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+The Project Gutenberg eBook, "Stops", by Paul Allardyce
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: "Stops"
+       Or How to Punctuate. A Practical Handbook for Writers and Students
+
+
+Author: Paul Allardyce
+
+
+
+Release Date: March 29, 2007  [eBook #20938]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK "STOPS"***
+
+
+E-text prepared by Chris Curnow, Sankar Viswanathan, and the Project
+Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team (https://www.pgdp.net)
+
+
+
+Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this
+      file which includes the original illustrations.
+      See 20938-h.htm or 20938-h.zip:
+      (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/2/0/9/3/20938/20938-h/20938-h.htm)
+      or
+      (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/2/0/9/3/20938/20938-h.zip)
+
+
+Transcriber's note:
+
+      Superscripted letters are indicated by the carat character
+      followed by the letter(s) within curly brackets. Example: ^{a}
+
+
+
+
+
+"STOPS"
+
+Or, How to Punctuate
+
+A Practical Handbook for Writers and Students
+
+by
+
+PAUL ALLARDYCE
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+                   "For a reader that pointeth ill,
+                   A good sentence oft may spill."
+
+                              --CHAUCER--_Romaunt of the Rose_
+
+
+
+
+London
+T. Fisher Unwin Ltd.
+Adelphi Terrace
+Eighteenth Impression
+1895
+
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+   INTRODUCTION
+
+   THE FULL STOP
+
+   THE COMMA
+
+   THE SEMICOLON
+
+   THE COLON
+
+   THE POINT OF INTERROGATION
+
+   THE MARK OF EXCLAMATION
+
+   THE DASH
+
+   BRACKETS (OR THE PARENTHESIS)
+
+   INVERTED COMMAS
+
+   ITALICS
+
+   THE HYPHEN
+
+   THE APOSTROPHE
+
+   ELLIPSIS
+
+   REFERENCES TO NOTES
+
+   CORRECTION OF PROOFS
+
+
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+
+_The Use of Punctuation._--Punctuation is a device for marking out the
+arrangement of a writer's ideas. Reading is thereby made easier than
+it otherwise would be.
+
+A writer's ideas are expressed by a number of words arranged in
+groups, the words in one group being more closely connected with one
+another than they are with those in the next group. An example will
+show this grouping in its simplest form:
+
+He never convinces the reason, or fills the imagination,
+-----------------------------     ---------------------
+or touches the heart.
+   -----------------
+
+To understand what is written, the reader must group the words
+together in the way intended by the writer; and in doing this he can
+receive assistance in various ways. Partly by the inflection of the
+words; partly by their arrangement; partly also by punctuation. As to
+inflection, we see in Latin an adjective and a substantive standing
+together, yet differing in gender, in number, or in case; and we know
+that the adjective does not qualify the substantive. But English has
+not the numerous inflections of Latin. More scrupulous care therefore
+is needed in the arrangement of words in order to bring together in
+position such as are connected in meaning. Yet this is not always
+enough. Except in the very simplest sentences there are generally
+several arrangements which are grammatically possible; and, though all
+save one may be absurd in meaning, the reader may waver for a moment
+before the absurdity strikes him. Some artificial aid is thus needed
+to prevent him from thinking of any arrangement but the right one.
+There is no fault, for instance, to be found with the arrangement of
+the following words, yet, printed without points, they form a mere
+puzzle:
+
+     He had arrived already prepossessed with a strong feeling of
+     the neglect which he had experienced from the Whigs his old
+     friends however all of them appeared ravished to see him
+     offered apologies for the mode in which they had treated him
+     and caught at him as at a twig when they were drowning the
+     influence of his talents they understood and were willing to
+     see it thrown into the opposite scale.
+
+Of course, with a little effort the meaning can be discovered; but if
+such a little effort had to be put forth in every page of a whole
+book, reading would become a serious task. By means of points, or
+"stops," we are spared much of this. The groups are presented
+ready-made to the eye; and the mind, bent on understanding the
+thought, is not distracted by having first to discover the connection
+of the words.
+
+The reader's task is more difficult where two or more ways of grouping
+the words not only are grammatically possible, but lead each to a more
+or less intelligible meaning. As a rule he can find out from the
+context which way the writer meant him to take. One politician writes
+to another: "I ask you as the recognized leader of our party what you
+think of this measure;" and nobody accuses the writer of presumption.
+We might even pass over the following startling sentence without
+observing the reflection which it casts on a respectable body of men:
+
+     Hence he considered marriage with a modern political
+     economist as dangerous.
+
+But when we read that "the State may impose restrictions on the
+mothers of young children employed in factories," we may well have
+some doubt whether it is the mothers or the children who are employed
+in factories. And it would not be easy to give an answer, if we were
+asked to state the precise meaning of Gray's line:
+
+    And all the air a solemn stillness holds.
+
+In longer and more involved sentences the risk of ambiguity is obviously
+much greater. Now by the judicious use of points ambiguous language can
+occasionally be made clear. "The mothers-of-young-children employed in
+factories" is no doubt a bold form, but it leaves us in no doubt as to
+the meaning. So the ambiguous word "too" does not embarrass us when we
+read: "This problem, too, easy as it may seem, remains unsolved." (See
+other examples under Rules XIV. and XV.) Only occasionally, however,
+can clearness be secured by punctuation. No pointing can help us much in
+Gray's line, or could have given to Pyrrhus the true reading of "Credo
+te Ĉacida Romanos vincere posse." And, even where it would make the
+meaning clear, it is a lazy device, the over-use of which is the sure
+sign of careless or unskilful composition. The true remedy for ambiguity
+is not punctuation, but re-writing.
+
+Punctuation, it is sometimes said, serves to mark the pauses that
+would be made in speaking. This is so far true; for by the pause we
+arrange our spoken words into proper groups, thereby enabling our
+hearers readily to seize the meaning. But between the punctuation of
+the pen and that of the voice there is a great difference in degree.
+By the voice we can express the most delicate shades of thought, while
+only in the roughest way can the comma, the semicolon, and the other
+points, imitate its effects. As to how far the attempt at imitation
+should be carried, every writer will have to use his own discretion;
+but, whether we point freely or sparingly, we must for the reader's
+sake point consistently. It should at the same time be borne in mind
+that the lavish use of points often leads to confusion.
+
+_General Rules._--Keeping in view the use of punctuation, we can now
+form two general rules to guide us when we are in doubt which point we
+should insert, or whether we should insert a point at all.
+
+     (1) _The point that will keep the passage most free from
+     ambiguity, or make it easiest to read, is the right point to
+     use._
+
+     (2) _If the passage be perfectly free from ambiguity and be
+     not less easy to understand without any point, let no point
+     be used._
+
+_The Relativity of Points._--In order to decide in any given case what
+point ought to be used, we begin by considering the nature of the
+pause in itself. But we must do more. We must consider how we have
+pointed the rest of the passage. The pause that should be marked by a
+comma in one case, may require a semicolon in another case; the colon
+may take the place that the semicolon would generally fill. This will
+be best understood by means of the examples that will afterwards be
+given. (See Rules XXIII., XXV.)
+
+_Usage._--Except within somewhat narrow limits, usage does not help us
+much. Different writers have different methods, and few are
+consistent. To some extent there is a fair degree of uniformity; for
+instance, in the placing of colons before quotations, and in the use
+of inverted commas. But in many cases there can hardly be said to be
+any fixed usage, and in these we can freely apply the general rules
+already laid down. Much might be said for a complete disregard of
+usage, for a thorough recasting of our system of punctuation. Sooner
+or later something must be done to relieve the overburdened comma of
+part of the work which it is expected to perform. Not only is the
+comma a less effective point than it might be, but the habit of using
+it for so many purposes is exercising a really mischievous effect on
+English style. In the meantime, and as a step towards a better system,
+there is an evident advantage in giving to the existing vague usage a
+more or less precise form. Nothing more than this has been aimed at in
+the present work.
+
+In giving rules of punctuation we cannot hope to deal with all, or
+with nearly all, the cases that may arise in writing. Punctuation is
+intimately connected with style. As forms of thought are infinite in
+number, so are the modes of expression; and punctuation, adapting
+itself to these, is an instrument capable of manipulation in a
+thousand ways. We can therefore set forth only some typical cases,
+forming a body of examples to which a little reflection will suggest a
+variety both of applications and of exceptions.
+
+It will be noticed that we do not take the points exactly in their
+order of strength. It seemed better to deal with the full stop before
+passing to the punctuation of the parts of a sentence. Again, it may
+be said that, strictly speaking, italics do not form part of the
+subject. But they are at any rate so intimately connected with it that
+to have passed them over would have been merely pedantic. Even the
+sections on references to notes and on the correction of proofs may
+not be considered altogether out of place. As few grammatical terms as
+possible have been made use of. Some have been found necessary in
+order to secure the brevity of statement proper to a little work on a
+little subject.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+THE FULL STOP
+
+
+I. A full stop is placed at the end of every sentence that is neither
+exclamatory nor interrogative.
+
+     A penal statute is virtually annulled if the penalties which
+     it imposes are regularly remitted as often as they are
+     incurred. The sovereign was undoubtedly competent to remit
+     penalties without limit. He was, therefore, competent to
+     annul virtually a penal statute. It might seem that there
+     could be no serious objection to his doing formally what he
+     might do virtually.
+
+How much should be put into a sentence is rather a matter of style
+than of punctuation. The tendency of modern literature is in favour of
+the short sentence. In the prose of Milton and of Jeremy Taylor, the
+full stop does not come to release the thought till all the
+circumstances have been grouped around it, and the necessary
+qualifications made. In Macaulay the circumstances and the
+qualifications are set out sentence by sentence. So the steps of
+reasoning in the example which we have given are stated with that
+distinct pause between each of them which the reader would make if he
+thought them out for himself. They might be welded together thus:
+
+     Seeing that a penal statute is virtually annulled if the
+     penalties which it imposes are regularly remitted as often
+     as they are incurred, and seeing that the sovereign was
+     undoubtedly competent to remit penalties without limit, it
+     follows that he was competent to annul virtually a penal
+     statute; and it might seem that there could be no serious
+     objection to his doing formally what he might do virtually.
+
+Both forms are correct in point of punctuation. Which is the better
+form is a question of style. Take another example:
+
+     The sides of the mountain were covered with trees; the banks
+     of the brooks were diversified with flowers; every blast
+     shook spices from the rocks; and every mouth dropped fruits
+     upon the ground.
+
+There is here an advantage in putting these four statements together,
+instead of making four separate sentences. We can more easily combine
+the details, and so form a single picture--a picture of fertility.
+
+
+II. As a rule the full stop is not to be inserted till the sentence be
+grammatically complete. But some parts of the sentence necessary to
+make it grammatically complete may be left for the reader to supply.
+
+     It is well said, in every sense, that a man's religion is
+     the chief fact with regard to him. A man's or a nation of
+     men's. By religion I do not mean here the church-creed which
+     he professes, the articles of faith which he will sign and,
+     in words or otherwise, assert. Not this wholly, in many
+     cases not this at all.
+
+
+III. When a sentence is purposely left unfinished, the dash takes the
+place of the full stop. (See Rule XL.)
+
+     "Excuse me," said I, "but I am a sort of collector." "Not
+     Income-tax?" cried His Majesty, hastily removing his pipe
+     from his lips.
+
+
+IV. A full stop is placed after most abbreviations, after initial
+letters, and after ordinal numbers in Roman characters.
+
+     Gen. i. 20; two lbs.; A.D. 1883; 3 p.m.; &c., and etc.;
+     M.D., J. S. Mill; William III., King of England; MS., LL.D.
+     (not M.S. and L.L.D.).
+
+Note that the use of the full stop in these cases does not prevent
+another point from being used immediately after it. But if they occur
+at the end of a sentence, another full stop is not added; or, more
+correctly, it may be said that Rule IV. does not apply at the end of a
+sentence.
+
+"Mr," "Messrs," "Dr"--abbreviations which retain the last letter of
+the whole word--are written without a point.
+
+
+
+
+THE COMMA
+
+
+V. The comma indicates a short pause in a sentence. It is used when we
+wish to separate words that stand together, and at the same time to
+stop as little as possible the flow of the sentence.
+
+     When the earl reached his own province, he found that
+     preparations had been made to repel him.
+
+     Though it is difficult, or almost impossible, to reclaim a
+     savage, bred from his youth to war and the chase, to the
+     restraints and the duties of civilized life, nothing is more
+     easy or common than to find men who have been educated in
+     all the habits and comforts of improved society, willing to
+     exchange them for the wild labours of the hunter and the
+     fisher.
+
+
+VI. Where there is no danger of obscurity, the subject must not be
+separated from the predicate by any point.
+
+     The eminence of your station gave you a commanding prospect
+     of your duty.
+
+
+VII. When the subject is long, a comma may be placed after it.
+
+     To say that he endured without a murmur the misfortune that
+     now came upon him, is to say only what his previous life
+     would have led us to expect.
+
+In every sentence the subject, whether expressed in one word or in
+several words, must be grasped as a whole; and, when the subject is
+long, one is often assisted in doing this by having a point to mark
+its termination. The eye at once observes the separating line. Note
+the corresponding pause in the reading of such sentences.
+
+
+VIII. When the subject consists of several parts, _e.g._, of several
+nouns, a comma is placed after the last part.
+
+     A few daring jests, a brawl, and a fatal stab, make up the
+     life of Marlowe.
+
+     Time, money, and friends, were needed to carry on the work.
+
+This rule will appear reasonable if we consider an apparent exception
+to it. When the last noun sums up all the others, or marks the highest
+point of a climax, no comma is placed after it.
+
+     Freedom, honour, religion was at stake.
+
+If "religion" be regarded as marking the highest point of a climax,
+the predicate is read with "religion," and with it alone. When so
+great a thing as religion is said to be at stake, everything else is
+dropped out of sight, or is held to be included. But write the three
+names as if they were of equal importance; the comma should then be
+inserted:
+
+     Freedom, honour, and religion, were at stake.
+
+But it is not necessary to use a point in such a sentence as this:
+"Time and tide wait for no man." For we see without the aid of a point
+that the predicate is to be read with the two nouns equally.
+
+The principle might be applied also in cases like the following,
+though few writers carry it so far:
+
+     It was the act of a high-spirited, generous, just nation.
+
+     It was the act of a high-spirited, generous, and just,
+     nation.
+
+
+IX. Dependent clauses are generally separated from the rest of the
+sentence in which they occur. The usual point is the comma.
+
+     Be his motives what they may, he must soon disperse his
+     followers.
+
+     This relation of your army to the crown will, if I am not
+     greatly mistaken, become a serious dilemma in your politics.
+
+Of course, this rule must be qualified by the rules for the stronger
+points, especially by those for the semicolon and the colon. It is
+often necessary to separate the clause from the rest of the sentence
+by a strong point.
+
+EXCEPTIONS.--(I) No point is needed if either the dependent clause or
+the principal clause be short.
+
+     He would be shocked if he were to know the truth.
+
+But if the dependent clause be inserted parenthetically, it is marked
+off by commas or the other marks of parenthesis, however short it may
+be. (See Rule X.)
+
+If the sentence last quoted were inverted, a comma would be placed
+after the dependent clause.
+
+     If he were to know the truth, he would be shocked.
+
+In the first form of this example, "he would be shocked" is a
+definite, finished statement, the necessary qualification to which
+should follow with as little pause as possible. But in the inverted
+form, the first part of the sentence--"if he were to know the
+truth"--is not a finished statement, and the mind may pause for a
+moment before going on to the consequence, knowing that the
+consequence must follow.
+
+(2) No point is needed if there be a very close grammatical connection
+between the dependent clause and some word or words preceding it.
+
+     They had so long brooded over their own distresses that they
+     knew nothing of how the world was changing around them.
+
+Note that by the word "so" the clause "that they knew nothing" is
+joined very closely to the previous part of the sentence; and that the
+two clauses "that they knew nothing" and "how the world was changing
+around them," are even more closely joined to one another by the
+preposition "of." For the same reason, where the object is a clause,
+there is no point before it.
+
+     He confessed to us that he had not thought over the matter.
+
+A useful distinction will afterwards be drawn between the different
+kinds of relative clauses. (Rule XIV.)
+
+
+X. Words thrown in so as to interrupt slightly the flow of a sentence
+are marked off by commas.
+
+     He resolved, therefore, to visit the prisoner early in the
+     morning.
+
+     This, I think, is the right view of the case.
+
+     The first ideas of beauty formed by the mind are, in all
+     probability, derived from colours.
+
+The following are some of the words and phrases that come under this
+rule: _therefore_, _too_, _indeed_, _however_, _moreover_, _then_,
+_accordingly_, _consequently_; _in short_, _in fine_, _in truth_, _in
+fact_, _to a certain extent_, _all things considered_.
+
+This rule of high pointing should be applied very sparingly, and might
+really be restricted to cases like the "I think" of the second
+example. Nowadays the tendency is against the pointing of such words
+as "therefore" and "indeed."
+
+Where the words thrown in make a very distinct break in the sentence,
+they should be pointed off by means of the dash or of brackets.
+
+
+XI. Where two parts of a sentence have some words in common, which are
+not expressed for each of them, but are given only when the words in
+which they differ have been separately stated, the second part is
+marked off by commas.
+
+     His classification is different from, and more comprehensive
+     than, any other which we have met.
+
+     This foundation is a nursing-mother of lay, as distinguished
+     from religious, oratorios.
+
+These examples come within the principle of Rule X.
+
+
+XII. When words are common to two or more parts of a sentence, and are
+expressed only in one part, a comma is often used to show that they
+are omitted in the other parts.
+
+     London is the capital of England; Paris, of France; Berlin,
+     of Germany.
+
+     In the worst volume of elder date, the historian may find
+     something to assist or direct his enquiries; the
+     antiquarian, something to elucidate what requires
+     illustration; the philologist, something to insert in the
+     margin of his dictionary.
+
+Though many writers constantly punctuate contracted sentences in this
+way, it is well not to insert the comma when the meaning is equally
+clear without it. It is unnecessary in the following sentence:
+
+     Saul hath slain his thousands, and David his ten thousands.
+
+
+XIII. Words placed out of their natural position in the sentence are
+often followed by a comma.
+
+(1) The object is usually placed after the verb; when placed at the
+beginning of the sentence, it should be separated from the subject by
+a comma, unless the meaning would otherwise be perfectly clear and be
+readily seized.
+
+     The proportions of belief and of unbelief in the human mind
+     in such cases, no human judgment can determine.
+
+There is the same reason for inserting the comma in such cases as
+there is for inserting it after a long subject. Moreover, there is
+often need of some device to remove the ambiguities that are caused by
+inversion. In English, the meaning of words is so greatly determined
+by their position that, in altering the usual arrangement of a
+sentence, there is risk of being misunderstood. The danger of
+inserting the point in this case is that the object may be read with
+the words going before, and not with its own verb. If there is a
+possibility of this, the point should not be used.
+
+Of course no point should be placed after the object in such a
+sentence as the following:--"One I love, and the other I hate."
+
+(2) An adverbial phrase, that is a phrase used as an adverb, is
+usually placed after the verb; when it begins the sentence, a comma
+follows it unless it is very short.
+
+     From the ridge a little way to the east, one can easily
+     trace the windings of the river.
+
+     In order to gain his point, he did not hesitate to use
+     deception.
+
+     In ordinary circumstances I should have acted differently.
+
+No point would be used in the above sentences, if the adverbial
+phrases occurred in their usual position.
+
+     He did not hesitate to use deception in order to gain his
+     point.
+
+Nor is any point used when, as often happens in such sentences, the
+verb precedes the subject.
+
+     Not very far from the foot of the mountain lies the village
+     we hope to reach.
+
+(3) An adjective phrase, that is a phrase used as an adjective, is
+usually placed immediately after the word which it qualifies; when it
+appears in any other place, a comma is often usefully placed before
+it.
+
+     A question was next put to the assembly, of supreme
+     importance at such a moment.
+
+The phrase "of supreme importance at such a moment" is to be taken
+along with "question"; the comma shows that it is not to be taken
+along with "assembly." There is here a further reason for the point,
+inasmuch as the phrase acquires from its position almost the
+importance of an independent statement. But, where the connexion
+between the adjective phrase and the substantive is very close, and
+where there is no risk of ambiguity, no point is to be used. "The
+morning was come of a mighty day"--such a sentence needs no point.
+Observe also that co-ordinate adjective phrases take a comma before
+them, wherever they are placed. (See next rule.)
+
+
+XIV. Adjective clauses and contracted adjective clauses are marked off
+by commas, if they are used parenthetically or co-ordinately; no point
+is used if they are used restrictively.[1]
+
+     The "Religio Laici," which borrows its title from the
+     "Religio Medici" of Browne, is almost the only work of
+     Dryden which can be considered as a voluntary effusion.
+
+     That sentiment of homely benevolence was worth all the
+     splendid sayings that are recorded of kings.
+
+     The advocates for this revolution, not satisfied with
+     exaggerating the vices of their ancient government, strike
+     at the fame of their country itself.
+
+     The ships bound on these voyages were not advertised.
+
+     Chapter VII., where we stopped reading, is full of interest.
+
+     The chapter where we stopped reading is full of interest.
+
+We must explain this distinction at some length; for, on the one hand,
+it is hardly ever observed, and, on the other hand, almost every
+sentence that we write furnishes an example of it.
+
+[Footnote 1: To distinguish the different kinds of adjective clauses,
+different names have been used: "co-ordinating" and "restrictive"
+(Bain); "continuative" and "definitive," or "restrictive" (Mason).]
+
+Examine the first sentence which we have quoted. It contains both a
+co-ordinate clause, "Which borrows its title," &c., and a restrictive
+clause, "Which can be considered as a voluntary effusion." In
+distinguishing them we may begin by applying tests of almost a
+mechanical nature.
+
+(_a_) The first clause may be thrown into the form of an independent
+statement; the second cannot. Thus: "The 'Religio Laici' borrows its
+title from the 'Religio Medici' of Browne. It is almost the only
+work," &c.; or, "The 'Religio Laici' (it borrows its title from the
+'Religio Medici' of Browne) is almost the only work," &c. We cannot in
+the same way destroy the close connexion of the second clause with
+"the only work of Dryden."
+
+(_b_) The first clause may be omitted and still leave a complete and
+intelligent sentence; if we were to omit the second clause, the
+sentence would cease to have any meaning.
+
+These tests may be practically useful; but they are rough and by no
+means infallible. Let us see the reason for the distinction.
+
+The name "Religio Laici" of itself tells us what thing is spoken
+about. It is the name of one thing, and only of one thing. The clause
+that follows informs us, indeed, of a fact concerning the poem; but
+the information is given purely as information, not in order to keep
+us from confounding this "Religio Laici" with some other "Religio
+Laici" that did not borrow its title. "Work of Dryden," however, is
+the name of a class, for Dryden wrote many works. Now the whole class
+is not here in question; it must be limited, narrowed, or restricted,
+to one part of it, namely Dryden's voluntary effusions; and it is thus
+limited, narrowed, or restricted, by the relative clause "which can be
+considered as a voluntary effusion."
+
+Take another example, where the name in both cases is that of a class,
+and note the difference of meaning which results from different
+pointing:--"The houses in London which are badly built, ought to be
+pulled down." "The houses in London" expresses a class of objects; the
+relative clause limits the name to a smaller class, the badly built
+houses; and the meaning is, that houses of this smaller class ought to
+be pulled down. Now insert the comma:--"The houses in London, which
+are badly built, ought to be pulled down." The class is not narrowed;
+and the meaning is, that all houses in London, seeing they are badly
+built, ought to be pulled down.
+
+The difference between the two kinds of relative clauses being
+understood, there will be no difficulty in applying the rule where an
+adjective clause is contracted. Compare the fourth example given under
+the rule with the following sentence:--"People not satisfied with
+their present condition, should strive to alter it." In this sentence
+"not satisfied" limits the general name "people"; the advice is given
+only to one section of the people: the dissatisfied as distinguished
+from the satisfied people.
+
+So a single adjective may be used co-ordinately:
+
+     "What!" replied the Emperor, "you do not see it? It is my
+     star, brilliant."
+
+This is a case where a dash would be more expressive.
+
+Note that the rule applies only where the adjunct immediately follows
+the substantive. If the adjunct is placed elsewhere, different
+considerations apply. See Rule XIII. (3).
+
+     Neither can any man marvel at the play of puppets, that
+     goeth behind the curtain and adviseth well of the motion.
+
+
+XV. Words in apposition are generally marked off by commas.
+
+     James Watt, the great improver of the steam-engine, died on
+     the 25th of August, 1819.
+
+But where the words in apposition are used in a limiting or
+distinguishing sense, the principle of Rule XIV. applies, and no point
+is used. Thus we should write "Burns, the poet," "Dickens, the
+novelist"; but, if we wished to distinguish them from another Burns
+and another Dickens, we should omit the comma.
+
+     It is of Pliny the naturalist, not of Pliny the
+     letter-writer, that we are now speaking.
+
+Again, where the general name precedes, we should in most cases use no
+point, for the special name will be restrictive: "the poet Burns,"
+"the novelist Dickens."
+
+There is, perhaps, not much authority for the consistent carrying out
+of this distinction; but it seems useful and logical. Some cases, such
+as "Paul the Apostle," "William the Conqueror," "Thomas the Rhymer,"
+"Peter the Hermit," present no difficulty. The name and the
+descriptive title are blended together, and form as distinctly one
+name as does "Roderick Random."
+
+
+XVI. A conjunction marks a transition to something new--enforcing,
+qualifying, or explaining, what has gone before, and is therefore
+generally preceded by some point. The proper point before a
+conjunction is determined by many circumstances: among others, by the
+more or less close connexion of the things joined, by the number of
+words, and by the use of points for other purposes in the same
+sentence. To deal with the different conjunctions one by one, would
+involve a repetition of much that is said in other rules. For
+instance, _if_, _unless_, _though_, _for_, _because_, _since_, and the
+like, will be pointed in accordance with Rule IX. It will be well,
+however, to lay down separate rules for the pointing of the common
+conjunctions, _and_ and _or_.
+
+1. _AND._--(a) Where "and" joins two single words, as a rule no point
+is used.
+
+     No work has been so much studied and discussed.
+
+Compare this with the following sentence, where groups of words are
+joined.
+
+     The work has been much studied, and has been much discussed.
+
+In the following sentence the insertion of a comma would change the
+meaning.
+
+     On this shelf you will put books and pamphlets published in
+     the present year.
+
+As the sentence stands, "published in the present year" applies both
+to books and to pamphlets: books published in the present year, and
+pamphlets published in the present year. If there were a comma before
+"and," the meaning would be: "On this shelf you will put books of any
+date, and pamphlets of the present year."
+
+(b) When "and" joins the separate words of a series of three or more
+words, a comma is placed before it.
+
+     Trees, and bridges, and houses, were swept down by the
+     flooded stream.
+
+(c) But where the different words are intended to be combined quickly,
+so as to present to the mind only one picture, they would be spoken
+without any pause, and in writing must not be separated by any point.
+
+     Whirling and boiling and roaring like thunder, the stream
+     came down upon them.
+
+(d) Two of the words of the series may be more closely connected with
+one another than with the other words of the series, and are,
+therefore, not to be separated by any point.
+
+In the following sentence, "all" qualifies both "tracts" and
+"pamphlets," and thus joins them closely.
+
+     My unbound books, and all my tracts and pamphlets, are to be
+     tied up with pink tape.
+
+(e) When "and" occurs only between the two last words of the series,
+the comma is usually inserted before it.
+
+     Trumpets, drums, and kettle-drums, contended in noise with
+     the shouts of a numerous rabble.
+
+Many writers omit this comma. But it seems useful in order to make the
+previous rule (_d_) effective.
+
+2. When "and" joins two phrases, a comma generally precedes it.
+
+     The ceremony was performed in the accustomed manner, and
+     with due solemnity.
+
+If, as in the following sentence, a preposition is common to two
+phrases, and is not repeated in the second, no comma is used.
