br>
+separating line the meridian passing through a point one hundred leagues<br>
+west of the Azores, where Columbus had observed the needle of his<br>
+compass to point without deflection toward the north star. Portugal<br>
+objecting to this boundary as excluding her from the longitude of the<br>
+newly found Indies, by the treaty of Tordesillas, June 7, 1494, the two<br>
+powers, with the Pope's assent, moved the line two hundred and seventy<br>
+leagues still farther west. At this time neither party dreamed of the<br>
+complications destined subsequently to arise in reference to the<br>
+position of this meridian on the other side of the globe.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/063Pic600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>Vasco da Gama; From an old print.<br>
+<br>
+The meridian of the Tordesillas convention had been supposed still to<br>
+give Spain all the American discoveries likely to be made, it being<br>
+ascertained only later that by it Portugal had obtained a considerable<br>
+part of the South American mainland Brazil, we know, was, till in 1822<br>
+it became independent, a Portuguese dependency. Spain, however, retained<br>
+both groups of the Antilles with the entire main about the Gulf of<br>
+Mexico, and became the earliest great principality in the western world.<br>
+<br>
+[1506-1513]<br>
+<br>
+Before the death of Columbus, Spain had taken firm possession of Cuba,<br>
+Porto Rico, and St. Domingo, and she stood ready to seize any of the<br>
+adjoining islands or lands so soon as gold, pearls, or aught else of<br>
+value should be found there. Cruises of discovery were made in every<br>
+direction, first, indeed, in Central and South America. In 1506 de Solis<br>
+sailed along the eastern coast of Yucatan. In 1513 the governor of a<br>
+colony on the Isthmus of Darien, Vasco Nunez de Balboa, from the top of<br>
+a lofty mountain on the isthmus, saw what is now called the Pacific<br>
+Ocean. He designated it the South Sea, a name which it habitually bore<br>
+till far into the eighteenth century. From this time the exploration and<br>
+settlement of the western coast, both up and down, went on with little<br>
+interruption, but this history, somewhat foreign to our theme, we cannot<br>
+detail.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/067Pic600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>Balboa discovering the Pacific Ocean.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/069Pic.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>Ponce de Leon.<br>
+<br>
+The same year, 1513, Ponce de Leon, an old Spanish soldier in the wars<br>
+with the Moors, a companion of Columbus in his second voyage, and till<br>
+now governor of Porto Rico, began exploration to the northward. Leaving<br>
+Porto Rico with three ships, he landed on the coast of an unknown<br>
+country, where he thought to find not only infinite gold but also the<br>
+much-talked-about fountain of perpetual youth. His landing occurred on<br>
+Easter Sunday, or Pascua Florida, March 27, 1513, and so he named the<br>
+country Florida. The place was a few miles north of the present town of<br>
+St. Augustine. Exploring the coast around the southern extremity of the<br>
+peninsula, he sailed among a group of islands, which he designated the<br>
+Tortugas. Returning to Porto Rico, he was appointed governor of the new<br>
+country. He made a second voyage, was attacked by the natives and<br>
+mortally wounded, and returned to Cuba to die.<br>
+<br>
+[1518-1520]<br>
+<br>
+Juan de Grijalva explored the south coast of the Gulf of Mexico, from<br>
+Yucatan toward the Panuco. Interest attaches to this enterprise mainly<br>
+because the treasure which Grijalva collected aroused the envy and greed<br>
+of the future conqueror of Mexico, Hernando Cortez.<br>
+<br>
+In 1518, Velasquez, governor of Cuba, sends Cortez westward, with eleven<br>
+ships and over six hundred men, for the purpose of exploration. He<br>
+landed at Tabasco, thence proceeded to the Island of San Juan de Ulua,<br>
+nearly opposite Vera Cruz, where he received messengers and gifts from<br>
+the Emperor Montezuma. Ordered to leave the country, he destroyed his<br>
+ships and marched directly upon the capital. He seized Montezuma and<br>
+held him as a hostage for the peaceable conduct of his subjects. The<br>
+Mexicans took up arms, only to be defeated again and again by the<br>
+Spaniards. Montezuma became a vassal of the Spanish crown, and<br>
+covenanted to pay annual tribute. Attempting to reconcile his people to<br>
+this agreement he was himself assailed and wounded, and, refusing all<br>
+nourishment, soon after died. With re-enforcements, Cortez completed<br>
+the conquest of the country, and Mexico became a province of Spain.<br>
+</big></big><big><big><br>
+</big></big><img src="images/075Pic600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>Montezuma mortally wounded by his own subjects.</big></big><br>
+<big><big><br>
+</big></big><img src="images/071Pic600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>Hernando Cortes. From an old print.<br>
+<br>
+Vasquez de Ayllon, one of the auditors of the Island of Santo Domingo,<br>
+sent two ships from that island to the Bahamas for Indians to be sold as<br>
+slaves. Driven from their course by the wind, they at length reached the<br>
+shore of South Carolina, at the mouth of the Wateree River, which they<br>
+named the Jordan, calling the country Chicora. Though kindly treated by<br>
+the natives, the ruthless adventurers carried away some seventy of<br>
+these. One ship was lost, and most of the captives on the others died<br>
+during the voyage. Vasquez was, by the Emperor Charles V., King of<br>
+Spain, made governor of this new province, and again set sail to take<br>
+possession. But the natives, in revenge for the cruel treatment which<br>
+they had previously received, made a furious attack upon the invaders.<br>
+The few survivors of the slaughter returned to Santo Domingo, and the<br>
+expedition was abandoned. These voyages were in 1520 and 1526.<br>
+<br>
+In connection with the subject of Spanish voyages, a passing notice<br>
+should be given to one, who, though not of Spanish birth, yet did much<br>
+to further the progress of discovery on the part of his adopted country.<br>
+Magellan was a Portuguese navigator who had been a child when Columbus<br>
+came back in triumph from the West Indies. Refused consideration from<br>
+King Emmanuel, of Portugal, for a wound received under his flag during<br>
+the war against Morocco, he renounced his native land and offered his<br>
+services to the sagacious Charles V., of Spain, who gladly accepted<br>
+them, With a magnificent fleet, Magellan, in 1519, set sail from<br>
+Seville, cherishing Columbus's bold purpose, which no one had yet<br>
+realized, of reaching the East Indies by a westward voyage, After<br>
+touching at the Canaries, he explored the coast of South America, passed<br>
+through the strait now called by his name, discovered the Ladrone<br>
+Islands, and christened the circumjacent ocean the Pacific.<br>
+</big></big><big><big><br>
+</big></big><big><big>The illustrious navigator now sailed for the
+Philippine
+Islands, so<br>
+named from Philip, son of Charles V., who succeeded that monarch as<br>
+Philip II. By the Tordesillas division above described, the islands were<br>
+properly in the Portuguese hemisphere, but on the earliest maps, made by<br>
+Spaniards, they were placed twenty-five degrees too far east, and this<br>
+circumstance, whether accidental or designed, has preserved them to<br>
+Spain even to the present time. At the Philippine Islands Magellan was<br>
+killed in an affray with the natives. One of his ships, the Victoria,<br>
+after sailing around the Cape of Good Hope, arrived in Spain, having<br>
+been the first to circumnavigate the globe. The voyage had taken three<br>
+years and twenty-eight days.<br>
+<br>
+[1528-1540]<br>
+<br>
+The disastrous failure of the expedition of Vasquez de Ayllon to Florida<br>
+did not discourage attempts on the part of others in the same direction.<br>
+Velaspuez, governor of Cuba, jealous of the success of Cortez in Mexico,<br>
+had sent Pamphilo de Narvaez to arrest him. In this attempt Narvaez had<br>
+been defeated and taken prisoner. Undeterred by this failure he had<br>
+solicited and received of Charles V. the position of governor over<br>
+Florida, a territory at that time embracing the whole southern part of<br>
+what is now the United States, and reaching from Cape Sable to the<br>
+Panuco, or River of Palms, in Mexico. With three hundred men he, in<br>
+1528, landed near Appalachee Bay, and marched inland with the hope of<br>
+opening a country rich and populous. Bitterly was he disappointed.<br>
+Swamps and forests, wretched wigwams with their squalid inmates<br>
+everywhere met his view, but no gold was to be found. Discouraged, he<br>
+and his followers returned to the coast, where almost superhuman toil<br>
+and skill enabled them to build five boats, in which they hoped to work<br>
+westward to the Spanish settlements. Embarking, they stole cautiously<br>
+along the coast for some distance, but were at last driven by a storm<br>
+upon an island, perhaps Galveston, perhaps Santa Rosa, where Narvaez and<br>
+most of his men perished. Four of his followers survived to cross Texas<br>
+to the Gulf of California and reach the town of San Miguel on the west<br>
+coast of Mexico. Here they found their countrymen, searching as usual<br>
+for pearls, gold, and slaves, and by their help they made a speedy<br>
+return to Spain, heroes of as remarkable an adventure as history<br>
+records. These unfortunates were the first Europeans to visit New<br>
+Mexico. Their narrative led to the exploration of that country by<br>
+Coronado and others, and to the discoveries of Cortez in Lower<br>
+California.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/079Pic_600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>Death of Magellan.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/081Pic_600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>Ferdinand de Soto.<br>
+<br>
+Ferdinand de Soto, eager to rival the exploits of Cortez in Mexico, and<br>
+of his former commander, Pizarro, in Peru, offered to conquer Florida at<br>
+his own expense. Appointed governor-general of Florida and of Cuba, he<br>
+sailed with seven large and three small vessels. From Espiritu Santo Bay<br>
+he, in 1539, marched with six hundred men into the country of the<br>
+Appalachians and discovered the harbor of Pensacola. After wintering at<br>
+Appalachee he set out into the interior, said to abound in gold and<br>
+silver. Penetrating northeasterly as far as the Savannah, he found only<br>
+copper and mica. From here he marched first northwest into northern<br>
+central Georgia, then southwest into Alabama. A battle was fought with<br>
+the natives at Mavila, or Mobile, in which the Spaniards suffered<br>
+serious loss. Ships that he had ordered arrived at Pensacola, but de<br>
+Soto determined not to embark until success should have crowned his<br>
+efforts. He turned back into the interior, into the country of the<br>
+Chickasaws, marched diagonally over the present State of Mississippi to<br>
+its northwest corner, and crossed the Mississippi River near the lowest<br>
+Chickasaw Bluff. From this point the general direction of the Spanish<br>
+progress was southwest, through what is now Arkansas, past the site of<br>
+Little Rock, till at last a river which seems to have been the Washita<br>
+was reached. Down this stream de Soto and his decimated force<br>
+floated--two hundred and fifty of his men had succumbed to the hardships<br>
+and perils of his march--arriving at the junction of the Red with the<br>
+Mississippi River on Sunday, April 17, 1542. At this point de Soto<br>
+sickened and died, turning over the command to Luis de Moscoso. Burying<br>
+their late leader's corpse at night deep in the bosom of the great<br>
+river, and constructing themselves boats, the survivors of this<br>
+ill-fated expedition, now reduced to three hundred and seventy-two<br>
+persons, made the best of their way down the Mississippi to the Gulf,<br>
+and along its coast, finally reaching the Spanish town near the mouth of<br>
+the Panuco in Mexico.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/083Pic_600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>A Palisaded Indian Town in Alabama.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/085Pic_600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>Burial of de Soto in the Mississippi at night.<br>
+<br>
+[1562]<br>
+<br>
+Thus no settlement had as yet been made in Florida by the Spanish. The<br>
+first occupation destined to be permanent was brought about through<br>
+religious jealousy inspired by the establishment of a French Protestant<br>
+(Huguenot) colony in the territory. Ribault, a French captain<br>
+commissioned by Charles IX., was put in command of an expedition by that<br>
+famous Huguenot, Admiral Coligny, and landed on the coast of Florida, at<br>
+the mouth of the St. John's, which he called the River of May. This was<br>
+in 1562. The name Carolina, which that section still bears, was given to<br>
+a fort at Port Royal, or St. Helena. Ribault returned to France, where<br>
+civil war was then raging between the Catholics and the Protestants or<br>
+Huguenots. His colony, waiting for promised aid and foolishly making no<br>
+attempt to cultivate the soil, soon languished. Dissensions arose, and<br>
+an effort was made to return home. Famine having carried off the greater<br>
+number, the colony came to an end. In 1564 Coligny sent out Laudonniere,<br>
+who built another fort, also named Carolina, on the River of May. Again<br>
+misfortunes gathered thickly about the settlers, when Ribault arrived<br>
+bringing supplies.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/086Pic_600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>Fort Carolina on the River of May.<br>
+<br>
+[1565]<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/087Pic_67e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>Pedro Melendez.<br>
+<br>
+But Spain claimed this territory, and Pedro Melendez a Spanish soldier,<br>
+was in 1565 sent by Philip II. to conquer it from the French, doubly<br>
+detested as Protestants. He landed in the harbor and at the mouth of the<br>
+river, to both of which he gave the name St. Augustine. Melendez lost no<br>
+time in attacking Fort Carolina, which he surprised, putting the<br>
+garrison mercilessly to the sword. The destruction of the French colony<br>
+was soon after avenged by Dominic de Gourgues, who sailed from France to<br>
+punish the enemies of his country. Having accomplished his purpose by<br>
+the slaughter of the Spanish garrison he returned home, but the French<br>
+Protestants made no further effort to colonize Florida.<br>
+<br>
+Spain claimed the land by right of discovery, but, although maintaining<br>
+the feeble settlement at St. Augustine, did next to nothing after this<br>
+to explore or civilize this portion of America. The nation that had sent<br>
+out Columbus was not destined to be permanently the great power of the<br>
+New World. The hap of first landing upon the Antilles, and also the warm<br>
+climate and the peaceable nature of the aborigines, led Spain to fix her<br>
+settlements in latitudes that were too low for the best health and the<br>
+greatest energy. Most of the settlers were of a wretched class,<br>
+criminals and adventurers, and they soon mixed largely with the natives.<br>
+Spain herself greatly lacked in vigor, partly from national causes,<br>
+partly from those obscure general causes which even to this day keep<br>
+Latin Europe, in military power and political accomplishments, inferior<br>
+to Teutonic or Germanic Europe.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/089Pic_600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>Indians devoured by dogs. From an old print.<br>
+<br>
+[1570]<br>
+<br>
+Moreover, the Spaniards found their first American conquests too easy,<br>
+and the rewards of these too great. This prevented all thought of<br>
+developing the country through industry, concentrating expectation<br>
+solely upon waiting fortunes, to be had from the natives by the sword or<br>
+through forced labor in mines, Their treatment of the aborigines was<br>
+nothing short of diabolical. Well has it been said: "The Spaniards had<br>
+sown desolation, havoc, and misery in and around their track. They had<br>
+depopulated some of the best peopled of the islands and renewed them<br>
+with victims deported from others. They had inflicted upon hundreds of<br>
+thousands of the natives all the forms and agonies of fiendish cruelty,<br>
+driving them to self-starvation and suicide, as a way of mercy and<br>
+release from an utterly wretched existence. They had come to be viewed<br>
+by their victims as fiends of hate, malignity, and all dark and cruel<br>
+desperation and mercilessness in passion. The hell which they denounced<br>
+upon their victims was shorn of its worst terror by the assurance that<br>
+these tormentors were not to be there. Las Casas, the noble missionary,<br>
+the true soldier of the cross, and the few priests and monks who<br>
+sympathized with him, in vain protested against these cruelties."<br>
+<br>
+To all these causes we must add the narrow colonial policy of Spain.<br>
+Imitating Venice and ancient Carthage instead of Greece, she held her<br>
+dependencies under the straitest servitude to herself as conquered<br>
+provinces, repressing all political or commercial independence. A<br>
+similar restrictive policy, indeed, hampered the colonies of other<br>
+nations, but it was nowhere else so irrational or blighting as in<br>
+Spanish America.<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+CHAPTER III.<br>
+<br>
+EXPLORATION AND COLONIZATION BY THE FRENCH AND THE ENGLISH<br>
+<br>
+[1534]<br>
+<br>
+How the French fought for foothold in Florida and were routed by the<br>
+Spaniards has just been related. So early as 1504, and possibly much<br>
+earlier, before Cabot or Columbus, French sailors were familiar with the<br>
+fisheries of Newfoundland. To the Isle of Cape Breton they gave its name<br>
+in remembrance of their own Brittany. The attention of the French<br>
+Government was thus early directed toward America, and it at length<br>
+determined to share in the new discoveries along with the Spanish and<br>
+the English.<br>
+<br>
+In 1524 Verrazano, a Florentine navigator, was sent by Francis I. on a<br>
+voyage of discovery to the New World. Sighting the shores of America<br>
+near the present Wilmington, North Carolina, he explored the coast of<br>
+New Jersey, touched land near New York Bay, and anchored a few days in<br>
+the harbor of Newport. In this vicinity he came upon an island, which<br>
+was probably Block Island. Sailing from here along the coast as far<br>
+north as Newfoundland, he named this vast territory New France.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/094Pic_600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>Verrazano, the Florentine Navigator.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/095Pic_600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>Jacques Cartier. From an old print.<br>
+<br>
+[1540]<br>
+<br>
+In 1534 Cartier, a noted voyager of St. Malo, coasted along the north of<br>
+Newfoundland, passed through the Straits of Belle Isle into the water<br>
+now known as St. Lawrence Gulf, and into the mouth of the St. Lawrence<br>
+River. Erecting a cross, he took possession of the shores in the name of<br>
+the king of France.<br>
+<br>
+In the following year he made a second voyage, going up as far as the<br>
+mouth of a small river which the year before he had named St. John's. He<br>
+called the waters the Bay of St. Lawrence. Ascending this, he came to a<br>
+settlement of the natives near a certain hill, which he called Mont<br>
+Royal, now modified into "Montreal." Cartier returned to France in 1536,<br>
+only a few of his men having survived the winter.<br>
+<br>
+In 1540 Lord Roberval fitted out a fleet, with Cartier as subordinate.<br>
+Cartier sailed at once--his third voyage--Roberval following the next<br>
+year. A fort was built near the present site of Quebec. Roberval and<br>
+Cartier disagreed and returned to France, leaving the real foundation of<br>
+Quebec to be laid by Champlain, much later.<br>
+<br>
+In 1604 De Monts arrived on the coast of Nova Scotia and erected a fort<br>
+at the mouth of the St. Croix, New Brunswick. He also made a settlement<br>
+on the shore of the present harbor of Annapolis, naming it Port Royal,<br>
+and the country around it Acadia. De Monts is famous largely because<br>
+under him the Sieur de Champlain, the real father of French colonization<br>
+in America, began his illustrious career. He had entered the St.<br>
+Lawrence in 1603. In 1608 he founded Quebec, the first permanent colony<br>
+of New France. The next year he explored the lake which perpetuates his<br>
+name. In 1615 he saw Lake Huron, Le Caron, the Franciscan, preceding him<br>
+in this only by a few days. Fired with ardor for discovery, Champlain<br>
+joined the Hurons in an attack upon the Iroquois. This led him into what<br>
+is now New York State, but whether the Indian camp first attacked by him<br>
+was on Onondaga or on Canandaigua Lake is still in debate. These were<br>
+but the beginning of Champlain's travels, by which many other Frenchmen,<br>
+some as missionaries, some as traders, were inspired to press far out<br>
+into the then unknown West. We shall resume the narrative in Chapter VII<br>
+of the next period. Champlain died at Quebec in 1635.<br>
+<br>
+Turn back now to Columbus's time. England, destined to dominate the<br>
+continent of North America, was also practically the discoverer of the<br>
+same. On St. John's day, June 24, 1497, thirteen months and a week<br>
+before Columbus saw South America, John Cabot, a Venetian in the service<br>
+of King Henry VII., from the deck of the good ship Matthew, of Bristol,<br>
+descried land somewhere on the coast either of Labrador or of Nova<br>
+Scotia. Cabot, of course, supposed this prima vista of his to belong to<br>
+Asia, and expected to reach Cipango next voyage. So late as 1543 Jean<br>
+Allefonsce, on reaching New England, took it for the border of Tartary.<br>
+Andre Thevet, in 1515, in a pretended voyage to Maine, places Cape<br>
+Breton on the west coast of Asia.&nbsp; This confusion probably
+explains the<br>
+tradition of Norumbega as a great city, and of other populous and<br>
+wealthy cities in the newly found land. Men transferred ideas of Eastern<br>
+Asia to this American shore.<br>
+<br>
+[1516]<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><big><big>The subsequent year Cabot made a second voyage,
+inspecting the American<br>
+coast northward till icebergs were met, southward to the vicinity of<br>
+Albemarle Sound. Possibly in his first expedition, probably in the<br>
+second, John Cabot was accompanied by his more famous son, Sebastian.<br>
+For many years after the Cabots, England made little effort to explore<br>
+the New World. Henry VII. was a Catholic. He therefore submitted to the<br>
+Pope's bull which gave America to Spain. Henry VIII. had married<br>
+Catherine of Aragon. He allowed Ferdinand, her father, to employ the<br>
+skill and daring of Sebastian Cabot in behalf of Spain. It was reserved<br>
+for the splendid reign of Elizabeth to show what English courage and<br>
+endurance could accomplish in extending England's power.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/101Pic_600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>Sebastian Cabot. From an old print.<br>
+<br>
+[1576]<br>
+<br>
+Like those before him, Martin Frobisher was in earnest to find the<br>
+northwest passage, in whose existence all navigators then fully<br>
+believed. Like Columbus, he vainly sought friends to aid him. At last,<br>
+after he had waited fifteen years in vain, Dudley, the Earl of Warwick,<br>
+helped him to an outfit. His little fleet embraced the Gabriel, of<br>
+thirty-five tons, the Michael of thirty, and a pinnace of ten. As it<br>
+swept to sea past Greenwich, the Queen waved her hand in token of<br>
+good-will. Sailing northward near the Shetland Isles, Frobisher passed<br>
+the southern shore of Greenland and came in sight of Labrador, 1576.<br>
+<br>
+He effected a landing at Hall's Island, at the mouth of the bay now<br>
+called by his name, but which he thought to be a strait, his discovery<br>
+thus strengthening his belief in the possibility of reaching Asia by<br>
+this westward course. He sailed up the bay as far as Butcher's Island,<br>
+where five of his men were taken prisoners by the natives. All effort to<br>
+rescue them was made, but to no purpose. Among the curiosities which he<br>
+brought home was a piece of stone, or black ore, which gave rise to the<br>
+belief that gold was to be found in this new country.<br>
+<br>
+[1577]<br>
+<br>
+A second and larger expedition sailed in 1577. The Queen gave 1,000<br>
+pounds and lent the royal ship Aid, of two hundred tons. The Gabriel and<br>
+the Michael of the former year were again made ready, besides smaller<br>
+craft. This voyage was to seek gold rather than to discover the<br>
+northwest passage. The fleet set sail May 27th, and on July 18th arrived<br>
+off North Foreland, or Hall's Island, so named for the man who had<br>
+brought away the piece of black earth. Search was made for this metal,<br>
+supposed to be so valuable, and large quantities were found. The fleet<br>
+sailed back to England with a heavy cargo of it.<br>
+<br>
+In 1578 a third and the last voyage was made to this region, to which<br>
+the name meta incognita was given. Two large ships were furnished by the<br>
+Queen, and these were accompanied by thirteen smaller ones.<br>
+<br>
+[1578-1580]<br>
+<br>
+It was now the purpose to found a colony. The expedition set sail May<br>
+31st, going through the English Channel, and reaching the coast of<br>
+Greenland June 21st. Frobisher and a few of his sailors landed where,<br>
+perhaps, white men had never trodden before. As he came near the bay he<br>
+was driven south by stormy weather, and entered, not knowing his<br>
+whereabouts, the waters of Hudson's Straits, which he traversed a<br>
+distance of sixty miles. He succeeded at length in retracing his course,<br>
+and anchored on the southern shore of Frobisher's Bay, in the Countess<br>
+of Warwick's Sound. But the desire for gold, the bleak winds, barren<br>
+shores, and drifting icebergs, all combined to dispel the hopes of<br>
+making a successful settlement, and the adventurers turned their faces<br>
+homeward, carrying once more a cargo of ore, which proved, like the<br>
+first, to be of no value whatever.<br>
+<br>
+Almost three hundred years later Captain Hall, the American explorer,<br>
+visited the Countess's Island and Sound. Among the Eskimos, from 1860 to<br>
+1862, he learned the tradition of Frobisher's visits, which had been<br>
+preserved and handed down. They knew the number of ships; they spoke of<br>
+the three times that white men had come; how five of these strangers had<br>
+been taken captive, and how, after remaining through the winter, they<br>
+had been allowed to build a boat, and to launch themselves upon the icy<br>
+seas, never to be heard of more. Captain Hall was shown many relics of<br>
+Frobisher's voyages, some of which he sent to the Royal Geographical<br>
+Society of London, a part to the Smithsonian Institute at Washington.<br>
+The small English house of lime and stone on this island was still<br>
+standing in good condition, and there was also a trench where they had<br>
+built their ill-fated boat.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/106Pic_600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>An Indian Village at the Roanoke Settlement.<br>
+<br>
+A contemporary of Frobisher, Sir Francis Drake, also entertained the<br>
+idea of making the northwest passage. While engaged in privateering or<br>
+piratical expeditions against the Spanish, Drake landed on the Isthmus<br>
+of Panama, saw the Pacific for the first time, and determined to enter<br>
+it by the Straits of Magellan. In 1577 he made his way through the<br>
+straits, plundered the Spanish along the coast of Chili and Peru, and<br>
+sailed as far north as the 48th parallel, or Oregon, calling the country<br>
+New Albion. Steering homeward by the Cape of Good Hope, he arrived at<br>
+Plymouth, his starting-point, in 1580, having been absent about two<br>
+years and ten months.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/108Pic_600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>Sir Humphrey Gilbert.<br>
+<br>
+Thomas Cavendish had been with Grenville in the voyage of 1585 to<br>
+Virginia. Frobisher's attempts inspired him with the ambition of the<br>
+age. In 1586 he, too, sailed through the Straits of Magellan, burning<br>
+and plundering Spanish ships, rounded the Cape of Good Hope, and reached<br>
+Plymouth in 1588, having been gone about two years and fifty days.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/109Pic_600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>Sir Walter Raleigh. <br>
+From a portrait attributed to Zuccaro <br>
+in the National Portrait Gallery, London.<br>
+<br>
+[1584]<br>
+<br>
+These half-piratical attempts against Spain led continually into<br>
+American waters, till the notion of forming a permanent outpost here as<br>
+base for such adventures suggested to Sir Humphrey Gilbert the plan,<br>
+which he failed to realize, of founding an American settlement. Gilbert<br>
+visited our shores in 1579, and again in 1583, but was lost on his<br>
+return from the latter voyage.<br>
+<br>
+In 1584 Sir Walter Raleigh sent two captains, Amidas and Barlow, to<br>
+inspect the coast off what is now North Carolina. They reported so<br>
+favorably that he began, next year, a colony on Roanoke Island. England<br>
+was now a Protestant land, and no longer heeded Spanish claims to the<br>
+transatlantic continent, save so far as actual settlements had been<br>
+made.<br>
+<br>
+[1586]<br>
+<br>
+Sir Richard Grenville commanded this expedition, but was to return on<br>
+seeing the one hundred and eight colonists who accompanied him well<br>
+established. Queen Elizabeth gave the name VIRGINIA to the new country.<br>
+Drake, tending homeward from one of his raids on the Spanish coast, in<br>
+1586, offered the settlers supplies, but finding them wholly<br>
+discouraged, he carried them back to England.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/113Pic_600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>Queen Elizabeth.<br>
+<br>
+[1587]<br>
+<br>
+Determined to plant an agricultural community, Raleigh next time, l587,<br>
+sent men with their families. A daughter to one of these, named Dare,<br>
+was the first child of English parents born in America. Becoming<br>
+destitute, the colony despatched its governor home for supplies. He<br>
+returned to find the settlement deserted, and no tidings as to the fate<br>
+of the poor colonists have ever been heard from that day to our own. The<br>
+Jamestown settlers mentioned in the next chapter found among their<br>
+Indian neighbors a boy whose whitish complexion and wavy hair induced<br>
+the interesting suspicion that he was descended from some one of these<br>
+lost colonists of Roanoke.<br>
+<br>
+Thus Sir Walter's enterprise had to be abandoned. In the 40,000 pounds<br>
+spent upon it his means were exhausted. Besides, England was now at war<br>
+with Spain, and the entire energies of the nation were in requisition<br>
+for the overthrow of the Spanish Armada.<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+CHAPTER IV.<br>
+<br>
+THE PLANTING OF VIRGINIA<br>
+<br>
+[1606]<br>
+<br>
+We have now arrived at the seventeenth century. In 1606 King James I.<br>
+issued the first English colonial charter. It created a first and a<br>
+second Virginia Company, the one having its centre in London, and coming<br>
+to be known as the London Company; the other made up of Bristol, Exeter,<br>
+and Plymouth men, and gradually taking the title of the Plymouth<br>
+Company. This latter company, the second, or Plymouth Company,<br>
+authorized to plant between 38 degrees and 45 degrees north, effected a<br>
+settlement in 1607 at the mouth of the Kennebec River. Little came of it<br>
+but suffering, the colonists, after a severe winter, returning to<br>
+England.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/115Pic_600E.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>King James I. Mr. Henry Irving's Collection.<br>
+<br>
+[1607]<br>
+<br>
+A colony of one hundred and five planters sent out by the first or<br>
+London Company, proceeded, also in 1607, to Chesapeake Bay, entering<br>
+James River, to which they indeed gave this name, and planted upon its<br>
+banks Jamestown, the first permanent English colony on the continent.<br>
+This London Company consisted of a council in England, appointed by the<br>
+king, having the power to name the members of a local council which was<br>
+to govern the colony, the colonists themselves having no voice.<br>
+<br>
+It is well known that the very earliest population of the Old Dominion<br>
+was not of the highest, but predominantly idle and thriftless. Vagabonds<br>
+and homeless children picked up in the streets of London, as well as<br>
+some convicts, were sent to the colony from England to be indented as<br>
+servants, permanently, or for a term of years. Persons of the better<br>
+class, to be sure, came as well, and the quality of the population, on<br>
+the whole, improved year by year. Settlement here followed a centrifugal<br>
+tendency, except as this was repressed by fear of the Indians. In 1616<br>
+the departments of Virginia were Henrico, up the James above the<br>
+Appomattox mouth, West and Shirley Hundreds, Jamestown, Kiquoton, and<br>
+King's Gift on the coast near Cape Charles--a wide reach of territory to<br>
+be covered by a total population of only three hundred and fifty.<br>
+<br>
+[1608]<br>
+<br>
+A little exporting was immediately begun. So early as May 20, 1608,<br>
+Jamestown sent to England a ship laden with iron ore, sassafras, cedar<br>
+posts, and walnut boards. Another followed on June 2d, with a cargo all<br>
+of cedar wood. This year or the next, small quantities of pitch, tar,<br>
+and glass were sent. From 1619 tobacco was so common as to be the<br>
+currency. About 1650 it was largely exported, a million and a half<br>
+pounds, on the average, yearly. The figure had risen to twelve million<br>
+pounds by 1670. At the middle of the century, corn, wheat, rice, hemp,<br>
+flax, and fifteen varieties of fruit, as well as excellent wine were<br>
+produced. A wind-mill was set up about 1620, the first in America. It<br>
+stood at Falling Creek on the James River. The pioneer iron works on the<br>
+continent were in this colony, hailing from about the date last named.<br>
+Community of property prevailed at Jamestown in all the earliest years,<br>
+as it did at Plymouth. After the event noted by John Rolfe: "about the<br>
+last of August [1619] came in a Dutch man of warre that sold us twenty<br>
+Negars," slavery was a continual and increasing curse, as is attested<br>
+by the laws concerning slaves. It encouraged indolence and savagery of<br>
+habit and nature. Virginian slaves, however, were better treated than<br>
+those farther south. They were tolerably clothed, fed, and housed.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/119Pic_600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>Tobacco Plant.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/120Pic_600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big><br>
+Captain John Smith.<br>
+<br>
+There was in Virginia little of that healthful social and political<br>
+contact which did so much to develop civilization at the North. Of town<br>
+life there was practically nothing. Even so late as 1716 Jamestown had<br>
+only a sorry half-dozen structures, two of which were church and<br>
+court-house. Fifteen years later Fredericksburg had, besides the manor<br>
+house of Colonel Willis and its belongings, only a store, a tailor shop,<br>
+a blacksmith shop, a tavern or "ordinary," and a coffeehouse. Richmond<br>
+and Petersburg still existed only on paper, and if we come down to the<br>
+middle of the eighteenth century, Williamsburg, the capital of the<br>
+province, was nothing but a straggling village of two hundred houses,<br>
+without a single paved street. Only the College and the governor's<br>
+"palace" were of brick. The county-seats were mostly mere glades in the<br>
+woods, containing each its court-house, prison, whipping-post, pillory,<br>
+and ducking-stool, besides the wretched tavern where court and<br>
+attendants put up, and possibly a church. Hardships and dissensions<br>
+marked the whole early history of this infant state. At one time only<br>
+forty settlers remained alive, at another meal and water were the sole<br>
+diet. Hoping for instant riches in gold, poor gentlemen and vagabonds<br>
+had come, too much to the exclusion of mechanics and laborers. For<br>
+relief from the turbulence and external dangers of this period, the<br>
+colony owed much to Captain John Smith, who, after all allowance for his<br>
+boasting, certainly displayed great courage and energy in emergencies.<br>
+He, too, it was who did most to explore the country up the James and<br>
+upon Chesapeake Bay.<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/122Pic_600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>"King Powhatan commands C:Smith to be flayne his daughter<br>
+Pokahontas beggs his life his thankfullness and how he subiecled 39 of<br>
+their kings reade ye history" <br>
+Pocahontas saving Captain Smith's<br>
+Life. From Smith's "General History."<br>
+<br>
+[1609-1610]<br>
+<br>
+A new charter was granted in 1609, the council in England being now<br>
+appointed by the stockholders instead of the king, and the governor of<br>
+the colony being named by this council. Lord Delaware was made Governor<br>
+and Captain-General of Virginia, and many more colonists sent out. By a<br>
+wreck of two of the vessels there was delay in the arrival of the newly<br>
+chosen officers. Smith, then Percy, meantime continued to exercise<br>
+authority. This, again, was a critical period. Indians were troublesome.<br>
+Tillage having been neglected from the first, provisions became<br>
+exhausted, and a crisis long referred to as "the starving time" ensued.<br>
+The colony had actually abandoned Jamestown and shipped for England,<br>
+when met in James River by Lord Delaware, coming with relief. They at<br>
+once returned, and an era of hope dawned. This was in June, 1610. One<br>
+hundred and fifty new settlers accompanied Delaware. Planting was<br>
+vigorously prosecuted, the Indians placated, and still further<br>
+accessions of people and cattle secured from England.<br>
+<br>
+[1612]<br>
+<br>
+Delaware's brief, mild sway was always a benediction, in pleasing<br>
+contrast with the severities of Dale and Argall, who successively<br>
+governed after his departure. Under Dale, death was the penalty for<br>
+slaughtering cattle, even one's own, except with the Governor's leave,<br>
+also of exporting goods without permission. A baker giving short weight<br>
+was to lose his ears, and on second repetition to suffer death. A<br>
+laundress purloining linen was to be flogged. Martial law alone<br>
+prevailed; even capital punishment was ordained without jury. Such<br>
+arbitrary rule was perhaps necessary, so lawless were the mass of the<br>
+population. It at any rate had the excellent effect of rousing the<br>
+Virginians to political thought and to the assertion of their rights. In<br>
+1612 a change took place in the Company's methods of governing its<br>
+colony. The superior council was abolished, its authority transferred to<br>
+the corporation as a whole, which met as an assembly to elect officers<br>
+and enact laws for the colony. The government thus became more<br>
+democratic in form and spirit.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/125Pic_600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>"POWHATAN Held this state &amp; fashion when Capt.'
+Smith was<br>
+delivered to him prisoner. 1607"<br>
+The Council of Powhatan. From Smith's "General History,"<br>
+<br>
+[1614-1619]<br>
+<br>
+The year 1614 was distinguished by the marriage of Pocahontas, daughter<br>
+of the native chief Powhatan, to the English colonist Rolfe. With him<br>
+she visited England, dying there a few years later. The alliance secured<br>
+the valuable friendship of Powhatan and his subjects--only till<br>
+Powhatan's death, however. Thenceforth savage hostilities occurred at<br>
+frequent intervals. In 1622 they were peculiarly severe, over three<br>
+hundred settlers losing their lives through them. Another outbreak took<br>
+place about 1650, this time more quickly suppressed. We shall see in a<br>
+later chapter how Bacon's Rebellion was occasioned by Indian troubles.<br>
+<br>
+As James I. broke with Parliament, a majority of the Virginia<br>
+shareholders proved Liberals, and they wrought with signal purpose and<br>
+effect to realize their ideas in their colony. To this political<br>
+complexion of the Virginia Company not only Virginia itself, but, in a<br>
+way, all America is indebted for a start toward free institutions.<br>
+During the governorship of George Yeardley, was summoned an assembly of<br>
+burgesses, consisting of two representatives, elected by the<br>
+inhabitants, from each of the eleven boroughs or districts which the<br>
+colony had by this time come to embrace. It met on June 10, 1619, the<br>
+earliest legislative body in the New World. This was the dawn of another<br>
+new era in the colony's history.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/127Pic_600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>Pocahantas<br>
+<br>
+[1622-1625]<br>
+<br>
+In 1622 arrived Sir Thomas Wyatt, bringing a written constitution from<br>
+the Company, which confirmed to the colony representative government and<br>
+trial by jury. The assembly was given authority to make laws, subject<br>
+only to the Governor's veto. This enlargement of political rights was<br>
+due to the growth of the sentiment of popular liberty in England. In the<br>
+meetings of the London Company debates were frequent and spirited<br>
+between the court faction and the supporters of the political rights of<br>
+the colonists. James I., dissatisfied with the authority which he had<br>
+himself granted, appointed a commission to inquire into the Company's<br>
+management, and also into the circumstances of the colony. A change was<br>
+recommended, the courts decided as the king wished, and the Company was<br>
+dissolved, The colony, while still allowed to govern itself by means of<br>
+its popular assembly, was thus brought directly under the supervision of<br>
+the Crown. Charles I., coming to the throne in 1625, gave heed to the<br>
+affairs of the colony only so far as necessary to secure for himself the<br>
+profits of the tobacco trade, It was doubtless owing to his indifference<br>
+that the colony continued to enjoy civil freedom. He again appointed<br>
+Yeardley Governor, a choice agreeable to the people; and in 1628, by<br>
+asking that the assembly be called in order to vote him a monopoly of<br>
+the coveted trade, he explicitly recognized the legitimacy and authority<br>
+of that body.<br>
+<br>
+[1642]<br>
+<br>
+Yeardley was succeeded by Harvey, who rendered himself unpopular by<br>
+defending in all land disputes the claims arising under royal grant<br>
+against those based upon occupancy. Difficulties of this sort pervaded<br>
+all colonial history.<br>
+<br>
+In 1639 Wyatt held the office, succeeded in 1642 by Berkeley, during<br>
+whose administration the colony attained its highest prosperity.<br>
+Virginians now possessed constitutional rights and privileges in even a<br>
+higher degree than Englishmen in the northern colonies. The colonists<br>
+were most loyal to the king, and were let alone. They were also attached<br>
+to the Church of England, ever manifesting toward those of a different<br>
+faith the spirit of intolerance characteristic of the age.<br>
+<br>
+[1650]<br>
+<br>
+During the civil war in England, Virginia, of course, sided with the<br>
+king. When Cromwell had assumed the reins of government he sent an<br>
+expedition to require the submission of the colony. An agreement was<br>
+made by which the authority of Parliament was acknowledged, while the<br>
+colony in return was left unmolested in the management of its own<br>
+affairs.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/130Pic.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>Signature of Berkeley.<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+CHAPTER V.<br>
+<br>
+PILGRIM AND PURITAN AT THE NORTH<br>
+<br>
+[1612]<br>
+<br>
+The Pilgrims who settled New England were Independents, peculiar in<br>
+their ecclesiastical tenet that the single congregation of godly<br>
+persons, however few or humble, regularly organized for Christ's work,<br>
+is of right, by divine appointment, the highest ecclesiastical authority<br>
+on earth. A church of this order existed in London by 1568; another,<br>
+possibly more than one, the "Brownists," by 1580. Barrowe and Greenwood<br>
+began a third in 1588, which, its founders being executed, went exiled<br>
+to Amsterdam in 1593, subsequently uniting with the Presbyterians there.<br>
+These churches, though independent, were not strictly democratic, like<br>
+those next to be named.<br>
+<br>
+Soon after 1600 John Smyth gathered a church at Gainsborough in<br>
+Lincolnshire, England, which persecution likewise drove to Amsterdam.<br>
+Here Smyth seceded and founded a Baptist church, which, returning to<br>
+London in 1611 or 1612, became the first church of its kind known to<br>
+have existed in England. From Smyth's church at Gainsborough sprang one<br>
+at Scrooby, in Nottinghamshire, and this, too, exiled like its parent,<br>
+crossed to Holland, finding home in Leyden in 1607 and 1608. Of this<br>
+church John Robinson was pastor, and from its bosom came the Plymouth<br>
+Colony to New England.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/132Pic_600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>Plymouth Harbor, England.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/133Pic_600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>Harbor of Provincetown, Cape Cod, where the Pilgrims landed.<br>
+<br>
+[1620]<br>
+<br>
+This little band set out for America with a patent from the Virginia<br>
+Company, according to James I.'s charter of 1606, but actually began<br>
+here as labor-share holders in a sub-corporation of a new organization,<br>
+the Plymouth Company, chartered in 1620. Launching in the Mayflower from<br>
+Plymouth, where they had paused in their way hither from Holland, they<br>
+arrived off the coast of Cape Cod in 1620, December 11th Old Style,<br>
+December 21st New Style, and began a settlement, to which they gave the<br>
+name Plymouth. Before landing they had formed themselves into a<br>
+political body, a government of the people with "just and equal laws."<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/134Pic_600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>The Life of the Colony at Cape Cod.<br>
+<br>
+They based their civil authority upon this Mayflower compact,<br>
+practically ignoring England. Carver was the first governor, Bradford<br>
+the second. The colony was named Plymouth in memory of hospitalities<br>
+which its members had received at Plymouth, England, the name having no<br>
+connection with the "Plymouth" of the Plymouth Company. The members of<br>
+the Plymouth Company had none but a mercantile interest in the<br>
+adventure, merely fitting out the colonists and bearing the expense of<br>
+the passage for all but the first. On the other hand, the stock was not<br>
+all retained in England. Shares were allotted to the Pilgrims as well,<br>
+one to each emigrant with or without means, and one for every 10 pounds<br>
+invested.<br>
+<br>
+Plymouth early made a treaty with Massasoit, the chief of the<br>
+neighboring Wampanoags, the peace lasting with benign effects to both<br>
+parties for fifty years, or till the outbreak of Philip's War, discussed<br>
+in a later chapter. The first winter in Plymouth was one of dreadful<br>
+hardships, of famine, disease and death, which spring relieved but in<br>
+part. Yet Plymouth grew, surely if slowly. It acquired rights on the<br>
+Kennebec, on the Connecticut, at Cape Ann. It was at first a pure<br>
+democracy, its laws all made in mass-meetings of the entire body of<br>
+male inhabitants; nor was it till 1639 that increase of numbers forced<br>
+resort to the principle of representation. In 1643 the population was<br>
+about three thousand.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/136Pic_600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>Signatures to Plymouth Patent.<br>
+/In witnes whereof the said President &amp; Counsell haue to the one pt
+of<br>
+this pute Indenture sett their seales* And to th'other pt hereof the<br>
+said John Peirce in the name of himself and his said Associate haue sett<br>
+to his seale geven the day and yeeres first aboue written/<br>
+<br>
+[1626-1630]<br>
+<br>
+Between 1620 and 1630 there were isolated settlers along the whole New<br>
+England coast. White, a minister from Dorchester, England, founded a<br>
+colony near Cape Ann, which removed to Salem in 1626. The Plymouth<br>
+Company granted them a patent, which Endicott, in charge of more<br>
+emigrants, brought over in 1628. It gave title to all land between the<br>
+Merrimac and Charles Rivers, also to all within three miles beyond each.<br>
+These men formed the nucleus of the colony to which in 1629 Charles I.<br>
+granted a royal charter, styling the proprietors "the Governor and<br>
+Company of the Massachusetts Bay in New England." Boston was made the<br>
+capital. Soon more emigrants came, and Charlestown was settled.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/137Pic_600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>Site of First Church and Governor Bradford's House at
+Plymouth.<br>
+<br>
+It was a momentous step when the government of this colony was<br>
+transferred to New England. Winthrop was chosen Governor, others of the<br>
+Company elected to minor offices, and they, with no fewer than one<br>
+thousand new colonists, sailed for this side the Atlantic. In<br>
+Massachusetts, therefore, a trading company did not beget, as elsewhere,<br>
+but literally became a political state. Many of the Massachusetts men,<br>
+in contrast with those of Plymouth, had enjoyed high consideration at<br>
+home. Yet democracy prevailed here too. The Governor and his eighteen<br>
+assistants were chosen by the freemen, and were both legislature and<br>
+court. As population increased and scattered in towns, these chose<br>
+deputies to represent them, and a lower house element was added to the<br>
+General Court, though assistants and deputies did not sit separately<br>
+till 1644.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/139Pic_600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>Governor Winthrop.<br>
+<br>
+[1631]<br>
+<br>
+At this time Massachusetts had a population of about 15,000. To all New<br>
+England 21,200 emigrants came between 1628 and 1643, the total white<br>
+population at the latter date being about 24,000.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/140Pic_600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>First Church in Salem.<br>
+<br>
+So early as 1631 this colony decreed to admit none as freemen who were<br>
+not also church members. Thus Church and State were made one, the<br>
+government a theocracy. The Massachusetts settlers, though in many<br>
+things less extreme than the Pilgrims, were decided Puritans, sincere<br>
+but formal, precise, narrow, and very superstitious. They did not,<br>
+however, on coming hither, affect or wish to separate from the Church of<br>
+England, earnestly as they deprecated retaining the sign of the cross in<br>
+baptism, the surplice, marriage with ring, and kneeling at communion.<br>
+Yet soon they in effect became Separatists as well as Puritans, building<br>
+independent churches, like those at Plymouth, and repudiating episcopacy<br>
+utterly.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/141Pic_600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>Seal of Massachusetts Bay Company.<br>
+<br>
+[1635]<br>
+<br>
+Much as these Puritans professed and tried to exalt reason in certain<br>
+matters, in civil and religious affairs, where they took the Old<br>
+Testament as affording literal and minute directions for all sorts of<br>
+human actions for all time, they could allow little liberty of opinion.<br>
+This was apparent when into this theocratic state came Roger Williams,<br>
+afterward the founder of Rhode Island. Born in London, England, about<br>
+1607, of good family, he was placed by his patron, Coke, at the Charter<br>
+House School. From there he went to Pembroke College, Cambridge. In 1631<br>
+he arrived in Boston. Somewhat finical in his political, moral, and<br>
+religious ideas, he found it impossible, having separated from the<br>
+Church of England, in which he had been reared, to harmonize here with<br>
+those still favoring that communion. At Salem he was invited by a little<br>
+company of Separatists to become their teacher. His views soon offended<br>
+the authorities. He declared that the king's patent could confer no<br>
+title to lands possessed by Indians. He denied the right of magistrates<br>
+to punish heresy, or to enforce attendance upon religious services. "The<br>
+magistrate's power," he said, "extends only to the bodies, goods, and<br>
+outward state of men."<br>
+<br>
+Alarmed at his bold utterances, the General Court of Massachusetts,<br>
+September 2, 1635, decreed his banishment for "new and dangerous<br>
+opinions, against the authority of magistrates." His fate was not,<br>
+therefore, merely because of his religious views. The exile sought<br>
+refuge at Seekonk, but this being within the Plymouth jurisdiction, he,<br>
+on Governor Winslow's admonition, moved farther into the wilderness,<br>
+settling at Providence. He purchased land of the natives, and, joined by<br>
+others, set up a pure democracy, instituting as a part thereof the<br>
+"lively experiment," for which ages had waited, of perfect liberty in<br>
+matters of religious belief. Not for the first time in history, but more<br>
+clearly, earnestly, and consistently than it had ever been done before,<br>
+he maintained for every man the right of absolute freedom in matters of<br>
+conscience, for all forms of faith equal toleration.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/143Pic_600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>Roger Williams' House at Salem.<br>
+<br>
+[1638]<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/145Pic_600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>Edward Winslow.<br>
+<br>
+Some friends of Mrs. Anne Hutchinson established a colony on Aquidneck,<br>
+the Indian name for Rhode Island. Williams went to England and secured<br>
+from Parliament a patent which united that plantation with his in one<br>
+government. Charles II.'s charter of 1663 added Warwick to the first two<br>
+settlements, renewing and enlarging the patent, and giving freest scope<br>
+for government according to Williams' ideas. Mrs. Hutchinson, a woman of<br>
+rare intellect and eloquence, who maintained the right of private<br>
+judgment and pretended to an infallible inner light of revelation, was,<br>
+like Williams, a victim of Puritan intolerance. She and her followers<br>
+were banished, and some of them, returning, put to death, 1659-60. She<br>
+came to Providence, then went to Aquidneck, where her husband died in<br>
+1642. She next settled near Hurl Gate, within the Dutch limits, where<br>
+herself and almost her entire family were butchered by the Indians in<br>
+1643.<br>
+<br>
+In 1633 the Dutch erected a fort where Hartford now is, but some English<br>
+emigrants from Plymouth Colony, in defiance of a threatened cannonade,<br>
+sailed past and built a trading-house at Windsor, where, joined by<br>
+colonists, from about Boston, they soon effected a settlement.<br>
+Wethersfield and Hartford were presently founded. In 1630 the Plymouth<br>
+Company had granted Connecticut to the Earl of Warwick, who turned it<br>
+over to Lord Brooke, Lord Say-and-Seal, and others. Winthrop the<br>
+Younger, son of Governor Winthrop, of Massachusetts, commissioned by<br>
+these last, built a fort at Saybrook. Till the expiration of his<br>
+commission the towns immediately upon the Connecticut were under the<br>
+government of Massachusetts. Their population in 1643 was three<br>
+thousand. A convention of these towns met at Hartford, January 14, 1639,<br>
+and formed a constitution, like that of Massachusetts Bay, thoroughly<br>
+republican in nature. Connecticut breathed a freer spirit than either<br>
+Massachusetts or New Haven, being in this respect the peer of Plymouth.<br>
+At Hartford Roger Williams was always welcome.<br>
+<br>
+Meantime, in 1638, having touched at Boston the year before, Davenport,<br>
+Eaton, and others from London began planting at New Haven. The Bible was<br>
+adopted as their guide in both civil and religious affairs, and a<br>
+government organized in which only church members could vote or be<br>
+elected to the General Court. The colony flourished, branching out into<br>
+several towns. In 1643 it numbered twenty five hundred inhabitants.<br>
+<br>
+As early as 1622, Mason and Gorges were granted land partly in what is<br>
+now Maine, partly in what is now New Hampshire; and in 1623 Dover and<br>
+Portsmouth were settled. Wheelwright, a brother-in-law of Mrs.<br>
+Hutchinson, with others, purchased of the natives the southeast part of<br>
+New Hampshire, between the Merrimac and the Piscataqua, and in 1638<br>
+Exeter was founded. In the same year with Wheelwright's purchase, Mason<br>
+obtained from the council of the Plymouth Company a patent to this same<br>
+section, and the tract was called New Hampshire. These conflicting<br>
+claims paved the way for future controversies and lawsuits. The settlers<br>
+here were not Puritans, nor were they obliged to be church members in<br>
+order to be deputies or freemen.<br>
+<br>
+The settlement of Maine goes back to 1626, when the Plymouth Company<br>
+granted lands there both to Alexander and to Gorges. In 1639 Gorges<br>
+secured a royal charter to re-enforce his claim. Large freedom, civil<br>
+and religious, was allowed. For many years the Maine settlements were<br>
+small and scattered, made up mostly of such as came to hunt and fish for<br>
+a season only.<br>
+<br>
+[1650]<br>
+<br>
+From 1643 to 1684 Massachusetts, Plymouth, Connecticut, and New Haven<br>
+formed a confederation under the style of the United Colonies of New<br>
+England. Maine, Providence, and Rhode Island sought membership, but were<br>
+refused as being civilly and religiously out of harmony with the<br>
+colonies named. Connecticut, offensive to the Dutch, and exposed to<br>
+hostilities from them, was the most earnest for the union, while at the<br>
+same time the most conservative as to its form. It was a loose league,<br>
+leaving each colony independent save as to war and peace, Indian<br>
+affairs, alliances and boundaries. Questions pertaining to these were to<br>
+be settled by a commission of two delegates from each of the four<br>
+colonies, meeting yearly, voting man by man, six out of the eight votes<br>
+being necessary to bind.<br>
+<br>
+The confederacy settled a boundary dispute between New Haven and New<br>
+Netherland in 1650. It received and disbursed moneys, amounting some<br>
+years to 600 pounds, for the propagation of the gospel in New England,<br>
+sent over by the society which Parliament incorporated for that purpose<br>
+in 1649. It was also of more or less service in securing united action<br>
+against the savages in Philip's War. The union was, however, of little<br>
+immediate service, useful rather as an example for the far future. Its<br>
+failure was due partly to the distance of the colonies apart, and to the<br>
+strength of the instinct for local self-government, a distinguishing<br>
+political trait of New England till our day. Its main weakness, however,<br>
+was the overbearing power and manner of Massachusetts, especially after<br>
+her assumption of Maine in 1652. In 1653 the Plymouth, New Haven, and<br>
+Connecticut commissioners earnestly wished war with New Netherland, but<br>
+Massachusetts proudly forbade--a plain violation of the articles. After<br>
+this there was not much heart in the alliance. The last meeting of the<br>
+commissioners occurred at Hartford, September 5, 1684.<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+CHAPTER VI.<br>
+<br>
+BALTIMORE AND HIS MARYLAND<br>
+<br>
+[1630]<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/150Pic_600BWe.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>&nbsp;
+Maryland Shilling.<br>
+<br>
+The very year that witnessed the landing of the Pilgrims records the<br>
+beginning of another attempt to colonize the New World. While Secretary<br>
+of State, having been appointed in 1619, Sir George Calvert, a member of<br>
+the Virginia Company from 1609 until its dissolution in 1624, determined<br>
+to plant a colony for himself. In the memorable year 1620 he bought of<br>
+Lord Vaughan the patent to the south-eastern peninsula of Newfoundland,<br>
+the next he sent colonists thither with a generous supply of money for<br>
+their support. In 1623 King James gave him a patent, making him<br>
+proprietary of this region. In 1625 Calvert boldly declared himself a<br>
+Catholic, and resigned his office of Secretary. Spite of this he was<br>
+soon afterwards ennobled, and his new title of Lord Baltimore is the<br>
+name by which he is best known. Visiting his little settlement in 1627<br>
+he quickly came to the conclusion that the severity of the climate would<br>
+make its failure certain. He therefore gave up this enterprise, but<br>
+determined to repeat the attempt on the more favorable soil of Virginia.<br>
+Confident of the goodwill of Charles I., to whom he had written for a<br>
+grant of land there, he did not await a reply, but sailed for Virginia,<br>
+where he arrived in 1629. In 1632 the king issued a patent granting to<br>
+Baltimore and his heirs a territory north and east of the Potomac,<br>
+comprising what we now call Maryland, all Delaware, and a part of<br>
+Pennsylvania. The name Maryland was given it by the king in, honor of<br>
+his queen, Henrietta Maria. But before this charter had received royal<br>
+signature Lord Baltimore had breathed his last,&nbsp; and his son Cecil<br>
