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diff --git a/21197-0.txt b/21197-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d631d6e --- /dev/null +++ b/21197-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,6517 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Diego Collado's Grammar of the Japanese +Language, by Diego Collado + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Diego Collado's Grammar of the Japanese Language + +Author: Diego Collado + +Translator: Richard L. Spear + +Release Date: April 21, 2007 [EBook #21197] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK JAPANESE LANGUAGE *** + + + + +Produced by David Starner, Keith Edkins and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + +[Transcriber's note: A few typographical errors have been corrected: they +are listed at the end of the text. Page numbers {99} are those of Spear's +edition and are referenced in the Table of Contents, the Index and the list +of typographical errors. Page numbers (99 relate to the Latin original and +are referenced in the Introduction and Footnotes. + +The reproduction of the Latin original _Ars Grammaticae Iaponicae Linguae_ +has been extracted as a separate Project Gutenberg text No. 17713. + +This e-text contains some letters with unusual diacritics: + ã ẽ ĩ õ ũ (tilde on any vowel) + ǒ ǔ (hacek / caron) + ō ū (macron) +If any of these characters do not display properly--in particular, if the +diacritic does not appear directly above the letter--you may have better +results with the Latin-1 version of this file.] + + * * * * * + + +DIEGO COLLADO'S +GRAMMAR OF THE +JAPANESE +LANGUAGE + +Edited and Translated +by +Richard L. Spear + +INTERNATIONAL STUDIES, EAST ASIAN SERIES +RESEARCH PUBLICATION, NUMBER NINE + +CENTER FOR EAST ASIAN STUDIES. +THE UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS. + + * * * * * + +DEDICATED +TO +THE MEMORY OF +JOSEPH K. YAMAGIWA + + * * * * * + + +Table of Contents + + PREFACE + + I INTRODUCTION 1 + The Grammatical Framework 3 + The Phonological System 6 + The Morphological System 8 + The Structure of Collado's and Rodriguez' Descriptions + Contrasted 11 + Bibliography 26 + Editorial Conventions 28 + II _Ars Grammaticae Iaponicae Linguae_ + III A GRAMMAR OF THE JAPANESE LANGUAGE 105 + Prologue to the Reader 107 + The noun--Its Declension and its Gender 111 + Pronouns 118 + First Person Pronouns--Ego, etc. 118 + Second Person Pronouns--Tu, tui, tibi, etc. 119 + Third Person Pronouns--Ille, illa, illud. 120 + Relative Pronouns 122 + The Formation of the Verb and its Conjugation 123 + The Preterit, Perfect, Imperfect, and Pluperfect 124 + The Future of the First Conjugation 125 + The Imperative of the First Conjugation 125 + The Optative of the First Conjugation 126 + The Subjunctive of the First Affirmative Conjugation 127 + The Infinitive 129 + The First Negative Conjugation 131 + The Second Affirmative Conjugation 134 + The Second Negative Conjugation 135 + The Third Affirmative Conjugation 135 + The Third Negative Conjugation 136 + The Conjugation of the Negative Substantive Verb 137 + The Conditional Particles 139 + The Potential Verb 140 + The Conjugation of Irregular Verbs 141 + The Aforementioned Verbs--Their Formation and Diversity 143 + Certain Verbs Which of Themselves Indicate Honor 147 + Cautionary Remarks on the Conjugations of the Verb 148 + The Adverbs: First Section 156 + Adverbs of Place 156 + Adverbs of Interrogation and Response 159 + Adverbs of Time 159 + Adverbs of Negation 160 + Adverbs of Affirmation 160 + Comparative Adverbs 161 + Superlative Adverbs 162 + Adverbs of Intensity and Exaggeration 162 + Accumulative Adverbs 162 + Adverbs that Conclude and Claim Attention 163 + The Case Prepositions 164 + Conjugation and Separation 166 + Interjections 167 + The Syntax and the Cases that are Governed by the Verbs 168 + Japanese Arithmetic and Numerical Matters Concerning Which + Much Painful Labor Is Required 174 + Some Rules on the Conjugation of the Verb in the Written + Language 182 + IV WORKS CONSULTED 185 + V INDEX TO GRAMMATICAL CATEGORIES 187 + VI INDEX TO GRAMMATICAL ELEMENTS 189 + + * * * * * + + +Preface + +The purpose of this translation of Collado's _Ars Grammaticae Iaponicae +Linguae_ of 1632 is to make more readily available to the scholarly +community an annotated version of this significant document in the history +of both Japanese language study and grammatical