+
+     With proper care and good instruments, the work may be
+     successfully carried out.
+
+3. When "and" joins two clauses, the preceding point may be the
+comma, the semicolon, or even the full stop. Which point is right in
+any particular case, will depend upon considerations set out in other
+rules.
+
+The following example illustrates different cases:
+
+     Within that charmed rock, so Torridge boatmen tell, sleeps
+     now the old Norse Viking in his leaden coffin, with all his
+     fairy treasure and his crown of gold; and, as the boy looks
+     at the spot, he fancies, and almost hopes, that the day may
+     come when he shall have to do his duty against the invader
+     as boldly as the men of Devon did then. And past him, far
+     below, upon the soft south-eastern breeze, the stately ships
+     go sliding out to sea.
+
+_OR._--The rules for the conjunction "and" apply with little change to
+the conjunction "or"; but there are one or two special points to note.
+
+(a) When "or" is preceded at no great distance by "either" or
+"whether," the two words should be separated by no point.
+
+     They must either yield this point or resign.
+
+     It does not matter whether we go or stay.
+
+But a point is inserted if the words stand farther apart, or if each
+is followed by a complete clause.
+
+     Either this road leads to the town, or we have misunderstood
+     the directions.
+
+(b) "Or," joining two alternatives, takes no point before it; but when
+it joins two words that are used, not as real alternatives, but as
+synonyms, a comma is inserted.
+
+     England or France might be asked to join the alliance.
+
+Here "or" is used as a real alternative conjecture, and therefore
+without any point. In the following examples, the "or" joins
+equivalent expressions:
+
+     England, or the nation of shopkeepers, would never be asked
+     to join such an alliance.
+
+     We perceive, or are conscious of, nothing but changes, or
+     events.
+
+As a reason for the insertion of the comma in these two examples, it
+may be said that the repetition of an idea already expressed does for
+a moment stop the flow of the sentence. A real alternative, on the
+other hand, forms an essential part of it, and is within its current.
+
+
+XVII. In cases where no point would be used before a conjunction, a
+comma is inserted if the conjunction be omitted.
+
+     I pay this tribute to the memory of that noble, reverend,
+     learned, excellent person.
+
+In the following examples no point occurs; for it cannot be said that
+a conjunction is omitted. To insert the conjunction would be to
+express a slightly different shade of meaning:
+
+     A grand old man.
+
+     Three tall young soldiers.
+
+"Old man" is virtually a single word and in fact many languages use
+only a single word to express the idea.
+
+
+XVIII. Where a comma would be used if the conjunction were expressed,
+some stronger point may be used if it be omitted.
+
+     Let us get an American revenue as we have got an American
+     Empire. English privileges have made it all that it is;
+     English privileges alone will make it all that it can be.
+
+
+XIX. A comma is placed after a noun or a pronoun in the vocative case,
+if a mark of exclamation be not used, or be reserved till the first
+distinct pause in the sentence.
+
+     Yet I own, my lord, that yours is not an uncommon character.
+
+     I am, Sir, yours truly, John Smith.
+
+     O Italy, gather thy blood into thy heart!
+
+     O Thou, who in the heavens dost dwell!
+
+Whether a comma or a mark of exclamation ought to be used after the
+vocative case, depends entirely on the degree of emphasis with which
+the words would be spoken. If, in speaking, a slight pause would be
+made, the comma, not the mark of exclamation, is the proper point.
+
+
+XX. If a word be repeated in order to give it intensive force, a comma
+follows it each time that it occurs; but, in the case of an adjective
+repeated before a noun, not after the last expression of it.
+
+     It was work, work, work, from morning till night.
+
+     He travelled a long, long way.
+
+Dean Alford, in "The Queen's English," says that this mode of pointing
+such expressions as "the wide wide world," "the deep deep sea," makes
+them absolute nonsense. The suggestion of a pause seems to us to bring
+out more effectively the intensive force of the repetition. And we
+doubt whether Dean Alford himself would have omitted the comma in our
+first example.
+
+
+
+
+THE SEMICOLON
+
+
+XXI. The semicolon is the point usually employed to separate parts of
+a sentence between which there is a very distinct break, but which are
+too intimately connected to be made separate sentences.
+
+     The patient dates his pleasure from the day when he feels
+     that his cure has begun; and, perhaps, the day of his
+     perfect re-establishment does not yield him pleasure so
+     great.
+
+     The author himself is the best judge of his own performance;
+     no one has so deeply meditated on the subject; no one is so
+     sincerely interested in the event.
+
+     Not one word is said, nor one suggestion made, of a general
+     right to choose our own governors; to cashier them for
+     misconduct; and to form a government for ourselves.
+
+The semicolon is used in enumerations, as in the last example, in
+order to keep the parts more distinctly separate.
+
+
+XXII. When a sentence consists of two or more independent clauses not
+joined by conjunctions, the clauses are separated by semicolons.
+
+     To command a crime is to commit one; he who commands an
+     assassination, is by every one regarded as an assassin.
+
+     His knowledge was too multifarious to be always exact; his
+     pursuits were too eager to be always cautious.
+
+If the conjunction "and" were inserted in the last sentence, the comma
+would be used instead of the semicolon. A conjunction forms a bridge
+over the gap between two statements, and, where they are neither long
+nor complicated, we pass from one to the other without noticing any
+distinct break. But there is such a break when the conjunction is
+omitted, and therefore we use a stronger point. The two parts of an
+antithesis are generally separated in this way.
+
+
+XXIII. A pause generally indicated by a comma may be indicated by a
+semicolon when commas are used in the sentence for other purposes.
+(See _Introduction: Relativity of Points_.)
+
+     I got several things of less value, but not all less useful
+     to me, which I omitted setting down before: as, in
+     particular, pens, ink, and paper; several parcels in the
+     captain's, mate's, gunner's, and carpenter's keeping; three
+     or four compasses, some mathematical instruments, dials,
+     perspectives, charts, and books of navigation.
+
+     In this I was certainly in the wrong too, the honest,
+     grateful creature having no thought but what consisted of
+     the best principles, both as a religious Christian and as a
+     grateful friend; as appeared afterward to my full
+     satisfaction.
+
+In the first sentence the semicolon enables us to group the objects
+enumerated. Had commas been used throughout, the reader would have
+been left to find out the arrangement for himself.
+
+
+
+
+THE COLON
+
+
+XXIV. The colon is used to indicate pauses more abrupt than those
+indicated by the semicolon.
+
+     God has willed it: submit in thankfulness.
+
+     The wind raged, and the rain beat against the window: it was
+     a miserable day.
+
+     Nevertheless, you will say that there must be a difference
+     between true poetry and true speech not poetical: what is
+     the difference?
+
+The first example contains two clauses that are connected in such a
+way as to justify us in putting them into one sentence; that it is
+God's will, is a reason for submitting. The proper point therefore
+should be something less than the full stop. But there is a striking
+difference between the clauses; for we pass from an affirmation to a
+command. Therefore something more than the semicolon is needed. Had
+the clauses been similar in construction, the pause would have been
+sufficiently indicated by the semicolon: "God has willed it; man has
+resisted."
+
+In the second example there is not the same change of grammatical
+construction, but the change in thought is equally great; we pass from
+a statement of details to a statement of the general result. The colon
+is frequently used in sentences of this kind, where the phrase "in
+short" is implied but is not expressed.
+
+Many writers indicate such abrupt changes by means of the dash.
+
+
+XXV. A pause generally indicated by a semicolon may be indicated by a
+colon, when the semicolon is used in the sentence for pauses of a
+different nature.
+
+     The "Essay" plainly appears the fabric of a poet: what
+     Bolingbroke supplied could be only the first principles; the
+     order, illustration, and embellishments, must all be Pope's.
+
+     Not that we are to think that Homer wanted judgment, because
+     Virgil had it in a more eminent degree; or that Virgil
+     wanted invention, because Homer possessed a larger share of
+     it: each of these great authors had more of both than,
+     perhaps, any man besides, and are only said to have less in
+     comparison with one another.
+
+     Homer hurries and transports us with a commanding
+     impetuosity; Virgil leads us with an attractive majesty:
+     Homer scatters with a generous profusion; Virgil bestows
+     with a careful magnificence.
+
+Compare these examples with those given to show how the semicolon
+replaces the comma. (Rule XXIII.) Note also how the last sentence is
+divided in the middle into two parts, and that each of these two parts
+is itself divided into two parts. By Rule XXII. the second division is
+indicated by the semicolon; and we bring out the grouping of the
+sentence by using a colon for the first division.
+
+
+XXVI. The colon is used before enumerations, especially where
+"namely," or "viz.," is implied but is not expressed; and when so used
+it is sometimes followed by the dash.
+
+     Three nations adopted this law: England, France, and
+     Germany.
+
+     One thing thou lackest: go thy way, sell whatsoever thou
+     hast, and give to the poor.
+
+     Dr Johnson's chief works are the following:--"Rasselas," The
+     Dictionary, "The Lives of the Poets," and "The Vanity of
+     Human Wishes."
+
+When, as in the last example, a list of things is given in a formal
+way, the dash is generally added. The combination of the two points is
+partly an attempt to find a point stronger than the colon and not so
+strong as the full stop, partly, perhaps, an imitation of a
+finger-post.
+
+
+XXVII. The colon is generally placed before a quotation, when notice
+of the quotation is given by some introductory words. In this case
+also the dash is sometimes used.
+
+     In this passage exception may fairly be taken to one short
+     sentence, that in which he says: "The law ought to forbid
+     it, because conscience does not permit it."
+
+     On the last morning of his life he wrote these words:--"I
+     have named none to their disadvantage. I thank God He hath
+     supported me wonderfully."
+
+The colon and the dash are used together where the quotation is
+introduced by formal words such as the following:--"He spoke these
+words," "he spoke as follows," "he made this speech." But, in the
+first sentence quoted above, the introductory words are grammatically
+incomplete without the quotation, which forms the object of the verb
+"says"; the colon accordingly is the strongest point that can be used.
+Sometimes the connexion between the introductory words and the
+quotation may be so close, or the quotation itself may be so short, as
+to make the comma sufficient.
+
+     He kept repeating to us, "The world has sadly changed."
+
+Short phrases quoted in the course of the sentence need not have any
+point before them.
+
+     It was a usual saying of his own, that he had "no genius for
+     friendship."
+
+
+XXVIII. The colon may be placed after such words and phrases as the
+following, when used in marking a new stage in an argument:--Again,
+further, to proceed, to sum up, to resume.
+
+     To sum up: If you will conform to the conditions I have
+     mentioned, I will sign the agreement.
+
+     But to bring this sermon to its proper conclusion: If
+     Astrea, or Justice, never finally took her leave of the
+     world till the day that, &c.
+
+After these words, we have a choice of the comma, the colon, and the
+full stop. The comma will generally be used if the argument be
+contained in a single sentence; the full stop, if the argument be of
+very considerable length.
+
+
+
+
+THE POINT OF INTERROGATION
+
+
+XXIX. The point of interrogation is placed after a direct question.
+
+     Where are you going, my pretty maid?
+
+     Whether of them twain did the will of his father?
+
+The question may end in the middle of a sentence:
+
+     Is he happy? you ask.
+
+We have sometimes the choice of putting the point of interrogation in
+the middle or at the end of the sentence.
+
+     You would not consent to that, by whomsoever proposed.
+
+     You would not consent to that?--by whomsoever proposed.
+
+There is a slight shade of difference in meaning; in the second form,
+"by whomsoever proposed" is added as an afterthought.
+
+
+XXX. Indirect questions are not strictly questions at all, and
+therefore should not be followed by a point of interrogation.
+
+     He asked me whether I had seen his friend; whether I had
+     spoken to him; and how I liked him.
+
+If we restore these questions to the direct form, the point of
+interrogation is inserted.
+
+     He asked me: "Have you seen my friend? Have you spoken to
+     him? How do you like him?"
+
+
+XXXI. When a sentence contains more than one question, sometimes the
+point of interrogation is placed after each of them, sometimes it is
+placed only at the end of the sentence. It is placed after each, if
+each is in reality a distinct question; it is placed only at the end,
+if the separate questions so unite as to need but a single answer.
+
+In many cases it will be a matter of individual taste to say whether
+they do so unite.
+
+     Is it better that estates should be held by those who have
+     no duty than by those who have one? by those whose character
+     and destination point to virtues than by those who have no
+     rule and direction in the expenditure of their estates but
+     their own will and appetite?
+
+     Do you imagine that it is the Land Tax Act which raises your
+     revenue, that it is the annual vote in the Committee of
+     Supply which gives you your army, or that it is the Mutiny
+     Bill which inspires it with bravery and discipline? No!
+     surely no!
+
+         Oh! why should Hymen ever blight
+           The roses Cupid wore?
+         Or why should it be ever night
+           Where it was day before?
+         Or why should women have a tongue,
+           Or why should it be cursed,
+         In being, like my Second, long,
+           And louder than my First?
+
+
+XXXII. Exclamations in an interrogative form take a mark of
+exclamation after them, not a point of interrogation. (See Rule XXXV.)
+
+
+XXXIII. A point of interrogation enclosed within brackets is sometimes
+used to indicate that there is a doubt whether the statement preceding
+it is true, or whether the expression preceding it is well applied,
+or that some statement or expression is made or used ironically.
+
+     While you are revelling in the delights (?) of the London
+     season, I am leading a hermit life, with no companions save
+     my books.
+
+
+
+
+THE MARK OF EXCLAMATION
+
+
+XXXIV. The mark of exclamation is placed after interjections and words
+used interjectionally; that is to say, after expressions of an
+exclamatory nature. The exclamation may be one of surprise or of fear,
+or the utterance of a wish, a command, or a prayer.
+
+     Quick! Begone! Out of my sight!
+
+     Heaven preserve us!
+
+     Would that better feelings moved them!
+
+     O Lord, be merciful unto me, a sinner!
+
+Interjections are not always followed immediately, and are sometimes
+not allowed at all, by a mark of exclamation. No rule can be given
+more precise than this: (1) That we should not insert a mark of
+exclamation immediately after an interjection, unless we should make a
+distinct pause after it in speaking; and (2) that no mark of
+exclamation is to be used at all, unless the exclamatory nature of the
+sentence is more or less strongly marked. It is useful to notice the
+difference between "O" and "Oh." The former is used only before the
+vocative case, and never has a mark of exclamation, or indeed any
+point, placed immediately after it.
+
+    Alas! all our hopes are blasted.
+    Lo, he cometh!
+      O Dido, Dido, most unhappy Dido!
+      Unhappy wife, still more unhappy widow!
+    Oh, do not reckon that old debt to my account to-day!
+
+
+XXXV. The mark of exclamation is placed after sentences which, though
+interrogatory in form, are really exclamatory.
+
+     How could he have been so foolish!
+
+     And shall he never see an end to this state of things! Shall
+     he never have the due reward of labour! Shall unsparing
+     taxation never cease to make him a miserable dejected being,
+     a creature famishing in the midst of abundance, fainting,
+     expiring with hunger's feeble moan, surrounded by a
+     carolling creation!
+
+This rule might be put in another way by saying that a mark of
+exclamation, and not a point of interrogation, is placed after what
+are called rhetorical questions, or statements made more striking by
+being put in the form of questions. They are not asked for the sake of
+receiving a direct answer, and are in reality exclamations. Still all
+rhetorical questions are not thus punctuated; the point of
+interrogation is sometimes more effective. The sentences quoted under
+Rule XXXI. would lose much of their force if marks of exclamation were
+used. In each case we must decide whether the sentence strikes us most
+as a question or as the expression of emotion.
+
+
+XXXVI. The mark of exclamation is sometimes placed after an ironical
+statement.
+
+     They did not fight, tens against thousands; they did not
+     fight for wives and children, but for lands and plunder:
+     therefore they are heroes!
+
+The mark of exclamation keeps up the semblance of seriousness which is
+of the essence of irony.
+
+
+XXXVII. The mark of exclamation is placed after the statement of some
+absurdity.
+
+     He has been labouring to prove that Shakespeare's plays were
+     written by Bacon!
+
+     To him the parliamentary vote was a panacea for all human
+     ills, and the ballot-box an object as sacred as the Holy
+     Grail to a knight of the Round Table!
+
+The same reason applies to its use after such sentences as after
+ironical statements.
+
+
+XXXVIII. The mark of exclamation may be placed after any impressive or
+striking thought.
+
+     The Angel of Death has been abroad throughout the land: you
+     may almost hear the very beating of his wings!
+
+It may be doubted whether the mark of exclamation is in such cases of
+any great service; for the impressiveness of a sentence ought to
+appear in the sentence itself, or to be given to it by the context.
+There is a real danger, as the style of many people shows, in thinking
+that punctuation is intended to save the trouble of careful
+composition. In putting the mark after pure exclamations, usage is
+more or less uniform; with regard to impressive sentences, we are left
+entirely to our own discretion.
+
+
+XXXIX. When a sentence contains more than one exclamation, sometimes
+the mark of exclamation is placed only after the last, sometimes it is
+placed after each of them, the test being whether or not they are in
+reality, as well as in form, several exclamations. (Compare Rule
+XXXI.)
+
+     Though all are thus satisfied with the dispensations of
+     Nature, how few listen to her voice! how few follow her as a
+     guide!
+
+     What a mighty work he has thus brought to a successful end,
+     with what perseverance, what energy, with what fruitfulness
+     of resource!
+
+
+
+
+THE DASH
+
+
+XL. The chief purpose of the dash is to indicate that something is
+left unfinished. Accordingly, it marks a sudden, or abrupt, change in
+the grammatical structure of a sentence.
+
+     When I remember how we have worked together, and together
+     borne misfortune; when I remember--but what avails it to
+     remember?
+
+     And all this long story was about--what do you think?
+
+     "We cannot hope to succeed, unless----" "But we must succeed."
+
+Note that it is the long dash that is used at the end of a sentence.
+
+The full stop is not added where the dash marks an unfinished
+sentence. But it is common to add the point of interrogation or the
+mark of exclamation.
+
+
+XLI. The dash is used to mark a faltering or hesitating speech.
+
+     Well--I don't know--that is--no, I cannot accept it.
+
+
+XLII. An unexpected turn of the thought may be marked by the dash.
+
+     He entereth smiling and--embarrassed. He holdeth out his
+     hand to you to shake, and--draweth it back again. He
+     casually looketh in about dinner-time--when the table is
+     full. He offereth to go away, seeing you have company--but
+     is induced to stay.
+
+     French history tends naturally to memoirs and anecdotes, in
+     which there is no improvement to desire but that they
+     were--true.
+
+
+XLIII. When the subject of a sentence is of such length, or of such
+complexity, that its connexion with the verb might easily be lost
+sight of, it is sometimes left hanging in the sentence, and its place
+supplied by some short expression that sums it up. A dash follows the
+subject when thus abandoned.
+
+     Physical Science, including Chemistry, Geology, Geography,
+     Astronomy; Metaphysics, Philology, Theology; Economics,
+     including Taxation and Finance; Politics and General
+     Literature--all occupied by turn, and almost simultaneously,
+     his incessantly active mind.
+
+The colon is sometimes used in such cases; but the dash seems
+preferable, as it is the point that marks a change in the structure of
+a sentence.
+
+
+XLIV. The dash is sometimes used instead of brackets before and after
+a parenthesis.
+
+     This was amongst the strongest pledges for thy truth, that
+     never once--no, not for a moment of weakness--didst thou
+     revel in the vision of coronets and honour from man.
+
+
+XLV. The dash is sometimes used instead of the colon, where the word
+"namely" is implied, but is not expressed.
+
+     The most extreme example of such theories is perhaps to be
+     found in the attempt to distribute all law under the two
+     great commandments--love to God, and love to one's
+     neighbour.
+
+In this sentence, however, the colon is preferable. (See Rule XXVI.).
+The dash should be used for this purpose only when it is necessary to
+use the colon in the same sentence for other purposes.
+
+
+XLVI. The dash is used in rhetorical repetition; for instance, where
+one part of the sentence, such as the subject, is repeated at
+intervals throughout the sentence, and the rest of the sentence is
+kept suspended.
+
+     Cannot you, in England--cannot you, at this time of
+     day--cannot you, a House of Commons, trust to the principle
+     which has raised so mighty a revenue?
+
+
+XLVII. A dash following a full stop occurs between the side-heading of
+a paragraph and the paragraph itself.
+
+     _Extent and Boundaries._--England (including Wales) is
+     bounded on the north by Scotland; on the west by the Irish
+     Sea, St George's Channel, and the Atlantic Ocean; on the
+     south by the English Channel; and on the east by the German
+     Ocean.
+
+
+XLVIII. When we place after a quotation the name of the author from
+whom it is taken, the full stop and the dash are used in the same way.
+
+     "One touch of nature makes the whole word
+     kin."--_Shakespeare._
+
+
+XLIX. The dash is sometimes used in place of, or in addition to,
+other points, in order to indicate a pause greater than usual.
+
+     Now where is the revenue which is to do all these mighty
+     things? Five-sixths repealed--abandoned-sunk--gone--lost for
+     ever.
+
+     The highest rank;--a splendid fortune;--and a name, glorious
+     till it was yours,--were sufficient to have supported you
+     with meaner abilities than I think you possess.
+
+There is seldom any reason for the use of double points. In the last
+example they cannot be said to be of any real service. But the dash
+may sometimes be rightly employed in addition to the full stop, in
+order to mark a division of discourse midway between the sentence and
+the paragraph. Even Cobbett, who abhors the dash, permits it to be
+used for this purpose. The report of a conversation is often printed
+in this way.
+
+
+
+
+BRACKETS (OR THE PARENTHESIS.[1])
+
+
+L. When a clause not strictly belonging to a sentence is thrown in, so
+to speak, in passing, the clause is enclosed within brackets.
+
+[Footnote 1: It seems better to use the term "brackets" both for the
+curved and for the square brackets. "Parenthesis" can then be kept to
+its proper use, as the name for the words themselves which form the
+break in the sentence. We may note that in like manner the terms
+"comma," "colon," "semicolon," originally signified divisions of a
+sentence, not marks denoting the divisions. "Period" meant a complete
+sentence; and it still retains the meaning, somewhat specialized.]
+
+     It is said, because the priests are paid by the people (the
+     pay is four shillings per family yearly), therefore they
+     object to their leaving.
+
+     In full confidence of this unalterable truth, I now (_quod
+     felix faustumque sit_) lay the first stone of the Temple of
+     Peace.
+
+Over and above the enclosing brackets, a parenthesis causes no change
+in the punctuation of the sentence that contains it; in other words,
+if we were to omit the parenthesis, no change ought to be necessary in
+the punctuation of the rest of the sentence. The comma is inserted
+after the parenthesis in the first example, because the comma would be
+needed even if there were no parenthesis.
+
+In the second example, there would be no comma before "lay," if there
+were no parenthesis; accordingly the comma is not to be inserted
+merely because there is a parenthesis. A parenthesis is sufficiently
+marked off by brackets.
+
+Observe also that the comma in the first example is placed after, not
+before, the parenthesis. The reason for this is that the parenthesis
+belongs to the first part of the sentence, not to the second.
+
+
+LI. A complete sentence occurring parenthetically in a paragraph is
+sometimes placed within brackets.
+
+     Godfrey knew all this, and felt it with the greater force
+     because he had constantly suffered annoyance from witnessing
+     his father's sudden fits of unrelentingness, for which his
+     own habitual irresolution deprived him of all sympathy. (He
+     was not critical on the faulty indulgence which preceded
+     these fits; _that_ seemed to him natural enough.) Still
+     there was just the chance, Godfrey thought, that his
+     father's pride might see this marriage in a light that would
+     induce him to hush it up, rather than turn his son out and
+     make the family the talk of the country for ten miles round.
+
+Note that the full stop should be placed inside, not outside, the
+brackets.
+
+
+LII. Where, in quoting a passage, we throw in parenthetically
+something of our own, we may use square brackets.
+
+     Compare the following account of Lord Palmerston: "I have
+     heard him [Lord Palmerston] say that he occasionally found
+     that they [foreign ministers] had been deceived by the open
+     manner in which he told them the truth."
+
+     "The _Leviathan_ of Hobbes, a work now-a-days but little
+     known [and not better known now than in Bentham's time], and
+     detested through prejudice, and at second-hand, as a defence
+     of despotism, is an attempt to base all political society
+     upon a pretended contract between the people and the
+     sovereign."--_Principles of Legislation._
+
+To use the square brackets in this way is often more convenient than
+to break the inverted commas and to begin them again. But in the case
+of the word _sic_--where it is inserted in a quotation to point out
+that the word preceding it is rightly quoted, and is not inserted by
+mistake--the ordinary brackets are used.
+
+     "The number of inhabitants were (_sic_) not more than four
+     millions."
+
+Another case may be mentioned in which the square brackets are used:
+where in the passage quoted some words have been lost, and are filled
+in by conjecture. Prof. Stubbs quotes from one of the Anglo-Saxon
+laws:
+
+     "If ceorls have a common meadow, or other partible land to
+     fence, and some have fenced their part, some have not, and
+     [strange cattle come in and] eat up the common corn or
+     grass, let those go who own the gap and compensate to the
+     others."
+
+
+
+
+INVERTED COMMAS
+
+
+LIII. When we quote without any change the words of another person,
+they are enclosed within inverted commas. If they are quoted in the
+indirect form, or if we quote merely the substance, and neglect the
+exact words, inverted commas are not used.
+
+     Thereupon the mob bursts in and inquires, "What are you
+     doing for the people?"
+
+     Thereupon the mob bursts in and inquires what you are doing
+     for the people.
+
+     He says: "There is no property of any description, if it be
+     rightfully held, which had not its foundation in labour."
+
+     He frequently calls them "absurd," and applies to them such
+     epithets as "jargon," "fustian," and the like.
+
+The last sentence might be written without inverted commas. By using
+them we call special attention to the fact that these were the words
+actually employed, and are not simply words like them.
+
+So, in a passage quoted in the indirect form, if part be quoted
+exactly, it is placed within inverted commas.
+
+     The Duke of Portland warmly approved of the work, but justly
+     remarked that the king was not "so absolute a thing of
+     straw" as he was represented in it.
+
+Words referred to simply as words are either placed within inverted
+commas or put in italics.
+
+     The word "friendship," in the sense we commonly mean by it,
+     is not so much as named in the New Testament.
+
+
+LIV. When a quotation is interrupted, as in the report of a
+conversation, each continuous part of the quotation is enclosed within
+inverted commas.
+
+     "Pardon me, madam," answered Henry, "it was of one Silas
+     Morton I spoke."
+
+
+LV. When a quotation occurs in another quotation, single inverted
+commas are used for the former.
+
+     "What have you done?" said one of Balfour's brother
+     officers. "My duty," said Balfour firmly. "Is it not
+     written, 'Thou shalt be zealous even to slaying'?"
+
+Some writers use the single commas in ordinary cases. For the inner
+quotation they would then use the double commas.
+
+
+LVI. A word that is not classical English, or is used in a sense in
+which it is not classical English, is either enclosed within inverted
+commas or italicized.
+
+     Those that have "located" (_located_) previous to this
+     period are left in undisputed possession, provided they have
+     improved the land.
+
+     Before long, Beckey received not only "the best" foreigners
+     (as the phrase is in our noble and admirable society slang),
+     but some of "the best" English people too.
+
+Foreign words are always italicized. (Rule LXIV.)
+
+
+LVII. The titles of books, of essays, and of other compositions; the
+names of periodicals; and the names of ships, are either enclosed
+within inverted commas or italicized.
+
+     In these "Miscellanies" was first published the "Art of
+     Sinking in Poetry," which, by such a train of consequences
+     as usually passes in literary quarrels, gave in a short
+     time, according to Pope's account, occasion to the
+     "Dunciad."
+
+     The "Emily St Pierre" (or _Emily St Pierre_), a British
+     ship, was captured on the 18th March, 1862.
+
+     It appeared in the "London Gazette" (or _London Gazette_).
+
+The names of periodicals and of ships are more often written in
+italics than enclosed within inverted commas.