+succeeded to his honors and possessions.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/152Pic_600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>Henrietta Maria.<br>
+<br>
+The Maryland charter made the proprietary the absolute lord of the soil.<br>
+He was merely to acknowledge fealty by the delivery of two Indian arrows<br>
+yearly to the king at Windsor. He could make laws with the consent of<br>
+the citizens, declare war or peace, appoint officers of government; in<br>
+fact, in most respects he had regal power. The colonists were, however,<br>
+to remain English subjects, with all the privileges of such. If they<br>
+were not represented in Parliament, neither were they taxed by the<br>
+Crown. If the proprietary made laws for them, these must not be contrary<br>
+to the laws of England. And they were to enjoy freedom of trade, not<br>
+only with England but with foreign countries.<br>
+<br>
+[1634-1635]<br>
+<br>
+This charter, as will be readily seen, could not please the Virginians,<br>
+since the entire territory conveyed by it was part of the grant of 1609<br>
+to the London Company for Virginia. But as this and subsequent charters<br>
+had been annulled in 1624, the new colony was held by the Privy Council<br>
+to have the law on its side, and Lord Baltimore was left to make his<br>
+preparations undisturbed. He fitted out two vessels, the Ark and the<br>
+Dove, and sent them on their voyage of colonization. They went by the<br>
+way of the West Indies, arriving off Point Comfort in 1634. Sailing up<br>
+the Potomac, they landed on the island of St. Clement's, and took formal<br>
+possession of their new home. Calvert explored a river, now called the<br>
+St. Mary's, a tributary of the Potomac, and being pleased with the spot<br>
+began a settlement. He gained the friendship of the natives by<br>
+purchasing the land and by treating them justly and humanely.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/154Pic_600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>Supposed Portrait of William Clayborne.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/155Pic_600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>Clayborne's Trading Post on Kent Island.<br>
+<br>
+The proprietary was a Catholic, yet, whether or not by an agreement<br>
+between him and the king, as Gardiner supposes, did not use either his<br>
+influence or his authority to distress adherents of the Church of<br>
+England. The two creeds stood practically upon an equality. But if<br>
+religious troubles were avoided, difficulties of another sort were not<br>
+slow in arising. About the year 1631, Clayborne, who had been secretary<br>
+of the Virginia colony, had chosen Kent Island in Chesapeake Bay as a<br>
+station for trading with the Indians. This post was in the very midst of<br>
+Maryland, and Calvert notified Clayborne that he should consider it a<br>
+part of that province. Clayborne at once showed himself a bitter enemy.<br>
+The Indians became suspicious and unfriendly, Clayborne, so it was<br>
+believed, being the instigator of this temper. An armed vessel was sent<br>
+out, with orders from Clayborne to seize ships of the St. Mary's<br>
+settlement. A fight took place, Clayborne fleeing to Virginia. Calvert<br>
+demanded that he should be given up. This was refused, and in 1637 he<br>
+went to England. A committee of the Privy Council decided that Kent<br>
+Island belonged to Maryland.<br>
+<br>
+[1638]<br>
+<br>
+In 1635 the first Maryland assembly met, consisting of the freemen of<br>
+the colony and the governor, Leonard Calvert, the proprietary's brother,<br>
+who was presiding officer. Lord Baltimore repudiated its acts, on the<br>
+ground that they were not proposed by him, as the charter directed. The<br>
+assembly which gathered in 1638 retaliated, rejecting the laws brought<br>
+forward by the proprietary.<br>
+<br>
+[1639]<br>
+<br>
+For a time the colony was without laws except the common law of England.<br>
+But Baltimore was too wise and conciliatory to allow such a state of<br>
+affairs to continue. He gave authority to the governor to assent to the<br>
+acts of the assembly, which he himself might or might not confirm.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/157Pic_600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>Fight between Clayborne and the St. Mary's Ship.<br>
+<br>
+Accordingly in 1639 the assembly met and passed various acts, mostly<br>
+relating to civil affairs. One, however, was specially noteworthy, as<br>
+giving to the "Holy Church" "her rights and liberties," meaning by this<br>
+the Church of Rome, for, as Gardiner says, the title was never applied<br>
+to the Church of England. It was at the same time expressly enacted that<br>
+all the Christian inhabitants should be in the enjoyment of every right<br>
+and privilege as free as the natural-born subjects of England. If Roger<br>
+Williams was the first to proclaim absolute religious liberty, Lord<br>
+Baltimore was hardly behind him in putting this into practice. As has<br>
+been neatly said, "The Ark and the Dove were names of happy omen: the<br>
+one saved from the general wreck the germs of political liberty, and the<br>
+other bore the olive-branch of religious peace."<br>
+<br>
+[1646]<br>
+<br>
+During the civil war in England the affairs of Maryland were in a very<br>
+disturbed condition. Clayborne, Maryland's evil genius, seized the<br>
+opportunity to foment an insurrection, possessed himself once more of<br>
+Kent Island, and compelled the governor to flee to Virginia. Returning<br>
+in 1646, Calvert was fortunate enough to recover the reins of<br>
+government, but the following year witnessed the close of his<br>
+administration and his short though useful and eventful life. Few men<br>
+intrusted with almost absolute authority have exercised it with so much<br>
+firmness and at the same time with so much ability, discretion, and<br>
+uprightness.<br>
+<br>
+[1650]<br>
+<br>
+His successor, Greene, a Catholic, was not likely to find favor with the<br>
+Puritan Parliament of England, and Baltimore, in 1648, to conciliate the<br>
+ruling powers and to refute the charge that Maryland was only a retreat<br>
+for Romanists, removed the governor and appointed instead one who was a<br>
+Protestant and a firm supporter of Parliament. The council was also<br>
+changed so as to place the Catholics in the minority. The oath of the<br>
+new governor restrained him from molesting any person, especially if of<br>
+the Roman Catholic persuasion, on account of religious profession. The<br>
+way was thus opened for the Act of Toleration passed in 1649. This law,<br>
+after specifying certain speeches against the Trinity, the Virgin, or<br>
+the saints as punishable offences, declared that equal privileges should<br>
+be enjoyed by Christians of all creeds. Whatever the motives of<br>
+Baltimore, his policy was certainly wise and commendable.<br>
+<br>
+A new and troublesome element was now introduced into the colony. Some<br>
+Puritans who had not been tolerated among the stanch Church-of-England<br>
+inhabitants of Virginia were invited by Governor Stone to Maryland.<br>
+Their home here, which they named Providence, is now known as Annapolis.<br>
+The new-comers objected to the oath of fidelity, refused to send<br>
+burgesses to the assembly, and were ready to overthrow the government<br>
+whose protection they were enjoying. Opportunity soon offered.<br>
+Parliament had already in 1652 brought Virginia to submission. Maryland<br>
+was now accused of disloyalty, and when we notice among the<br>
+commissioners appointed by the Council of State, the name of Clayborne,<br>
+it is not difficult to understand who was the author of this charge. The<br>
+governor was removed, but being popular and not averse to compromise,<br>
+was quickly restored. Then came the accession of Cromwell to power as<br>
+Protector of England. Parliament was dissolved.&nbsp; The authority of
+its<br>
+commissioners of course ceased. Baltimore seized this opportunity to<br>
+regain his position as proprietary. He bade Stone to require the oath of<br>
+fidelity to the proprietary from those who occupied lands, and to issue<br>
+all writs in his name. He maintained that the province now stood in the<br>
+same relations to the Protectorate which it had borne to the royalist<br>
+government of Charles I.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/161Pic_600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>Oliver Cromwell.<br>
+<br>
+So thought Cromwell, but not so Clayborne or the Maryland Puritans. They<br>
+deposed Stone, and put in power Fuller, who was in sympathy with their<br>
+designs. There resulted a reversal of the acts of former assemblies, and<br>
+legislation hostile to the Catholics. The new assembly, from which<br>
+Catholics were carefully excluded by disfranchisement, at once repealed<br>
+the Act of Toleration. Protection was withdrawn from those who professed<br>
+the popish religion, and they were forbidden the exercise of that faith<br>
+in the province. Severe penalties were threatened against "prelacy" and<br>
+"licentiousness" thus restricting the benefits of their "Act concerning<br>
+Religion" to the Puritan element now in power. The authority of the<br>
+proprietary himself was disputed, and colonists were invited to take<br>
+lands without his knowledge or consent.<br>
+<br>
+[1656]<br>
+<br>
+Baltimore adopted vigorous measures. By his orders Stone made a forcible<br>
+attempt to regain control of the province, but was defeated at<br>
+Providence and taken prisoner. His life was spared, but four of his men<br>
+were condemned and executed. Baltimore again invoked the powerful<br>
+intervention of Cromwell, and again were the enemies of Maryland sternly<br>
+rebuked for their interference in the affairs of that province, and told<br>
+in plain language to leave matters as they had found them. In 1656,<br>
+after an inquiry by the Commissioners of Trade, the claims of Baltimore<br>
+were admitted to be just, and he promptly sent his brother Philip to be<br>
+a member of the council and secretary of the province. The legislation<br>
+of the usurping Puritans was set aside, religious toleration once more<br>
+had full sway, and a general pardon was proclaimed to those who had<br>
+taken part in the late disturbances.<br>
+<br>
+In the meantime, Fendall, who had been appointed governor by Baltimore,<br>
+plotted to make himself independent of his master, and, with the<br>
+connivance of the assembly, proceeded to usurp the authority which was<br>
+lawfully vested in the proprietary. But the attempt was a miserable<br>
+failure.&nbsp; Philip Calvert was immediately made governor by the now<br>
+all-powerful proprietary, who had the favor and support of Charles II.,<br>
+just coming to the throne. Peace and prosperity came back to the colony<br>
+so sorely and frequently vexed by civil dissensions. The laws were just<br>
+and liberal, encouraging the advent of settlers of whatever creed, while<br>
+the rule of the Calverts was wise and benign, such as to merit the<br>
+respect and admiration of posterity. In 1643 Virginia and Maryland<br>
+together had less than twenty thousand inhabitants. In 1660 Maryland<br>
+alone, according to Fuller, had eight thousand. Chalmers thinks there<br>
+were no fewer than twelve thousand at this date.<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+CHAPTER VII.<br>
+<br>
+NEW NETHERLAND<br>
+<br>
+[1609]<br>
+<br>
+While the French explorer, Champlain, was sailing along the shores of<br>
+the lake which bears his name, another equally adventurous spirit, Henry<br>
+Hudson, was on his way to the western world. Hoping to open a passage to<br>
+India by a voyage to the north, Hudson, an English navigator, offered in<br>
+1609 to sail under the authority of the Dutch East India Company. Driven<br>
+back by ice and fog from a northeast course, he turned northwest.<br>
+Searching up and down near the parallel of 40 degrees, he entered the<br>
+mouth of the great river which perpetuates his name. He found the<br>
+country inviting to the eye, and occupied by natives friendly in<br>
+disposition. The subsequent career of this bold mariner has a mournful<br>
+interest. He never returned to Holland, but, touching at Dartmouth, was<br>
+restrained by the English authorities, and forbidden longer to employ<br>
+his skill and experience for the benefit of the Dutch. Again entering<br>
+the English service and sent once more to discover the northwest<br>
+passage, he sailed into the waters of the bay which still bears his<br>
+name, where cold and hunger transformed the silent discontent of his<br>
+crew into open mutiny, and they left the fearless navigator to perish<br>
+amid the icebergs of the frozen north.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/166Pic_600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>Seal of New Amsterdam.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/167Pic_600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>&nbsp;Peter Stuyvesant.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/167Sign.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<br>
+<big><big><br>
+</big></big><big><big>[1614-1618]<br>
+<br>
+Hudson had sent to Holland a report of the Great River and the country<br>
+bordering it, rich in fur-bearing animals, and it had excited eager<br>
+interest. Private individuals sent expeditions thither and carried on a<br>
+profitable trade with the natives. A few Dutch were here when, in 1613,<br>
+Captain Argall sailed from Virginia against the French at Port Royal,<br>
+Acadia, now Annapolis in Nova Scotia, who were encroaching upon the<br>
+English possessions on the coast of Maine. He compelled them to<br>
+surrender. On his return, he visited the Dutch traders of Manhattan<br>
+Island, and forced them also, as it had been discovered by Cabot in<br>
+1497, to acknowledge the sovereignty of England over this entire region.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/169Pic_600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>Seal of New Netherland.<br>
+<br>
+It was in 1614 that the Dutch States-General, in the charter given to a<br>
+company of merchants, named the Hudson Valley New Netherland. To<br>
+facilitate trade this company made a treaty with the Five Nations and<br>
+subordinate tribes, memorable as the first compact formed between the<br>
+whites and the savages. In it the Indians were regarded as possessing<br>
+equal rights and privileges with their white brethren. The treaty was<br>
+renewed in 1645, and continued in force till the English occupation,<br>
+1664. In 1618, the charter of the New Netherland Company having expired,<br>
+the Dutch West India Company was offered a limited incorporation, but it<br>
+was not until 1621 that it received its charter, and it was two years<br>
+later that it was completely organized and approved by the<br>
+States-General. By this company were sent out Mey, as Director, to the<br>
+Delaware or South River, and Tienpont to the Hudson or North River. Four<br>
+miles below Philadelphia Fort Nassau was erected, and where Albany now<br>
+stands was begun the trading-post called Fort Orange.<br>
+<br>
+[1626]<br>
+<br>
+In 1626 Tienpont's successor, Peter Minuit, a German, born at Wesel, was<br>
+appointed Director-General of New Netherland. He bought of the Indians,<br>
+for the sum of twenty-four dollars, the entire island of Manhattan, and<br>
+a fort called New Amsterdam was built. The State of New York dates its<br>
+beginning from this transaction.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/171Pic_600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>Earliest Picture of New Amsterdam.<br>
+<br>
+By their usually honest dealing with the natives the Dutch settlers<br>
+gained the friendship of the Five Nations, whose good-will was partly on<br>
+this account transferred to the English colonists later. The Dutch were<br>
+not only friendly to the red men, but tried to open social and<br>
+commercial relations with the Plymouth colonists as well. Governor<br>
+Bradford replied, mildly urging the Dutch to "clear their title" to a<br>
+territory which the English claimed by right of discovery.<br>
+<br>
+[1630-1633]</big></big><big><big><br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/172Pic_600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>De Vries.<br>
+<br>
+The present State of Delaware soon became the scene of attempts at<br>
+settlement. De Vries began, in 1632, a colony on the banks of the<br>
+Delaware, but it was quickly laid waste by the savages, who had been<br>
+needlessly provoked by the insolence of the commander left in charge of<br>
+the colony. In 1633 Minuit was succeeded by Van Twiller, and a fort was<br>
+erected at Hartford, though the English claimed this country as theirs.<br>
+Emigrants from the Plymouth colony began the settlement of Windsor, in<br>
+spite of the protests of the Dutch. Long Island was invaded by<br>
+enterprising New Englanders, regardless of the claim of New Netherland<br>
+thereto.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/173Pic_e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>Costumes of Swedes.<br>
+<br>
+This "irrepressible conflict" between two races was by no means abated<br>
+by the introduction of a third. As early as 1626, Gustavus Adolphus,<br>
+King of Sweden and the hero of the Thirty Years' War, had entertained<br>
+the idea of establishing colonies in America, and in pursuance of that<br>
+object had encouraged the formation of a company, not only for trading<br>
+purposes but also to secure a refuge for the "oppressed of all<br>
+Christendom." To Usselinx, an Antwerp merchant, the originator of the<br>
+Dutch West India Company, belongs the honor of first suggesting to the<br>
+king this enterprise. The glorious death of Gustavus on the victorious<br>
+field of Lutzen in 1632 deferred the execution of a purpose which had<br>
+not been forgotten even in the midst of that long and arduous campaign.<br>
+But a few days before he fell, the Protestant hero had spoken of the<br>
+colonial prospect as "the jewel of his kingdom."<br>
+<br>
+[1638]<br>
+<br>
+In 1638 Minuit, who had already figured as governor of New Netherland,<br>
+having offered his services to Sweden, was intrusted with the leadership<br>
+of the first Swedish colony to America. After a few days' stay at<br>
+Jamestown the new-comers finally reached their wished-for destination on<br>
+the west shore of the Delaware Bay and River. Proceeding up the latter,<br>
+one of their first acts was to build a fort on a little stream about two<br>
+miles from its junction with the Delaware, which they named Fort<br>
+Christina, in honor of the young queen of Sweden. Near this spot stands<br>
+the present city of Wilmington. The country from Cape Henlopen to the<br>
+falls at Trenton received the title of New Sweden.<br>
+<br>
+[1650]<br>
+<br>
+It was in this very year that Kieft came to supersede Van Twiller, who<br>
+had given just cause for complaint by his eagerness to enrich himself at<br>
+the expense of the West India Company. During the administration of<br>
+Kieft occurred the long and doubtful conflict with the natives detailed<br>
+in the succeeding chapter. Arbitrary and exacting, he drove the Indians<br>
+to extremities, and involved the Dutch settlements in a war which for a<br>
+time threatened their destruction. Not till 1645 was peace<br>
+re-established, and in 1647 the unpopular governor was recalled. In 1647<br>
+not more than three hundred fighting men remained in the whole province.<br>
+Its total population was between fifteen hundred and two thousand. In<br>
+1652 New Amsterdam had a population of seven or eight hundred. In 1664<br>
+Stuyvesant put the number in the province at ten thousand, about fifteen<br>
+hundred of whom were in New Amsterdam.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/176Pic_600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>The old Stadt Huys at New Amsterdam.<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/176Map600_25_66.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>Illustration: European Provinces 1655. Map of the eastern
+North<br>
+America. Latitude 25 to 50 North, Longitude 75 to 95 West.<br>
+<br>
+[1655-1663]<br>
+<br>
+The next governor, Stuyvesant, was the last and much the ablest ruler<br>
+among those who directed the destinies of New Netherland. His<br>
+administration embraced a period of seventeen years, during which he<br>
+renewed the former friendly relations with the savages, made a treaty<br>
+with New England, giving up pretensions to Connecticut as well as<br>
+relinquishing the east end of Long Island, and compelled the Swedes, in<br>
+1655, to acknowledge the Dutch supremacy. It was while he was absent on<br>
+his expedition against the Swedes, leaving New Amsterdam unprotected,<br>
+that the river Indians, watchful of their opportunity, invaded and laid<br>
+waste the surrounding country. In 1663 the savages attacked the village<br>
+on the Esopus, now Kingston, and almost destroyed it. It was not until<br>
+the energetic governor made a vigorous campaign against the Esopus<br>
+tribe, whom he completely subdued, that peace was established on a firm<br>
+footing.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img style="width: 549px; height: 134px;"
+ src="images/177Pic_600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>New Amsterdam in the middle of the Seventeenth Century.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/178Pic_600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>The Duke of York, afterwards James II.<br>
+<br>
+[1664]<br>
+<br>
+But the Dutch sway in their little part of the New World was about to<br>
+end. The English had never given over their claim to the country by<br>
+virtue of their first discovery of the North American continent. The New<br>
+Netherlanders, tired of arbitrary rule, sighed for the larger freedom of<br>
+their New England neighbors. Therefore, when in 1664 Charles II. granted<br>
+to his brother, the Duke of York, the territory which the Dutch were<br>
+occupying, and sent a fleet to demand its submission, the English<br>
+invader was welcomed.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/179Pic_600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>The Tomb of Stuyvesant. "In this Vault lies buried PETRUS<br>
+STUYVESANT late Captain Genral &amp; Governor in Chief of Amsterdam, In
+New<br>
+Netherland now called New York and the Dutch West India Islands. Died<br>
+A.D. 1672 Aged 80 years."<br>
+<br>
+Almost the only resistance came from the stout-hearted governor, who<br>
+could hardly be dissuaded from fighting the English single-handed, and<br>
+who signed the agreement to surrender only when his magistrates had, in<br>
+spite of him, agreed to the proposed terms. But the founders of the<br>
+Empire State have left an indelible impress upon the Union, which their<br>
+descendants have helped to strengthen and perpetuate. They were honest,<br>
+thrifty, devout, tolerant of the opinions of others. As Holland<br>
+sheltered the English Puritans from ecclesiastical intolerance, so New<br>
+Netherland welcomed within her borders the victims of New England<br>
+bigotry and narrowness.<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+CHAPTER VIII.<br>
+<br>
+THE FIRST INDIAN WARS<br>
+<br>
+[1637]<br>
+<br>
+Troubles between the Indians and the whites arose so early as 1636. John<br>
+Oldham was murdered on Block Island by a party of Pequot Indians. Vane<br>
+of Massachusetts sent Endicott to inflict punishment. The Pequots in<br>
+turn attacked the fort at Saybrook, and in 1637 threatened Wethersfield.<br>
+They were planning a union with the Narragansets for the destruction of<br>
+the English, when Roger Williams informed the Massachusetts colony of<br>
+their designs and, at the urgent request of the governor and council,<br>
+hastened to the chief of the Narragansets and dissuaded him from<br>
+entering into the alliance.<br>
+<br>
+The moment was critical. Captain Mason with about ninety English and<br>
+seventy Mohegans, under their sachem, Uncas (a sub chief, who with his<br>
+district, Mohegan, had rebelled against the Pequot sachem, Sassacus),<br>
+was sent from Hartford down the Connecticut River. Entering the Sound,<br>
+he sailed past the mouth of the Thames and anchored in Narragansett Bay,<br>
+at the foot of Tower Hill, near Point Judith. He knew that keen-eyed<br>
+scouts from the Pequot stronghold on the west bank of the Mystic River,<br>
+near Groton, had, as his three little ships skirted the shore, been<br>
+watching him, to give warning of his approach. He therefore resolved to<br>
+come upon the enemy from an unlooked-for quarter. This plan was directly<br>
+contrary to his instructions, which required him to land at the mouth of<br>
+the Thames and attack the fort from the west side. He hoped, marching<br>
+westward across the country, to take the enemy by surprise on their<br>
+unprotected rear, while the Indians, trusting in the strength of their<br>
+fort, as it fronted the west, should believe themselves secure.<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/185C20pc.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>Attack on the Fort of the Pequots on the Mystic River<br>
+"The figure of the Indians fort or Palizado in NEW ENGLAND And the maner<br>
+of the destroying It by Captayne Underhill and Captayne Manson"<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+Thirteen men had been sent back to the Thames with the vessels. Two<br>
+hundred Narragansets had joined the expedition, though their sachem,<br>
+Miantonomoh, thought the English too weak to fight the dreaded Pequots.<br>
+Mason's enterprise was admirably planned, and he was as fortunate as he<br>
+was bold and skilful. He divided his men into two parties. One, led by<br>
+Underhill, climbed the steep ascent on the south side of the Indian<br>
+village; the other, directed by Mason himself, mounted the northern<br>
+slope. The garrison was buried in slumber, made more profound by<br>
+carousals the preceding night. One Indian was heard to cry out<br>
+"Englishmen" before the volley of musketry from the attacking force told<br>
+that the white enemy had come. Mason entered a wigwam and fought, as did<br>
+the others, hand-to-hand with the now awakened and desperate foe. Coming<br>
+out with a firebrand and exclaiming "We must burn them," he set fire to<br>
+the wigwam. The flames were quickly carried through the fort by the<br>
+northeast wind. Underhill from his side applied powder. So rapidly did<br>
+the flames spread that the English had difficulty in making good their<br>
+escape, while the Pequots who escaped the sword were doomed to perish by<br>
+fire. In an hour's time from four hundred to six hundred had fallen,<br>
+more than half of them women and children. Of the Englishmen two were<br>
+killed and about twenty wounded. In this dreadful slaughter the<br>
+Narragansets had little share, for they had shown such fear that Mason<br>
+had said to Uncas, "Tell them not to fly, but stand at what distance<br>
+they please and see whether Englishmen will now fight or not."<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/188Pic_600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>Attack on the Pequot Fort.<br>
+<br>
+With the approach of day three hundred Pequots advanced from a second<br>
+fort intending to fight, but they were struck with horror at the sight<br>
+of their dead fellow-warriors. Keeping the enemy at bay, the English<br>
+marched to the vessels, which had arrived at Pequot Harbor, and, placing<br>
+the wounded on board, continued their march to Saybrook. The remnant of<br>
+the Pequots sought to escape from the country, moving westward along the<br>
+Sound. Captain Stoughton, sent with one hundred and twenty Massachusetts<br>
+men, was guided by the Narragansets to a swamp in which a little band of<br>
+those hostile savages had hidden. The men were slain, offering little<br>
+resistance. The women and children were divided among the Indian allies<br>
+or sold into slavery by the colonists of Massachusetts Bay.<br>
+<br>
+Mason and Stoughton together sailed from Saybrook along the shore, while<br>
+Uncas with his men tracked the fugitives by land. At Guilford a Pequot<br>
+sachem was entrapped, shot, and his head thrust into the crotch of an<br>
+oak-tree near the harbor, giving the place the name of Sachem's Head.<br>
+Near the town of Fairfield a last stand was made by the hunted redskins,<br>
+in a swamp, to which the English were guided by a renegade Pequot. The<br>
+tribe with whom the Pequots had taken shelter, also the women and<br>
+children, were allowed to give themselves up. The men were shot down or<br>
+broke through and escaped. The wife of Mononotto fell into the hands of<br>
+the English. This Indian squaw had once shown kindness to two captive<br>
+girls, and by Winthrop's orders she was kindly treated in return. The<br>
+Pequots, once so powerful, were well-nigh exterminated. Those taken<br>
+prisoners were spared only to be held in bondage, Mononotto's wife with<br>
+the rest. Some were absorbed by the Narragansets, others by the<br>
+Mohegans, while the settlers of Connecticut, upon whom the war had<br>
+fallen so heavily, came into possession of the Pequot land.<br>
+<br>
+[l638]<br>
+<br>
+For nearly forty years the New England colonies were not again molested,<br>
+the merciless vigor with which they had fought making a lasting<br>
+impression upon their blood-thirsty foes. The cruel slavery to which the<br>
+surviving natives were subjected, the English justified by the example<br>
+of the Jews in their treatment of the Canaanites.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/190Pic.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>Signature of Miantonomoh.<br>
+<br>
+[1642]<br>
+<br>
+The Narraganset chief, Miantonomoh, had become the friend and ally of<br>
+the English by a treaty ratified in 1636, mainly through the good<br>
+offices of Roger Williams, In 1638, after the destruction of the<br>
+Pequots, there was a new treaty, embracing Uncas with his bold Mohegans,<br>
+and stipulating that any quarrel between Miantonomoh and Uncas should be<br>
+referred to the English. In 1642 Miantonomoh was accused of plotting<br>
+against the English, and summoned before the General Court at Boston.<br>
+Though acquitted he vowed revenge upon Uncas as the instigator of the<br>
+charge. His friendship for Roger Williams, as also for Samuel Gorton,<br>
+the purchaser of Shawomet, or Warwick, R. I., which was claimed by<br>
+Massachusetts, had perhaps created a prejudice against him. At any rate,<br>
+when a quarrel arose between Uncas and Sequasson, Miantonomoh's friend<br>
+and ally, while the latter naturally sided with Sequasson, the<br>
+sympathies of the English were with Uncas, who had aided them against<br>
+the Pequots. With the consent of Connecticut and Massachusetts<br>
+Miantonomoh took the field against Uncas, who had attacked Sequasson. He<br>
+was defeated and taken prisoner. Carried to Hartford he was held to<br>
+await the decision of the Commissioners of the United Colonies at<br>
+Boston. They would not release him, yet had no valid ground for putting<br>
+him to death. The case was referred to five clergymen, and they voted<br>
+for his execution. For this purpose the commissioners gave orders to<br>
+turn the brave warrior over to Uncas, English witnesses to be present<br>
+and see that no cruelty was perpetrated. The sentence was carried into<br>
+effect near Norwich. Cutting a piece of flesh from the shoulder of his<br>
+murdered enemy, Uncas ate it with savage relish, declaring it to be the<br>
+sweetest meat he had ever tasted.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/193Pic_600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>The Grave of Miantonomoh.<br>
+<br>
+[1640-1643]<br>
+<br>
+The Dutch, too, as we have to some extent seen already, felt the horrors<br>
+of Indian warfare. Kieft, the Dutch director-general, a man cruel,<br>
+avaricious, and obstinate, angered the red men by demanding tribute from<br>
+them as their protector, while he refused them guns or ammunition. The<br>
+savages replied that they had to their own cost shown kindness to the<br>
+Dutch when in need of food, but would not pay tribute. Kieft attacked.<br>
+Some of the Indians were killed and their crops destroyed. This roused<br>
+their revengeful passions to the utmost. The Raritan savages visited the<br>
+colony of De Vries, on Staten Island, with death and devastation. Reward<br>
+was offered for the head of anyone of the murderers. An Indian never<br>
+forgot an injury. The nephew of one of the natives who twenty years<br>
+before had been wantonly killed went to sell furs at Fort Amsterdam, and<br>
+while there revenged his uncle's murder by the slaughter of an<br>
+unoffending colonist. Spite of warlike preparations by Kieft and his<br>
+assembly in 1641-42, the tribe would not give up the culprit. The<br>
+following year another settler was knifed by a drunken Indian.&nbsp;
+Wampum<br>
+was indeed offered in atonement, while an indignant plea was urged by<br>
+the savages against the liquor traffic, which demoralized their young<br>
+men and rendered them dangerous alike to friend and foe. But<br>
+remonstrance and blood-money could not satisfy Kieft. At Pavonia and at<br>
+Corlaer's Hook [footnote: now in the New York City limits, just below<br>
+Broadway Ferry, East River] the Dutch fell venomously upon the sleeping<br>
+and unsuspecting enemy. Men, women, and children were slaughtered, none<br>
+spared. In turn the tribes along the lower Hudson, to the number of<br>
+eleven, united and desperately attacked the Dutch wherever found. Only<br>
+near the walls of Fort Amsterdam was there safety. The governor<br>
+appointed a day of fasting, which it seems was kept with effect. The<br>
+sale of liquor to the red men was at last prohibited, and peace for a<br>
+time secured.<br>
+<br>
+Soon, however, the redskins along the Hudson were again up in arms. The<br>
+noted Underhill, who with Mason had been the scourge of the Pequots,<br>
+came to the fight with fifty Englishmen as allies of the Dutch. Not<br>
+waiting to be attacked, the Indians laid waste the settlements, even<br>
+threatening Fort Amsterdam itself. At a place now known as Pelham Neck,<br>
+near New Rochelle, lived the famous but unfortunate Mrs. Hutchinson, a<br>
+fugitive from the persecuting zeal of Massachusetts. Here the implacable<br>
+savages butchered her and her family in cold blood. Her little<br>
+granddaughter alone was spared, and led captive to a far-off wigwam<br>
+prison. Only at Gravesend, on Long Island, was a successful stand made,<br>
+and that by a woman, Lady Deborah Moody, another exile from religious<br>
+persecution, who with forty stout-hearted men defended her plantation<br>
+and compelled the savages to beat a retreat.<br>
+<br>
+[1645]<br>
+<br>
+The colony was in extremity. New Haven refused to aid, because, as a<br>
+member of the New England confederacy, it could not act alone, and<br>
+because it was not satisfied that the Dutch war was just. An appeal was<br>
+made by Kieft's eight advisers to both the States-General and the West<br>
+India Company in Holland. The sad condition of the colonists was fully<br>
+set forth, and the responsibility directly ascribed to the mismanagement<br>
+of Kieft. At the same time, undismayed by the gloomy outlook, the<br>
+courage of the sturdy Dutchmen rose with the emergency. Small parties<br>
+were sent out against the Connecticut savages in the vicinity of<br>
+Stamford. Indian villages on Long Island were surprised and the natives<br>
+put to the sword. In two instances at least the victors disgraced<br>
+humanity by torturing the captured.<br>
+<br>
+In these engagements Underhill was conspicuous and most energetic.<br>
+Having made himself familiar with the position of the Indians near<br>
+Stamford, he sailed from Manhattan with one hundred and fifty men,<br>
+landed at Greenwich, and, marching all day, at midnight drew near the<br>
+enemy. His approach was not wholly unannounced, for the moon was full.<br>
+The fight was desperate and bloody. The tragedy that had made memorable<br>
+the banks of the Mystic in the destruction of the Pequot fort was now<br>
+almost equalled. After the example of his old comrade Mason, Underhill<br>
+fired the village. By flame, shot, or sword more than five hundred human<br>
+beings perished.<br>
+<br>
+While New Netherland was awaiting some message of cheer from Holland, a<br>
+company of Dutch soldiers came from Curacoa, but they did little to<br>
+follow up the successes already gained. Again the Eight sent a memorial<br>
+to the company, boldly condemning the conduct of the director and<br>
+demanding his recall. Their remonstrances were at last heeded, and the<br>
+removal of the unpopular governor resolved upon. In 1647 Kieft set sail<br>
+for Holland, but the ship was wrecked, and he with nearly all on board<br>
+was drowned.<br>
+<br>
+It was high time for a change. In the two years, 1643-45, while sixteen<br>
+hundred Indians had been slain, Manhattan had become nearly depopulated.<br>
+In 1645 peace was concluded, not only with the smaller tribes in the<br>
+vicinity, but also with the powerful Mohawks about Fort Orange, and<br>
+finally with all the Indians belonging to the Five Nations or<br>
+acknowledging their authority. A pleasing incident of this treaty was<br>
+the promise of the Indians to restore the eight-year-old granddaughter<br>
+of Mrs. Hutchinson, a promise which they faithfully performed in 1646.<br>
+The great compact was made under the shadow of the Fort Amsterdam walls,<br>
+and the universal joy was expressed by a day of thanksgiving.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/199Pic_600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>Totem or Tribe Mark of the Five Nations.<br>
+<br>
+[1650-1660]<br>
+<br>
+An interval of peace for ten years was now enjoyed, when the killing of<br>
+a squaw for stealing some peaches led to an attack by several hundred of<br>
+the infuriated savages upon New Amsterdam. They were repulsed here, but<br>
+crossing to the shore of New Jersey they laid waste the settlements<br>
+there. Staten Island, too, was swept with fire and sword. One hundred<br>
+people were slain, 150 more taken captive, 300 made homeless. Peace was<br>
+again effected and maintained for three years, when fresh quarrels<br>
+began. It was not until 1660 that a more general and lasting treaty was<br>
+brought about, on which occasion a Mohawk and a Minqua chief gave<br>
+pledges in behalf of the Indians, and acted as mediators between the<br>
+contending parties.<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+PERIOD II.<br>
+<br>
+ENGLISH AMERICA TILL THE END OF THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR<br>
+<br>
+1660--1763<br>
+<br>
+CHAPTER I.<br>
+<br>
+NEW ENGLAND UNDER THE LAST STUARTS<br>
+<br>
+[1660]<br>
+<br>
+The Commonwealth in England went to pieces at the death of Oliver<br>
+Cromwell, its founder. The Stuart dynasty came back, but, alas!<br>
+unimproved. Charles II. was a much meaner man than his father, and James<br>
+II. was more detestable still. The rule of such kings was destined to<br>
+work sad changes in the hitherto free condition of Massachusetts. This<br>
+colony had sympathized with the Commonwealth more heartily than any of<br>
+the others. Hither had fled for refuge Goffe and Whalley, two of the<br>
+accomplices in the death of Charles I. Congregational church polity was<br>
+here established by law, to the exclusion of all others, even of<br>
+episcopacy, for whose sake Charles was harrying poor Covenanters to<br>
+death on every hillside in Scotland. Nor would his lawyers let the king<br>
+forget Charles I.'s attack on the Massachusetts charter, begun so early<br>
+as 1635, or the grounds therefor, such as the unwarranted transfer of it<br>
+to Boston, or the likelihood that but for the outbreak of the Civil War<br>
+it would have been annulled by the Long Parliament itself. Obviously<br>
+Massachusetts could not hope to be let alone by the home government<br>
+which had just come in.<br>
+<br>
+At first the king, graciously responding to the colony's humble<br>
+petition, confirmed the charter granted by his father; but no sooner had<br>
+he done so than the hot royalists about him began plotting to overthrow<br>
+the same, and their purpose never slumbered till it was accomplished.<br>
+Massachusetts was too prosperous and too visibly destined for great<br>
+power in America to be suffered longer to go its independent way as<br>
+hitherto.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/203Pic_600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>King Charles II.<br>
+<br>
+[1661]<br>
+<br>
+The province--as yet, of course, excluding Plymouth with its twelve<br>
+towns and five thousand inhabitants--contained at this time, 1660, about<br>
+twenty-five thousand souls, living in fifty-two towns. These were nearly<br>
+all on the coast; Dedham, Concord, Brookfield, Lancaster, Marlborough,<br>
+and the Connecticut Valley hamlets of Springfield, Hadley, and<br>
+Northampton being the most noteworthy exceptions. Though agriculture was<br>
+the principal business, fishing was a staple industry, its product going<br>
+to France, Spain, and the Straits. Pipe-staves, fir-boards, much<br>
+material for ships, as masts, pitch and tar, also pork and beef, horses<br>
+and corn, were shipped from this colony to Virginia, in return for<br>
+tobacco and sugar either for home consumption or for export to England.<br>
+Some iron was manufactured. The province enjoyed great prosperity.<br>
+Boston stood forth as a lively and growing centre, and an English<br>
+traveller about this time declared some of its merchants to be "damnable<br>
+rich."<br>
+<br>
+As their most precious possession the colonists prized their liberties,<br>
+which they claimed in virtue of their original patent. In a paper which<br>
+it put forth on June 10, 1661, the General Court asserted for the colony<br>
+the right to elect and empower its own officers, both high and low, to<br>
+make its laws, to execute the same without appeal so long as they were<br>
+not repugnant to those of England, and to defend itself by force and<br>
+arms when necessary, against every infringement of its rights, even from<br>
+acts of Parliament or of the king, if prejudicial to the country or<br>
+contrary to just colonial legislation. In a word Massachusetts, even so<br>
+early, regarded itself to all intents and purposes an independent State,<br>
+and would have proclaimed accordingly had it felt sufficiently strong.<br>
+<br>
+[1664]<br>
+<br>
+Manifestly the king would not grant so much. On the occasion of his<br>
+confirming the charter he demanded that the oath of allegiance be taken<br>
+by the people of the colony; that justice be administered there in his<br>
+name; and that the franchise be extended to all freemen of sufficient<br>
+substance, with the liberty to use in worship, public and private, the<br>
+forms of the English Church. The people obeyed but in part, for they<br>
+would not even appear to admit the king's will to be their law.&nbsp;
+The<br>
+franchise was slightly extended, in a grudging way, but no new religious<br>
+privileges were at this time conceded. Unfortunately political and<br>
+religious liberty were now in conflict. It was worse for the Baptists<br>
+and Quakers that the king favored them, and the treatment which they<br>
+received in the colony inclined them to the royalist side in the<br>
+controversy.<br>
+<br>
+In July, 1664, commissioners arrived in Boston with full authority to<br>
+investigate the administration of the New England charters. Such a<br>
+procedure not being provided for in the Massachusetts document, the<br>
+General Court, backed by the citizens almost to a man, successfully<br>
+prevented complainants from appearing before the commission. The<br>
+commissioners having summoned the colony as defendant in a certain case,<br>
+a herald trumpeted proclamation through the streets, on the morning set<br>
+for the trial, inhibiting all from aiding their designs. The trial<br>
+collapsed, and the gentlemen who had ordered it, baffled and disgusted,<br>
+moved on to New Hampshire, there also to be balked by a decree of the<br>
+Massachusetts Governor and Council forbidding the towns so much as to<br>
+meet at their behest.<br>
+<br>
+[1668]<br>
+<br>
+Vengeance for such defiance was delayed by Charles II.'s very vices.<br>
+Clarendon's fall had left him surrounded by profligate aides, too timid<br>
+and too indolent to face the resolute men of Massachusetts. They often<br>
+discussed the contumacy of the colony, but went no further than words.<br>
+Massachusetts was even encouraged, in 1668, forcibly to reassert its<br>
+authority in Maine, against rule either by the king or by Sir Ferdinanda<br>
+Gorges's heir as proprietary.<br>
+<br>
+Its charter had assigned to the colony land to a point three miles north<br>
+of the Merrimac. Bold in the favor of the Commonwealth, the authorities<br>
+measured from the head-waters of that river. But Plymouth had originally<br>
+claimed all the territory west of the Kennebec, and had sold it to<br>
+Gorges. Charles II. favored the Gorges heirs against Massachusetts, and<br>
+for some years previous to 1668 Massachusetts' power over Maine had been<br>
+in abeyance. Ten years later, in 1678, to make assurance doubly sure,<br>
+Massachusetts bought off the Gorges claimants, at the round price of<br>
+twelve hundred and fifty pounds sterling.<br>
+<br>
+[1673]<br>
+<br>
+From 1641 Massachusetts had borne sway in New Hampshire as well,<br>
+ignoring John Mason's claim under Charles I.'s charters of 1629 and<br>
+1635, still urged by one of Mason's grandsons, backed by Charles II.<br>
+Here Massachusetts was beaten. In July, 1679, New Hampshire was<br>
+permanently separated from her, and erected into a royal province, of a<br>
+nature to be explained in a subsequent chapter, being the earliest<br>
+government of this kind in New England.<br>
+<br>
+[1662]<br>
+<br>
+These territorial assumptions on the part of Massachusetts much<br>
+increased the king's hostility. This probably would not have proved<br>
+fatal had it not been re-enforced by the determination of the merchants<br>
+and manufacturers of the mother-country to crush what they feared was<br>
+becoming a rival power beyond seas. They insisted upon full enforcement<br>
+of the Navigation Laws, which made America's foreign trade in a cruel<br>
+degree subservient to English interest. So incorrigible was the colony,<br>
+it was found that this end could be compassed only by the abrogation of<br>
+the charter, so that English law might become immediately valid in<br>
+Massachusetts, colonial laws to the contrary notwithstanding.<br>
+Accordingly, in 1684, the charter was vacated and the colonists ceased<br>
+to be free, their old government with its popular representation giving<br>
+way to an arbitrary commission.<br>
+<br>
+The other New England colonies--Plymouth, Rhode Island, Connecticut, and<br>
+New Haven--had made haste to proclaim Charles II. so soon as restored to<br>
+the throne, and to begin carrying on their governments in his name. That<br>
+beautiful and able man, the younger Winthrop, sped to London on<br>
+Connecticut's behalf, and, aided by his colony's friends at court, the<br>
+Earls of Clarendon and Manchester and Viscount Say and Seal, in 1662<br>
+secured to Connecticut, now made to include New Haven, a charter so<br>
+liberal that it continued till October 5, 1818, the ground law of the<br>
+State, then to be supplanted only by a close vote. Under this paper,<br>
+which declared all lands between the Narragansett River and the Pacific<br>
+Ocean Connecticut territory, Connecticut received every whit of that<br>
+right to govern itself which Charles was so sternly challenging in the<br>
+case of Massachusetts.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/210Pic_600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>John Winthrop the Younger.<br>
+<br>
+From this time on, as indeed earlier, Connecticut was for many years<br>
+perhaps the most delightful example of popular government in all<br>
+history. Connecticut and New Haven together had about ten thousand<br>
+inhabitants. Their rulers were just, wise, and of a mind truly to serve<br>
+the people. Here none were persecuted for their faith. Education was<br>
+universal. Few were poor, none very rich. Nearly all supplies were of<br>
+domestic production, nothing as yet being exported but a few cattle.<br>
+<br>
+Under the second Charles Rhode Island fared quite as well as<br>
+Connecticut. This was remarkable, inasmuch as the little colony of three<br>
+thousand souls, in their four towns of Providence, Newport, Portsmouth,<br>
+and Warwick, insisted on "holding forth the lively experiment"--and it<br>
+proved lively indeed--"of full liberty in religious concernments."<br>
+Charles did not oppose this, and Clarendon favored it, a motive of both<br>
+here, as with Connecticut, being to rear in New England a power friendly<br>
+to the Crown, that should rival and check Massachusetts. Both these<br>
+commonwealths were granted absolute independence in all but name. No<br>
+oath of allegiance to the king was demanded. Appeals to England were not<br>
+provided for.<br>
+<br>
+[1680]<br>
+<br>
+Though having no quarrel with the king, the two southern colonies were<br>
+not without their trials. Connecticut, besides continual fear of the<br>
+Dutch and the Indians, was much agitated by the controversy over the<br>
+question whether children of moral parents not church members should be<br>
+baptized, a question at length settled affirmatively by the so-called<br>
+Half-Way Covenant. It also had its boundary disputes with Massachusetts,<br>
+with Rhode Island--for Connecticut took the Narragansett River of its<br>
+charter to be the bay of that name--and with New York, which, by the<br>
+Duke of York's new patent, issued on the recovery of that province from<br>
+the Dutch in 1674, reached the Connecticut River. During England's war<br>
+with Holland, 1672-74, all the colonies stood in some fear of Dutch<br>
+attacks.<br>
+<br>
+[1685]<br>
+<br>
+Rhode Island had worse troubles than Connecticut. It, too, had boundary<br>
+disputes, serious and perpetual; but graver by much were its internal<br>
+feuds, caused partly by the mutual jealousy of its four towns, partly by<br>
+the numerous and jarring religious persuasions here represented.<br>
+Government was painfully feeble. Only with utmost difficulty could the<br>
+necessary taxes be raised. Warwick in particular was for some time in<br>
+arrears to John Clark, of Newport, for his invaluable services in<br>
+securing the charter of 1663. Quakers and the divers sorts of Baptists<br>
+valiantly warred each against other, using, with dreadful address, those<br>
+most deadly of carnal weapons, tongue and pen. On George Fox's visit to<br>
+the colony, Roger Williams, zealous for a debate, pursued the eminent<br>
+Quaker from Providence to Newport, rowing thither in his canoe and<br>
+arriving at midnight, only to find that his intended opponent had<br>
+departed, The latter's champion was ready, however, and a discussion of<br>
+four days ensued.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/214Pic_600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>Sir Edmond Andros.<br>
+<br>
+Before its sentence of death reached Massachusetts Charles II. was no<br>
+more, and James II., his brother, had ascended the throne. It was for a<br>
+time uncertain what sort of authority the stricken colony would be<br>
+called to accept. Already, as Duke of York, James II. had been<br>
+Proprietary of Maine east of the Kennebec (Sagadahoc), as well as of<br>
+Delaware, New Jersey, and New York. Now that he had the problem of<br>
+ruling Massachusetts to solve, it naturally occurred to the king to make<br>
+Sir Edmond Andros, already governor of New York, master also over the<br>
+whole of English America from the Saint Croix to the Delaware.<br>
+<br>
+In southern New England the reign of Andros wrought no downright<br>
+persecution. He suspended the charters, and, with an irresponsible<br>
+council in each colony, assumed all legislative as well as<br>
+administrative power. Rhode Island submitted tamely. Her sister colony<br>
+did the same, save that, at Hartford, according to good tradition, in<br>
+the midst of the altercation about delivering the charter, prolonged<br>
+into candle-light, suddenly it was dark, and the precious document<br>
+disappeared to a secure place in the hollow trunk of an oak. This tree,<br>
+henceforth called the Charter Oak, stood till prostrated by a gale on<br>
+August 20, 1856.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/216Pic_600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>The Charter Oak at Hartford.<br>
+<br>
+But in Massachusetts the colonists' worst fears were realized. Andros,<br>
+with a council of his own creation, made laws, levied taxes, and<br>
+controlled the militia. He had authority to suppress all<br>
+printing-presses and to encourage Episcopacy. In the latter interest he<br>
+opened King's Chapel to the Prayer Book. His permission was required for<br>
+any one to leave the colony. Extortionate fees and taxes were imposed.<br>
+Puritans had to swear on the Bible, which they regarded wicked, or be<br>
+disfranchised. Personal and proprietary rights were summarily set at<br>
+naught, and all deeds to land were declared void till renewed--for<br>
+money, of course. The citizens were reduced to a condition hardly short<br>
+of slavery.<br>
+<br>
+[1688]<br>
+<br>
+There is no describing the joy which pervaded New England as the news of<br>
+the Revolution of 1688 flew from colony to colony. Andros slunk away<br>
+from Boston, glad to escape alive. Drums beat and gala-day was kept. Old<br>
+magistrates were reinstated. Town meetings were resumed. All believed<br>
+that God had interposed, in answer to prayer, to bring deliverance to<br>
+his people from popery and thraldom.<br>
+<br>
+This revolution, ushering in the liberal monarchy of William and Mary,<br>
+restored to Rhode Island and Connecticut their old charter governments<br>
+in full. New Hampshire, after a momentary union with Massachusetts<br>
+again, became once more a royal province. As to Massachusetts itself, a<br>
+large party of the citizens now either did not wish the old state of<br>
+things renewed, or were too timid to agree in demanding back their<br>
+charter as of right. Had they been bold and united, they might have<br>
+succeeded in this without any opposition from the Crown. Instead, a new<br>
+charter was conferred, creating Massachusetts also a royal province, yet<br>
+with government more liberal than the other provinces of this order<br>
+enjoyed. The governor was appointed by the Crown, and could convene,<br>
+adjourn, or dissolve the Legislature. With the consent of his council he<br>
+also created the judges, from whose highest sentence appeal could be<br>
+taken to the Privy Council. The governor could veto legislation, and the<br>
+king annul any law under three years old.<br>
+<br>
+[1690-1697]<br>
+<br>
+If in these things the new polity was inferior to the old, in two<br>
+respects it was superior; Suffrage was now practically universal, and<br>
+every species of religious profession, save Catholicism, made legal.<br>
+Also, Massachusetts territory was enlarged southward to take in all<br>
+Plymouth, eastward to embrace Maine (Sagadahoc) and Nova Scotia. Maine,<br>
+henceforth including Sagadahoc, that is, all land eastward to the Saint<br>
+Croix, remained part of Massachusetts till March 15, 1820, when it<br>
+became a member of the Union by itself. Nova Scotia, over which Phips's<br>
+conquest of Port Royal in 1690 had established a nominal rather than a<br>
+real English authority, was assigned to France again by the Treaty of<br>
+Ryswick, 1697.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/219Pic_600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>Box in which the Connecticut Charter was kept.<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+CHAPTER II.<br>
+<br>
+KING PHILIP'S WAR<br>
+<br>
+[1675]<br>
+<br>
+Simultaneously with the Stuart Restoration another cloud darkened the<br>
+New England sky. Since the Pequot War, Indians and whites had in the<br>
+main been friendly. This by itself is proof that our fathers were less<br>
+unjust to the red men than is sometimes charged. They did assume the<br>
+right to acquire lands here, and they had this right. The Indians were<br>
+not in any proper sense owners of New England. They were few--by 1660<br>
+not more numerous than the pale-faces--and, far from settling or<br>
+occupying the land, roamed from place to place. Had it been otherwise<br>
+they, as barbarians, would have had no such claim upon the territory as<br>
+to justify them in barring out civilization. However, the colonists did<br>
+not plead this consideration. Whenever districts were desired to which<br>
+Indians had any obvious title, it was both law and custom to pay them<br>
+their price. In this, Roger Williams and William Penn were not peculiar.<br>
+If individual white men sometimes cheated in land trades, as in other<br>
+negotiations, the aggrieved side could not, and did not, regard this as<br>
+the white man's policy.<br>
+<br>
+Yet little by little the Indians came to distrust and hate the rival<br>
+race. It did not matter to the son of the forest, even if he thought so<br>
+far, that the neighborhood of civilization greatly bettered his lot in<br>
+many things, as, for instance, giving him market for corn and peltry,<br>
+which he could exchange for fire-arms, blankets, and all sorts of<br>
+valuable conveniences. The efforts to teach and elevate him he<br>
+appreciated still less. As has been said, he loved better to disfurnish<br>
+the outside of other people's heads than to furnish the inside of his<br>
+own. What he felt, and keenly, was that the newcomers treated him as an<br>
+inferior, were day by day narrowing his range, and slowly but surely<br>
+reducing his condition to that of a subject people. Dull as he was, he<br>
+saw that one of three fates confronted him: to perish, to migrate, or to<br>
+lay aside his savage character and mode of life. Such thoughts frenzied<br>
+him.<br>
+<br>
+The beautiful fidelity of Massasoit to the people of Plymouth is already<br>
+familiar. His son Alexander, who succeeded him, was of a spirit<br>
+diametrically the reverse. Convinced that he was plotting with the<br>
+Narragansets for hostile action, the Governor and Council of Plymouth<br>
+sent Major Winslow to bring him to court--for it must be remembered that<br>
+Massasoit's tribe, the Pokanokets, had through him covenanted, though<br>
+probably with no clear idea of what this meant, to be subject to the<br>
+Plymouth government. Alexander, for some reason, became fatally ill<br>
+while at Plymouth under arrest, dying before reaching home. The Indians<br>
+suspected poison.<br>
+<br>
+His brother Philip now became sachem. Philip already had a grudge<br>
+against the whites, and was rendered trebly bitter by the indignity and<br>
+violence, if nothing worse, to which Alexander had been subjected. He<br>
+resolved upon war, and in 1675 war was begun.<br>
+<br>
+We shall never certainly know to what extent Philip was an organizer. We<br>
+believe correct the view of Hubbard, the contemporary historian, that he<br>
+had prepared a wide-spread and pretty well arranged conspiracy among<br>
+the main tribes of New England Indians, which might have been fatal but<br>
+for "the special providence of God," causing hostilities to break out<br>
+ere the savages were ready. Palfrey challenges this view of the case,<br>
+but on insufficient grounds.<br>
+<br>
+One Sausaman, an educated Indian, previously Philip's secretary, had<br>
+left him and joined the Christian Indians settled at Natick. There were<br>
+by this time several such communities, and also, according to Cotton<br>
+Mather, many able Indian preachers. At the risk of his life, as he<br>
+insisted, Sausaman had warned the Plymouth magistrates that danger<br>
+impended. He was soon murdered, apparently by Philip's instigation. At<br>
+least Philip never denied this, nor did he after this time ever again<br>
+court friendly relations with Plymouth, which he had constantly done<br>
+hitherto. On the contrary, re-enforcements of strange Indians, all ready<br>
+for the war-path, were continually flocking to his camp, squaws and<br>
+children at the same time going to the Narraganset country, manifestly<br>
+for security.<br>
+<br>
+The Plymouth authorities, preparing for war, yet sent a kind letter to<br>
+the sachem advising him to peace. In vain. At Swanzey, the town nearest<br>
+Mount Hope, Philip's home, Indians at once began to kill and ravage, and<br>
+Majors Bradford and Cudworth marched thither with a force of Plymouth<br>
+soldiers. A Massachusetts contingent re-enforced them there, and they<br>
+prepared to advance. Seeing it impossible to hold his own against so<br>
+many, Philip crossed to Pocasset, now Tiverton, and swept rapidly round<br>
+to Dartmouth, Middleborough, and Taunton, burning and murdering as he<br>
+went. He then retired again to Tiverton, but in a few days started with<br>
+all his warriors for central Massachusetts.<br>
+<br>
+Here the Nipmucks, already at war, which indicated an understanding<br>
+between them and the Pokanokets, had attacked Mendon. The day after<br>
+Philip joined them there was a fight at Brookfield, the Nipmucks and<br>
+their allies being victorious. They proceeded to burn the town nearly<br>
+entire, though the inhabitants who survived, after a three days' siege<br>
+in a fortified house, were relieved by troops from Boston just in the<br>
+nick of time.<br>
+<br>
+The Connecticut Valley was next the theatre of war. Springfield,<br>
+Hatfield, Deerfield, and Northfield were attacked the last two having to<br>
+be abandoned. At Hadley the onset occurred on a fast-day. The men rushed<br>
+from their worship with their muskets, which were ready to hand in<br>
+church, and hastily formed for battle. Bewildered by the unexpected<br>
+assault, they were on the point of yielding, when, according to<br>
+tradition, an aged hero with long beard and queer clothing appeared,<br>
+placed himself at their head and directed their movements. His evident<br>
+acquaintance with fighting restored order and courage. The savages were<br>
+driven pell-mell out of town, but the pursuers looked in vain for their<br>
+deliverer. If the account is correct, it was the regicide, General<br>
+Goffe, who had been a secret guest in the house of the Rev. Mr. Russell.<br>
+He could not in such danger refrain from engaging once again, as he had<br>
+so often done during the Civil War in England, in the defence of God's<br>
+people.<br>
+<br>
+From Hadley a party went to Deerfield to bring in the wheat that had<br>
+been left when the town was deserted. Ninety picked men, the "flower of<br>