description in general. + +Collado's work, derived in all its significant features from the _Arte da +lingoa de Iapam_ completed in 1608 by João Rodriguez, is in a strict, +scholarly sense less valuable than its precursor. However, if used with the +_Arte_ as a simplified restatement of the basic structure of the language, +Collado's Grammar offers to the student of the Japanese language an +invaluable ancillary tool for the study of the colloquial language of the +early 17th Century. + +While less extensive and less carefully edited than the _Arte_, Collado's +Grammar has much to recommend it as a document in the history of +grammatical description. It is an orthodox description attempting to fit +simple Japanese sentences into the framework established for Latin by the +great Spanish humanist Antonio Lebrija. Thus, as an application of +pre-Cartecian grammatical theory to the structure of a non-Indo-European +language, the _Ars Grammaticae_ is an important document worthy of careful +examination by those wishing insight into the origins of what three +centuries later was to become the purview of descriptive linguistics. + +The present translation was begun with the able assistance of Ms. Roberta +Galli whose contribution to my understanding of the Latin text is most +gratefully acknowledged. For his continued encouragement in this +undertaking I am grateful to Professor Roy Andrew Miller. Thanks are also +due to the Graduate School of the University of Kansas for its support in +the preparation of the manuscript and to Ms. Sue Schumock whose capable +typing turned a scribbled, multi-lingual draft into a legible manuscript. +The imperfections are my own. + +R.L.S. + + Lawrence, Kansas + May, 1975 + +{1} + + * * * * * + + +Introduction + +In 1632, as the Christian Century in Japan was drawing swiftly to a close, +three works pertaining to the Japanese language were being published at +Rome by the Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith. These works were +by the Spanish Dominican Father, Diego Collado (d. 1638), who had spent the +years from 1619 to 1622 in Japan. Their publication clearly reflects the +vitality of the missionary spirit in that age as well as the important +place reserved for language study in the propagation of the faith. + +The first two works, whose manuscripts had been prepared in Madrid the year +before, were a grammar and a dictionary of Japanese. The third, prepared in +1631, while the larger works were being seen through the press, was a guide +to the taking of confession written in both Latin and Japanese.[1] The +grammar, drafted in Spanish, was published in Latin in 1632 under the title +_Ars Grammaticae Iaponicae Linguae_. It is this work that is translated +here. The dictionary, only at the last moment supplied with Latin glosses +to supplement those in Spanish, was published in the same year with the +title _Dictionarium sive Thesauri Linguae Iaponicae Compendium_.[2] Taken +together these three works by Collado constitute the final extant efforts +of those who studied the Japanese language first hand during the Christian +Century.[3] + +Two other grammatical works must be mentioned here as central to the proper +assessment of Collado's Grammar. They are both by the great Jesuit scholar, +Father João Rodnguez (1561-1634);[4] the _Arte da Lingoa de Iapam_ +(Nagasaki, 1604-8, hereafter the _Arte_), and the _Arte Breve da Lingoa +Iapoa_ (Macao, 1620, hereafter _Arte Breve_). The first {2} is by any +standards the greatest grammatical study of Japanese made during the +Christian Century. It is further, as we shall see, the primary source for +Collado's Grammar. The _Arte Breve_, on the other hand, is not directly +related to Collado's work. Indeed it is clear that Rodriguez' 1620 Macao +publication was unknown to Collado. Nevertheless, since the _Arte Breve_ is +an abbreviated version of the _Arte_ with a purpose similar to the _Ars +Grammaticae_, a comparison of these two books with respect to the way they +systematize the material from the _Arte_ is included in this introduction +to contribute some insight into the treatment of the Japanese language at +the beginning of the Tokugawa Period. + +In presenting this translation two potential audiences are envisioned. The +first, and more restricted, group is that having an interest in the history +of the Japanese language. It is hoped that an English version of this