+
+
+LVIII. If a quotation contains a question, the point of interrogation
+stands within the inverted commas.
+
+     In a voice which was fascination itself, the being addressed
+     me, saying, "Wilt thou come with me? Wilt thou be mine?"
+
+
+LIX. If an interrogative sentence ends with a quotation, the point of
+interrogation stands outside the inverted commas.
+
+     What does this honourable person mean by "a tempest that
+     outrides the wind"?
+
+Observe how in the example given under Rule LV. the point of
+interrogation stands within the double inverted commas, but outside
+the single inverted commas.
+
+
+LX. If an interrogative sentence ends with a quotation which is itself
+interrogatory, the point of interrogation is placed outside the
+inverted commas.
+
+     Hast thou never cried, "What must I do to be saved"?
+
+The reason is, that the question to be answered is not the quoted
+question, but "hast thou never cried?" No writer has been bold enough
+to insert two points of interrogation.
+
+
+LXI. The last three rules apply also to exclamatory sentences.
+
+     (1) But I boldly cried out, "Woe unto this city!"
+
+     (2) Alas, how few of them can say, "I have striven to the
+     very utmost"!
+
+     (3) How fearful was the cry: "Help, or we perish"!
+
+
+LXII. Where an interrogative sentence ends with a quotation of an
+exclamatory nature, or an exclamatory sentence ends with a quotation
+of an interrogative nature, it seems better to place at the end both
+the point of interrogation and the mark of exclamation, the one
+inside, the other outside, the inverted commas.
+
+     Do you remember who it was that wrote
+
+         "Whatever England's fields display,
+         The fairest scenes are thine, Torbay!"?
+
+     How much better to cease asking the question, "What would he
+     have done in different circumstances?"!
+
+Where inverted commas are not used, it seems sufficient to have only
+one point, which must be the one required by the whole sentence, not
+by the quotation.
+
+     Do you remember the passage where Burke alludes to the old
+     warning of the Church--_Sursum corda_?
+
+
+
+
+ITALICS
+
+
+LXIII. Words to be specially emphasized may be put in italics. In
+writing, the substitute for italics is underlining.
+
+     What, it may well be asked, can the interests of the
+     community be those of--I do not say _an_ individual,
+     but--_the_ individual?
+
+The voice can unmistakably indicate what are the emphatic words; but
+italics, only a feeble substitute, ought not to be used unless every
+other means of emphasizing fail. Many writers of authority have
+strongly, and very justly, condemned the too frequent use of them.
+
+Double underlining in letter-writing need not be here adverted to. If
+the person to whom one writes a letter is likely to read it without
+appreciation or care, one is entitled to adopt any means that will
+ensure attention. But if double underlining is allowable only on this
+ground, general rules are obviously of no use.
+
+
+LXIV. Words from a foreign language which have not become classical
+English words, are written in italics.
+
+     The slightest _double entendre_ made him blush to the eyes.
+
+     Knowledge of French is a _sine quâ non_.
+
+When foreign words become English, they are no longer italicized.
+Among such words are: rationale, aide-de-camp, quartette, naïve,
+libretto. It is often a matter of discretion to say whether a word is
+so far naturalized that it should be written in the ordinary way.
+
+
+LXV. Names of newspapers and magazines, and names of ships, are
+generally written in italics; as the _Times_, the _Fort-nightly
+Review_, the _Great Eastern_.
+
+
+
+
+THE HYPHEN
+
+
+LXVI. The hyphen is used between the component parts of some compound
+words.
+
+     Paper-knife; book-keeping; coal-pit; water-carrier;
+     printing-press; sea-water; man-of-war; now-a-days; high-art
+     decoration; good-looking.
+
+There is no rule to distinguish the compound words that take a hyphen
+from those that do not. If one be in doubt about a particular word,
+the best thing to do is to refer to a dictionary.
+
+
+LXVII. When one syllable of a word ends with a vowel, and the next
+syllable begins with the same vowel, the hyphen is placed between the
+syllables to indicate that the two vowels do not form a diphthong,
+that is, that they should not be pronounced together.
+
+     Co-operative; co-ordinate; pre-eminently; re-establish;
+     re-echo.
+
+In the same way the hyphen sometimes ensures that two consonants shall
+be pronounced separately; as in "book-keeping," "shell-less,"
+"cock-crow," "sword-dance."
+
+
+LXVIII. As a rule, a hyphen should not be placed after a simple
+prefix: "contravene," "preternatural," "hypercritical," "bilateral."
+
+To this there are some exceptions:
+
+(_a_) "Anti-religious," "ultra-liberal," "semi-lunar," "co-eval." In
+these words the pronunciation is more clearly marked by inserting the
+hyphen. Compare "antiseptic," "antinomian," "ultramontane,"
+"semicircle."
+
+Perhaps among these exceptions should also be included such words as
+"pseudo-critic," "non-ego," "non-existent." Compare "pseudonym," where
+the prefix is contracted, and "nonentity." Words like "pre-eminent,"
+divided for the same reason, have already been noted.
+
+(_b_) "Re-creation," "re-mark." The hyphen distinguishes the
+etymological meaning of these words as distinguished from their
+derived and ordinary meaning.
+
+(_c_) "Pre-Norman," "anti-Darwinian," "philo-Turk." If the
+capital-letter be retained where a prefix is put to a proper name, the
+hyphen is obviously necessary.
+
+
+LXIX. When a number is written in words and not in figures, the words
+making up the number, if there be more words than one, are in certain
+cases separated from each other by the hyphen.
+
+The numbers to which this rule applies are the cardinal and the
+ordinal numbers from twenty-one and twenty-first to ninety-nine and
+ninety-ninth inclusive. The hyphen is used also when the words are
+inverted; as "four-and-thirty," "six-and-fortieth."
+
+
+LXX. Fractional parts written in words are separated in the same way,
+a hyphen being placed between the numerator and denominator; as
+"two-thirds," "three-sixteenths."
+
+But if the word "part" or the word "share" follows, the hyphen is not
+used; as "two third parts."
+
+
+LXXI. Several words may be joined by hyphens, in order to indicate
+that they are to be read together.
+
+     The I-believe-of-Eastern-derivation monosyllable "Bosh."
+
+     Additional restrictions were advocated in the cases of
+     mothers-of-young-children employed in factories.
+
+As this last sentence stands, the hyphen is really the only means of
+making it perfectly clear that those who are referred to as employed
+in factories are the mothers, not the children. Hyphens are sometimes
+used in cases like the following: "A never-to-be-forgotten event,"
+"peace-at-any-rate principles." They are almost invariably used in
+"well-to-do," "alack-a-day."
+
+
+LXXII. The prefix "a" before the gerund is followed by a hyphen.
+
+     They went a-hunting.
+
+     I lay a-thinking.
+
+Note that "agoing" is not divided.
+
+
+LXXIII. When a word is divided at the end of a line, part of the word
+being in the next line, a hyphen is placed after the part at the end
+of the line.
+
+So far as rules can be given for the division of the word, it may be
+said:
+
+(_a_) The division must be at the end of a syllable. The syllable
+according to etymological derivation, and the syllable according to
+pronunciation, are not always the same. In case of conflict the
+pronunciation is to be the guide.
+
+(_b_) The part in the next line should, if possible, begin with a
+consonant. An examination of a number of words will show that this is
+only another way of saying that we should be guided by pronunciation.
+
+(_c_) Double letters are divided; as "at-tract," "profes-sion,"
+"dif-ficulty."
+
+The following examples are given consecutively from a book taken at
+random. This seems the best way of illustrating the rule:
+
+     Con-fidently; investi-gated; some-thing; institu-tion;
+     diffi-culty; at-tractions; exclu-sively; kins-man;
+     self-organized; en-tangled; col-lective; intermis-sion;
+     ma-terials; chan-cellor; col-lege; indus-trious; sub-ject;
+     his-tory; con-dition; Low-landers; or-ganization;
+     re-cognized; in-famous.
+
+Some selected examples may be also given:
+
+     Resem-blance; hum-ble; se-cond; trans-lator; justifi-able;
+     east-ern; endea-vour.
+
+
+
+
+THE APOSTROPHE
+
+
+LXXIV. The apostrophe is used to indicate that some letter or letters
+of a word are left out.
+
+     "E'er" for "ever," "can't" for "cannot," "don't" for "do
+     not," "'gin" for "begin."
+
+The apostrophe is not used when the word, though contracted in the
+middle, retains its original pronunciation; as "Dr." or "Mr." But it
+is used where the contraction is at the end of the word: "tho',"
+"Peterboro'."
+
+
+LXXV. The apostrophe marks the possessive case of nouns. The following
+rules determine where it is to be placed:
+
+_Nouns in the singular number--_
+
+(1) The letter "s" is added, and the apostrophe is placed before it.
+
+     The king's abode. A patriot's reward.
+
+(2) If the nominative singular of the noun ends in "s," another "s" is
+not added if the repetition of hissing sounds would be displeasing to
+the ear. The apostrophe is then placed at the end of the word.
+
+     Hercules' club. Augustus' dignity.
+
+Words of one syllable follow the first rule: "James's share." Some
+words of two syllables follow the first rule, some the second: "the
+princess's birthday"; "Francis' style."
+
+This distinction is sanctioned by usage. But it may judiciously be
+disregarded. In speaking we almost entirely ignore it. Why should we
+trouble ourselves with it in writing?
+
+_Nouns in the plural number--_
+
+(1) The apostrophe is placed after the "s" of the plural.
+
+     Boys' clothing. Our friends' troubles.
+
+(2) If the plural do not end in "s," an "s" is added, and the
+apostrophe is placed before it.
+
+     Men's opinions. The children's pleasure.
+
+
+LXXVI. The apostrophe is used before the "s" of the plural when single
+letters are used as words.
+
+     Mind your p's and q's.
+
+     He does not dot his i's nor cross his t's.
+
+
+
+
+MARKS OF ELLIPSIS
+
+
+LXXVII. When, in the middle of a quotation, a part is omitted, several
+asterisks or several full stops are placed in a line to mark the
+omission.
+
+     Clarendon makes the following remark about Lord Falkland:
+     "Yet two things he could never bring himself to whilst he
+     continued in that office, that was to his death; for which
+     he was contented to be reproached as for omissions in a most
+     necessary part of his place. The one, employing of spies, or
+     giving any countenance or entertainment to them. * * * The
+     other, the liberty of opening letters, upon a suspicion that
+     they might contain matter of a dangerous consequence." (One
+     sentence omitted.)
+
+     "The French and Spanish nations," said Louis XIV., "are so
+     united that they will henceforth be only one.... My
+     grandson, at the head of the Spaniards, will defend the
+     French. I, at the head of the French, will defend the
+     Spaniards."
+
+     "He who in former years," wrote Horace Walpole of his
+     father, "was asleep as soon as his head touched the pillow
+     ... now never sleeps above an hour without waking."
+
+If the passage omitted be of very considerable length, for instance if
+it be a complete paragraph, or if a line of poetry be omitted, the
+asterisks are placed in a line by themselves. There is a tendency to
+confine the asterisk to such cases, and to use the full stop for
+shorter ellipses. If a complete sentence be omitted, the number of
+additional full stops is generally four; if a passage be omitted in
+the middle of a sentence, the number is generally three.
+
+When some of the letters of a name are omitted, their place is
+supplied by a line or dash, whose length depends on the number of
+letters omitted.
+
+     The scene of our story is laid in the town of B----. There
+     was one H----, who, I learned in after days, was seen
+     expiating some maturer offence in the hulks.
+
+     Blakesmoor in H----shire.
+
+
+
+
+REFERENCES TO NOTES
+
+
+Notes are generally placed at the foot of a page; though sometimes
+they are collected at the end of a chapter, or even at the end of a
+book. Various devices are in use for indicating the passage in the
+text to which a note refers.
+
+(1) The six reference signs: the "asterisk" (*), the "dagger" ([dagger
+character]) (also called the "obelisk"), the "double dagger" ([double
+dagger character]), the "section" (§), the "parallels" (||), the
+"paragraph" (ĥ). They are suitable only where the notes are placed at
+the foot of a page, and are invariably used in the order in which we
+have mentioned them.
+
+If the number of notes in one page exceeds six, the signs are doubled.
+The seventh note is marked thus: **; the eighth, [dagger
+character][dagger character]; the ninth, [double dagger
+character][double dagger character]; and so on. But it is better, in
+cases where the notes are so numerous, to use other means of
+reference.
+
+(2) Figures: either within parentheses, as (1), (2), (3), &c.; or,
+more usually, printed in the raised or "superior" form, as ı²³,
+&c. Sometimes the first note in each page is marked;ı but it is now
+common, in books divided into chapters, to mark the first note in each
+chapter with ı and then go on with continuous numbers to the end of
+the chapter.
+
+"Superior" figures are now the most usual marks of reference in
+English books.
+
+(3) Letters; which also may either be placed within parentheses or be
+printed in "superior" form: (a), (b), (c), &c., or ^{a} ^{b} ^{c}, &c.
+Italic letters are sometimes used. As a rule the first note in each
+page is marked (a) or ^{a}. If in one page there are more notes than
+there are letters in the alphabet (which sometimes happens), we go to
+(aa), (bb), (cc), &c., ^{aa} ^{bb} ^{cc}. The letter "j" is often
+omitted.
+
+It is less common to make the letters continuous from page to page.
+
+The sign, whatever it may be, is placed at the beginning of the note,
+and also in the text immediately after the part to which the note
+refers. The note may refer to a whole sentence, to a part of a
+sentence, even to a single word; the sign is placed as the case may
+be, at the end of the sentence, at the end of the part referred to, or
+after the single word.
+
+
+
+
+HOW TO CORRECT A PRINTER'S PROOF
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+EXPLANATION
+
+1. Where a word is to be changed from small letters to capitals, draw
+three lines under it, and write _caps._ in the margin.
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+3. A letter turned upside down.
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+When corrected, the passage given above would read as follows--
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+ANTIQUITY, like every other quality that attracts the notice of
+mankind, has undoubtedly votaries that _reverence_ it, not from
+reason, but from prejudice. Some seem to admire indiscriminately
+whatever has been long preserved, without considering that time has
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+
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+<h1>The Project Gutenberg eBook, "Stops", by Paul Allardyce</h1>
+<pre>
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at <a href = "http://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a></pre>
+<p>Title: "Stops"</p>
+<p>       Or How to Punctuate. A Practical Handbook for Writers and Students</p>
+<p>Author: Paul Allardyce</p>
+<p>Release Date: March 29, 2007  [eBook #20938]</p>
+<p>Language: English</p>
+<p>Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1</p>
+<p>***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK "STOPS"***</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h3>E-text prepared by Chris Curnow, Sankar Viswanathan,<br />
+    and the Project Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team<br />
+    (http://www.pgdp.net)</h3>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="full" />
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<h1>&#8220;STOPS&#8221;</h1>
+
+<h2>OR, HOW TO PUNCTUATE</h2>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h3>A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK</h3>
+
+
+<h3>FOR WRITERS AND STUDENTS</h3>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h2>By PAUL ALLARDYCE</h2>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i12">&#8220;For a reader that pointeth ill,<br /></span>
+<span class="i12">A good sentence oft may spill.&#8221;<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p class="sig">&mdash;<span class="smcap">Chaucer</span>&mdash;<i>Romaunt of the Rose</i></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h4>LONDON</h4>
+
+<h3>T. FISHER UNWIN LTD.</h3>
+
+<h4>ADELPHI TERRACE</h4>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h5><i>Eighteenth Impression</i><br />1895</h5>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>CONTENTS</h2>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<table summary="Contents">
+<tr><td></td><td class="tocpg f1">PAGE</td></tr>
+<tr><td><a href="#INTRODUCTION">INTRODUCTION</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_7">7</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><a href="#THE_FULL_STOP">THE FULL STOP</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_15">15</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><a href="#THE_COMMA">THE COMMA</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_19">19</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><a href="#THE_SEMICOLON">THE SEMICOLON</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_43">43</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><a href="#THE_COLON">THE COLON</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_46">46</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><a href="#THE_POINT_OF_INTERROGATION">THE POINT OF INTERROGATION</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_52">52</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><a href="#THE_MARK_OF_EXCLAMATION">THE MARK OF EXCLAMATION</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_56">56</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><a href="#THE_DASH">THE DASH</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_61">61</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><a href="#BRACKETS_or_THE_PARENTHESIS2">BRACKETS (OR THE PARENTHESIS)</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_66">66</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><a href="#INVERTED_COMMAS">INVERTED COMMAS</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_70">70</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><a href="#ITALICS">ITALICS</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_76">76</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><a href="#THE_HYPHEN">THE HYPHEN</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_78">78</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><a href="#THE_APOSTROPHE">THE APOSTROPHE</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_84">84</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><a href="#MARKS_OF_ELLIPSIS">ELLIPSIS</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_87">87</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><a href="#REFERENCES_TO_NOTES">REFERENCES TO NOTES</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_89">89</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><a href="#HOW_TO_CORRECT_A_PRINTERS_PROOF">CORRECTION OF PROOFS</a></td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_94">94</a></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="INTRODUCTION" id="INTRODUCTION"></a>INTRODUCTION</h2>
+
+
+<p><i>The Use of Punctuation.</i>&mdash;Punctuation is a device for marking out the
+arrangement of a writer's ideas. Reading is thereby made easier than
+it otherwise would be.</p>
+
+<p>A writer's ideas are expressed by a number of words arranged in
+groups, the words in one group being more closely connected with one
+another than they are with those in the next group. An example will
+show this grouping in its simplest form:</p>
+
+<p>
+<span class="u">He never convinces the reason</span>, or <span class="u">fills the imagination</span>, or <span class="u">touches the heart.</span>
+</p>
+
+<p>To understand what is written, the reader must group the words
+together in the way intended by the writer; and in doing this he can
+receive assistance in various ways. Partly by the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span> inflection of the
+words; partly by their arrangement; partly also by punctuation. As to
+inflection, we see in Latin an adjective and a substantive standing
+together, yet differing in gender, in number, or in case; and we know
+that the adjective does not qualify the substantive. But English has
+not the numerous inflections of Latin. More scrupulous care therefore
+is needed in the arrangement of words in order to bring together in
+position such as are connected in meaning. Yet this is not always
+enough. Except in the very simplest sentences there are generally
+several arrangements which are grammatically possible; and, though all
+save one may be absurd in meaning, the reader may waver for a moment
+before the absurdity strikes him. Some artificial aid is thus needed
+to prevent him from thinking of any arrangement but the right one.
+There is no fault, for instance, to be found with the arrangement of
+the following words, yet, printed without points, they form a mere
+puzzle:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>He had arrived already prepossessed with a strong feeling of
+the neglect which he had experienced from the Whigs his old
+friends however all of them ap<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span>peared ravished to see him
+offered apologies for the mode in which they had treated him
+and caught at him as at a twig when they were drowning the
+influence of his talents they understood and were willing to
+see it thrown into the opposite scale.</p></div>
+
+<p>Of course, with a little effort the meaning can be discovered; but if
+such a little effort had to be put forth in every page of a whole
+book, reading would become a serious task. By means of points, or
+"stops," we are spared much of this. The groups are presented
+ready-made to the eye; and the mind, bent on understanding the
+thought, is not distracted by having first to discover the connection
+of the words.</p>
+
+<p>The reader's task is more difficult where two or more ways of grouping
+the words not only are grammatically possible, but lead each to a more
+or less intelligible meaning. As a rule he can find out from the
+context which way the writer meant him to take. One politician writes
+to another: "I ask you as the recognized leader of our party what you
+think of this measure;" and nobody accuses the writer of presumption.
+We might even pass over the following startling sentence without
+observing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span> the reflection which it casts on a respectable body of men:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Hence he considered marriage with a modern political
+economist as dangerous.</p></div>
+
+<p>But when we read that "the State may impose restrictions on the
+mothers of young children employed in factories," we may well have
+some doubt whether it is the mothers or the children who are employed
+in factories. And it would not be easy to give an answer, if we were
+asked to state the precise meaning of Gray's line:</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">And all the air a solemn stillness holds.<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>In longer and more involved sentences the risk of ambiguity is
+obviously much greater. Now by the judicious use of points ambiguous
+language can occasionally be made clear. "The
+mothers-of-young-children employed in factories" is no doubt a bold
+form, but it leaves us in no doubt as to the meaning. So the ambiguous
+word "too" does not embarrass us when we read: "This problem, too,
+easy as it may seem, remains unsolved." (See other examples under
+Rules <a href="#XIV">XIV.</a> and <a href="#XV">XV.</a>) Only occasionally, how<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span>ever, can clearness be
+secured by punctuation. No pointing can help us much in Gray's line,
+or could have given to Pyrrhus the true reading of "Credo te &AElig;acida
+Romanos vincere posse." And, even where it would make the meaning
+clear, it is a lazy device, the over-use of which is the sure sign of
+careless or unskilful composition. The true remedy for ambiguity is
+not punctuation, but re-writing.</p>
+
+<p>Punctuation, it is sometimes said, serves to mark the pauses that
+would be made in speaking. This is so far true; for by the pause we
+arrange our spoken words into proper groups, thereby enabling our
+hearers readily to seize the meaning. But between the punctuation of
+the pen and that of the voice there is a great difference in degree.
+By the voice we can express the most delicate shades of thought, while
+only in the roughest way can the comma, the semicolon, and the other
+points, imitate its effects. As to how far the attempt at imitation
+should be carried, every writer will have to use his own discretion;
+but, whether we point freely or sparingly, we must for the reader's
+sake point consistently. It should at the same<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span> time be borne in mind
+that the lavish use of points often leads to confusion.</p>
+
+<p><i>General Rules.</i>&mdash;Keeping in view the use of punctuation, we can now
+form two general rules to guide us when we are in doubt which point we
+should insert, or whether we should insert a point at all.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>(1) <i>The point that will keep the passage most free from
+ambiguity, or make it easiest to read, is the right point to
+use.</i></p>
+
+<p>(2) <i>If the passage be perfectly free from ambiguity and be
+not less easy to understand without any point, let no point
+be used.</i></p></div>
+
+<p><i>The Relativity of Points.</i>&mdash;In order to decide in any given case what
+point ought to be used, we begin by considering the nature of the
+pause in itself. But we must do more. We must consider how we have
+pointed the rest of the passage. The pause that should be marked by a
+comma in one case, may require a semicolon in another case; the colon
+may take the place that the semicolon would generally fill. This will
+be best understood by means of the examples that will afterwards be
+given. (See Rules <a href="#XXIII">XXIII.</a>,<a href="#XXV"> XXV</a>.)<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Usage.</i>&mdash;Except within somewhat narrow limits, usage does not help us
+much. Different writers have different methods, and few are
+consistent. To some extent there is a fair degree of uniformity; for
+instance, in the placing of colons before quotations, and in the use
+of inverted commas. But in many cases there can hardly be said to be
+any fixed usage, and in these we can freely apply the general rules
+already laid down. Much might be said for a complete disregard of
+usage, for a thorough recasting of our system of punctuation. Sooner
+or later something must be done to relieve the overburdened comma of
+part of the work which it is expected to perform. Not only is the
+comma a less effective point than it might be, but the habit of using
+it for so many purposes is exercising a really mischievous effect on
+English style. In the meantime, and as a step towards a better system,
+there is an evident advantage in giving to the existing vague usage a
+more or less precise form. Nothing more than this has been aimed at in
+the present work.</p>
+
+<p>In giving rules of punctuation we cannot hope to deal with all, or
+with nearly all, the cases that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span> may arise in writing. Punctuation is
+intimately connected with style. As forms of thought are infinite in
+number, so are the modes of expression; and punctuation, adapting
+itself to these, is an instrument capable of manipulation in a
+thousand ways. We can therefore set forth only some typical cases,
+forming a body of examples to which a little reflection will suggest a
+variety both of applications and of exceptions.</p>
+
+<p>It will be noticed that we do not take the points exactly in their
+order of strength. It seemed better to deal with the full stop before
+passing to the punctuation of the parts of a sentence. Again, it may
+be said that, strictly speaking, italics do not form part of the
+subject. But they are at any rate so intimately connected with it that
+to have passed them over would have been merely pedantic. Even the
+sections on references to notes and on the correction of proofs may
+not be considered altogether out of place. As few grammatical terms as
+possible have been made use of. Some have been found necessary in
+order to secure the brevity of statement proper to a little work on a
+little subject.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="THE_FULL_STOP" id="THE_FULL_STOP"></a>THE FULL STOP</h2>
+
+
+<p><b>I. A full stop is placed at the end of every sentence that is neither
+exclamatory nor interrogative.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>A penal statute is virtually annulled if the penalties which
+it imposes are regularly remitted as often as they are
+incurred. The sovereign was undoubtedly competent to remit
+penalties without limit. He was, therefore, competent to
+annul virtually a penal statute. It might seem that there
+could be no serious objection to his doing formally what he
+might do virtually.</p></div>
+
+<p>How much should be put into a sentence is rather a matter of style
+than of punctuation. The tendency of modern literature is in favour of
+the short sentence. In the prose of Milton and of Jeremy Taylor, the
+full stop does not come to release the thought till all the
+circumstances have been grouped around it, and the necessary
+qualifications made. In Macaulay the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span> circumstances and the
+qualifications are set out sentence by sentence. So the steps of
+reasoning in the example which we have given are stated with that
+distinct pause between each of them which the reader would make if he
+thought them out for himself. They might be welded together thus:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Seeing that a penal statute is virtually annulled if the
+penalties which it imposes are regularly remitted as often
+as they are incurred, and seeing that the sovereign was
+undoubtedly competent to remit penalties without limit, it
+follows that he was competent to annul virtually a penal
+statute; and it might seem that there could be no serious
+objection to his doing formally what he might do virtually.</p></div>
+
+<p>Both forms are correct in point of punctuation. Which is the better
+form is a question of style. Take another example:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The sides of the mountain were covered with trees; the banks
+of the brooks were diversified with flowers; every blast
+shook spices from the rocks; and every mouth dropped fruits
+upon the ground.</p></div>
+
+<p>There is here an advantage in putting these four statements together,
+instead of making four separate sentences. We can more easily com<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span>bine
+the details, and so form a single picture&mdash;a picture of fertility.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>II. As a rule the full stop is not to be inserted till the sentence be
+grammatically complete. But some parts of the sentence necessary to
+make it grammatically complete may be left for the reader to supply.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>It is well said, in every sense, that a man's religion is
+the chief fact with regard to him. A man's or a nation of
+men's. By religion I do not mean here the church-creed which
+he professes, the articles of faith which he will sign and,
+in words or otherwise, assert. Not this wholly, in many
+cases not this at all.</p></div>
+
+
+<p><b>III. When a sentence is purposely left unfinished, the dash takes the
+place of the full stop.</b> (See <a href="#XL">Rule XL.</a>)</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"Excuse me," said I, "but I am a sort of collector." "Not
+Income-tax?" cried His Majesty, hastily removing his pipe
+from his lips.</p></div>
+
+
+<p><b><a name="IV" id="IV"></a>IV. A full stop is placed after most abbreviations, after initial
+letters, and after ordinal numbers in Roman characters.</b></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span></p><div class="blockquot"><p>Gen. i. 20; two lbs.; <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1883; 3 p.m.; &amp;c., and etc.;
+M.D., J. S. Mill; William III., King of England; MS., LL.D.