+Essex," led by Captain Lothrop, attended the wagons as convoy. On their<br>
+return, about seven o'clock in the morning, by a little stream in the<br>
+present village of South Deerfield, since called Bloody Brook in memory<br>
+of the event, the soldiers dispersed somewhat in quest of grapes, then<br>
+ripe, when a sudden and fatal volley from an ambush was delivered upon<br>
+them. The men had left their muskets in the wagons and could not regain<br>
+them. Lothrop was shot dead, and but seven or eight of his company<br>
+escaped alive. A monument marks the spot where this tragic affair<br>
+occurred.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/227Pic_600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>The Monument at Bloody Brook.<br>
+<br>
+So early as July, 1675, Massachusetts and Connecticut, acting for the<br>
+New England Confederation, had effected a treaty with the strong tribe<br>
+of the Narragansets in southern Rhode Island, engaging them to remain<br>
+neutral and to surrender any of Philip's men coming within their<br>
+jurisdiction. This agreement they did not keep. After the attacks on<br>
+Springfield and Hatfield in October, great numbers of the Pokanoket<br>
+braves came to them, evidently welcomed. To prevent their becoming a<br>
+centre of mischief, Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Plymouth despatched<br>
+a thousand men to punish the Narragansets. They met the foe at the old<br>
+Palisade, in the midst of a dense swamp in what is now South Kingstown,<br>
+Rhode Island. The terrible cold which rendered this Narraganset campaign<br>
+so severe had turned the marsh into a bridge, and at once on their<br>
+arrival the soldiers, weary and hungry as they were from their long<br>
+march, and spite of its being Sunday, advanced to the attack.<br>
+Massachusetts was in front, then Plymouth, then Connecticut. Long and<br>
+bitter was the fight. The Indians, perfect marksmen, took deadly aim at<br>
+the leaders. Five captains were killed outright and as many more<br>
+mortally wounded. The fort was taken, re-taken, and taken again, the<br>
+whites at last, to make sure work, setting fire to the wigwams. The<br>
+storming party lost in killed and wounded one-fifth of its number. This<br>
+Swamp Fight, as it was called, broke forever the strength of the<br>
+Narragansets, the tribe and its allies dispersing in all directions.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/229Pic_600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>Goffe at Hadley.<br>
+<br>
+[1676]<br>
+<br>
+In 1676 central Massachusetts was again aflame. Lancaster was sacked and<br>
+burned, its inhabitants nearly all either carried captive or put to<br>
+death with indescribable atrocities. Mrs. Rowlandson, wife of the<br>
+Lancaster Minister, also her son and two daughters, were among the<br>
+captives. We have this brave woman's story as subsequently detailed by<br>
+herself. Her youngest, a little girl of six, wounded by a bullet, she<br>
+bore in her arms wherever they marched, till the poor creature died of<br>
+cold, starvation, and lack of care. The agonized mother begged the<br>
+privilege of tugging along the corpse, but was refused. She with her son<br>
+and living daughter were ransomed, after wandering up and down with the<br>
+savages eleven weeks and five days.<br>
+<br>
+From Mrs. Rowlandson's narrative we have many interesting facts touching<br>
+the Indians' habits of life. They carried ample stores from Lancaster,<br>
+but soon squandered them, and were reduced to a diet of garbage, horses'<br>
+entrails, ears, and liver, with broth made of horses' feet and legs. The<br>
+liver they seemed to prefer raw. Their chief food was ground-nuts. They<br>
+also ate acorns, artichokes, beans, and various sorts of roots. They<br>
+especially delighted in old bones, which, being heated to drive out<br>
+maggots and worms, they first boiled for soup, then ground for use as<br>
+meal.<br>
+<br>
+The captive lady often saw Philip. At his request she made a shirt and a<br>
+cap for his son, for which he paid her. Says Hubbard, "Such was the<br>
+goodness of God to these poor captive women and children that they found<br>
+so much favor in the sight of their enemies that they offered no wrong<br>
+to any of their persons save what they could not help, being in many<br>
+wants themselves. Neither did they offer any uncivil carriage to any of<br>
+the females, nor ever attempt the chastity of any of them." So soon as<br>
+negotiations were opened for Mrs. Rowlandson's release, Philip told her<br>
+of this, and expressed the hope that they would succeed. When her ransom<br>
+had arrived he met her with a smile, saying: "I have pleasant words for<br>
+you this morning; would you like to hear them? You are to go home<br>
+to-morrow," Twenty pounds were paid for her, raised by some ladies of<br>
+Boston, aided by a Mr. Usher.<br>
+<br>
+Hostilities now bore southeastward. Philip was in his glory. All the<br>
+towns of Rhode Island and eastern Massachusetts were in terror, nearly<br>
+all in actual danger. At Medfield twenty whites were killed. Deserted<br>
+Mendon was burned. Weymouth was attacked, and eleven persons were<br>
+massacred in the edge of Plymouth. In Groton and Marlborough every house<br>
+was laid in ashes, as were all in lower Rhode Island up to Warwick, and<br>
+in Warwick all but one. Sachem Canonchet of the Narragansets drew into<br>
+ambush at Pawtuxet a band of Plymouth soldiers, of whom only one<br>
+escaped. Canonchet was subsequently taken by Captain Denison and<br>
+executed. Rehoboth lost forty houses, Providence nearly as many.<br>
+<br>
+The Connecticut Valley was invaded afresh. Springfield, Hadley,<br>
+Northampton, and Hatfield were once more startled by the war-whoop and<br>
+the whiz of the tomahawk. Captain Turner, hearing of an Indian camp at<br>
+the falls of the Connecticut, now called by his name, in Montague,<br>
+advanced with a troop of one hundred and eighty horse, arriving in sight<br>
+of the encampment at daylight. Dismounting and proceeding stealthily to<br>
+within sure shot, they beat up the Indians' quarters with a ringing<br>
+volley of musketry. Resistance was impossible. Those who did not fall by<br>
+bullet or sword rushed to the river, many being carried over the falls.<br>
+Three hundred savages perished, the English losing but one man.&nbsp; A
+large<br>
+stock of the enemy's food and ammunition was also destroyed. Though so<br>
+splendidly successful, the party did not return to Hadley without<br>
+considerable loss, being set upon much of the way by Indians who had<br>
+heard the firing at the falls and sped to the relief of their friends.<br>
+Turner was killed in the meadows by Green River; his subordinate,<br>
+Holyoke, then commanding the retreat.<br>
+<br>
+[1678]<br>
+<br>
+Turner's victory brought the war to a crisis. The red men lacked<br>
+resources. The whites had learned the secrets of savage warfare. They<br>
+could no longer be led into ambush, while their foe at no time during<br>
+the war ventured to engage them in open field. Large parties of Indians<br>
+began to surrender; many roving bands were captured. Hostilities<br>
+continued still many months in Maine, the whites more and more uniformly<br>
+successful, till the Treaty of Casco, April 12, 1678, at last terminated<br>
+the war.<br>
+<br>
+Hunted by the English backward and forward, Philip was at last driven to<br>
+his old home upon Mount Hope.&nbsp; Here Captain Church, one of the most<br>
+practised of Indian fighters, surprised him on the morning of August 12,<br>
+1676, encamped upon a little upland, which it is believed has been<br>
+exactly identified near a swamp at the foot of the mountain. By<br>
+residents in the neighborhood it is known as Little Guinea. At the first<br>
+firing Philip, but partially dressed, seized gun and powder-horn and<br>
+made for the swamp, Captain Church's ambush was directly in his front.<br>
+An Englishman's piece missed fire, but an Indian sent a bullet through<br>
+the Great Sachem's heart.<br>
+<br>
+In this fearful war at least six hundred of the English inhabitants<br>
+either fell in battle or were murdered by the enemy, A dozen or more<br>
+towns were utterly destroyed, others greatly damaged, Some six hundred<br>
+buildings, chiefly dwelling-houses, were consumed by fire, and over a<br>
+hundred thousand pounds of colonial money expended, to say nothing of<br>
+the immense losses in goods and cattle.<br>
+<br>
+Not without propriety has the Pokanoket chief been denominated a king.<br>
+If not a Charlemagne or a Louis XIV., he yet possessed elements of true<br>
+greatness. While he lived his mind evidently guided, as his will<br>
+dominated and prolonged, the war. This is saying much, for the Indian's<br>
+disinclination to all strenuous or continuous exertion was pronounced<br>
+and proverbial. Philip's treatment of Mrs. Rowlandson must be declared<br>
+magnanimous, especially as, of course, he was but a savage king, who<br>
+might reasonably request us not to measure him by our rules. The other<br>
+party to the war we have a right to judge more rigidly, and just<br>
+sentence in their case must be severe. Philip's sorrowing, innocent wife<br>
+and son were brought prisoners to Plymouth, and their lot referred to<br>
+the ministers. After long deliberation and prayer it was decided that<br>
+they should be sold into slavery, and this was their fate.<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+CHAPTER III.<br>
+<br>
+THE SALEM WITCHCRAFT<br>
+<br>
+[1675]<br>
+<br>
+The home life of colonial New England was unique. Its like has appeared<br>
+nowhere else in human history. Mostwise it was beautiful as well. In it<br>
+religion was central and supreme. The General Court of Plymouth very<br>
+early passed the following order: "Noe dwelling-howse shal be builte<br>
+above halfe a myle from the meeting-howse in any newe plantacion without<br>
+leave from the Court, except mylle-howses and ffermehowses." In laying<br>
+out a village the meeting-house, as the hub to which everything was to<br>
+be referred, was located first of all. The minister's lot commonly<br>
+adjoined. Then a sufficiency of land was parcelled off to each<br>
+freeholder whereon to erect his dwelling. Massachusetts from the first,<br>
+and Plymouth beginning somewhat later, also made eminent provision for<br>
+schools--all in the interest of religion.<br>
+<br>
+The earliest residences were necessarily of logs, shaped and fitted more<br>
+or less rudely according to the skill of the builder or the time and<br>
+means at his disposal. There was usually one large room below, which<br>
+served as kitchen, dining-room, sitting-room, and parlor, and on the<br>
+same floor with this one or two lodging-rooms. An unfinished attic<br>
+constituted the dormitory for the rising generation. A huge stone<br>
+chimney, terminating below in a still more capacious fireplace, that<br>
+would admit logs from four to eight feet in length, conveyed away the<br>
+smoke, and with it much of the heat. This involved no loss, as wood was<br>
+a drug. Communicating with the chimney was the great stone baking-oven,<br>
+whence came the bouncing loaves of corn-bread, duly "brown," the<br>
+rich-colored "pompion" pies, and the loin of venison, beef, or pork.<br>
+<br>
+Over these bounties--and such they were heartily esteemed, however<br>
+meagre--often as the family drew around the table, its head offered<br>
+thanks to the heavenly Giver. Each morning, after they had eaten, he<br>
+read a goodly portion of God's Word, never less than a chapter, and<br>
+then, not kneeling but standing, led his household in reverent and<br>
+believing prayer for protection, guidance, stimulus in good, and for<br>
+every needed grace. What purity, what love of rectitude, what strength<br>
+of will did not the builders of America carry forth from that family<br>
+altar! He who would understand the richest side and the deepest moving<br>
+forces of our national life and development must not overlook those New<br>
+England fireside scenes.<br>
+<br>
+[1688-1700]<br>
+<br>
+Prayers ended, the "men folks" went forth to the day's toil. It was<br>
+hard, partly from its then rough character, partly from poverty of<br>
+appliances. For the hardest jobs neighbors would join hands, fighting<br>
+nature as they had to fight the Indians, unitedly. Farming tools, if of<br>
+iron or steel, as axe, mattock, spade, and the iron nose for the digger<br>
+or the plough, the village blacksmith usually fashioned, as he did the<br>
+bake-pan, griddle, crane, and pothooks, for indoor use. Tables, chairs,<br>
+cradles, bedsteads, and those straight-backed "settles" of which a few<br>
+may yet be seen, were either home-made or gotten up by the village<br>
+carpenter. Mattresses were at first of hay, straw, leaves, or rushes.<br>
+Before 1700, however, feather beds were common, and houses and the<br>
+entire state of a New England farmer's home had become somewhat more<br>
+lordly than the above picture might indicate. The colonists made much<br>
+use of berries, wild fruits, bread and milk, game, fish, and shellfish.<br>
+The stock wandered in the forests and about the brooks, to be brought<br>
+home at night by the boys, whom the sound of the cow-bell led. In autumn<br>
+bushels upon bushels of nuts were laid by, to serve, along with dried<br>
+berries and grapes, salted fish and venison, as food for the winter.<br>
+Every phase and circumstance of this pioneer life reminded our fathers<br>
+of their dependence upon nature and the Supreme Power behind nature,<br>
+while at the same time the continual need and application of neighbor's<br>
+co-operation with neighbor brought out brotherly love in charming<br>
+strength and beauty.<br>
+<br>
+But to old New England religion, as a clerical, public, and organized<br>
+affair, there is a far darker side. In the eighteenth century belief in<br>
+witchcraft was nearly universal. In 1683 one Margaret Matron was tried<br>
+in Pennsylvania on a charge of bewitching cows and geese, and placed<br>
+under bonds of one hundred pounds for good behavior. In 1705 Grace<br>
+Sherwood was ducked in Virginia for the same offence. Cases of the kind<br>
+had occurred in New York. There was no colony where the belief in<br>
+astrology, necromancy, second sight, ghosts, haunted houses and spots,<br>
+love-spells, charms, and peculiar powers attaching to rings, herbs,<br>
+etc., did not prevail. Such credulity was not peculiar to America, but<br>
+cursed Europe as well. It seemed to flourish, if anything, after the<br>
+Reformation more than before. Luther firmly believed in witchcraft. He<br>
+professed to have met the Evil One in personal conflict, and to have<br>
+vanquished him by the use of an inkstand as missile. Perhaps every land<br>
+in Europe had laws making witchcraft a capital crime. One was enacted in<br>
+England under Henry VIII., another in James I.'s first year, denouncing<br>
+death against all persons "invoking any evil spirit, or consulting,<br>
+covenanting with, entertaining, employing, feeding, or rewarding any<br>
+evil spirit, or taking up dead bodies from their graves to be used in<br>
+any witchcraft, sorcery, charm, or enchantment, or killing or otherwise<br>
+hurting any person by such infernal arts." A similar statute was<br>
+contained in the "Fundamentals" of Massachusetts, probably inspired by<br>
+the command of Scripture, "Thou shalt not suffer a witch to live." This<br>
+law, we shall see, was not a dead letter.<br>
+<br>
+No wonder such a law was of more effect in New England than anywhere<br>
+else on earth. The official religion of the Puritans was not only<br>
+superstitious in general but gloomy in particular, and most gloomy in<br>
+New England. Its central tenet, here at least, seemed to be that life<br>
+ought to furnish no joy, men seeking to "merit heaven by making earth a<br>
+hell." Sunday laws were severe, and rigidly enforced from six o'clock<br>
+Saturday evening till the same hour the next. Not the least work was<br>
+allowed unless absolutely necessary, nor any semblance of amusement.<br>
+Boys bringing home the cows were cautioned to "let down the bars softly,<br>
+as it was the Lord's day." Sunday travellers were arrested and fined.<br>
+Men might be whipped for absence from church. A girl at Plymouth was<br>
+threatened exile as a street-walker for smiling in meeting. Increase<br>
+Mather traced the great Boston fire of 1711 to the sin of Sunday labor,<br>
+such as carrying parcels and baking food. In Newport, some men having<br>
+been drowned who, to say good-by to departing friends, had rowed out to<br>
+a ship just weighing anchor, Rev. John Comer prayed that others might<br>
+take warning and "do no more such great wickedness."<br>
+<br>
+Sermons were often two hours long; public prayer half an hour. Worse<br>
+still was what went by the name of music--doggerel hymns full of the<br>
+most sulphurous theology, uttered congregationally as "lined off" by the<br>
+leader--nasal, dissonant, and discordant in the highest imaginable<br>
+degree. The church itself was but a barn, homely-shaped, bare, and in<br>
+winter cold as out-of-doors. At this season men wrapped their feet in<br>
+bags, and women stuffed their muffs with hot stones. Sleepers were<br>
+rudely awakened by the tithing-man's baton thwacking their heads; or, if<br>
+females, by its fox-tail end brushing their cheeks. Fast-days were<br>
+common. Prayer opened every public meeting, secular as well as<br>
+religious. The doctrine of special providences was pressed to a<br>
+ridiculous extreme. The devil was believed in no less firmly than God,<br>
+and indefinitely great power ascribed to him. The Catechism--book second<br>
+in authority only to the Bible--contained of his Satanic Majesty a cut,<br>
+which children were left, not to say taught, to suppose as correct a<br>
+likeness as that of Cromwell, which crowned the mantels of so many<br>
+homes.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/244Pic_600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>Increase Mather.<br>
+<br>
+In a people thus trained the miracle is not that witchcraft and<br>
+superstition did so much mischief, but so little. Had it not been for<br>
+their sturdy Saxon good sense its results must have proved infinitely<br>
+more sad. The first remarkable case of sorcery in New England occurred<br>
+at Boston, in 1688. Four children of a pious family were affected in a<br>
+peculiar manner, imitating the cries of cats and dogs, and complaining<br>
+of pains all over their bodies. These were the regulation symptoms of<br>
+witch-possession, which presumably they had often heard discussed. An<br>
+old Irish serving-woman, indentured to the family, who already bore the<br>
+name of a witch, was charged with having bewitched them, and executed,<br>
+the four ministers of Boston having first held at the house a day of<br>
+prayer and fasting.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/246Pic_600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>Cotton Mather.<br>
+<br>
+Young Cotton Mather, grandson of the distinguished Rev. John Cotton, a<br>
+man of vast erudition and fervent piety, was at this time colleague to<br>
+his father, Increase Mather, as pastor of the Boston North Church. His<br>
+imagination had been abnormally developed by fasts and vigils, in which<br>
+he believed himself to hold uncommonly close communication with the<br>
+Almighty. His desire to provide new arms for faith against the growing<br>
+unbelief of his time led him to take one of the "bewitched" children to<br>
+his house, that he might note and describe the ways of the devil in her<br>
+case. The results he soon after published in his "Memorable Providences<br>
+Relating to Witchcrafts and Possessions." This work admitted no doubt as<br>
+to the reality of the demoniac possessions, which indeed it affected to<br>
+demonstrate forever. All the Boston ministers signed its preface,<br>
+certifying to its "clear information" that "both a God and a devil, and<br>
+witchcraft" existed. "Nothing too vile," it alleged, "can be said of,<br>
+nothing too hard can be done to, such a horrible iniquity as witchcraft<br>
+is." The publication excited great attention, and to it in no small<br>
+measure the ensuing tragedy may be traced.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/248e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>Old Tituba the Indian.<br>
+<br>
+In February, 1692, three more subjects, children of Rev. Mr. Parris,<br>
+minister at Danvers, then called Salem Village, exhibited bad witchcraft<br>
+symptoms. The utmost excitement prevailed. Neighboring clergymen joined<br>
+the village in fasting and prayer. A general fast for the colony was<br>
+ordered. But the "devilism," as Cotton Mather named it, spread instead<br>
+of abating, the children having any number of imitators so soon as they<br>
+became objects of general notice and sympathy. Old Tituba, an Indian<br>
+crone, who had served in Parris's family, was the first to be denounced<br>
+as the cause. Two other aged females, one crazy, the other bed-ridden,<br>
+were also presently accused, and after a little while several ladies of<br>
+Parris's church. Whoso uttered a whisper of incredulity, general or as<br>
+to the blameworthiness of any whom Parris called guilty, was instantly<br>
+indicted with them.<br>
+<br>
+On April 11th, the Deputy Governor held in the meeting-house in Salem<br>
+Village a court for a preliminary examination of the prisoners. A scene<br>
+at once ridiculous and tragic followed. When they were brought in, their<br>
+alleged victims appeared overcome at their gaze, pretending to be<br>
+bitten, pinched, scratched, choked, burned, or pricked by their<br>
+invisible agency in revenge for refusing to subscribe to a covenant with<br>
+the devil. Some were apparently stricken down by the glance of an eye<br>
+from one of the culprits, others fainted, many writhed as in a fit.<br>
+Tituba was beaten to make her confess. Others were tortured. Finally all<br>
+the accused were thrown into irons. Numbers of accused persons, assured<br>
+that it was their only chance for life, owned up to deeds of which they<br>
+must have been entirely innocent. They had met the devil in the form of<br>
+a small black man, had attended witch sacraments, where they renounced<br>
+their Christian vows, and had ridden through the air on broomsticks.<br>
+Such were the confessions of poor women who had never in their lives<br>
+done any evil except possibly to tattle.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/250Pic_600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>Lieutenant-Governor Stoughton.<br>
+<br>
+On June 2d, a special court was held in Salem for the definite trial.<br>
+Stoughton, Lieutenant Governor, a man of small mind and bigoted temper,<br>
+was president. The business began by the condemnation and hanging of a<br>
+helpless woman. A jury of women had found on her person a wart, which<br>
+was pronounced to be unquestionably a "devil's teat," and her neighbors<br>
+remembered that many hens had died, animals become lame, and carts upset<br>
+by her dreadful "devilism." By September 23d, twenty persons had gone to<br>
+the gallows, eight more were under sentence, and fifty-five had<br>
+"confessed" and turned informers as their only hope. The "afflicted" had<br>
+increased to fifty. Jails were crammed with persons under accusation,<br>
+and fresh charges of alliance with devils were brought forward every<br>
+day.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/252Pic_600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>Fac-simile of Sheriff's Return of an Execution.<br>
+<br>
+Some of the wretched victims displayed great fortitude. Goodman Procter<br>
+lost his life by nobly and persistently--vainly as well,<br>
+alas!--maintaining the innocence of his accused wife. George Burroughs,<br>
+who had formerly preached in Salem Village, was indicted. His physical<br>
+strength, which happened to be phenomenal, was adduced as lent him from<br>
+the devil. Stoughton browbeat him through his whole trial. What sealed<br>
+his condemnation, however, was his offer to the jury of a paper quoting<br>
+an author who denied the possibility of witchcraft. His fervent prayers<br>
+when on the scaffold, and especially his correct rendering of the Lord's<br>
+Prayer, shook the minds of many. They argued that no witch could have<br>
+gotten through those holy words correctly--a test upon which several had<br>
+been condemned. Cotton Mather, present at the gallows, restored the<br>
+crowd to faith by reminding them that the devil had the power to dress<br>
+up like an angel of light. Rebecca Nurse, a woman of unimpeachable<br>
+character hitherto, unable from partial deafness to understand, so as to<br>
+explain, the allegations made against her, was convicted notwithstanding<br>
+every proof in her favor.<br>
+<br>
+Reaction now began. Public opinion commenced to waver. No one knew whose<br>
+turn to be hanged would come next. Emboldened by their fatal success,<br>
+accusers whispered of people in high places as leagued with the Evil<br>
+One. An Andover minister narrowly escaped death. The Beverly minister,<br>
+Hale, one of the most active in denouncing witches, was aghast when his<br>
+own wife was accused. Two sons of Governor Bradstreet were obliged to<br>
+flee for their lives, one for refusing, as a magistrate, to issue any<br>
+more warrants, the other charged with bewitching a dog. Several hurried<br>
+to New York to escape conviction. The property of such was seized by<br>
+their towns. A reign of terror prevailed.<br>
+<br>
+People slowly awoke to the terrible travesty of justice which was going<br>
+on. Magistrates were seen to have overlooked the most flagrant instances<br>
+of falsehood and contradiction on the part of both accusers and accused,<br>
+using the baseless hypothesis that the devil had warped their senses.<br>
+The disgusting partiality shown in the accusations was disrelished, as<br>
+was the resort that had been had to torture. One poor old man of eighty<br>
+they crushed to death because he would plead guilty to nothing. The<br>
+authorities quite disregarded the fact that everyone of the<br>
+self-accusations had been made in order to escape punishment. These<br>
+considerations effected a revolution in the minds of most people.<br>
+Remonstrances were presented to the courts, securing reprieve for those<br>
+under sentence of death at Salem. This so irritated the despicable<br>
+Stoughton that he resigned.<br>
+<br>
+The forwardness of the ministers therein turned many against the<br>
+persecution, After the first victims had fallen at Salem, Governor Phips<br>
+took their advice whether or not to proceed. Cotton Mather indited the<br>
+reply. It thankfully acknowledges "the success which the merciful God<br>
+has given to the sedulous and assiduous endeavors of our honorable<br>
+rulers to defeat the abominable witch crafts which have been committed<br>
+in the country, humbly praying that the discovery of those mysterious<br>
+and mischievous wickednesses may be perfected. It is pleasant to note,<br>
+after all, the ministers' advice to the civil rulers not to rely too<br>
+much on "the devil's authority"--on the evidence, that is, of those<br>
+possessed. The court heeded this injunction all too little, but by and<br>
+by it had weight with the public, who judged that, as the trials<br>
+appeared to be proceeding on devil's evidence alone, the farce ought to<br>
+cease. The Superior Court met in Boston, April 25, 1693, and the grand<br>
+Jury declined to find any more bills against persons accused of sorcery.<br>
+King William vetoed the Witchcraft Act, and by the middle of 1693 all<br>
+the prisoners were discharged.<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+CHAPTER IV.<br>
+<br>
+THE MIDDLE COLONIES<br>
+<br>
+[1686]<br>
+<br>
+The English conquest of New Netherland from the Dutch speedily followed<br>
+the Stuarts' return to the throne. Cromwell had mooted an attack on<br>
+Dutch America, and, as noticed in Chapter I., Connecticut's charter of<br>
+1662 extended that colony to include the Dutch lands. England based her<br>
+claim to the territory on alleged priority of discovery, but the real<br>
+motives were the value of the Hudson as an avenue for trade, and the<br>
+desire to range her colonies along the Atlantic coast in one unbroken<br>
+line. The victory was not bloody, nor was it offensive to the Dutch<br>
+themselves, who in the matter of liberties could not lose. King Charles<br>
+had granted the conquered tract to his brother, the Duke of York,<br>
+subsequently James II., and it was in his honor christened with its<br>
+present name of New York.<br>
+<br>
+The Duke's government was not popular, especially as it ordered the<br>
+Dutch land-patents to be renewed--for money, of course; and in 1673,<br>
+war again existing between England and Holland, the Dutch recovered<br>
+their old possession. They held it however for only fifteen months,<br>
+since at the Peace of 1674 the two belligerent nations mutually restored<br>
+all the posts which they had won.<br>
+<br>
+The reader already has some idea of Sir Edmond Andros's rule in America.<br>
+New York was the first to feel this, coming under the gentleman's<br>
+governorship immediately on being the second time surrendered to<br>
+England. Such had been the political disorder in the province, that<br>
+Andros's headship, stern as it was, proved beneficial. He even, for a<br>
+time, 1683-86, reluctantly permitted an elective legislature, though<br>
+discontinuing it when the legislatures of New England were suppressed.<br>
+This taste of freedom had its effect afterward.<br>
+<br>
+[1690]<br>
+<br>
+When news of the Revolution of 1688 in England reached New York, Andros<br>
+was in Boston. Nicholson, Lieutenant-Governor, being a Catholic and an<br>
+absolutist, and the colony now in horror of all Catholics through fear<br>
+of French invasion from Canada, Jacob Leisler, a German adventurer,<br>
+partly anticipating, partly obeying the popular wish, assumed to<br>
+function in Nicholson's stead. All the aristocracy, English or Dutch,<br>
+and nearly all the English of the lower rank were against him. Leisler<br>
+was passionate and needlessly bitter toward Catholics, yet he meant<br>
+well. He viewed his office as only transitory, and stood ready to<br>
+surrender it so soon as the new king's will could be learned; but when<br>
+Slaughter arrived with commission as governor, Leisler's foes succeeded<br>
+in compassing his execution for treason. This unjust and cruel deed<br>
+began a long feud between the popular and the aristocratic party in the<br>
+colony.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/260Pic_600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>Sloughter signing Leisler's Death Warrant.<br>
+<br>
+[1700]<br>
+<br>
+From this time till the American Revolution New York continued a<br>
+province of the Crown. Royal governor succeeded royal governor, some of<br>
+them better, some worse. Of the entire line Bellomont was the most<br>
+worthy official, Cornbury the least so. One of the problems which<br>
+chiefly worried all of them was how to execute the navigation acts,<br>
+which, evaded everywhere, were here unscrupulously defied. Another care<br>
+of the governors, in which they succeeded but very imperfectly, was to<br>
+establish the English Church in the colony. A third was the<br>
+disfranchisement of Catholics. This they accomplished, the legislature<br>
+concurring, and the disability continued during the entire colonial<br>
+period.<br>
+<br>
+Hottest struggle of all occurred over the question of the colony's right<br>
+of self-taxation. The democracy stood for this with the utmost<br>
+firmness, and even the higher classes favored rather than opposed. The<br>
+governors, Cornbury and Lovelace, most frantically, but in vain,<br>
+expostulated, scolded, threatened, till at last it became admitted by<br>
+law in the colony that no tax whatever could, on any pretext, be levied<br>
+save by act of the people's representatives.<br>
+<br>
+Dutch America, it will be remembered, had reached southward to the<br>
+Delaware River, and this lower portion passed with the rest to the Duke<br>
+of York in 1664. The territory between the Hudson and the Delaware,<br>
+under the name of New Jersey, he made over to Lord Berkeley and Sir<br>
+George Carteret, proprietaries, who favored the freest institutions,<br>
+civil and religious.&nbsp; The population was for long very sparse and,
+as it<br>
+grew, very miscellaneous. Dutch, Swedes, English, Quakers, and Puritans<br>
+from New England were represented.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/262Pic_600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>Seal of the Carterets.<br>
+<br>
+After the English recovery Berkeley disposed of his undivided half of<br>
+the province, subsequently set off as West Jersey, to one Bylling, a<br>
+Quaker, who in a little time assigned it to Lawrie, Lucas, Penn, and<br>
+other Quakers. West Jersey became as much a Quaker paradise as<br>
+Pennsylvania. Penn with eleven of his brethren, also bought, of<br>
+Carteret's heirs, East Jersey, but here Puritan rather than Quaker<br>
+influence prevailed.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/263Pic_600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<br>
+<big><big>Seal of East Jersey.<br>
+<br>
+The Jersey plantations came of course under Andros, and after his fall<br>
+its proprietors did not recover their political authority. For twelve<br>
+years, while they were endeavoring to do this, partial anarchy cursed<br>
+the province, and at length in 1702 they surrendered their rights to the<br>
+Crown, the Jerseys, now made one, becoming directly subject to Queen<br>
+Anne. The province had its own legislature and, till 1741, the same<br>
+governors as New York. It also had mainly the same political<br>
+vicissitudes, and with the same result.<br>
+<br>
+William Penn, the famous Quaker, received the proprietorship of<br>
+Pennsylvania in payment of a claim for sixteen thousand pounds against<br>
+the English Government. This had been left him by his father, Sir<br>
+William Penn, a distinguished naval commander in the Dutch war of<br>
+1665-67, when he had borne chief part in the conquest of Jamaica.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/264Pic600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>Wampum received by Penn in Commemoration of the Indian Treaty.<br>
+<br>
+William Penn was among the most cultivated men of his time, polished by<br>
+study and travel, deeply read in law and philosophy. He had fortune, and<br>
+many friends at court, including Charles II. himself. He needed but to<br>
+conform, and great place was his. But conform he would not. True to the<br>
+inner light, braving the scoffs of all his friends, expelled from Oxford<br>
+University, beaten from his own father's door, imprisoned now nine<br>
+months in London Tower, now six in Newgate, this heroic spirit<br>
+persistently went the Quaker way. In despair of securing in England<br>
+freedom for distressed consciences he turned his thoughts toward<br>
+America, there to try his "holy experiment."<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/265Pic600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>William Penn; From the copy by Francis Race in the<br>
+National Museum, Philadelphia.<br>
+<br>
+The charter from Charles II. was drawn by Penn's own hand and was nobly<br>
+liberal. It ordained perfect religious toleration for all Christians,<br>
+and forbade taxation save by the provincial assembly or the English<br>
+Parliament. Under William and Mary, greatly to his grief, Penn was<br>
+forced to sanction the penal laws against Catholics; but they were most<br>
+leniently administered, which brought upon the large-minded proprietary<br>
+much trouble with the home government.<br>
+<br>
+As Pennsylvania, owing to the righteous and loving procedure of Penn<br>
+toward them, suffered nothing from the red men to the west, so was it<br>
+fortunately beyond Andros's jurisdiction on the east. Once, from 1692,<br>
+for two years, the land was snatched from Penn and placed under a royal<br>
+commission. Returning to England in 1684, after a two years' sojourn in<br>
+America to get his colony started, the Quaker chief became intimate and<br>
+a favorite with James II., devotedly supporting his Declaration of<br>
+Indulgence toward Catholics as well as toward all Protestant dissenters.<br>
+He tried hard but vainly to win William and Mary to the same policy.<br>
+This attitude of his cost him dear, rendering him an object of suspicion<br>
+to the men now in power in England. Twice was he accused of treasonable<br>
+correspondence with the exiled James II., though never proved guilty.<br>
+From 1699 to 1701 he was in America again, thereafter residing in<br>
+England till his death in 1718. He had literally given all for his<br>
+colony, his efforts on its behalf having been to him, so he wrote in<br>
+1710, a cause of grief, trouble, and poverty.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/268Pic_600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>The Treaty Monument, Kensington.<br>
+<br>
+But the colony itself was amazingly prosperous. There were internal<br>
+feuds, mainly petty, some serious. George Keith grievously divided the<br>
+Quakers by his teachings against slavery, going to law, or service as<br>
+magistrates on the part of Quakers, thus implying that only infidels or<br>
+churchmen could be the colony's officials.<br>
+<br>
+Fletcher's governorship in 1693-94, under the royal commission, evoked<br>
+continual opposition, colonial privileges remaining intact in spite of<br>
+him. The people from time to time subjected their ground-law to changes,<br>
+only to render it a fitter instrument of freedom. In everything save the<br>
+hereditary function of the proprietary, it was democratic. For many<br>
+years even the governor's council was elective. The colony grew,<br>
+immigrants crowding in from nearly every European country, and wealth<br>
+multiplied to correspond.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/270Pic_600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>The Penn Mansion in Philadelphia.<br>
+<br>
+We have, dating from 1698, a history of Pennsylvania by one Gabriel<br>
+Thomas, full of interesting information. Philadelphia was already a<br>
+"noble and beautiful city," containing above 2,000 houses, most of them<br>
+"stately," made of brick; three stores, and besides a town house, a<br>
+market house, and several schools. Three fairs were held there yearly,<br>
+and two weekly markets, which it required twenty fat bullocks, besides<br>
+many sheep, calves, and hogs, to supply. The city had large trade to New<br>
+York, New England, Virginia, West India, and Old England. Its exports<br>
+were horses, pipe-staves, salt meats, bread-stuffs, poultry, and<br>
+tobacco; its imports, fir, rum, sugar, molasses, silver, negroes, salt,<br>
+linen, household goods, etc. Wages were three times as high as in<br>
+England or Wales. All sorts of "very good paper" were made at<br>
+Germantown, besides linen, druggets, crapes, camlets, serges, and other<br>
+woollen cloths. All religious confessions were represented.<br>
+<br>
+In 1712, such his poverty, the good proprietary was willing to sell to<br>
+the Crown, but as he insisted upon maintenance of the colonists' full<br>
+rights, no sale occurred. English bigots and revenue officials would<br>
+gladly have annulled his charter, but his integrity had gotten him<br>
+influence among English statesmen, which shielded the heritage he had<br>
+left even when he was gone.<br>
+<br>
+It is particularly to be noticed that till our Independence Delaware was<br>
+most intimately related to Pennsylvania. Of Delaware the fee simple<br>
+belonged not to Penn, but to the Duke of York, who had conquered it from<br>
+the Dutch, as they from the Swedes. Penn therefore governed here, not as<br>
+proprietary but as the Duke's tenant. In 1690-92, and from 1702,<br>
+Delaware enjoyed a legislature by itself, though its governors were<br>
+appointed by Penn or his heirs during the entire colonial period.<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+CHAPTER V.<br>
+<br>
+MARYLAND, VIRGINIA, CAROLINA<br>
+<br>
+[1675]<br>
+<br>
+The establishment of Charles II. as king fully restored Lord Baltimore<br>
+as proprietary in Maryland, and for a long time the colony enjoyed much<br>
+peace and prosperity. In 1660 it boasted twelve thousand inhabitants, in<br>
+1665 sixteen thousand, in 1676 twenty thousand. Plantation life was<br>
+universal, there being no town worthy the name till Baltimore, which,<br>
+laid out in 1739, grew very slowly. Tobacco was the main production, too<br>
+nearly the only one, the planters sometimes actually suffering for food,<br>
+so that the raising of cereals needed to be enforced by law. For long<br>
+the weed was also the money of the province, not disused for this even<br>
+when paper currency was introduced, being found the less fluctuating in<br>
+value of the two. Partly actual over-production and partly the<br>
+navigation acts, forcing all sales to be effected through England,<br>
+fatally lowered the price, and Maryland with Virginia tried to establish<br>
+a "trust" to regulate the output.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/274Pic_600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>Charles, Second Lord Baltimore.<br>
+<br>
+In its incessant and on one occasion bloody boundary disputes with<br>
+Pennsylvania and Delaware, Maryland had to give in and suffer its<br>
+northern and eastern boundaries to be shortened.<br>
+<br>
+[1689]<br>
+<br>
+One of the most beautiful traits of early Maryland was its perfect<br>
+toleration in religion. Practically neither Pennsylvania nor Rhode<br>
+Island surpassed it in this. Much hostility to the Quakers existed, yet<br>
+they had here exceptional privileges, and great numbers from Virginia<br>
+and the North utilized these. All sorts of dissenters indeed flocked<br>
+hither out of all European countries, including many Huguenots, and were<br>
+made welcome to all the rights and blessings of the land.<br>
+<br>
+But from the accession of Charles Calvert, the third Lord Baltimore, in<br>
+1675, the colony witnessed continual agitation in favor of establishing<br>
+the English Church. False word reached the Privy Council that immorality<br>
+was rife in the colony owing to a lack of religious instruction, and<br>
+that Catholics were preferred in its offices. This movement succeeded,<br>
+in spite of its intrinsic demerit, by passing itself off as part of the<br>
+rising in favor of William and Mary in 1688-89.<br>
+<br>
+[1690]<br>
+<br>
+James II. had shown no favor to Maryland. If its proprietary, as a<br>
+Catholic, pleased him, its civil and religious liberty offended him<br>
+more. He was hence not popular here, and the Marylanders would readily<br>
+have proclaimed the new monarchs but for the accidental failure of the<br>
+proprietary's commands to this effect to reach them. This gave occasion<br>
+for one Coode, with a few abettors, to form, in April, 1689, an<br>
+"Association in Arms for the Defence of the Protestant Religion, and for<br>
+Asserting the Right of King William and Queen Mary to the Province of<br>
+Maryland." The exaggerated representations of these conspirators<br>
+prevailed in England. The proprietary, retaining his quit rents and<br>
+export duty, was deprived of his political prerogatives. Maryland became<br>
+a Crown province, Sir Lionel Copley being the first royal governor, and<br>
+the Church of England received establishment therein.<br>
+<br>
+The new ecclesiastical rule did not oppress Protestant dissenters,<br>
+though very severe on Catholics, whom it was supposed necessary, here as<br>
+all over America, to keep under, lest they should rise in favor of James<br>
+II., or his son the Pretender.<br>
+<br>
+[1660]<br>
+<br>
+The third Lord Baltimore died in 1714-15. The proprietaries after this<br>
+being Protestants, were intrusted again with their old political<br>
+headship. By this time a spirit of independence and self-assertion had<br>
+grown up among the citizens, enforcing very liberal laws, and the vices<br>
+of the sixth Lord, succeeding in 1751, made his subjects more than<br>
+willing that he should, as he did, close the proprietary line.<br>
+<br>
+Virginia, passionately loyal, at first gloried in the Restoration. This<br>
+proved premature. It was found that the purely selfish Charles II. cared<br>
+no more for Virginia than for Massachusetts. The Commonwealth's men were<br>
+displaced from power. Sir William Berkeley again became governor, this<br>
+time, however, by the authority of the assembly. A larger feeling of<br>
+independence from England had sprung up in the colony in consequence of<br>
+recent history at home and in the mother-land. It was developed still<br>
+further by the events now to be detailed.<br>
+<br>
+[1676]<br>
+<br>
+The Old Dominion contained at this time 40,000 people, 6,000 being white<br>
+servants and 2,000 negro slaves, located mainly upon the lower waters of<br>
+the Rappahannock, York, and James Rivers. Between 1650 and 1670, through<br>
+large immigration from the old country, the population had increased<br>
+from 15,000 to 40,000, some of the first families of the State in<br>
+subsequent times arriving at this juncture. About eighty ships of<br>
+commerce came each year from Great Britain, besides many from New<br>
+England. Virginia herself built no ships and owned few; but she could<br>
+muster eight thousand horse, had driven the Indians far into the<br>
+interior, possessed the capacity for boundless wealth, and had begun to<br>
+experience a decided sense of her own rights and importance. The last<br>
+fact showed itself in Bacon's Rebellion, which broke out in 1676, just<br>
+one hundred years before the Declaration of Independence. The causes of<br>
+the insurrection were not far to seek.<br>
+<br>
+[1673]<br>
+<br>
+The navigation acts were a sore grievance to Virginia as to the other<br>
+colonies. Under Cromwell they had not been much enforced, and the<br>
+Virginians had traded freely with all who came. Charles enforced them<br>
+with all possible rigor, confining Virginia's trade to England and<br>
+English ships manned by Englishmen. This gave England a grinding<br>
+monopoly of tobacco, Virginia's sole export, making the planters<br>
+commercially the slaves of the home government and of English traders.<br>
+Duties on the weed were high, and mercilessly collected without regard<br>
+to lowness of price. All supplies from abroad also had to be purchased<br>
+in England, at prices set by English sellers. Even if from other parts<br>
+of Europe, they must come through England, thus securing her a profit at<br>
+Virginia's expense.<br>
+<br>
+This was not the worst. The colonial government had always been abused<br>
+for the ends of worthless office-holders from England. Now it was farmed<br>
+out more offensively than ever. In 1673 Charles II. donated Virginia to<br>
+two of his favorites, Lords Arlington and Culpeper, to be its<br>
+proprietaries like Penn in Pennsylvania and Baltimore in Maryland. They<br>
+were to have all the quit rents and other revenues, the nomination of<br>
+ministers for parishes, the right of appointing public officers, the<br>
+right to own and sell all public or escheated lands; in a word, they now<br>
+owned Virginia. This shabby treatment awoke the most intense rage in so<br>
+proud a people. The king relented, revoked his donation, made out and<br>
+was about to send a new charter. But it was too late; rebellion had<br>
+already broken out.<br>
+<br>
+The Indians having made some attacks on the upper plantations, one<br>
+Nathaniel Bacon, a spirited young gentleman of twenty-eight, recently<br>
+from England, applied to Sir William Berkeley for a commission against<br>
+them. The governor declined to give it, fearing, in the present excited<br>
+condition of the colony, to have a body of armed men abroad. Bacon,<br>
+enraged, extorts the commission by force. The result is civil war in the<br>
+colony. The rebels are for a time completely victorious. Berkeley is<br>
+driven to Accomac, on the eastern shore of the Chesapeake, but,<br>
+succeeding in capturing a fleet sent to oppose him, he returns with this<br>
+and captures Jamestown. Beaten by Bacon in a pitched battle, he again<br>
+retires to Accomac, and the colony comes fully under the power of his<br>
+antagonist, the colonists agreeing even to fight England should it<br>
+interpose on the governor's side, when a decisive change in affairs is<br>
+brought about by the rebel leader's death.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/281Pic_600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>Reverend Dr. Blair, First President of William and Mary
+College.<br>
+<br>
+[1690]<br>
+<br>
+The rebellion was now easily subdued, but it had soured and hardened old<br>
+Governor Berkeley's spirit. Twenty-three in all were executed for<br>
+participation in the movement. Charles II. remarked: "That old fool has<br>
+hanged more men in that naked country than I for the murder of my<br>
+father."<br>
+<br>
+After Bacon's Rebellion the colonial annals show but a dull succession<br>
+of royal governors, with few events specially interesting. Under the<br>
+governorship of Lord Howard of Effingham, which began in 1684, great<br>
+excitement prevailed in Virginia lest King James II. should subvert the<br>
+English Church there and make Catholicism dominant, which indeed might<br>
+possibly have occurred but for James's abdication in 1688.<br>
+<br>
+Under Governor Nicholson, from 1690, the capital was removed from<br>
+Jamestown to Williamsburg, and the College of William and Mary founded,<br>
+its charter dating from 1693. The Attorney-General, Seymour, opposed<br>
+this project on the ground that the money was needed for "better<br>
+purposes" than educating clergymen. Rev. Dr. Blair, agent and advocate<br>
+of the endowment, pleading: "The people have souls to be saved," Seymour<br>
+retorted: "Damn your souls, make tobacco." But Blair persisted and<br>
+succeeded, himself becoming first president of the college. The initial<br>
+commencement exercises took place in 1700.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/283Pic_600e.jpg" alt=""><big><big><br>
+George Monk, Duke of Albemarle.<br>
+<br>
+[1710]<br>
+<br>
+Governor Spotswood, who came in 1710, did much for Virginia. He built<br>
+the first iron furnaces in America, introduced wine-culture, for which<br>
+he imported skilled Germans, and greatly interested himself in the<br>
+civilization of the Indians. He was the earliest to explore the<br>
+Shenandoah Valley. It was also by his energy that the famous pirate<br>
+"Black beard" was captured and executed. Lieutenant Maynard, sent with<br>
+two ships to hunt him, attacked and boarded the pirate vessel in Pamlico<br>
+Sound, 1718. A tough fight at close quarters ensued. Blackbeard was shot<br>
+dead, his crew crying for quarter. Thirteen of the men were hung at<br>
+Williamsburg. Blackbeard's skull, made into a drinking-cup, is preserved<br>
+to this day. The great corsair's fate, Benjamin Franklin, then a<br>
+printer's devil in Boston, celebrated in verse.<br>
+<br>
+Carolina was settled partly from England, France, and the Barbadoes, and<br>
+partly from New England; but mainly from Virginia, which colony<br>
+furthermore furnished most of its political ideas.<br>
+<br>
+[1663]<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/285Pic_600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>Lord Shaftesbury.<br>
+<br>
+In March, 1663, Carolina was constituted a territory, extending from 36<br>
+degrees north latitude southward to the river San Matheo, and assigned<br>
+to a company of seven distinguished proprietaries, including General<br>
+Monk, who had been created Duke of Albemarle, and John Locke's patron,<br>
+the famous Lord Ashley Cooper, subsequently Earl of Shaftesbury.<br>
+Governor Sir William Berkeley, of Virginia, was also one of the<br>
+proprietaries.<br>
+<br>
+[1720]<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/286Pic_600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>Seal of the Proprietors of Carolina.<br>
+<br>
+Locke drew up for the province a minute feudal constitution, but it was<br>
+too cumbersome to work. Rule by the proprietaries proved radically bad.<br>
+They were ignorant, callous to wrongs done by their governors, and<br>
+indifferent to everything save their own profits. Many of the settlers<br>
+too were turbulent and criminals, fugitives from the justice of other<br>
+colonies.&nbsp; The difficulty was aggravated by Indian and Spanish
+wars, by<br>
+negro slavery, so profitable for rice culture, especially in South<br>
+Carolina, by strife between dissenters and churchmen, by the question of<br>
+revenue, and by that of representation.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/287Pic_600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>John Locke.<br>
+<br>
+[1730-1752]<br>
+<br>
+A proprietary party and a larger popular party were continually at feud,<br>
+not seldom with arms, support of the Church allying itself mainly with<br>
+the former, dissent with the latter, Zealots for the Church wished to<br>
+exclude dissenters from the assembly. Their opponents would keep<br>
+Huguenot immigrants, whom the favor of the proprietaries rendered<br>
+unwelcome, entirely from the franchise. The popular party passed laws<br>
+for electing representatives in every county instead of at Charleston<br>
+alone, and for revenue tariffs to pay the debt entailed by war. The<br>
+proprietaries vetoed both. They even favored the pirates who harried the<br>
+coast. Civil commotions were frequent and growth slow. Interference by<br>
+the Crown was therefore most happy. From the time the Carolinas passed<br>
+into royal hands, 1729, remarkable prosperity attended them both.<br>
+<br>
+Assuming charge of Carolina, the Crown reserved to itself the Spanish<br>
+frontier, and here, in 1732, it settled Oglethorpe, the able and<br>
+unselfish founder of Georgia, under the auspices of an organization in<br>
+form much like a mercantile company, but benevolent in aim, whose main<br>
+purpose was to open a home for the thousands of Englishmen who were in<br>
+prison for debt. Many Scotch and many Austrians also came. Full civil<br>
+liberty was promised to all, religious liberty to all but papists.<br>
+Political strife was warm here, too, particularly respecting the<br>
+admission of rum and slaves. Government by the corporators, though<br>
+well-meaning, was ill-informed and a failure, and would have been<br>
+ruinous to the colony but for Oglethorpe's genius and exertions. To the<br>
+advantage of all, therefore, on the lapse of the charter in 1752,<br>
+Georgia, like the Carolinas, assumed the status of a royal colony.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/289Pic_600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>Savannah, from a Print of 1741.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/291Pic_600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>James Oglethorpe.<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+CHAPTER VI.<br>
+<br>
+GOVERNMENTAL INSTITUTIONS IN THE COLONIES<br>
+<br>
+[1750]<br>
+<br>
+The political life, habits, and forms familiar to our fathers were such<br>
+as their peculiar surroundings and experience had developed out of<br>
+English originals. This process and its results form an interesting<br>
+study.<br>
+<br>
+The political unit at the South was the parish; in the North it was the<br>
+town. Jury trial prevailed in all the colonies. Local self-government<br>
+was vigorous everywhere, yet the most so in the North. The town<br>
+regulated its affairs, such as the schools, police, roads, the public<br>
+lands, the poor, and in Massachusetts and Connecticut also religion, at<br>
+first by pure mass meetings where each citizen represented himself and<br>
+which were both legislative and judicial in function, then by combining<br>
+these meetings in various ways with the agency of selectmen. Where and<br>
+so soon as a colony came to embrace several towns, representative<br>
+machinery was set in motion and a colonial legislature formed, having<br>
+two chambers nearly everywhere, like Parliament. The county, with the<br>
+same character as at present, was instituted later than the oldest towns<br>
+and parishes, but itself subsequently became, in thinly settled parts,<br>
+the unit of governmental organization and political action, being<br>
+divided into towns or parishes only gradually. Voting was subject to a<br>
+property qualification, in some colonies to a religious one also; but no<br>
+nobility of blood or title got foothold.<br>
+<br>
+The relation of the colonial governments to England is a far more<br>
+perplexing matter. From the preceding chapters it appears that we may<br>
+distinguish the colonies, if we come down to about 1750, as either (1)<br>
+self-governing or charter colonies, in which liberty was most complete<br>
+and subjection to England little more than nominal; and (2)<br>
+non-self-governing, ruled, theoretically at any rate, in considerable<br>
+measure from outside themselves. Rhode Island and Connecticut made up<br>
+the former class. Of the latter there were two groups, the royal or<br>
+provincial, including New Hampshire, Massachusetts; New York, New<br>
+Jersey, Virginia, the Carolinas, and Georgia, and the proprietary, viz.,<br>
+Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Delaware.<br>
+<br>
+Yet we are to bear in mind that many important constitutional and<br>
+governmental changes had occurred by 1750. Massachusetts, as we have<br>
+seen, had ceased to be self-governing as at first, yet it retained a<br>
+charter which conferred large liberty. All the provincial colonies began<br>
+as proprietary, and all the proprietary were for a time provincial.<br>
+<br>
+Under Andros, New England stretched from the St. Croix to Delaware Bay.<br>
+After 1689 the tendency in all parts of the country was strong toward<br>
+civil freedom, which, favored by the changes and apathy of proprietaries<br>
+and the ignorance and quarrels of the English ministry, gradually<br>
+rendered the other colonies in effect about as well off in this respect<br>
+as Rhode Island and Connecticut.<br>
+<br>
+But unfortunately the legal limits and meaning of this freedom were<br>
+never determined. Had they been, our Revolution need not have come.<br>
+Monarchs continually attempted to stretch hither the royal prerogative,<br>
+but how far this was legal was not then, and never can be, decided. The<br>
+constitutional scope of a monarch's prerogative in England itself was<br>
+one of the great questions of the seventeenth century, and remained<br>
+serious and unsettled through the eighteenth. Applied to America the<br>
+problem became angrier still, partly because giving a charter--and the<br>
+colonies were all founded on such gift--was an act of prerogative.<br>
+<br>
+English lawyers never doubted that acts of Parliament were valid in the<br>
+colonies. The colonists opposed both the king's and the Parliament's<br>
+pretensions, and held their own legislatures to be coordinate with the<br>
+Houses at Westminster. They claimed as rights the protection of habeas<br>
+corpus, freedom from taxation without their consent, and all the Great<br>
+Charter's guarantees. It was the habit of English theorizing on the<br>
+subject to allow them these, if at all, as of grace. Repudiating the<br>
+pretence that they were represented in Parliament, they likewise denied<br>
+all wish to be so, but desired to have colonial legislatures recognized<br>
+as concurrent with the English--each colony joined to the mother-country<br>
+by a sort of personal union, or through some such tie as exists between<br>
+England and her colonies to-day. Massachusetts theorists used as a valid<br>
+analogy the relation of ancient Normandy to the French kings. Though no<br>
+longer venturing to do so at home, monarchs freely vetoed legislation in<br>
+all the colonies except Rhode Island and Connecticut. It was held that<br>
+even these colonies were after all somehow subject to England's<br>
+oversight.<br>
+<br>
+On the subject of taxation there was continual dispute,<br>
+misunderstanding, recrimination. The colonies did not object to<br>
+providing for their own defence. They were willing to do this under<br>
+English direction if asked, not commanded. Direct taxation for England's<br>
+behoof was never once consented to by America, and till late never<br>
+thought of by England. The English navigation laws, however, though<br>
+amounting to taxation of America in aid of England, and continually<br>
+evaded as unjust, were allowed by the colonies' legislative acts, and<br>
+never seriously objected to in any formal way.<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+CHAPTER VII.<br>
+<br>
+SOCIAL CULTURE IN COLONIAL TIMES<br>
+<br>
+[1750]<br>
+<br>
+American society rose out of mere untitled humanity; monarchy, guilds,<br>
+priests, and all aristocracy of a feudal nature having been left behind<br>
+in Europe. The year 1700 found in all the American colonies together<br>
+some 300,000 people. They were distributed about as follows: New England<br>
+had 115,000; New York, 30,000; New Jersey, 15,000; Pennsylvania and<br>
+Delaware, 20,000; Maryland, 35,000; Virginia, 70,000; the Carolina<br>
+country, 15,000. Perhaps 50,000 were negro slaves, of whom, say, 10,000<br>
+were held north of Mason and Dixon's line. What is now New York City<br>
+had, in 1697, 4,302 inhabitants.<br>
+<br>
+Passing on to 1754, we find the white population of New England<br>
+increased to 425,000; that of the middle colonies, including Maryland,<br>
+to 457,000; that of Virginia, the Carolinas, and Georgia, to 283,000.<br>
+Massachusetts alone now had 207,000; Rhode Island, 35,000; Connecticut,<br>
+133,000; New York State (1756), 83,744. There were now not far from<br>
+263,000 negroes, of whom 14,000 lived in New England, 4,500 in Rhode<br>
+Island. The total population of the thirteen colonies amounted to nearly<br>
+a million and a half. At this time Philadelphia about equalled Boston in<br>
+size, each having 25,000 inhabitants. At the Revolution Boston had grown<br>
+to be the larger. New York, with from 15,000 to 18,000, constituted the<br>
+centre of trade and of politics. The city and county of New York<br>
+together numbered 13,046 inhabitants in 1756; 21,862 in 1771; 23,614 in<br>
+1786. The whole State, in 1771 had 146,144. Connecticut, in 1774, had<br>
+197,856. There are said to have been, so late as 1763, woods where the<br>
+New York City Hall now stands.<br>
+<br>
+From North to South the population decreased in density, but it<br>
+increased in heterogeneity and non-English elements, and in illiteracy.<br>
+The South had also the stronger aristocratic feeling. Slaves, as the<br>