work +will make more readily available this significant material pertaining to +the Japanese language as spoken in the early modern period. I use the word +significant here to avoid granting excessive value to a work which derives +such a large portion of its material and insight from Rodriguez' _Arte_. + +The second, and wider group for whom this translation is intended is that +which has a need for an edited edition of an important document in the +history of grammatical description. In this area of scholarship Collado's +work is of more than moderate significance. It was accepted for publication +by the prestigious Propaganda Press; and, even if those more familiar with +Japanese than the editorial board of that Press might have had serious +reservations concerning the linguistic accuracy of the text, it is +reasonable to assume that the Press judged it to be a good example of +grammatical description. It thus represents a grammar of a non-European +language which suited the requirements of the day for publication at +Rome.[5] + +{3} + +In order to permit this translation of the _Ars Grammaticae_ to be of use +in both these areas of scholarship I have made an effort to reduce to a +minimum those places where a knowledge of either Japanese or Latin is +required for the comprehension of the translation. It is sincerely hoped +that the result is not an effort that is satisfying to neither, and thus to +no one. + +Because of the derivative nature of the text, this translation has put +aside a number of important philological problems as better dealt with +within the context of Rodriguez' grammars. This decision has its most +obvious consequences in the section on the arithmetic, where innumerable +data require exposition. However, since a basic purpose of this translation +is within the context of the history of descriptive grammar, these +tantalizing side roads have been left unexplored. It is, nevertheless, +hoped that this translation will serve as a convenient tool for those +wishing to make a more detailed investigation into the philological +questions raised by the text. But I must caution those who would undertake +such an inquiry that they had best begin with a careful study of the works +of Father Rodriguez. + +With its limitations acknowledged, the _Ars Grammaticae Iaponicae Linguae_ +remains a document worthy of our interest, and I offer this translation in +order that Collado's work may more easily find its proper place in the +history of descriptive grammar. + +_The Grammatical Framework_ + +Collado perceived his task to be the presentation of a grammar of Japanese +which would have sufficient scope to equip those dedicated to the +propagation of the faith with a knowledge of the proper spoken language of +his time. While he concludes his grammar with a brief, and rather +presumptuous, statement concerning the written language, his purpose is +clearly to train his students in the fundamentals of colloquial speech. His +sensitivity to this point is demonstrated by his carefully transforming +those examples presented by Rodriguez in the written language in the _Arte_ +into correct colloquial expressions in his own grammar. + +The description is, of course, prescriptive. But given its age and its +purpose this ought not to be construed in the contemporary, pejorative {4} +sense. Collado, as Rodriguez and indeed all the grammarians of the period, +felt obligated to train their students in those patterns of speech which +were appropriate to the most polite elements of society. Particularly as +they addressed themselves to missionaries, they wished to warn them away +from such illiteracies as might undermine their capacities to propagate the +faith. + +The description further reflects the traditional process conceptualization +of language. This is particularly obvious in the treatment of the verb. +Thus: + + _Praesens subiunctiui fit ex praesenti indicatiui mutato_ u _in quo + finitur in_ eba.... (The present subjunctive is formed from the present + indicative by changing the _u_ in which it ends to _eba_....) [p. 23]. + +In general each of the verbal forms is conceived to be the result of a +specified alteration of a basic form. Likewise the nouns are treated within +the framework of the declension of cases. + +The treatment of Japanese forms is based upon a semantic framework within +which the formal characteristics of the language are organized. For +example, given the construction _aguru coto aró_ (p. 31) and its gloss +'_Erit hoc quod ist offere: idest offeret_ (It will be that he is to offer, +or he will offer),' it is clear that the _aguru coto_ is classified as an +infinitive because of its semantic equivalence to _offere_. The same is +true of the latter supine. If the form in Latin is closely associated with +such constructions as 'easy to,' or 'difficult to,' the semantically +similar form which appears as the element _iomi_ in _iominicui_ 'difficult +to read,' must be classed as the latter supine. Rodriguez in his _Arte +Breve_ of 1620--unknown to Collado--makes an attempt to classify the +structural units of Japanese along more formal lines; but in Collado's +treatment the semantic, and for him logical and true, classes established +by the formal structure of Latin constitute the theoretical framework +through which the Japanese language is to be described. + +Collado makes reference to two specific sources of influence upon his +grammar. The first is included in the title to the first section of the +grammar, Antonius Nebrissensis. It is to this great Spanish humanist, {5} +better known as Antonio Lebrija (1444-1522), that Collado turns for the +model of his description. + +An examination of Lebrija's grammar, the _Introductiones Latinae_ +(Salamanca, 1481), shows that from the basic outline of his presentation, +to the organization of subsections and the selection of terminology, there +is little departure by Collado from his predecessor. + +Even in such stylistic devices as introducing the interrogatives by giving +the form, following it with "to which one responds," and then listing a +number of characteristic answers; Collado is faithful to the +_Introductiones_. + +But it is from his Jesuit colleague, Father João Rodriguez, that Collado +receives his most significant influence. There is no section of his grammar +that does not reflect Rodriguez' interpretation of the raw linguistic data +of Japanese. On the basis of the innumerable examples taken from +Rodriguez--most of the substantive sentences are directly quoted from the +_Arte_--as well as the parallel listing of forms and identical descriptions +of certain grammatical phenomena, it is clear that the writing of the _Ars +Grammaticae Iaponicae Linguae_ consisted to no small degree of abridging +the exhaustive material contained in Rodriguez' grammar and arranging it +within the framework of Lebrija's _Introductiones_. + +To say that Collado followed Lebrija in the general structure of his +description is not to imply that he fell heir to all of his precursor's +virtues. The Salamanca grammar of 1481 is a masterpiece of orderly +presentation. Printed in _lettera formata_ with carefully indented +subdivisions, it offers the student a clear display of the conjugational +system as well as long columns of Latin examples of a given grammatical +structure, accompanied on the right side of the page with Spanish +equivalents. Collado makes little effort at copying this orderly display. +There are in his presentation no paradigms, but instead only loosely +connected sentences that talk the student through the various forms of the +conjugation; and there is no orderly array of examples. Add to this the +innumerable factual and typographical errors, and one is left with a +presentation that lacks most of the basic scholarly virtues of its +precursor. + +A similar criticism may be leveled against the work from the point {6} of +view of Rodriguez' influence. Without matching the _Introductiones_ in +orderliness, the _Arte_ more than compensates for its casual format by +containing a mass of exhaustively collected and scrupulously presented +linguistic data.[6] There was available no better source than the _Arte_ +from which Collado might have culled his examples of Japanese. + +One doubt that remains in assessing Collado's use of Rodriguez' material is +that perhaps his presentation of the most readily understandable material +in the _Arte_ is not so much an effort on his part to simplify the learning +of Japanese for his students, as it is a reflection of his lack of adequate +familiarity with the language he was teaching. + +_The Phonological System_ + +A study of the phonological data reveals the _Ars Grammaticae Iaponicae +Linguae_ to be of minimal historical value. Any student of the phonology of +early modern Japanese should turn to the far more