+(not M.S. and L.L.D.).</p></div>
+
+<p>Note that the use of the full stop in these cases does not prevent
+another point from being used immediately after it. But if they occur
+at the end of a sentence, another full stop is not added; or, more
+correctly, it may be said that <a href="#IV">Rule IV.</a> does not apply at the end of a
+sentence.</p>
+
+<p>"Mr," "Messrs," "Dr"&mdash;abbreviations which retain the last letter of
+the whole word&mdash;are written without a point.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="THE_COMMA" id="THE_COMMA"></a>THE COMMA</h2>
+
+
+<p><b>V. The comma indicates a short pause in a sentence. It is used when we
+wish to separate words that stand together, and at the same time to
+stop as little as possible the flow of the sentence.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>When the earl reached his own province, he found that
+preparations had been made to repel him.</p>
+
+<p>Though it is difficult, or almost impossible, to reclaim a
+savage, bred from his youth to war and the chase, to the
+restraints and the duties of civilized life, nothing is more
+easy or common than to find men who have been educated in
+all the habits and comforts of improved society, willing to
+exchange them for the wild labours of the hunter and the
+fisher.</p></div>
+
+
+<p><b>VI. Where there is no danger of obscurity, the subject must not be
+separated from the predicate by any point.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The eminence of your station gave you a commanding prospect
+of your duty.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<p><b>VII. When the subject is long, a comma may be placed after it.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>To say that he endured without a murmur the misfortune that
+now came upon him, is to say only what his previous life
+would have led us to expect.</p></div>
+
+<p>In every sentence the subject, whether expressed in one word or in
+several words, must be grasped as a whole; and, when the subject is
+long, one is often assisted in doing this by having a point to mark
+its termination. The eye at once observes the separating line. Note
+the corresponding pause in the reading of such sentences.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>VIII. When the subject consists of several parts, <i>e.g.</i>, of several
+nouns, a comma is placed after the last part.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>A few daring jests, a brawl, and a fatal stab, make up the
+life of Marlowe.</p>
+
+<p>Time, money, and friends, were needed to carry on the work.</p></div>
+
+<p>This rule will appear reasonable if we consider an apparent exception
+to it. When the last noun sums up all the others, or marks the highest
+point of a climax, no comma is placed after it.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Freedom, honour, religion was at stake.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>If "religion" be regarded as marking the highest point of a climax,
+the predicate is read with "religion," and with it alone. When so
+great a thing as religion is said to be at stake, everything else is
+dropped out of sight, or is held to be included. But write the three
+names as if they were of equal importance; the comma should then be
+inserted:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Freedom, honour, and religion, were at stake.</p></div>
+
+<p>But it is not necessary to use a point in such a sentence as this:
+"Time and tide wait for no man." For we see without the aid of a point
+that the predicate is to be read with the two nouns equally.</p>
+
+<p>The principle might be applied also in cases like the following,
+though few writers carry it so far:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>It was the act of a high-spirited, generous, just nation.</p>
+
+<p>It was the act of a high-spirited, generous, and just,
+nation.</p></div>
+
+
+<p><b><a name="IX" id="IX"></a>IX. Dependent clauses are generally separated from the rest of the
+sentence in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span> which they occur. The usual point is the comma.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Be his motives what they may, he must soon disperse his
+followers.</p>
+
+<p>This relation of your army to the crown will, if I am not
+greatly mistaken, become a serious dilemma in your politics.</p></div>
+
+<p>Of course, this rule must be qualified by the rules for the stronger
+points, especially by those for the semicolon and the colon. It is
+often necessary to separate the clause from the rest of the sentence
+by a strong point.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Exceptions.</span>&mdash;<b>(I) No point is needed if either the dependent clause or
+the principal clause be short.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>He would be shocked if he were to know the truth.</p></div>
+
+<p>But if the dependent clause be inserted parenthetically, it is marked
+off by commas or the other marks of parenthesis, however short it may
+be. (See <a href="#X">Rule X.</a>)</p>
+
+<p>If the sentence last quoted were inverted, a comma would be placed
+after the dependent clause.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>If he were to know the truth, he would be shocked.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In the first form of this example, "he would be shocked" is a
+definite, finished statement, the necessary qualification to which
+should follow with as little pause as possible. But in the inverted
+form, the first part of the sentence&mdash;"if he were to know the
+truth"&mdash;is not a finished statement, and the mind may pause for a
+moment before going on to the consequence, knowing that the
+consequence must follow.</p>
+
+<p><b>(2) No point is needed if there be a very close grammatical connection
+between the dependent clause and some word or words preceding it.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>They had so long brooded over their own distresses that they
+knew nothing of how the world was changing around them.</p></div>
+
+<p>Note that by the word "so" the clause "that they knew nothing" is
+joined very closely to the previous part of the sentence; and that the
+two clauses "that they knew nothing" and "how the world was changing
+around them," are even more closely joined to one another by the
+pre<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span>position "of." For the same reason, where the object is a clause,
+there is no point before it.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>He confessed to us that he had not thought over the matter.</p></div>
+
+<p>A useful distinction will afterwards be drawn between the different
+kinds of relative clauses. (<a href="#XIV">Rule XIV.</a>)</p>
+
+
+<p><b><a name="X" id="X"></a>X. Words thrown in so as to interrupt slightly the flow of a sentence
+are marked off by commas.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>He resolved, therefore, to visit the prisoner early in the
+morning.</p>
+
+<p>This, I think, is the right view of the case.</p>
+
+<p>The first ideas of beauty formed by the mind are, in all
+probability, derived from colours.</p></div>
+
+<p>The following are some of the words and phrases that come under this
+rule: <i>therefore</i>, <i>too</i>, <i>indeed</i>, <i>however</i>, <i>moreover</i>, <i>then</i>,
+<i>accordingly</i>, <i>consequently</i>; <i>in short</i>, <i>in fine</i>, <i>in truth</i>, <i>in
+fact</i>, <i>to a certain extent</i>, <i>all things considered</i>.</p>
+
+<p>This rule of high pointing should be applied very sparingly, and might
+really be restricted to cases like the "I think" of the second
+example. Nowadays the tendency is against<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span> the pointing of such words
+as "therefore" and "indeed."</p>
+
+<p>Where the words thrown in make a very distinct break in the sentence,
+they should be pointed off by means of the dash or of brackets.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>XI. Where two parts of a sentence have some words in common, which are
+not expressed for each of them, but are given only when the words in
+which they differ have been separately stated, the second part is
+marked off by commas.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>His classification is different from, and more comprehensive
+than, any other which we have met.</p>
+
+<p>This foundation is a nursing-mother of lay, as distinguished
+from religious, oratorios.</p></div>
+
+<p>These examples come within the principle of <a href="#X">Rule X.</a></p>
+
+
+<p><b>XII. When words are common to two or more parts of a sentence, and are
+expressed only in one part, a comma is often used to show that they
+are omitted in the other parts.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>London is the capital of England; Paris, of France; Berlin,
+of Germany.</p>
+
+<p>In the worst volume of elder date, the historian<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span> may find
+something to assist or direct his enquiries; the
+antiquarian, something to elucidate what requires
+illustration; the philologist, something to insert in the
+margin of his dictionary.</p></div>
+
+<p>Though many writers constantly punctuate contracted sentences in this
+way, it is well not to insert the comma when the meaning is equally
+clear without it. It is unnecessary in the following sentence:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Saul hath slain his thousands, and David his ten thousands.</p></div>
+
+
+<p><b><a name="XIII" id="XIII"></a>XIII. Words placed out of their natural position in the sentence are
+often followed by a comma.</b></p>
+
+<p>(1) The object is usually placed after the verb; when placed at the
+beginning of the sentence, it should be separated from the subject by
+a comma, unless the meaning would otherwise be perfectly clear and be
+readily seized.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The proportions of belief and of unbelief in the human mind
+in such cases, no human judgment can determine.</p></div>
+
+<p>There is the same reason for inserting the comma in such cases as
+there is for inserting<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span> it after a long subject. Moreover, there is
+often need of some device to remove the ambiguities that are caused by
+inversion. In English, the meaning of words is so greatly determined
+by their position that, in altering the usual arrangement of a
+sentence, there is risk of being misunderstood. The danger of
+inserting the point in this case is that the object may be read with
+the words going before, and not with its own verb. If there is a
+possibility of this, the point should not be used.</p>
+
+<p>Of course no point should be placed after the object in such a
+sentence as the following:&mdash;"One I love, and the other I hate."</p>
+
+<p>(2) An adverbial phrase, that is a phrase used as an adverb, is
+usually placed after the verb; when it begins the sentence, a comma
+follows it unless it is very short.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>From the ridge a little way to the east, one can easily
+trace the windings of the river.</p>
+
+<p>In order to gain his point, he did not hesitate to use
+deception.</p>
+
+<p>In ordinary circumstances I should have acted differently.</p></div>
+
+<p>No point would be used in the above sentences,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span> if the adverbial
+phrases occurred in their usual position.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>He did not hesitate to use deception in order to gain his
+point.</p></div>
+
+<p>Nor is any point used when, as often happens in such sentences, the
+verb precedes the subject.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Not very far from the foot of the mountain lies the village
+we hope to reach.</p></div>
+
+<p>(3) An adjective phrase, that is a phrase used as an adjective, is
+usually placed immediately after the word which it qualifies; when it
+appears in any other place, a comma is often usefully placed before
+it.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>A question was next put to the assembly, of supreme
+importance at such a moment.</p></div>
+
+<p>The phrase "of supreme importance at such a moment" is to be taken
+along with "question"; the comma shows that it is not to be taken
+along with "assembly." There is here a further reason for the point,
+inasmuch as the phrase acquires from its position almost the
+importance of an independent statement. But, where the connexion
+between the adjective phrase and the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span> substantive is very close, and
+where there is no risk of ambiguity, no point is to be used. "The
+morning was come of a mighty day"&mdash;such a sentence needs no point.
+Observe also that co-ordinate adjective phrases take a comma before
+them, wherever they are placed. (See next rule.)</p>
+
+
+<p><b><a name="XIV" id="XIV"></a>XIV. Adjective clauses and contracted adjective clauses are marked off
+by commas, if they are used parenthetically or co-ordinately; no point
+is used if they are used restrictively.</b><a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The "Religio Laici," which borrows its title from the
+"Religio Medici" of Browne, is almost the only work of
+Dryden which can be considered as a voluntary effusion.</p>
+
+<p>That sentiment of homely benevolence was worth all the
+splendid sayings that are recorded of kings.</p>
+
+<p>The advocates for this revolution, not satisfied with
+exaggerating the vices of their ancient government, strike
+at the fame of their country itself.</p>
+
+<p>The ships bound on these voyages were not advertised.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Chapter VII., where we stopped reading, is full of interest.</p>
+
+<p>The chapter where we stopped reading is full of interest.</p></div>
+
+<p>We must explain this distinction at some length; for, on the one hand,
+it is hardly ever observed, and, on the other hand, almost every
+sentence that we write furnishes an example of it.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> To distinguish the different kinds of adjective clauses,
+different names have been used: "co-ordinating" and "restrictive"
+(Bain); "continuative" and "definitive," or "restrictive" (Mason).</p></div>
+
+<p>Examine the first sentence which we have quoted. It contains both a
+co-ordinate clause, "Which borrows its title," &amp;c., and a restrictive
+clause, "Which can be considered as a voluntary effusion." In
+distinguishing them we may begin by applying tests of almost a
+mechanical nature.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>a</i>) The first clause may be thrown into the form of an independent
+statement; the second cannot. Thus: "The 'Religio Laici' borrows its
+title from the 'Religio Medici' of Browne. It is almost the only
+work," &amp;c.; or, "The 'Religio Laici' (it borrows its title from the
+'Religio Medici' of Browne) is almost the only work," &amp;c. We cannot in
+the same way destroy the close connexion of the second clause with
+"the only work of Dryden."<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>(<i>b</i>) The first clause may be omitted and still leave a complete and
+intelligent sentence; if we were to omit the second clause, the
+sentence would cease to have any meaning.</p>
+
+<p>These tests may be practically useful; but they are rough and by no
+means infallible. Let us see the reason for the distinction.</p>
+
+<p>The name "Religio Laici" of itself tells us what thing is spoken
+about. It is the name of one thing, and only of one thing. The clause
+that follows informs us, indeed, of a fact concerning the poem; but
+the information is given purely as information, not in order to keep
+us from confounding this "Religio Laici" with some other "Religio
+Laici" that did not borrow its title. "Work of Dryden," however, is
+the name of a class, for Dryden wrote many works. Now the whole class
+is not here in question; it must be limited, narrowed, or restricted,
+to one part of it, namely Dryden's voluntary effusions; and it is thus
+limited, narrowed, or restricted, by the relative clause "which can be
+considered as a voluntary effusion."</p>
+
+<p>Take another example, where the name in both cases is that of a class,
+and note the difference<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span> of meaning which results from different
+pointing:&mdash;"The houses in London which are badly built, ought to be
+pulled down." "The houses in London" expresses a class of objects; the
+relative clause limits the name to a smaller class, the badly built
+houses; and the meaning is, that houses of this smaller class ought to
+be pulled down. Now insert the comma:&mdash;"The houses in London, which
+are badly built, ought to be pulled down." The class is not narrowed;
+and the meaning is, that all houses in London, seeing they are badly
+built, ought to be pulled down.</p>
+
+<p>The difference between the two kinds of relative clauses being
+understood, there will be no difficulty in applying the rule where an
+adjective clause is contracted. Compare the fourth example given under
+the rule with the following sentence:&mdash;"People not satisfied with
+their present condition, should strive to alter it." In this sentence
+"not satisfied" limits the general name "people"; the advice is given
+only to one section of the people: the dissatisfied as distinguished
+from the satisfied people.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>So a single adjective may be used co-ordinately:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"What!" replied the Emperor, "you do not see it? It is my
+star, brilliant."</p></div>
+
+<p>This is a case where a dash would be more expressive.</p>
+
+<p>Note that the rule applies only where the adjunct immediately follows
+the substantive. If the adjunct is placed elsewhere, different
+considerations apply. See <a href="#XIII">Rule XIII.</a> (3).</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Neither can any man marvel at the play of puppets, that
+goeth behind the curtain and adviseth well of the motion.</p></div>
+
+
+<p><b><a name="XV" id="XV"></a>XV. Words in apposition are generally marked off by commas.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>James Watt, the great improver of the steam-engine, died on
+the 25th of August, 1819.</p></div>
+
+<p>But where the words in apposition are used in a limiting or
+distinguishing sense, the principle of <a href="#XIV">Rule XIV.</a> applies, and no point
+is used. Thus we should write "Burns, the poet," "Dickens, the
+novelist"; but, if we wished to distinguish them from another Burns
+and another Dickens, we should omit the comma.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>It is of Pliny the naturalist, not of Pliny the
+letter-writer, that we are now speaking.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Again, where the general name precedes, we should in most cases use no
+point, for the special name will be restrictive: "the poet Burns,"
+"the novelist Dickens."</p>
+
+<p>There is, perhaps, not much authority for the consistent carrying out
+of this distinction; but it seems useful and logical. Some cases, such
+as "Paul the Apostle," "William the Conqueror," "Thomas the Rhymer,"
+"Peter the Hermit," present no difficulty. The name and the
+descriptive title are blended together, and form as distinctly one
+name as does "Roderick Random."</p>
+
+
+<p><b>XVI. A conjunction marks a transition to something new&mdash;enforcing,
+qualifying, or explaining, what has gone before, and is therefore
+generally preceded by some point. The proper point before a
+conjunction is determined by many circumstances: among others, by the
+more or less close connexion of the things joined, by the number of
+words, and by the use of points for other purposes in the same
+sentence. To deal with the different conjunctions one by one, would
+involve a repetition of much that is said<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span> in other rules. For
+instance, <i>if</i>, <i>unless</i>, <i>though</i>, <i>for</i>, <i>because</i>, <i>since</i>, and the
+like, will be pointed in accordance with <a href="#IX">Rule IX.</a> It will be well,
+however, to lay down separate rules for the pointing of the common
+conjunctions, <i>and</i> and <i>or</i>.</b></p>
+
+<p><b>1. <i>AND.</i>&mdash;(a) Where "and" joins two single words, as a rule no point
+is used.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>No work has been so much studied and discussed.</p></div>
+
+<p>Compare this with the following sentence, where groups of words are
+joined.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The work has been much studied, and has been much discussed.</p></div>
+
+<p>In the following sentence the insertion of a comma would change the
+meaning.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>On this shelf you will put books and pamphlets published in
+the present year.</p></div>
+
+<p>As the sentence stands, "published in the present year" applies both
+to books and to pamphlets: books published in the present year, and
+pamphlets published in the present year. If there were a comma before
+"and," the meaning<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span> would be: "On this shelf you will put books of any
+date, and pamphlets of the present year."</p>
+
+<p><b>(b) When "and" joins the separate words of a series of three or more
+words, a comma is placed before it.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Trees, and bridges, and houses, were swept down by the
+flooded stream.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>(c) But where the different words are intended to be combined quickly,
+so as to present to the mind only one picture, they would be spoken
+without any pause, and in writing must not be separated by any point.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Whirling and boiling and roaring like thunder, the stream
+came down upon them.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>(d) Two of the words of the series may be more closely connected with
+one another than with the other words of the series, and are,
+therefore, not to be separated by any point.</b></p>
+
+<p>In the following sentence, "all" qualifies both<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span> "tracts" and
+"pamphlets," and thus joins them closely.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>My unbound books, and all my tracts and pamphlets, are to be
+tied up with pink tape.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>(e) When "and" occurs only between the two last words of the series,
+the comma is usually inserted before it.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Trumpets, drums, and kettle-drums, contended in noise with
+the shouts of a numerous rabble.</p></div>
+
+<p>Many writers omit this comma. But it seems useful in order to make the
+previous rule (<i>d</i>) effective.</p>
+
+<p><b>2. When "and" joins two phrases, a comma generally precedes it.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The ceremony was performed in the accustomed manner, and
+with due solemnity.</p></div>
+
+<p>If, as in the following sentence, a preposition is common to two
+phrases, and is not repeated in the second, no comma is used.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>With proper care and good instruments, the work may be
+successfully carried out.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>3. When "and" joins two clauses, the pre<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span>ceding point may be the
+comma, the semicolon, or even the full stop. Which point is right in
+any particular case, will depend upon considerations set out in other
+rules.</b></p>
+
+<p>The following example illustrates different cases:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Within that charmed rock, so Torridge boatmen tell, sleeps
+now the old Norse Viking in his leaden coffin, with all his
+fairy treasure and his crown of gold; and, as the boy looks
+at the spot, he fancies, and almost hopes, that the day may
+come when he shall have to do his duty against the invader
+as boldly as the men of Devon did then. And past him, far
+below, upon the soft south-eastern breeze, the stately ships
+go sliding out to sea.</p></div>
+
+<p><b><i>OR.</i>&mdash;The rules for the conjunction "and" apply with little change to
+the conjunction "or"; but there are one or two special points to note.</b></p>
+
+<p><b>(a) When "or" is preceded at no great distance by "either" or
+"whether," the two words should be separated by no point.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>They must either yield this point or resign.</p>
+
+<p>It does not matter whether we go or stay.</p></div>
+
+<p>But a point is inserted if the words stand<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span> farther apart, or if each
+is followed by a complete clause.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Either this road leads to the town, or we have misunderstood
+the directions.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>(b) "Or," joining two alternatives, takes no point before it; but when
+it joins two words that are used, not as real alternatives, but as
+synonyms, a comma is inserted.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>England or France might be asked to join the alliance.</p></div>
+
+<p>Here "or" is used as a real alternative conjecture, and therefore
+without any point. In the following examples, the "or" joins
+equivalent expressions:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>England, or the nation of shopkeepers, would never be asked
+to join such an alliance.</p>
+
+<p>We perceive, or are conscious of, nothing but changes, or
+events.</p></div>
+
+<p>As a reason for the insertion of the comma in these two examples, it
+may be said that the repetition of an idea already expressed does for
+a moment stop the flow of the sentence. A real alternative, on the
+other hand, forms an essential part of it, and is within its current.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<p><b>XVII. In cases where no point would be used before a conjunction, a
+comma is inserted if the conjunction be omitted.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>I pay this tribute to the memory of that noble, reverend,
+learned, excellent person.</p></div>
+
+<p>In the following examples no point occurs; for it cannot be said that
+a conjunction is omitted. To insert the conjunction would be to
+express a slightly different shade of meaning:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>A grand old man.</p>
+
+<p>Three tall young soldiers.</p></div>
+
+<p>"Old man" is virtually a single word and in fact many languages use
+only a single word to express the idea.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>XVIII. Where a comma would be used if the conjunction were expressed,
+some stronger point may be used if it be omitted.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Let us get an American revenue as we have got an American
+Empire. English privileges have made it all that it is;
+English privileges alone will make it all that it can be.</p></div>
+
+
+<p><b>XIX. A comma is placed after a noun or a pronoun in the vocative case,
+if a mark<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span> of exclamation be not used, or be reserved till the first
+distinct pause in the sentence.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Yet I own, my lord, that yours is not an uncommon character.</p>
+
+<p>I am, Sir, yours truly, John Smith.</p>
+
+<p>O Italy, gather thy blood into thy heart!</p>
+
+<p>O Thou, who in the heavens dost dwell!</p></div>
+
+<p>Whether a comma or a mark of exclamation ought to be used after the
+vocative case, depends entirely on the degree of emphasis with which
+the words would be spoken. If, in speaking, a slight pause would be
+made, the comma, not the mark of exclamation, is the proper point.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>XX. If a word be repeated in order to give it intensive force, a comma
+follows it each time that it occurs; but, in the case of an adjective
+repeated before a noun, not after the last expression of it.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>It was work, work, work, from morning till night.</p>
+
+<p>He travelled a long, long way.</p></div>
+
+<p>Dean Alford, in "The Queen's English," says that this mode of pointing
+such expressions as "the wide wide world," "the deep deep sea,"<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span> makes
+them absolute nonsense. The suggestion of a pause seems to us to bring
+out more effectively the intensive force of the repetition. And we
+doubt whether Dean Alford himself would have omitted the comma in our
+first example.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="THE_SEMICOLON" id="THE_SEMICOLON"></a>THE SEMICOLON</h2>
+
+
+<p><b><a name="XXI" id="XXI"></a>XXI. The semicolon is the point usually employed to separate parts of
+a sentence between which there is a very distinct break, but which are
+too intimately connected to be made separate sentences.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The patient dates his pleasure from the day when he feels
+that his cure has begun; and, perhaps, the day of his
+perfect re-establishment does not yield him pleasure so
+great.</p>
+
+<p>The author himself is the best judge of his own performance;
+no one has so deeply meditated on the subject; no one is so
+sincerely interested in the event.</p>
+
+<p>Not one word is said, nor one suggestion made, of a general
+right to choose our own governors; to cashier them for
+misconduct; and to form a government for ourselves.</p></div>
+
+<p>The semicolon is used in enumerations, as in the last example, in
+order to keep the parts more distinctly separate.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<p><b><a name="XXII" id="XXII"></a>XXII. When a sentence consists of two or more independent clauses not
+joined by conjunctions, the clauses are separated by semicolons.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>To command a crime is to commit one; he who commands an
+assassination, is by every one regarded as an assassin.</p>
+
+<p>His knowledge was too multifarious to be always exact; his
+pursuits were too eager to be always cautious.</p></div>
+
+<p>If the conjunction "and" were inserted in the last sentence, the comma
+would be used instead of the semicolon. A conjunction forms a bridge
+over the gap between two statements, and, where they are neither long
+nor complicated, we pass from one to the other without noticing any
+distinct break. But there is such a break when the conjunction is
+omitted, and therefore we use a stronger point. The two parts of an
+antithesis are generally separated in this way.</p>
+
+
+<p><b><a name="XXIII" id="XXIII"></a>XXIII. A pause generally indicated by a comma may be indicated by a
+semicolon when commas are used in the sentence for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span> other purposes.</b>
+(See <i>Introduction: Relativity of Points</i>.)</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>I got several things of less value, but not all less useful
+to me, which I omitted setting down before: as, in
+particular, pens, ink, and paper; several parcels in the
+captain's, mate's, gunner's, and carpenter's keeping; three
+or four compasses, some mathematical instruments, dials,
+perspectives, charts, and books of navigation.</p>
+
+<p>In this I was certainly in the wrong too, the honest,
+grateful creature having no thought but what consisted of
+the best principles, both as a religious Christian and as a
+grateful friend; as appeared afterward to my full
+satisfaction.</p></div>
+
+<p>In the first sentence the semicolon enables us to group the objects
+enumerated. Had commas been used throughout, the reader would have
+been left to find out the arrangement for himself.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="THE_COLON" id="THE_COLON"></a>THE COLON</h2>
+
+
+<p><b>XXIV. The colon is used to indicate pauses more abrupt than those
+indicated by the semicolon.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>God has willed it: submit in thankfulness.</p>
+
+<p>The wind raged, and the rain beat against the window: it was
+a miserable day.</p>
+
+<p>Nevertheless, you will say that there must be a difference
+between true poetry and true speech not poetical: what is
+the difference?</p></div>
+
+<p>The first example contains two clauses that are connected in such a
+way as to justify us in putting them into one sentence; that it is
+God's will, is a reason for submitting. The proper point therefore
+should be something less than the full stop. But there is a striking
+difference between the clauses; for we pass from an affirmation to a
+command. Therefore something more than the semicolon is needed. Had
+the clauses<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span> been similar in construction, the pause would have been
+sufficiently indicated by the semicolon: "God has willed it; man has
+resisted."</p>
+
+<p>In the second example there is not the same change of grammatical
+construction, but the change in thought is equally great; we pass from
+a statement of details to a statement of the general result. The colon
+is frequently used in sentences of this kind, where the phrase "in
+short" is implied but is not expressed.</p>
+
+<p>Many writers indicate such abrupt changes by means of the dash.</p>
+
+
+<p><b><a name="XXV" id="XXV"></a>XXV. A pause generally indicated by a semicolon may be indicated by a
+colon, when the semicolon is used in the sentence for pauses of a
+different nature.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The "Essay" plainly appears the fabric of a poet: what
+Bolingbroke supplied could be only the first principles; the
+order, illustration, and embellishments, must all be Pope's.</p>
+
+<p>Not that we are to think that Homer wanted judgment, because
+Virgil had it in a more eminent degree; or that Virgil
+wanted invention, because Homer possessed a larger share of
+it: each of these great authors had more of both than,
+perhaps, any<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span> man besides, and are only said to have less in
+comparison with one another.</p>
+
+<p>Homer hurries and transports us with a commanding
+impetuosity; Virgil leads us with an attractive majesty:
+Homer scatters with a generous profusion; Virgil bestows
+with a careful magnificence.</p></div>
+
+<p>Compare these examples with those given to show how the semicolon
+replaces the comma. (<a href="#XXIII">Rule XXIII.</a>) Note also how the last sentence is
+divided in the middle into two parts, and that each of these two parts
+is itself divided into two parts. By <a href="#XXII">Rule XXII.</a> the second division is
+indicated by the semicolon; and we bring out the grouping of the
+sentence by using a colon for the first division.</p>
+
+
+<p><b><a name="XXVI" id="XXVI"></a>XXVI. The colon is used before enumerations, especially where
+"namely," or "viz.," is implied but is not expressed; and when so used
+it is sometimes followed by the dash.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Three nations adopted this law: England, France, and
+Germany.</p>
+
+<p>One thing thou lackest: go thy way, sell whatsoever thou
+hast, and give to the poor.</p>
+
+<p>Dr Johnson's chief works are the following:&mdash;"Rasselas," The
+Dictionary, "The Lives of the Poets," and "The Vanity of
+Human Wishes."</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>When, as in the last example, a list of things is given in a formal
+way, the dash is generally added. The combination of the two points is
+partly an attempt to find a point stronger than the colon and not so
+strong as the full stop, partly, perhaps, an imitation of a
+finger-post.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>XXVII. The colon is generally placed before a quotation, when notice
+of the quotation is given by some introductory words. In this case
+also the dash is sometimes used.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>In this passage exception may fairly be taken to one short
+sentence, that in which he says: "The law ought to forbid
+it, because conscience does not permit it."</p>
+
+<p>On the last morning of his life he wrote these words:&mdash;"I
+have named none to their disadvantage. I thank God He hath
+supported me wonderfully."</p></div>
+
+<p>The colon and the dash are used together where the quotation is
+introduced by formal words such as the following:&mdash;"He spoke these
+words," "he spoke as follows," "he made this speech." But, in the
+first sentence quoted above, the introductory words are grammatically<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span>
+incomplete without the quotation, which forms the object of the verb
+"says"; the colon accordingly is the strongest point that can be used.