+above figures show, were far more numerous in that section. Their<br>
+condition was also worse there.<br>
+<br>
+A large proportion of the white population everywhere was of<br>
+Saxon-Teutonic blood. The colonial leaders, and many others, at least in<br>
+the North, were men who would have been eminent in England itself. Not a<br>
+few New England theologians and lawyers were peers to the ablest of<br>
+their time. Numbers of the common people read, reflected, debated. While<br>
+profoundly religious, the colonists, being nearly all Protestants, were<br>
+bold and progressive thinkers in every line, prizing discussion,<br>
+preferring to settle questions by rational methods rather than through<br>
+authority and tradition. We have observed that there are exceptions to<br>
+this rule, like the treatment of Roger Williams, but they were<br>
+exceptions. The colonists possessed in eminent degree energy,<br>
+determination, power of patient endurance and sacrifice. Their political<br>
+genius, too, was striking in itself, and it becomes surprising if one<br>
+compares Germany, in the unspeakable distraction of the Thirty Years'<br>
+War, with America at the same period, 1618-1648, successfully solving by<br>
+patience and debate the very problems which were Germany's despair.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/302Pic_600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>Costume about the Middle of the Seventeenth Century.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/303Pic_600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>Costume about the Middle of the Seventeenth Century.<br>
+<br>
+In all the southern colonies the English Church was established, a<br>
+majority of the people its members, its clergy supported by tithes and<br>
+glebe. William and Mary secured it a sort of establishment also in New<br>
+York and Maryland. Yet at no moment of the colonial period was there a<br>
+bishop in America. No church building was consecrated with episcopal<br>
+rites, no resident of America taken into orders without going to London.<br>
+[footnote: See, for these facts, The Century for May, 1888.]&nbsp; Even
+in<br>
+Virginia, till a very late colonial period, the clergy retained many<br>
+Puritan forms. Some would not read the Common Prayer. For more than a<br>
+hundred years the surplice was apparently unknown there, sacraments<br>
+administered without the proper ornaments and vessels, parts of the<br>
+liturgy omitted, marriages, baptisms, churchings, and funerals<br>
+solemnized in private houses. In some parishes, so late as 1724, the<br>
+communion was partaken sitting. Excellent as were many of the clergymen,<br>
+there were some who never preached, and not a few even bore an ill name.<br>
+It was worst in Maryland, and "bad as a Maryland parson" became a<br>
+proverb. The yearly salary in the best Virginia parishes was tobacco of<br>
+about 100 pounds value.<br>
+<br>
+The Carolina clergy at first formed a superior class, as nearly all the<br>
+early ministers were men carefully selected and sent out from England by<br>
+the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel. Here there was special<br>
+interest in the religious welfare of the slaves. All Over the South the<br>
+Church ministers owed much to competition with those of sects,<br>
+especially those of the Presbyterians, to which body belonged many of<br>
+the Scotch and Irish immigrants after 1700. Dissent was dominant<br>
+everywhere at the North. A vast majority of the people even in New York<br>
+were dissenters, though the Episcopal clergy there successfully resisted<br>
+all efforts against the Church tax, notwithstanding the fact that the<br>
+same injustice in Massachusetts and Connecticut oppressed their brethren<br>
+in those colonies. The New York clergy also fought every sort of liberal<br>
+law, as to enable dissenting bodies of Christians to hold property. It<br>
+was in good degree this attitude of theirs that filled the country,<br>
+Virginia too, with such hatred of bishops.<br>
+<br>
+But this spirit was fully matched by that of the Independent ministers<br>
+in New England. Their dissent was aggressive, persecuting, puritanical.<br>
+Meeting-houses were cold, sermons long and dry, music vocal only.<br>
+Religious teaching and the laws it procured, foolishly assumed to<br>
+regulate all the acts of life. Extravagance was denounced and fined. In<br>
+1750, the Massachusetts Assembly forbade theatres as "likely to<br>
+encourage immorality and impiety." Rhode Island took similar action in<br>
+1762.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/306Pic_600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big><br>
+Costume about the Middle of the Seventeenth Century.<br>
+<br>
+The ministers of Boston viewed bishops almost as emissaries of the<br>
+devil. Herein in fact lay the primary, some have thought the deepest and<br>
+most potent cause of the Revolution, since kings and the bishops of<br>
+London incessantly sought to establish Anglicanism in Massachusetts, and<br>
+English politicians deemed it outrageous that conformists should be<br>
+denied any of that colony's privileges. For some time, under William and<br>
+Mary's charter, in this province where Congregationalism had till now<br>
+had everything its own way, only Church clergymen could celebrate<br>
+marriage. In New York and Maryland, too, hostility to the establishment<br>
+greatly stimulated disloyalty. This was true even in Anglican Virginia,<br>
+where the Church found it no easier to keep power than it was in<br>
+Massachusetts to get power, and where the clergy were unpopular,<br>
+concerned more for tithes than for souls.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/307Pic_600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>Costume about the Middle of the Seventeenth Century.<br>
+<br>
+Colleges were founded early in several colonies. Harvard dates from<br>
+1638; William and Mary, in Virginia, from 1693; Yale, from 1701; the<br>
+College of New Jersey, from 1746, its old Nassau Hall, built in 1756 and<br>
+named in honor of William III. of the House of Nassau, being then the<br>
+largest structure in British America. The University of Pennsylvania<br>
+dates from 1753; King's College, now Columbia, from 1754; Rhode Island<br>
+College, now Brown University, from 1764. Educational facilities in<br>
+general varied greatly with sections, being miserable in the southern<br>
+colonies, fair in the central, excellent in the northern. In Virginia,<br>
+during the period now under our survey, schools were almost unknown. In<br>
+Maryland, from 1728, a free school was established by law in each<br>
+county. These were the only such schools in the South before 1770.<br>
+Philadelphia and New York had good schools by 1700; rural Pennsylvania<br>
+none of any sort till 1750, then only the poorest. A few New York and<br>
+New Jersey towns of New England origin had free schools before the<br>
+Revolution. Many Southern planters sent their sons to school in England.<br>
+In popular education New England led not only the continent but the<br>
+world, there being a school-house, often several, in each town. Every<br>
+native adult in Massachusetts and Connecticut was able to read and<br>
+write. In this matter Rhode Island was far behind its next neighbors.<br>
+<br>
+Newspapers were distributed much as schools were. The first<br>
+printing-press was set up at Cambridge in 1639. The first newspaper,<br>
+Publick Occurrences Foreign and&nbsp; Domestic, was started in Boston in<br>
+1690. The first permanent newspaper, the Boston News Letter, began in<br>
+1704, and it had a Boston and a Philadelphia rival in 1719. The Maryland<br>
+Gazette was started at Annapolis in 1727, a weekly at Williamsburg, Va.,<br>
+in 1736. In 1740 there were eleven newspapers in all in the colonies;<br>
+one each in New York, South Carolina, and Virginia (from 1736), three in<br>
+Pennsylvania, one of them German, and five in Boston. The Connecticut<br>
+Gazette was started at New Haven in 1755; The Summary, at New London in<br>
+1758. The Rhode Island Gazette was begun by James Franklin, September<br>
+27, 1732, but was not permanent. The Providence Gazette and Country<br>
+Journal put forth its first issue October 20, 1762. In 1775, Salem,<br>
+Newburyport, and Portsmouth had each its newspaper. The first daily in<br>
+the country, the Pennsylvania Packet, began in 1784.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/310Pic_600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>James Logan.<br>
+<br>
+Other literature of American origin flourished in New England nearly<br>
+alone. It consisted of sermons, social and political tracts, poetry,<br>
+history, and memoirs. The clergy were the chief but not the sole<br>
+authors. Of readers, New York, Philadelphia, and Charleston had many.<br>
+Much reading matter came from England. Charleston enjoyed a public<br>
+library from 1700. About 1750 there were several others. That left to<br>
+Philadelphia in 1751, by James Logan, comprised 4,000 volumes.<br>
+<br>
+William and Mary had established a postal system for America, placing<br>
+Thomas Neale, Esquire, at its head. The service hardly became a system<br>
+till 1738. In ordinary weather a post-rider would receive the<br>
+Philadelphia mail at the Susquehannah River on Saturday evening, be at<br>
+Annapolis on Monday, reach the Potomac Tuesday night, on Wednesday<br>
+arrive at New Post, near Fredericksburg, and by Saturday evening at<br>
+Williamsburg, whence, once a month, the mail went still farther south,<br>
+to Edenton, N. C. Thus a letter was just a week in transit between<br>
+Philadelphia and the capital of Virginia. In New England, from here to<br>
+New York, and between New York and Philadelphia, despatch was much<br>
+better.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/312Pic_600e.jpg" alt=""><big><big><br>
+King William.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/313Pic_600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>Queen Mary.<br>
+<br>
+The learned professions also were best patronized and had the ablest<br>
+personnel in New England, where all three, but particularly the clergy,<br>
+were strong and honored. Outside of New England, till 1750, lawyers and<br>
+physicians, especially in the country parts, were poorly educated and<br>
+little respected. Each formidable disease had the people at its mercy.<br>
+Diphtheria, then known as the throat disease, swept through the land<br>
+once in about thirty years. Smallpox was another frequent scourge. In<br>
+1721 it attacked nearly six thousand persons in Boston, about half the<br>
+population, killing some nine hundred. The clergy, almost to a man,<br>
+decried vaccination when first vented, proclaiming it an effort to<br>
+thwart God's will. Clergymen, except perhaps in Carolina and Virginia,<br>
+were somewhat better educated, yet those in New England led all others<br>
+in this respect.<br>
+<br>
+Colonial America boasted many great intellectual lights. President<br>
+Edwards won European reputation as a thinker, and so did Franklin as a<br>
+statesman and as a scientist. Linnaeus named our Bartram, a Quaker<br>
+farmer of Pennsylvania, the greatest natural botanist then living.<br>
+Increase Mather read and wrote both Greek and Hebrew, and spoke Latin.<br>
+He and his son Cotton were veritable wonders in literary attainment. The<br>
+one was the author of ninety-two books, the other of three hundred and<br>
+eighty-three. The younger Winthrop was a member of the Royal Society.<br>
+Copley, Stuart, and West became distinguished painters.<br>
+<br>
+Except for mails, there were in the colonies no public conveyances by<br>
+land till just before the Revolution. After stage lines were introduced,<br>
+to go from Philadelphia to Pittsburgh required seven days; from<br>
+Philadelphia to New York, at first three, later two. The earliest coach<br>
+to attain the last-named speed was advertised as "the flying machine,"<br>
+From Boston one would be four days travelling to New York, two to<br>
+Portsmouth. Packet-boats between the main points on the coast were as<br>
+regular and speedy as wind allowed. Stage-drivers, inn-keepers, and<br>
+ship-captains were the honored and accredited purveyors of news.<br>
+<br>
+Everywhere was great prosperity, little luxury. Paucity of money gave<br>
+rise to that habit of barter and dicker in trade which was a mannerism<br>
+of our fathers. Agriculture formed the basal industry, especially in the<br>
+Southern colonies; yet in New England and Pennsylvania both manufactures<br>
+and commerce thrived. Pennsylvania's yearly foreign commerce exceeded<br>
+1,000,000 pounds sterling, requiring 500 vessels and more than 7,000<br>
+seamen. From Pennsylvania, in 1750, 3,000 tons of pig-iron were<br>
+exported. The annual production of iron in Maryland just before the<br>
+Revolution reached 25,000 tons of pig, 500 of bar. The business of<br>
+marine insurance began in this country at Philadelphia in 1721, fire<br>
+insurance at Boston in 1724. New England produced timber, ships, rum,<br>
+paper, hats, leather, and linen and woollen cloths, the first three for<br>
+export.<br>
+<br>
+In country places houses were poor save on the great estates, south, but<br>
+in the cities there were many fine mansions before 1700. From this year<br>
+stoves began to be used. Glass windows and paper hangings were first<br>
+seen not far from 1750.<br>
+<br>
+The colonists ate much flesh, and nearly all used tobacco and liquor<br>
+freely. Finest ladies snuffed, sometimes smoked. Little coffee was<br>
+drunk, and no tea till about 1700. Urban life was social and gay. In the<br>
+country the games of fox and geese, three and twelve men morris, husking<br>
+bees and quilting bees were the chief sports. Tableware was mostly of<br>
+wood, though many had pewter, and the rich much silver. The people's<br>
+ordinary dress was of homemade cloth, but not a few country people still<br>
+wore deerskin. The clothing of the rich was imported, and often gaudy<br>
+with tasteless ornament. Wigs were common in the eighteenth century, and<br>
+all head-dress stupidly elaborate.<br>
+<br>
+William Lang, of Boston, advertises in 1767 to provide all who wish with<br>
+wigs "in the most genteel and polite taste," assuring judges, divines,<br>
+lawyers, and physicians, "because of the importance of their heads, that<br>
+he can assort his wigs to suit their respective occupations and<br>
+inclinations." He tells the ladies that he can furnish anyone of them<br>
+with "a nice, easy, genteel, and polite construction of rolls, such as<br>
+may tend to raise their heads to any pitch they desire."<br>
+<br>
+"Everybody wore wigs in 1750, except convicts and slaves. Boys wore<br>
+them, servants wore them, Quakers wore them, paupers wore them. The<br>
+making of wigs was an important branch of industry in Great Britain.<br>
+Wigs were of many styles and prices. Some dangled with curls; and they<br>
+were designated by a great variety of names, such as tyes, bobs, majors,<br>
+spencers, foxtails, twists, tetes, scratches, full-bottomed dress bobs,<br>
+cues, and perukes. The people of Philadelphia dressed as the actors of<br>
+our theatres now dress in old English comedy. They walked the streets in<br>
+bright-colored and highly decorated coats, three-cornered hats, ruffled<br>
+shirts and wristbands, knee-breeches, silk stockings, low shoes, and<br>
+silver buckles." [footnote: Mrs. M. J. Lamb, in Magazine of Am. History,<br>
+August. 1888.]&nbsp; Lord Stirling, one of Washington's generals, had a<br>
+clothing inventory like a king: a "pompidou" cloth coat and vest,<br>
+breeches with gold lace, a crimson and figured velvet coat, seven<br>
+scarlet vests, et cetera, et cetera.<br>
+<br>
+The wigs encountered the zealous hostility of many, among these Judge<br>
+Samuel Sewall. His highest eulogy on a departed worthy was: "The welfare<br>
+of the poor was much upon his spirit, and he abominated periwigs." A<br>
+member of the church at Newbury, Mass., refused to attend communion<br>
+because the pastor wore a wig, believing that all who were guilty of<br>
+this practice would be damned if they did not repent. A meeting of<br>
+Massachusetts Quakers solemnly expressed the conviction that the wearing<br>
+of extravagant and superfluous wigs was wholly contrary to the truth.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/319Pic_600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>Chief Justice Sewall.<br>
+<br>
+There was an aristocracy, of its kind, in all the colonies, but it was<br>
+far the strongest in the South. Social lines were sharply drawn, an<br>
+"Esquire" not liking to be accosted as "Mr.," and each looking down<br>
+somewhat upon a simple "Goodman." These gradations stood forth in<br>
+college catalogues and in the location of pews in churches. The Yale<br>
+triennial catalogue until 1767 and the Harvard triennial till 1772<br>
+arrange students' names not alphabetically or according to attainments,<br>
+but so as to indicate the social rank of their families. Memoranda of<br>
+President Clap, of Yale, against the names of youth when admitted to<br>
+college, such as "Justice of the Peace," "Deacon," "of middling estate<br>
+much impoverished," reveal how hard it sometimes was properly to grade<br>
+students socially. At the South, regular mechanics, like all free<br>
+laborers, were few and despised. The indentured servants, very numerous<br>
+in several colonies, differed little from slaves. David Jamieson,<br>
+attorney-general of New York in 1710, had been banished from Scotland as<br>
+a Covenanter and sold in New Jersey as a four years' redemptioner to pay<br>
+transportation expanses. Such servants were continually running away,<br>
+which may have aided in abolishing the system. Paupers and criminals<br>
+were fewest in New England. All the colonies imprisoned insolvent<br>
+criminals, though dirt and damp made each prison a hell. All felonies<br>
+were awarded capital punishment, and many minor crimes incurred<br>
+barbarous penalties. Whipping-post, pillory, and stocks were in frequent<br>
+use. So late as 1760 women were publicly whipped. At Hartford, in 1761,<br>
+David Campbell and Alexander Pettigrew, for the burglary of two watches,<br>
+received each fifteen stripes, the loss of the right ear, and the<br>
+brand-mark "B" on the forehead. Pettigrew came near losing his life from<br>
+the profuse bleeding which ensued. A husband killing his wife was<br>
+hanged. A wife killing her husband was burned, as were slaves who slew<br>
+their masters.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/321Pic_600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>The Pillory.<br>
+<br>
+In care for the unfortunate and in the study and in all applications of<br>
+social science, Philadelphia led. The Pennsylvania Hospital, the first<br>
+institution of the kind in America, was founded in 1751. The<br>
+Philadelphia streets were the first to be lighted; those of New York<br>
+next; those of Boston not till 1773. Before the end of the period now<br>
+before us Philadelphia and New York also had night patrols.<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/323Pic_600e1.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>Signature of Jolliet (old spelling).<br>
+<br>
+CHAPTER VIII.<br>
+<br>
+ENGLAND AND FRANCE IN AMERICA<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/323Pic_600e2.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>Totem of the Sioux.<br>
+<br>
+[1659-1672]<br>
+<br>
+Working upward from the mouth of the St. Lawrence to the source of this<br>
+and of the Mississippi, and then down the latter river, Franciscans and<br>
+Jesuits their pioneers, braving dreadful hardships and dangers in<br>
+efforts, more courageous than successful, to convert the Indians, the<br>
+French had come to control that great continental highway and boldly to<br>
+claim for France the entire heart of North America.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/324Pic_600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>A Sioux Chief.<br>
+<br>
+In 1659, Groseilliers and Radisson penetrated beyond Lake Superior, and<br>
+dwelt for a time among the Sioux, who knew of the Mississippi River.<br>
+Next year Groseilliers went thither again, accompanied by the Jesuit<br>
+Menard and his servant, Guerin. In 1661 Menard and Guerin pushed into<br>
+what is now Wisconsin, and may have seen the Mississippi. These<br>
+explorations made the French familiar with the copper mines of Lake<br>
+Superior, and awakened the utmost zeal to see the Great River of which<br>
+the Indians spoke. La Salle probably discovered the Ohio in 1670, and<br>
+traced it down to the falls at Louisville. His main eulogist holds that<br>
+he even reached the Mississippi at that time, some three years earlier<br>
+than Joliet, but this is not substantiated. We also reject the belief<br>
+that he reached the stream by way of the Chicago portage in 1671.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/325Pic_600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>Totem of the Illinois.<br>
+<br>
+[1676]<br>
+<br>
+In 1672 Count Frontenac, Governor of New France, despatched Louis Joliet<br>
+to discover the Great River. He reached the Strait of Mackinaw in<br>
+December, and there Pere Marquette joined him. In May, next year, they<br>
+paddled their canoes up the Fox River and tugged them across the portage<br>
+into the Wisconsin, which they descended, entering the Father of Waters<br>
+June 17, 1673. They floated down to the mouth of the Arkansas and then<br>
+returned, their journey back being up the Illinois and Desplaines<br>
+Rivers. Joliet gave his name to the peak on the latter stream which the<br>
+city of Joliet, Ill., near by, still retains. Joliet arrived at Quebec<br>
+in August, 1674, having in four months journeyed over twenty-five<br>
+hundred miles.<br>
+<br>
+It thus became known how close the upper waters of the great rivers, St.<br>
+Lawrence and Mississippi, were to each other, and that the latter<br>
+emptied into the Gulf of Mexico instead of the South Sea (Pacific); yet,<br>
+as the Rocky Mountains had not then been discovered, it was for long<br>
+believed that some of the western tributaries of the Great River led to<br>
+that western ocean.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/327Pic_600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>The Reception of Joliet and Marquette by the Illinois.<br>
+<br>
+[1682]<br>
+<br>
+In 1676 Raudin, and three years later,&nbsp; Du Lhut, visited the
+Ojibwas and<br>
+Sioux west of Lake Superior. Du Lhut reached the upper waters of the<br>
+Mississippi at Sandy Lake. He went there again in 1680. In 1682 La Salle<br>
+crossed the Chicago portage and explored the lower Mississippi all the<br>
+way to the Gulf, taking possession of the entire valley in the name of<br>
+France and naming it Louisiana. Nicholas Perrot travelled by way of the<br>
+Fox and Wisconsin Rivers to the upper Mississippi in 1685, and again in<br>
+1688. It is in his writings that the word "Chicago" first appears in<br>
+literature.<br>
+<br>
+There were thus between the two great valleys, 1, the Superior route; 2,<br>
+the Wisconsin and Fox route; 3, the Illinois River route, whether by the<br>
+Kankakee, La Salle's way, or by the south branch of the Chicago River,<br>
+Joliet's way; and 4, the route by the Wabash and Ohio. The Wabash, too,<br>
+could be approached either from Lake Erie or from Lake Michigan, through<br>
+St. Joseph's River. At high water, canoes often passed from Lake<br>
+Michigan into the Mississippi without portage.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/330Pic_600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>A Part of the Map Published in Paris by Thevenot as<br>
+"Marquette's Map." It shows the route taken by Joliet across Wisconsin<br>
+from the Baie des Puans (now Green Bay) to the Mississippi River, also<br>
+part of the return journey, that is, from the present site of Chicago,<br>
+northward along lake Michigan.<br>
+<br>
+[1685-1690]<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/331Pic_600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>&nbsp; Louis XIV.<br>
+<br>
+La Salle had the ambition to get to the South Sea from the Mississippi.<br>
+Governor De la Barre, who followed Frontenac, opposing him, he repaired<br>
+to France, where he succeeded in winning Louis XIV. to his plan. At the<br>
+head of a well-equipped fleet he sailed for the mouth of the<br>
+Mississippi, reaching land near Matagorda Bay on the first day of the<br>
+year 1685. Not finding the Mississippi, La Salle's officers mutinied.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><big><big>The expedition broke up into parties, wandering
+here and
+there,<br>
+distressed by Indian attacks and by treachery among themselves. La Salle<br>
+was shot by his own men. Nearly all his followers perished, but a small<br>
+party at last discovered the river and ascended it to Fort St. Louis on<br>
+the Illinois, reaching France via Quebec.&nbsp; In this expedition
+France<br>
+took possession of Texas, nor did she ever relinquish the claim till, in<br>
+1763, the whole of Louisiana west of the Mississippi was ceded to Spain,<br>
+La Salle's ill-starred attempt led later to the planting of French<br>
+colonies by D'Iberville at Biloxi Island, in Mobile Bay, soon abandoned,<br>
+and at Poverty Point, on the Mississippi; and still later to the<br>
+settlement of New Orleans and vicinity. Growth in these parts was slow,<br>
+however. So late as 1713 there were not over three hundred whites in the<br>
+entire Mississippi Valley.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/332Pic_600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>Coins Struck In France for the Colonies.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/333Pic_600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>&nbsp;Assassination of La Salle.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/334Pic_600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>New Orleans in 1719.<br>
+<br>
+By this time French traders had set foot on every shore of the great<br>
+lakes and explored nearly every stream tributary thereto. The English,<br>
+pushing westward more and more, were trying to divide with them the<br>
+lucrative business of fur-trading, and each nation sought to win to<br>
+itself all the Indians it could. The Mohawks and their confederates of<br>
+the Five Nations, now equipped and acquainted with fire-arms, spite of<br>
+alternate overtures and threats from the French, remained firm friends<br>
+to the English, who more and more invaded those vast and fertile western<br>
+ranges. It grew to be the great question of the age this side the<br>
+Atlantic, whether England or France should control the continent. King<br>
+William's war, declared in 1689, was therefore certain to rage in<br>
+America as well as in Europe.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/335Pic_600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>Signature of D'Iberville.<br>
+<br>
+One sees by a glance at the map what advantage France had in this<br>
+struggle. It possessed the best fishing grounds and fur-producing<br>
+districts, and fish and furs were at first the only exports of value<br>
+from the north of America. The French, too, held all the water-ways to<br>
+the heart of the continent. Coming up Lake Champlain they could threaten<br>
+New York and New England from the rear. The colonies farther south they<br>
+shut in almost as straitly, French bullets whistling about any<br>
+Englishman's ears the instant he appeared beyond the mountains.<br>
+<br>
+In other respects England had the advantage. In population English<br>
+America had become as superior as French America was territorially,<br>
+having 1,116,000 white inhabitants in 1750, to about 80,000 French. The<br>
+English colonies were also more convenient to the mother-country, and<br>
+the better situated for commerce both coastwise and across the ocean.<br>
+Among the English, temper for mere speculation and adventure decayed<br>
+very early, giving way to the conviction that successful planting<br>
+depended wholly upon persistent, energetic toil.<br>
+<br>
+A piece of fortune more important yet was their relatively free<br>
+religious and political system. Toleration in religion was large.<br>
+Self-government was nearly complete internally, and indeed externally,<br>
+till the navigation acts. Canada, on the other hand, was oppressed by a<br>
+feudal constitution in the state, settlers being denied the fee simple<br>
+of their lands, and by Jesuits in Church. "New France could not grow,"<br>
+says Parkman, "with a priest on guard at the gate to let in none but<br>
+such as pleased him. In making Canada a citadel of the state religion,<br>
+the clerical monitors of the Crown robbed their country of a<br>
+transatlantic empire." Thus the Huguenots, France's best emigrants to<br>
+America, did not come to New France, but to New England and the other<br>
+Protestant colonies.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/337Pic_600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>The Attack on Schenectady.<br>
+<br>
+The Indian hostilities which heralded King William's War began August<br>
+13, 1688. Frontenac prepared to capture Albany and even Manhattan. He<br>
+did not accomplish so much; but on the night of February 8, 1689-90, his<br>
+force of ninety Iroquois and over a hundred Frenchmen fell upon<br>
+Schenectady, killed sixty, and captured eighty or ninety more. Only a<br>
+corporal's guard escaped to Albany with the sad news. This attack had<br>
+weighty influence, as occasioning the first American congress. Seven<br>
+delegates from various colonies assembled at New York on May 1, 1690, to<br>
+devise defence against the northern invaders.<br>
+<br>
+The eastern Indians were hardly at rest from Philip's War when roused by<br>
+the French to engage in this. An attack was made upon Haverhill, Mass.,<br>
+and Hannah Dustin, with a child only a few days old, another woman, and<br>
+a boy, was led captive to an Indian camp up the Merrimac. The savages<br>
+killed the infant, but thereby steeled the mother's heart for revenge.<br>
+One night the three prisoners slew their sleeping guards and, seizing a<br>
+canoe, floated down to their home. Dover was attacked June 27, 1689,<br>
+twenty-three persons killed, and twenty-nine sold to the French in<br>
+Canada. Indescribable horrors occurred at Oyster River, at Salmon Falls,<br>
+at Casco, at Exeter, and elsewhere.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/339Pic_600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>Hannah Dustin's Escape.<br>
+<br>
+[1702]<br>
+<br>
+In 1702 Queen Anne's War began, and in this again New England was the<br>
+chief sufferer. The barbarities which marked it were worse than those of<br>
+Philip's War. De Rouville, with a party of French and savages, proceeded<br>
+from Canada to Deerfield, Mass. Fearing an attack, the villagers meant<br>
+to be vigilant, but early on a February morning, 1704, the wily enemy,<br>
+skulking till the sentinels retired at daylight, managed to effect a<br>
+surprise. Fifty were killed and one hundred hurried off to Canada. Among<br>
+these were the minister, Mr. Williams, and his family. Twenty years<br>
+later a white woman in Indian dress entered Deerfield. It was one of the<br>
+Williams daughters. She had married an Indian in Canada, and now refused<br>
+to desert him. Cases like this, of which there were many in the course<br>
+of these frightful wars, seemed to the settlers harder to bear than<br>
+death. Massachusetts came so to dread the atrocious foe, that fifteen<br>
+pounds were offered by public authority for an Indian man's scalp, eight<br>
+for a child's or a woman's.<br>
+<br>
+[1705]<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/341Pic_600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>Plan of Port Royal, Nova Scotia.<br>
+</big></big><big><big><br>
+Governor Spotswood urged aggression on the French to the west; Governor<br>
+Hunter of New York had equal zeal for a movement northward. New York<br>
+raised 600 men and the same number of Iroquois, voting 10,000 pounds of<br>
+paper money for their sustenance. Connecticut and New Jersey sent 1,600<br>
+men. A force of 4,000 in all mustered at Albany under Nicholson of New<br>
+York. They were to co-operate against Montreal with the naval expedition<br>
+of 1711, commanded by Sir Hoveden Walker. Walker failed ignominiously,<br>
+and Nicholson, hearing of this betimes, saved himself by retreating.<br>
+<br>
+Sir William Phips had captured Port Royal in 1690, and Acadia was<br>
+annexed to Massachusetts in 1692. In 1691 the French again took formal<br>
+possession of Port Royal and the neighboring country. In 1692 an<br>
+ineffectual attempt was made to recover it, but by the Treaty of<br>
+Ryswick, 1697, it was explicitly given back to France.<br>
+<br>
+[1710]<br>
+<br>
+At the inception of Queen Anne's War, in 1702, there were several<br>
+expeditions from New England to Nova Scotia; in 1704 and 1707 without<br>
+result. That of 1710 was more successful. It consisted of four regiments<br>
+and thirty-six vessels, besides troop and store ships and some marines.<br>
+Port Royal capitulated, and its name was changed to Annapolis, in honor<br>
+of Queen Anne. Acadia never again came under French control, and was<br>
+regularly ceded to England by the Treaty of Utrecht, 1713.<br>
+Notwithstanding this, however, French America still remained<br>
+substantially intact.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/343Pic_600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>Queen Anne.<br>
+<br>
+[1714]<br>
+<br>
+If the great struggle for the Ohio Valley now became a silent one, it<br>
+was none the less earnest. Spotswood had opened a road across the Blue<br>
+Ridge in 1716. In 1721 New Yorkers began settling on Oswego River, and<br>
+they finished a fort there by 1726. Closer alliance was formed with the<br>
+Five Nations. The French governor of Quebec in 1725 pleaded that Niagara<br>
+must be fortified, and on his successor was urged the necessity of<br>
+reducing the Oswego garrison. It was partly to flank Oswego that the<br>
+French pushed up Lake Champlain to Crown Point and built Fort St.<br>
+Frederick.<br>
+<br>
+The Treaty of Utrecht had left Cape Breton Island to France. The French<br>
+at once strongly fortified Louisburg and invited thither the French<br>
+inhabitants of Acadia and Newfoundland, which had also been ceded to<br>
+Great Britain. Many went, though the British governors did much to<br>
+hinder removal. This irritated the French authorities, and the Indian<br>
+atrocities of 1723-24 at Dover and in Maine are known to have been<br>
+stimulated from Montreal. Father Rasle, an astute and benevolent French<br>
+Jesuit who had settled among the Indians at Norridgewock, became an<br>
+agent of this hostile influence. In an English attack, August 12, 1724,<br>
+Rasle's settlement was broken up and himself killed. The Indians next<br>
+year made a treaty, and peace prevailed till King George's War.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/345Pic_600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>Governor Shirley.<br>
+<br>
+[1745]<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/346Pic_600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>Sir William Pepperrell.<br>
+<br>
+This opened in 1744, England against France once more, and in 1745 came<br>
+the capture of Louisburg, then the Gibraltar of America. This was<br>
+brought about through the energy of Governor Shirley, of Massachusetts,<br>
+the most efficient English commander this side the Atlantic. That<br>
+commonwealth voted to send 3,250 men, Connecticut 500, New Hampshire and<br>
+Rhode Island each 300. Sir William Pepperrell, of Kittery, Me.,<br>
+commanded, Richard Gridley, of Bunker Hill fame, being his chief of<br>
+artillery. The expedition consisted of thirteen armed vessels, commanded<br>
+by Captain Edward Tyng, with over 200 guns, and about ninety transports.<br>
+The Massachusetts troops sailed from Nantasket March 24th, and reached<br>
+Canso, April 4th. "Rhode Island," says Hutchinson, "waited until a<br>
+better judgment could be made of the event, their three hundred not<br>
+arriving until after the place had surrendered." The expedition was very<br>
+costly to the colonies participating, and four years later England<br>
+reimbursed them in the sum of 200,000 pounds. Yet at the disgraceful<br>
+peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1748, she surrendered Louisburg and all<br>
+Cape Breton to France again.<br>
+<br>
+[1746-1748]<br>
+<br>
+In 1746 French and Indians from Crown Point destroyed the fort and<br>
+twenty houses at Saratoga, killing thirty persons, and capturing sixty.<br>
+Orders came this year from England to advance on Crown Point and<br>
+Montreal, upon Shirley's plan, all the colonies as far south as Virginia<br>
+being commanded to aid. Quite an army mustered at Albany. Sir William<br>
+Johnson succeeded in rousing the Iroquois, whom the French had been<br>
+courting with unprecedented assiduity. But D'Anville's fleet threatened.<br>
+The colonies wanted their troops at home. Inactivity discouraged the<br>
+soldiers, alienated the Indians. At last news came that the Canada<br>
+project was abandoned, and in 1748 the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle was<br>
+declared.<br>
+<br>
+This very year France began new efforts to fill the Ohio Valley with<br>
+emigrants. Virginia did the same. To anticipate the English, the French<br>
+sent Bienville to bury engraved leaden plates at the mouths of streams.<br>
+They also fortified the present sites of Ogdensburg and Toronto. Even<br>
+now, therefore, France's power this side the Atlantic was not visibly<br>
+shaken. The continental problem remained unsolved.<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+CHAPTER IX.<br>
+<br>
+THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR<br>
+<br>
+[1748]<br>
+<br>
+The Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle had been made only because the contestants<br>
+were tired of fighting. In America, at least, each at once began taking<br>
+breath and preparing to renew the struggle. Not a year passed that did<br>
+not witness border quarrels more or less bloody. The French authorities<br>
+filled the Ohio and Mississippi valleys with military posts; English<br>
+settlers pressed persistently into the same to find homes. In this<br>
+movement Virginia led, having in 1748 formed, especially to aid western<br>
+settlement, the Ohio Company, which received from the king a grant of<br>
+five hundred thousand acres beyond the Alleghanies. A road was laid out<br>
+between the upper Potomac and the present Pittsburgh, settlements were<br>
+begun along it, and efforts made to conciliate the savages.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/350Pic_600eBW.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>Map showing Position of French and English Forts and
+Settlements.<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/351Pic_600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>The Ambuscade.<br>
+<br>
+[1754]<br>
+<br>
+One of the frontier villages was at what is now Franklin, Penn., and the<br>
+location involved Virginia with the colony of Pennsylvania. As<br>
+commissioner to settle the dispute George Washington was sent out.<br>
+<br>
+The future Father of his Country was of humble origin. Born in<br>
+Westmoreland County, Va., "about ten in ye morning of ye 11th day of<br>
+February, 1731-32," as recorded in his mother's Bible, he had been an<br>
+orphan from his earliest youth. His education was of the slenderest. At<br>
+sixteen he became a land surveyor, leading a life of the roughest sort,<br>
+beasts, savages, and hardy frontiersmen his constant companions,<br>
+sleeping under the sky and cooking his own coarse food. No better man<br>
+could have been chosen to thread now the Alleghany trail.<br>
+<br>
+Washington reported the French strongly posted in western Pennsylvania<br>
+on lands claimed by the Ohio Company. Virginia fitted out an expedition<br>
+to dislodge them. Of this Washington commanded the advance. Meeting at<br>
+Great Meadows the French under Contrecoeur, commander of Fort Du Quesne<br>
+(Pittsburgh); he was at first victorious, but the French were<br>
+re-enforced before he was, and Washington, after a gallant struggle, had<br>
+to capitulate.&nbsp; This was on July 3, 1754. The French and Indian
+War had<br>
+begun.<br>
+</big></big><big><big><br>
+</big></big><img src="images/354Pic_600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>Baddock's Route.<br>
+<br>
+[1755]<br>
+<br>
+The English Government bade the colonies defend their frontier, and in<br>
+this interest twenty-five delegates from the seven northern colonies met<br>
+at Albany on June 19, 1754. Benjamin Franklin represented Pennsylvania,<br>
+and it was at this conference that he presented his well-considered<br>
+plan, to be described in our chapter on Independence, for a general<br>
+government over English America. The Albany Convention amounted to<br>
+little, but did somewhat to renew alliance with the Six Nations.<br>
+[footnote: Increased from five to six by the accession of the<br>
+Tuscaroras.]<br>
+<br>
+In this decisive war England had in view four great objects of conquest<br>
+in America: 1. Fort Du Quesne; 2. The Ontario basin with Oswego and Fort<br>
+Niagara; 3. The Champlain Valley; 4. Louisburg. The British ministry<br>
+seemed in earnest. It sent Sir Edward Braddock to this side with six<br>
+thousand splendidly equipped veterans, and offered large sums for<br>
+fitting out regiments of provincials. Braddock arrived in February,<br>
+1755, but moved very languidly. This was not altogether his fault, for<br>
+he had difficulties with the governors and they with their legislatures.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/356Pic_600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>Map of Braddock's Field.<br>
+<br>
+At last off for Fort Du Quesne, he took a needlessly long route, through<br>
+Virginia instead of Pennsylvania. He scorned advice, marching and<br>
+fighting stiffly according to the rules of the Old World military art,<br>
+heeding none of Franklin's and Washington's sage hints touching savage<br>
+modes of warfare. The consequence was this brave Briton's defeat and<br>
+death. As he drew near to Fort Du Quesne, he fell into a carefully<br>
+prepared ambuscade. Four horses were shot under him. Mounting a fifth he<br>
+spurred to the front to inspire his men, forbidding them seek the<br>
+slightest cover, as Washington urged and as the provincials successfully<br>
+did. The regulars, obeying, were half of them killed in their tracks,<br>
+the remainder retreating, in panic at first, to Philadelphia. Braddock<br>
+died, and was buried at Great Meadows, where his grave is still to be<br>
+seen.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/357Pic_600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>The Death of Braddock.<br>
+<br>
+Washington was the only mounted officer in this action who was not<br>
+killed or fatally wounded, a fact at the time regarded specially<br>
+providential. On his return, aged twenty-three, the Rev. Samuel Davies,<br>
+afterward President of the College of New Jersey, referred to him in his<br>
+sermon as "that heroic youth, Colonel Washington, whom I cannot but hope<br>
+Providence has preserved in so signal a manner for some important<br>
+service to his country."<br>
+<br>
+[1757]<br>
+<br>
+The early part of this war witnessed the tragic occurrence immortalized<br>
+by Longfellow's "Evangeline," the expulsion of the French from Acadia.<br>
+The poem is too favorable to these people. They had never become<br>
+reconciled to English rule, and were believed on strong evidence to be<br>
+active in promoting French schemes against the English. It was resolved<br>
+to scatter them among the Atlantic settlements. The act was savage, and<br>
+became doubly so through the unmeant cruelties attending its execution.<br>
+The poor wretches were huddled on the shore weeks too soon for their<br>
+transports. Families were broken up, children forcibly separated from<br>
+parents. The largest company was carried to Massachusetts, many to<br>
+Pennsylvania, some to the extreme South. Not a few, crushed in spirit,<br>
+became paupers. A number found their way to France, a number to<br>
+Louisiana, a handful back to Nova Scotia.<br>
+<br>
+Braddock was succeeded by the fussy and incompetent Earl of Loudon,<br>
+1756-57, whom Franklin likened to Saint George on the sign-posts,<br>
+"always galloping but never advancing." He gathered twelve thousand men<br>
+for the recapture of Louisburg, but exaggerated reports of the French<br>
+strength frightened him from the attempt. Similar inaction lost him Fort<br>
+William Henry on Lake George. The end of the year 1757 saw the English<br>
+cause on this side at low ebb, Montcalm, the tried and brilliant French<br>
+commander, having outwitted or frightened the English officers at every<br>
+point.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/361Pic_600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>Montcalm.<br>
+<br>
+From this moment all changes. William Pitt, subsequently Lord Chatham,<br>
+now became the soul of the British ministry. George III. had dismissed<br>
+him therefrom in 1757, but Newcastle found it impossible to get on<br>
+without him. The great commoner had to be recalled, this time to take<br>
+entire direction of the war.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/363Pic_600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>William Pitt.<br>
+<br>
+[1758]<br>
+<br>
+Pitt had set his mind on the conquest of Canada. He superseded Loudon<br>
+early in 1758 by General Amherst, who was seconded by Wolfe and by<br>
+Admiral Boscawen, both with large re-enforcements. They were to reduce<br>
+Louisburg. It was an innovation to assign important commands like these<br>
+to men with so little fame and influence, but Pitt did not care. He<br>
+believed his appointees to be brave, energetic, skilful, and the event<br>
+proved his wisdom. Louisburg fell, and with it the whole of Cape Breton<br>
+Island and also Prince Edward.<br>
+<br>
+Unfortunately General Abercrombie had not been recalled with Loudon. The<br>
+same year, 1758, he signally failed to capture Ticonderoga, leaving the<br>
+way to Montreal worse blocked than before. Fort Du Quesne, however,<br>
+General Forbes took this year at little cost, rechristening it<br>
+Pittsburgh in honor of the heroic minister who had ordered the<br>
+enterprise.<br>
+<br>
+[1759]<br>
+<br>
+In the year 1759 occurred a grand triple movement upon Canada. Amherst,<br>
+now general-in-chief, was to clear the Champlain Valley, and Prideaux<br>
+with large colonial forces to reduce Fort Niagara. Both had orders,<br>
+being successful in these initial attacks, to move down the St. Lawrence<br>
+and unite with Wolfe, who was to sail up that river and beset Quebec.<br>
+Prideaux was splendidly successful, as indeed was Amherst in time,<br>
+though longer than he anticipated in securing Ticonderoga and Crown<br>
+Point.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/364Pic_600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>General Wolfe.<br>
+<br>
+Meantime Wolfe at Quebec was trying in all ways to manoeuvre the crafty<br>
+Montcalm out of his impregnable works. Failing, he in his eagerness<br>
+suffered himself to attempt an assault upon the city, which proved not<br>
+only vain but terribly costly. A weaker commander would now have given<br>
+up, but Wolfe had red hair, and the grit usually accompanying.<br>
+Undaunted, he planned the hazardous enterprise of rowing up the St.<br>
+Lawrence by night, landing with five thousand picked men at the foot of<br>
+the precipitous ascent to the Plains of Abraham, and scaling those<br>
+heights to face Montcalm from the west. The Frenchman, stunned at the<br>
+sight which day brought him, lost no time in attacking. In the hot<br>
+battle which ensued, September 13, 1759, both commanders fell, Wolfe<br>
+cheering his heroes to sure victory, Montcalm urging on his forlorn hope<br>
+in vain. The English remained masters of the field and in five days<br>
+Quebec capitulated.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/366Pic_600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>Landing of Wolfe.<br>
+<br>
+[1760-1763]<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/367Pic_600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>Quebec in 1730--From an old Print.<br>
+<br>
+Vaudreuil, the French commander at Montreal, sought to dislodge the<br>
+English ere the ice left the river in the spring of 1760, and succeeded<br>
+in driving them within their works. Each side then waited and hoped for<br>
+help from beyond sea so soon as navigation opened. It came the earlier<br>
+to the English, who were gladdened on May 11th by the approach of a<br>
+British frigate, the forerunner of a fleet. They now chased Vaudreuil<br>
+back into Montreal, where they were met by Haviland from Crown Point and<br>
+by Amherst from Oswego. France's days of power in America were ended.<br>
+Her fleet of twenty-two sail intended for succor met total destruction<br>
+in the Bay des Chaleurs and by the Peace of Paris, 1763, she surrendered<br>
+to her victorious antagonist every foot of her American territory east<br>
+of the Mississippi, save the city of New Orleans.<br>
+<br>
+The Indians were thus left to finish this war alone. Pontiac, the brave<br>
+and cunning chief of the Ottawas, aghast at the rising might of the<br>
+English, and the certain fate of his race without the French for<br>
+helpers, organized a conspiracy including nearly every tribe this side<br>
+the Mississippi except the Six Nations, to put to the sword all the<br>
+English garrisons in the West. Fatal success waited upon the plan. It<br>
+was in 1763 Forts Sandusky, St. Joseph (southeast of Lake Michigan),<br>
+Miami (Fort Wayne), Presque Isle (Erie, Pa.), Le Boeuf, Venango, and<br>
+Pittsburgh were attacked and all but the last destroyed, soldiers and<br>
+settlers murdered with indescribable barbarities. Pittsburgh held out<br>
+till re-enforced, at dreadful cost in blood, by Colonel Bouquet and his<br>
+Highlanders, who marched from Philadelphia.<br>
+<br>
+</big></big><img src="images/369Pic_600e.jpg" alt=""><br>
+<big><big>Bouquet's Redoubt at Pittsburgh.<br>
+<br>
+The hottest and longest conflict was at Detroit, Major Gladwyn<br>
+commanding, where Pontiac himself led the onset, heading perhaps a<br>
+thousand men. The siege was maintained with fearful venom from May 11th<br>
+till into October. The English tried a number of sallies, brave, fatal,<br>
+vain, and were so hard pressed by their bloodthirsty foe that only<br>
+timely and repeated re-enforcements saved them. At last the savages,<br>
+becoming, as always, disunited and straitened for supplies, sullenly<br>
+made peace; and at the call of the rich and now free Northwest, caravans<br>
+of English immigrants thronged thither to lay under happiest auspices<br>
+the foundations of new States.<br>
+<br>
+END OF VOLUME l.</big></big>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of History of the United States, Vol. I
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@@ -0,0 +1,5650 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of History of the United States, Vol. I (of VI), by 
+E. Benjamin Andrews
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: History of the United States, Vol. I (of VI)
+
+Author: E. Benjamin Andrews
+
+Release Date: March 28, 2007 [EBook #20925]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Don Kostuch
+
+
+
+
+
+[Transcriber's Notes]
+
+The appearance of the Word format closely approximates the original
+text, except that sentence fragments are rejoined across page and
+illustration boundaries. The HTML and TXT formats discard page
+boundaries but retain the year references in square brackets. Thus
+[1492-1495] indicate the following text covers this period, until the
+next such appearance.
+
+Where useful comparisons can be made, a few pictures and contemporary
+maps from Google Earth (TM) have been inserted.
+
+Several books on Columbus are available at Gutenberg.org, including "The
+Life of Columbus" by Arthur Helps.
+
+A pound sterling in 1600 is worth about 135 pounds or 235 Dollars US in
+2006.
+
+Here are some unfamiliar (to me) terms.
+
+camlets
+  Rich cloth of Asian origin, made of camel's hair and silk and later
+  made of goat's hair and silk or other combinations. A garment made
+  from this cloth.
+
+contumacy
+  Stubborn perverseness or rebelliousness; obstinate resistance to
+  authority.
+
+druggets
+  Heavy felted fabric of wool or wool and cotton, used as a floor
+  covering.
+
+escheated
+  Reversion of property to the state in the absence of legal heirs or
+  claimants.
+
+fee simple
+  An estate of inheritance in land, either absolute and without
+  limitation to any particular class of heirs (fee simple) or limited to
+  a particular class of heirs (fee tail).
+
+glebe
+  Plot of land yielding profit to an English parish church or an
+  ecclesiastical office.
+
+Pascua Florida
+  Feast of flowers; Easter.
+
+quit rent
+  A land tax imposed on freehold or leased land by a landowning
+  authority, freeing the tenant of a holding from other obligations.
+
+New Style (dates)
+  Describing dates after the adoption of the Gregorian calendar. Various
+  nations adopted the Gregorian calendar between 1582 and 1752.
+
+Old Style (dates)
+  Describing dates before the adoption of the Gregorian calendar.
+
+pompion
+  Pumpkin.
+
+sedulous
+  Diligent in application or attention; persevering.
+
+settle
+  Long wooden bench with a high back, often including storage space
+  beneath the seat.
+
+[End Transcriber's Notes.]
+
+
+
+HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES
+
+[Illustration: Portrait of Columbus.]
+Columbus
+After a Portrait by Herrer.
+
+
+
+HISTORY OF
+THE UNITED STATES
+FROM THE EARLIEST DISCOVERY OF
+AMERICA TO THE PRESENT TIME
+
+
+BY
+E. BENJAMIN ANDREWS
+CHANCELLOR OF THE UNIVERSITY OF NEBRASKA
+FORMERLY PRESIDENT OF BROWN UNIVERSITY
+
+
+With 650 Illustrations and Maps
+
+
+VOLUME I.
+
+
+NEW YORK
+CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS
+1912
+
+
+COPYRIGHT, 1894, BY
+CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS
+
+[Illustration: Scribner logo.]
+
+
+
+TO MY WIFE
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+Notwithstanding the number of United States histories already in
+existence, and the excellence of many of them, I venture to think that
+no apology is needed for bringing forward another.
+
+1. The work now presented to the public is believed to utilize, more
+than any of its predecessors, the many valuable researches of recent
+years into the rich archives of this and other nations.
+
+2. Most of the briefer treatments of the subject are manuals, intended
+for pupils in schools, the conspicuous articulation so necessary for
+this purpose greatly lessening their interest for the general reader.
+The following narrative will be found continuous as well as of moderate
+compass.
+
+3. I have sought to make more prominent than popular histories have
+usually done, at the same time the political evolution of our country on
+the one hand, and the social culture, habits, and life of the people on
+the other.
+
+4. The work strives to observe scrupulous proportion in treating the
+different parts and phases of our national career, neglecting none and
+over-emphasizing none. Also, while pronouncedly national and patriotic,
+it is careful to be perfectly fair and kind to the people of all
+sections.
+
+5. Effort has been made to present the matter in the most natural
+periods and divisions, and to give such a title to each of these as to
+render the table of contents a truthful and instructive epitome of our
+national past.
+
+6. With the same aim the Fore-history is exhibited in sharp separation
+from the United States history proper, calling due attention to what is
+too commonly missed, the truly epochal character of the adoption of our
+present Constitution, in 1789.
+
+7. Copious illustration has been employed, with diligent study to make
+it for every reader in the highest degree an instrument of instruction,
+delight, and cultivation in art.
+
+8. No pains has been spared to secure perfect accuracy in all references
+to dates, persons, and places, so that the volumes may be used with
+confidence as a work of reference. I am persuaded that much success in
+this has been attained, despite the uncertainty still attaching to many
+matters of this sort in United States history, especially to dates.
+
+BROWN UNIVERSITY, September 15. 1894.
+
+
+
+PUBLISHERS' NOTE
+
+The last edition of President Andrews's History was issued in 1905, in
+five volumes, and brought the narrative down to the inauguration of
+President Roosevelt in March of that year. In preparing the extension of
+the work by the addition of a sixth volume, entrusted to the competent
+hands of Professor James Alton James of Northwestern University, it has
+been thought desirable to begin this final volume with the chapters
+entitled "The Rise of Roosevelt" and "Mr. Roosevelt's Presidency." This
+has involved some expansion and revision of these chapters as well as
+the continuance of the History from 1905 to the present time. The
+Appendices, which include public documents of fundamental importance and
+the significant results in various fields of the Census of 1910, are an
+additional feature of the new edition.
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+AMERICA BEFORE COLUMBUS
+
+Age and Origin of Man in America.
+Primordial Americans unlike Present Asiatics.
+Resemblances between their Various Branches.
+Two Great Types.
+The Mound-builders' Age.
+Design of the Mounds.
+Different
+Forms.
+Towns and Cities.
+Proofs of Culture.
+Arts.
+Fate of the
+Mound-builders.
+The Indians.
+Their Number.
+Degree of
+Civilization.
+Power of Endurance.
+Religion.
+The Various
+Nations.
+Original Brute Inhabitants of North America.
+Plants, Fruits, and Trees.
+Indian Agriculture.
+
+
+
+Part First
+
+THE FORE-HISTORY
+
+PERIOD I
+
+DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT
+
+1492-1660
+
+CHAPTER 1. COLUMBUS.
+
+Bretons and Normans in the New World.
+The Northmen Question.
+Marco
+Polo's Travels.
+His Pictures of Eastern Asia.
+Influence on
+Columbus.
+Early Life of Columbus.
+His Cruises and Studies.
+Asia to be Reached by Sailing West.
+Appeals for Aid.
+Rebuffs.
+Success.
+Sails from Palos.
+The Voyage.
+America Discovered.
+Columbus's Later Voyages and Discoveries.
+Illusion Respecting the New Land.
+Amerigo Vespucci.
+Rise of the Name "America."
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II. EARLY SPANISH AMERICA.
+
+Portugal and Spain Divide the Newly Discovered World.
+Spain gets most of America.
+Voyage of de Solis.
+Balboa Discovers the Pacific.
+Ponce de Leon on the Florida Coast.
+Explorations by Grijalva.
+Cortez Invades Mexico.
+Subjugates the Country.
+De Ayllon's Cruise.
+Magellan Circumnavigates the Globe.
+Narvaez's Expedition into Florida.
+Its Sad Fate.
+De Soto.
+His March.
+Hardships.
+Discovers the Mississippi.
+His Death.
+End of his Expedition.
+French Settlement in Florida.
+St. Augustine.
+French-Spanish Hostilities.
+Reasons for Spain's Failure to Colonize far North.
+Her Treatment of the Natives.
+Tyranny over her own
+Colonies.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III. EXPLORATION AND COLONIZATION BY THE FRENCH AND THE ENGLISH
+
+Verrazano.
+"New France."
+Cartier Discovers St. Lawrence Gulf and River.
+Second Voyage.-Montreal.-Third.-De Monts.
+Champlain.
+Founds Quebec.
+Westward Explorations.
+John Cabot, Discoverer of the North American Main.
+Frobisher.
+Tries for a Northwest Passage.
+Second Expedition for Gold.
+Third.
+Eskimo Tradition of Frobisher's Visits.
+Drake Sails round the World.
+Cavendish Follows.
+Raleigh's Scheme.
+Colony at Roanoke Island.
+"Virginia."
+Second Colony.
+Its Fate.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV. THE PLANTING OF VIRGINIA
+
+The Old Virginia Charter.
+Jamestown Settled.
+Company and Colony.
+Character of Early Virginia Population.
+Progress.
+Products.
+Slavery.
+Agriculture the Dominant Industry.
+No Town Life.
+Hardships and Dissensions.
+John Smith.
+New Charter.
+Delaware Governor.
+The "Starving Time."
+Severe Rule of Dale and Argall.
+The Change of 1612.
+Pocahontas.
+Indian Hostilities.
+First American Legislature.
+Sir Thomas Wyatt.
+Self Government.
+Virginia Reflects English Political Progress.
+Dissolution of the Company.
+Charles I. and Virginia.
+Harvey, Wyatt. Berkeley.
+Virginia under Cromwell.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V. PILGRIM AND PURITAN AT THE NORTH
+
+The first "Independents."
+John Smyth's Church at Gainsborough.
+The Scrooby Church.
+Plymouth Colony.
+Settles Plymouth.
+Hardships.
+Growth.
+Cape Ann Settlement.
+Massachusetts Bay.
+Size.
+Polity.
+Roger Williams.
+His Views.
+His Exile.
+Anne Hutchinson.
+Rhode Island
+Founded.
+Settlement of Hartford, Windsor, Wethersfield.
+Saybrook.
+New Haven.
+New Hampshire.
+Maine.
+New England Confederation.
+Its Function.
+Its Failure.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI. BALTIMORE AND HIS MARYLAND
+
+Sir George Calvert Plants at Newfoundland.
+Is Ennobled.
+Sails for Virginia.
+Grant of Maryland.
+Lord Baltimore Dies.
+Succeeded by Cecil.
+Government of Maryland.
+Conflict with Virginia.
+Baltimore comes to Maryland.
+Religious Freedom in the Colony.
+Clayborne's Rebellion.
+First Maryland Assembly.
+Anarchy.
+Romanism Established.
+Baltimore and Roger Williams.
+Maryland during the Civil War in England.
+Death of Baltimore.
+Character.
+Maryland under the Long Parliament.
+Puritan Immigration.
+Founds Annapolis.
+Rebellion.
+Clayborne again.
+Maryland and the Commonwealth.
+Deposition of Governor Stone.
+Anti-Catholic Laws.
+Baltimore Defied.
+Sustained by Cromwell.
+Fendall's Rebellion.
+Fails.
+Maryland at the Restoration.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII. NEW NETHERLAND
+
+Henry Hudson and his Explorations.
+Enters Hudson River.
+His Subsequent Career.
+And his Fate.
+Dutch Trade on the Hudson.
+"New Netherland."
+Dutch West India Company.
+Albany Begun.
+New Amsterdam.
+Relations with Plymouth.
+De Vries on the Delaware.
+Dutch Fort at Hartford.
+Conflict of Dutch with English.
+Gustavus Adolphus.
+Swedish Beginnings at Wilmington, Delaware.
+Advent of Kieft.
+Maltreats Indians.
+New Netherland in 1647.
+Stuyvesant's Excellent Rule.
+Conquers New Sweden.
+And the Indians.
+Conquest of Dutch America by England.
+"New York."
+Persistence of Dutch Influence and Traits.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII. THE FIRST INDIAN WARS
+
+Beginning of Indian Hostility.
+Of Pequot War.
+Mason's Strategy.
+And Tactics.
+Capture of Pequot Fort.
+Back to Saybrook.
+Extermination of Pequot Tribe.
+Peace.
+Miantonomoh and Uncas.