+Sometimes the connexion between the introductory words and the
+quotation may be so close, or the quotation itself may be so short, as
+to make the comma sufficient.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>He kept repeating to us, "The world has sadly changed."</p></div>
+
+<p>Short phrases quoted in the course of the sentence need not have any
+point before them.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>It was a usual saying of his own, that he had "no genius for
+friendship."</p></div>
+
+
+<p><b>XXVIII. The colon may be placed after such words and phrases as the
+following, when used in marking a new stage in an argument:&mdash;Again,
+further, to proceed, to sum up, to resume.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>To sum up: If you will conform to the conditions I have
+mentioned, I will sign the agreement.</p>
+
+<p>But to bring this sermon to its proper conclusion: If
+Astrea, or Justice, never finally took her leave of the
+world till the day that, &amp;c.</p></div>
+
+<p>After these words, we have a choice of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span> the comma, the colon, and the
+full stop. The comma will generally be used if the argument be
+contained in a single sentence; the full stop, if the argument be of
+very considerable length.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="THE_POINT_OF_INTERROGATION" id="THE_POINT_OF_INTERROGATION"></a>THE POINT OF INTERROGATION</h2>
+
+
+<p><b>XXIX. The point of interrogation is placed after a direct question.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Where are you going, my pretty maid?</p>
+
+<p>Whether of them twain did the will of his father?</p></div>
+
+<p>The question may end in the middle of a sentence:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Is he happy? you ask.</p></div>
+
+<p>We have sometimes the choice of putting the point of interrogation in
+the middle or at the end of the sentence.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>You would not consent to that, by whomsoever proposed.</p>
+
+<p>You would not consent to that?&mdash;by whomsoever proposed.</p></div>
+
+<p>There is a slight shade of difference in mean<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span>ing; in the second form,
+"by whomsoever proposed" is added as an afterthought.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>XXX. Indirect questions are not strictly questions at all, and
+therefore should not be followed by a point of interrogation.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>He asked me whether I had seen his friend; whether I had
+spoken to him; and how I liked him.</p></div>
+
+<p>If we restore these questions to the direct form, the point of
+interrogation is inserted.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>He asked me: "Have you seen my friend? Have you spoken to
+him? How do you like him?"</p></div>
+
+
+<p><b><a name="XXXI" id="XXXI"></a>XXXI. When a sentence contains more than one question, sometimes the
+point of interrogation is placed after each of them, sometimes it is
+placed only at the end of the sentence. It is placed after each, if
+each is in reality a distinct question; it is placed only at the end,
+if the separate questions so unite as to need but a single answer.</b></p>
+
+<p>In many cases it will be a matter of individual taste to say whether
+they do so unite.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span></p><div class="blockquot"><p>Is it better that estates should be held by those who have
+no duty than by those who have one? by those whose character
+and destination point to virtues than by those who have no
+rule and direction in the expenditure of their estates but
+their own will and appetite?</p>
+
+<p>Do you imagine that it is the Land Tax Act which raises your
+revenue, that it is the annual vote in the Committee of
+Supply which gives you your army, or that it is the Mutiny
+Bill which inspires it with bravery and discipline? No!
+surely no!</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Oh! why should Hymen ever blight<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">The roses Cupid wore?<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Or why should it be ever night<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Where it was day before?<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Or why should women have a tongue,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Or why should it be cursed,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">In being, like my Second, long,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">And louder than my First?<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+</div>
+
+
+<p><b>XXXII. Exclamations in an interrogative form take a mark of
+exclamation after them, not a point of interrogation.</b> (See <a href="#XXXV">Rule XXXV.</a>)</p>
+
+
+<p><b>XXXIII. A point of interrogation enclosed within brackets is sometimes
+used to indicate that there is a doubt whether the statement preceding
+it is true, or whether the expression preceding it is well applied,
+or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span> that some statement or expression is made or used ironically.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>While you are revelling in the delights (?) of the London
+season, I am leading a hermit life, with no companions save
+my books.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="THE_MARK_OF_EXCLAMATION" id="THE_MARK_OF_EXCLAMATION"></a>THE MARK OF EXCLAMATION</h2>
+
+
+<p><b>XXXIV. The mark of exclamation is placed after interjections and words
+used interjectionally; that is to say, after expressions of an
+exclamatory nature. The exclamation may be one of surprise or of fear,
+or the utterance of a wish, a command, or a prayer.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Quick! Begone! Out of my sight!</p>
+
+<p>Heaven preserve us!</p>
+
+<p>Would that better feelings moved them!</p>
+
+<p>O Lord, be merciful unto me, a sinner!</p></div>
+
+<p>Interjections are not always followed immediately, and are sometimes
+not allowed at all, by a mark of exclamation. No rule can be given
+more precise than this: (1) That we should not insert a mark of
+exclamation immediately after an interjection, unless we should make a
+distinct pause after it in speaking; and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span> (2) that no mark of
+exclamation is to be used at all, unless the exclamatory nature of the
+sentence is more or less strongly marked. It is useful to notice the
+difference between "O" and "Oh." The former is used only before the
+vocative case, and never has a mark of exclamation, or indeed any
+point, placed immediately after it.</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Alas! all our hopes are blasted.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Lo, he cometh!<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">O Dido, Dido, most unhappy Dido!<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Unhappy wife, still more unhappy widow!<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Oh, do not reckon that old debt to my account to-day!<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+
+<p><b><a name="XXXV" id="XXXV"></a>XXXV. The mark of exclamation is placed after sentences which, though
+interrogatory in form, are really exclamatory.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>How could he have been so foolish!</p>
+
+<p>And shall he never see an end to this state of things! Shall
+he never have the due reward of labour! Shall unsparing
+taxation never cease to make him a miserable dejected being,
+a creature famishing in the midst of abundance, fainting,
+expiring with hunger's feeble moan, surrounded by a
+carolling creation!</p></div>
+
+<p>This rule might be put in another way by saying that a mark of
+exclamation, and not a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span> point of interrogation, is placed after what
+are called rhetorical questions, or statements made more striking by
+being put in the form of questions. They are not asked for the sake of
+receiving a direct answer, and are in reality exclamations. Still all
+rhetorical questions are not thus punctuated; the point of
+interrogation is sometimes more effective. The sentences quoted under
+<a href="#XXXI">Rule XXXI.</a> would lose much of their force if marks of exclamation were
+used. In each case we must decide whether the sentence strikes us most
+as a question or as the expression of emotion.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>XXXVI. The mark of exclamation is sometimes placed after an ironical
+statement.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>They did not fight, tens against thousands; they did not
+fight for wives and children, but for lands and plunder:
+therefore they are heroes!</p></div>
+
+<p>The mark of exclamation keeps up the semblance of seriousness which is
+of the essence of irony.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>XXXVII. The mark of exclamation is placed after the statement of some
+absurdity.</b><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>He has been labouring to prove that Shakespeare's plays were
+written by Bacon!</p>
+
+<p>To him the parliamentary vote was a panacea for all human
+ills, and the ballot-box an object as sacred as the Holy
+Grail to a knight of the Round Table!</p></div>
+
+<p>The same reason applies to its use after such sentences as after
+ironical statements.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>XXXVIII. The mark of exclamation may be placed after any impressive or
+striking thought.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The Angel of Death has been abroad throughout the land: you
+may almost hear the very beating of his wings!</p></div>
+
+<p>It may be doubted whether the mark of exclamation is in such cases of
+any great service; for the impressiveness of a sentence ought to
+appear in the sentence itself, or to be given to it by the context.
+There is a real danger, as the style of many people shows, in thinking
+that punctuation is intended to save the trouble of careful
+composition. In putting the mark after pure exclamations, usage is
+more or less uniform; with regard to impressive sentences, we are left
+entirely to our own discretion.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<p><b>XXXIX. When a sentence contains more than one exclamation, sometimes
+the mark of exclamation is placed only after the last, sometimes it is
+placed after each of them, the test being whether or not they are in
+reality, as well as in form, several exclamations.</b> (Compare <a href="#XXXI">Rule
+XXXI.</a>)</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Though all are thus satisfied with the dispensations of
+Nature, how few listen to her voice! how few follow her as a
+guide!</p>
+
+<p>What a mighty work he has thus brought to a successful end,
+with what perseverance, what energy, with what fruitfulness
+of resource!</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="THE_DASH" id="THE_DASH"></a>THE DASH</h2>
+
+
+<p><a name="XL" id="XL"></a><b>XL. The chief purpose of the dash is to indicate that something is
+left unfinished. Accordingly, it marks a sudden, or abrupt, change in
+the grammatical structure of a sentence.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>When I remember how we have worked together, and together
+borne misfortune; when I remember&mdash;but what avails it to
+remember?</p>
+
+<p>And all this long story was about&mdash;what do you think?</p>
+
+<p>"We cannot hope to succeed, unless&mdash;&mdash;" "But we must succeed."</p></div>
+
+<p>Note that it is the long dash that is used at the end of a sentence.</p>
+
+<p>The full stop is not added where the dash marks an unfinished
+sentence. But it is common to add the point of interrogation or the
+mark of exclamation.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<p><b>XLI. The dash is used to mark a faltering or hesitating speech.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Well&mdash;I don't know&mdash;that is&mdash;no, I cannot accept it.</p></div>
+
+
+<p><b>XLII. An unexpected turn of the thought may be marked by the dash.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>He entereth smiling and&mdash;embarrassed. He holdeth out his
+hand to you to shake, and&mdash;draweth it back again. He
+casually looketh in about dinner-time&mdash;when the table is
+full. He offereth to go away, seeing you have company&mdash;but
+is induced to stay.</p>
+
+<p>French history tends naturally to memoirs and anecdotes, in
+which there is no improvement to desire but that they
+were&mdash;true.</p></div>
+
+
+<p><b>XLIII. When the subject of a sentence is of such length, or of such
+complexity, that its connexion with the verb might easily be lost
+sight of, it is sometimes left hanging in the sentence, and its place
+supplied by some short expression that sums it up. A dash follows the
+subject when thus abandoned.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Physical Science, including Chemistry, Geology, Geography,
+Astronomy; Metaphysics, Philology, Theology; Economics,
+including Taxation and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span> Finance; Politics and General
+Literature&mdash;all occupied by turn, and almost simultaneously,
+his incessantly active mind.</p></div>
+
+<p>The colon is sometimes used in such cases; but the dash seems
+preferable, as it is the point that marks a change in the structure of
+a sentence.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>XLIV. The dash is sometimes used instead of brackets before and after
+a parenthesis.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>This was amongst the strongest pledges for thy truth, that
+never once&mdash;no, not for a moment of weakness&mdash;didst thou
+revel in the vision of coronets and honour from man.</p></div>
+
+
+<p><b>XLV. The dash is sometimes used instead of the colon, where the word
+"namely" is implied, but is not expressed.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The most extreme example of such theories is perhaps to be
+found in the attempt to distribute all law under the two
+great commandments&mdash;love to God, and love to one's
+neighbour.</p></div>
+
+<p>In this sentence, however, the colon is preferable. (See <a href="#XXVI">Rule XXVI.</a>).
+The dash should be used for this purpose only when it is necessary to
+use the colon in the same sentence for other purposes.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<p><b>XLVI. The dash is used in rhetorical repetition; for instance, where
+one part of the sentence, such as the subject, is repeated at
+intervals throughout the sentence, and the rest of the sentence is
+kept suspended.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Cannot you, in England&mdash;cannot you, at this time of
+day&mdash;cannot you, a House of Commons, trust to the principle
+which has raised so mighty a revenue?</p></div>
+
+
+<p><b>XLVII. A dash following a full stop occurs between the side-heading of
+a paragraph and the paragraph itself.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><i>Extent and Boundaries.</i>&mdash;England (including Wales) is
+bounded on the north by Scotland; on the west by the Irish
+Sea, St George's Channel, and the Atlantic Ocean; on the
+south by the English Channel; and on the east by the German
+Ocean.</p></div>
+
+
+<p><b>XLVIII. When we place after a quotation the name of the author from
+whom it is taken, the full stop and the dash are used in the same way.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"One touch of nature makes the whole word
+kin."&mdash;<i>Shakespeare.</i></p></div>
+
+
+<p><b>XLIX. The dash is sometimes used in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span> place of, or in addition to,
+other points, in order to indicate a pause greater than usual.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Now where is the revenue which is to do all these mighty
+things? Five-sixths repealed&mdash;abandoned-sunk&mdash;gone&mdash;lost for
+ever.</p>
+
+<p>The highest rank;&mdash;a splendid fortune;&mdash;and a name, glorious
+till it was yours,&mdash;were sufficient to have supported you
+with meaner abilities than I think you possess.</p></div>
+
+<p>There is seldom any reason for the use of double points. In the last
+example they cannot be said to be of any real service. But the dash
+may sometimes be rightly employed in addition to the full stop, in
+order to mark a division of discourse midway between the sentence and
+the paragraph. Even Cobbett, who abhors the dash, permits it to be
+used for this purpose. The report of a conversation is often printed
+in this way.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="BRACKETS_or_THE_PARENTHESIS2" id="BRACKETS_or_THE_PARENTHESIS2"></a>BRACKETS (<span class="smcap">or</span> THE PARENTHESIS.<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a>)</h2>
+
+
+<p><b>L. When a clause not strictly belonging to a sentence is thrown in, so
+to speak, in passing, the clause is enclosed within brackets.</b></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> It seems better to use the term "brackets" both for the
+curved and for the square brackets. "Parenthesis" can then be kept to
+its proper use, as the name for the words themselves which form the
+break in the sentence. We may note that in like manner the terms
+"comma," "colon," "semicolon," originally signified divisions of a
+sentence, not marks denoting the divisions. "Period" meant a complete
+sentence; and it still retains the meaning, somewhat specialized.</p></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>It is said, because the priests are paid by the people (the
+pay is four shillings per family yearly), therefore they
+object to their leaving.</p>
+
+<p>In full confidence of this unalterable truth, I now (<i>quod
+felix faustumque sit</i>) lay the first stone of the Temple of
+Peace.</p></div>
+
+<p>Over and above the enclosing brackets, a parenthesis causes no change
+in the punctuation <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span>of the sentence that contains it; in other words,
+if we were to omit the parenthesis, no change ought to be necessary in
+the punctuation of the rest of the sentence. The comma is inserted
+after the parenthesis in the first example, because the comma would be
+needed even if there were no parenthesis.</p>
+
+<p>In the second example, there would be no comma before "lay," if there
+were no parenthesis; accordingly the comma is not to be inserted
+merely because there is a parenthesis. A parenthesis is sufficiently
+marked off by brackets.</p>
+
+<p>Observe also that the comma in the first example is placed after, not
+before, the parenthesis. The reason for this is that the parenthesis
+belongs to the first part of the sentence, not to the second.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>LI. A complete sentence occurring parenthetically in a paragraph is
+sometimes placed within brackets.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Godfrey knew all this, and felt it with the greater force
+because he had constantly suffered annoyance from witnessing
+his father's sudden fits of unrelentingness, for which his
+own habitual irresolution<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span> deprived him of all sympathy. (He
+was not critical on the faulty indulgence which preceded
+these fits; <i>that</i> seemed to him natural enough.) Still
+there was just the chance, Godfrey thought, that his
+father's pride might see this marriage in a light that would
+induce him to hush it up, rather than turn his son out and
+make the family the talk of the country for ten miles round.</p></div>
+
+<p>Note that the full stop should be placed inside, not outside, the
+brackets.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>LII. Where, in quoting a passage, we throw in parenthetically
+something of our own, we may use square brackets.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Compare the following account of Lord Palmerston: "I have
+heard him [Lord Palmerston] say that he occasionally found
+that they [foreign ministers] had been deceived by the open
+manner in which he told them the truth."</p>
+
+<p>"The <i>Leviathan</i> of Hobbes, a work now-a-days but little
+known [and not better known now than in Bentham's time], and
+detested through prejudice, and at second-hand, as a defence
+of despotism, is an attempt to base all political society
+upon a pretended contract between the people and the
+sovereign."&mdash;<i>Principles of Legislation.</i></p></div>
+
+<p>To use the square brackets in this way is often more convenient than
+to break the inverted commas and to begin them again. But in the case
+of the word <i>sic</i>&mdash;where it is inserted<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span> in a quotation to point out
+that the word preceding it is rightly quoted, and is not inserted by
+mistake&mdash;the ordinary brackets are used.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"The number of inhabitants were (<i>sic</i>) not more than four
+millions."</p></div>
+
+<p>Another case may be mentioned in which the square brackets are used:
+where in the passage quoted some words have been lost, and are filled
+in by conjecture. Prof. Stubbs quotes from one of the Anglo-Saxon
+laws:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"If ceorls have a common meadow, or other partible land to
+fence, and some have fenced their part, some have not, and
+[strange cattle come in and] eat up the common corn or
+grass, let those go who own the gap and compensate to the
+others."</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="INVERTED_COMMAS" id="INVERTED_COMMAS"></a>INVERTED COMMAS</h2>
+
+
+<p><b>LIII. When we quote without any change the words of another person,
+they are enclosed within inverted commas. If they are quoted in the
+indirect form, or if we quote merely the substance, and neglect the
+exact words, inverted commas are not used.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Thereupon the mob bursts in and inquires, "What are you
+doing for the people?"</p>
+
+<p>Thereupon the mob bursts in and inquires what you are doing
+for the people.</p>
+
+<p>He says: "There is no property of any description, if it be
+rightfully held, which had not its foundation in labour."</p>
+
+<p>He frequently calls them "absurd," and applies to them such
+epithets as "jargon," "fustian," and the like.</p></div>
+
+<p>The last sentence might be written without inverted commas. By using
+them we call special<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span> attention to the fact that these were the words
+actually employed, and are not simply words like them.</p>
+
+<p>So, in a passage quoted in the indirect form, if part be quoted
+exactly, it is placed within inverted commas.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The Duke of Portland warmly approved of the work, but justly
+remarked that the king was not "so absolute a thing of
+straw" as he was represented in it.</p></div>
+
+<p>Words referred to simply as words are either placed within inverted
+commas or put in italics.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The word "friendship," in the sense we commonly mean by it,
+is not so much as named in the New Testament.</p></div>
+
+
+<p><b>LIV. When a quotation is interrupted, as in the report of a
+conversation, each continuous part of the quotation is enclosed within
+inverted commas.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"Pardon me, madam," answered Henry, "it was of one Silas
+Morton I spoke."</p></div>
+
+
+<p><b><a name="LV" id="LV"></a>LV. When a quotation occurs in another quotation, single inverted
+commas are used for the former.</b><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"What have you done?" said one of Balfour's brother
+officers. "My duty," said Balfour firmly. "Is it not
+written, 'Thou shalt be zealous even to slaying'?"</p></div>
+
+<p>Some writers use the single commas in ordinary cases. For the inner
+quotation they would then use the double commas.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>LVI. A word that is not classical English, or is used in a sense in
+which it is not classical English, is either enclosed within inverted
+commas or italicized.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Those that have "located" (<i>located</i>) previous to this
+period are left in undisputed possession, provided they have
+improved the land.</p>
+
+<p>Before long, Beckey received not only "the best" foreigners
+(as the phrase is in our noble and admirable society slang),
+but some of "the best" English people too.</p></div>
+
+<p>Foreign words are always italicized. (<a href="#LXIV">Rule LXIV.</a>)</p>
+
+
+<p><b>LVII. The titles of books, of essays, and of other compositions; the
+names of periodicals; and the names of ships, are either enclosed
+within inverted commas or italicized.</b><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>In these "Miscellanies" was first published the "Art of
+Sinking in Poetry," which, by such a train of consequences
+as usually passes in literary quarrels, gave in a short
+time, according to Pope's account, occasion to the
+"Dunciad."</p>
+
+<p>The "Emily St Pierre" (or <i>Emily St Pierre</i>), a British
+ship, was captured on the 18th March, 1862.</p>
+
+<p>It appeared in the "London Gazette" (or <i>London Gazette</i>).</p></div>
+
+<p>The names of periodicals and of ships are more often written in
+italics than enclosed within inverted commas.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>LVIII. If a quotation contains a question, the point of interrogation
+stands within the inverted commas.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>In a voice which was fascination itself, the being addressed
+me, saying, "Wilt thou come with me? Wilt thou be mine?"</p></div>
+
+
+<p><b>LIX. If an interrogative sentence ends with a quotation, the point of
+interrogation stands outside the inverted commas.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>What does this honourable person mean by "a tempest that
+outrides the wind"?</p></div>
+
+<p>Observe how in the example given under <a href="#LV">Rule LV</a>. the point of
+interrogation stands within the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span> double inverted commas, but outside
+the single inverted commas.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>LX. If an interrogative sentence ends with a quotation which is itself
+interrogatory, the point of interrogation is placed outside the
+inverted commas.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Hast thou never cried, "What must I do to be saved"?</p></div>
+
+<p>The reason is, that the question to be answered is not the quoted
+question, but "hast thou never cried?" No writer has been bold enough
+to insert two points of interrogation.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>LXI. The last three rules apply also to exclamatory sentences.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>(1) But I boldly cried out, "Woe unto this city!"</p>
+
+<p>(2) Alas, how few of them can say, "I have striven to the
+very utmost"!</p>
+
+<p>(3) How fearful was the cry: "Help, or we perish"!</p></div>
+
+
+<p><b>LXII. Where an interrogative sentence ends with a quotation of an
+exclamatory nature, or an exclamatory sentence ends with a quotation
+of an interrogative nature,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span> it seems better to place at the end both
+the point of interrogation and the mark of exclamation, the one
+inside, the other outside, the inverted commas.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Do you remember who it was that wrote</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"Whatever England's fields display,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">The fairest scenes are thine, Torbay!"?<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>How much better to cease asking the question, "What would he
+have done in different circumstances?"!</p></div>
+
+<p>Where inverted commas are not used, it seems sufficient to have only
+one point, which must be the one required by the whole sentence, not
+by the quotation.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Do you remember the passage where Burke alludes to the old
+warning of the Church&mdash;<i>Sursum corda</i>?</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="ITALICS" id="ITALICS"></a>ITALICS</h2>
+
+
+<p><b>LXIII. Words to be specially emphasized may be put in italics. In
+writing, the substitute for italics is underlining.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>What, it may well be asked, can the interests of the
+community be those of&mdash;I do not say <i>an</i> individual,
+but&mdash;<i>the</i> individual?</p></div>
+
+<p>The voice can unmistakably indicate what are the emphatic words; but
+italics, only a feeble substitute, ought not to be used unless every
+other means of emphasizing fail. Many writers of authority have
+strongly, and very justly, condemned the too frequent use of them.</p>
+
+<p>Double underlining in letter-writing need not be here adverted to. If
+the person to whom one writes a letter is likely to read it without
+appreciation or care, one is entitled to adopt any means that will
+ensure attention. But if double under<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span>lining is allowable only on this
+ground, general rules are obviously of no use.</p>
+
+
+<p><b><a name="LXIV" id="LXIV"></a>LXIV. Words from a foreign language which have not become classical
+English words, are written in italics.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The slightest <i>double entendre</i> made him blush to the eyes.</p>
+
+<p>Knowledge of French is a <i>sine qu&acirc; non</i>.</p></div>
+
+<p>When foreign words become English, they are no longer italicized.