+Dutch War with Indians.
+Caused by Kieft's Impolicy.
+Liquor.
+Underhill Comes.
+Mrs. Hutchinson's Fate.
+Deborah Moody.
+New Haven Refuses Aid.
+Appeal to Holland.
+Underhill's Exploits.
+Kieft Removed.
+Sad Plight of New Netherland.
+Subsequent Hostilities and Final Peace.
+
+
+
+PERIOD II
+
+ENGLISH AMERICA TILL THE END OF THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR
+
+1660--1763
+
+CHAPTER I. NEW ENGLAND UNDER THE LAST STUARTS.
+
+Charles II. and Massachusetts.
+Massachusetts about 1660.
+Its View of its Political Rights.
+The King's View.
+And Commands.
+Commission of 1664.
+Why Vengeance was Delayed.
+Boldness of the Colony.
+It Buys Maine.
+Fails to get New Hampshire.
+The King's Rage.
+The Charter Vacated.
+Charles II. and Connecticut.
+Prosperity of this Colony.
+Rhode Island.
+Boundary Disputes of Connecticut.
+Of Rhode Island.
+George Fox and Roger Williams.
+James II. King.
+Andros Governor.
+Andros and Southern New England.
+In Massachusetts.
+Revolution of 1688.
+New Charter for Massachusetts.
+Defects and Merits.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II. KING PHILIP'S WAR.
+
+Whites' Treatment of Red Men.
+Indian Hatred.
+Causes.
+Alexander's Death.
+Philip
+King.
+Scope of his Conspiracy.
+Murders Sausaman.
+War Begun.
+Nipmucks take Part.
+War in Connecticut Valley.
+Bloody Brook.
+The Swamp Fight at South Kingston, R. I.
+Central Massachusetts Aflame.
+The Rowlandson History.
+Southeastern Massachusetts and Rhode Island again.
+Connecticut Valley once more Invaded.
+Turner's Falls.
+Philip's Death.
+Horrors of the War.
+Philip's Character.
+Fate of his Family.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III. THE SALEM WITCHCRAFT
+
+New England Home Life.
+Religion its Centre.
+The Farmhouse.
+Morning Devotions.
+Farm Work.
+Tools.
+Diet.
+Neighborliness.
+New England Superstitions.
+Not Peculiar to New England.
+Sunday Laws.
+Public Worship.
+First Case of Sorcery.
+The Witch Executed.
+Cotton Mather.
+His Experiments.
+His Book.
+The Parris Children Bewitched.
+The Manifestations.
+The Trial.
+Executions.
+George Burroughs.
+Rebecca Nurse.
+Reaction.
+Forwardness of Clergy.
+"Devil's Authority."
+The End.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV. THE MIDDLE COLONIES
+
+English Conquest of New Netherland.
+Duke of York's Government.
+Andros.
+Revolution of 1688.
+Leisler.
+Problems which Teased Royal Governors.
+New Jersey.
+Its Political Vicissitudes.
+William Penn.
+Character.
+Liberality of Pennsylvania
+Charter.
+Penn and James II.
+Penn's Services for his Colony.
+Prosperity of the Latter.
+Fletcher's Rule.
+Gabriel Thomas's History of Pennsylvania.
+Penn's Trials.
+And Victory.
+Delaware.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V. MARYLAND, VIRGINIA, CAROLINA
+
+Maryland after the Stuart Restoration.
+Navigation Act.
+Boundary Disputes.
+Liberality of Religion.
+Agitation to Establish Anglicanism.
+Maryland under William and Mary.
+English Church Established.
+Not Oppressive.
+Fate of Virginia after the Restoration.
+Virginia's Spirit, Numbers, Resources.
+Causes of Bacon's Rebellion.
+Evil of the Navigation Acts.
+Worthless Officials.
+Course of the Rebellion.
+Result.
+Dulness of the Subsequent History.
+William and Mary College.
+Governor Spotswood.
+Blackbeard.
+Carolina.
+Its Constitution.
+Conflict of Parties.
+Georgia.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI. GOVERNMENTAL INSTITUTIONS IN THE COLONIES.
+
+Origin of American Political Institutions.
+Local Self-Government.
+Representation.
+Relation of Colonies to England.
+Classification of Colonies.
+Changes.
+Conflict of Legal Views.
+Colonists' Contentions.
+Taxation.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII. SOCIAL CULTURE IN COLONIAL TIMES.
+
+Population of the Colonies at Different Dates.
+Differences according to Sections.
+Intellectual Ability.
+Free Thought.
+Political Bent.
+English Church in the Colonies.
+Its Clergy.
+In New York.
+The New England Establishment.
+Hatred to Episcopacy.
+Counter-hatred.
+Colleges and Schools.
+Newspapers.
+Libraries.
+Postal System.
+Learned Professions.
+Epidemics.
+Scholars and Artists.
+Travelling.
+Manufactures and
+Commerce.
+Houses.
+Food and Dress.
+Wigs.
+Opposition to Them.
+Social Cleavage.
+Redemptioners.
+Penal Legislation.
+Philadelphia Leads in Social Science.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.  ENGLAND AND FRANCE IN AMERICA
+
+The French in the Heart of the Continent.
+Groseilliers, Radisson, La Salle.
+Joliet and Marquette Reach the Mississippi.
+Baudin and Du Lhut.
+La Salle Descends to the Gulf.
+"Chicago."
+The Portages.
+La Salle's Expedition from France to the Mississippi.
+Its Fate.
+French, Indians, and English.
+France's Advantage.
+Numbers of each Race in America.
+Causes of England's Colonial Strength.
+King William's War.
+The Schenectady Massacre.
+Other Atrocities.
+Anne's War.
+Deerfield.
+Plans for Striking Back.
+Second Capture of Port Royal.
+Rasle's Settlement Raided.
+George's War.
+Capture of Louisburg.
+Saratoga Destroyed.
+Scheme to Retaliate.
+Failure.
+French Vigilance and Aggression.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX. THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR
+
+Struggle Inevitable.
+George Washington.
+Fights at Great Meadows.
+War Begun.
+English Plans of Campaign.
+Braddock's March.
+Defeat and Death.
+Prophecy Regarding Washington.
+The "Evangeline" History.
+Loudon's Incompetence.
+Pitt at the Head of Affairs.
+Will Take Canada.
+Louisburg Recaptured.
+"Pittsburgh."
+Triple Movement upon Canada.
+The Plains of Abraham.
+Quebec Capitulates.
+Peace of Paris.
+Conspiracy of Pontiac.
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+COLUMBUS. (After a portrait by Herrera)  Frontispiece
+TEMPLE MOUND IN MEXICO
+BIG ELEPHANT MOUND, WISCONSIN
+DIGHTON ROCK
+THE OLD STONE MILL AT NEWPORT, R. I.
+PRINCE HENRY OF PORTUGAL--"THE NAVIGATOR." (From an old print)
+QUEEN ISABELLA OF SPAIN.
+COLUMBUS BEGGING AT THE FRANCISCAN CONVENT
+EMBARKATION OF CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS AT PALOS. (From an old print)
+AMERIGO VESPUCCI. (Fac-simile of an old print)
+VASCO DA GAMA. (From an old print)
+BALBOA DISCOVERING THE PACIFIC OCEAN
+PONCE DE LEON
+HERNANDO CORTES, (From an old print)
+MONTEZUMA MORTALLY WOUNDED BY HIS OWN SUBJECTS
+DEATH OF MAGELLAN
+FERDINAND DE SOTO
+A PALISADED INDIAN TOWN IN ALABAMA
+BURIAL OF DE SOTO IN THE MISSISSIPPI AT NIGHT
+FORT CAROLINA ON THE RIVER OF MAY
+PEDRO MELENDEZ
+INDIANS DEVOURED BY DOGS. (From an old print)
+VERRAZANO, THE FLORENTINE NAVIGATOR
+JACQUES CARTIER, (From an old print)
+SEBASTIAN CABOT, (From an old print)
+AN INDIAN VILLAGE AT THE ROANOKE SETTLEMENT
+SIR HUMPHREY GILBERT
+SIR WALTER RALEIGH
+QUEEN ELIZABETH
+KING JAMES I. (From Mr. Henry Irving's Collection)
+TOBACCO PLANT.
+CAPTAIN JOHN SMITH.
+POCAHONTAS SAVING CAPTAIN SMITH'S LIFE. (From Smith's "General History ")
+THE COUNCIL OF POWHATAN. (From Smith's "General History ")
+POCAHONTAS.
+SIGNATURE OF BERKELEY.
+PLYMOUTH HARBOR, ENGLAND.
+HARBOR OF PROVINCETOWN, CAPE COD, WHERE THE PILGRIMS LANDED.
+THE LIFE OF THE COLONY AT CAPE COD.
+SIGNATURES TO PLYMOUTH PATENT.
+SITE OF FIRST CHURCH AND GOVERNOR BRADFORD'S HOUSE AT PLYMOUTH.
+GOVERNOR WINTHROP.
+FIRST CHURCH IN SALEM.
+SEAL OF MASSACHUSETTS BAY COMPANY.
+ROGER WILLIAMS' HOUSE AT SALEM.
+EDWARD WINSLOW.
+MARYLAND SHILLING.
+HENRIETTA MARIA.
+SUPPOSED PORTRAIT OF WILLIAM CLAYBORNE.
+CLAYBORNE'S TRADING POST ON KENT ISLAND.
+FIGHT BETWEEN CLAYBORNE AND THE ST. MARY'S SHIP.
+OLIVER CROMWELL.
+SEAL OF NEW AMSTERDAM.
+PETER STUYVESANT.
+SEAL OF NEW NETHERLAND.
+EARLIEST PICTURE OF NEW AMSTERDAM.
+DE VRIES.
+COSTUMES OF SWEDES.
+THE OLD STADT HUYS AT NEW AMSTERDAM.
+NEW AMSTERDAM IN THE MIDDLE OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.
+THE DUKE OF YORK, AFTERWARDS JAMES II.
+THE TOMB OF STUYVESANT.
+ATTACK ON THE FORT OF THE PEQUOTS ON THE MYSTIC RIVER.
+ATTACK ON THE PEQUOT FORT.
+SIGNATURE OF MIANTONOMOH.
+THE GRAVE OF MIANTONOMOH.
+TOTEM OR TRIBE MARK OF THE FIVE NATIONS.
+KING CHARLES II.
+JOHN WINTHROP THE YOUNGER.
+SIR EDMOND ANDROS.
+THE CHARTER OAK AT HARTFORD.
+BOX IN WHICH THE CONNECTICUT CHARTER WAS KEPT.
+THE MONUMENT AT BLOODY BROOK.
+GOFFE AT HADLEY.
+INCREASE MATHER.
+COTTON MATHER.
+OLD TITUBA THE INDIAN.
+LIEUTENANT-GOVERNOR STOUGHTON.
+FAC-SIMILE OF SHERIFF'S RETURN OF AN EXECUTION.
+SLOUGHTER SIGNING LEISLER'S DEATH WARRANT.
+SEAL OF THE CARTERETS.
+SEAL OF EAST JERSEY.
+WAMPUM RECEIVED BY PENN IN COMMEMORATION OF THE INDIAN TREATY.
+WILLIAM PENN.
+THE TREATY MONUMENT, KENSINGTON.
+THE PENN MANSION IN PHILADELPHIA.
+CHARLES, SECOND LORD BALTIMORE.
+REV, DR. BLAIR, FIRST PRESIDENT OF WILLIAM AND MARY COLLEGE.
+GEORGE MONK, DUKE OF ALBEMARLE.
+LORD SHAFTESBURY.
+SEAL OF THE PROPRIETORS OF CAROLINA.
+JOHN LOCKE.
+SAVANNAH. (From a print of 1741)
+JAMES OGLETHORPE.
+COSTUMES ABOUT THE MIDDLE OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.
+JAMES LOGAN.
+KING WILLIAM.
+QUEEN MARY
+CHIEF JUSTICE SEWALL.
+THE PILLORY.
+SIGNATURE OF JOLLIET. (old spelling)
+TOTEM OF THE SIOUX.
+A SIOUX CHIEF.
+TOTEM OF THE ILLINOIS.
+THE RECEPTION OF JOLIET AND MARQUETTE BY THE ILLINOIS.
+LOUIS XIV.
+COINS STRUCK IN FRANCE FOR THE COLONIES.
+ASSASSINATION OF LA SALLE.
+NEW ORLEANS IN 1719.
+SIGNATURE OF D'IBERVILLE.
+THE ATTACK ON SCHENECTADY.
+HANNAH DUSTIN'S ESCAPE.
+QUEEN ANNE.
+GOVERNOR SHIRLEY.
+SIR WILLIAM PEPPERRELL
+THE AMBUSCADE
+THE DEATH OF BRADDOCK.
+MONTCALM.
+WILLIAM PITT.
+GENERAL WOLFE.
+LANDING OF WOLFE.
+QUEBEC IN 1730. (From an old print)
+BOUQUET'S REDOUBT AT PITTSBURGH.
+
+
+
+LIST OF MAPS
+
+GLOBUS MARTINI BEHAIM NARINBERGENSIS, 1492
+EUROPEAN PROVINCES IN 1655.
+MARQUETTE'S MAP.
+PLAN OF PORT ROYAL, NOVA SCOTIA.
+MAP SHOWING POSITION OF FRENCH AND ENGLISH FORTS AND SETTLEMENTS.
+BRADDOCK'S ROUTE.
+MAP OF BRADDOCK'S FIELD.
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+
+AMERICA BEFORE COLUMBUS
+
+Man made his appearance on the western continent unnumbered ages ago,
+not unlikely before the close of the glacial period. It is possible that
+human life began in Asia and western North America sooner than on either
+shore of the Atlantic. Nothing wholly forbids the belief that America
+was even the cradle of the race, or one of several cradles, though most
+scientific writers prefer the view that our species came hither from
+Asia. De Nadaillac judges it probable that the ocean was thus crossed
+not at Behring Strait alone, but along a belt of equatorial islands as
+well. We may think of successive waves of such immigration--perhaps the
+easiest way to account for certain differences among American races.
+
+It is, at any rate, an error to speak of the primordial Americans as
+derived from any Asiatic stock at present existing or known to history.
+The old Americans had scarcely an Asiatic feature. Their habits and
+customs were emphatically peculiar to themselves. Those in which they
+agreed with the trans-Pacific populations, such as fashion of weapons
+and of fortifications, elements of folk-lore, religious ideas,
+traditions of a flood, belief in the destruction of the world by fire,
+and so on, are nearly all found the world over, the spontaneous
+creations of our common human intelligence.
+
+The original American peoples, various and unlike as they were, agreed
+in four traits, three of them physical, one mental, which mark them off
+as in all likelihood primarily of one stock after all, and as different
+from any Old World men: (1) They had low, retreating foreheads. (2)
+Their hair was black. (3) It was also of a peculiar texture, lank, and
+cylindrical in section, never wavy. And (4) their languages were
+polysynthetic, forming a class apart from all others in the world. The
+peoples of America, if from Asia, must date back to a time when speech
+itself was in its infancy.
+
+[Illustration: Temple Mound In Mexico.]
+
+The numerous varieties of ancient Americans reduce to two distinct types
+--the Dolicocephalous or long-skulled, and the Brachycephalous or
+short-skulled. Morton names these types respectively the Toltecan and
+the American proper. The Toltecan type was represented by the primitive
+inhabitants of Mexico and by the Mound-builders of our Mississippi
+Valley; the American proper, by the Indians. The Toltecans made far the
+closer approach to civilization, though the others possessed a much
+greater susceptibility therefor than the modern Indians of our prairies
+would indicate.
+
+Of the Mound-builders painfully little is known. Many of their mounds
+still remain, not less mysterious or interesting than the pyramids of
+Egypt, perhaps almost equally ancient. The skeletons exhumed from them
+often fly into dust as soon as exposed to air, a rare occurrence with
+the oldest bones found in Europe. On the parapet-crest of the Old Fort
+at Newark, 0., trees certainly five hundred years old have been cut, and
+they could not have begun their growth till long after the earth-works
+had been deserted. In some mounds, equally aged trees root in the
+decayed trunks of a still anterior growth.
+
+Much uncertainty continues to shroud the design of these mounds. Some
+were for military defence, others for burial places, others for lookout
+stations, others apparently for religious uses. Still others, it is
+supposed, formed parts of human dwellings. That they proceeded from
+intelligence and reflection is clear. Usually, whether they are squares
+or circles, their construction betrays nice, mathematical exactness,
+unattainable save by the use of instruments. Many constitute
+effigies--of birds, fishes, quadrupeds, men. In Wisconsin is a mound 135
+feet long and well proportioned, much resembling an elephant; in Adams
+County, 0., a gracefully curved serpent, 1,000 feet long, with jaws
+agape as if to swallow an egg-shaped figure in front; in Granville, in
+the same State, one in the form of a huge crocodile; in Greenup County,
+Ky., an image of a bear, which seems leaning forward in an attitude of
+observation, measuring 53 feet from the top of the back to the end of
+the foreleg, and 105-1/2 feet from the tip of the nose to the rear of
+the hind foot.
+
+[Illustration: Big Elephant Mound, Wisconsin.]
+
+The sites of towns and cities were artfully selected, near navigable
+rivers and their confluences, as at Marietta, Cincinnati, and in
+Kentucky opposite the old mouth of the Scioto. Points for defence were
+chosen and fortified with scientific precision. The labor expended upon
+these multitudinous structures must have been enormous, implying a vast
+population and extensive social, economic, and civil organization. The
+Cahokia mound, opposite St. Louis, is 90 feet high and 900 feet long.
+
+The Mound-builders made elegant pottery, of various design and accurate
+shapes, worked bone and all sorts of stones, and even forged copper.
+There are signs that they understood smelting this metal. They certainly
+mined it in large quantities, and carried it down the Mississippi
+hundreds of miles from its source on Lake Superior. They must have been
+masters of river navigation, but their mode of conveying vast burdens
+overland, destitute of efficient draft animals as they apparently were,
+we can hardly even conjecture.
+
+The Mound-builders, as we have said, were related to the antique
+populations of Mexico and Central America, and the most probable
+explanation of their departure from their Northern seats is that in face
+of pestilence, or of some overpowering human foe, they retreated to the
+Southwest, there to lay, under better auspices, the foundations of new
+states, and to develop that higher civilization whose relics, too little
+known, astound the student of the past, as greatly as do the stupendous
+pillars of Carnac or the grotesque animal figures of Khorsabad and
+Nimrud.
+
+So much has been written about the American Indians that we need not
+discuss them at length. They were misnamed Indians by Columbus, who
+supposed the land he had discovered to be India. At the time of his
+arrival not more than two hundred thousand of them lived east of the
+Mississippi, though they were doubtless far more numerous West and
+South. Whence they came, or whether, if this was a human deed at all,
+they or another race now extinct drove out the Mound-builders, none can
+tell.
+
+Of arts the red man had but the rudest. He made wigwams, canoes, bone
+fish-hooks with lines of hide or twisted bark, stone tomahawks,
+arrow-heads and spears, clothing of skins, wooden bows, arrows, and
+clubs. He loved fighting, finery, gambling, and the chase. He
+domesticated no animals but the dog and possibly the hog. Sometimes
+brave, he was oftener treacherous, cruel, revengeful. His power of
+endurance on the trail or the warpath was incredible, and if captured,
+he let himself be tortured to death without a quiver or a cry. Though
+superstitious, he believed in a Great Spirit to be worshipped without
+idols, and in a future life of happy hunting and feasting.
+
+Whether, at the time of which we now speak, the Indians were an old
+race, already beginning to decline, or a fresh race, which contact with
+the whites balked of its development, it is difficult to say. Their
+career since best accords with the former supposition. In either case we
+may assume that their national groupings and habitats were nearly the
+same in 1500 as later, when these became accurately known. In the
+eighteenth century the Algonquins occupied all the East from Nova Scotia
+to North Carolina, and stretched west to the Mississippi. At one time
+they numbered ninety thousand. The Iroquois or Five Nations had their
+seat in Central and Western New York. North and west of them lived the
+Hurons or Wyandots. The Appalachians, embracing Cherokees, Creeks,
+Choctaws, Chickasaws, Seminoles and a number of lesser tribes, occupied
+all the southeastern portion of what is now the United States. West of
+the Mississippi were the Dakotas or Sioux.
+
+Since the white man's arrival upon these shores, very few changes have
+occurred among the brute inhabitants of North America. A few species, as
+the Labrador duck and the great auk, have perished. America then
+possessed but four animals which had appreciable economic value; the
+dog, the reindeer at the north, which the Mound-builders used as a
+draft animal but the Indians did not, and the llama and the paco south
+of the equator. Every one of our present domestic animals originated
+beyond the Atlantic, being imported hither by our ancestors. The Indians
+of the lower Mississippi Valley, when De Soto came, had dogs, and also
+what the Spaniards called hogs, perhaps peccaries, but neither brute was
+of any breed now bred in the country. A certain kind of dogs were native
+also to the Juan Fernandez and the Falkland Islands.
+
+Mr. Edward John Payne is doubtless correct in maintaining, in his
+"History of the New World called America," that the backwardness of the
+American aborigines was largely due to their lack of animals suitable
+for draft or travel or producing milk or flesh good for food. From the
+remotest antiquity Asiatics had the horse, ass, ox and cow, camel and
+goat--netting ten times the outfit in useful animals which the
+Peruvians, Mexicans, or Indians enjoyed.
+
+The vegetable kingdom of Old America was equally restricted, which also
+helps explain its low civilization. At the advent of the Europeans the
+continent was covered with forests. Then, though a few varieties may
+have since given out and some imported ones run wild, the undomesticated
+plants and trees were much as now. Not so the cultivated kinds. The
+Indians were wretched husbandmen, nor had the Mound-builders at all the
+diversity of agricultural products so familiar to us. Tobacco, Indian
+corn, cocoa, sweet potatoes, potatoes, the custard apple, the Jerusalem
+artichoke, the guava, the pumpkin and squash, the papaw and the
+pineapple, indigenous to North America, had been under cultivation here
+before Columbus came, the first four from most ancient times. The manioc
+or tapioca-plant, the red-pepper plant, the marmalade plum, and the
+tomato were raised in South America before 1500.  The persimmon, the
+cinchona tree, millet, the Virginia and the Chili strawberry are natives
+of this continent, but have been brought under cultivation only within
+the last three centuries.
+
+The four great cereals, wheat, rye, oats, and rice, constituting all our
+main food crops but corn, have come to us from Europe. So have cherries,
+quinces, and pears, also hops, currants, chestnuts, and mushrooms. The
+banana, regarded by von Humboldt as an original American fruit, modern
+botanists derive from Asia. With reference to apples there may be some
+question. Apples of a certain kind flourished in New England so early
+after the landing of the Pilgrims that it is difficult to suppose the
+fruit not to have been indigenous to this continent.   Champlain, in
+1605 or 1606, found the Indians about the present sites of Portland,
+Boston, and Plymouth in considerable agricultural prosperity, with
+fields of corn and tobacco, gardens rich in melons, squashes, pumpkins,
+and beans, the culture of none of which had they apparently learned from
+white men. Mr. Payne's generalization, that superior food-supply
+occasioned the Old World's primacy in civilization, and also that of the
+Mexicans and Peruvians here, seems too sweeping, yet it evidently
+contains large truth.
+
+
+
+PART FIRST
+
+THE FORE-HISTORY
+
+PERIOD I.
+
+DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT
+
+1492-1660
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+COLUMBUS
+
+[1000]
+
+There is no end to the accounts of alleged discoveries of America before
+Columbus. Most of these are fables. It is, indeed, nearly certain that
+hardy Basque, Breton, and Norman fishermen, adventuring first far north,
+then west, had sighted Greenland and Labrador and become well acquainted
+with the rich fishing-grounds about Newfoundland and the Saint Lawrence
+Gulf. Many early charts of these regions, without dates and hitherto
+referred to Portuguese navigators of a time so late as 1500, are now
+thought to be the work of these earlier voyagers. They found the New
+World, but considered it a part of the Old.
+
+Important, too, is the story of supposed Norse sea-rovers hither,
+derived from certain Icelandic manuscripts of the fourteenth century. It
+is a pleasing narrative, that of Lief Ericson's sail in 1000-1001 to
+Helluland, Markland, and at last to Vineland, and of the subsequent
+tours by Thorwald Ericson in 1002, Thorfinn Karlsefne, 1007-1009, and of
+Helge and Finnborge in 1011, to points still farther away. Such voyages
+probably occurred. As is well known, Helluland has been interpreted to
+be Newfoundland; Markland, Nova Scotia; and Vineland, the country
+bordering Mount Hope Bay in Bristol, R. I. These identifications are
+possibly correct, and even if they are mistaken, Vineland may still have
+been somewhere upon the coast of what is now the United States.
+
+In the present condition of the evidence, however, we have to doubt
+this. No scholar longer believes that the writing on Dighton Rock is
+Norse, or that the celebrated Skeleton in Armor found at Fall River was
+a Northman's, or that the old Stone Mill at Newport was constructed by
+men from Iceland. Even if the manuscripts, composed between three and
+four hundred years after the events which they are alleged to narrate,
+are genuine, and if the statements contained in them are true, the
+latter are far too indefinite to let us be sure that they are applicable
+to United States localities.
+
+[Illustration: Dighton Rock]
+
+[l260]
+
+But were we to go so far as to admit that the Northmen came here and
+began the settlements ascribed to them, they certainly neither
+appreciated nor published their exploits. Their colony, wherever it was,
+endured but for a day, and it, with its locality, speedily passed from
+knowledge in Scandinavia itself. America had not yet, in effect, been
+discovered.
+
+[Illustration: The Old Stone Mill at Newport, R. I.]
+
+[1300]
+
+We must remember that long anterior to Columbus's day unbiassed and
+thoughtful men had come to believe the earth to be round. They also knew
+that Europe constituted but a small part of it. In the year 1260 the
+Venetian brothers Niccolo and Maffeo Polo made their way to China, the
+first men from Western Europe ever to travel so far. They returned in
+1269, but in 1271 set out again, accompanied by Niccolo's son, a youth
+of seventeen. This son was the famous Marco Polo, whose work, "The
+Wonders of the World," reciting his extended journeys through China and
+the extreme east and southeast of Asia, and his eventful voyage home by
+sea, ending in 1295, has come down to our time, one of the most
+interesting volumes in the world. Friar Orderic's eastern travels in
+1322-1330, as appropriated by Sir John Mandeville, were published before
+1371.
+
+Columbus knew these writings, and the reading and re-reading of them had
+made him an enthusiast. In Polo's book he had learned of Mangi and Far
+Cathay, with their thousands of gorgeous cities, the meanest finer than
+any then in Europe; of their abounding mines pouring forth infinite
+wealth, their noble rivers, happy populations, curious arts, and benign
+government. Polo had told him of Cambalu (Peking), winter residence of
+the Great Khan, Kublai--Cambalu with its palaces of marble,
+golden-roofed, its guard of ten thousand soldiers, its imperial stables
+containing five thousand elephants, its unnumbered army, navy, and
+merchant marine; of oxen huge as elephants; of richest spices, nuts
+large as melons, canes fifteen yards long, silks, cambrics, and the
+choicest furs; and of magic Cipango (Japan), island of pearls, whose
+streets were paved with gold.
+
+[Illustration: Globus Martini Behaim Narinbergensis 1492.]
+
+[1456]
+
+Columbus believed all this, and it cooperated with his intense and even
+bigoted religious faith to kindle in him an all-consuming ambition to
+reach this distant Eden by sea, that he might carry the Gospel to those
+opulent heathen and partake their unbounded temporal riches in return.
+Poor specimen of a saint as Columbus is now known to have been, he
+believed himself divinely called to this grand enterprise.
+
+Christopher Columbus, or Christobal Colon, as he always signed himself
+after he entered the service of Spain, was born in Genoa about 1456.
+Little is certainly known of his early life. His father was a humble
+wool-carder. The youth possessed but a sorry education, spite of his few
+months at the University of Pavia. At the age of fourteen he became a
+sailor, knocking about the world in the roughest manner, half the time
+practically a pirate. In an all-day's sea fight, once, his ship took
+fire and he had to leap overboard; but being a strong swimmer he swam,
+aided by an oar, eight leagues to land.
+
+[1470]
+
+From 1470 to 1484 we find him in Portugal, the country most interested
+and engaged then in ocean-going and discovery. Here he must have known
+Martin Behem, author of the famous globe, finished in 1492, whereon Asia
+is exhibited as reaching far into the same hemisphere with Europe.
+Prince Henry of Portugal earnestly patronized all schemes for
+exploration and discovery, and the daughter, Philippa, of one of his
+captains, Perestrello, Columbus married. With her he lived at Porto
+Santo in the Madeiras, where he became familiar with Correo, her
+sister's husband, also a distinguished navigator. The islanders fully
+believed in the existence of lands in the western Atlantic. West winds
+had brought to them strange woods curiously carved, huge cane-brakes
+like those of India described by Ptolemy, peculiarly fashioned canoes,
+and corpses with skin of a hue unknown to Europe or Africa.
+
+[Illustration: Prince Henry of Portugal--"The Navigator." From an old
+print.]
+
+[1475-1484]
+
+Reflecting on these things, studying Perestrello's and Correo's charts
+and accounts of their voyages, corresponding with Toscanelli and other
+savans, himself an adept in drawing maps and sea-charts, for a time his
+occupation in Lisbon, cruising here and there, once far northward to
+Iceland, and talking with navigators from every Atlantic port, Columbus
+became acquainted with the best geographical science of his time.
+
+This had convinced him that India could be reached by sailing westward.
+The theoretical possibility of so doing was of course admitted by all
+who held the earth to be a sphere, but most regarded it practically
+impossible, in the then condition of navigation, to sail the necessary
+distance. Columbus considered the earth far smaller than was usually
+thought, a belief which we find hinted at so early as 1447, upon the
+famous mappe-Monde of the Pitti Palace in Florence, whereon Europe
+appears projected far round to the northwest. Columbus seems to have
+viewed this extension as a sort of yoke joining India to Scandinavia by
+the north. He judged that Asia, or at least Cipango, stretched
+two-thirds of the way to Europe, India being twice as near westward as
+eastward. Thirty or forty days he deemed sufficient for making it.
+Toscanelli and Behem as well as he held this belief; he dared boldly to
+act upon it.
+
+[Illustration: Queen Isabella of Spain.]
+
+But to do so required resources. There are indications that Columbus at
+some time, perhaps more than once, urged his scheme upon Genoa and
+Venice. If so it was in vain. Nor can we tell whether such an attempt,
+if made, was earlier or later than his plea before the court of
+Portugal, for this cannot be dated. The latter was probably in 1484.
+King John II. was impressed, and referred Columbus's scheme to a council
+of his wisest advisers, who denounced it as visionary. Hence in 1485 or
+1486 Columbus proceeded to Spain to lay his project before Ferdinand and
+Isabella.
+
+On the way he stopped at a Franciscan convent near Palos, begging bread
+for himself and son. The Superior, Marchena, became interested in him,
+and so did one of the Pinzons--famous navigators of Palos. The king and
+queen were at the time holding court at Cordova, and thither Columbus
+went, fortified with a recommendation from Marchena. The monarchs were
+engrossed in the final conquest of Granada, and Columbus had to wait
+through six weary and heart-sickening years before royal attention was
+turned to his cause. It must have been during this delay that he
+despatched his brother Bartholomew to England with an appeal to Henry
+VII. Christopher had brought Alexander Geraldinus, the scholar, and also
+the Archbishop of Toledo, to espouse his mission, and finally, at the
+latter's instance, Ferdinand, as John of Portugal had done, went so far
+as to convene, at Salamanca, a council of reputed scholars to pass
+judgment upon Columbus and his proposition.  By these, as by the
+Portuguese, he was declared a misguided enthusiast. They were too much
+behind the age even to admit the spherical figure of the earth.
+According to Scripture, they said, the earth is flat, adding that it was
+contrary to reason for men to walk heads downward, or snow and rain to
+ascend, or trees to grow with their roots upward.
+
+[Illustration: Columbus begging at the Franciscan Convent.]
+
+[1484-1492]
+
+The war for Granada ended, Santangel and others of his converts at court
+secured Columbus an interview with Isabella, but his demands seeming to
+her arrogant, he was dismissed. Nothing daunted, the hero had started
+for France, there to plead as he had pleaded in Portugal and Spain
+already, when to his joy a messenger overtook him with orders to come
+once more before the queen.
+
+Fuller thought and argument had convinced this eminent woman that the
+experiment urged by Columbus ought to be tried and a contract was soon
+concluded, by which, on condition that he should bear one-eighth the
+expense of the expedition, the public chest of Castile was to furnish
+the remainder. The story of the crown jewels having been pledged for
+this purpose is now discredited. If such pledging occurred, it was
+earlier, in prosecuting the war with the Moors. The whole sum needed for
+the voyage was about fifty thousand dollars. Columbus was made admiral,
+also viceroy of whatever lands should be discovered, and he was to have
+ten per cent of all the revenues from such lands. For his contribution
+to the outfit he was indebted to the Pinzons.
+
+This arrangement was made in April or May, 1492, and on the third of the
+next August, after the utmost difficulty in shipping crews for this sail
+into the sea of darkness, Columbus put out from Palos with one hundred
+and twenty men, on three ships. These were the Santa Maria, the Nina,
+and the Pinta. The largest, the Santa Maria, was of not over one hundred
+tons, having a deck-length of sixty-three feet, a keel of fifty-one
+feet, a draft of ten feet six inches, and her mast-head sixty feet above
+sea-level. She probably had four anchors, with hemp cables.
+
+[Illustration: Embarkation of Christopher Columbus at Palos. From an old
+print.]
+
+From Palos they first bore southward to the Canary Islands, into the
+track of the prevalent east winds, then headed west, for Cipango, as
+Columbus supposed, but really toward the northern part of Florida. When
+a little beyond what he regarded the longitude of Cipango, noticing the
+flight of birds to the southwest, he was induced to follow these, which
+accident made his landfall occur at Guanahani (San Salvador), in the
+Bahamas, instead of the Florida coast.
+
+Near midnight, between October 11th and 12th, Columbus, being on the
+watch, descried a light ahead. About two o'clock on the morning of the
+12th the lookout on the Pinta distinctly saw land through the moonlight.
+When it was day they went on shore. The 12th of October, 1492,
+therefore, was the date on which for the first time, so far as history
+attests with assurance, a European foot pressed the soil of this
+continent. Adding nine days to this to translate it into New Style, we
+have October 21st as the day answering to that on which Columbus first
+became sure that his long toil and watching had not been in vain.
+
+[1493-1500]
+
+The admiral having failed to note its latitude and longitude, it is not
+known which of the Bahamas was the San Salvador of Columbus, whether
+Grand Turk Island, Cat (the present San Salvador), Watling, Mariguana,
+Acklin, or Samana, though the last named well corresponds with his
+description. Mr. Justin Winsor, however, and with him a majority of the
+latest critics, believes that Watling's Island was the place. Before
+returning to Spain, Columbus discovered Cuba, and also Hayti or
+Espagnola (Hispaniola), on the latter of which islands he built a fort.
+
+In a second voyage, from Cadiz, 1493-1496, the great explorer discovered
+the Lesser Antilles and Jamaica. In a third, 1498-1500, he came upon
+Trinidad and the mainland of South America, at the mouth of the Orinoco.
+This was later by thirteen months and a week than the Cabots' landfall
+at Labrador or Nova Scotia, though a year before Amerigo Vespucci saw
+the coast of Brazil. It was during this third absence that Columbus,
+hated as an Italian and for his undeniable greed, was superseded by
+Bobadilla, who sent him and his brother home in chains. Soon free again,
+he sets off in 1502 upon a fourth cruise, in which he reaches the coast
+of Honduras.
+
+To the day of his death, however, the discoverer of America never
+suspected that he had brought to light a new continent. Even during this
+his last expedition he maintained that the coast he had touched was that
+of Mangi, contiguous to Cathay, and that nineteen days of travel
+overland would have taken him to the Ganges. He arrived in Spain on
+September 12, 1504, and died at Segovia on May 20th of the next year.
+His bones are believed to rest in the cathedral at Santo Domingo,
+transported thither in 1541, the Columbus-remains till recently at
+Havana being those of his son Diego. The latter, under the belief that
+they were the father's, were transferred to Genoa in 1887, and deposited
+there on July 2d of that year with the utmost ecclesiastical pomp.
+
+[1500-1507]
+
+As Columbus was ignorant of having found a new continent, so was he
+denied the honor of giving it a name, this falling by accident, design,
+or carelessness of truth, to Amerigo Vespucci, a native of Florence,
+whose active years were spent in Spain and Portugal. Vespucci made three
+voyages into the western seas. In the second, 1501, he visited the coast
+of Brazil, and pushed farther south than any navigator had yet done,
+probably so far as the island of South Georgia, in latitude 54 degrees.
+His account of this voyage found its way into print in 1504, at
+Augsburg, Germany, the first published narrative of any discovery of the
+mainland. Although, as above noted, it was not the earliest discovery of
+the main, it was widely regarded such, and caused Vespucci to be named
+for many years as the peer, if not the superior of Columbus. The
+publication ran through many editions. That of Strassburg, 1505,
+mentioned Vespucci on its title-page as having discovered a new
+"Southern Land." This is the earliest known utterance hinting at the
+continental nature of the new discovery, as separate from Asia, an idea
+which grew into a conviction only after Magellan's voyage, described in
+the next chapter. In 1507 appeared at St. Die, near Strassburg, a
+four-page pamphlet by one Lud, secretary to the Duke of Lorraine,
+describing Vespucci's voyages and speaking of the Indians as the
+"American race." This pamphlet came out the same year in another form,
+as part of a book entitled "Introduction to Cosmography," prepared by
+Martin Waldseemuller, under the nom de plume of "Hylacomylus." In this
+book the new "part of the world" is distinctly called "THE LAND OF
+AMERICUS, OR AMERICA," There is some evidence that Vespucci at least
+connived at the misapprehension which brought him his renown--as
+undeserved as it has become permanent--but this cannot be regarded as
+proved.
+
+[Illustration: Amerigo Vespucci. Fac-simile of an old print.]
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+EARLY SPANISH AMERICA
+
+[1498]
+
+As we have seen, Spain by no means deserves the entire credit of
+bringing the western continent to men's knowledge. Columbus himself was
+an Italian. So was Marco Polo, his inspirer, and also Toscanelli, his
+instructor, by whose chart he sailed his ever-memorable voyage. To
+Portugal as well Columbus was much indebted, despite his rebuff there.
+Portugal then led the world in the art of navigation and in enthusiasm
+for discovery. Nor, probably, would Columbus have asked her aid in vain,
+had she not previously committed herself to the enterprise of reaching
+India eastward, a purpose brilliantly fulfilled when, in 1498, Vasco da
+Gama rounded the Cape of Good Hope and sailed to Calicut, on the coast
+of Malabar. Already before this Spain and Portugal were rivals in the
+search for new lands, and Pope Alexander VI. had had to be appealed to,
+to fix their fields. By his bull of May 3, 4, 1493, he ordained as the
+separating line the meridian passing through a point one hundred leagues
+west of the Azores, where Columbus had observed the needle of his
+compass to point without deflection toward the north star. Portugal
+objecting to this boundary as excluding her from the longitude of the
+newly found Indies, by the treaty of Tordesillas, June 7, 1494, the two
+powers, with the Pope's assent, moved the line two hundred and seventy
+leagues still farther west. At this time neither party dreamed of the
+complications destined subsequently to arise in reference to the
+position of this meridian on the other side of the globe.
+
+[Illustration: Vasco da Gama; From an old print.]
+
+The meridian of the Tordesillas convention had been supposed still to
+give Spain all the American discoveries likely to be made, it being
+ascertained only later that by it Portugal had obtained a considerable
+part of the South American mainland Brazil, we know, was, till in 1822
+it became independent, a Portuguese dependency. Spain, however, retained
+both groups of the Antilles with the entire main about the Gulf of
+Mexico, and became the earliest great principality in the western world.
+
+[1506-1513]
+
+Before the death of Columbus, Spain had taken firm possession of Cuba,
+Porto Rico, and St. Domingo, and she stood ready to seize any of the
+adjoining islands or lands so soon as gold, pearls, or aught else of
+value should be found there. Cruises of discovery were made in every
+direction, first, indeed, in Central and South America. In 1506 de Solis
+sailed along the eastern coast of Yucatan. In 1513 the governor of a
+colony on the Isthmus of Darien, Vasco Nunez de Balboa, from the top of
+a lofty mountain on the isthmus, saw what is now called the Pacific
+Ocean. He designated it the South Sea, a name which it habitually bore
+till far into the eighteenth century. From this time the exploration and
+settlement of the western coast, both up and down, went on with little
+interruption, but this history, somewhat foreign to our theme, we cannot
+detail.
+
+[Illustration: Balboa discovering the Pacific Ocean.]
+
+[Illustration: Ponce de Leon]
+
+The same year, 1513, Ponce de Leon, an old Spanish soldier in the wars
+with the Moors, a companion of Columbus in his second voyage, and till
+now governor of Porto Rico, began exploration to the northward. Leaving
+Porto Rico with three ships, he landed on the coast of an unknown
+country, where he thought to find not only infinite gold but also the
+much-talked-about fountain of perpetual youth. His landing occurred on
+Easter Sunday, or Pascua Florida, March 27, 1513, and so he named the
+country Florida. The place was a few miles north of the present town of
+St. Augustine. Exploring the coast around the southern extremity of the
+peninsula, he sailed among a group of islands, which he designated the
+Tortugas. Returning to Porto Rico, he was appointed governor of the new
+country. He made a second voyage, was attacked by the natives and
+mortally wounded, and returned to Cuba to die.
+
+[1518-1520]
+
+Juan de Grijalva explored the south coast of the Gulf of Mexico, from
+Yucatan toward the Panuco. Interest attaches to this enterprise mainly
+because the treasure which Grijalva collected aroused the envy and greed
+of the future conqueror of Mexico, Hernando Cortez.
+
+In 1518, Velasquez, governor of Cuba, sends Cortez westward, with eleven
+ships and over six hundred men, for the purpose of exploration. He
+landed at Tabasco, thence proceeded to the Island of San Juan de Ulua,
+nearly opposite Vera Cruz, where he received messengers and gifts from
+the Emperor Montezuma. Ordered to leave the country, he destroyed his
+ships and marched directly upon the capital. He seized Montezuma and
+held him as a hostage for the peaceable conduct of his subjects. The
+Mexicans took up arms, only to be defeated again and again by the
+Spaniards. Montezuma became a vassal of the Spanish crown, and
+covenanted to pay annual tribute. Attempting to reconcile his people to
+this agreement he was himself assailed and wounded, and, refusing all
+nourishment, soon after died. With re-enforcements, Cortez completed
+the conquest of the country, and Mexico became a province of Spain.
+
+[Illustration: Hernando Cortes. From an old print.]
+
+Vasquez de Ayllon, one of the auditors of the Island of Santo Domingo,
+sent two ships from that island to the Bahamas for Indians to be sold as
+slaves. Driven from their course by the wind, they at length reached the
+shore of South Carolina, at the mouth of the Wateree River, which they
+named the Jordan, calling the country Chicora. Though kindly treated by
+the natives, the ruthless adventurers carried away some seventy of
+these. One ship was lost, and most of the captives on the others died
+during the voyage. Vasquez was, by the Emperor Charles V., King of
+Spain, made governor of this new province, and again set sail to take
+possession. But the natives, in revenge for the cruel treatment which
+they had previously received, made a furious attack upon the invaders.
+The few survivors of the slaughter returned to Santo Domingo, and the
+expedition was abandoned. These voyages were in 1520 and 1526.
+
+In connection with the subject of Spanish voyages, a passing notice
+should be given to one, who, though not of Spanish birth, yet did much
+to further the progress of discovery on the part of his adopted country.
+Magellan was a Portuguese navigator who had been a child when Columbus
+came back in triumph from the West Indies. Refused consideration from
+King Emmanuel, of Portugal, for a wound received under his flag during
+the war against Morocco, he renounced his native land and offered his
+services to the sagacious Charles V., of Spain, who gladly accepted
+them, With a magnificent fleet, Magellan, in 1519, set sail from
+Seville, cherishing Columbus's bold purpose, which no one had yet
+realized, of reaching the East Indies by a westward voyage, After
+touching at the Canaries, he explored the coast of South America, passed
+through the strait now called by his name, discovered the Ladrone
+Islands, and christened the circumjacent ocean the Pacific.
+
+[Illustration: Montezuma mortally wounded by his own subjects.]
+
+The illustrious navigator now sailed for the Philippine Islands, so
+named from Philip, son of Charles V., who succeeded that monarch as
+Philip II. By the Tordesillas division above described, the islands were
+properly in the Portuguese hemisphere, but on the earliest maps, made by
+Spaniards, they were placed twenty-five degrees too far east, and this
+circumstance, whether accidental or designed, has preserved them to
+Spain even to the present time. At the Philippine Islands Magellan was
+killed in an affray with the natives. One of his ships, the Victoria,
+after sailing around the Cape of Good Hope, arrived in Spain, having
+been the first to circumnavigate the globe. The voyage had taken three
+years and twenty-eight days.
+
+[1528-1540]
+
+The disastrous failure of the expedition of Vasquez de Ayllon to Florida
+did not discourage attempts on the part of others in the same direction.
+Velaspuez, governor of Cuba, jealous of the success of Cortez in Mexico,
+had sent Pamphilo de Narvaez to arrest him. In this attempt Narvaez had
+been defeated and taken prisoner. Undeterred by this failure he had
+solicited and received of Charles V. the position of governor over
+Florida, a territory at that time embracing the whole southern part of
+what is now the United States, and reaching from Cape Sable to the
+Panuco, or River of Palms, in Mexico. With three hundred men he, in
+1528, landed near Appalachee Bay, and marched inland with the hope of
+opening a country rich and populous. Bitterly was he disappointed.
+Swamps and forests, wretched wigwams with their squalid inmates
+everywhere met his view, but no gold was to be found. Discouraged, he
+and his followers returned to the coast, where almost superhuman toil
+and skill enabled them to build five boats, in which they hoped to work
+westward to the Spanish settlements. Embarking, they stole cautiously
+along the coast for some distance, but were at last driven by a storm
+upon an island, perhaps Galveston, perhaps Santa Rosa, where Narvaez and
+most of his men perished. Four of his followers survived to cross Texas
+to the Gulf of California and reach the town of San Miguel on the west
+coast of Mexico. Here they found their countrymen, searching as usual
+for pearls, gold, and slaves, and by their help they made a speedy
+return to Spain, heroes of as remarkable an adventure as history
+records. These unfortunates were the first Europeans to visit New
+Mexico. Their narrative led to the exploration of that country by
+Coronado and others, and to the discoveries of Cortez in Lower
+California.
+
+[Illustration: Death of Magellan.]
+
+[Illustration: Ferdinand de Soto.]
+
+Ferdinand de Soto, eager to rival the exploits of Cortez in Mexico, and
+of his former commander, Pizarro, in Peru, offered to conquer Florida at
+his own expense. Appointed governor-general of Florida and of Cuba, he
+sailed with seven large and three small vessels. From Espiritu Santo Bay
+he, in 1539, marched with six hundred men into the country of the
+Appalachians and discovered the harbor of Pensacola. After wintering at
+Appalachee he set out into the interior, said to abound in gold and
+silver. Penetrating northeasterly as far as the Savannah, he found only
+copper and mica. From here he marched first northwest into northern
+central Georgia, then southwest into Alabama. A battle was fought with
+the natives at Mavila, or Mobile, in which the Spaniards suffered
+serious loss. Ships that he had ordered arrived at Pensacola, but de
+Soto determined not to embark until success should have crowned his
+efforts. He turned back into the interior, into the country of the
+Chickasaws, marched diagonally over the present State of Mississippi to
+its northwest corner, and crossed the Mississippi River near the lowest
+Chickasaw Bluff. From this point the general direction of the Spanish
+progress was southwest, through what is now Arkansas, past the site of
+Little Rock, till at last a river which seems to have been the Washita
+was reached. Down this stream de Soto and his decimated force
+floated--two hundred and fifty of his men had succumbed to the hardships
+and perils of his march--arriving at the junction of the Red with the
+Mississippi River on Sunday, April 17, 1542. At this point de Soto
+sickened and died, turning over the command to Luis de Moscoso. Burying
+their late leader's corpse at night deep in the bosom of the great
+river, and constructing themselves boats, the survivors of this
+ill-fated expedition, now reduced to three hundred and seventy-two
+persons, made the best of their way down the Mississippi to the Gulf,
+and along its coast, finally reaching the Spanish town near the mouth of
+the Panuco in Mexico.
+
+[Illustration: A Palisaded Indian Town in Alabama.]
+
+[Illustration: Burial of de Soto in the Mississippi at night.]
+
+[1562]
+
+Thus no settlement had as yet been made in Florida by the Spanish. The
+first occupation destined to be permanent was brought about through
+religious jealousy inspired by the establishment of a French Protestant
+(Huguenot) colony in the territory. Ribault, a French captain
+commissioned by Charles IX., was put in command of an expedition by that
+famous Huguenot, Admiral Coligny, and landed on the coast of Florida, at
+the mouth of the St. John's, which he called the River of May. This was
+in 1562. The name Carolina, which that section still bears, was given to
+a fort at Port Royal, or St. Helena. Ribault returned to France, where
+civil war was then raging between the Catholics and the Protestants or
+Huguenots. His colony, waiting for promised aid and foolishly making no
+attempt to cultivate the soil, soon languished. Dissensions arose, and
+an effort was made to return home. Famine having carried off the greater
+number, the colony came to an end. In 1564 Coligny sent out Laudonniere,
+who built another fort, also named Carolina, on the River of May. Again
+misfortunes gathered thickly about the settlers, when Ribault arrived
+bringing supplies.
+
+[Illustration: Fort Carolina on the River of May.]
+
+[1565]
+
+[Illustration: Pedro Melendez.]
+
+But Spain claimed this territory, and Pedro Melendez a Spanish soldier,
+was in 1565 sent by Philip II. to conquer it from the French, doubly
+detested as Protestants. He landed in the harbor and at the mouth of the
+river, to both of which he gave the name St. Augustine. Melendez lost no
+time in attacking Fort Carolina, which he surprised, putting the
+garrison mercilessly to the sword. The destruction of the French colony
+was soon after avenged by Dominic de Gourgues, who sailed from France to
+punish the enemies of his country. Having accomplished his purpose by
+the slaughter of the Spanish garrison he returned home, but the French
+Protestants made no further effort to colonize Florida.
+
+Spain claimed the land by right of discovery, but, although maintaining
+the feeble settlement at St. Augustine, did next to nothing after this
+to explore or civilize this portion of America. The nation that had sent
+out Columbus was not destined to be permanently the great power of the
+New World. The hap of first landing upon the Antilles, and also the warm
+climate and the peaceable nature of the aborigines, led Spain to fix her
+settlements in latitudes that were too low for the best health and the
+greatest energy. Most of the settlers were of a wretched class,
+criminals and adventurers, and they soon mixed largely with the natives.
+Spain herself greatly lacked in vigor, partly from national causes,
+partly from those obscure general causes which even to this day keep
+Latin Europe, in military power and political accomplishments, inferior
+to Teutonic or Germanic Europe.
+
+[Illustration: Indians devoured by dogs. From an old print.]
+
+[1570]
+
+Moreover, the Spaniards found their first American conquests too easy,
+and the rewards of these too great. This prevented all thought of
+developing the country through industry, concentrating expectation
+solely upon waiting fortunes, to be had from the natives by the sword or
+through forced labor in mines, Their treatment of the aborigines was
+nothing short of diabolical. Well has it been said: "The Spaniards had
+sown desolation, havoc, and misery in and around their track. They had
+depopulated some of the best peopled of the islands and renewed them
+with victims deported from others. They had inflicted upon hundreds of
+thousands of the natives all the forms and agonies of fiendish cruelty,
+driving them to self-starvation and suicide, as a way of mercy and
+release from an utterly wretched existence. They had come to be viewed
+by their victims as fiends of hate, malignity, and all dark and cruel
+desperation and mercilessness in passion. The hell which they denounced
+upon their victims was shorn of its worst terror by the assurance that
+these tormentors were not to be there. Las Casas, the noble missionary,
+the true soldier of the cross, and the few priests and monks who
+sympathized with him, in vain protested against these cruelties."
+
+To all these causes we must add the narrow colonial policy of Spain.
+Imitating Venice and ancient Carthage instead of Greece, she held her
+dependencies under the straitest servitude to herself as conquered
+provinces, repressing all political or commercial independence. A
+similar restrictive policy, indeed, hampered the colonies of other
+nations, but it was nowhere else so irrational or blighting as in
+Spanish America.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+EXPLORATION AND COLONIZATION BY THE FRENCH AND THE ENGLISH
+
+[1534]
+
+How the French fought for foothold in Florida and were routed by the
+Spaniards has just been related. So early as 1504, and possibly much
+earlier, before Cabot or Columbus, French sailors were familiar with the
+fisheries of Newfoundland. To the Isle of Cape Breton they gave its name
+in remembrance of their own Brittany. The attention of the French
+Government was thus early directed toward America, and it at length
+determined to share in the new discoveries along with the Spanish and
+the English.
+
+In 1524 Verrazano, a Florentine navigator, was sent by Francis I. on a
+voyage of discovery to the New World. Sighting the shores of America
+near the present Wilmington, North Carolina, he explored the coast of
+New Jersey, touched land near New York Bay, and anchored a few days in
+the harbor of Newport. In this vicinity he came upon an island, which
+was probably Block Island. Sailing from here along the coast as far
+north as Newfoundland, he named this vast territory New France.
+
+[Illustration: Verrazano, the Florentine Navigator.]
+
+[Illustration: Jacques Cartier. From an old print.]
+
+[1540]
+
+In 1534 Cartier, a noted voyager of St. Malo, coasted along the north of
+Newfoundland, passed through the Straits of Belle Isle into the water
+now known as St. Lawrence Gulf, and into the mouth of the St. Lawrence
+River. Erecting a cross, he took possession of the shores in the name of
+the king of France.
+
+In the following year he made a second voyage, going up as far as the
+mouth of a small river which the year before he had named St. John's. He
+called the waters the Bay of St. Lawrence. Ascending this, he came to a
+settlement of the natives near a certain hill, which he called Mont
+Royal, now modified into "Montreal." Cartier returned to France in 1536,
+only a few of his men having survived the winter.
+
+In 1540 Lord Roberval fitted out a fleet, with Cartier as subordinate.
+Cartier sailed at once--his third voyage--Roberval following the next
+year. A fort was built near the present site of Quebec. Roberval and
+Cartier disagreed and returned to France, leaving the real foundation of
+Quebec to be laid by Champlain, much later.
+
+In 1604 De Monts arrived on the coast of Nova Scotia and erected a fort
+at the mouth of the St. Croix, New Brunswick. He also made a settlement
+on the shore of the present harbor of Annapolis, naming it Port Royal,
+and the country around it Acadia. De Monts is famous largely because
+under him the Sieur de Champlain, the real father of French colonization
+in America, began his illustrious career. He had entered the St.
+Lawrence in 1603. In 1608 he founded Quebec, the first permanent colony
+of New France. The next year he explored the lake which perpetuates his
+name. In 1615 he saw Lake Huron, Le Caron, the Franciscan, preceding him
+in this only by a few days. Fired with ardor for discovery, Champlain
+joined the Hurons in an attack upon the Iroquois. This led him into what
+is now New York State, but whether the Indian camp first attacked by him
+was on Onondaga or on Canandaigua Lake is still in debate. These were
+but the beginning of Champlain's travels, by which many other Frenchmen,
+some as missionaries, some as traders, were inspired to press far out
+into the then unknown West. We shall resume the narrative in Chapter VII
+of the next period. Champlain died at Quebec in 1635.
+
+Turn back now to Columbus's time. England, destined to dominate the
+continent of North America, was also practically the discoverer of the
+same. On St. John's day, June 24, 1497, thirteen months and a week
+before Columbus saw South America, John Cabot, a Venetian in the service
+of King Henry VII., from the deck of the good ship Matthew, of Bristol,
+descried land somewhere on the coast either of Labrador or of Nova
+Scotia. Cabot, of course, supposed this prima vista of his to belong to
+Asia, and expected to reach Cipango next voyage. So late as 1543 Jean
+Allefonsce, on reaching New England, took it for the border of Tartary.
+Andre Thevet, in 1515, in a pretended voyage to Maine, places Cape
+Breton on the west coast of Asia.  This confusion probably explains the
+tradition of Norumbega as a great city, and of other populous and
+wealthy cities in the newly found land. Men transferred ideas of Eastern
+Asia to this American shore.
+
+[1516]
+
+The subsequent year Cabot made a second voyage, inspecting the American
+coast northward till icebergs were met, southward to the vicinity of
+Albemarle Sound. Possibly in his first expedition, probably in the
+second, John Cabot was accompanied by his more famous son, Sebastian.
+For many years after the Cabots, England made little effort to explore
+the New World. Henry VII. was a Catholic. He therefore submitted to the
+Pope's bull which gave America to Spain. Henry VIII. had married
+Catherine of Aragon. He allowed Ferdinand, her father, to employ the
+skill and daring of Sebastian Cabot in behalf of Spain. It was reserved
+for the splendid reign of Elizabeth to show what English courage and
+endurance could accomplish in extending England's power.
+
+[Illustration: Sebastian Cabot. From an old print.]
+
+[1576]
+
+Like those before him, Martin Frobisher was in earnest to find the
+northwest passage, in whose existence all navigators then fully
+believed. Like Columbus, he vainly sought friends to aid him. At last,
+after he had waited fifteen years in vain, Dudley, the Earl of Warwick,
+helped him to an outfit. His little fleet embraced the Gabriel, of
+thirty-five tons, the Michael of thirty, and a pinnace of ten. As it
+swept to sea past Greenwich, the Queen waved her hand in token of
+good-will. Sailing northward near the Shetland Isles, Frobisher passed
+the southern shore of Greenland and came in sight of Labrador, 1576.
+
+He effected a landing at Hall's Island, at the mouth of the bay now
+called by his name, but which he thought to be a strait, his discovery
+thus strengthening his belief in the possibility of reaching Asia by
+this westward course. He sailed up the bay as far as Butcher's Island,
+where five of his men were taken prisoners by the natives. All effort to
+rescue them was made, but to no purpose. Among the curiosities which he
+brought home was a piece of stone, or black ore, which gave rise to the
+belief that gold was to be found in this new country.
+
+[1577]
+
+A second and larger expedition sailed in 1577. The Queen gave 1,000
+pounds and lent the royal ship Aid, of two hundred tons. The Gabriel and
+the Michael of the former year were again made ready, besides smaller
+craft. This voyage was to seek gold rather than to discover the
+northwest passage. The fleet set sail May 27th, and on July 18th arrived
+off North Foreland, or Hall's Island, so named for the man who had
+brought away the piece of black earth. Search was made for this metal,
+supposed to be so valuable, and large quantities were found. The fleet
+sailed back to England with a heavy cargo of it.
+
+In 1578 a third and the last voyage was made to this region, to which
+the name meta incognita was given. Two large ships were furnished by the
+Queen, and these were accompanied by thirteen smaller ones.
+
+[1578-1580]
+
+It was now the purpose to found a colony. The expedition set sail May
+31st, going through the English Channel, and reaching the coast of
+Greenland June 21st. Frobisher and a few of his sailors landed where,
+perhaps, white men had never trodden before. As he came near the bay he
+was driven south by stormy weather, and entered, not knowing his
+whereabouts, the waters of Hudson's Straits, which he traversed a
+distance of sixty miles. He succeeded at length in retracing his course,
+and anchored on the southern shore of Frobisher's Bay, in the Countess
+of Warwick's Sound. But the desire for gold, the bleak winds, barren
+shores, and drifting icebergs, all combined to dispel the hopes of
+making a successful settlement, and the adventurers turned their faces
+homeward, carrying once more a cargo of ore, which proved, like the
+first, to be of no value whatever.
+
+Almost three hundred years later Captain Hall, the American explorer,
+visited the Countess's Island and Sound. Among the Eskimos, from 1860 to
+1862, he learned the tradition of Frobisher's visits, which had been
+preserved and handed down. They knew the number of ships; they spoke of
+the three times that white men had come; how five of these strangers had
+been taken captive, and how, after remaining through the winter, they
+had been allowed to build a boat, and to launch themselves upon the icy
+seas, never to be heard of more. Captain Hall was shown many relics of
+Frobisher's voyages, some of which he sent to the Royal Geographical
+Society of London, a part to the Smithsonian Institute at Washington.
+The small English house of lime and stone on this island was still
+standing in good condition, and there was also a trench where they had
+built their ill-fated boat.
+
+[Illustration: An Indian Village at the Roanoke Settlement.]
+
+A contemporary of Frobisher, Sir Francis Drake, also entertained the
+idea of making the northwest passage. While engaged in privateering or
+piratical expeditions against the Spanish, Drake landed on the Isthmus
+of Panama, saw the Pacific for the first time, and determined to enter
+it by the Straits of Magellan. In 1577 he made his way through the
+straits, plundered the Spanish along the coast of Chili and Peru, and
+sailed as far north as the 48th parallel, or Oregon, calling the country
+New Albion. Steering homeward by the Cape of Good Hope, he arrived at
+Plymouth, his starting-point, in 1580, having been absent about two
+years and ten months.
+
+[Illustration: Sir Humphrey Gilbert.]
+
+Thomas Cavendish had been with Grenville in the voyage of 1585 to
+Virginia. Frobisher's attempts inspired him with the ambition of the
+age. In 1586 he, too, sailed through the Straits of Magellan, burning
+and plundering Spanish ships, rounded the Cape of Good Hope, and reached
+Plymouth in 1588, having been gone about two years and fifty days.
+
+[Illustration: Sir Walter Raleigh. From a portrait attributed to Zuccaro
+in the National Portrait Gallery, London.]
+
+[1584]
+
+These half-piratical attempts against Spain led continually into
+American waters, till the notion of forming a permanent outpost here as
+base for such adventures suggested to Sir Humphrey Gilbert the plan,
+which he failed to realize, of founding an American settlement. Gilbert
+visited our shores in 1579, and again in 1583, but was lost on his
+return from the latter voyage.
+
+In 1584 Sir Walter Raleigh sent two captains, Amidas and Barlow, to
+inspect the coast off what is now North Carolina. They reported so
+favorably that he began, next year, a colony on Roanoke Island. England
+was now a Protestant land, and no longer heeded Spanish claims to the
+transatlantic continent, save so far as actual settlements had been
+made.
+
+[1586]
+
+Sir Richard Grenville commanded this expedition, but was to return on
+seeing the one hundred and eight colonists who accompanied him well
+established. Queen Elizabeth gave the name VIRGINIA to the new country.
+Drake, tending homeward from one of his raids on the Spanish coast, in
+1586, offered the settlers supplies, but finding them wholly
+discouraged, he carried them back to England.
+
+[Illustration: Queen Elizabeth.]
+
+[1587]
+
+Determined to plant an agricultural community, Raleigh next time, l587,
+sent men with their families. A daughter to one of these, named Dare,
+was the first child of English parents born in America. Becoming
+destitute, the colony despatched its governor home for supplies. He
+returned to find the settlement deserted, and no tidings as to the fate
+of the poor colonists have ever been heard from that day to our own. The
+Jamestown settlers mentioned in the next chapter found among their
+Indian neighbors a boy whose whitish complexion and wavy hair induced
+the interesting suspicion that he was descended from some one of these
+lost colonists of Roanoke.
+
+Thus Sir Walter's enterprise had to be abandoned. In the 40,000 pounds
+spent upon it his means were exhausted. Besides, England was now at war
+with Spain, and the entire energies of the nation were in requisition
+for the overthrow of the Spanish Armada.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+THE PLANTING OF VIRGINIA
+
+[1606]
+
+We have now arrived at the seventeenth century. In 1606 King James I.
+issued the first English colonial charter. It created a first and a
+second Virginia Company, the one having its centre in London, and coming
+to be known as the London Company; the other made up of Bristol, Exeter,
+and Plymouth men, and gradually taking the title of the Plymouth
+Company. This latter company, the second, or Plymouth Company,
+authorized to plant between 38 degrees and 45 degrees north, effected a
+settlement in 1607 at the mouth of the Kennebec River. Little came of it
+but suffering, the colonists, after a severe winter, returning to
+England.
+
+[Illustration: King James I. Mr. Henry Irving's Collection.]
+
+[1607]
+
+A colony of one hundred and five planters sent out by the first or
+London Company, proceeded, also in 1607, to Chesapeake Bay, entering
+James River, to which they indeed gave this name, and planted upon its
+banks Jamestown, the first permanent English colony on the continent.
+This London Company consisted of a council in England, appointed by the
+king, having the power to name the members of a local council which was
+to govern the colony, the colonists themselves having no voice.
+
+It is well known that the very earliest population of the Old Dominion
+was not of the highest, but predominantly idle and thriftless. Vagabonds
+and homeless children picked up in the streets of London, as well as
+some convicts, were sent to the colony from England to be indented as
+servants, permanently, or for a term of years. Persons of the better
+class, to be sure, came as well, and the quality of the population, on
+the whole, improved year by year. Settlement here followed a centrifugal
+tendency, except as this was repressed by fear of the Indians. In 1616
+the departments of Virginia were Henrico, up the James above the
+Appomattox mouth, West and Shirley Hundreds, Jamestown, Kiquoton, and
+King's Gift on the coast near Cape Charles--a wide reach of territory to
+be covered by a total population of only three hundred and fifty.
+
+[1608]
+
+A little exporting was immediately begun. So early as May 20, 1608,
+Jamestown sent to England a ship laden with iron ore, sassafras, cedar
+posts, and walnut boards. Another followed on June 2d, with a cargo all
+of cedar wood. This year or the next, small quantities of pitch, tar,
+and glass were sent. From 1619 tobacco was so common as to be the
+currency. About 1650 it was largely exported, a million and a half
+pounds, on the average, yearly. The figure had risen to twelve million
+pounds by 1670. At the middle of the century, corn, wheat, rice, hemp,
+flax, and fifteen varieties of fruit, as well as excellent wine were
+produced. A wind-mill was set up about 1620, the first in America. It
+stood at Falling Creek on the James River. The pioneer iron works on the
+continent were in this colony, hailing from about the date last named.
+Community of property prevailed at Jamestown in all the earliest years,
+as it did at Plymouth. After the event noted by John Rolfe: "about the
+last of August [1619] came in a Dutch man of warre that sold us twenty
+Negars," slavery was a continual and increasing curse, as is attested
+by the laws concerning slaves. It encouraged indolence and savagery of
+habit and nature. Virginian slaves, however, were better treated than
+those farther south. They were tolerably clothed, fed, and housed.
+
+[Illustration: Tobacco Plant.]
+
+[Illustration: Captain John Smith.]
+
+There was in Virginia little of that healthful social and political
+contact which did so much to develop civilization at the North. Of town
+life there was practically nothing. Even so late as 1716 Jamestown had
+only a sorry half-dozen structures, two of which were church and
+court-house. Fifteen years later Fredericksburg had, besides the manor
+house of Colonel Willis and its belongings, only a store, a tailor shop,
+a blacksmith shop, a tavern or "ordinary," and a coffeehouse. Richmond
+and Petersburg still existed only on paper, and if we come down to the
+middle of the eighteenth century, Williamsburg, the capital of the
+province, was nothing but a straggling village of two hundred houses,
+without a single paved street. Only the College and the governor's
+"palace" were of brick. The county-seats were mostly mere glades in the
+woods, containing each its court-house, prison, whipping-post, pillory,
+and ducking-stool, besides the wretched tavern where court and
+attendants put up, and possibly a church. Hardships and dissensions
+marked the whole early history of this infant state. At one time only
+forty settlers remained alive, at another meal and water were the sole
+diet. Hoping for instant riches in gold, poor gentlemen and vagabonds
+had come, too much to the exclusion of mechanics and laborers. For
+relief from the turbulence and external dangers of this period, the
+colony owed much to Captain John Smith, who, after all allowance for his
+boasting, certainly displayed great courage and energy in emergencies.
+He, too, it was who did most to explore the country up the James and
+upon Chesapeake Bay.
+
+[Illustration: "King Powhatan commands C:Smith to be flayne his daughter
+Pokahontas beggs his life his thankfullness and how he subiecled 39 of
+their kings reade ye history" Pocahontas saving Captain Smith's
+Life. From Smith's "General History."]
+
+[1609-1610]
+
+A new charter was granted in 1609, the council in England being now
+appointed by the stockholders instead of the king, and the governor of
+the colony being named by this council. Lord Delaware was made Governor
+and Captain-General of Virginia, and many more colonists sent out. By a
+wreck of two of the vessels there was delay in the arrival of the newly
+chosen officers. Smith, then Percy, meantime continued to exercise
+authority. This, again, was a critical period. Indians were troublesome.
+Tillage having been neglected from the first, provisions became
+exhausted, and a crisis long referred to as "the starving time" ensued.
+The colony had actually abandoned Jamestown and shipped for England,
+when met in James River by Lord Delaware, coming with relief. They at
+once returned, and an era of hope dawned. This was in June, 1610. One
+hundred and fifty new settlers accompanied Delaware. Planting was
+vigorously prosecuted, the Indians placated, and still further
+accessions of people and cattle secured from England.
+
+[1612]
+
+Delaware's brief, mild sway was always a benediction, in pleasing
+contrast with the severities of Dale and Argall, who successively
+governed after his departure. Under Dale, death was the penalty for
+slaughtering cattle, even one's own, except with the Governor's leave,
+also of exporting goods without permission. A baker giving short weight
+was to lose his ears, and on second repetition to suffer death. A
+laundress purloining linen was to be flogged. Martial law alone
+prevailed; even capital punishment was ordained without jury. Such
+arbitrary rule was perhaps necessary, so lawless were the mass of the
+population. It at any rate had the excellent effect of rousing the
+Virginians to political thought and to the assertion of their rights. In
+1612 a change took place in the Company's methods of governing its
+colony. The superior council was abolished, its authority transferred to
+the corporation as a whole, which met as an assembly to elect officers
+and enact laws for the colony. The government thus became more
+democratic in form and spirit.
+
+[Illustration: "POWHATAN Held this state & fashion when Capt.' Smith was
+delivered to him prisoner. 1607"
+The Council of Powhatan. From Smith's "General History,"]
+
+[1614-1619]
+
+The year 1614 was distinguished by the marriage of Pocahontas, daughter
+of the native chief Powhatan, to the English colonist Rolfe. With him
+she visited England, dying there a few years later. The alliance secured
+the valuable friendship of Powhatan and his subjects--only till
+Powhatan's death, however. Thenceforth savage hostilities occurred at
+frequent intervals. In 1622 they were peculiarly severe, over three
+hundred settlers losing their lives through them. Another outbreak took
+place about 1650, this time more quickly suppressed. We shall see in a
+later chapter how Bacon's Rebellion was occasioned by Indian troubles.
+
+As James I. broke with Parliament, a majority of the Virginia
+shareholders proved Liberals, and they wrought with signal purpose and
+effect to realize their ideas in their colony. To this political
+complexion of the Virginia Company not only Virginia itself, but, in a
+way, all America is indebted for a start toward free institutions.
+During the governorship of George Yeardley, was summoned an assembly of
+burgesses, consisting of two representatives, elected by the
+inhabitants, from each of the eleven boroughs or districts which the
+colony had by this time come to embrace. It met on June 10, 1619, the
+earliest legislative body in the New World. This was the dawn of another
+new era in the colony's history.
+
+[Illustration: Pocahantas]
+
+[1622-1625]
+
+In 1622 arrived Sir Thomas Wyatt, bringing a written constitution from
+the Company, which confirmed to the colony representative government and
+trial by jury. The assembly was given authority to make laws, subject
+only to the Governor's veto. This enlargement of political rights was
+due to the growth of the sentiment of popular liberty in England. In the
+meetings of the London Company debates were frequent and spirited
+between the court faction and the supporters of the political rights of
+the colonists. James I., dissatisfied with the authority which he had
+himself granted, appointed a commission to inquire into the Company's
+management, and also into the circumstances of the colony. A change was
+recommended, the courts decided as the king wished, and the Company was
+dissolved, The colony, while still allowed to govern itself by means of
+its popular assembly, was thus brought directly under the supervision of
+the Crown. Charles I., coming to the throne in 1625, gave heed to the
+affairs of the colony only so far as necessary to secure for himself the
+profits of the tobacco trade, It was doubtless owing to his indifference
+that the colony continued to enjoy civil freedom. He again appointed
+Yeardley Governor, a choice agreeable to the people; and in 1628, by
+asking that the assembly be called in order to vote him a monopoly of
+the coveted trade, he explicitly recognized the legitimacy and authority
+of that body.
+
+[1642]
+
+Yeardley was succeeded by Harvey, who rendered himself unpopular by
+defending in all land disputes the claims arising under royal grant
+against those based upon occupancy. Difficulties of this sort pervaded
+all colonial history.
+
+In 1639 Wyatt held the office, succeeded in 1642 by Berkeley, during
+whose administration the colony attained its highest prosperity.
+Virginians now possessed constitutional rights and privileges in even a
+higher degree than Englishmen in the northern colonies. The colonists
+were most loyal to the king, and were let alone. They were also attached
+to the Church of England, ever manifesting toward those of a different
+faith the spirit of intolerance characteristic of the age.
+
+[1650]
+
+During the civil war in England, Virginia, of course, sided with the
+king. When Cromwell had assumed the reins of government he sent an
+expedition to require the submission of the colony. An agreement was
+made by which the authority of Parliament was acknowledged, while the
+colony in return was left unmolested in the management of its own
+affairs.
+
+[Illustration: Signature of Berkeley.]
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+PILGRIM AND PURITAN AT THE NORTH
+
+[1612]
+
+The Pilgrims who settled New England were Independents, peculiar in
+their ecclesiastical tenet that the single congregation of godly
+persons, however few or humble, regularly organized for Christ's work,
+is of right, by divine appointment, the highest ecclesiastical authority
+on earth. A church of this order existed in London by 1568; another,
+possibly more than one, the "Brownists," by 1580. Barrowe and Greenwood
+began a third in 1588, which, its founders being executed, went exiled
+to Amsterdam in 1593, subsequently uniting with the Presbyterians there.
+These churches, though independent, were not strictly democratic, like
+those next to be named.
+
+Soon after 1600 John Smyth gathered a church at Gainsborough in
+Lincolnshire, England, which persecution likewise drove to Amsterdam.
+Here Smyth seceded and founded a Baptist church, which, returning to
+London in 1611 or 1612, became the first church of its kind known to
+have existed in England. From Smyth's church at Gainsborough sprang one
+at Scrooby, in Nottinghamshire, and this, too, exiled like its parent,
+crossed to Holland, finding home in Leyden in 1607 and 1608. Of this
+church John Robinson was pastor, and from its bosom came the Plymouth
+Colony to New England.
+
+[Illustration: Plymouth Harbor, England.]
+
+[Illustration: Harbor of Provincetown, Cape Cod, where the Pilgrims
+landed.]
+
+[1620]
+
+This little band set out for America with a patent from the Virginia
+Company, according to James I.'s charter of 1606, but actually began
+here as labor-share holders in a sub-corporation of a new organization,
+the Plymouth Company, chartered in 1620. Launching in the Mayflower from
+Plymouth, where they had paused in their way hither from Holland, they
+arrived off the coast of Cape Cod in 1620, December 11th Old Style,
+December 21st New Style, and began a settlement, to which they gave the
+name Plymouth. Before landing they had formed themselves into a
+political body, a government of the people with "just and equal laws."
+
+[Illustration: The Life of the Colony at Cape Cod.]
+
+They based their civil authority upon this Mayflower compact,
+practically ignoring England. Carver was the first governor, Bradford
+the second. The colony was named Plymouth in memory of hospitalities
+which its members had received at Plymouth, England, the name having no
+connection with the "Plymouth" of the Plymouth Company. The members of
+the Plymouth Company had none but a mercantile interest in the
+adventure, merely fitting out the colonists and bearing the expense of
+the passage for all but the first. On the other hand, the stock was not
+all retained in England. Shares were allotted to the Pilgrims as well,
+one to each emigrant with or without means, and one for every 10 pounds
+invested.
+
+Plymouth early made a treaty with Massasoit, the chief of the
+neighboring Wampanoags, the peace lasting with benign effects to both
+parties for fifty years, or till the outbreak of Philip's War, discussed
+in a later chapter. The first winter in Plymouth was one of dreadful
+hardships, of famine, disease and death, which spring relieved but in
+part. Yet Plymouth grew, surely if slowly. It acquired rights on the
+Kennebec, on the Connecticut, at Cape Ann. It was at first a pure
+democracy, its laws all made in mass-meetings of the entire body of
+male inhabitants; nor was it till 1639 that increase of numbers forced
+resort to the principle of representation. In 1643 the population was
+about three thousand.
+
+[Illustration: Signatures to Plymouth Patent.
+/In witnes whereof the said President & Counsell haue to the one pt of
+this pute Indenture sett their seales* And to th'other pt hereof the
+said John Peirce in the name of himself and his said Associate haue sett
+to his seale geven the day and yeeres first aboue written/]
+
+[1626-1630]
+
+Between 1620 and 1630 there were isolated settlers along the whole New
+England coast. White, a minister from Dorchester, England, founded a
+colony near Cape Ann, which removed to Salem in 1626. The Plymouth
+Company granted them a patent, which Endicott, in charge of more
+emigrants, brought over in 1628. It gave title to all land between the
+Merrimac and Charles Rivers, also to all within three miles beyond each.
+These men formed the nucleus of the colony to which in 1629 Charles I.
+granted a royal charter, styling the proprietors "the Governor and
+Company of the Massachusetts Bay in New England." Boston was made the
+capital. Soon more emigrants came, and Charlestown was settled.
+
+[Illustration: Site of First Church and Governor Bradford's House at
+Plymouth.]
+
+It was a momentous step when the government of this colony was
+transferred to New England. Winthrop was chosen Governor, others of the
+Company elected to minor offices, and they, with no fewer than one
+thousand new colonists, sailed for this side the Atlantic. In
+Massachusetts, therefore, a trading company did not beget, as elsewhere,
+but literally became a political state. Many of the Massachusetts men,
+in contrast with those of Plymouth, had enjoyed high consideration at
+home. Yet democracy prevailed here too. The Governor and his eighteen
+assistants were chosen by the freemen, and were both legislature and
+court. As population increased and scattered in towns, these chose
+deputies to represent them, and a lower house element was added to the
+General Court, though assistants and deputies did not sit separately
+till 1644.
+
+[Illustration: Governor Winthrop.]
+
+[1631]
+
+At this time Massachusetts had a population of about 15,000. To all New
+England 21,200 emigrants came between 1628 and 1643, the total white
+population at the latter date being about 24,000.
+
+[Illustration: First Church in Salem.]
+
+So early as 1631 this colony decreed to admit none as freemen who were
+not also church members. Thus Church and State were made one, the
+government a theocracy. The Massachusetts settlers, though in many
+things less extreme than the Pilgrims, were decided Puritans, sincere
+but formal, precise, narrow, and very superstitious. They did not,
+however, on coming hither, affect or wish to separate from the Church of
+England, earnestly as they deprecated retaining the sign of the cross in
+baptism, the surplice, marriage with ring, and kneeling at communion.
+Yet soon they in effect became Separatists as well as Puritans, building
+independent churches, like those at Plymouth, and repudiating episcopacy
+utterly.
+
+[Illustration: Seal of Massachusetts Bay Company.]
+
+[1635]
+
+Much as these Puritans professed and tried to exalt reason in certain
+matters, in civil and religious affairs, where they took the Old
+Testament as affording literal and minute directions for all sorts of
+human actions for all time, they could allow little liberty of opinion.
+This was apparent when into this theocratic state came Roger Williams,
+afterward the founder of Rhode Island. Born in London, England, about
+1607, of good family, he was placed by his patron, Coke, at the Charter
+House School. From there he went to Pembroke College, Cambridge. In 1631
+he arrived in Boston. Somewhat finical in his political, moral, and
+religious ideas, he found it impossible, having separated from the
+Church of England, in which he had been reared, to harmonize here with
+those still favoring that communion. At Salem he was invited by a little
+company of Separatists to become their teacher. His views soon offended
+the authorities. He declared that the king's patent could confer no
+title to lands possessed by Indians. He denied the right of magistrates
+to punish heresy, or to enforce attendance upon religious services. "The
+magistrate's power," he said, "extends only to the bodies, goods, and
+outward state of men."
+
+Alarmed at his bold utterances, the General Court of Massachusetts,
+September 2, 1635, decreed his banishment for "new and dangerous
+opinions, against the authority of magistrates." His fate was not,
+therefore, merely because of his religious views. The exile sought
+refuge at Seekonk, but this being within the Plymouth jurisdiction, he,
+on Governor Winslow's admonition, moved farther into the wilderness,
+settling at Providence. He purchased land of the natives, and, joined by
+others, set up a pure democracy, instituting as a part thereof the
+"lively experiment," for which ages had waited, of perfect liberty in
+matters of religious belief. Not for the first time in history, but more
+clearly, earnestly, and consistently than it had ever been done before,
+he maintained for every man the right of absolute freedom in matters of
+conscience, for all forms of faith equal toleration.
+
+[Illustration: Roger Williams' House at Salem.]
+
+[1638]
+
+[Illustration: Edward Winslow.]
+
+Some friends of Mrs. Anne Hutchinson established a colony on Aquidneck,
+the Indian name for Rhode Island. Williams went to England and secured
+from Parliament a patent which united that plantation with his in one
+government. Charles II.'s charter of 1663 added Warwick to the first two
+settlements, renewing and enlarging the patent, and giving freest scope
+for government according to Williams' ideas. Mrs. Hutchinson, a woman of
+rare intellect and eloquence, who maintained the right of private
+judgment and pretended to an infallible inner light of revelation, was,
+like Williams, a victim of Puritan intolerance. She and her followers
+were banished, and some of them, returning, put to death, 1659-60. She
+came to Providence, then went to Aquidneck, where her husband died in
+1642. She next settled near Hurl Gate, within the Dutch limits, where
+herself and almost her entire family were butchered by the Indians in
+1643.
+
+In 1633 the Dutch erected a fort where Hartford now is, but some English
+emigrants from Plymouth Colony, in defiance of a threatened cannonade,
+sailed past and built a trading-house at Windsor, where, joined by
+colonists, from about Boston, they soon effected a settlement.
+Wethersfield and Hartford were presently founded. In 1630 the Plymouth
+Company had granted Connecticut to the Earl of Warwick, who turned it
+over to Lord Brooke, Lord Say-and-Seal, and others. Winthrop the
+Younger, son of Governor Winthrop, of Massachusetts, commissioned by
+these last, built a fort at Saybrook. Till the expiration of his
+commission the towns immediately upon the Connecticut were under the
+government of Massachusetts. Their population in 1643 was three
+thousand. A convention of these towns met at Hartford, January 14, 1639,
+and formed a constitution, like that of Massachusetts Bay, thoroughly
+republican in nature. Connecticut breathed a freer spirit than either
+Massachusetts or New Haven, being in this respect the peer of Plymouth.
+At Hartford Roger Williams was always welcome.
+
+Meantime, in 1638, having touched at Boston the year before, Davenport,
+Eaton, and others from London began planting at New Haven. The Bible was
+adopted as their guide in both civil and religious affairs, and a
+government organized in which only church members could vote or be
+elected to the General Court. The colony flourished, branching out into
+several towns. In 1643 it numbered twenty five hundred inhabitants.
+
+As early as 1622, Mason and Gorges were granted land partly in what is
+now Maine, partly in what is now New Hampshire; and in 1623 Dover and
+Portsmouth were settled. Wheelwright, a brother-in-law of Mrs.
+Hutchinson, with others, purchased of the natives the southeast part of
+New Hampshire, between the Merrimac and the Piscataqua, and in 1638
+Exeter was founded. In the same year with Wheelwright's purchase, Mason
+obtained from the council of the Plymouth Company a patent to this same
+section, and the tract was called New Hampshire. These conflicting
+claims paved the way for future controversies and lawsuits. The settlers
+here were not Puritans, nor were they obliged to be church members in
+order to be deputies or freemen.
+
+The settlement of Maine goes back to 1626, when the Plymouth Company
+granted lands there both to Alexander and to Gorges. In 1639 Gorges
+secured a royal charter to re-enforce his claim. Large freedom, civil
+and religious, was allowed. For many years the Maine settlements were
+small and scattered, made up mostly of such as came to hunt and fish for
+a season only.
+
+[1650]
+
+From 1643 to 1684 Massachusetts, Plymouth, Connecticut, and New Haven
+formed a confederation under the style of the United Colonies of New
+England. Maine, Providence, and Rhode Island sought membership, but were
+refused as being civilly and religiously out of harmony with the
+colonies named. Connecticut, offensive to the Dutch, and exposed to
+hostilities from them, was the most earnest for the union, while at the
+same time the most conservative as to its form. It was a loose league,
+leaving each colony independent save as to war and peace, Indian
+affairs, alliances and boundaries. Questions pertaining to these were to
+be settled by a commission of two delegates from each of the four
+colonies, meeting yearly, voting man by man, six out of the eight votes
+being necessary to bind.
+
+The confederacy settled a boundary dispute between New Haven and New
+Netherland in 1650. It received and disbursed moneys, amounting some
+years to 600 pounds, for the propagation of the gospel in New England,
+sent over by the society which Parliament incorporated for that purpose
+in 1649. It was also of more or less service in securing united action
+against the savages in Philip's War. The union was, however, of little
+immediate service, useful rather as an example for the far future. Its
+failure was due partly to the distance of the colonies apart, and to the
+strength of the instinct for local self-government, a distinguishing
+political trait of New England till our day. Its main weakness, however,
+was the overbearing power and manner of Massachusetts, especially after
+her assumption of Maine in 1652. In 1653 the Plymouth, New Haven, and
+Connecticut commissioners earnestly wished war with New Netherland, but
+Massachusetts proudly forbade--a plain violation of the articles. After
+this there was not much heart in the alliance. The last meeting of the
+commissioners occurred at Hartford, September 5, 1684.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+BALTIMORE AND HIS MARYLAND
+
+[1630]
+
+[Illustration: Maryland Shilling.]
+
+The very year that witnessed the landing of the Pilgrims records the
+beginning of another attempt to colonize the New World. While Secretary
+of State, having been appointed in 1619, Sir George Calvert, a member of
+the Virginia Company from 1609 until its dissolution in 1624, determined
+to plant a colony for himself. In the memorable year 1620 he bought of
+Lord Vaughan the patent to the south-eastern peninsula of Newfoundland,
+the next he sent colonists thither with a generous supply of money for
+their support. In 1623 King James gave him a patent, making him
+proprietary of this region. In 1625 Calvert boldly declared himself a
+Catholic, and resigned his office of Secretary. Spite of this he was
+soon afterwards ennobled, and his new title of Lord Baltimore is the
+name by which he is best known. Visiting his little settlement in 1627
+he quickly came to the conclusion that the severity of the climate would
+make its failure certain. He therefore gave up this enterprise, but
+determined to repeat the attempt on the more favorable soil of Virginia.
+Confident of the goodwill of Charles I., to whom he had written for a
+grant of land there, he did not await a reply, but sailed for Virginia,
+where he arrived in 1629. In 1632 the king issued a patent granting to
+Baltimore and his heirs a territory north and east of the Potomac,
+comprising what we now call Maryland, all Delaware, and a part of
+Pennsylvania. The name Maryland was given it by the king in, honor of
+his queen, Henrietta Maria. But before this charter had received royal
+signature Lord Baltimore had breathed his last,  and his son Cecil
+succeeded to his honors and possessions.
+
+[Illustration: Henrietta Maria.]
+
+The Maryland charter made the proprietary the absolute lord of the soil.
+He was merely to acknowledge fealty by the delivery of two Indian arrows
+yearly to the king at Windsor. He could make laws with the consent of
+the citizens, declare war or peace, appoint officers of government; in
+fact, in most respects he had regal power. The colonists were, however,
+to remain English subjects, with all the privileges of such. If they
+were not represented in Parliament, neither were they taxed by the
+Crown. If the proprietary made laws for them, these must not be contrary
+to the laws of England. And they were to enjoy freedom of trade, not
+only with England but with foreign countries.
+
+[1634-1635]
+
+This charter, as will be readily seen, could not please the Virginians,
+since the entire territory conveyed by it was part of the grant of 1609
+to the London Company for Virginia. But as this and subsequent charters
+had been annulled in 1624, the new colony was held by the Privy Council
+to have the law on its side, and Lord Baltimore was left to make his
+preparations undisturbed. He fitted out two vessels, the Ark and the
+Dove, and sent them on their voyage of colonization. They went by the
+way of the West Indies, arriving off Point Comfort in 1634. Sailing up
+the Potomac, they landed on the island of St. Clement's, and took formal
+possession of their new home. Calvert explored a river, now called the
+St. Mary's, a tributary of the Potomac, and being pleased with the spot
+began a settlement. He gained the friendship of the natives by
+purchasing the land and by treating them justly and humanely.
+
+[Illustration: Supposed Portrait of William Clayborne.]
+
+[Illustration: Clayborne's Trading Post on Kent Island.]
+
+The proprietary was a Catholic, yet, whether or not by an agreement
+between him and the king, as Gardiner supposes, did not use either his
+influence or his authority to distress adherents of the Church of
+England. The two creeds stood practically upon an equality. But if
+religious troubles were avoided, difficulties of another sort were not
+slow in arising. About the year 1631, Clayborne, who had been secretary
+of the Virginia colony, had chosen Kent Island in Chesapeake Bay as a
+station for trading with the Indians. This post was in the very midst of
+Maryland, and Calvert notified Clayborne that he should consider it a
+part of that province. Clayborne at once showed himself a bitter enemy.
+The Indians became suspicious and unfriendly, Clayborne, so it was
+believed, being the instigator of this temper. An armed vessel was sent
+out, with orders from Clayborne to seize ships of the St. Mary's
+settlement. A fight took place, Clayborne fleeing to Virginia. Calvert
+demanded that he should be given up. This was refused, and in 1637 he
+went to England. A committee of the Privy Council decided that Kent
+Island belonged to Maryland.
+
+[1638]
+
+In 1635 the first Maryland assembly met, consisting of the freemen of
+the colony and the governor, Leonard Calvert, the proprietary's brother,
+who was presiding officer. Lord Baltimore repudiated its acts, on the
+ground that they were not proposed by him, as the charter directed. The
+assembly which gathered in 1638 retaliated, rejecting the laws brought
+forward by the proprietary.
+
+[1639]
+
+For a time the colony was without laws except the common law of England.
+But Baltimore was too wise and conciliatory to allow such a state of
+affairs to continue. He gave authority to the governor to assent to the
+acts of the assembly, which he himself might or might not confirm.
+
+[Illustration: Fight between Clayborne and the St. Mary's Ship.]
+
+Accordingly in 1639 the assembly met and passed various acts, mostly
+relating to civil affairs. One, however, was specially noteworthy, as
+giving to the "Holy Church" "her rights and liberties," meaning by this
+the Church of Rome, for, as Gardiner says, the title was never applied
+to the Church of England. It was at the same time expressly enacted that
+all the Christian inhabitants should be in the enjoyment of every right
+and privilege as free as the natural-born subjects of England. If Roger
+Williams was the first to proclaim absolute religious liberty, Lord
+Baltimore was hardly behind him in putting this into practice. As has
+been neatly said, "The Ark and the Dove were names of happy omen: the
+one saved from the general wreck the germs of political liberty, and the
+other bore the olive-branch of religious peace."
+
+[1646]
+
+During the civil war in England the affairs of Maryland were in a very
+disturbed condition. Clayborne, Maryland's evil genius, seized the
+opportunity to foment an insurrection, possessed himself once more of
+Kent Island, and compelled the governor to flee to Virginia. Returning
+in 1646, Calvert was fortunate enough to recover the reins of
+government, but the following year witnessed the close of his
+administration and his short though useful and eventful life. Few men
+intrusted with almost absolute authority have exercised it with so much
+firmness and at the same time with so much ability, discretion, and
+uprightness.
+
+[1650]
+
+His successor, Greene, a Catholic, was not likely to find favor with the
+Puritan Parliament of England, and Baltimore, in 1648, to conciliate the
+ruling powers and to refute the charge that Maryland was only a retreat
+for Romanists, removed the governor and appointed instead one who was a
+Protestant and a firm supporter of Parliament. The council was also
+changed so as to place the Catholics in the minority. The oath of the
+new governor restrained him from molesting any person, especially if of
+the Roman Catholic persuasion, on account of religious profession. The
+way was thus opened for the Act of Toleration passed in 1649. This law,
+after specifying certain speeches against the Trinity, the Virgin, or
+the saints as punishable offences, declared that equal privileges should
+be enjoyed by Christians of all creeds. Whatever the motives of
+Baltimore, his policy was certainly wise and commendable.
+
+A new and troublesome element was now introduced into the colony. Some
+Puritans who had not been tolerated among the stanch Church-of-England
+inhabitants of Virginia were invited by Governor Stone to Maryland.
+Their home here, which they named Providence, is now known as Annapolis.
+The new-comers objected to the oath of fidelity, refused to send
+burgesses to the assembly, and were ready to overthrow the government
+whose protection they were enjoying. Opportunity soon offered.
+Parliament had already in 1652 brought Virginia to submission. Maryland
+was now accused of disloyalty, and when we notice among the
+commissioners appointed by the Council of State, the name of Clayborne,
+it is not difficult to understand who was the author of this charge. The
+governor was removed, but being popular and not averse to compromise,
+was quickly restored. Then came the accession of Cromwell to power as
+Protector of England. Parliament was dissolved.  The authority of its
+commissioners of course ceased. Baltimore seized this opportunity to
+regain his position as proprietary. He bade Stone to require the oath of
+fidelity to the proprietary from those who occupied lands, and to issue
+all writs in his name. He maintained that the province now stood in the
+same relations to the Protectorate which it had borne to the royalist
+government of Charles I.
+
+[Illustration: Oliver Cromwell.]
+
+So thought Cromwell, but not so Clayborne or the Maryland Puritans. They
+deposed Stone, and put in power Fuller, who was in sympathy with their
+designs. There resulted a reversal of the acts of former assemblies, and
+legislation hostile to the Catholics. The new assembly, from which
+Catholics were carefully excluded by disfranchisement, at once repealed
+the Act of Toleration. Protection was withdrawn from those who professed
+the popish religion, and they were forbidden the exercise of that faith
+in the province. Severe penalties were threatened against "prelacy" and
+"licentiousness" thus restricting the benefits of their "Act concerning
+Religion" to the Puritan element now in power. The authority of the
+proprietary himself was disputed, and colonists were invited to take
+lands without his knowledge or consent.
+
+[1656]
+
+Baltimore adopted vigorous measures. By his orders Stone made a forcible
+attempt to regain control of the province, but was defeated at
+Providence and taken prisoner. His life was spared, but four of his men
+were condemned and executed. Baltimore again invoked the powerful
+intervention of Cromwell, and again were the enemies of Maryland sternly
+rebuked for their interference in the affairs of that province, and told
+in plain language to leave matters as they had found them. In 1656,
+after an inquiry by the Commissioners of Trade, the claims of Baltimore
+were admitted to be just, and he promptly sent his brother Philip to be
+a member of the council and secretary of the province. The legislation
+of the usurping Puritans was set aside, religious toleration once more
+had full sway, and a general pardon was proclaimed to those who had
+taken part in the late disturbances.
+
+In the meantime, Fendall, who had been appointed governor by Baltimore,
+plotted to make himself independent of his master, and, with the
+connivance of the assembly, proceeded to usurp the authority which was
+lawfully vested in the proprietary. But the attempt was a miserable
+failure.  Philip Calvert was immediately made governor by the now
+all-powerful proprietary, who had the favor and support of Charles II.,
+just coming to the throne. Peace and prosperity came back to the colony
+so sorely and frequently vexed by civil dissensions. The laws were just
+and liberal, encouraging the advent of settlers of whatever creed, while
+the rule of the Calverts was wise and benign, such as to merit the
+respect and admiration of posterity. In 1643 Virginia and Maryland
+together had less than twenty thousand inhabitants. In 1660 Maryland
+alone, according to Fuller, had eight thousand. Chalmers thinks there
+were no fewer than twelve thousand at this date.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+NEW NETHERLAND
+
+[1609]
+
+While the French explorer, Champlain, was sailing along the shores of
+the lake which bears his name, another equally adventurous spirit, Henry
+Hudson, was on his way to the western world. Hoping to open a passage to
+India by a voyage to the north, Hudson, an English navigator, offered in
+1609 to sail under the authority of the Dutch East India Company. Driven
+back by ice and fog from a northeast course, he turned northwest.
+Searching up and down near the parallel of 40 degrees, he entered the
+mouth of the great river which perpetuates his name. He found the
+country inviting to the eye, and occupied by natives friendly in
+disposition. The subsequent career of this bold mariner has a mournful
+interest. He never returned to Holland, but, touching at Dartmouth, was
+restrained by the English authorities, and forbidden longer to employ
+his skill and experience for the benefit of the Dutch. Again entering
+the English service and sent once more to discover the northwest
+passage, he sailed into the waters of the bay which still bears his
+name, where cold and hunger transformed the silent discontent of his
+crew into open mutiny, and they left the fearless navigator to perish
+amid the icebergs of the frozen north.
+
+[Illustration: Seal of New Amsterdam.]
+
+[Illustration: Peter Stuyvesant.]
+
+[1614-1618]
+
+Hudson had sent to Holland a report of the Great River and the country
+bordering it, rich in fur-bearing animals, and it had excited eager
+interest. Private individuals sent expeditions thither and carried on a
+profitable trade with the natives. A few Dutch were here when, in 1613,
+Captain Argall sailed from Virginia against the French at Port Royal,
+Acadia, now Annapolis in Nova Scotia, who were encroaching upon the
+English possessions on the coast of Maine. He compelled them to
+surrender. On his return, he visited the Dutch traders of Manhattan
+Island, and forced them also, as it had been discovered by Cabot in
+1497, to acknowledge the sovereignty of England over this entire region.
+
+[Illustration: Seal of New Netherland.]
+
+It was in 1614 that the Dutch States-General, in the charter given to a
+company of merchants, named the Hudson Valley New Netherland. To
+facilitate trade this company made a treaty with the Five Nations and
+subordinate tribes, memorable as the first compact formed between the
+whites and the savages. In it the Indians were regarded as possessing
+equal rights and privileges with their white brethren. The treaty was
+renewed in 1645, and continued in force till the English occupation,
+1664. In 1618, the charter of the New Netherland Company having expired,
+the Dutch West India Company was offered a limited incorporation, but it
+was not until 1621 that it received its charter, and it was two years
+later that it was completely organized and approved by the
+States-General. By this company were sent out Mey, as Director, to the
+Delaware or South River, and Tienpont to the Hudson or North River. Four
+miles below Philadelphia Fort Nassau was erected, and where Albany now
+stands was begun the trading-post called Fort Orange.
+
+[1626]
+
+In 1626 Tienpont's successor, Peter Minuit, a German, born at Wesel, was
+appointed Director-General of New Netherland. He bought of the Indians,
+for the sum of twenty-four dollars, the entire island of Manhattan, and
+a fort called New Amsterdam was built. The State of New York dates its
+beginning from this transaction.
+
+[Illustration: Earliest Picture of New Amsterdam.]
+
+By their usually honest dealing with the natives the Dutch settlers
+gained the friendship of the Five Nations, whose good-will was partly on
+this account transferred to the English colonists later. The Dutch were
+not only friendly to the red men, but tried to open social and
+commercial relations with the Plymouth colonists as well. Governor
+Bradford replied, mildly urging the Dutch to "clear their title" to a
+territory which the English claimed by right of discovery.
+
+[1630-1633]
+
+[Illustration: De Vries.]
+
+The present State of Delaware soon became the scene of attempts at
+settlement. De Vries began, in 1632, a colony on the banks of the
+Delaware, but it was quickly laid waste by the savages, who had been
+needlessly provoked by the insolence of the commander left in charge of
+the colony. In 1633 Minuit was succeeded by Van Twiller, and a fort was
+erected at Hartford, though the English claimed this country as theirs.
+Emigrants from the Plymouth colony began the settlement of Windsor, in
+spite of the protests of the Dutch. Long Island was invaded by
+enterprising New Englanders, regardless of the claim of New Netherland
+thereto.
+
+[Illustration: Costumes of Swedes.]
+
+This "irrepressible conflict" between two races was by no means abated
+by the introduction of a third. As early as 1626, Gustavus Adolphus,
+King of Sweden and the hero of the Thirty Years' War, had entertained
+the idea of establishing colonies in America, and in pursuance of that
+object had encouraged the formation of a company, not only for trading
+purposes but also to secure a refuge for the "oppressed of all
+Christendom." To Usselinx, an Antwerp merchant, the originator of the
+Dutch West India Company, belongs the honor of first suggesting to the
+king this enterprise. The glorious death of Gustavus on the victorious
+field of Lutzen in 1632 deferred the execution of a purpose which had
+not been forgotten even in the midst of that long and arduous campaign.
+But a few days before he fell, the Protestant hero had spoken of the
+colonial prospect as "the jewel of his kingdom."
+
+[1638]
+
+In 1638 Minuit, who had already figured as governor of New Netherland,
+having offered his services to Sweden, was intrusted with the leadership
+of the first Swedish colony to America. After a few days' stay at
+Jamestown the new-comers finally reached their wished-for destination on
+the west shore of the Delaware Bay and River. Proceeding up the latter,
+one of their first acts was to build a fort on a little stream about two
+miles from its junction with the Delaware, which they named Fort
+Christina, in honor of the young queen of Sweden. Near this spot stands
+the present city of Wilmington. The country from Cape Henlopen to the
+falls at Trenton received the title of New Sweden.
+
+[1650]
+
+It was in this very year that Kieft came to supersede Van Twiller, who
+had given just cause for complaint by his eagerness to enrich himself at
+the expense of the West India Company. During the administration of
+Kieft occurred the long and doubtful conflict with the natives detailed
+in the succeeding chapter. Arbitrary and exacting, he drove the Indians
+to extremities, and involved the Dutch settlements in a war which for a
+time threatened their destruction. Not till 1645 was peace
+re-established, and in 1647 the unpopular governor was recalled. In 1647
+not more than three hundred fighting men remained in the whole province.
+Its total population was between fifteen hundred and two thousand. In
+1652 New Amsterdam had a population of seven or eight hundred. In 1664
+Stuyvesant put the number in the province at ten thousand, about fifteen
+hundred of whom were in New Amsterdam.
+
+[Illustration: The old Stadt Huys at New Amsterdam.]
+
+[Illustration: European Provinces 1655. Map of the eastern North
+America. Latitude 25 to 50 North, Longitude 75 to 95 West.]
+
+[1655-1663]
+
+The next governor, Stuyvesant, was the last and much the ablest ruler
+among those who directed the destinies of New Netherland. His
+administration embraced a period of seventeen years, during which he
+renewed the former friendly relations with the savages, made a treaty
+with New England, giving up pretensions to Connecticut as well as
+relinquishing the east end of Long Island, and compelled the Swedes, in
+1655, to acknowledge the Dutch supremacy. It was while he was absent on
+his expedition against the Swedes, leaving New Amsterdam unprotected,
+that the river Indians, watchful of their opportunity, invaded and laid
+waste the surrounding country. In 1663 the savages attacked the village
+on the Esopus, now Kingston, and almost destroyed it. It was not until
+the energetic governor made a vigorous campaign against the Esopus
+tribe, whom he completely subdued, that peace was established on a firm
+footing.
+
+[Illustration: New Amsterdam in the middle of the Seventeenth Century.]
+
+[Illustration: The Duke of York, afterwards James II.]
+
+[1664]
+
+But the Dutch sway in their little part of the New World was about to
+end. The English had never given over their claim to the country by
+virtue of their first discovery of the North American continent. The New
+Netherlanders, tired of arbitrary rule, sighed for the larger freedom of
+their New England neighbors. Therefore, when in 1664 Charles II. granted
+to his brother, the Duke of York, the territory which the Dutch were
+occupying, and sent a fleet to demand its submission, the English
+invader was welcomed.
+
+[Illustration: The Tomb of Stuyvesant. "In this Vault lies buried PETRUS
+STUYVESANT late Captain Genral & Governor in Chief of Amsterdam, In New
+Netherland now called New York and the Dutch West India Islands. Died
+A.D. 1672 Aged 80 years."]
+
+Almost the only resistance came from the stout-hearted governor, who
+could hardly be dissuaded from fighting the English single-handed, and
+who signed the agreement to surrender only when his magistrates had, in
+spite of him, agreed to the proposed terms. But the founders of the
+Empire State have left an indelible impress upon the Union, which their
+descendants have helped to strengthen and perpetuate. They were honest,
+thrifty, devout, tolerant of the opinions of others. As Holland
+sheltered the English Puritans from ecclesiastical intolerance, so New
+Netherland welcomed within her borders the victims of New England
+bigotry and narrowness.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+THE FIRST INDIAN WARS
+
+[1637]
+
+Troubles between the Indians and the whites arose so early as 1636. John
+Oldham was murdered on Block Island by a party of Pequot Indians. Vane
+of Massachusetts sent Endicott to inflict punishment. The Pequots in
+turn attacked the fort at Saybrook, and in 1637 threatened Wethersfield.
+They were planning a union with the Narragansets for the destruction of
+the English, when Roger Williams informed the Massachusetts colony of
+their designs and, at the urgent request of the governor and council,
+hastened to the chief of the Narragansets and dissuaded him from
+entering into the alliance.
+
+The moment was critical. Captain Mason with about ninety English and
+seventy Mohegans, under their sachem, Uncas (a sub chief, who with his
+district, Mohegan, had rebelled against the Pequot sachem, Sassacus),
+was sent from Hartford down the Connecticut River. Entering the Sound,
+he sailed past the mouth of the Thames and anchored in Narragansett Bay,
+at the foot of Tower Hill, near Point Judith. He knew that keen-eyed
+scouts from the Pequot stronghold on the west bank of the Mystic River,
+near Groton, had, as his three little ships skirted the shore, been
+watching him, to give warning of his approach. He therefore resolved to
+come upon the enemy from an unlooked-for quarter. This plan was directly
+contrary to his instructions, which required him to land at the mouth of
+the Thames and attack the fort from the west side. He hoped, marching
+westward across the country, to take the enemy by surprise on their
+unprotected rear, while the Indians, trusting in the strength of their
+fort, as it fronted the west, should believe themselves secure.
+
+[Illustration: Attack on the Fort of the Pequots on the Mystic River
+"The figure of the Indians fort or Palizado in NEW ENGLAND And the maner
+of the destroying It by Captayne Underhill and Captayne Manson"]
+
+Thirteen men had been sent back to the Thames with the vessels. Two
+hundred Narragansets had joined the expedition, though their sachem,
+Miantonomoh, thought the English too weak to fight the dreaded Pequots.
+Mason's enterprise was admirably planned, and he was as fortunate as he
+was bold and skilful. He divided his men into two parties. One, led by
+Underhill, climbed the steep ascent on the south side of the Indian
+village; the other, directed by Mason himself, mounted the northern
+slope. The garrison was buried in slumber, made more profound by
+carousals the preceding night. One Indian was heard to cry out
+"Englishmen" before the volley of musketry from the attacking force told
+that the white enemy had come. Mason entered a wigwam and fought, as did
+the others, hand-to-hand with the now awakened and desperate foe. Coming
+out with a firebrand and exclaiming "We must burn them," he set fire to
+the wigwam. The flames were quickly carried through the fort by the
+northeast wind. Underhill from his side applied powder. So rapidly did
+the flames spread that the English had difficulty in making good their
+escape, while the Pequots who escaped the sword were doomed to perish by
+fire. In an hour's time from four hundred to six hundred had fallen,
+more than half of them women and children. Of the Englishmen two were
+killed and about twenty wounded. In this dreadful slaughter the
+Narragansets had little share, for they had shown such fear that Mason
+had said to Uncas, "Tell them not to fly, but stand at what distance
+they please and see whether Englishmen will now fight or not."
+
+[Illustration: Attack on the Pequot Fort.]
+
+With the approach of day three hundred Pequots advanced from a second
+fort intending to fight, but they were struck with horror at the sight
+of their dead fellow-warriors. Keeping the enemy at bay, the English
+marched to the vessels, which had arrived at Pequot Harbor, and, placing
+the wounded on board, continued their march to Saybrook. The remnant of
+the Pequots sought to escape from the country, moving westward along the
+Sound. Captain Stoughton, sent with one hundred and twenty Massachusetts
+men, was guided by the Narragansets to a swamp in which a little band of
+those hostile savages had hidden. The men were slain, offering little
+resistance. The women and children were divided among the Indian allies
+or sold into slavery by the colonists of Massachusetts Bay.
+
+Mason and Stoughton together sailed from Saybrook along the shore, while
+Uncas with his men tracked the fugitives by land. At Guilford a Pequot
+sachem was entrapped, shot, and his head thrust into the crotch of an
+oak-tree near the harbor, giving the place the name of Sachem's Head.
+Near the town of Fairfield a last stand was made by the hunted redskins,
+in a swamp, to which the English were guided by a renegade Pequot. The
+tribe with whom the Pequots had taken shelter, also the women and
+children, were allowed to give themselves up. The men were shot down or
+broke through and escaped. The wife of Mononotto fell into the hands of
+the English. This Indian squaw had once shown kindness to two captive
+girls, and by Winthrop's orders she was kindly treated in return. The
+Pequots, once so powerful, were well-nigh exterminated. Those taken
+prisoners were spared only to be held in bondage, Mononotto's wife with
+the rest. Some were absorbed by the Narragansets, others by the
+Mohegans, while the settlers of Connecticut, upon whom the war had
+fallen so heavily, came into possession of the Pequot land.
+
+[l638]
+
+For nearly forty years the New England colonies were not again molested,
+the merciless vigor with which they had fought making a lasting
+impression upon their blood-thirsty foes. The cruel slavery to which the
+surviving natives were subjected, the English justified by the example
+of the Jews in their treatment of the Canaanites.
+
+[Illustration: Signature of Miantonomoh.]
+
+[1642]
+
+The Narraganset chief, Miantonomoh, had become the friend and ally of
+the English by a treaty ratified in 1636, mainly through the good
+offices of Roger Williams, In 1638, after the destruction of the
+Pequots, there was a new treaty, embracing Uncas with his bold Mohegans,
+and stipulating that any quarrel between Miantonomoh and Uncas should be
+referred to the English. In 1642 Miantonomoh was accused of plotting
+against the English, and summoned before the General Court at Boston.
+Though acquitted he vowed revenge upon Uncas as the instigator of the
+charge. His friendship for Roger Williams, as also for Samuel Gorton,
+the purchaser of Shawomet, or Warwick, R. I., which was claimed by
+Massachusetts, had perhaps created a prejudice against him. At any rate,
+when a quarrel arose between Uncas and Sequasson, Miantonomoh's friend
+and ally, while the latter naturally sided with Sequasson, the
+sympathies of the English were with Uncas, who had aided them against
+the Pequots. With the consent of Connecticut and Massachusetts
+Miantonomoh took the field against Uncas, who had attacked Sequasson. He
+was defeated and taken prisoner. Carried to Hartford he was held to
+await the decision of the Commissioners of the United Colonies at
+Boston. They would not release him, yet had no valid ground for putting
+him to death. The case was referred to five clergymen, and they voted
+for his execution. For this purpose the commissioners gave orders to
+turn the brave warrior over to Uncas, English witnesses to be present
+and see that no cruelty was perpetrated. The sentence was carried into
+effect near Norwich. Cutting a piece of flesh from the shoulder of his
+murdered enemy, Uncas ate it with savage relish, declaring it to be the
+sweetest meat he had ever tasted.
+
+[Illustration: The Grave of Miantonomoh.]
+
+[1640-1643]
+
+The Dutch, too, as we have to some extent seen already, felt the horrors
+of Indian warfare. Kieft, the Dutch director-general, a man cruel,
+avaricious, and obstinate, angered the red men by demanding tribute from
+them as their protector, while he refused them guns or ammunition. The
+savages replied that they had to their own cost shown kindness to the
+Dutch when in need of food, but would not pay tribute. Kieft attacked.