+Among such words are: rationale, aide-de-camp, quartette, na&iuml;ve,
+libretto. It is often a matter of discretion to say whether a word is
+so far naturalized that it should be written in the ordinary way.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>LXV. Names of newspapers and magazines, and names of ships, are
+generally written in italics; as the <i>Times</i>, the <i>Fort-nightly
+Review</i>, the <i>Great Eastern</i>.</b></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="THE_HYPHEN" id="THE_HYPHEN"></a>THE HYPHEN</h2>
+
+
+<p><b>LXVI. The hyphen is used between the component parts of some compound
+words.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Paper-knife; book-keeping; coal-pit; water-carrier;
+printing-press; sea-water; man-of-war; now-a-days; high-art
+decoration; good-looking.</p></div>
+
+<p>There is no rule to distinguish the compound words that take a hyphen
+from those that do not. If one be in doubt about a particular word,
+the best thing to do is to refer to a dictionary.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>LXVII. When one syllable of a word ends with a vowel, and the next
+syllable begins with the same vowel, the hyphen is placed between the
+syllables to indicate that the two vowels do not form a diphthong,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span>
+that is, that they should not be pronounced together.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Co-operative; co-ordinate; pre-eminently; re-establish;
+re-echo.</p></div>
+
+<p>In the same way the hyphen sometimes ensures that two consonants shall
+be pronounced separately; as in "book-keeping," "shell-less,"
+"cock-crow," "sword-dance."</p>
+
+
+<p><b>LXVIII. As a rule, a hyphen should not be placed after a simple
+prefix: "contravene," "preternatural," "hypercritical," "bilateral."</b></p>
+
+<p>To this there are some exceptions:</p>
+
+<p>(<i>a</i>) "Anti-religious," "ultra-liberal," "semi-lunar," "co-eval." In
+these words the pronunciation is more clearly marked by inserting the
+hyphen. Compare "antiseptic," "antinomian," "ultramontane,"
+"semicircle."</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps among these exceptions should also be included such words as
+"pseudo-critic," "non-ego," "non-existent." Compare "pseudonym," where
+the prefix is contracted, and "nonentity." Words like "pre-eminent,"
+divided for the same reason, have already been noted.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>(<i>b</i>) "Re-creation," "re-mark." The hyphen distinguishes the
+etymological meaning of these words as distinguished from their
+derived and ordinary meaning.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>c</i>) "Pre-Norman," "anti-Darwinian," "philo-Turk." If the
+capital-letter be retained where a prefix is put to a proper name, the
+hyphen is obviously necessary.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>LXIX. When a number is written in words and not in figures, the words
+making up the number, if there be more words than one, are in certain
+cases separated from each other by the hyphen.</b></p>
+
+<p>The numbers to which this rule applies are the cardinal and the
+ordinal numbers from twenty-one and twenty-first to ninety-nine and
+ninety-ninth inclusive. The hyphen is used also when the words are
+inverted; as "four-and-thirty," "six-and-fortieth."</p>
+
+
+<p><b>LXX. Fractional parts written in words are separated in the same way,
+a hyphen being placed between the numerator and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span> denominator; as
+"two-thirds," "three-sixteenths."</b></p>
+
+<p>But if the word "part" or the word "share" follows, the hyphen is not
+used; as "two third parts."</p>
+
+
+<p><b>LXXI. Several words may be joined by hyphens, in order to indicate
+that they are to be read together.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The I-believe-of-Eastern-derivation monosyllable "Bosh."</p>
+
+<p>Additional restrictions were advocated in the cases of
+mothers-of-young-children employed in factories.</p></div>
+
+<p>As this last sentence stands, the hyphen is really the only means of
+making it perfectly clear that those who are referred to as employed
+in factories are the mothers, not the children. Hyphens are sometimes
+used in cases like the following: "A never-to-be-forgotten event,"
+"peace-at-any-rate principles." They are almost invariably used in
+"well-to-do," "alack-a-day."</p>
+
+
+<p><b>LXXII. The prefix "a" before the gerund is followed by a hyphen.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>They went a-hunting.</p>
+
+<p>I lay a-thinking.</p></div>
+
+<p>Note that "agoing" is not divided.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<p><b>LXXIII. When a word is divided at the end of a line, part of the word
+being in the next line, a hyphen is placed after the part at the end
+of the line.</b></p>
+
+<p>So far as rules can be given for the division of the word, it may be
+said:</p>
+
+<p>(<i>a</i>) The division must be at the end of a syllable. The syllable
+according to etymological derivation, and the syllable according to
+pronunciation, are not always the same. In case of conflict the
+pronunciation is to be the guide.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>b</i>) The part in the next line should, if possible, begin with a
+consonant. An examination of a number of words will show that this is
+only another way of saying that we should be guided by pronunciation.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>c</i>) Double letters are divided; as "at-tract," "profes-sion,"
+"dif-ficulty."</p>
+
+<p>The following examples are given consecutively from a book taken at
+random. This seems the best way of illustrating the rule:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Con-fidently; investi-gated; some-thing; institu-tion;
+diffi-culty; at-tractions; exclu-sively; kins-man;
+self-organized; en-tangled; col-lective; inter<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span>mis-sion;
+ma-terials; chan-cellor; col-lege; indus-trious; sub-ject;
+his-tory; con-dition; Low-landers; or-ganization;
+re-cognized; in-famous.</p></div>
+
+<p>Some selected examples may be also given:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Resem-blance; hum-ble; se-cond; trans-lator; justifi-able;
+east-ern; endea-vour.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="THE_APOSTROPHE" id="THE_APOSTROPHE"></a>THE APOSTROPHE</h2>
+
+
+<p><b>LXXIV. The apostrophe is used to indicate that some letter or letters
+of a word are left out.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"E'er" for "ever," "can't" for "cannot," "don't" for "do
+not," "'gin" for "begin."</p></div>
+
+<p>The apostrophe is not used when the word, though contracted in the
+middle, retains its original pronunciation; as "Dr." or "Mr." But it
+is used where the contraction is at the end of the word: "tho',"
+"Peterboro'."</p>
+
+
+<p><b>LXXV. The apostrophe marks the possessive case of nouns. The following
+rules determine where it is to be placed:</b></p>
+
+<p><i>Nouns in the singular number&mdash;</i></p>
+
+<p><b>(1) The letter "s" is added, and the apostrophe is placed before it.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The king's abode. A patriot's reward.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>(2) If the nominative singular of the noun ends in "s," another "s" is
+not added if the repetition of hissing sounds would be displeasing to
+the ear. The apostrophe is then placed at the end of the word.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Hercules' club. Augustus' dignity.</p></div>
+
+<p>Words of one syllable follow the first rule: "James's share." Some
+words of two syllables follow the first rule, some the second: "the
+princess's birthday"; "Francis' style."</p>
+
+<p>This distinction is sanctioned by usage. But it may judiciously be
+disregarded. In speaking we almost entirely ignore it. Why should we
+trouble ourselves with it in writing?</p>
+
+<p><i>Nouns in the plural number&mdash;</i></p>
+
+<p><b>(1) The apostrophe is placed after the "s" of the plural.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Boys' clothing. Our friends' troubles.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>(2) If the plural do not end in "s," an "s" is added, and the
+apostrophe is placed before it.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Men's opinions. The children's pleasure.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<p><b>LXXVI. The apostrophe is used before the "s" of the plural when single
+letters are used as words.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Mind your p's and q's.</p>
+
+<p>He does not dot his i's nor cross his t's.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="MARKS_OF_ELLIPSIS" id="MARKS_OF_ELLIPSIS"></a>MARKS OF ELLIPSIS</h2>
+
+
+<p><b>LXXVII. When, in the middle of a quotation, a part is omitted, several
+asterisks or several full stops are placed in a line to mark the
+omission.</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Clarendon makes the following remark about Lord Falkland:
+"Yet two things he could never bring himself to whilst he
+continued in that office, that was to his death; for which
+he was contented to be reproached as for omissions in a most
+necessary part of his place. The one, employing of spies, or
+giving any countenance or entertainment to them. * * * The
+other, the liberty of opening letters, upon a suspicion that
+they might contain matter of a dangerous consequence." (One
+sentence omitted.)</p>
+
+<p>"The French and Spanish nations," said Louis XIV., "are so
+united that they will henceforth be only one.... My
+grandson, at the head of the Spaniards, will defend the
+French. I, at the head of the French, will defend the
+Spaniards."</p>
+
+<p>"He who in former years," wrote Horace Walpole of his
+father, "was asleep as soon as his head<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span> touched the pillow
+... now never sleeps above an hour without waking."</p></div>
+
+<p>If the passage omitted be of very considerable length, for instance if
+it be a complete paragraph, or if a line of poetry be omitted, the
+asterisks are placed in a line by themselves. There is a tendency to
+confine the asterisk to such cases, and to use the full stop for
+shorter ellipses. If a complete sentence be omitted, the number of
+additional full stops is generally four; if a passage be omitted in
+the middle of a sentence, the number is generally three.</p>
+
+<p>When some of the letters of a name are omitted, their place is
+supplied by a line or dash, whose length depends on the number of
+letters omitted.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The scene of our story is laid in the town of B&mdash;&mdash;. There
+was one H&mdash;&mdash;, who, I learned in after days, was seen
+expiating some maturer offence in the hulks.</p>
+
+<p>Blakesmoor in H&mdash;&mdash;shire.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="REFERENCES_TO_NOTES" id="REFERENCES_TO_NOTES"></a>REFERENCES TO NOTES</h2>
+
+
+<p>Notes are generally placed at the foot of a page; though sometimes
+they are collected at the end of a chapter, or even at the end of a
+book. Various devices are in use for indicating the passage in the
+text to which a note refers.</p>
+
+<p>(1) The six reference signs: the "asterisk" (*), the "dagger"
+(&#8224;) (also called the "obelisk"), the "double
+dagger" (&#8225;), the "section" (&sect;), the
+"parallels" (||), the "paragraph" (&para;). They are
+suitable only where the notes are placed at the foot of a page, and
+are invariably used in the order in which we have mentioned them.</p>
+
+<p>If the number of notes in one page exceeds six, the signs are doubled.
+The seventh note is marked thus: **; the eighth, &#8224;&#8224;; the ninth, &#8225;&#8225;; and so on. But it is better, in
+cases<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span> where the notes are so numerous, to <b>use</b> other means of
+reference.</p>
+
+<p>(2) Figures: either within parentheses, as (1), (2), (3), &amp;c.; or,
+more usually, printed in the raised or "superior" form, as <sup>1</sup> <sup>2</sup> <sup>3</sup>,
+&amp;c. Sometimes the first note in each page is marked;<sup>1</sup> but it is now
+common, in books divided into chapters, to mark the first note in each
+chapter with <sup>1</sup> and then go on with continuous numbers to the end of
+the chapter.</p>
+
+<p>"Superior" figures are now the most usual marks of reference in
+English books.</p>
+
+<p>(3) Letters; which also may either be placed within parentheses or be
+printed in "superior" form: (a), (b), (c), &amp;c., or <sup>a</sup> <sup>b</sup> <sup>c</sup>, &amp;c.
+Italic letters are sometimes used. As a rule the first note in each
+page is marked (a) or <sup>a</sup>. If in one page there are more notes than
+there are letters in the alphabet (which sometimes happens), we go to
+(aa), (bb), (cc), &amp;c., <sup>aa</sup> <sup>bb</sup> <sup>cc</sup>. The letter "j" is often
+omitted.</p>
+
+<p>It is less common to make the letters continuous from page to page.</p>
+
+<p>The sign, whatever it may be, is placed at the beginning of the note,
+and also in the text<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span> immediately after the part to which the note
+refers. The note may refer to a whole sentence, to a part of a
+sentence, even to a single word; the sign is placed as the case may
+be, at the end of the sentence, at the end of the part referred to, or
+after the single word.</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="HOW_TO_CORRECT_A_PRINTERS_PROOF" id="HOW_TO_CORRECT_A_PRINTERS_PROOF"></a>HOW TO CORRECT A PRINTER'S PROOF</h2>
+
+<p class="center"><a href="images/image_01_1.jpg"><img src="images/image_01.jpg" alt="How to correct a printer's proof" width="600" height="453" /></a><br />
+<span class="caption"> Click on the Image for a Larger image.</span></p>
+
+
+
+
+
+<h3>EXPLANATION</h3>
+<p>1. Where a word is to be changed from small letters to capitals, draw
+three lines under it, and write <i>caps.</i> in the margin.</p>
+
+<p>2. Where there is a wrong letter, draw the pen through it, and make
+the right letter opposite in the margin.</p>
+
+<p>3. A letter turned upside down.</p>
+
+<p>4. The substitution of a comma for another point, or for a letter put
+in by mistake.</p>
+
+<p>5. The insertion of a hyphen.</p>
+
+<p>6. To draw close together the letters of a word that stand apart.</p>
+
+<p>7. To take away a superfluous letter or word, the pen is struck
+through it and a round top <i>d</i> made opposite, being the contraction of
+<i>deleatur</i>='expunge.'</p>
+
+<p>8. Where a word has to be changed to Italic, draw a line under it, and
+write <i>Ital.</i> in the margin; and where a word has to be changed from
+Italic to Roman, write <i>Rom.</i> opposite.</p>
+
+<p>9. When words are to be transposed, three ways of marking them are
+shown; but they are not usually numbered unless more than three words
+have their order changed.</p>
+
+<p>10. The transposition of letters in a word.</p>
+
+<p>11. To change one word for another.</p>
+
+<p>12. The substitution of a period or a colon for any other point. It is
+customary to encircle these two points with a line.</p>
+
+<p>13. The substitution of a capital for a small letter.</p>
+
+<p>14. The insertion of a word or of a letter.</p>
+
+<p>15. When a paragraph commences where it is not intended, connect the
+matter by a line, and write in the margin opposite <i>run on</i>.</p>
+
+<p>16. Where a space or a quadrat stands up and appears, draw a line
+under it, and make a strong perpendicular line in the margin.</p>
+
+<p>17. When a letter of a different size from that used, or of a
+different face, appears in a word, draw a line either through it or
+under it, and write opposite <i>w.f.</i>, for 'wrong fount.'</p>
+
+<p>18. The marks for a paragraph, when its commencement has been
+omitted.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>19. When a word or words have been struck out, and it is subsequently
+decided that they shall remain, make dots under them, and write the
+word <i>stet</i> in the margin.</p>
+
+<p>20. The mark for a space where it has been omitted between two words.</p>
+
+<p>21. To change a word from small letters to small capitals, make two
+lines under the word, and write <i>sm. caps.</i> opposite. To change a word
+from small capitals to small letters, make one line under the word,
+and write in the margin <i>lo. ca.</i>, for 'lower case.'</p>
+
+<p>22. The mark for the apostrophe; and also the marks for inverted
+commas.</p>
+
+<p>23. The manner of marking an omitted passage when it is too long to be
+written in the side margin. When this occurs, it may be written either
+at the top or the bottom of the page.</p>
+
+<p>24. Marks when lines or words are not straight.</p>
+
+<p>When corrected, the passage given above would read as follows&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>ANTIQUITY, like every other quality that attracts the notice of
+mankind, has undoubtedly votaries that <i>reverence</i> it, not from
+reason, but from prejudice. Some seem to admire indiscriminately
+whatever has been long preserved, without considering that time has
+sometimes co-operated with chance: all perhaps are more willing to
+honour past than present excellence; and the mind contemplates genius
+through the shades of age, as the eye surveys the sun through
+artificial opacity. The great contention of criticism is to find the
+faults of the moderns and the beauties of the ancients. While an
+author is yet living, we estimate his powers by his worst
+performances; and when he is dead, we rate them by his best.</p>
+
+<p>To works, however, of which the excellence is not absolute and
+definite, but gradual and comparative; to works, not raised upon
+principles demonstrative and scientific, but appealing wholly to
+observation and experience, no other test can be applied than <span class="smcap">LENGTH</span>
+of duration and continuance of esteem.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="full" />
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@@ -0,0 +1,2517 @@
+The Project Gutenberg eBook, "Stops", by Paul Allardyce
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: "Stops"
+       Or How to Punctuate. A Practical Handbook for Writers and Students
+
+
+Author: Paul Allardyce
+
+
+
+Release Date: March 29, 2007  [eBook #20938]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII)
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK "STOPS"***
+
+
+E-text prepared by Chris Curnow, Sankar Viswanathan, and the Project
+Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team (https://www.pgdp.net)
+
+
+
+Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this
+      file which includes the original illustrations.
+      See 20938-h.htm or 20938-h.zip:
+      (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/2/0/9/3/20938/20938-h/20938-h.htm)
+      or
+      (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/2/0/9/3/20938/20938-h.zip)
+
+
+Transcriber's note:
+
+      Superscripted letters are indicated by the carat character
+      followed by the letter(s) within curly brackets. Example: ^{a}
+
+
+
+
+
+"STOPS"
+
+Or, How to Punctuate
+
+A Practical Handbook for Writers and Students
+
+by
+
+PAUL ALLARDYCE
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+                   "For a reader that pointeth ill,
+                   A good sentence oft may spill."
+
+                              --CHAUCER--_Romaunt of the Rose_
+
+
+
+
+London
+T. Fisher Unwin Ltd.
+Adelphi Terrace
+Eighteenth Impression
+1895
+
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+   INTRODUCTION
+
+   THE FULL STOP
+
+   THE COMMA
+
+   THE SEMICOLON
+
+   THE COLON
+
+   THE POINT OF INTERROGATION
+
+   THE MARK OF EXCLAMATION
+
+   THE DASH
+
+   BRACKETS (OR THE PARENTHESIS)
+
+   INVERTED COMMAS
+
+   ITALICS
+
+   THE HYPHEN
+
+   THE APOSTROPHE
+
+   ELLIPSIS
+
+   REFERENCES TO NOTES
+
+   CORRECTION OF PROOFS
+
+
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+
+_The Use of Punctuation._--Punctuation is a device for marking out the
+arrangement of a writer's ideas. Reading is thereby made easier than
+it otherwise would be.
+
+A writer's ideas are expressed by a number of words arranged in
+groups, the words in one group being more closely connected with one
+another than they are with those in the next group. An example will
+show this grouping in its simplest form:
+
+He never convinces the reason, or fills the imagination,
+-----------------------------     ---------------------
+or touches the heart.
+   -----------------
+
+To understand what is written, the reader must group the words
+together in the way intended by the writer; and in doing this he can
+receive assistance in various ways. Partly by the inflection of the
+words; partly by their arrangement; partly also by punctuation. As to
+inflection, we see in Latin an adjective and a substantive standing
+together, yet differing in gender, in number, or in case; and we know
+that the adjective does not qualify the substantive. But English has
+not the numerous inflections of Latin. More scrupulous care therefore
+is needed in the arrangement of words in order to bring together in
+position such as are connected in meaning. Yet this is not always
+enough. Except in the very simplest sentences there are generally
+several arrangements which are grammatically possible; and, though all
+save one may be absurd in meaning, the reader may waver for a moment
+before the absurdity strikes him. Some artificial aid is thus needed
+to prevent him from thinking of any arrangement but the right one.
+There is no fault, for instance, to be found with the arrangement of
+the following words, yet, printed without points, they form a mere
+puzzle:
+
+     He had arrived already prepossessed with a strong feeling of
+     the neglect which he had experienced from the Whigs his old
+     friends however all of them appeared ravished to see him
+     offered apologies for the mode in which they had treated him
+     and caught at him as at a twig when they were drowning the
+     influence of his talents they understood and were willing to
+     see it thrown into the opposite scale.
+
+Of course, with a little effort the meaning can be discovered; but if
+such a little effort had to be put forth in every page of a whole
+book, reading would become a serious task. By means of points, or
+"stops," we are spared much of this. The groups are presented
+ready-made to the eye; and the mind, bent on understanding the
+thought, is not distracted by having first to discover the connection
+of the words.
+
+The reader's task is more difficult where two or more ways of grouping
+the words not only are grammatically possible, but lead each to a more
+or less intelligible meaning. As a rule he can find out from the
+context which way the writer meant him to take. One politician writes
+to another: "I ask you as the recognized leader of our party what you
+think of this measure;" and nobody accuses the writer of presumption.
+We might even pass over the following startling sentence without
+observing the reflection which it casts on a respectable body of men:
+
+     Hence he considered marriage with a modern political
+     economist as dangerous.
+
+But when we read that "the State may impose restrictions on the
+mothers of young children employed in factories," we may well have
+some doubt whether it is the mothers or the children who are employed
+in factories. And it would not be easy to give an answer, if we were
+asked to state the precise meaning of Gray's line:
+
+    And all the air a solemn stillness holds.
+
+In longer and more involved sentences the risk of ambiguity is obviously
+much greater. Now by the judicious use of points ambiguous language can
+occasionally be made clear. "The mothers-of-young-children employed in
+factories" is no doubt a bold form, but it leaves us in no doubt as to
+the meaning. So the ambiguous word "too" does not embarrass us when we
+read: "This problem, too, easy as it may seem, remains unsolved." (See
+other examples under Rules XIV. and XV.) Only occasionally, however,
+can clearness be secured by punctuation. No pointing can help us much in
+Gray's line, or could have given to Pyrrhus the true reading of "Credo
+te AEacida Romanos vincere posse." And, even where it would make the
+meaning clear, it is a lazy device, the over-use of which is the sure
+sign of careless or unskilful composition. The true remedy for ambiguity
+is not punctuation, but re-writing.
+
+Punctuation, it is sometimes said, serves to mark the pauses that
+would be made in speaking. This is so far true; for by the pause we
+arrange our spoken words into proper groups, thereby enabling our
+hearers readily to seize the meaning. But between the punctuation of
+the pen and that of the voice there is a great difference in degree.
+By the voice we can express the most delicate shades of thought, while
+only in the roughest way can the comma, the semicolon, and the other
+points, imitate its effects. As to how far the attempt at imitation
+should be carried, every writer will have to use his own discretion;
+but, whether we point freely or sparingly, we must for the reader's
+sake point consistently. It should at the same time be borne in mind
+that the lavish use of points often leads to confusion.
+
+_General Rules._--Keeping in view the use of punctuation, we can now
+form two general rules to guide us when we are in doubt which point we
+should insert, or whether we should insert a point at all.
+
+     (1) _The point that will keep the passage most free from
+     ambiguity, or make it easiest to read, is the right point to
+     use._
+
+     (2) _If the passage be perfectly free from ambiguity and be
+     not less easy to understand without any point, let no point
+     be used._
+
+_The Relativity of Points._--In order to decide in any given case what
+point ought to be used, we begin by considering the nature of the
+pause in itself. But we must do more. We must consider how we have
+pointed the rest of the passage. The pause that should be marked by a
+comma in one case, may require a semicolon in another case; the colon
+may take the place that the semicolon would generally fill. This will
+be best understood by means of the examples that will afterwards be
+given. (See Rules XXIII., XXV.)
+
+_Usage._--Except within somewhat narrow limits, usage does not help us
+much. Different writers have different methods, and few are
+consistent. To some extent there is a fair degree of uniformity; for
+instance, in the placing of colons before quotations, and in the use
+of inverted commas. But in many cases there can hardly be said to be
+any fixed usage, and in these we can freely apply the general rules
+already laid down. Much might be said for a complete disregard of
+usage, for a thorough recasting of our system of punctuation. Sooner
+or later something must be done to relieve the overburdened comma of
+part of the work which it is expected to perform. Not only is the
+comma a less effective point than it might be, but the habit of using
+it for so many purposes is exercising a really mischievous effect on
+English style. In the meantime, and as a step towards a better system,
+there is an evident advantage in giving to the existing vague usage a
+more or less precise form. Nothing more than this has been aimed at in
+the present work.
+
+In giving rules of punctuation we cannot hope to deal with all, or
+with nearly all, the cases that may arise in writing. Punctuation is
+intimately connected with style. As forms of thought are infinite in
+number, so are the modes of expression; and punctuation, adapting
+itself to these, is an instrument capable of manipulation in a
+thousand ways. We can therefore set forth only some typical cases,
+forming a body of examples to which a little reflection will suggest a
+variety both of applications and of exceptions.
+
+It will be noticed that we do not take the points exactly in their
+order of strength. It seemed better to deal with the full stop before
+passing to the punctuation of the parts of a sentence. Again, it may
+be said that, strictly speaking, italics do not form part of the
+subject. But they are at any rate so intimately connected with it that
+to have passed them over would have been merely pedantic. Even the
+sections on references to notes and on the correction of proofs may
+not be considered altogether out of place. As few grammatical terms as
+possible have been made use of. Some have been found necessary in
+order to secure the brevity of statement proper to a little work on a
+little subject.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+THE FULL STOP
+
+
+I. A full stop is placed at the end of every sentence that is neither
+exclamatory nor interrogative.
+
+     A penal statute is virtually annulled if the penalties which
+     it imposes are regularly remitted as often as they are
+     incurred. The sovereign was undoubtedly competent to remit
+     penalties without limit. He was, therefore, competent to
+     annul virtually a penal statute. It might seem that there
+     could be no serious objection to his doing formally what he
+     might do virtually.
+
+How much should be put into a sentence is rather a matter of style
+than of punctuation. The tendency of modern literature is in favour of
+the short sentence. In the prose of Milton and of Jeremy Taylor, the
+full stop does not come to release the thought till all the
+circumstances have been grouped around it, and the necessary
+qualifications made. In Macaulay the circumstances and the
+qualifications are set out sentence by sentence. So the steps of
+reasoning in the example which we have given are stated with that
+distinct pause between each of them which the reader would make if he
+thought them out for himself. They might be welded together thus:
+
+     Seeing that a penal statute is virtually annulled if the
+     penalties which it imposes are regularly remitted as often
+     as they are incurred, and seeing that the sovereign was
+     undoubtedly competent to remit penalties without limit, it
+     follows that he was competent to annul virtually a penal
+     statute; and it might seem that there could be no serious
+     objection to his doing formally what he might do virtually.
+
+Both forms are correct in point of punctuation. Which is the better
+form is a question of style. Take another example:
+
+     The sides of the mountain were covered with trees; the banks
+     of the brooks were diversified with flowers; every blast
+     shook spices from the rocks; and every mouth dropped fruits
+     upon the ground.
+
+There is here an advantage in putting these four statements together,
+instead of making four separate sentences. We can more easily combine
+the details, and so form a single picture--a picture of fertility.
+
+
+II. As a rule the full stop is not to be inserted till the sentence be
+grammatically complete. But some parts of the sentence necessary to
+make it grammatically complete may be left for the reader to supply.
+
+     It is well said, in every sense, that a man's religion is
+     the chief fact with regard to him. A man's or a nation of
+     men's. By religion I do not mean here the church-creed which
+     he professes, the articles of faith which he will sign and,
+     in words or otherwise, assert. Not this wholly, in many
+     cases not this at all.
+
+
+III. When a sentence is purposely left unfinished, the dash takes the
+place of the full stop. (See Rule XL.)
+
+     "Excuse me," said I, "but I am a sort of collector." "Not
+     Income-tax?" cried His Majesty, hastily removing his pipe
+     from his lips.
+
+
+IV. A full stop is placed after most abbreviations, after initial
+letters, and after ordinal numbers in Roman characters.
+
+     Gen. i. 20; two lbs.; A.D. 1883; 3 p.m.; &c., and etc.;
+     M.D., J. S. Mill; William III., King of England; MS., LL.D.
+     (not M.S. and L.L.D.).
+
+Note that the use of the full stop in these cases does not prevent
+another point from being used immediately after it. But if they occur
+at the end of a sentence, another full stop is not added; or, more
+correctly, it may be said that Rule IV. does not apply at the end of a
+sentence.
+
+"Mr," "Messrs," "Dr"--abbreviations which retain the last letter of
+the whole word--are written without a point.
+
+
+
+
+THE COMMA
+
+
+V. The comma indicates a short pause in a sentence. It is used when we
+wish to separate words that stand together, and at the same time to
+stop as little as possible the flow of the sentence.
+
+     When the earl reached his own province, he found that
+     preparations had been made to repel him.
+
+     Though it is difficult, or almost impossible, to reclaim a
+     savage, bred from his youth to war and the chase, to the
+     restraints and the duties of civilized life, nothing is more
+     easy or common than to find men who have been educated in
+     all the habits and comforts of improved society, willing to
+     exchange them for the wild labours of the hunter and the
+     fisher.
+
+
+VI. Where there is no danger of obscurity, the subject must not be
+separated from the predicate by any point.
+
+     The eminence of your station gave you a commanding prospect
+     of your duty.
+
+
+VII. When the subject is long, a comma may be placed after it.
+
+     To say that he endured without a murmur the misfortune that
+     now came upon him, is to say only what his previous life
+     would have led us to expect.
+
+In every sentence the subject, whether expressed in one word or in
+several words, must be grasped as a whole; and, when the subject is
+long, one is often assisted in doing this by having a point to mark
+its termination. The eye at once observes the separating line. Note
+the corresponding pause in the reading of such sentences.
+
+
+VIII. When the subject consists of several parts, _e.g._, of several
+nouns, a comma is placed after the last part.
+
+     A few daring jests, a brawl, and a fatal stab, make up the
+     life of Marlowe.
+
+     Time, money, and friends, were needed to carry on the work.
+
+This rule will appear reasonable if we consider an apparent exception
+to it. When the last noun sums up all the others, or marks the highest
+point of a climax, no comma is placed after it.
+
+     Freedom, honour, religion was at stake.
+
+If "religion" be regarded as marking the highest point of a climax,
+the predicate is read with "religion," and with it alone. When so
+great a thing as religion is said to be at stake, everything else is
+dropped out of sight, or is held to be included. But write the three
+names as if they were of equal importance; the comma should then be
+inserted:
+
+     Freedom, honour, and religion, were at stake.
+
+But it is not necessary to use a point in such a sentence as this:
+"Time and tide wait for no man." For we see without the aid of a point
+that the predicate is to be read with the two nouns equally.
+
+The principle might be applied also in cases like the following,
+though few writers carry it so far:
+
+     It was the act of a high-spirited, generous, just nation.
+
+     It was the act of a high-spirited, generous, and just,
+     nation.
+
+
+IX. Dependent clauses are generally separated from the rest of the
+sentence in which they occur. The usual point is the comma.
+
+     Be his motives what they may, he must soon disperse his
+     followers.
+
+     This relation of your army to the crown will, if I am not
+     greatly mistaken, become a serious dilemma in your politics.
+
+Of course, this rule must be qualified by the rules for the stronger
+points, especially by those for the semicolon and the colon. It is
+often necessary to separate the clause from the rest of the sentence
+by a strong point.
+
+EXCEPTIONS.--(I) No point is needed if either the dependent clause or
+the principal clause be short.
+
+     He would be shocked if he were to know the truth.
+
+But if the dependent clause be inserted parenthetically, it is marked
+off by commas or the other marks of parenthesis, however short it may
+be. (See Rule X.)
+
+If the sentence last quoted were inverted, a comma would be placed
+after the dependent clause.
+
+     If he were to know the truth, he would be shocked.
+
+In the first form of this example, "he would be shocked" is a
+definite, finished statement, the necessary qualification to which
+should follow with as little pause as possible. But in the inverted
+form, the first part of the sentence--"if he were to know the
+truth"--is not a finished statement, and the mind may pause for a
+moment before going on to the consequence, knowing that the
+consequence must follow.
+
+(2) No point is needed if there be a very close grammatical connection
+between the dependent clause and some word or words preceding it.
+
+     They had so long brooded over their own distresses that they
+     knew nothing of how the world was changing around them.
+
+Note that by the word "so" the clause "that they knew nothing" is
+joined very closely to the previous part of the sentence; and that the
+two clauses "that they knew nothing" and "how the world was changing
+around them," are even more closely joined to one another by the
+preposition "of." For the same reason, where the object is a clause,
+there is no point before it.
+
+     He confessed to us that he had not thought over the matter.
+
+A useful distinction will afterwards be drawn between the different
+kinds of relative clauses. (Rule XIV.)
+
+
+X. Words thrown in so as to interrupt slightly the flow of a sentence
+are marked off by commas.
+
+     He resolved, therefore, to visit the prisoner early in the
+     morning.
+
+     This, I think, is the right view of the case.
+
+     The first ideas of beauty formed by the mind are, in all
+     probability, derived from colours.
+
+The following are some of the words and phrases that come under this
+rule: _therefore_, _too_, _indeed_, _however_, _moreover_, _then_,
+_accordingly_, _consequently_; _in short_, _in fine_, _in truth_, _in
+fact_, _to a certain extent_, _all things considered_.
+
+This rule of high pointing should be applied very sparingly, and might
+really be restricted to cases like the "I think" of the second
+example. Nowadays the tendency is against the pointing of such words
+as "therefore" and "indeed."
+
+Where the words thrown in make a very distinct break in the sentence,
+they should be pointed off by means of the dash or of brackets.
+
+
+XI. Where two parts of a sentence have some words in common, which are
+not expressed for each of them, but are given only when the words in
+which they differ have been separately stated, the second part is
+marked off by commas.
+
+     His classification is different from, and more comprehensive
+     than, any other which we have met.
+
+     This foundation is a nursing-mother of lay, as distinguished
+     from religious, oratorios.
+
+These examples come within the principle of Rule X.
+
+
+XII. When words are common to two or more parts of a sentence, and are
+expressed only in one part, a comma is often used to show that they
+are omitted in the other parts.
+
+     London is the capital of England; Paris, of France; Berlin,
+     of Germany.
+
+     In the worst volume of elder date, the historian may find
+     something to assist or direct his enquiries; the
+     antiquarian, something to elucidate what requires
+     illustration; the philologist, something to insert in the
+     margin of his dictionary.
+
+Though many writers constantly punctuate contracted sentences in this
+way, it is well not to insert the comma when the meaning is equally
+clear without it. It is unnecessary in the following sentence:
+
+     Saul hath slain his thousands, and David his ten thousands.
+
+
+XIII. Words placed out of their natural position in the sentence are
+often followed by a comma.
+
+(1) The object is usually placed after the verb; when placed at the
+beginning of the sentence, it should be separated from the subject by
+a comma, unless the meaning would otherwise be perfectly clear and be
+readily seized.
+
+     The proportions of belief and of unbelief in the human mind
+     in such cases, no human judgment can determine.
+
+There is the same reason for inserting the comma in such cases as
+there is for inserting it after a long subject. Moreover, there is
+often need of some device to remove the ambiguities that are caused by
+inversion. In English, the meaning of words is so greatly determined
+by their position that, in altering the usual arrangement of a
+sentence, there is risk of being misunderstood. The danger of
+inserting the point in this case is that the object may be read with
+the words going before, and not with its own verb. If there is a
+possibility of this, the point should not be used.
+
+Of course no point should be placed after the object in such a
+sentence as the following:--"One I love, and the other I hate."
+
+(2) An adverbial phrase, that is a phrase used as an adverb, is
+usually placed after the verb; when it begins the sentence, a comma
+follows it unless it is very short.
+
+     From the ridge a little way to the east, one can easily
+     trace the windings of the river.
+
+     In order to gain his point, he did not hesitate to use
+     deception.
+
+     In ordinary circumstances I should have acted differently.
+
+No point would be used in the above sentences, if the adverbial
+phrases occurred in their usual position.
+
+     He did not hesitate to use deception in order to gain his
+     point.
+
+Nor is any point used when, as often happens in such sentences, the
+verb precedes the subject.
+
+     Not very far from the foot of the mountain lies the village
+     we hope to reach.
+
+(3) An adjective phrase, that is a phrase used as an adjective, is
+usually placed immediately after the word which it qualifies; when it
+appears in any other place, a comma is often usefully placed before
+it.
+
+     A question was next put to the assembly, of supreme
+     importance at such a moment.
+
+The phrase "of supreme importance at such a moment" is to be taken
+along with "question"; the comma shows that it is not to be taken
+along with "assembly." There is here a further reason for the point,
+inasmuch as the phrase acquires from its position almost the
+importance of an independent statement. But, where the connexion
+between the adjective phrase and the substantive is very close, and
+where there is no risk of ambiguity, no point is to be used. "The
+morning was come of a mighty day"--such a sentence needs no point.
+Observe also that co-ordinate adjective phrases take a comma before
+them, wherever they are placed. (See next rule.)
+
+
+XIV. Adjective clauses and contracted adjective clauses are marked off
+by commas, if they are used parenthetically or co-ordinately; no point
+is used if they are used restrictively.[1]
+
+     The "Religio Laici," which borrows its title from the
+     "Religio Medici" of Browne, is almost the only work of
+     Dryden which can be considered as a voluntary effusion.
+
+     That sentiment of homely benevolence was worth all the
+     splendid sayings that are recorded of kings.
+
+     The advocates for this revolution, not satisfied with
+     exaggerating the vices of their ancient government, strike
+     at the fame of their country itself.
+
+     The ships bound on these voyages were not advertised.
+
+     Chapter VII., where we stopped reading, is full of interest.
+
+     The chapter where we stopped reading is full of interest.
+
+We must explain this distinction at some length; for, on the one hand,
+it is hardly ever observed, and, on the other hand, almost every
+sentence that we write furnishes an example of it.
+
+[Footnote 1: To distinguish the different kinds of adjective clauses,
+different names have been used: "co-ordinating" and "restrictive"
+(Bain); "continuative" and "definitive," or "restrictive" (Mason).]
+
+Examine the first sentence which we have quoted. It contains both a
+co-ordinate clause, "Which borrows its title," &c., and a restrictive
+clause, "Which can be considered as a voluntary effusion." In
+distinguishing them we may begin by applying tests of almost a
+mechanical nature.
+
+(_a_) The first clause may be thrown into the form of an independent
+statement; the second cannot. Thus: "The 'Religio Laici' borrows its
+title from the 'Religio Medici' of Browne. It is almost the only
+work," &c.; or, "The 'Religio Laici' (it borrows its title from the
+'Religio Medici' of Browne) is almost the only work," &c. We cannot in
+the same way destroy the close connexion of the second clause with
+"the only work of Dryden."
+
+(_b_) The first clause may be omitted and still leave a complete and
+intelligent sentence; if we were to omit the second clause, the
+sentence would cease to have any meaning.
+
+These tests may be practically useful; but they are rough and by no
+means infallible. Let us see the reason for the distinction.
+
+The name "Religio Laici" of itself tells us what thing is spoken
+about. It is the name of one thing, and only of one thing. The clause
+that follows informs us, indeed, of a fact concerning the poem; but
+the information is given purely as information, not in order to keep
+us from confounding this "Religio Laici" with some other "Religio
+Laici" that did not borrow its title. "Work of Dryden," however, is
+the name of a class, for Dryden wrote many works. Now the whole class
+is not here in question; it must be limited, narrowed, or restricted,
+to one part of it, namely Dryden's voluntary effusions; and it is thus
+limited, narrowed, or restricted, by the relative clause "which can be
+considered as a voluntary effusion."
+
+Take another example, where the name in both cases is that of a class,
+and note the difference of meaning which results from different
+pointing:--"The houses in London which are badly built, ought to be
+pulled down." "The houses in London" expresses a class of objects; the
+relative clause limits the name to a smaller class, the badly built
+houses; and the meaning is, that houses of this smaller class ought to
+be pulled down. Now insert the comma:--"The houses in London, which
+are badly built, ought to be pulled down." The class is not narrowed;
+and the meaning is, that all houses in London, seeing they are badly
+built, ought to be pulled down.
+
+The difference between the two kinds of relative clauses being
+understood, there will be no difficulty in applying the rule where an
+adjective clause is contracted. Compare the fourth example given under
+the rule with the following sentence:--"People not satisfied with
+their present condition, should strive to alter it." In this sentence
+"not satisfied" limits the general name "people"; the advice is given
+only to one section of the people: the dissatisfied as distinguished
+from the satisfied people.
+
+So a single adjective may be used co-ordinately:
+
+     "What!" replied the Emperor, "you do not see it? It is my
+     star, brilliant."
+
+This is a case where a dash would be more expressive.
+
+Note that the rule applies only where the adjunct immediately follows
+the substantive. If the adjunct is placed elsewhere, different
+considerations apply. See Rule XIII. (3).
+
+     Neither can any man marvel at the play of puppets, that
+     goeth behind the curtain and adviseth well of the motion.
+
+
+XV. Words in apposition are generally marked off by commas.
+
+     James Watt, the great improver of the steam-engine, died on
+     the 25th of August, 1819.
+
+But where the words in apposition are used in a limiting or
+distinguishing sense, the principle of Rule XIV. applies, and no point
+is used. Thus we should write "Burns, the poet," "Dickens, the
+novelist"; but, if we wished to distinguish them from another Burns
+and another Dickens, we should omit the comma.
+
+     It is of Pliny the naturalist, not of Pliny the
+     letter-writer, that we are now speaking.
+
+Again, where the general name precedes, we should in most cases use no
+point, for the special name will be restrictive: "the poet Burns,"
+"the novelist Dickens."
+
+There is, perhaps, not much authority for the consistent carrying out
+of this distinction; but it seems useful and logical. Some cases, such
+as "Paul the Apostle," "William the Conqueror," "Thomas the Rhymer,"
+"Peter the Hermit," present no difficulty. The name and the
+descriptive title are blended together, and form as distinctly one
+name as does "Roderick Random."
+
+
+XVI. A conjunction marks a transition to something new--enforcing,
+qualifying, or explaining, what has gone before, and is therefore
+generally preceded by some point. The proper point before a
+conjunction is determined by many circumstances: among others, by the
+more or less close connexion of the things joined, by the number of
+words, and by the use of points for other purposes in the same
+sentence. To deal with the different conjunctions one by one, would
+involve a repetition of much that is said in other rules. For
+instance, _if_, _unless_, _though_, _for_, _because_, _since_, and the
+like, will be pointed in accordance with Rule IX. It will be well,
+however, to lay down separate rules for the pointing of the common
+conjunctions, _and_ and _or_.
+
+1. _AND._--(a) Where "and" joins two single words, as a rule no point
+is used.
+
+     No work has been so much studied and discussed.
+
+Compare this with the following sentence, where groups of words are
+joined.
+
+     The work has been much studied, and has been much discussed.
+
+In the following sentence the insertion of a comma would change the
+meaning.
+
+     On this shelf you will put books and pamphlets published in
+     the present year.
+
+As the sentence stands, "published in the present year" applies both
+to books and to pamphlets: books published in the present year, and
+pamphlets published in the present year. If there were a comma before
+"and," the meaning would be: "On this shelf you will put books of any
+date, and pamphlets of the present year."
+
+(b) When "and" joins the separate words of a series of three or more
+words, a comma is placed before it.
+
+     Trees, and bridges, and houses, were swept down by the
+     flooded stream.
+
+(c) But where the different words are intended to be combined quickly,
+so as to present to the mind only one picture, they would be spoken
+without any pause, and in writing must not be separated by any point.
+
+     Whirling and boiling and roaring like thunder, the stream
+     came down upon them.
+
+(d) Two of the words of the series may be more closely connected with
+one another than with the other words of the series, and are,
+therefore, not to be separated by any point.
+
+In the following sentence, "all" qualifies both "tracts" and
+"pamphlets," and thus joins them closely.
+
+     My unbound books, and all my tracts and pamphlets, are to be
+     tied up with pink tape.
+
+(e) When "and" occurs only between the two last words of the series,
+the comma is usually inserted before it.
+
+     Trumpets, drums, and kettle-drums, contended in noise with
+     the shouts of a numerous rabble.
+
+Many writers omit this comma. But it seems useful in order to make the
+previous rule (_d_) effective.
+
+2. When "and" joins two phrases, a comma generally precedes it.
+
+     The ceremony was performed in the accustomed manner, and
+     with due solemnity.
+
+If, as in the following sentence, a preposition is common to two
+phrases, and is not repeated in the second, no comma is used.
+
+     With proper care and good instruments, the work may be
+     successfully carried out.
+
+3. When "and" joins two clauses, the preceding point may be the
+comma, the semicolon, or even the full stop. Which point is right in
+any particular case, will depend upon considerations set out in other
+rules.
+
+The following example illustrates different cases:
+
+     Within that charmed rock, so Torridge boatmen tell, sleeps
+     now the old Norse Viking in his leaden coffin, with all his
+     fairy treasure and his crown of gold; and, as the boy looks
+     at the spot, he fancies, and almost hopes, that the day may
+     come when he shall have to do his duty against the invader
+     as boldly as the men of Devon did then. And past him, far
+     below, upon the soft south-eastern breeze, the stately ships
+     go sliding out to sea.
+
+_OR._--The rules for the conjunction "and" apply with little change to
+the conjunction "or"; but there are one or two special points to note.
+
+(a) When "or" is preceded at no great distance by "either" or
+"whether," the two words should be separated by no point.
+
+     They must either yield this point or resign.
+
+     It does not matter whether we go or stay.
+
+But a point is inserted if the words stand farther apart, or if each
+is followed by a complete clause.
+
+     Either this road leads to the town, or we have misunderstood
+     the directions.
+
+(b) "Or," joining two alternatives, takes no point before it; but when
+it joins two words that are used, not as real alternatives, but as
+synonyms, a comma is inserted.
+
+     England or France might be asked to join the alliance.
+
+Here "or" is used as a real alternative conjecture, and therefore
+without any point. In the following examples, the "or" joins
+equivalent expressions:
+
+     England, or the nation of shopkeepers, would never be asked
+     to join such an alliance.
+
+     We perceive, or are conscious of, nothing but changes, or
+     events.
+
+As a reason for the insertion of the comma in these two examples, it
+may be said that the repetition of an idea already expressed does for
+a moment stop the flow of the sentence. A real alternative, on the
+other hand, forms an essential part of it, and is within its current.
+
+
+XVII. In cases where no point would be used before a conjunction, a
+comma is inserted if the conjunction be omitted.
+
+     I pay this tribute to the memory of that noble, reverend,
+     learned, excellent person.
+
+In the following examples no point occurs; for it cannot be said that
+a conjunction is omitted. To insert the conjunction would be to
+express a slightly different shade of meaning:
+
+     A grand old man.
+
+     Three tall young soldiers.
+
+"Old man" is virtually a single word and in fact many languages use
+only a single word to express the idea.
+
+
+XVIII. Where a comma would be used if the conjunction were expressed,
+some stronger point may be used if it be omitted.
+
+     Let us get an American revenue as we have got an American
+     Empire. English privileges have made it all that it is;
+     English privileges alone will make it all that it can be.
+
+
+XIX. A comma is placed after a noun or a pronoun in the vocative case,
+if a mark of exclamation be not used, or be reserved till the first
+distinct pause in the sentence.
+
+     Yet I own, my lord, that yours is not an uncommon character.
+
+     I am, Sir, yours truly, John Smith.
+
+     O Italy, gather thy blood into thy heart!
+
+     O Thou, who in the heavens dost dwell!
+
+Whether a comma or a mark of exclamation ought to be used after the
+vocative case, depends entirely on the degree of emphasis with which
+the words would be spoken. If, in speaking, a slight pause would be
+made, the comma, not the mark of exclamation, is the proper point.
+
+
+XX. If a word be repeated in order to give it intensive force, a comma
+follows it each time that it occurs; but, in the case of an adjective
+repeated before a noun, not after the last expression of it.
+
+     It was work, work, work, from morning till night.
+
+     He travelled a long, long way.
+
+Dean Alford, in "The Queen's English," says that this mode of pointing
+such expressions as "the wide wide world," "the deep deep sea," makes
+them absolute nonsense. The suggestion of a pause seems to us to bring
+out more effectively the intensive force of the repetition. And we
+doubt whether Dean Alford himself would have omitted the comma in our
+first example.
+
+
+
+
+THE SEMICOLON
+
+
+XXI. The semicolon is the point usually employed to separate parts of
+a sentence between which there is a very distinct break, but which are
+too intimately connected to be made separate sentences.
+
+     The patient dates his pleasure from the day when he feels
+     that his cure has begun; and, perhaps, the day of his
+     perfect re-establishment does not yield him pleasure so
+     great.
+
+     The author himself is the best judge of his own performance;
+     no one has so deeply meditated on the subject; no one is so
+     sincerely interested in the event.
+
+     Not one word is said, nor one suggestion made, of a general
+     right to choose our own governors; to cashier them for
+     misconduct; and to form a government for ourselves.
+
+The semicolon is used in enumerations, as in the last example, in
+order to keep the parts more distinctly separate.
+
+
+XXII. When a sentence consists of two or more independent clauses not
+joined by conjunctions, the clauses are separated by semicolons.
+
+     To command a crime is to commit one; he who commands an
+     assassination, is by every one regarded as an assassin.
+
+     His knowledge was too multifarious to be always exact; his
+     pursuits were too eager to be always cautious.
+
+If the conjunction "and" were inserted in the last sentence, the comma
+would be used instead of the semicolon. A conjunction forms a bridge
+over the gap between two statements, and, where they are neither long
+nor complicated, we pass from one to the other without noticing any
+distinct break. But there is such a break when the conjunction is
+omitted, and therefore we use a stronger point. The two parts of an
+antithesis are generally separated in this way.
+
+
+XXIII. A pause generally indicated by a comma may be indicated by a
+semicolon when commas are used in the sentence for other purposes.
+(See _Introduction: Relativity of Points_.)
+
+     I got several things of less value, but not all less useful
+     to me, which I omitted setting down before: as, in
+     particular, pens, ink, and paper; several parcels in the
+     captain's, mate's, gunner's, and carpenter's keeping; three
+     or four compasses, some mathematical instruments, dials,
+     perspectives, charts, and books of navigation.
+
+     In this I was certainly in the wrong too, the honest,
+     grateful creature having no thought but what consisted of
+     the best principles, both as a religious Christian and as a
+     grateful friend; as appeared afterward to my full
+     satisfaction.
+
+In the first sentence the semicolon enables us to group the objects
+enumerated. Had commas been used throughout, the reader would have
+been left to find out the arrangement for himself.
+
+
+
+
+THE COLON
+
+
+XXIV. The colon is used to indicate pauses more abrupt than those
+indicated by the semicolon.
+
+     God has willed it: submit in thankfulness.
+
+     The wind raged, and the rain beat against the window: it was
+     a miserable day.
+
+     Nevertheless, you will say that there must be a difference
+     between true poetry and true speech not poetical: what is
+     the difference?
+
+The first example contains two clauses that are connected in such a
+way as to justify us in putting them into one sentence; that it is
+God's will, is a reason for submitting. The proper point therefore
+should be something less than the full stop. But there is a striking
+difference between the clauses; for we pass from an affirmation to a
+command. Therefore something more than the semicolon is needed. Had
+the clauses been similar in construction, the pause would have been
+sufficiently indicated by the semicolon: "God has willed it; man has
+resisted."
+
+In the second example there is not the same change of grammatical
+construction, but the change in thought is equally great; we pass from
+a statement of details to a statement of the general result. The colon
+is frequently used in sentences of this kind, where the phrase "in
+short" is implied but is not expressed.
+
+Many writers indicate such abrupt changes by means of the dash.
+
+
+XXV. A pause generally indicated by a semicolon may be indicated by a
+colon, when the semicolon is used in the sentence for pauses of a
+different nature.
+
+     The "Essay" plainly appears the fabric of a poet: what
+     Bolingbroke supplied could be only the first principles; the
+     order, illustration, and embellishments, must all be Pope's.
+
+     Not that we are to think that Homer wanted judgment, because
+     Virgil had it in a more eminent degree; or that Virgil
+     wanted invention, because Homer possessed a larger share of
+     it: each of these great authors had more of both than,
+     perhaps, any man besides, and are only said to have less in
+     comparison with one another.
+
+     Homer hurries and transports us with a commanding
+     impetuosity; Virgil leads us with an attractive majesty:
+     Homer scatters with a generous profusion; Virgil bestows
+     with a careful magnificence.
+
+Compare these examples with those given to show how the semicolon
+replaces the comma. (Rule XXIII.) Note also how the last sentence is
+divided in the middle into two parts, and that each of these two parts
+is itself divided into two parts. By Rule XXII. the second division is
+indicated by the semicolon; and we bring out the grouping of the
+sentence by using a colon for the first division.
+
+
+XXVI. The colon is used before enumerations, especially where
+"namely," or "viz.," is implied but is not expressed; and when so used
+it is sometimes followed by the dash.
+
+     Three nations adopted this law: England, France, and
+     Germany.
+
+     One thing thou lackest: go thy way, sell whatsoever thou
+     hast, and give to the poor.
+
+     Dr Johnson's chief works are the following:--"Rasselas," The
+     Dictionary, "The Lives of the Poets," and "The Vanity of
+     Human Wishes."
+
+When, as in the last example, a list of things is given in a formal
+way, the dash is generally added. The combination of the two points is
+partly an attempt to find a point stronger than the colon and not so
+strong as the full stop, partly, perhaps, an imitation of a
+finger-post.
+
+
+XXVII. The colon is generally placed before a quotation, when notice
+of the quotation is given by some introductory words. In this case
+also the dash is sometimes used.
+
+     In this passage exception may fairly be taken to one short
+     sentence, that in which he says: "The law ought to forbid
+     it, because conscience does not permit it."
+
+     On the last morning of his life he wrote these words:--"I
+     have named none to their disadvantage. I thank God He hath
+     supported me wonderfully."
+
+The colon and the dash are used together where the quotation is
+introduced by formal words such as the following:--"He spoke these
+words," "he spoke as follows," "he made this speech." But, in the
+first sentence quoted above, the introductory words are grammatically
+incomplete without the quotation, which forms the object of the verb
+"says"; the colon accordingly is the strongest point that can be used.
+Sometimes the connexion between the introductory words and the
+quotation may be so close, or the quotation itself may be so short, as
+to make the comma sufficient.
+
+     He kept repeating to us, "The world has sadly changed."
+
+Short phrases quoted in the course of the sentence need not have any
+point before them.
+
+     It was a usual saying of his own, that he had "no genius for
+     friendship."
+
+
+XXVIII. The colon may be placed after such words and phrases as the
+following, when used in marking a new stage in an argument:--Again,
+further, to proceed, to sum up, to resume.
+
+     To sum up: If you will conform to the conditions I have
+     mentioned, I will sign the agreement.
+
+     But to bring this sermon to its proper conclusion: If
+     Astrea, or Justice, never finally took her leave of the
+     world till the day that, &c.
+
+After these words, we have a choice of the comma, the colon, and the
+full stop. The comma will generally be used if the argument be
+contained in a single sentence; the full stop, if the argument be of
+very considerable length.
+
+
+
+
+THE POINT OF INTERROGATION
+
+
+XXIX. The point of interrogation is placed after a direct question.
+
+     Where are you going, my pretty maid?
+
+     Whether of them twain did the will of his father?
+
+The question may end in the middle of a sentence:
+
+     Is he happy? you ask.
+
+We have sometimes the choice of putting the point of interrogation in
+the middle or at the end of the sentence.
+
+     You would not consent to that, by whomsoever proposed.
+
+     You would not consent to that?--by whomsoever proposed.
+
+There is a slight shade of difference in meaning; in the second form,
+"by whomsoever proposed" is added as an afterthought.
+
+
+XXX. Indirect questions are not strictly questions at all, and
+therefore should not be followed by a point of interrogation.
+
+     He asked me whether I had seen his friend; whether I had
+     spoken to him; and how I liked him.
+
+If we restore these questions to the direct form, the point of
+interrogation is inserted.
+
+     He asked me: "Have you seen my friend? Have you spoken to
+     him? How do you like him?"
+
+
+XXXI. When a sentence contains more than one question, sometimes the
+point of interrogation is placed after each of them, sometimes it is
+placed only at the end of the sentence. It is placed after each, if
+each is in reality a distinct question; it is placed only at the end,
+if the separate questions so unite as to need but a single answer.
+
+In many cases it will be a matter of individual taste to say whether
+they do so unite.
+
+     Is it better that estates should be held by those who have
+     no duty than by those who have one? by those whose character
+     and destination point to virtues than by those who have no
+     rule and direction in the expenditure of their estates but
+     their own will and appetite?
+
+     Do you imagine that it is the Land Tax Act which raises your
+     revenue, that it is the annual vote in the Committee of
+     Supply which gives you your army, or that it is the Mutiny
+     Bill which inspires it with bravery and discipline? No!
+     surely no!
+
+         Oh! why should Hymen ever blight
+           The roses Cupid wore?
+         Or why should it be ever night
+           Where it was day before?
+         Or why should women have a tongue,
+           Or why should it be cursed,
+         In being, like my Second, long,
+           And louder than my First?
+
+
+XXXII. Exclamations in an interrogative form take a mark of
+exclamation after them, not a point of interrogation. (See Rule XXXV.)
+
+
+XXXIII. A point of interrogation enclosed within brackets is sometimes
+used to indicate that there is a doubt whether the statement preceding
+it is true, or whether the expression preceding it is well applied,
+or that some statement or expression is made or used ironically.
+
+     While you are revelling in the delights (?) of the London
+     season, I am leading a hermit life, with no companions save
+     my books.
+
+
+
+
+THE MARK OF EXCLAMATION
+
+
+XXXIV. The mark of exclamation is placed after interjections and words
+used interjectionally; that is to say, after expressions of an
+exclamatory nature. The exclamation may be one of surprise or of fear,
+or the utterance of a wish, a command, or a prayer.
+
+     Quick! Begone! Out of my sight!
+
+     Heaven preserve us!
+
+     Would that better feelings moved them!
+
+     O Lord, be merciful unto me, a sinner!
+
+Interjections are not always followed immediately, and are sometimes
+not allowed at all, by a mark of exclamation. No rule can be given
+more precise than this: (1) That we should not insert a mark of
+exclamation immediately after an interjection, unless we should make a
+distinct pause after it in speaking; and (2) that no mark of
+exclamation is to be used at all, unless the exclamatory nature of the
+sentence is more or less strongly marked. It is useful to notice the
+difference between "O" and "Oh." The former is used only before the
+vocative case, and never has a mark of exclamation, or indeed any
+point, placed immediately after it.
+
+    Alas! all our hopes are blasted.
+    Lo, he cometh!
+      O Dido, Dido, most unhappy Dido!
+      Unhappy wife, still more unhappy widow!
+    Oh, do not reckon that old debt to my account to-day!
+
+
+XXXV. The mark of exclamation is placed after sentences which, though
+interrogatory in form, are really exclamatory.
+
+     How could he have been so foolish!
+
+     And shall he never see an end to this state of things! Shall
+     he never have the due reward of labour! Shall unsparing
+     taxation never cease to make him a miserable dejected being,
+     a creature famishing in the midst of abundance, fainting,
+     expiring with hunger's feeble moan, surrounded by a
+     carolling creation!
+
+This rule might be put in another way by saying that a mark of
+exclamation, and not a point of interrogation, is placed after what
+are called rhetorical questions, or statements made more striking by
+being put in the form of questions. They are not asked for the sake of
+receiving a direct answer, and are in reality exclamations. Still all
+rhetorical questions are not thus punctuated; the point of
+interrogation is sometimes more effective. The sentences quoted under
+Rule XXXI. would lose much of their force if marks of exclamation were
+used. In each case we must decide whether the sentence strikes us most
+as a question or as the expression of emotion.
+
+
+XXXVI. The mark of exclamation is sometimes placed after an ironical
+statement.
+
+     They did not fight, tens against thousands; they did not
+     fight for wives and children, but for lands and plunder:
+     therefore they are heroes!
+
+The mark of exclamation keeps up the semblance of seriousness which is
+of the essence of irony.
+
+
+XXXVII. The mark of exclamation is placed after the statement of some
+absurdity.
+
+     He has been labouring to prove that Shakespeare's plays were
+     written by Bacon!
+
+     To him the parliamentary vote was a panacea for all human
+     ills, and the ballot-box an object as sacred as the Holy
+     Grail to a knight of the Round Table!
+
+The same reason applies to its use after such sentences as after
+ironical statements.
+
+
+XXXVIII. The mark of exclamation may be placed after any impressive or
+striking thought.
+
+     The Angel of Death has been abroad throughout the land: you
+     may almost hear the very beating of his wings!
+
+It may be doubted whether the mark of exclamation is in such cases of
+any great service; for the impressiveness of a sentence ought to
+appear in the sentence itself, or to be given to it by the context.
+There is a real danger, as the style of many people shows, in thinking
+that punctuation is intended to save the trouble of careful
+composition. In putting the mark after pure exclamations, usage is
+more or less uniform; with regard to impressive sentences, we are left
+entirely to our own discretion.