+Some of the Indians were killed and their crops destroyed. This roused
+their revengeful passions to the utmost. The Raritan savages visited the
+colony of De Vries, on Staten Island, with death and devastation. Reward
+was offered for the head of anyone of the murderers. An Indian never
+forgot an injury. The nephew of one of the natives who twenty years
+before had been wantonly killed went to sell furs at Fort Amsterdam, and
+while there revenged his uncle's murder by the slaughter of an
+unoffending colonist. Spite of warlike preparations by Kieft and his
+assembly in 1641-42, the tribe would not give up the culprit. The
+following year another settler was knifed by a drunken Indian.  Wampum
+was indeed offered in atonement, while an indignant plea was urged by
+the savages against the liquor traffic, which demoralized their young
+men and rendered them dangerous alike to friend and foe. But
+remonstrance and blood-money could not satisfy Kieft. At Pavonia and at
+Corlaer's Hook [footnote: now in the New York City limits, just below
+Broadway Ferry, East River] the Dutch fell venomously upon the sleeping
+and unsuspecting enemy. Men, women, and children were slaughtered, none
+spared. In turn the tribes along the lower Hudson, to the number of
+eleven, united and desperately attacked the Dutch wherever found. Only
+near the walls of Fort Amsterdam was there safety. The governor
+appointed a day of fasting, which it seems was kept with effect. The
+sale of liquor to the red men was at last prohibited, and peace for a
+time secured.
+
+Soon, however, the redskins along the Hudson were again up in arms. The
+noted Underhill, who with Mason had been the scourge of the Pequots,
+came to the fight with fifty Englishmen as allies of the Dutch. Not
+waiting to be attacked, the Indians laid waste the settlements, even
+threatening Fort Amsterdam itself. At a place now known as Pelham Neck,
+near New Rochelle, lived the famous but unfortunate Mrs. Hutchinson, a
+fugitive from the persecuting zeal of Massachusetts. Here the implacable
+savages butchered her and her family in cold blood. Her little
+granddaughter alone was spared, and led captive to a far-off wigwam
+prison. Only at Gravesend, on Long Island, was a successful stand made,
+and that by a woman, Lady Deborah Moody, another exile from religious
+persecution, who with forty stout-hearted men defended her plantation
+and compelled the savages to beat a retreat.
+
+[1645]
+
+The colony was in extremity. New Haven refused to aid, because, as a
+member of the New England confederacy, it could not act alone, and
+because it was not satisfied that the Dutch war was just. An appeal was
+made by Kieft's eight advisers to both the States-General and the West
+India Company in Holland. The sad condition of the colonists was fully
+set forth, and the responsibility directly ascribed to the mismanagement
+of Kieft. At the same time, undismayed by the gloomy outlook, the
+courage of the sturdy Dutchmen rose with the emergency. Small parties
+were sent out against the Connecticut savages in the vicinity of
+Stamford. Indian villages on Long Island were surprised and the natives
+put to the sword. In two instances at least the victors disgraced
+humanity by torturing the captured.
+
+In these engagements Underhill was conspicuous and most energetic.
+Having made himself familiar with the position of the Indians near
+Stamford, he sailed from Manhattan with one hundred and fifty men,
+landed at Greenwich, and, marching all day, at midnight drew near the
+enemy. His approach was not wholly unannounced, for the moon was full.
+The fight was desperate and bloody. The tragedy that had made memorable
+the banks of the Mystic in the destruction of the Pequot fort was now
+almost equalled. After the example of his old comrade Mason, Underhill
+fired the village. By flame, shot, or sword more than five hundred human
+beings perished.
+
+While New Netherland was awaiting some message of cheer from Holland, a
+company of Dutch soldiers came from Curacoa, but they did little to
+follow up the successes already gained. Again the Eight sent a memorial
+to the company, boldly condemning the conduct of the director and
+demanding his recall. Their remonstrances were at last heeded, and the
+removal of the unpopular governor resolved upon. In 1647 Kieft set sail
+for Holland, but the ship was wrecked, and he with nearly all on board
+was drowned.
+
+It was high time for a change. In the two years, 1643-45, while sixteen
+hundred Indians had been slain, Manhattan had become nearly depopulated.
+In 1645 peace was concluded, not only with the smaller tribes in the
+vicinity, but also with the powerful Mohawks about Fort Orange, and
+finally with all the Indians belonging to the Five Nations or
+acknowledging their authority. A pleasing incident of this treaty was
+the promise of the Indians to restore the eight-year-old granddaughter
+of Mrs. Hutchinson, a promise which they faithfully performed in 1646.
+The great compact was made under the shadow of the Fort Amsterdam walls,
+and the universal joy was expressed by a day of thanksgiving.
+
+[Illustration: Totem or Tribe Mark of the Five Nations.]
+
+[1650-1660]
+
+An interval of peace for ten years was now enjoyed, when the killing of
+a squaw for stealing some peaches led to an attack by several hundred of
+the infuriated savages upon New Amsterdam. They were repulsed here, but
+crossing to the shore of New Jersey they laid waste the settlements
+there. Staten Island, too, was swept with fire and sword. One hundred
+people were slain, 150 more taken captive, 300 made homeless. Peace was
+again effected and maintained for three years, when fresh quarrels
+began. It was not until 1660 that a more general and lasting treaty was
+brought about, on which occasion a Mohawk and a Minqua chief gave
+pledges in behalf of the Indians, and acted as mediators between the
+contending parties.
+
+
+
+PERIOD II.
+
+ENGLISH AMERICA TILL THE END OF THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR
+
+1660--1763
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+NEW ENGLAND UNDER THE LAST STUARTS
+
+[1660]
+
+The Commonwealth in England went to pieces at the death of Oliver
+Cromwell, its founder. The Stuart dynasty came back, but, alas!
+unimproved. Charles II. was a much meaner man than his father, and James
+II. was more detestable still. The rule of such kings was destined to
+work sad changes in the hitherto free condition of Massachusetts. This
+colony had sympathized with the Commonwealth more heartily than any of
+the others. Hither had fled for refuge Goffe and Whalley, two of the
+accomplices in the death of Charles I. Congregational church polity was
+here established by law, to the exclusion of all others, even of
+episcopacy, for whose sake Charles was harrying poor Covenanters to
+death on every hillside in Scotland. Nor would his lawyers let the king
+forget Charles I.'s attack on the Massachusetts charter, begun so early
+as 1635, or the grounds therefor, such as the unwarranted transfer of it
+to Boston, or the likelihood that but for the outbreak of the Civil War
+it would have been annulled by the Long Parliament itself. Obviously
+Massachusetts could not hope to be let alone by the home government
+which had just come in.
+
+At first the king, graciously responding to the colony's humble
+petition, confirmed the charter granted by his father; but no sooner had
+he done so than the hot royalists about him began plotting to overthrow
+the same, and their purpose never slumbered till it was accomplished.
+Massachusetts was too prosperous and too visibly destined for great
+power in America to be suffered longer to go its independent way as
+hitherto.
+
+[Illustration: King Charles II.]
+
+[1661]
+
+The province--as yet, of course, excluding Plymouth with its twelve
+towns and five thousand inhabitants--contained at this time, 1660, about
+twenty-five thousand souls, living in fifty-two towns. These were nearly
+all on the coast; Dedham, Concord, Brookfield, Lancaster, Marlborough,
+and the Connecticut Valley hamlets of Springfield, Hadley, and
+Northampton being the most noteworthy exceptions. Though agriculture was
+the principal business, fishing was a staple industry, its product going
+to France, Spain, and the Straits. Pipe-staves, fir-boards, much
+material for ships, as masts, pitch and tar, also pork and beef, horses
+and corn, were shipped from this colony to Virginia, in return for
+tobacco and sugar either for home consumption or for export to England.
+Some iron was manufactured. The province enjoyed great prosperity.
+Boston stood forth as a lively and growing centre, and an English
+traveller about this time declared some of its merchants to be "damnable
+rich."
+
+As their most precious possession the colonists prized their liberties,
+which they claimed in virtue of their original patent. In a paper which
+it put forth on June 10, 1661, the General Court asserted for the colony
+the right to elect and empower its own officers, both high and low, to
+make its laws, to execute the same without appeal so long as they were
+not repugnant to those of England, and to defend itself by force and
+arms when necessary, against every infringement of its rights, even from
+acts of Parliament or of the king, if prejudicial to the country or
+contrary to just colonial legislation. In a word Massachusetts, even so
+early, regarded itself to all intents and purposes an independent State,
+and would have proclaimed accordingly had it felt sufficiently strong.
+
+[1664]
+
+Manifestly the king would not grant so much. On the occasion of his
+confirming the charter he demanded that the oath of allegiance be taken
+by the people of the colony; that justice be administered there in his
+name; and that the franchise be extended to all freemen of sufficient
+substance, with the liberty to use in worship, public and private, the
+forms of the English Church. The people obeyed but in part, for they
+would not even appear to admit the king's will to be their law.  The
+franchise was slightly extended, in a grudging way, but no new religious
+privileges were at this time conceded. Unfortunately political and
+religious liberty were now in conflict. It was worse for the Baptists
+and Quakers that the king favored them, and the treatment which they
+received in the colony inclined them to the royalist side in the
+controversy.
+
+In July, 1664, commissioners arrived in Boston with full authority to
+investigate the administration of the New England charters. Such a
+procedure not being provided for in the Massachusetts document, the
+General Court, backed by the citizens almost to a man, successfully
+prevented complainants from appearing before the commission. The
+commissioners having summoned the colony as defendant in a certain case,
+a herald trumpeted proclamation through the streets, on the morning set
+for the trial, inhibiting all from aiding their designs. The trial
+collapsed, and the gentlemen who had ordered it, baffled and disgusted,
+moved on to New Hampshire, there also to be balked by a decree of the
+Massachusetts Governor and Council forbidding the towns so much as to
+meet at their behest.
+
+[1668]
+
+Vengeance for such defiance was delayed by Charles II.'s very vices.
+Clarendon's fall had left him surrounded by profligate aides, too timid
+and too indolent to face the resolute men of Massachusetts. They often
+discussed the contumacy of the colony, but went no further than words.
+Massachusetts was even encouraged, in 1668, forcibly to reassert its
+authority in Maine, against rule either by the king or by Sir Ferdinanda
+Gorges's heir as proprietary.
+
+Its charter had assigned to the colony land to a point three miles north
+of the Merrimac. Bold in the favor of the Commonwealth, the authorities
+measured from the head-waters of that river. But Plymouth had originally
+claimed all the territory west of the Kennebec, and had sold it to
+Gorges. Charles II. favored the Gorges heirs against Massachusetts, and
+for some years previous to 1668 Massachusetts' power over Maine had been
+in abeyance. Ten years later, in 1678, to make assurance doubly sure,
+Massachusetts bought off the Gorges claimants, at the round price of
+twelve hundred and fifty pounds sterling.
+
+[1673]
+
+From 1641 Massachusetts had borne sway in New Hampshire as well,
+ignoring John Mason's claim under Charles I.'s charters of 1629 and
+1635, still urged by one of Mason's grandsons, backed by Charles II.
+Here Massachusetts was beaten. In July, 1679, New Hampshire was
+permanently separated from her, and erected into a royal province, of a
+nature to be explained in a subsequent chapter, being the earliest
+government of this kind in New England.
+
+[1662]
+
+These territorial assumptions on the part of Massachusetts much
+increased the king's hostility. This probably would not have proved
+fatal had it not been re-enforced by the determination of the merchants
+and manufacturers of the mother-country to crush what they feared was
+becoming a rival power beyond seas. They insisted upon full enforcement
+of the Navigation Laws, which made America's foreign trade in a cruel
+degree subservient to English interest. So incorrigible was the colony,
+it was found that this end could be compassed only by the abrogation of
+the charter, so that English law might become immediately valid in
+Massachusetts, colonial laws to the contrary notwithstanding.
+Accordingly, in 1684, the charter was vacated and the colonists ceased
+to be free, their old government with its popular representation giving
+way to an arbitrary commission.
+
+The other New England colonies--Plymouth, Rhode Island, Connecticut, and
+New Haven--had made haste to proclaim Charles II. so soon as restored to
+the throne, and to begin carrying on their governments in his name. That
+beautiful and able man, the younger Winthrop, sped to London on
+Connecticut's behalf, and, aided by his colony's friends at court, the
+Earls of Clarendon and Manchester and Viscount Say and Seal, in 1662
+secured to Connecticut, now made to include New Haven, a charter so
+liberal that it continued till October 5, 1818, the ground law of the
+State, then to be supplanted only by a close vote. Under this paper,
+which declared all lands between the Narragansett River and the Pacific
+Ocean Connecticut territory, Connecticut received every whit of that
+right to govern itself which Charles was so sternly challenging in the
+case of Massachusetts.
+
+[Illustration: John Winthrop the Younger.]
+
+From this time on, as indeed earlier, Connecticut was for many years
+perhaps the most delightful example of popular government in all
+history. Connecticut and New Haven together had about ten thousand
+inhabitants. Their rulers were just, wise, and of a mind truly to serve
+the people. Here none were persecuted for their faith. Education was
+universal. Few were poor, none very rich. Nearly all supplies were of
+domestic production, nothing as yet being exported but a few cattle.
+
+Under the second Charles Rhode Island fared quite as well as
+Connecticut. This was remarkable, inasmuch as the little colony of three
+thousand souls, in their four towns of Providence, Newport, Portsmouth,
+and Warwick, insisted on "holding forth the lively experiment"--and it
+proved lively indeed--"of full liberty in religious concernments."
+Charles did not oppose this, and Clarendon favored it, a motive of both
+here, as with Connecticut, being to rear in New England a power friendly
+to the Crown, that should rival and check Massachusetts. Both these
+commonwealths were granted absolute independence in all but name. No
+oath of allegiance to the king was demanded. Appeals to England were not
+provided for.
+
+[1680]
+
+Though having no quarrel with the king, the two southern colonies were
+not without their trials. Connecticut, besides continual fear of the
+Dutch and the Indians, was much agitated by the controversy over the
+question whether children of moral parents not church members should be
+baptized, a question at length settled affirmatively by the so-called
+Half-Way Covenant. It also had its boundary disputes with Massachusetts,
+with Rhode Island--for Connecticut took the Narragansett River of its
+charter to be the bay of that name--and with New York, which, by the
+Duke of York's new patent, issued on the recovery of that province from
+the Dutch in 1674, reached the Connecticut River. During England's war
+with Holland, 1672-74, all the colonies stood in some fear of Dutch
+attacks.
+
+[1685]
+
+Rhode Island had worse troubles than Connecticut. It, too, had boundary
+disputes, serious and perpetual; but graver by much were its internal
+feuds, caused partly by the mutual jealousy of its four towns, partly by
+the numerous and jarring religious persuasions here represented.
+Government was painfully feeble. Only with utmost difficulty could the
+necessary taxes be raised. Warwick in particular was for some time in
+arrears to John Clark, of Newport, for his invaluable services in
+securing the charter of 1663. Quakers and the divers sorts of Baptists
+valiantly warred each against other, using, with dreadful address, those
+most deadly of carnal weapons, tongue and pen. On George Fox's visit to
+the colony, Roger Williams, zealous for a debate, pursued the eminent
+Quaker from Providence to Newport, rowing thither in his canoe and
+arriving at midnight, only to find that his intended opponent had
+departed, The latter's champion was ready, however, and a discussion of
+four days ensued.
+
+[Illustration: Sir Edmond Andros]
+
+Before its sentence of death reached Massachusetts Charles II. was no
+more, and James II., his brother, had ascended the throne. It was for a
+time uncertain what sort of authority the stricken colony would be
+called to accept. Already, as Duke of York, James II. had been
+Proprietary of Maine east of the Kennebec (Sagadahoc), as well as of
+Delaware, New Jersey, and New York. Now that he had the problem of
+ruling Massachusetts to solve, it naturally occurred to the king to make
+Sir Edmond Andros, already governor of New York, master also over the
+whole of English America from the Saint Croix to the Delaware.
+
+In southern New England the reign of Andros wrought no downright
+persecution. He suspended the charters, and, with an irresponsible
+council in each colony, assumed all legislative as well as
+administrative power. Rhode Island submitted tamely. Her sister colony
+did the same, save that, at Hartford, according to good tradition, in
+the midst of the altercation about delivering the charter, prolonged
+into candle-light, suddenly it was dark, and the precious document
+disappeared to a secure place in the hollow trunk of an oak. This tree,
+henceforth called the Charter Oak, stood till prostrated by a gale on
+August 20, 1856.
+
+[Illustration: The Charter Oak at Hartford.]
+
+But in Massachusetts the colonists' worst fears were realized. Andros,
+with a council of his own creation, made laws, levied taxes, and
+controlled the militia. He had authority to suppress all
+printing-presses and to encourage Episcopacy. In the latter interest he
+opened King's Chapel to the Prayer Book. His permission was required for
+any one to leave the colony. Extortionate fees and taxes were imposed.
+Puritans had to swear on the Bible, which they regarded wicked, or be
+disfranchised. Personal and proprietary rights were summarily set at
+naught, and all deeds to land were declared void till renewed--for
+money, of course. The citizens were reduced to a condition hardly short
+of slavery.
+
+[1688]
+
+There is no describing the joy which pervaded New England as the news of
+the Revolution of 1688 flew from colony to colony. Andros slunk away
+from Boston, glad to escape alive. Drums beat and gala-day was kept. Old
+magistrates were reinstated. Town meetings were resumed. All believed
+that God had interposed, in answer to prayer, to bring deliverance to
+his people from popery and thraldom.
+
+This revolution, ushering in the liberal monarchy of William and Mary,
+restored to Rhode Island and Connecticut their old charter governments
+in full. New Hampshire, after a momentary union with Massachusetts
+again, became once more a royal province. As to Massachusetts itself, a
+large party of the citizens now either did not wish the old state of
+things renewed, or were too timid to agree in demanding back their
+charter as of right. Had they been bold and united, they might have
+succeeded in this without any opposition from the Crown. Instead, a new
+charter was conferred, creating Massachusetts also a royal province, yet
+with government more liberal than the other provinces of this order
+enjoyed. The governor was appointed by the Crown, and could convene,
+adjourn, or dissolve the Legislature. With the consent of his council he
+also created the judges, from whose highest sentence appeal could be
+taken to the Privy Council. The governor could veto legislation, and the
+king annul any law under three years old.
+
+[1690-1697]
+
+If in these things the new polity was inferior to the old, in two
+respects it was superior; Suffrage was now practically universal, and
+every species of religious profession, save Catholicism, made legal.
+Also, Massachusetts territory was enlarged southward to take in all
+Plymouth, eastward to embrace Maine (Sagadahoc) and Nova Scotia. Maine,
+henceforth including Sagadahoc, that is, all land eastward to the Saint
+Croix, remained part of Massachusetts till March 15, 1820, when it
+became a member of the Union by itself. Nova Scotia, over which Phips's
+conquest of Port Royal in 1690 had established a nominal rather than a
+real English authority, was assigned to France again by the Treaty of
+Ryswick, 1697.
+
+[Illustration: Box in which the Connecticut Charter was kept.]
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+KING PHILIP'S WAR
+
+[1675]
+
+Simultaneously with the Stuart Restoration another cloud darkened the
+New England sky. Since the Pequot War, Indians and whites had in the
+main been friendly. This by itself is proof that our fathers were less
+unjust to the red men than is sometimes charged. They did assume the
+right to acquire lands here, and they had this right. The Indians were
+not in any proper sense owners of New England. They were few--by 1660
+not more numerous than the pale-faces--and, far from settling or
+occupying the land, roamed from place to place. Had it been otherwise
+they, as barbarians, would have had no such claim upon the territory as
+to justify them in barring out civilization. However, the colonists did
+not plead this consideration. Whenever districts were desired to which
+Indians had any obvious title, it was both law and custom to pay them
+their price. In this, Roger Williams and William Penn were not peculiar.
+If individual white men sometimes cheated in land trades, as in other
+negotiations, the aggrieved side could not, and did not, regard this as
+the white man's policy.
+
+Yet little by little the Indians came to distrust and hate the rival
+race. It did not matter to the son of the forest, even if he thought so
+far, that the neighborhood of civilization greatly bettered his lot in
+many things, as, for instance, giving him market for corn and peltry,
+which he could exchange for fire-arms, blankets, and all sorts of
+valuable conveniences. The efforts to teach and elevate him he
+appreciated still less. As has been said, he loved better to disfurnish
+the outside of other people's heads than to furnish the inside of his
+own. What he felt, and keenly, was that the newcomers treated him as an
+inferior, were day by day narrowing his range, and slowly but surely
+reducing his condition to that of a subject people. Dull as he was, he
+saw that one of three fates confronted him: to perish, to migrate, or to
+lay aside his savage character and mode of life. Such thoughts frenzied
+him.
+
+The beautiful fidelity of Massasoit to the people of Plymouth is already
+familiar. His son Alexander, who succeeded him, was of a spirit
+diametrically the reverse. Convinced that he was plotting with the
+Narragansets for hostile action, the Governor and Council of Plymouth
+sent Major Winslow to bring him to court--for it must be remembered that
+Massasoit's tribe, the Pokanokets, had through him covenanted, though
+probably with no clear idea of what this meant, to be subject to the
+Plymouth government. Alexander, for some reason, became fatally ill
+while at Plymouth under arrest, dying before reaching home. The Indians
+suspected poison.
+
+His brother Philip now became sachem. Philip already had a grudge
+against the whites, and was rendered trebly bitter by the indignity and
+violence, if nothing worse, to which Alexander had been subjected. He
+resolved upon war, and in 1675 war was begun.
+
+We shall never certainly know to what extent Philip was an organizer. We
+believe correct the view of Hubbard, the contemporary historian, that he
+had prepared a wide-spread and pretty well arranged conspiracy among
+the main tribes of New England Indians, which might have been fatal but
+for "the special providence of God," causing hostilities to break out
+ere the savages were ready. Palfrey challenges this view of the case,
+but on insufficient grounds.
+
+One Sausaman, an educated Indian, previously Philip's secretary, had
+left him and joined the Christian Indians settled at Natick. There were
+by this time several such communities, and also, according to Cotton
+Mather, many able Indian preachers. At the risk of his life, as he
+insisted, Sausaman had warned the Plymouth magistrates that danger
+impended. He was soon murdered, apparently by Philip's instigation. At
+least Philip never denied this, nor did he after this time ever again
+court friendly relations with Plymouth, which he had constantly done
+hitherto. On the contrary, re-enforcements of strange Indians, all ready
+for the war-path, were continually flocking to his camp, squaws and
+children at the same time going to the Narraganset country, manifestly
+for security.
+
+The Plymouth authorities, preparing for war, yet sent a kind letter to
+the sachem advising him to peace. In vain. At Swanzey, the town nearest
+Mount Hope, Philip's home, Indians at once began to kill and ravage, and
+Majors Bradford and Cudworth marched thither with a force of Plymouth
+soldiers. A Massachusetts contingent re-enforced them there, and they
+prepared to advance. Seeing it impossible to hold his own against so
+many, Philip crossed to Pocasset, now Tiverton, and swept rapidly round
+to Dartmouth, Middleborough, and Taunton, burning and murdering as he
+went. He then retired again to Tiverton, but in a few days started with
+all his warriors for central Massachusetts.
+
+Here the Nipmucks, already at war, which indicated an understanding
+between them and the Pokanokets, had attacked Mendon. The day after
+Philip joined them there was a fight at Brookfield, the Nipmucks and
+their allies being victorious. They proceeded to burn the town nearly
+entire, though the inhabitants who survived, after a three days' siege
+in a fortified house, were relieved by troops from Boston just in the
+nick of time.
+
+The Connecticut Valley was next the theatre of war. Springfield,
+Hatfield, Deerfield, and Northfield were attacked the last two having to
+be abandoned. At Hadley the onset occurred on a fast-day. The men rushed
+from their worship with their muskets, which were ready to hand in
+church, and hastily formed for battle. Bewildered by the unexpected
+assault, they were on the point of yielding, when, according to
+tradition, an aged hero with long beard and queer clothing appeared,
+placed himself at their head and directed their movements. His evident
+acquaintance with fighting restored order and courage. The savages were
+driven pell-mell out of town, but the pursuers looked in vain for their
+deliverer. If the account is correct, it was the regicide, General
+Goffe, who had been a secret guest in the house of the Rev. Mr. Russell.
+He could not in such danger refrain from engaging once again, as he had
+so often done during the Civil War in England, in the defence of God's
+people.
+
+From Hadley a party went to Deerfield to bring in the wheat that had
+been left when the town was deserted. Ninety picked men, the "flower of
+Essex," led by Captain Lothrop, attended the wagons as convoy. On their
+return, about seven o'clock in the morning, by a little stream in the
+present village of South Deerfield, since called Bloody Brook in memory
+of the event, the soldiers dispersed somewhat in quest of grapes, then
+ripe, when a sudden and fatal volley from an ambush was delivered upon
+them. The men had left their muskets in the wagons and could not regain
+them. Lothrop was shot dead, and but seven or eight of his company
+escaped alive. A monument marks the spot where this tragic affair
+occurred.
+
+[Illustration: The Monument at Bloody Brook.]
+
+So early as July, 1675, Massachusetts and Connecticut, acting for the
+New England Confederation, had effected a treaty with the strong tribe
+of the Narragansets in southern Rhode Island, engaging them to remain
+neutral and to surrender any of Philip's men coming within their
+jurisdiction. This agreement they did not keep. After the attacks on
+Springfield and Hatfield in October, great numbers of the Pokanoket
+braves came to them, evidently welcomed. To prevent their becoming a
+centre of mischief, Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Plymouth despatched
+a thousand men to punish the Narragansets. They met the foe at the old
+Palisade, in the midst of a dense swamp in what is now South Kingstown,
+Rhode Island. The terrible cold which rendered this Narraganset campaign
+so severe had turned the marsh into a bridge, and at once on their
+arrival the soldiers, weary and hungry as they were from their long
+march, and spite of its being Sunday, advanced to the attack.
+Massachusetts was in front, then Plymouth, then Connecticut. Long and
+bitter was the fight. The Indians, perfect marksmen, took deadly aim at
+the leaders. Five captains were killed outright and as many more
+mortally wounded. The fort was taken, re-taken, and taken again, the
+whites at last, to make sure work, setting fire to the wigwams. The
+storming party lost in killed and wounded one-fifth of its number. This
+Swamp Fight, as it was called, broke forever the strength of the
+Narragansets, the tribe and its allies dispersing in all directions.
+
+[Illustration: Goffe at Hadley.]
+
+[1676]
+
+In 1676 central Massachusetts was again aflame. Lancaster was sacked and
+burned, its inhabitants nearly all either carried captive or put to
+death with indescribable atrocities. Mrs. Rowlandson, wife of the
+Lancaster Minister, also her son and two daughters, were among the
+captives. We have this brave woman's story as subsequently detailed by
+herself. Her youngest, a little girl of six, wounded by a bullet, she
+bore in her arms wherever they marched, till the poor creature died of
+cold, starvation, and lack of care. The agonized mother begged the
+privilege of tugging along the corpse, but was refused. She with her son
+and living daughter were ransomed, after wandering up and down with the
+savages eleven weeks and five days.
+
+From Mrs. Rowlandson's narrative we have many interesting facts touching
+the Indians' habits of life. They carried ample stores from Lancaster,
+but soon squandered them, and were reduced to a diet of garbage, horses'
+entrails, ears, and liver, with broth made of horses' feet and legs. The
+liver they seemed to prefer raw. Their chief food was ground-nuts. They
+also ate acorns, artichokes, beans, and various sorts of roots. They
+especially delighted in old bones, which, being heated to drive out
+maggots and worms, they first boiled for soup, then ground for use as
+meal.
+
+The captive lady often saw Philip. At his request she made a shirt and a
+cap for his son, for which he paid her. Says Hubbard, "Such was the
+goodness of God to these poor captive women and children that they found
+so much favor in the sight of their enemies that they offered no wrong
+to any of their persons save what they could not help, being in many
+wants themselves. Neither did they offer any uncivil carriage to any of
+the females, nor ever attempt the chastity of any of them." So soon as
+negotiations were opened for Mrs. Rowlandson's release, Philip told her
+of this, and expressed the hope that they would succeed. When her ransom
+had arrived he met her with a smile, saying: "I have pleasant words for
+you this morning; would you like to hear them? You are to go home
+to-morrow," Twenty pounds were paid for her, raised by some ladies of
+Boston, aided by a Mr. Usher.
+
+Hostilities now bore southeastward. Philip was in his glory. All the
+towns of Rhode Island and eastern Massachusetts were in terror, nearly
+all in actual danger. At Medfield twenty whites were killed. Deserted
+Mendon was burned. Weymouth was attacked, and eleven persons were
+massacred in the edge of Plymouth. In Groton and Marlborough every house
+was laid in ashes, as were all in lower Rhode Island up to Warwick, and
+in Warwick all but one. Sachem Canonchet of the Narragansets drew into
+ambush at Pawtuxet a band of Plymouth soldiers, of whom only one
+escaped. Canonchet was subsequently taken by Captain Denison and
+executed. Rehoboth lost forty houses, Providence nearly as many.
+
+The Connecticut Valley was invaded afresh. Springfield, Hadley,
+Northampton, and Hatfield were once more startled by the war-whoop and
+the whiz of the tomahawk. Captain Turner, hearing of an Indian camp at
+the falls of the Connecticut, now called by his name, in Montague,
+advanced with a troop of one hundred and eighty horse, arriving in sight
+of the encampment at daylight. Dismounting and proceeding stealthily to
+within sure shot, they beat up the Indians' quarters with a ringing
+volley of musketry. Resistance was impossible. Those who did not fall by
+bullet or sword rushed to the river, many being carried over the falls.
+Three hundred savages perished, the English losing but one man.  A large
+stock of the enemy's food and ammunition was also destroyed. Though so
+splendidly successful, the party did not return to Hadley without
+considerable loss, being set upon much of the way by Indians who had
+heard the firing at the falls and sped to the relief of their friends.
+Turner was killed in the meadows by Green River; his subordinate,
+Holyoke, then commanding the retreat.
+
+[1678]
+
+Turner's victory brought the war to a crisis. The red men lacked
+resources. The whites had learned the secrets of savage warfare. They
+could no longer be led into ambush, while their foe at no time during
+the war ventured to engage them in open field. Large parties of Indians
+began to surrender; many roving bands were captured. Hostilities
+continued still many months in Maine, the whites more and more uniformly
+successful, till the Treaty of Casco, April 12, 1678, at last terminated
+the war.
+
+Hunted by the English backward and forward, Philip was at last driven to
+his old home upon Mount Hope.  Here Captain Church, one of the most
+practised of Indian fighters, surprised him on the morning of August 12,
+1676, encamped upon a little upland, which it is believed has been
+exactly identified near a swamp at the foot of the mountain. By
+residents in the neighborhood it is known as Little Guinea. At the first
+firing Philip, but partially dressed, seized gun and powder-horn and
+made for the swamp, Captain Church's ambush was directly in his front.
+An Englishman's piece missed fire, but an Indian sent a bullet through
+the Great Sachem's heart.
+
+In this fearful war at least six hundred of the English inhabitants
+either fell in battle or were murdered by the enemy, A dozen or more
+towns were utterly destroyed, others greatly damaged, Some six hundred
+buildings, chiefly dwelling-houses, were consumed by fire, and over a
+hundred thousand pounds of colonial money expended, to say nothing of
+the immense losses in goods and cattle.
+
+Not without propriety has the Pokanoket chief been denominated a king.
+If not a Charlemagne or a Louis XIV., he yet possessed elements of true
+greatness. While he lived his mind evidently guided, as his will
+dominated and prolonged, the war. This is saying much, for the Indian's
+disinclination to all strenuous or continuous exertion was pronounced
+and proverbial. Philip's treatment of Mrs. Rowlandson must be declared
+magnanimous, especially as, of course, he was but a savage king, who
+might reasonably request us not to measure him by our rules. The other
+party to the war we have a right to judge more rigidly, and just
+sentence in their case must be severe. Philip's sorrowing, innocent wife
+and son were brought prisoners to Plymouth, and their lot referred to
+the ministers. After long deliberation and prayer it was decided that
+they should be sold into slavery, and this was their fate.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+THE SALEM WITCHCRAFT
+
+[1675]
+
+The home life of colonial New England was unique. Its like has appeared
+nowhere else in human history. Mostwise it was beautiful as well. In it
+religion was central and supreme. The General Court of Plymouth very
+early passed the following order: "Noe dwelling-howse shal be builte
+above halfe a myle from the meeting-howse in any newe plantacion without
+leave from the Court, except mylle-howses and ffermehowses." In laying
+out a village the meeting-house, as the hub to which everything was to
+be referred, was located first of all. The minister's lot commonly
+adjoined. Then a sufficiency of land was parcelled off to each
+freeholder whereon to erect his dwelling. Massachusetts from the first,
+and Plymouth beginning somewhat later, also made eminent provision for
+schools--all in the interest of religion.
+
+The earliest residences were necessarily of logs, shaped and fitted more
+or less rudely according to the skill of the builder or the time and
+means at his disposal. There was usually one large room below, which
+served as kitchen, dining-room, sitting-room, and parlor, and on the
+same floor with this one or two lodging-rooms. An unfinished attic
+constituted the dormitory for the rising generation. A huge stone
+chimney, terminating below in a still more capacious fireplace, that
+would admit logs from four to eight feet in length, conveyed away the
+smoke, and with it much of the heat. This involved no loss, as wood was
+a drug. Communicating with the chimney was the great stone baking-oven,
+whence came the bouncing loaves of corn-bread, duly "brown," the
+rich-colored "pompion" pies, and the loin of venison, beef, or pork.
+
+Over these bounties--and such they were heartily esteemed, however
+meagre--often as the family drew around the table, its head offered
+thanks to the heavenly Giver. Each morning, after they had eaten, he
+read a goodly portion of God's Word, never less than a chapter, and
+then, not kneeling but standing, led his household in reverent and
+believing prayer for protection, guidance, stimulus in good, and for
+every needed grace. What purity, what love of rectitude, what strength
+of will did not the builders of America carry forth from that family
+altar! He who would understand the richest side and the deepest moving
+forces of our national life and development must not overlook those New
+England fireside scenes.
+
+[1688-1700]
+
+Prayers ended, the "men folks" went forth to the day's toil. It was
+hard, partly from its then rough character, partly from poverty of
+appliances. For the hardest jobs neighbors would join hands, fighting
+nature as they had to fight the Indians, unitedly. Farming tools, if of
+iron or steel, as axe, mattock, spade, and the iron nose for the digger
+or the plough, the village blacksmith usually fashioned, as he did the
+bake-pan, griddle, crane, and pothooks, for indoor use. Tables, chairs,
+cradles, bedsteads, and those straight-backed "settles" of which a few
+may yet be seen, were either home-made or gotten up by the village
+carpenter. Mattresses were at first of hay, straw, leaves, or rushes.
+Before 1700, however, feather beds were common, and houses and the
+entire state of a New England farmer's home had become somewhat more
+lordly than the above picture might indicate. The colonists made much
+use of berries, wild fruits, bread and milk, game, fish, and shellfish.
+The stock wandered in the forests and about the brooks, to be brought
+home at night by the boys, whom the sound of the cow-bell led. In autumn
+bushels upon bushels of nuts were laid by, to serve, along with dried
+berries and grapes, salted fish and venison, as food for the winter.
+Every phase and circumstance of this pioneer life reminded our fathers
+of their dependence upon nature and the Supreme Power behind nature,
+while at the same time the continual need and application of neighbor's
+co-operation with neighbor brought out brotherly love in charming
+strength and beauty.
+
+But to old New England religion, as a clerical, public, and organized
+affair, there is a far darker side. In the eighteenth century belief in
+witchcraft was nearly universal. In 1683 one Margaret Matron was tried
+in Pennsylvania on a charge of bewitching cows and geese, and placed
+under bonds of one hundred pounds for good behavior. In 1705 Grace
+Sherwood was ducked in Virginia for the same offence. Cases of the kind
+had occurred in New York. There was no colony where the belief in
+astrology, necromancy, second sight, ghosts, haunted houses and spots,
+love-spells, charms, and peculiar powers attaching to rings, herbs,
+etc., did not prevail. Such credulity was not peculiar to America, but
+cursed Europe as well. It seemed to flourish, if anything, after the
+Reformation more than before. Luther firmly believed in witchcraft. He
+professed to have met the Evil One in personal conflict, and to have
+vanquished him by the use of an inkstand as missile. Perhaps every land
+in Europe had laws making witchcraft a capital crime. One was enacted in
+England under Henry VIII., another in James I.'s first year, denouncing
+death against all persons "invoking any evil spirit, or consulting,
+covenanting with, entertaining, employing, feeding, or rewarding any
+evil spirit, or taking up dead bodies from their graves to be used in
+any witchcraft, sorcery, charm, or enchantment, or killing or otherwise
+hurting any person by such infernal arts." A similar statute was
+contained in the "Fundamentals" of Massachusetts, probably inspired by
+the command of Scripture, "Thou shalt not suffer a witch to live." This
+law, we shall see, was not a dead letter.
+
+No wonder such a law was of more effect in New England than anywhere
+else on earth. The official religion of the Puritans was not only
+superstitious in general but gloomy in particular, and most gloomy in
+New England. Its central tenet, here at least, seemed to be that life
+ought to furnish no joy, men seeking to "merit heaven by making earth a
+hell." Sunday laws were severe, and rigidly enforced from six o'clock
+Saturday evening till the same hour the next. Not the least work was
+allowed unless absolutely necessary, nor any semblance of amusement.
+Boys bringing home the cows were cautioned to "let down the bars softly,
+as it was the Lord's day." Sunday travellers were arrested and fined.
+Men might be whipped for absence from church. A girl at Plymouth was
+threatened exile as a street-walker for smiling in meeting. Increase
+Mather traced the great Boston fire of 1711 to the sin of Sunday labor,
+such as carrying parcels and baking food. In Newport, some men having
+been drowned who, to say good-by to departing friends, had rowed out to
+a ship just weighing anchor, Rev. John Comer prayed that others might
+take warning and "do no more such great wickedness."
+
+Sermons were often two hours long; public prayer half an hour. Worse
+still was what went by the name of music--doggerel hymns full of the
+most sulphurous theology, uttered congregationally as "lined off" by the
+leader--nasal, dissonant, and discordant in the highest imaginable
+degree. The church itself was but a barn, homely-shaped, bare, and in
+winter cold as out-of-doors. At this season men wrapped their feet in
+bags, and women stuffed their muffs with hot stones. Sleepers were
+rudely awakened by the tithing-man's baton thwacking their heads; or, if
+females, by its fox-tail end brushing their cheeks. Fast-days were
+common. Prayer opened every public meeting, secular as well as
+religious. The doctrine of special providences was pressed to a
+ridiculous extreme. The devil was believed in no less firmly than God,
+and indefinitely great power ascribed to him. The Catechism--book second
+in authority only to the Bible--contained of his Satanic Majesty a cut,
+which children were left, not to say taught, to suppose as correct a
+likeness as that of Cromwell, which crowned the mantels of so many
+homes.
+
+[Illustration: Increase Mather.]
+
+In a people thus trained the miracle is not that witchcraft and
+superstition did so much mischief, but so little. Had it not been for
+their sturdy Saxon good sense its results must have proved infinitely
+more sad. The first remarkable case of sorcery in New England occurred
+at Boston, in 1688. Four children of a pious family were affected in a
+peculiar manner, imitating the cries of cats and dogs, and complaining
+of pains all over their bodies. These were the regulation symptoms of
+witch-possession, which presumably they had often heard discussed. An
+old Irish serving-woman, indentured to the family, who already bore the
+name of a witch, was charged with having bewitched them, and executed,
+the four ministers of Boston having first held at the house a day of
+prayer and fasting.
+
+[Illustration: Cotton Mather.]
+
+Young Cotton Mather, grandson of the distinguished Rev. John Cotton, a
+man of vast erudition and fervent piety, was at this time colleague to
+his father, Increase Mather, as pastor of the Boston North Church. His
+imagination had been abnormally developed by fasts and vigils, in which
+he believed himself to hold uncommonly close communication with the
+Almighty. His desire to provide new arms for faith against the growing
+unbelief of his time led him to take one of the "bewitched" children to
+his house, that he might note and describe the ways of the devil in her
+case. The results he soon after published in his "Memorable Providences
+Relating to Witchcrafts and Possessions." This work admitted no doubt as
+to the reality of the demoniac possessions, which indeed it affected to
+demonstrate forever. All the Boston ministers signed its preface,
+certifying to its "clear information" that "both a God and a devil, and
+witchcraft" existed. "Nothing too vile," it alleged, "can be said of,
+nothing too hard can be done to, such a horrible iniquity as witchcraft
+is." The publication excited great attention, and to it in no small
+measure the ensuing tragedy may be traced.
+
+[Illustration: Old Tituba the Indian.]
+
+In February, 1692, three more subjects, children of Rev. Mr. Parris,
+minister at Danvers, then called Salem Village, exhibited bad witchcraft
+symptoms. The utmost excitement prevailed. Neighboring clergymen joined
+the village in fasting and prayer. A general fast for the colony was
+ordered. But the "devilism," as Cotton Mather named it, spread instead
+of abating, the children having any number of imitators so soon as they
+became objects of general notice and sympathy. Old Tituba, an Indian
+crone, who had served in Parris's family, was the first to be denounced
+as the cause. Two other aged females, one crazy, the other bed-ridden,
+were also presently accused, and after a little while several ladies of
+Parris's church. Whoso uttered a whisper of incredulity, general or as
+to the blameworthiness of any whom Parris called guilty, was instantly
+indicted with them.
+
+On April 11th, the Deputy Governor held in the meeting-house in Salem
+Village a court for a preliminary examination of the prisoners. A scene
+at once ridiculous and tragic followed. When they were brought in, their
+alleged victims appeared overcome at their gaze, pretending to be
+bitten, pinched, scratched, choked, burned, or pricked by their
+invisible agency in revenge for refusing to subscribe to a covenant with
+the devil. Some were apparently stricken down by the glance of an eye
+from one of the culprits, others fainted, many writhed as in a fit.
+Tituba was beaten to make her confess. Others were tortured. Finally all
+the accused were thrown into irons. Numbers of accused persons, assured
+that it was their only chance for life, owned up to deeds of which they
+must have been entirely innocent. They had met the devil in the form of
+a small black man, had attended witch sacraments, where they renounced
+their Christian vows, and had ridden through the air on broomsticks.
+Such were the confessions of poor women who had never in their lives
+done any evil except possibly to tattle.
+
+[Illustration: Lieutenant-Governor Stoughton.]
+
+On June 2d, a special court was held in Salem for the definite trial.
+Stoughton, Lieutenant Governor, a man of small mind and bigoted temper,
+was president. The business began by the condemnation and hanging of a
+helpless woman. A jury of women had found on her person a wart, which
+was pronounced to be unquestionably a "devil's teat," and her neighbors
+remembered that many hens had died, animals become lame, and carts upset
+by her dreadful "devilism." By September 23d, twenty persons had gone to
+the gallows, eight more were under sentence, and fifty-five had
+"confessed" and turned informers as their only hope. The "afflicted" had
+increased to fifty. Jails were crammed with persons under accusation,
+and fresh charges of alliance with devils were brought forward every
+day.
+
+[Illustration: Fac-simile of Sheriff's Return of an Execution.]
+
+Some of the wretched victims displayed great fortitude. Goodman Procter
+lost his life by nobly and persistently--vainly as well,
+alas!--maintaining the innocence of his accused wife. George Burroughs,
+who had formerly preached in Salem Village, was indicted. His physical
+strength, which happened to be phenomenal, was adduced as lent him from
+the devil. Stoughton browbeat him through his whole trial. What sealed
+his condemnation, however, was his offer to the jury of a paper quoting
+an author who denied the possibility of witchcraft. His fervent prayers
+when on the scaffold, and especially his correct rendering of the Lord's
+Prayer, shook the minds of many. They argued that no witch could have
+gotten through those holy words correctly--a test upon which several had
+been condemned. Cotton Mather, present at the gallows, restored the
+crowd to faith by reminding them that the devil had the power to dress
+up like an angel of light. Rebecca Nurse, a woman of unimpeachable
+character hitherto, unable from partial deafness to understand, so as to
+explain, the allegations made against her, was convicted notwithstanding
+every proof in her favor.
+
+Reaction now began. Public opinion commenced to waver. No one knew whose
+turn to be hanged would come next. Emboldened by their fatal success,
+accusers whispered of people in high places as leagued with the Evil
+One. An Andover minister narrowly escaped death. The Beverly minister,
+Hale, one of the most active in denouncing witches, was aghast when his
+own wife was accused. Two sons of Governor Bradstreet were obliged to
+flee for their lives, one for refusing, as a magistrate, to issue any
+more warrants, the other charged with bewitching a dog. Several hurried
+to New York to escape conviction. The property of such was seized by
+their towns. A reign of terror prevailed.
+
+People slowly awoke to the terrible travesty of justice which was going
+on. Magistrates were seen to have overlooked the most flagrant instances
+of falsehood and contradiction on the part of both accusers and accused,
+using the baseless hypothesis that the devil had warped their senses.
+The disgusting partiality shown in the accusations was disrelished, as
+was the resort that had been had to torture. One poor old man of eighty
+they crushed to death because he would plead guilty to nothing. The
+authorities quite disregarded the fact that everyone of the
+self-accusations had been made in order to escape punishment. These
+considerations effected a revolution in the minds of most people.
+Remonstrances were presented to the courts, securing reprieve for those
+under sentence of death at Salem. This so irritated the despicable
+Stoughton that he resigned.
+
+The forwardness of the ministers therein turned many against the
+persecution, After the first victims had fallen at Salem, Governor Phips
+took their advice whether or not to proceed. Cotton Mather indited the
+reply. It thankfully acknowledges "the success which the merciful God
+has given to the sedulous and assiduous endeavors of our honorable
+rulers to defeat the abominable witch crafts which have been committed
+in the country, humbly praying that the discovery of those mysterious
+and mischievous wickednesses may be perfected. It is pleasant to note,
+after all, the ministers' advice to the civil rulers not to rely too
+much on "the devil's authority"--on the evidence, that is, of those
+possessed. The court heeded this injunction all too little, but by and
+by it had weight with the public, who judged that, as the trials
+appeared to be proceeding on devil's evidence alone, the farce ought to
+cease. The Superior Court met in Boston, April 25, 1693, and the grand
+Jury declined to find any more bills against persons accused of sorcery.
+King William vetoed the Witchcraft Act, and by the middle of 1693 all
+the prisoners were discharged.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+THE MIDDLE COLONIES
+
+[1686]
+
+The English conquest of New Netherland from the Dutch speedily followed
+the Stuarts' return to the throne. Cromwell had mooted an attack on
+Dutch America, and, as noticed in Chapter I., Connecticut's charter of
+1662 extended that colony to include the Dutch lands. England based her
+claim to the territory on alleged priority of discovery, but the real
+motives were the value of the Hudson as an avenue for trade, and the
+desire to range her colonies along the Atlantic coast in one unbroken
+line. The victory was not bloody, nor was it offensive to the Dutch
+themselves, who in the matter of liberties could not lose. King Charles
+had granted the conquered tract to his brother, the Duke of York,
+subsequently James II., and it was in his honor christened with its
+present name of New York.
+
+The Duke's government was not popular, especially as it ordered the
+Dutch land-patents to be renewed--for money, of course; and in 1673,
+war again existing between England and Holland, the Dutch recovered
+their old possession. They held it however for only fifteen months,
+since at the Peace of 1674 the two belligerent nations mutually restored
+all the posts which they had won.
+
+The reader already has some idea of Sir Edmond Andros's rule in America.
+New York was the first to feel this, coming under the gentleman's
+governorship immediately on being the second time surrendered to
+England. Such had been the political disorder in the province, that
+Andros's headship, stern as it was, proved beneficial. He even, for a
+time, 1683-86, reluctantly permitted an elective legislature, though
+discontinuing it when the legislatures of New England were suppressed.
+This taste of freedom had its effect afterward.
+
+[1690]
+
+When news of the Revolution of 1688 in England reached New York, Andros
+was in Boston. Nicholson, Lieutenant-Governor, being a Catholic and an
+absolutist, and the colony now in horror of all Catholics through fear
+of French invasion from Canada, Jacob Leisler, a German adventurer,
+partly anticipating, partly obeying the popular wish, assumed to
+function in Nicholson's stead. All the aristocracy, English or Dutch,
+and nearly all the English of the lower rank were against him. Leisler
+was passionate and needlessly bitter toward Catholics, yet he meant
+well. He viewed his office as only transitory, and stood ready to
+surrender it so soon as the new king's will could be learned; but when
+Slaughter arrived with commission as governor, Leisler's foes succeeded
+in compassing his execution for treason. This unjust and cruel deed
+began a long feud between the popular and the aristocratic party in the
+colony.
+
+[Illustration: Sloughter signing Leisler's Death Warrant.]
+
+[1700]
+
+From this time till the American Revolution New York continued a
+province of the Crown. Royal governor succeeded royal governor, some of
+them better, some worse. Of the entire line Bellomont was the most
+worthy official, Cornbury the least so. One of the problems which
+chiefly worried all of them was how to execute the navigation acts,
+which, evaded everywhere, were here unscrupulously defied. Another care
+of the governors, in which they succeeded but very imperfectly, was to
+establish the English Church in the colony. A third was the
+disfranchisement of Catholics. This they accomplished, the legislature
+concurring, and the disability continued during the entire colonial
+period.
+
+Hottest struggle of all occurred over the question of the colony's right
+of self-taxation. The democracy stood for this with the utmost
+firmness, and even the higher classes favored rather than opposed. The
+governors, Cornbury and Lovelace, most frantically, but in vain,
+expostulated, scolded, threatened, till at last it became admitted by
+law in the colony that no tax whatever could, on any pretext, be levied
+save by act of the people's representatives.
+
+Dutch America, it will be remembered, had reached southward to the
+Delaware River, and this lower portion passed with the rest to the Duke
+of York in 1664. The territory between the Hudson and the Delaware,
+under the name of New Jersey, he made over to Lord Berkeley and Sir
+George Carteret, proprietaries, who favored the freest institutions,
+civil and religious.  The population was for long very sparse and, as it
+grew, very miscellaneous. Dutch, Swedes, English, Quakers, and Puritans
+from New England were represented.
+
+[Illustration: Seal of the Carterets.]
+
+After the English recovery Berkeley disposed of his undivided half of
+the province, subsequently set off as West Jersey, to one Bylling, a
+Quaker, who in a little time assigned it to Lawrie, Lucas, Penn, and
+other Quakers. West Jersey became as much a Quaker paradise as
+Pennsylvania. Penn with eleven of his brethren, also bought, of
+Carteret's heirs, East Jersey, but here Puritan rather than Quaker
+influence prevailed.
+
+[Illustration: Seal of East Jersey.]
+
+The Jersey plantations came of course under Andros, and after his fall
+its proprietors did not recover their political authority. For twelve
+years, while they were endeavoring to do this, partial anarchy cursed
+the province, and at length in 1702 they surrendered their rights to the
+Crown, the Jerseys, now made one, becoming directly subject to Queen
+Anne. The province had its own legislature and, till 1741, the same
+governors as New York. It also had mainly the same political
+vicissitudes, and with the same result.
+
+William Penn, the famous Quaker, received the proprietorship of
+Pennsylvania in payment of a claim for sixteen thousand pounds against
+the English Government. This had been left him by his father, Sir
+William Penn, a distinguished naval commander in the Dutch war of
+1665-67, when he had borne chief part in the conquest of Jamaica.
+
+[Illustration: Wampum received by Penn in Commemoration of the Indian
+Treaty.]
+
+William Penn was among the most cultivated men of his time, polished by
+study and travel, deeply read in law and philosophy. He had fortune, and
+many friends at court, including Charles II. himself. He needed but to
+conform, and great place was his. But conform he would not. True to the
+inner light, braving the scoffs of all his friends, expelled from Oxford
+University, beaten from his own father's door, imprisoned now nine
+months in London Tower, now six in Newgate, this heroic spirit
+persistently went the Quaker way. In despair of securing in England
+freedom for distressed consciences he turned his thoughts toward
+America, there to try his "holy experiment."
+
+[Illustration: William Penn; From the copy by Francis Race in the
+National Museum, Philadelphia.]
+
+The charter from Charles II. was drawn by Penn's own hand and was nobly
+liberal. It ordained perfect religious toleration for all Christians,
+and forbade taxation save by the provincial assembly or the English
+Parliament. Under William and Mary, greatly to his grief, Penn was
+forced to sanction the penal laws against Catholics; but they were most
+leniently administered, which brought upon the large-minded proprietary
+much trouble with the home government.
+
+As Pennsylvania, owing to the righteous and loving procedure of Penn
+toward them, suffered nothing from the red men to the west, so was it
+fortunately beyond Andros's jurisdiction on the east. Once, from 1692,
+for two years, the land was snatched from Penn and placed under a royal
+commission. Returning to England in 1684, after a two years' sojourn in
+America to get his colony started, the Quaker chief became intimate and
+a favorite with James II., devotedly supporting his Declaration of
+Indulgence toward Catholics as well as toward all Protestant dissenters.
+He tried hard but vainly to win William and Mary to the same policy.
+This attitude of his cost him dear, rendering him an object of suspicion
+to the men now in power in England. Twice was he accused of treasonable
+correspondence with the exiled James II., though never proved guilty.
+From 1699 to 1701 he was in America again, thereafter residing in
+England till his death in 1718. He had literally given all for his
+colony, his efforts on its behalf having been to him, so he wrote in
+1710, a cause of grief, trouble, and poverty.
+
+[Illustration: The Treaty Monument, Kensington.]
+
+But the colony itself was amazingly prosperous. There were internal
+feuds, mainly petty, some serious. George Keith grievously divided the
+Quakers by his teachings against slavery, going to law, or service as
+magistrates on the part of Quakers, thus implying that only infidels or
+churchmen could be the colony's officials.
+
+Fletcher's governorship in 1693-94, under the royal commission, evoked
+continual opposition, colonial privileges remaining intact in spite of
+him. The people from time to time subjected their ground-law to changes,
+only to render it a fitter instrument of freedom. In everything save the
+hereditary function of the proprietary, it was democratic. For many
+years even the governor's council was elective. The colony grew,
+immigrants crowding in from nearly every European country, and wealth
+multiplied to correspond.
+
+[Illustration: The Penn Mansion in Philadelphia.]
+
+We have, dating from 1698, a history of Pennsylvania by one Gabriel
+Thomas, full of interesting information. Philadelphia was already a
+"noble and beautiful city," containing above 2,000 houses, most of them
+"stately," made of brick; three stores, and besides a town house, a
+market house, and several schools. Three fairs were held there yearly,
+and two weekly markets, which it required twenty fat bullocks, besides
+many sheep, calves, and hogs, to supply. The city had large trade to New
+York, New England, Virginia, West India, and Old England. Its exports
+were horses, pipe-staves, salt meats, bread-stuffs, poultry, and
+tobacco; its imports, fir, rum, sugar, molasses, silver, negroes, salt,
+linen, household goods, etc. Wages were three times as high as in
+England or Wales. All sorts of "very good paper" were made at
+Germantown, besides linen, druggets, crapes, camlets, serges, and other
+woollen cloths. All religious confessions were represented.
+
+In 1712, such his poverty, the good proprietary was willing to sell to
+the Crown, but as he insisted upon maintenance of the colonists' full
+rights, no sale occurred. English bigots and revenue officials would
+gladly have annulled his charter, but his integrity had gotten him
+influence among English statesmen, which shielded the heritage he had
+left even when he was gone.
+
+It is particularly to be noticed that till our Independence Delaware was
+most intimately related to Pennsylvania. Of Delaware the fee simple
+belonged not to Penn, but to the Duke of York, who had conquered it from
+the Dutch, as they from the Swedes. Penn therefore governed here, not as
+proprietary but as the Duke's tenant. In 1690-92, and from 1702,
+Delaware enjoyed a legislature by itself, though its governors were
+appointed by Penn or his heirs during the entire colonial period.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+MARYLAND, VIRGINIA, CAROLINA
+
+[1675]
+
+The establishment of Charles II. as king fully restored Lord Baltimore
+as proprietary in Maryland, and for a long time the colony enjoyed much
+peace and prosperity. In 1660 it boasted twelve thousand inhabitants, in
+1665 sixteen thousand, in 1676 twenty thousand. Plantation life was
+universal, there being no town worthy the name till Baltimore, which,
+laid out in 1739, grew very slowly. Tobacco was the main production, too
+nearly the only one, the planters sometimes actually suffering for food,
+so that the raising of cereals needed to be enforced by law. For long
+the weed was also the money of the province, not disused for this even
+when paper currency was introduced, being found the less fluctuating in
+value of the two. Partly actual over-production and partly the
+navigation acts, forcing all sales to be effected through England,
+fatally lowered the price, and Maryland with Virginia tried to establish
+a "trust" to regulate the output.
+
+[Illustration: Charles, Second Lord Baltimore.]
+
+In its incessant and on one occasion bloody boundary disputes with
+Pennsylvania and Delaware, Maryland had to give in and suffer its
+northern and eastern boundaries to be shortened.
+
+[1689]
+
+One of the most beautiful traits of early Maryland was its perfect
+toleration in religion. Practically neither Pennsylvania nor Rhode
+Island surpassed it in this. Much hostility to the Quakers existed, yet
+they had here exceptional privileges, and great numbers from Virginia
+and the North utilized these. All sorts of dissenters indeed flocked
+hither out of all European countries, including many Huguenots, and were
+made welcome to all the rights and blessings of the land.
+
+But from the accession of Charles Calvert, the third Lord Baltimore, in
+1675, the colony witnessed continual agitation in favor of establishing
+the English Church. False word reached the Privy Council that immorality
+was rife in the colony owing to a lack of religious instruction, and
+that Catholics were preferred in its offices. This movement succeeded,
+in spite of its intrinsic demerit, by passing itself off as part of the
+rising in favor of William and Mary in 1688-89.
+
+[1690]
+
+James II. had shown no favor to Maryland. If its proprietary, as a
+Catholic, pleased him, its civil and religious liberty offended him
+more. He was hence not popular here, and the Marylanders would readily
+have proclaimed the new monarchs but for the accidental failure of the
+proprietary's commands to this effect to reach them. This gave occasion
+for one Coode, with a few abettors, to form, in April, 1689, an
+"Association in Arms for the Defence of the Protestant Religion, and for
+Asserting the Right of King William and Queen Mary to the Province of
+Maryland." The exaggerated representations of these conspirators
+prevailed in England. The proprietary, retaining his quit rents and
+export duty, was deprived of his political prerogatives. Maryland became
+a Crown province, Sir Lionel Copley being the first royal governor, and
+the Church of England received establishment therein.
+
+The new ecclesiastical rule did not oppress Protestant dissenters,
+though very severe on Catholics, whom it was supposed necessary, here as
+all over America, to keep under, lest they should rise in favor of James
+II., or his son the Pretender.
+
+[1660]
+
+The third Lord Baltimore died in 1714-15. The proprietaries after this
+being Protestants, were intrusted again with their old political
+headship. By this time a spirit of independence and self-assertion had
+grown up among the citizens, enforcing very liberal laws, and the vices
+of the sixth Lord, succeeding in 1751, made his subjects more than
+willing that he should, as he did, close the proprietary line.
+
+Virginia, passionately loyal, at first gloried in the Restoration. This
+proved premature. It was found that the purely selfish Charles II. cared
+no more for Virginia than for Massachusetts. The Commonwealth's men were
+displaced from power. Sir William Berkeley again became governor, this
+time, however, by the authority of the assembly. A larger feeling of
+independence from England had sprung up in the colony in consequence of
+recent history at home and in the mother-land. It was developed still
+further by the events now to be detailed.
+
+[1676]
+
+The Old Dominion contained at this time 40,000 people, 6,000 being white
+servants and 2,000 negro slaves, located mainly upon the lower waters of
+the Rappahannock, York, and James Rivers. Between 1650 and 1670, through
+large immigration from the old country, the population had increased
+from 15,000 to 40,000, some of the first families of the State in
+subsequent times arriving at this juncture. About eighty ships of
+commerce came each year from Great Britain, besides many from New
+England. Virginia herself built no ships and owned few; but she could
+muster eight thousand horse, had driven the Indians far into the
+interior, possessed the capacity for boundless wealth, and had begun to
+experience a decided sense of her own rights and importance. The last
+fact showed itself in Bacon's Rebellion, which broke out in 1676, just
+one hundred years before the Declaration of Independence. The causes of
+the insurrection were not far to seek.
+
+[1673]
+
+The navigation acts were a sore grievance to Virginia as to the other
+colonies. Under Cromwell they had not been much enforced, and the
+Virginians had traded freely with all who came. Charles enforced them
+with all possible rigor, confining Virginia's trade to England and
+English ships manned by Englishmen. This gave England a grinding
+monopoly of tobacco, Virginia's sole export, making the planters
+commercially the slaves of the home government and of English traders.
+Duties on the weed were high, and mercilessly collected without regard
+to lowness of price. All supplies from abroad also had to be purchased
+in England, at prices set by English sellers. Even if from other parts
+of Europe, they must come through England, thus securing her a profit at
+Virginia's expense.
+
+This was not the worst. The colonial government had always been abused
+for the ends of worthless office-holders from England. Now it was farmed
+out more offensively than ever. In 1673 Charles II. donated Virginia to
+two of his favorites, Lords Arlington and Culpeper, to be its
+proprietaries like Penn in Pennsylvania and Baltimore in Maryland. They
+were to have all the quit rents and other revenues, the nomination of
+ministers for parishes, the right of appointing public officers, the
+right to own and sell all public or escheated lands; in a word, they now
+owned Virginia. This shabby treatment awoke the most intense rage in so
+proud a people. The king relented, revoked his donation, made out and
+was about to send a new charter. But it was too late; rebellion had
+already broken out.
+
+The Indians having made some attacks on the upper plantations, one
+Nathaniel Bacon, a spirited young gentleman of twenty-eight, recently
+from England, applied to Sir William Berkeley for a commission against
+them. The governor declined to give it, fearing, in the present excited
+condition of the colony, to have a body of armed men abroad. Bacon,
+enraged, extorts the commission by force. The result is civil war in the
+colony. The rebels are for a time completely victorious. Berkeley is
+driven to Accomac, on the eastern shore of the Chesapeake, but,
+succeeding in capturing a fleet sent to oppose him, he returns with this
+and captures Jamestown. Beaten by Bacon in a pitched battle, he again
+retires to Accomac, and the colony comes fully under the power of his
+antagonist, the colonists agreeing even to fight England should it
+interpose on the governor's side, when a decisive change in affairs is
+brought about by the rebel leader's death.
+
+[Illustration: Reverend Dr. Blair, First President of William and Mary
+College.]
+
+[1690]
+
+The rebellion was now easily subdued, but it had soured and hardened old
+Governor Berkeley's spirit. Twenty-three in all were executed for
+participation in the movement. Charles II. remarked: "That old fool has
+hanged more men in that naked country than I for the murder of my
+father."
+
+After Bacon's Rebellion the colonial annals show but a dull succession
+of royal governors, with few events specially interesting. Under the
+governorship of Lord Howard of Effingham, which began in 1684, great
+excitement prevailed in Virginia lest King James II. should subvert the
+English Church there and make Catholicism dominant, which indeed might
+possibly have occurred but for James's abdication in 1688.
+
+Under Governor Nicholson, from 1690, the capital was removed from
+Jamestown to Williamsburg, and the College of William and Mary founded,
+its charter dating from 1693. The Attorney-General, Seymour, opposed
+this project on the ground that the money was needed for "better
+purposes" than educating clergymen. Rev. Dr. Blair, agent and advocate
+of the endowment, pleading: "The people have souls to be saved," Seymour
+retorted: "Damn your souls, make tobacco." But Blair persisted and
+succeeded, himself becoming first president of the college. The initial
+commencement exercises took place in 1700.
+
+[Illustration: George Monk, Duke of Albemarle.]
+
+[1710]
+
+Governor Spotswood, who came in 1710, did much for Virginia. He built
+the first iron furnaces in America, introduced wine-culture, for which
+he imported skilled Germans, and greatly interested himself in the
+civilization of the Indians. He was the earliest to explore the
+Shenandoah Valley. It was also by his energy that the famous pirate
+"Black beard" was captured and executed. Lieutenant Maynard, sent with
+two ships to hunt him, attacked and boarded the pirate vessel in Pamlico
+Sound, 1718. A tough fight at close quarters ensued. Blackbeard was shot
+dead, his crew crying for quarter. Thirteen of the men were hung at
+Williamsburg. Blackbeard's skull, made into a drinking-cup, is preserved
+to this day. The great corsair's fate, Benjamin Franklin, then a
+printer's devil in Boston, celebrated in verse.
+
+Carolina was settled partly from England, France, and the Barbadoes, and
+partly from New England; but mainly from Virginia, which colony
+furthermore furnished most of its political ideas.
+
+[1663]
+
+[Illustration: Lord Shaftesbury.]
+
+In March, 1663, Carolina was constituted a territory, extending from 36
+degrees north latitude southward to the river San Matheo, and assigned
+to a company of seven distinguished proprietaries, including General
+Monk, who had been created Duke of Albemarle, and John Locke's patron,
+the famous Lord Ashley Cooper, subsequently Earl of Shaftesbury.
+Governor Sir William Berkeley, of Virginia, was also one of the
+proprietaries.
+
+[1720]
+
+[Illustration: Seal of the Proprietors of Carolina.]
+
+Locke drew up for the province a minute feudal constitution, but it was
+too cumbersome to work. Rule by the proprietaries proved radically bad.
+They were ignorant, callous to wrongs done by their governors, and
+indifferent to everything save their own profits. Many of the settlers
+too were turbulent and criminals, fugitives from the justice of other
+colonies.  The difficulty was aggravated by Indian and Spanish wars, by
+negro slavery, so profitable for rice culture, especially in South
+Carolina, by strife between dissenters and churchmen, by the question of
+revenue, and by that of representation.
+
+[Illustration: John Locke.]
+
+[1730-1752]
+
+A proprietary party and a larger popular party were continually at feud,
+not seldom with arms, support of the Church allying itself mainly with
+the former, dissent with the latter, Zealots for the Church wished to
+exclude dissenters from the assembly. Their opponents would keep
+Huguenot immigrants, whom the favor of the proprietaries rendered
+unwelcome, entirely from the franchise. The popular party passed laws
+for electing representatives in every county instead of at Charleston
+alone, and for revenue tariffs to pay the debt entailed by war. The
+proprietaries vetoed both. They even favored the pirates who harried the
+coast. Civil commotions were frequent and growth slow. Interference by
+the Crown was therefore most happy. From the time the Carolinas passed
+into royal hands, 1729, remarkable prosperity attended them both.
+
+Assuming charge of Carolina, the Crown reserved to itself the Spanish
+frontier, and here, in 1732, it settled Oglethorpe, the able and
+unselfish founder of Georgia, under the auspices of an organization in
+form much like a mercantile company, but benevolent in aim, whose main
+purpose was to open a home for the thousands of Englishmen who were in
+prison for debt. Many Scotch and many Austrians also came. Full civil
+liberty was promised to all, religious liberty to all but papists.
+Political strife was warm here, too, particularly respecting the
+admission of rum and slaves. Government by the corporators, though
+well-meaning, was ill-informed and a failure, and would have been
+ruinous to the colony but for Oglethorpe's genius and exertions. To the
+advantage of all, therefore, on the lapse of the charter in 1752,
+Georgia, like the Carolinas, assumed the status of a royal colony.
+
+[Illustration: Savannah, from a Print of 1741.]
+
+[Illustration: James Oglethorpe.]
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+GOVERNMENTAL INSTITUTIONS IN THE COLONIES
+
+[1750]
+
+The political life, habits, and forms familiar to our fathers were such
+as their peculiar surroundings and experience had developed out of
+English originals. This process and its results form an interesting
+study.
+
+The political unit at the South was the parish; in the North it was the
+town. Jury trial prevailed in all the colonies. Local self-government
+was vigorous everywhere, yet the most so in the North. The town
+regulated its affairs, such as the schools, police, roads, the public
+lands, the poor, and in Massachusetts and Connecticut also religion, at
+first by pure mass meetings where each citizen represented himself and
+which were both legislative and judicial in function, then by combining
+these meetings in various ways with the agency of selectmen. Where and
+so soon as a colony came to embrace several towns, representative
+machinery was set in motion and a colonial legislature formed, having
+two chambers nearly everywhere, like Parliament. The county, with the
+same character as at present, was instituted later than the oldest towns
+and parishes, but itself subsequently became, in thinly settled parts,
+the unit of governmental organization and political action, being
+divided into towns or parishes only gradually. Voting was subject to a
+property qualification, in some colonies to a religious one also; but no
+nobility of blood or title got foothold.
+
+The relation of the colonial governments to England is a far more
+perplexing matter. From the preceding chapters it appears that we may
+distinguish the colonies, if we come down to about 1750, as either (1)
+self-governing or charter colonies, in which liberty was most complete
+and subjection to England little more than nominal; and (2)
+non-self-governing, ruled, theoretically at any rate, in considerable
+measure from outside themselves. Rhode Island and Connecticut made up
+the former class. Of the latter there were two groups, the royal or
+provincial, including New Hampshire, Massachusetts; New York, New
+Jersey, Virginia, the Carolinas, and Georgia, and the proprietary, viz.,
+Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Delaware.
+
+Yet we are to bear in mind that many important constitutional and
+governmental changes had occurred by 1750. Massachusetts, as we have
+seen, had ceased to be self-governing as at first, yet it retained a
+charter which conferred large liberty. All the provincial colonies began
+as proprietary, and all the proprietary were for a time provincial.
+
+Under Andros, New England stretched from the St. Croix to Delaware Bay.
+After 1689 the tendency in all parts of the country was strong toward
+civil freedom, which, favored by the changes and apathy of proprietaries
+and the ignorance and quarrels of the English ministry, gradually
+rendered the other colonies in effect about as well off in this respect
+as Rhode Island and Connecticut.
+
+But unfortunately the legal limits and meaning of this freedom were
+never determined. Had they been, our Revolution need not have come.
+Monarchs continually attempted to stretch hither the royal prerogative,
+but how far this was legal was not then, and never can be, decided. The
+constitutional scope of a monarch's prerogative in England itself was
+one of the great questions of the seventeenth century, and remained
+serious and unsettled through the eighteenth. Applied to America the
+problem became angrier still, partly because giving a charter--and the
+colonies were all founded on such gift--was an act of prerogative.
+
+English lawyers never doubted that acts of Parliament were valid in the
+colonies. The colonists opposed both the king's and the Parliament's
+pretensions, and held their own legislatures to be coordinate with the
+Houses at Westminster. They claimed as rights the protection of habeas
+corpus, freedom from taxation without their consent, and all the Great
+Charter's guarantees. It was the habit of English theorizing on the
+subject to allow them these, if at all, as of grace. Repudiating the
+pretence that they were represented in Parliament, they likewise denied
+all wish to be so, but desired to have colonial legislatures recognized
+as concurrent with the English--each colony joined to the mother-country
+by a sort of personal union, or through some such tie as exists between
+England and her colonies to-day. Massachusetts theorists used as a valid
+analogy the relation of ancient Normandy to the French kings. Though no
+longer venturing to do so at home, monarchs freely vetoed legislation in
+all the colonies except Rhode Island and Connecticut. It was held that
+even these colonies were after all somehow subject to England's
+oversight.
+
+On the subject of taxation there was continual dispute,
+misunderstanding, recrimination. The colonies did not object to
+providing for their own defence. They were willing to do this under
+English direction if asked, not commanded. Direct taxation for England's
+behoof was never once consented to by America, and till late never
+thought of by England. The English navigation laws, however, though
+amounting to taxation of America in aid of England, and continually
+evaded as unjust, were allowed by the colonies' legislative acts, and
+never seriously objected to in any formal way.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+SOCIAL CULTURE IN COLONIAL TIMES
+
+[1750]
+
+American society rose out of mere untitled humanity; monarchy, guilds,
+priests, and all aristocracy of a feudal nature having been left behind
+in Europe. The year 1700 found in all the American colonies together
+some 300,000 people. They were distributed about as follows: New England
+had 115,000; New York, 30,000; New Jersey, 15,000; Pennsylvania and
+Delaware, 20,000; Maryland, 35,000; Virginia, 70,000; the Carolina
+country, 15,000. Perhaps 50,000 were negro slaves, of whom, say, 10,000
+were held north of Mason and Dixon's line. What is now New York City
+had, in 1697, 4,302 inhabitants.
+
+Passing on to 1754, we find the white population of New England
+increased to 425,000; that of the middle colonies, including Maryland,
+to 457,000; that of Virginia, the Carolinas, and Georgia, to 283,000.
+Massachusetts alone now had 207,000; Rhode Island, 35,000; Connecticut,
+133,000; New York State (1756), 83,744. There were now not far from
+263,000 negroes, of whom 14,000 lived in New England, 4,500 in Rhode
+Island. The total population of the thirteen colonies amounted to nearly
+a million and a half. At this time Philadelphia about equalled Boston in
+size, each having 25,000 inhabitants. At the Revolution Boston had grown
+to be the larger. New York, with from 15,000 to 18,000, constituted the
+centre of trade and of politics. The city and county of New York
+together numbered 13,046 inhabitants in 1756; 21,862 in 1771; 23,614 in
+1786. The whole State, in 1771 had 146,144. Connecticut, in 1774, had
+197,856. There are said to have been, so late as 1763, woods where the
+New York City Hall now stands.
+
+From North to South the population decreased in density, but it
+increased in heterogeneity and non-English elements, and in illiteracy.
+The South had also the stronger aristocratic feeling. Slaves, as the
+above figures show, were far more numerous in that section. Their
+condition was also worse there.
+
+A large proportion of the white population everywhere was of
+Saxon-Teutonic blood. The colonial leaders, and many others, at least in
+the North, were men who would have been eminent in England itself. Not a
+few New England theologians and lawyers were peers to the ablest of
+their time. Numbers of the common people read, reflected, debated. While
+profoundly religious, the colonists, being nearly all Protestants, were
+bold and progressive thinkers in every line, prizing discussion,
+preferring to settle questions by rational methods rather than through
+authority and tradition. We have observed that there are exceptions to
+this rule, like the treatment of Roger Williams, but they were
+exceptions. The colonists possessed in eminent degree energy,
+determination, power of patient endurance and sacrifice. Their political
+genius, too, was striking in itself, and it becomes surprising if one
+compares Germany, in the unspeakable distraction of the Thirty Years'
+War, with America at the same period, 1618-1648, successfully solving by
+patience and debate the very problems which were Germany's despair.
+
+[Illustration: Costume about the Middle of the Seventeenth Century.]
+
+[Illustration: Costume about the Middle of the Seventeenth Century.]
+
+In all the southern colonies the English Church was established, a
+majority of the people its members, its clergy supported by tithes and
+glebe. William and Mary secured it a sort of establishment also in New
+York and Maryland. Yet at no moment of the colonial period was there a
+bishop in America. No church building was consecrated with episcopal
+rites, no resident of America taken into orders without going to London.
+[footnote: See, for these facts, The Century for May, 1888.]  Even in
+Virginia, till a very late colonial period, the clergy retained many
+Puritan forms. Some would not read the Common Prayer. For more than a
+hundred years the surplice was apparently unknown there, sacraments
+administered without the proper ornaments and vessels, parts of the
+liturgy omitted, marriages, baptisms, churchings, and funerals
+solemnized in private houses. In some parishes, so late as 1724, the
+communion was partaken sitting. Excellent as were many of the clergymen,
+there were some who never preached, and not a few even bore an ill name.
+It was worst in Maryland, and "bad as a Maryland parson" became a
+proverb. The yearly salary in the best Virginia parishes was tobacco of
+about 100 pounds value.
+
+The Carolina clergy at first formed a superior class, as nearly all the
+early ministers were men carefully selected and sent out from England by
+the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel. Here there was special
+interest in the religious welfare of the slaves. All Over the South the
+Church ministers owed much to competition with those of sects,
+especially those of the Presbyterians, to which body belonged many of
+the Scotch and Irish immigrants after 1700. Dissent was dominant
+everywhere at the North. A vast majority of the people even in New York
+were dissenters, though the Episcopal clergy there successfully resisted
+all efforts against the Church tax, notwithstanding the fact that the
+same injustice in Massachusetts and Connecticut oppressed their brethren
+in those colonies. The New York clergy also fought every sort of liberal
+law, as to enable dissenting bodies of Christians to hold property. It
+was in good degree this attitude of theirs that filled the country,
+Virginia too, with such hatred of bishops.
+
+But this spirit was fully matched by that of the Independent ministers
+in New England. Their dissent was aggressive, persecuting, puritanical.
+Meeting-houses were cold, sermons long and dry, music vocal only.
+Religious teaching and the laws it procured, foolishly assumed to
+regulate all the acts of life. Extravagance was denounced and fined. In
+1750, the Massachusetts Assembly forbade theatres as "likely to
+encourage immorality and impiety." Rhode Island took similar action in
+1762.
+
+[Illustration: Costume about the Middle of the Seventeenth Century.]
+
+The ministers of Boston viewed bishops almost as emissaries of the
+devil. Herein in fact lay the primary, some have thought the deepest and
+most potent cause of the Revolution, since kings and the bishops of
+London incessantly sought to establish Anglicanism in Massachusetts, and
+English politicians deemed it outrageous that conformists should be
+denied any of that colony's privileges. For some time, under William and
+Mary's charter, in this province where Congregationalism had till now
+had everything its own way, only Church clergymen could celebrate
+marriage. In New York and Maryland, too, hostility to the establishment
+greatly stimulated disloyalty. This was true even in Anglican Virginia,
+where the Church found it no easier to keep power than it was in
+Massachusetts to get power, and where the clergy were unpopular,
+concerned more for tithes than for souls.
+
+[Illustration: Costume about the Middle of the Seventeenth Century.]
+
+Colleges were founded early in several colonies. Harvard dates from
+1638; William and Mary, in Virginia, from 1693; Yale, from 1701; the
+College of New Jersey, from 1746, its old Nassau Hall, built in 1756 and
+named in honor of William III. of the House of Nassau, being then the
+largest structure in British America. The University of Pennsylvania
+dates from 1753; King's College, now Columbia, from 1754; Rhode Island
+College, now Brown University, from 1764. Educational facilities in
+general varied greatly with sections, being miserable in the southern
+colonies, fair in the central, excellent in the northern. In Virginia,
+during the period now under our survey, schools were almost unknown. In
+Maryland, from 1728, a free school was established by law in each
+county. These were the only such schools in the South before 1770.
+Philadelphia and New York had good schools by 1700; rural Pennsylvania
+none of any sort till 1750, then only the poorest. A few New York and
+New Jersey towns of New England origin had free schools before the
+Revolution. Many Southern planters sent their sons to school in England.
+In popular education New England led not only the continent but the
+world, there being a school-house, often several, in each town. Every
+native adult in Massachusetts and Connecticut was able to read and
+write. In this matter Rhode Island was far behind its next neighbors.
+
+Newspapers were distributed much as schools were. The first
+printing-press was set up at Cambridge in 1639. The first newspaper,
+Publick Occurrences Foreign and  Domestic, was started in Boston in
+1690. The first permanent newspaper, the Boston News Letter, began in
+1704, and it had a Boston and a Philadelphia rival in 1719. The Maryland
+Gazette was started at Annapolis in 1727, a weekly at Williamsburg, Va.,
+in 1736. In 1740 there were eleven newspapers in all in the colonies;
+one each in New York, South Carolina, and Virginia (from 1736), three in
+Pennsylvania, one of them German, and five in Boston. The Connecticut
+Gazette was started at New Haven in 1755; The Summary, at New London in
+1758. The Rhode Island Gazette was begun by James Franklin, September
+27, 1732, but was not permanent. The Providence Gazette and Country
+Journal put forth its first issue October 20, 1762. In 1775, Salem,
+Newburyport, and Portsmouth had each its newspaper. The first daily in
+the country, the Pennsylvania Packet, began in 1784.
+
+[Illustration: James Logan.]
+
+Other literature of American origin flourished in New England nearly
+alone. It consisted of sermons, social and political tracts, poetry,
+history, and memoirs. The clergy were the chief but not the sole
+authors. Of readers, New York, Philadelphia, and Charleston had many.
+Much reading matter came from England. Charleston enjoyed a public
+library from 1700. About 1750 there were several others. That left to
+Philadelphia in 1751, by James Logan, comprised 4,000 volumes.
+
+William and Mary had established a postal system for America, placing
+Thomas Neale, Esquire, at its head. The service hardly became a system
+till 1738. In ordinary weather a post-rider would receive the
+Philadelphia mail at the Susquehannah River on Saturday evening, be at
+Annapolis on Monday, reach the Potomac Tuesday night, on Wednesday
+arrive at New Post, near Fredericksburg, and by Saturday evening at
+Williamsburg, whence, once a month, the mail went still farther south,
+to Edenton, N. C. Thus a letter was just a week in transit between
+Philadelphia and the capital of Virginia. In New England, from here to
+New York, and between New York and Philadelphia, despatch was much
+better.
+
+[Illustration: King William.]
+
+[Illustration: Queen Mary.]
+
+The learned professions also were best patronized and had the ablest
+personnel in New England, where all three, but particularly the clergy,
+were strong and honored. Outside of New England, till 1750, lawyers and
+physicians, especially in the country parts, were poorly educated and
+little respected. Each formidable disease had the people at its mercy.
+Diphtheria, then known as the throat disease, swept through the land
+once in about thirty years. Smallpox was another frequent scourge. In
+1721 it attacked nearly six thousand persons in Boston, about half the
+population, killing some nine hundred. The clergy, almost to a man,
+decried vaccination when first vented, proclaiming it an effort to
+thwart God's will. Clergymen, except perhaps in Carolina and Virginia,
+were somewhat better educated, yet those in New England led all others
+in this respect.
+
+Colonial America boasted many great intellectual lights. President
+Edwards won European reputation as a thinker, and so did Franklin as a
+statesman and as a scientist. Linnaeus named our Bartram, a Quaker
+farmer of Pennsylvania, the greatest natural botanist then living.
+Increase Mather read and wrote both Greek and Hebrew, and spoke Latin.
+He and his son Cotton were veritable wonders in literary attainment. The
+one was the author of ninety-two books, the other of three hundred and
+eighty-three. The younger Winthrop was a member of the Royal Society.
+Copley, Stuart, and West became distinguished painters.
+
+Except for mails, there were in the colonies no public conveyances by
+land till just before the Revolution. After stage lines were introduced,
+to go from Philadelphia to Pittsburgh required seven days; from
+Philadelphia to New York, at first three, later two. The earliest coach
+to attain the last-named speed was advertised as "the flying machine,"
+From Boston one would be four days travelling to New York, two to
+Portsmouth. Packet-boats between the main points on the coast were as
+regular and speedy as wind allowed. Stage-drivers, inn-keepers, and
+ship-captains were the honored and accredited purveyors of news.
+
+Everywhere was great prosperity, little luxury. Paucity of money gave
+rise to that habit of barter and dicker in trade which was a mannerism
+of our fathers. Agriculture formed the basal industry, especially in the
+Southern colonies; yet in New England and Pennsylvania both manufactures
+and commerce thrived. Pennsylvania's yearly foreign commerce exceeded
+1,000,000 pounds sterling, requiring 500 vessels and more than 7,000
+seamen. From Pennsylvania, in 1750, 3,000 tons of pig-iron were
+exported. The annual production of iron in Maryland just before the
+Revolution reached 25,000 tons of pig, 500 of bar. The business of
+marine insurance began in this country at Philadelphia in 1721, fire
+insurance at Boston in 1724. New England produced timber, ships, rum,
+paper, hats, leather, and linen and woollen cloths, the first three for
+export.
+
+In country places houses were poor save on the great estates, south, but
+in the cities there were many fine mansions before 1700. From this year
+stoves began to be used. Glass windows and paper hangings were first
+seen not far from 1750.
+
+The colonists ate much flesh, and nearly all used tobacco and liquor
+freely. Finest ladies snuffed, sometimes smoked. Little coffee was
+drunk, and no tea till about 1700. Urban life was social and gay. In the
+country the games of fox and geese, three and twelve men morris, husking
+bees and quilting bees were the chief sports. Tableware was mostly of
+wood, though many had pewter, and the rich much silver. The people's
+ordinary dress was of homemade cloth, but not a few country people still
+wore deerskin. The clothing of the rich was imported, and often gaudy
+with tasteless ornament. Wigs were common in the eighteenth century, and
+all head-dress stupidly elaborate.
+
+William Lang, of Boston, advertises in 1767 to provide all who wish with
+wigs "in the most genteel and polite taste," assuring judges, divines,
+lawyers, and physicians, "because of the importance of their heads, that
+he can assort his wigs to suit their respective occupations and
+inclinations." He tells the ladies that he can furnish anyone of them
+with "a nice, easy, genteel, and polite construction of rolls, such as
+may tend to raise their heads to any pitch they desire."
+
+"Everybody wore wigs in 1750, except convicts and slaves. Boys wore
+them, servants wore them, Quakers wore them, paupers wore them. The
+making of wigs was an important branch of industry in Great Britain.
+Wigs were of many styles and prices. Some dangled with curls; and they
+were designated by a great variety of names, such as tyes, bobs, majors,
+spencers, foxtails, twists, tetes, scratches, full-bottomed dress bobs,
+cues, and perukes. The people of Philadelphia dressed as the actors of
+our theatres now dress in old English comedy. They walked the streets in
+bright-colored and highly decorated coats, three-cornered hats, ruffled
+shirts and wristbands, knee-breeches, silk stockings, low shoes, and
+silver buckles." [footnote: Mrs. M. J. Lamb, in Magazine of Am. History,
+August. 1888.]  Lord Stirling, one of Washington's generals, had a
+clothing inventory like a king: a "pompidou" cloth coat and vest,
+breeches with gold lace, a crimson and figured velvet coat, seven
+scarlet vests, et cetera, et cetera.
+
+The wigs encountered the zealous hostility of many, among these Judge
+Samuel Sewall. His highest eulogy on a departed worthy was: "The welfare
+of the poor was much upon his spirit, and he abominated periwigs." A
+member of the church at Newbury, Mass., refused to attend communion
+because the pastor wore a wig, believing that all who were guilty of
+this practice would be damned if they did not repent. A meeting of
+Massachusetts Quakers solemnly expressed the conviction that the wearing
+of extravagant and superfluous wigs was wholly contrary to the truth.
+
+[Illustration: Chief Justice Sewall.]
+
+There was an aristocracy, of its kind, in all the colonies, but it was
+far the strongest in the South. Social lines were sharply drawn, an
+"Esquire" not liking to be accosted as "Mr.," and each looking down
+somewhat upon a simple "Goodman." These gradations stood forth in
+college catalogues and in the location of pews in churches. The Yale
+triennial catalogue until 1767 and the Harvard triennial till 1772
+arrange students' names not alphabetically or according to attainments,
+but so as to indicate the social rank of their families. Memoranda of
+President Clap, of Yale, against the names of youth when admitted to
+college, such as "Justice of the Peace," "Deacon," "of middling estate
+much impoverished," reveal how hard it sometimes was properly to grade
+students socially. At the South, regular mechanics, like all free
+laborers, were few and despised. The indentured servants, very numerous
+in several colonies, differed little from slaves. David Jamieson,
+attorney-general of New York in 1710, had been banished from Scotland as
+a Covenanter and sold in New Jersey as a four years' redemptioner to pay
+transportation expanses. Such servants were continually running away,
+which may have aided in abolishing the system. Paupers and criminals
+were fewest in New England. All the colonies imprisoned insolvent
+criminals, though dirt and damp made each prison a hell. All felonies
+were awarded capital punishment, and many minor crimes incurred
+barbarous penalties. Whipping-post, pillory, and stocks were in frequent
+use. So late as 1760 women were publicly whipped. At Hartford, in 1761,
+David Campbell and Alexander Pettigrew, for the burglary of two watches,
+received each fifteen stripes, the loss of the right ear, and the
+brand-mark "B" on the forehead. Pettigrew came near losing his life from
+the profuse bleeding which ensued. A husband killing his wife was
+hanged. A wife killing her husband was burned, as were slaves who slew
+their masters.
+
+[Illustration: The Pillory.]
+
+In care for the unfortunate and in the study and in all applications of
+social science, Philadelphia led. The Pennsylvania Hospital, the first
+institution of the kind in America, was founded in 1751. The
+Philadelphia streets were the first to be lighted; those of New York
+next; those of Boston not till 1773. Before the end of the period now
+before us Philadelphia and New York also had night patrols.
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Signature of Jolliet (old spelling).]
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+ENGLAND AND FRANCE IN AMERICA
+
+[Illustration: Totem of the Sioux.]
+
+[1659-1672]
+
+Working upward from the mouth of the St. Lawrence to the source of this
+and of the Mississippi, and then down the latter river, Franciscans and
+Jesuits their pioneers, braving dreadful hardships and dangers in
+efforts, more courageous than successful, to convert the Indians, the
+French had come to control that great continental highway and boldly to
+claim for France the entire heart of North America.
+
+[Illustration: A Sioux Chief.]
+
+In 1659, Groseilliers and Radisson penetrated beyond Lake Superior, and
+dwelt for a time among the Sioux, who knew of the Mississippi River.
+Next year Groseilliers went thither again, accompanied by the Jesuit
+Menard and his servant, Guerin. In 1661 Menard and Guerin pushed into
+what is now Wisconsin, and may have seen the Mississippi. These
+explorations made the French familiar with the copper mines of Lake
+Superior, and awakened the utmost zeal to see the Great River of which
+the Indians spoke. La Salle probably discovered the Ohio in 1670, and
+traced it down to the falls at Louisville. His main eulogist holds that
+he even reached the Mississippi at that time, some three years earlier
+than Joliet, but this is not substantiated. We also reject the belief
+that he reached the stream by way of the Chicago portage in 1671.
+
+[Illustration: Totem of the Illinois.]
+
+[1676]
+
+In 1672 Count Frontenac, Governor of New France, despatched Louis Joliet
+to discover the Great River. He reached the Strait of Mackinaw in
+December, and there Pere Marquette joined him. In May, next year, they
+paddled their canoes up the Fox River and tugged them across the portage
+into the Wisconsin, which they descended, entering the Father of Waters
+June 17, 1673. They floated down to the mouth of the Arkansas and then
+returned, their journey back being up the Illinois and Desplaines
+Rivers. Joliet gave his name to the peak on the latter stream which the
+city of Joliet, Ill., near by, still retains. Joliet arrived at Quebec
+in August, 1674, having in four months journeyed over twenty-five
+hundred miles.
+
+It thus became known how close the upper waters of the great rivers, St.
+Lawrence and Mississippi, were to each other, and that the latter
+emptied into the Gulf of Mexico instead of the South Sea (Pacific); yet,
+as the Rocky Mountains had not then been discovered, it was for long
+believed that some of the western tributaries of the Great River led to
+that western ocean.
+
+[Illustration: The Reception of Joliet and Marquette by the Illinois.]
+
+[1682]
+
+In 1676 Raudin, and three years later,  Du Lhut, visited the Ojibwas and
+Sioux west of Lake Superior. Du Lhut reached the upper waters of the
+Mississippi at Sandy Lake. He went there again in 1680. In 1682 La Salle
+crossed the Chicago portage and explored the lower Mississippi all the
+way to the Gulf, taking possession of the entire valley in the name of
+France and naming it Louisiana. Nicholas Perrot travelled by way of the
+Fox and Wisconsin Rivers to the upper Mississippi in 1685, and again in
+1688. It is in his writings that the word "Chicago" first appears in
+literature.
+
+There were thus between the two great valleys, 1, the Superior route; 2,
+the Wisconsin and Fox route; 3, the Illinois River route, whether by the
+Kankakee, La Salle's way, or by the south branch of the Chicago River,
+Joliet's way; and 4, the route by the Wabash and Ohio. The Wabash, too,
+could be approached either from Lake Erie or from Lake Michigan, through
+St. Joseph's River. At high water, canoes often passed from Lake
+Michigan into the Mississippi without portage.
+
+[Illustration: A Part of the Map Published in Paris by Thevenot as
+"Marquette's Map." It shows the route taken by Joliet across Wisconsin
+from the Baie des Puans (now Green Bay) to the Mississippi River, also
+part of the return journey, that is, from the present site of Chicago,
+northward along lake Michigan.]
+
+[1685-1690]
+
+[Illustration: Louis XIV.]
+
+La Salle had the ambition to get to the South Sea from the Mississippi.
+Governor De la Barre, who followed Frontenac, opposing him, he repaired
+to France, where he succeeded in winning Louis XIV. to his plan. At the
+head of a well-equipped fleet he sailed for the mouth of the
+Mississippi, reaching land near Matagorda Bay on the first day of the
+year 1685. Not finding the Mississippi, La Salle's officers mutinied.
+The expedition broke up into parties, wandering here and there,
+distressed by Indian attacks and by treachery among themselves. La Salle
+was shot by his own men. Nearly all his followers perished, but a small
+party at last discovered the river and ascended it to Fort St. Louis on
+the Illinois, reaching France via Quebec.  In this expedition France
+took possession of Texas, nor did she ever relinquish the claim till, in
+1763, the whole of Louisiana west of the Mississippi was ceded to Spain,
+La Salle's ill-starred attempt led later to the planting of French
+colonies by D'Iberville at Biloxi Island, in Mobile Bay, soon abandoned,
+and at Poverty Point, on the Mississippi; and still later to the
+settlement of New Orleans and vicinity. Growth in these parts was slow,
+however. So late as 1713 there were not over three hundred whites in the
+entire Mississippi Valley.
+
+[Illustration: Coins Struck In France for the Colonies.]
+
+[Illustration: Assassination of La Salle.]
+
+[Illustration: New Orleans in 1719.]
+
+By this time French traders had set foot on every shore of the great
+lakes and explored nearly every stream tributary thereto. The English,
+pushing westward more and more, were trying to divide with them the
+lucrative business of fur-trading, and each nation sought to win to
+itself all the Indians it could. The Mohawks and their confederates of
+the Five Nations, now equipped and acquainted with fire-arms, spite of
+alternate overtures and threats from the French, remained firm friends
+to the English, who more and more invaded those vast and fertile western
+ranges. It grew to be the great question of the age this side the
+Atlantic, whether England or France should control the continent. King
+William's war, declared in 1689, was therefore certain to rage in
+America as well as in Europe.
+
+[Illustration: Signature of D'Iberville.]
+
+One sees by a glance at the map what advantage France had in this
+struggle. It possessed the best fishing grounds and fur-producing
+districts, and fish and furs were at first the only exports of value
+from the north of America. The French, too, held all the water-ways to
+the heart of the continent. Coming up Lake Champlain they could threaten
+New York and New England from the rear. The colonies farther south they
+shut in almost as straitly, French bullets whistling about any
+Englishman's ears the instant he appeared beyond the mountains.
+
+In other respects England had the advantage. In population English
+America had become as superior as French America was territorially,
+having 1,116,000 white inhabitants in 1750, to about 80,000 French. The
+English colonies were also more convenient to the mother-country, and
+the better situated for commerce both coastwise and across the ocean.
+Among the English, temper for mere speculation and adventure decayed
+very early, giving way to the conviction that successful planting
+depended wholly upon persistent, energetic toil.
+
+A piece of fortune more important yet was their relatively free
+religious and political system. Toleration in religion was large.
+Self-government was nearly complete internally, and indeed externally,
+till the navigation acts. Canada, on the other hand, was oppressed by a
+feudal constitution in the state, settlers being denied the fee simple
+of their lands, and by Jesuits in Church. "New France could not grow,"
+says Parkman, "with a priest on guard at the gate to let in none but
+such as pleased him. In making Canada a citadel of the state religion,
+the clerical monitors of the Crown robbed their country of a
+transatlantic empire." Thus the Huguenots, France's best emigrants to
+America, did not come to New France, but to New England and the other
+Protestant colonies.
+
+[Illustration: The Attack on Schenectady.]
+
+The Indian hostilities which heralded King William's War began August
+13, 1688. Frontenac prepared to capture Albany and even Manhattan. He
+did not accomplish so much; but on the night of February 8, 1689-90, his
+force of ninety Iroquois and over a hundred Frenchmen fell upon
+Schenectady, killed sixty, and captured eighty or ninety more. Only a
+corporal's guard escaped to Albany with the sad news. This attack had
+weighty influence, as occasioning the first American congress. Seven
+delegates from various colonies assembled at New York on May 1, 1690, to
+devise defence against the northern invaders.
+
+The eastern Indians were hardly at rest from Philip's War when roused by
+the French to engage in this. An attack was made upon Haverhill, Mass.,
+and Hannah Dustin, with a child only a few days old, another woman, and
+a boy, was led captive to an Indian camp up the Merrimac. The savages
+killed the infant, but thereby steeled the mother's heart for revenge.
+One night the three prisoners slew their sleeping guards and, seizing a
+canoe, floated down to their home. Dover was attacked June 27, 1689,
+twenty-three persons killed, and twenty-nine sold to the French in
+Canada. Indescribable horrors occurred at Oyster River, at Salmon Falls,
+at Casco, at Exeter, and elsewhere.
+
+[Illustration: Hannah Dustin's Escape.]
+
+[1702]
+
+In 1702 Queen Anne's War began, and in this again New England was the
+chief sufferer. The barbarities which marked it were worse than those of
+Philip's War. De Rouville, with a party of French and savages, proceeded
+from Canada to Deerfield, Mass. Fearing an attack, the villagers meant
+to be vigilant, but early on a February morning, 1704, the wily enemy,
+skulking till the sentinels retired at daylight, managed to effect a
+surprise. Fifty were killed and one hundred hurried off to Canada. Among
+these were the minister, Mr. Williams, and his family. Twenty years
+later a white woman in Indian dress entered Deerfield. It was one of the
+Williams daughters. She had married an Indian in Canada, and now refused
+to desert him. Cases like this, of which there were many in the course
+of these frightful wars, seemed to the settlers harder to bear than
+death. Massachusetts came so to dread the atrocious foe, that fifteen
+pounds were offered by public authority for an Indian man's scalp, eight
+for a child's or a woman's.
+
+[1705]
+
+[Illustration: Plan of Port Royal, Nova Scotia.]
+
+Governor Spotswood urged aggression on the French to the west; Governor
+Hunter of New York had equal zeal for a movement northward. New York
+raised 600 men and the same number of Iroquois, voting 10,000 pounds of
+paper money for their sustenance. Connecticut and New Jersey sent 1,600
+men. A force of 4,000 in all mustered at Albany under Nicholson of New
+York. They were to co-operate against Montreal with the naval expedition
+of 1711, commanded by Sir Hoveden Walker. Walker failed ignominiously,
+and Nicholson, hearing of this betimes, saved himself by retreating.
+
+Sir William Phips had captured Port Royal in 1690, and Acadia was
+annexed to Massachusetts in 1692. In 1691 the French again took formal
+possession of Port Royal and the neighboring country. In 1692 an
+ineffectual attempt was made to recover it, but by the Treaty of
+Ryswick, 1697, it was explicitly given back to France.
+
+[1710]
+
+At the inception of Queen Anne's War, in 1702, there were several
+expeditions from New England to Nova Scotia; in 1704 and 1707 without
+result. That of 1710 was more successful. It consisted of four regiments
+and thirty-six vessels, besides troop and store ships and some marines.
+Port Royal capitulated, and its name was changed to Annapolis, in honor
+of Queen Anne. Acadia never again came under French control, and was
+regularly ceded to England by the Treaty of Utrecht, 1713.
+Notwithstanding this, however, French America still remained
+substantially intact.
+
+[Illustration: Queen Anne.]
+
+[1714]
+
+If the great struggle for the Ohio Valley now became a silent one, it
+was none the less earnest. Spotswood had opened a road across the Blue
+Ridge in 1716. In 1721 New Yorkers began settling on Oswego River, and
+they finished a fort there by 1726. Closer alliance was formed with the
+Five Nations. The French governor of Quebec in 1725 pleaded that Niagara
+must be fortified, and on his successor was urged the necessity of
+reducing the Oswego garrison. It was partly to flank Oswego that the
+French pushed up Lake Champlain to Crown Point and built Fort St.
+Frederick.
+
+The Treaty of Utrecht had left Cape Breton Island to France. The French
+at once strongly fortified Louisburg and invited thither the French
+inhabitants of Acadia and Newfoundland, which had also been ceded to
+Great Britain. Many went, though the British governors did much to
+hinder removal. This irritated the French authorities, and the Indian
+atrocities of 1723-24 at Dover and in Maine are known to have been
+stimulated from Montreal. Father Rasle, an astute and benevolent French
+Jesuit who had settled among the Indians at Norridgewock, became an
+agent of this hostile influence. In an English attack, August 12, 1724,
+Rasle's settlement was broken up and himself killed. The Indians next
+year made a treaty, and peace prevailed till King George's War.
+
+[Illustration: Governor Shirley.]
+
+[1745]
+
+[Illustration: Sir William Pepperrell.]
+
+This opened in 1744, England against France once more, and in 1745 came
+the capture of Louisburg, then the Gibraltar of America. This was
+brought about through the energy of Governor Shirley, of Massachusetts,
+the most efficient English commander this side the Atlantic. That
+commonwealth voted to send 3,250 men, Connecticut 500, New Hampshire and
+Rhode Island each 300. Sir William Pepperrell, of Kittery, Me.,
+commanded, Richard Gridley, of Bunker Hill fame, being his chief of
+artillery. The expedition consisted of thirteen armed vessels, commanded
+by Captain Edward Tyng, with over 200 guns, and about ninety transports.
+The Massachusetts troops sailed from Nantasket March 24th, and reached
+Canso, April 4th. "Rhode Island," says Hutchinson, "waited until a
+better judgment could be made of the event, their three hundred not
+arriving until after the place had surrendered." The expedition was very
+costly to the colonies participating, and four years later England
+reimbursed them in the sum of 200,000 pounds. Yet at the disgraceful
+peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1748, she surrendered Louisburg and all
+Cape Breton to France again.
+
+[1746-1748]
+
+In 1746 French and Indians from Crown Point destroyed the fort and
+twenty houses at Saratoga, killing thirty persons, and capturing sixty.
+Orders came this year from England to advance on Crown Point and
+Montreal, upon Shirley's plan, all the colonies as far south as Virginia
+being commanded to aid. Quite an army mustered at Albany. Sir William
+Johnson succeeded in rousing the Iroquois, whom the French had been
+courting with unprecedented assiduity. But D'Anville's fleet threatened.
+The colonies wanted their troops at home. Inactivity discouraged the
+soldiers, alienated the Indians. At last news came that the Canada
+project was abandoned, and in 1748 the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle was
+declared.
+
+This very year France began new efforts to fill the Ohio Valley with
+emigrants. Virginia did the same. To anticipate the English, the French
+sent Bienville to bury engraved leaden plates at the mouths of streams.
+They also fortified the present sites of Ogdensburg and Toronto. Even
+now, therefore, France's power this side the Atlantic was not visibly
+shaken. The continental problem remained unsolved.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR
+
+[1748]
+
+The Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle had been made only because the contestants
+were tired of fighting. In America, at least, each at once began taking
+breath and preparing to renew the struggle. Not a year passed that did
+not witness border quarrels more or less bloody. The French authorities
+filled the Ohio and Mississippi valleys with military posts; English
+settlers pressed persistently into the same to find homes. In this
+movement Virginia led, having in 1748 formed, especially to aid western
+settlement, the Ohio Company, which received from the king a grant of
+five hundred thousand acres beyond the Alleghanies. A road was laid out
+between the upper Potomac and the present Pittsburgh, settlements were
+begun along it, and efforts made to conciliate the savages.
+
+[Illustration: Map showing Position of French and English Forts and
+Settlements.]
+
+[Illustration: The Ambuscade.]
+
+[1754]
+
+One of the frontier villages was at what is now Franklin, Penn., and the
+location involved Virginia with the colony of Pennsylvania. As
+commissioner to settle the dispute George Washington was sent out.
+
+The future Father of his Country was of humble origin. Born in
+Westmoreland County, Va., "about ten in ye morning of ye 11th day of
+February, 1731-32," as recorded in his mother's Bible, he had been an
+orphan from his earliest youth. His education was of the slenderest. At
+sixteen he became a land surveyor, leading a life of the roughest sort,
+beasts, savages, and hardy frontiersmen his constant companions,
+sleeping under the sky and cooking his own coarse food. No better man
+could have been chosen to thread now the Alleghany trail.
+
+Washington reported the French strongly posted in western Pennsylvania
+on lands claimed by the Ohio Company. Virginia fitted out an expedition
+to dislodge them. Of this Washington commanded the advance. Meeting at
+Great Meadows the French under Contrecoeur, commander of Fort Du Quesne
+(Pittsburgh); he was at first victorious, but the French were
+re-enforced before he was, and Washington, after a gallant struggle, had
+to capitulate.  This was on July 3, 1754. The French and Indian War had
+begun.
+
+[Illustration: Baddock's Route.]
+
+[1755]
+
+The English Government bade the colonies defend their frontier, and in
+this interest twenty-five delegates from the seven northern colonies met
+at Albany on June 19, 1754. Benjamin Franklin represented Pennsylvania,
+and it was at this conference that he presented his well-considered
+plan, to be described in our chapter on Independence, for a general
+government over English America. The Albany Convention amounted to
+little, but did somewhat to renew alliance with the Six Nations.
+[footnote: Increased from five to six by the accession of the
+Tuscaroras.]
+
+In this decisive war England had in view four great objects of conquest
+in America: 1. Fort Du Quesne; 2. The Ontario basin with Oswego and Fort
+Niagara; 3. The Champlain Valley; 4. Louisburg. The British ministry
+seemed in earnest. It sent Sir Edward Braddock to this side with six
+thousand splendidly equipped veterans, and offered large sums for
+fitting out regiments of provincials. Braddock arrived in February,
+1755, but moved very languidly. This was not altogether his fault, for
+he had difficulties with the governors and they with their legislatures.
+
+[Illustration: Map of Braddock's Field.]
+
+At last off for Fort Du Quesne, he took a needlessly long route, through
+Virginia instead of Pennsylvania. He scorned advice, marching and
+fighting stiffly according to the rules of the Old World military art,
+heeding none of Franklin's and Washington's sage hints touching savage
+modes of warfare. The consequence was this brave Briton's defeat and
+death. As he drew near to Fort Du Quesne, he fell into a carefully
+prepared ambuscade. Four horses were shot under him. Mounting a fifth he
+spurred to the front to inspire his men, forbidding them seek the
+slightest cover, as Washington urged and as the provincials successfully
+did. The regulars, obeying, were half of them killed in their tracks,
+the remainder retreating, in panic at first, to Philadelphia. Braddock
+died, and was buried at Great Meadows, where his grave is still to be
+seen.
+
+[Illustration: The Death of Braddock.]
+
+Washington was the only mounted officer in this action who was not
+killed or fatally wounded, a fact at the time regarded specially
+providential. On his return, aged twenty-three, the Rev. Samuel Davies,
+afterward President of the College of New Jersey, referred to him in his
+sermon as "that heroic youth, Colonel Washington, whom I cannot but hope
+Providence has preserved in so signal a manner for some important
+service to his country."
+
+[1757]
+
+The early part of this war witnessed the tragic occurrence immortalized
+by Longfellow's "Evangeline," the expulsion of the French from Acadia.
+The poem is too favorable to these people. They had never become
+reconciled to English rule, and were believed on strong evidence to be
+active in promoting French schemes against the English. It was resolved
+to scatter them among the Atlantic settlements. The act was savage, and
+became doubly so through the unmeant cruelties attending its execution.
+The poor wretches were huddled on the shore weeks too soon for their
+transports. Families were broken up, children forcibly separated from
+parents. The largest company was carried to Massachusetts, many to
+Pennsylvania, some to the extreme South. Not a few, crushed in spirit,
+became paupers. A number found their way to France, a number to
+Louisiana, a handful back to Nova Scotia.
+
+Braddock was succeeded by the fussy and incompetent Earl of Loudon,
+1756-57, whom Franklin likened to Saint George on the sign-posts,
+"always galloping but never advancing." He gathered twelve thousand men
+for the recapture of Louisburg, but exaggerated reports of the French
+strength frightened him from the attempt. Similar inaction lost him Fort
+William Henry on Lake George. The end of the year 1757 saw the English
+cause on this side at low ebb, Montcalm, the tried and brilliant French
+commander, having outwitted or frightened the English officers at every
+point.
+
+[Illustration: Montcalm.]
+
+From this moment all changes. William Pitt, subsequently Lord Chatham,
+now became the soul of the British ministry. George III. had dismissed
+him therefrom in 1757, but Newcastle found it impossible to get on
+without him. The great commoner had to be recalled, this time to take
+entire direction of the war.
+
+[Illustration: William Pitt.]
+
+[1758]
+
+Pitt had set his mind on the conquest of Canada. He superseded Loudon
+early in 1758 by General Amherst, who was seconded by Wolfe and by
+Admiral Boscawen, both with large re-enforcements. They were to reduce
+Louisburg. It was an innovation to assign important commands like these
+to men with so little fame and influence, but Pitt did not care. He
+believed his appointees to be brave, energetic, skilful, and the event
+proved his wisdom. Louisburg fell, and with it the whole of Cape Breton
+Island and also Prince Edward.
+
+Unfortunately General Abercrombie had not been recalled with Loudon. The
+same year, 1758, he signally failed to capture Ticonderoga, leaving the
+way to Montreal worse blocked than before. Fort Du Quesne, however,
+General Forbes took this year at little cost, rechristening it
+Pittsburgh in honor of the heroic minister who had ordered the
+enterprise.
+
+[1759]
+
+In the year 1759 occurred a grand triple movement upon Canada. Amherst,
+now general-in-chief, was to clear the Champlain Valley, and Prideaux
+with large colonial forces to reduce Fort Niagara. Both had orders,
+being successful in these initial attacks, to move down the St. Lawrence
+and unite with Wolfe, who was to sail up that river and beset Quebec.
+Prideaux was splendidly successful, as indeed was Amherst in time,
+though longer than he anticipated in securing Ticonderoga and Crown
+Point.
+
+[Illustration: General Wolfe.]
+
+Meantime Wolfe at Quebec was trying in all ways to manoeuvre the crafty
+Montcalm out of his impregnable works. Failing, he in his eagerness
+suffered himself to attempt an assault upon the city, which proved not
+only vain but terribly costly. A weaker commander would now have given
+up, but Wolfe had red hair, and the grit usually accompanying.
+Undaunted, he planned the hazardous enterprise of rowing up the St.
+Lawrence by night, landing with five thousand picked men at the foot of
+the precipitous ascent to the Plains of Abraham, and scaling those
+heights to face Montcalm from the west. The Frenchman, stunned at the
+sight which day brought him, lost no time in attacking. In the hot
+battle which ensued, September 13, 1759, both commanders fell, Wolfe
+cheering his heroes to sure victory, Montcalm urging on his forlorn hope
+in vain. The English remained masters of the field and in five days
+Quebec capitulated.
+
+[Illustration: Landing of Wolfe.]
+
+[1760-1763]
+
+[Illustration: Quebec in 1730--From an old Print.]
+
+Vaudreuil, the French commander at Montreal, sought to dislodge the
+English ere the ice left the river in the spring of 1760, and succeeded
+in driving them within their works. Each side then waited and hoped for
+help from beyond sea so soon as navigation opened. It came the earlier
+to the English, who were gladdened on May 11th by the approach of a
+British frigate, the forerunner of a fleet. They now chased Vaudreuil
+back into Montreal, where they were met by Haviland from Crown Point and
+by Amherst from Oswego. France's days of power in America were ended.
+Her fleet of twenty-two sail intended for succor met total destruction
+in the Bay des Chaleurs and by the Peace of Paris, 1763, she surrendered
+to her victorious antagonist every foot of her American territory east
+of the Mississippi, save the city of New Orleans.
+
+The Indians were thus left to finish this war alone. Pontiac, the brave
+and cunning chief of the Ottawas, aghast at the rising might of the
+English, and the certain fate of his race without the French for
+helpers, organized a conspiracy including nearly every tribe this side
+the Mississippi except the Six Nations, to put to the sword all the
+English garrisons in the West. Fatal success waited upon the plan. It
+was in 1763 Forts Sandusky, St. Joseph (southeast of Lake Michigan),
+Miami (Fort Wayne), Presque Isle (Erie, Pa.), Le Boeuf, Venango, and
+Pittsburgh were attacked and all but the last destroyed, soldiers and
+settlers murdered with indescribable barbarities. Pittsburgh held out
+till re-enforced, at dreadful cost in blood, by Colonel Bouquet and his
+Highlanders, who marched from Philadelphia.
+
+[Illustration: Bouquet's Redoubt at Pittsburgh.]
+
+The hottest and longest conflict was at Detroit, Major Gladwyn
+commanding, where Pontiac himself led the onset, heading perhaps a
+thousand men. The siege was maintained with fearful venom from May 11th
+till into October. The English tried a number of sallies, brave, fatal,
+vain, and were so hard pressed by their bloodthirsty foe that only
+timely and repeated re-enforcements saved them. At last the savages,
+becoming, as always, disunited and straitened for supplies, sullenly
+made peace; and at the call of the rich and now free Northwest, caravans
+of English immigrants thronged thither to lay under happiest auspices
+the foundations of new States.
+
+END OF VOLUME l.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of History of the United States, Vol. I
+(of VI), by E. Benjamin Andrews
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