+
+
+XXXIX. When a sentence contains more than one exclamation, sometimes
+the mark of exclamation is placed only after the last, sometimes it is
+placed after each of them, the test being whether or not they are in
+reality, as well as in form, several exclamations. (Compare Rule
+XXXI.)
+
+     Though all are thus satisfied with the dispensations of
+     Nature, how few listen to her voice! how few follow her as a
+     guide!
+
+     What a mighty work he has thus brought to a successful end,
+     with what perseverance, what energy, with what fruitfulness
+     of resource!
+
+
+
+
+THE DASH
+
+
+XL. The chief purpose of the dash is to indicate that something is
+left unfinished. Accordingly, it marks a sudden, or abrupt, change in
+the grammatical structure of a sentence.
+
+     When I remember how we have worked together, and together
+     borne misfortune; when I remember--but what avails it to
+     remember?
+
+     And all this long story was about--what do you think?
+
+     "We cannot hope to succeed, unless----" "But we must succeed."
+
+Note that it is the long dash that is used at the end of a sentence.
+
+The full stop is not added where the dash marks an unfinished
+sentence. But it is common to add the point of interrogation or the
+mark of exclamation.
+
+
+XLI. The dash is used to mark a faltering or hesitating speech.
+
+     Well--I don't know--that is--no, I cannot accept it.
+
+
+XLII. An unexpected turn of the thought may be marked by the dash.
+
+     He entereth smiling and--embarrassed. He holdeth out his
+     hand to you to shake, and--draweth it back again. He
+     casually looketh in about dinner-time--when the table is
+     full. He offereth to go away, seeing you have company--but
+     is induced to stay.
+
+     French history tends naturally to memoirs and anecdotes, in
+     which there is no improvement to desire but that they
+     were--true.
+
+
+XLIII. When the subject of a sentence is of such length, or of such
+complexity, that its connexion with the verb might easily be lost
+sight of, it is sometimes left hanging in the sentence, and its place
+supplied by some short expression that sums it up. A dash follows the
+subject when thus abandoned.
+
+     Physical Science, including Chemistry, Geology, Geography,
+     Astronomy; Metaphysics, Philology, Theology; Economics,
+     including Taxation and Finance; Politics and General
+     Literature--all occupied by turn, and almost simultaneously,
+     his incessantly active mind.
+
+The colon is sometimes used in such cases; but the dash seems
+preferable, as it is the point that marks a change in the structure of
+a sentence.
+
+
+XLIV. The dash is sometimes used instead of brackets before and after
+a parenthesis.
+
+     This was amongst the strongest pledges for thy truth, that
+     never once--no, not for a moment of weakness--didst thou
+     revel in the vision of coronets and honour from man.
+
+
+XLV. The dash is sometimes used instead of the colon, where the word
+"namely" is implied, but is not expressed.
+
+     The most extreme example of such theories is perhaps to be
+     found in the attempt to distribute all law under the two
+     great commandments--love to God, and love to one's
+     neighbour.
+
+In this sentence, however, the colon is preferable. (See Rule XXVI.).
+The dash should be used for this purpose only when it is necessary to
+use the colon in the same sentence for other purposes.
+
+
+XLVI. The dash is used in rhetorical repetition; for instance, where
+one part of the sentence, such as the subject, is repeated at
+intervals throughout the sentence, and the rest of the sentence is
+kept suspended.
+
+     Cannot you, in England--cannot you, at this time of
+     day--cannot you, a House of Commons, trust to the principle
+     which has raised so mighty a revenue?
+
+
+XLVII. A dash following a full stop occurs between the side-heading of
+a paragraph and the paragraph itself.
+
+     _Extent and Boundaries._--England (including Wales) is
+     bounded on the north by Scotland; on the west by the Irish
+     Sea, St George's Channel, and the Atlantic Ocean; on the
+     south by the English Channel; and on the east by the German
+     Ocean.
+
+
+XLVIII. When we place after a quotation the name of the author from
+whom it is taken, the full stop and the dash are used in the same way.
+
+     "One touch of nature makes the whole word
+     kin."--_Shakespeare._
+
+
+XLIX. The dash is sometimes used in place of, or in addition to,
+other points, in order to indicate a pause greater than usual.
+
+     Now where is the revenue which is to do all these mighty
+     things? Five-sixths repealed--abandoned-sunk--gone--lost for
+     ever.
+
+     The highest rank;--a splendid fortune;--and a name, glorious
+     till it was yours,--were sufficient to have supported you
+     with meaner abilities than I think you possess.
+
+There is seldom any reason for the use of double points. In the last
+example they cannot be said to be of any real service. But the dash
+may sometimes be rightly employed in addition to the full stop, in
+order to mark a division of discourse midway between the sentence and
+the paragraph. Even Cobbett, who abhors the dash, permits it to be
+used for this purpose. The report of a conversation is often printed
+in this way.
+
+
+
+
+BRACKETS (OR THE PARENTHESIS.[1])
+
+
+L. When a clause not strictly belonging to a sentence is thrown in, so
+to speak, in passing, the clause is enclosed within brackets.
+
+[Footnote 1: It seems better to use the term "brackets" both for the
+curved and for the square brackets. "Parenthesis" can then be kept to
+its proper use, as the name for the words themselves which form the
+break in the sentence. We may note that in like manner the terms
+"comma," "colon," "semicolon," originally signified divisions of a
+sentence, not marks denoting the divisions. "Period" meant a complete
+sentence; and it still retains the meaning, somewhat specialized.]
+
+     It is said, because the priests are paid by the people (the
+     pay is four shillings per family yearly), therefore they
+     object to their leaving.
+
+     In full confidence of this unalterable truth, I now (_quod
+     felix faustumque sit_) lay the first stone of the Temple of
+     Peace.
+
+Over and above the enclosing brackets, a parenthesis causes no change
+in the punctuation of the sentence that contains it; in other words,
+if we were to omit the parenthesis, no change ought to be necessary in
+the punctuation of the rest of the sentence. The comma is inserted
+after the parenthesis in the first example, because the comma would be
+needed even if there were no parenthesis.
+
+In the second example, there would be no comma before "lay," if there
+were no parenthesis; accordingly the comma is not to be inserted
+merely because there is a parenthesis. A parenthesis is sufficiently
+marked off by brackets.
+
+Observe also that the comma in the first example is placed after, not
+before, the parenthesis. The reason for this is that the parenthesis
+belongs to the first part of the sentence, not to the second.
+
+
+LI. A complete sentence occurring parenthetically in a paragraph is
+sometimes placed within brackets.
+
+     Godfrey knew all this, and felt it with the greater force
+     because he had constantly suffered annoyance from witnessing
+     his father's sudden fits of unrelentingness, for which his
+     own habitual irresolution deprived him of all sympathy. (He
+     was not critical on the faulty indulgence which preceded
+     these fits; _that_ seemed to him natural enough.) Still
+     there was just the chance, Godfrey thought, that his
+     father's pride might see this marriage in a light that would
+     induce him to hush it up, rather than turn his son out and
+     make the family the talk of the country for ten miles round.
+
+Note that the full stop should be placed inside, not outside, the
+brackets.
+
+
+LII. Where, in quoting a passage, we throw in parenthetically
+something of our own, we may use square brackets.
+
+     Compare the following account of Lord Palmerston: "I have
+     heard him [Lord Palmerston] say that he occasionally found
+     that they [foreign ministers] had been deceived by the open
+     manner in which he told them the truth."
+
+     "The _Leviathan_ of Hobbes, a work now-a-days but little
+     known [and not better known now than in Bentham's time], and
+     detested through prejudice, and at second-hand, as a defence
+     of despotism, is an attempt to base all political society
+     upon a pretended contract between the people and the
+     sovereign."--_Principles of Legislation._
+
+To use the square brackets in this way is often more convenient than
+to break the inverted commas and to begin them again. But in the case
+of the word _sic_--where it is inserted in a quotation to point out
+that the word preceding it is rightly quoted, and is not inserted by
+mistake--the ordinary brackets are used.
+
+     "The number of inhabitants were (_sic_) not more than four
+     millions."
+
+Another case may be mentioned in which the square brackets are used:
+where in the passage quoted some words have been lost, and are filled
+in by conjecture. Prof. Stubbs quotes from one of the Anglo-Saxon
+laws:
+
+     "If ceorls have a common meadow, or other partible land to
+     fence, and some have fenced their part, some have not, and
+     [strange cattle come in and] eat up the common corn or
+     grass, let those go who own the gap and compensate to the
+     others."
+
+
+
+
+INVERTED COMMAS
+
+
+LIII. When we quote without any change the words of another person,
+they are enclosed within inverted commas. If they are quoted in the
+indirect form, or if we quote merely the substance, and neglect the
+exact words, inverted commas are not used.
+
+     Thereupon the mob bursts in and inquires, "What are you
+     doing for the people?"
+
+     Thereupon the mob bursts in and inquires what you are doing
+     for the people.
+
+     He says: "There is no property of any description, if it be
+     rightfully held, which had not its foundation in labour."
+
+     He frequently calls them "absurd," and applies to them such
+     epithets as "jargon," "fustian," and the like.
+
+The last sentence might be written without inverted commas. By using
+them we call special attention to the fact that these were the words
+actually employed, and are not simply words like them.
+
+So, in a passage quoted in the indirect form, if part be quoted
+exactly, it is placed within inverted commas.
+
+     The Duke of Portland warmly approved of the work, but justly
+     remarked that the king was not "so absolute a thing of
+     straw" as he was represented in it.
+
+Words referred to simply as words are either placed within inverted
+commas or put in italics.
+
+     The word "friendship," in the sense we commonly mean by it,
+     is not so much as named in the New Testament.
+
+
+LIV. When a quotation is interrupted, as in the report of a
+conversation, each continuous part of the quotation is enclosed within
+inverted commas.
+
+     "Pardon me, madam," answered Henry, "it was of one Silas
+     Morton I spoke."
+
+
+LV. When a quotation occurs in another quotation, single inverted
+commas are used for the former.
+
+     "What have you done?" said one of Balfour's brother
+     officers. "My duty," said Balfour firmly. "Is it not
+     written, 'Thou shalt be zealous even to slaying'?"
+
+Some writers use the single commas in ordinary cases. For the inner
+quotation they would then use the double commas.
+
+
+LVI. A word that is not classical English, or is used in a sense in
+which it is not classical English, is either enclosed within inverted
+commas or italicized.
+
+     Those that have "located" (_located_) previous to this
+     period are left in undisputed possession, provided they have
+     improved the land.
+
+     Before long, Beckey received not only "the best" foreigners
+     (as the phrase is in our noble and admirable society slang),
+     but some of "the best" English people too.
+
+Foreign words are always italicized. (Rule LXIV.)
+
+
+LVII. The titles of books, of essays, and of other compositions; the
+names of periodicals; and the names of ships, are either enclosed
+within inverted commas or italicized.
+
+     In these "Miscellanies" was first published the "Art of
+     Sinking in Poetry," which, by such a train of consequences
+     as usually passes in literary quarrels, gave in a short
+     time, according to Pope's account, occasion to the
+     "Dunciad."
+
+     The "Emily St Pierre" (or _Emily St Pierre_), a British
+     ship, was captured on the 18th March, 1862.
+
+     It appeared in the "London Gazette" (or _London Gazette_).
+
+The names of periodicals and of ships are more often written in
+italics than enclosed within inverted commas.
+
+
+LVIII. If a quotation contains a question, the point of interrogation
+stands within the inverted commas.
+
+     In a voice which was fascination itself, the being addressed
+     me, saying, "Wilt thou come with me? Wilt thou be mine?"
+
+
+LIX. If an interrogative sentence ends with a quotation, the point of
+interrogation stands outside the inverted commas.
+
+     What does this honourable person mean by "a tempest that
+     outrides the wind"?
+
+Observe how in the example given under Rule LV. the point of
+interrogation stands within the double inverted commas, but outside
+the single inverted commas.
+
+
+LX. If an interrogative sentence ends with a quotation which is itself
+interrogatory, the point of interrogation is placed outside the
+inverted commas.
+
+     Hast thou never cried, "What must I do to be saved"?
+
+The reason is, that the question to be answered is not the quoted
+question, but "hast thou never cried?" No writer has been bold enough
+to insert two points of interrogation.
+
+
+LXI. The last three rules apply also to exclamatory sentences.
+
+     (1) But I boldly cried out, "Woe unto this city!"
+
+     (2) Alas, how few of them can say, "I have striven to the
+     very utmost"!
+
+     (3) How fearful was the cry: "Help, or we perish"!
+
+
+LXII. Where an interrogative sentence ends with a quotation of an
+exclamatory nature, or an exclamatory sentence ends with a quotation
+of an interrogative nature, it seems better to place at the end both
+the point of interrogation and the mark of exclamation, the one
+inside, the other outside, the inverted commas.
+
+     Do you remember who it was that wrote
+
+         "Whatever England's fields display,
+         The fairest scenes are thine, Torbay!"?
+
+     How much better to cease asking the question, "What would he
+     have done in different circumstances?"!
+
+Where inverted commas are not used, it seems sufficient to have only
+one point, which must be the one required by the whole sentence, not
+by the quotation.
+
+     Do you remember the passage where Burke alludes to the old
+     warning of the Church--_Sursum corda_?
+
+
+
+
+ITALICS
+
+
+LXIII. Words to be specially emphasized may be put in italics. In
+writing, the substitute for italics is underlining.
+
+     What, it may well be asked, can the interests of the
+     community be those of--I do not say _an_ individual,
+     but--_the_ individual?
+
+The voice can unmistakably indicate what are the emphatic words; but
+italics, only a feeble substitute, ought not to be used unless every
+other means of emphasizing fail. Many writers of authority have
+strongly, and very justly, condemned the too frequent use of them.
+
+Double underlining in letter-writing need not be here adverted to. If
+the person to whom one writes a letter is likely to read it without
+appreciation or care, one is entitled to adopt any means that will
+ensure attention. But if double underlining is allowable only on this
+ground, general rules are obviously of no use.
+
+
+LXIV. Words from a foreign language which have not become classical
+English words, are written in italics.
+
+     The slightest _double entendre_ made him blush to the eyes.
+
+     Knowledge of French is a _sine qua non_.
+
+When foreign words become English, they are no longer italicized.
+Among such words are: rationale, aide-de-camp, quartette, naive,
+libretto. It is often a matter of discretion to say whether a word is
+so far naturalized that it should be written in the ordinary way.
+
+
+LXV. Names of newspapers and magazines, and names of ships, are
+generally written in italics; as the _Times_, the _Fort-nightly
+Review_, the _Great Eastern_.
+
+
+
+
+THE HYPHEN
+
+
+LXVI. The hyphen is used between the component parts of some compound
+words.
+
+     Paper-knife; book-keeping; coal-pit; water-carrier;
+     printing-press; sea-water; man-of-war; now-a-days; high-art
+     decoration; good-looking.
+
+There is no rule to distinguish the compound words that take a hyphen
+from those that do not. If one be in doubt about a particular word,
+the best thing to do is to refer to a dictionary.
+
+
+LXVII. When one syllable of a word ends with a vowel, and the next
+syllable begins with the same vowel, the hyphen is placed between the
+syllables to indicate that the two vowels do not form a diphthong,
+that is, that they should not be pronounced together.
+
+     Co-operative; co-ordinate; pre-eminently; re-establish;
+     re-echo.
+
+In the same way the hyphen sometimes ensures that two consonants shall
+be pronounced separately; as in "book-keeping," "shell-less,"
+"cock-crow," "sword-dance."
+
+
+LXVIII. As a rule, a hyphen should not be placed after a simple
+prefix: "contravene," "preternatural," "hypercritical," "bilateral."
+
+To this there are some exceptions:
+
+(_a_) "Anti-religious," "ultra-liberal," "semi-lunar," "co-eval." In
+these words the pronunciation is more clearly marked by inserting the
+hyphen. Compare "antiseptic," "antinomian," "ultramontane,"
+"semicircle."
+
+Perhaps among these exceptions should also be included such words as
+"pseudo-critic," "non-ego," "non-existent." Compare "pseudonym," where
+the prefix is contracted, and "nonentity." Words like "pre-eminent,"
+divided for the same reason, have already been noted.
+
+(_b_) "Re-creation," "re-mark." The hyphen distinguishes the
+etymological meaning of these words as distinguished from their
+derived and ordinary meaning.
+
+(_c_) "Pre-Norman," "anti-Darwinian," "philo-Turk." If the
+capital-letter be retained where a prefix is put to a proper name, the
+hyphen is obviously necessary.
+
+
+LXIX. When a number is written in words and not in figures, the words
+making up the number, if there be more words than one, are in certain
+cases separated from each other by the hyphen.
+
+The numbers to which this rule applies are the cardinal and the
+ordinal numbers from twenty-one and twenty-first to ninety-nine and
+ninety-ninth inclusive. The hyphen is used also when the words are
+inverted; as "four-and-thirty," "six-and-fortieth."
+
+
+LXX. Fractional parts written in words are separated in the same way,
+a hyphen being placed between the numerator and denominator; as
+"two-thirds," "three-sixteenths."
+
+But if the word "part" or the word "share" follows, the hyphen is not
+used; as "two third parts."
+
+
+LXXI. Several words may be joined by hyphens, in order to indicate
+that they are to be read together.
+
+     The I-believe-of-Eastern-derivation monosyllable "Bosh."
+
+     Additional restrictions were advocated in the cases of
+     mothers-of-young-children employed in factories.
+
+As this last sentence stands, the hyphen is really the only means of
+making it perfectly clear that those who are referred to as employed
+in factories are the mothers, not the children. Hyphens are sometimes
+used in cases like the following: "A never-to-be-forgotten event,"
+"peace-at-any-rate principles." They are almost invariably used in
+"well-to-do," "alack-a-day."
+
+
+LXXII. The prefix "a" before the gerund is followed by a hyphen.
+
+     They went a-hunting.
+
+     I lay a-thinking.
+
+Note that "agoing" is not divided.
+
+
+LXXIII. When a word is divided at the end of a line, part of the word
+being in the next line, a hyphen is placed after the part at the end
+of the line.
+
+So far as rules can be given for the division of the word, it may be
+said:
+
+(_a_) The division must be at the end of a syllable. The syllable
+according to etymological derivation, and the syllable according to
+pronunciation, are not always the same. In case of conflict the
+pronunciation is to be the guide.
+
+(_b_) The part in the next line should, if possible, begin with a
+consonant. An examination of a number of words will show that this is
+only another way of saying that we should be guided by pronunciation.
+
+(_c_) Double letters are divided; as "at-tract," "profes-sion,"
+"dif-ficulty."
+
+The following examples are given consecutively from a book taken at
+random. This seems the best way of illustrating the rule:
+
+     Con-fidently; investi-gated; some-thing; institu-tion;
+     diffi-culty; at-tractions; exclu-sively; kins-man;
+     self-organized; en-tangled; col-lective; intermis-sion;
+     ma-terials; chan-cellor; col-lege; indus-trious; sub-ject;
+     his-tory; con-dition; Low-landers; or-ganization;
+     re-cognized; in-famous.
+
+Some selected examples may be also given:
+
+     Resem-blance; hum-ble; se-cond; trans-lator; justifi-able;
+     east-ern; endea-vour.
+
+
+
+
+THE APOSTROPHE
+
+
+LXXIV. The apostrophe is used to indicate that some letter or letters
+of a word are left out.
+
+     "E'er" for "ever," "can't" for "cannot," "don't" for "do
+     not," "'gin" for "begin."
+
+The apostrophe is not used when the word, though contracted in the
+middle, retains its original pronunciation; as "Dr." or "Mr." But it
+is used where the contraction is at the end of the word: "tho',"
+"Peterboro'."
+
+
+LXXV. The apostrophe marks the possessive case of nouns. The following
+rules determine where it is to be placed:
+
+_Nouns in the singular number--_
+
+(1) The letter "s" is added, and the apostrophe is placed before it.
+
+     The king's abode. A patriot's reward.
+
+(2) If the nominative singular of the noun ends in "s," another "s" is
+not added if the repetition of hissing sounds would be displeasing to
+the ear. The apostrophe is then placed at the end of the word.
+
+     Hercules' club. Augustus' dignity.
+
+Words of one syllable follow the first rule: "James's share." Some
+words of two syllables follow the first rule, some the second: "the
+princess's birthday"; "Francis' style."
+
+This distinction is sanctioned by usage. But it may judiciously be
+disregarded. In speaking we almost entirely ignore it. Why should we
+trouble ourselves with it in writing?
+
+_Nouns in the plural number--_
+
+(1) The apostrophe is placed after the "s" of the plural.
+
+     Boys' clothing. Our friends' troubles.
+
+(2) If the plural do not end in "s," an "s" is added, and the
+apostrophe is placed before it.
+
+     Men's opinions. The children's pleasure.
+
+
+LXXVI. The apostrophe is used before the "s" of the plural when single
+letters are used as words.
+
+     Mind your p's and q's.
+
+     He does not dot his i's nor cross his t's.
+
+
+
+
+MARKS OF ELLIPSIS
+
+
+LXXVII. When, in the middle of a quotation, a part is omitted, several
+asterisks or several full stops are placed in a line to mark the
+omission.
+
+     Clarendon makes the following remark about Lord Falkland:
+     "Yet two things he could never bring himself to whilst he
+     continued in that office, that was to his death; for which
+     he was contented to be reproached as for omissions in a most
+     necessary part of his place. The one, employing of spies, or
+     giving any countenance or entertainment to them. * * * The
+     other, the liberty of opening letters, upon a suspicion that
+     they might contain matter of a dangerous consequence." (One
+     sentence omitted.)
+
+     "The French and Spanish nations," said Louis XIV., "are so
+     united that they will henceforth be only one.... My
+     grandson, at the head of the Spaniards, will defend the
+     French. I, at the head of the French, will defend the
+     Spaniards."
+
+     "He who in former years," wrote Horace Walpole of his
+     father, "was asleep as soon as his head touched the pillow
+     ... now never sleeps above an hour without waking."
+
+If the passage omitted be of very considerable length, for instance if
+it be a complete paragraph, or if a line of poetry be omitted, the
+asterisks are placed in a line by themselves. There is a tendency to
+confine the asterisk to such cases, and to use the full stop for
+shorter ellipses. If a complete sentence be omitted, the number of
+additional full stops is generally four; if a passage be omitted in
+the middle of a sentence, the number is generally three.
+
+When some of the letters of a name are omitted, their place is
+supplied by a line or dash, whose length depends on the number of
+letters omitted.
+
+     The scene of our story is laid in the town of B----. There
+     was one H----, who, I learned in after days, was seen
+     expiating some maturer offence in the hulks.
+
+     Blakesmoor in H----shire.
+
+
+
+
+REFERENCES TO NOTES
+
+
+Notes are generally placed at the foot of a page; though sometimes
+they are collected at the end of a chapter, or even at the end of a
+book. Various devices are in use for indicating the passage in the
+text to which a note refers.
+
+(1) The six reference signs: the "asterisk" (*), the "dagger" ([dagger
+character]) (also called the "obelisk"), the "double dagger" ([double
+dagger character]), the "section" ([section character]), the
+"parallels" (||), the "paragraph" ([paragraph character]). They are
+suitable only where the notes are placed at the foot of a page, and
+are invariably used in the order in which we have mentioned them.
+
+If the number of notes in one page exceeds six, the signs are doubled.
+The seventh note is marked thus: **; the eighth, [dagger
+character][dagger character]; the ninth, [double dagger
+character][double dagger character]; and so on. But it is better, in
+cases where the notes are so numerous, to use other means of
+reference.
+
+(2) Figures: either within parentheses, as (1), (2), (3), &c.; or,
+more usually, printed in the raised or "superior" form, as ^{1} squared
+cubed, &c. Sometimes the first note in each page is marked;^{1} but it
+is now common, in books divided into chapters, to mark the first note
+in each chapter with ^{1} and then go on with continuous numbers to the
+end of the chapter.
+
+"Superior" figures are now the most usual marks of reference in
+English books.
+
+(3) Letters; which also may either be placed within parentheses or be
+printed in "superior" form: (a), (b), (c), &c., or ^{a} ^{b} ^{c}, &c.
+Italic letters are sometimes used. As a rule the first note in each
+page is marked (a) or ^{a}. If in one page there are more notes than
+there are letters in the alphabet (which sometimes happens), we go to
+(aa), (bb), (cc), &c., ^{aa} ^{bb} ^{cc}. The letter "j" is often
+omitted.
+
+It is less common to make the letters continuous from page to page.
+
+The sign, whatever it may be, is placed at the beginning of the note,
+and also in the text immediately after the part to which the note
+refers. The note may refer to a whole sentence, to a part of a
+sentence, even to a single word; the sign is placed as the case may
+be, at the end of the sentence, at the end of the part referred to, or
+after the single word.
+
+
+
+
+HOW TO CORRECT A PRINTER'S PROOF
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+EXPLANATION
+
+1. Where a word is to be changed from small letters to capitals, draw
+three lines under it, and write _caps._ in the margin.
+
+2. Where there is a wrong letter, draw the pen through it, and make
+the right letter opposite in the margin.
+
+3. A letter turned upside down.
+
+4. The substitution of a comma for another point, or for a letter put
+in by mistake.
+
+5. The insertion of a hyphen.
+
+6. To draw close together the letters of a word that stand apart.
+
+7. To take away a superfluous letter or word, the pen is struck
+through it and a round top _d_ made opposite, being the contraction of
+_deleatur_='expunge.'
+
+8. Where a word has to be changed to Italic, draw a line under it, and
+write _Ital._ in the margin; and where a word has to be changed from
+Italic to Roman, write _Rom._ opposite.
+
+9. When words are to be transposed, three ways of marking them are
+shown; but they are not usually numbered unless more than three words
+have their order changed.
+
+10. The transposition of letters in a word.
+
+11. To change one word for another.
+
+12. The substitution of a period or a colon for any other point. It is
+customary to encircle these two points with a line.
+
+13. The substitution of a capital for a small letter.
+
+14. The insertion of a word or of a letter.
+
+15. When a paragraph commences where it is not intended, connect the
+matter by a line, and write in the margin opposite _run on_.
+
+16. Where a space or a quadrat stands up and appears, draw a line
+under it, and make a strong perpendicular line in the margin.
+
+17. When a letter of a different size from that used, or of a
+different face, appears in a word, draw a line either through it or
+under it, and write opposite _w.f._, for 'wrong fount.'
+
+18. The marks for a paragraph, when its commencement has been
+omitted.
+
+19. When a word or words have been struck out, and it is subsequently
+decided that they shall remain, make dots under them, and write the
+word _stet_ in the margin.
+
+20. The mark for a space where it has been omitted between two words.
+
+21. To change a word from small letters to small capitals, make two
+lines under the word, and write _sm. caps._ opposite. To change a word
+from small capitals to small letters, make one line under the word,
+and write in the margin _lo. ca._, for 'lower case.'
+
+22. The mark for the apostrophe; and also the marks for inverted
+commas.
+
+23. The manner of marking an omitted passage when it is too long to be
+written in the side margin. When this occurs, it may be written either
+at the top or the bottom of the page.
+
+24. Marks when lines or words are not straight.
+
+When corrected, the passage given above would read as follows--
+
+ANTIQUITY, like every other quality that attracts the notice of
+mankind, has undoubtedly votaries that _reverence_ it, not from
+reason, but from prejudice. Some seem to admire indiscriminately
+whatever has been long preserved, without considering that time has
+sometimes co-operated with chance: all perhaps are more willing to
+honour past than present excellence; and the mind contemplates genius
+through the shades of age, as the eye surveys the sun through
+artificial opacity. The great contention of criticism is to find the
+faults of the moderns and the beauties of the ancients. While an
+author is yet living, we estimate his powers by his worst
+performances; and when he is dead, we rate them by his best.
+
+To works, however, of which the excellence is not absolute and
+definite, but gradual and comparative; to works, not raised upon
+principles demonstrative and scientific, but appealing wholly to
+observation and experience, no other test can be applied than LENGTH
+of duration and continuance of esteem.
+
+
+
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