reliable work of Father +Rodriguez. Nevertheless, certain aspects of Collado's transcription require +our attention. + +The most obvious innovation in the representation of the language is +Collado's transcription with an _i_ of the palatal consonant which all his +contemporaries record with a _y_. Thus in the text we find _iomi_ and +_coie_ (terms for native words and Chinese borrowings) where Rodriguez +writes _yomi_ and _coye_. This change was affected while the text was being +translated from the Spanish manuscript which uses _y_; and Collado himself +must have felt the innovation to be of dubious value since he retained _y_ +for the spellings in the _Dictionarium_.[7] + +Collado's handling of the nasal sounds is too inconsistent to be a reliable +source for phonological data. Given his rather awkward specification that +nasalization is predictable before what we must assume he means to be the +voiced stops and affricates,[8] his grammar presents an uncomfortably +irregular pattern in the transcription of the phenomena. Thus, on page 39 +we find _vo mõdori aró ca?_ as well as {7} _modori aró ca?_. Again, what he +presents as the ending _zũba_ in his description of the formation of the +negative conditional (p. 34) appears in _tovazunba_ in its only occurrence +in a sample sentence (p. 62). To further confound the issue such forms as +_tovazunba_ and _qinpen_ occur in contrast to _sambiacu_, _varambe_, and +_varãbe_. + +In Chart 1 the traditional pattern of the _gojūonzu_ (chart of 50 sounds) +is followed as a convenient framework in which to display the +transcriptional system employed by Collado. + + Chart 1 + + COLLADO'S TRANSCRIPTION SYSTEM + + _The Simple Series_ + + /#/ /k/ /g/ /s/ /z/ /t/ /d/ /n/ /φ/ /b/ /p/ /m/ /y/ /r/ /w/ + + /a/ a ca ga sa za ta da na fa ba pa ma ia ra va + /i/ i qi gui xi ji chi gi ni fi bi pi mi - ri - + /u/ u cu gu su zu tçu zzu nu fu bu pu mu iu ru - + /e/ [ie] qe gue xe je te de ne fe be pe me ie re - + /o/ [vo] co go so zo to do no fo bo po mo io ro vo + + _The Long Series_ + + /au/ [vó] có gó só zó tó dó nó fó bó (pó) mó ió ró vó + /uu/ ú cú (gú)(sú) - (tçú) - - fú (bú)(pú) - iú rú - + /ou/ [vô] cô (gô) sô zô tô dô nô (fô) (bô) pô mô iô rô vô + + _The Palatal and Labial Series_ + + /ky/ /sy/ /ty/ /ny/ /by/ /my/ /kw/ + /gy/ /zy/ /dy/ /φy/ /py/ /ry/ /gw/ + + /a/ (qua)(guia) xa ja cha gia (nha) fia bia pia (mia) (ria) qua gua + /u/ qui (guia) xu ju (chu)(giu)(nhu)(fiu) - - (miu) (riu) - - + /o/ qio guio xo (jo) cho gio (nho)(fio)(bio) - (mio) (rio) - - + ------------------------------------------------------------------------- + /au/ qió guió xó jó chó gió - (fió)(bió) - mió (rió) quó guó + /uu/ (qiú)(guiú)(xú) jú (chú) giú nhú - - - - (riú) - - + /ou/ qiô (guiô) xô jô chô giô nhô fiô (biô) piô (miô) (riô) - - + gueô geô neô beô reô + +In this chart the phonemic grid is presented in a broad phonetic {8} +notation while the underlined entries are in the form used by the text. +Dashes indicate sequences which do not occur in the Christian material; +while the forms in parentheses are sequences which do not occur in the text +but have been reconstructed on the basis of the overall system from +sequences attested to elsewhere. The forms _ie_, _vo_, _vó_, and _vô_ have +been placed in brackets to indicate that neither /e/, /o/, /oo/, or /au/ +occur in the syllable initial position; and, where in the modern language +they do, the text regularly spells that with an initial _i_ or _v_. The +forms in _eô_ at the foot of the chart represent sequences that are +phonetically identical to the forms above them, but which are transcribed +differently to reflect morphological considerations; e.g., the form _agueô_ +from the stem _ague_. The phonetic values of /au/, /uu/, and /ou/ are +[[IPA: Open-mid back rounded vowel]:], [u:], and [o:]. + +Two aspects of the usage of _q_ should be noticed. First, as in the _Arte_, +_c_ is changed to _q_ before _o_ and _u_, when the sequence occurs at a +morphological juncture; e.g., _ioqu_ 'well,' and _iqó_ 'I shall go.' (This +rule does not extend to _a_ in such contexts; cf., _iocatta_ 'was good.') +Second, in contrast to the system used by Rodriguez, Collado does not feel +compelled to follow _q_ with _u_ in all contexts. Thus what Rodriguez +spells as _queredomo_ Collado spells as _qeredomo_. Finally, the text +records one usage of the letter _h_ in the exclamation _ha_. + +_The Morphological System_ + +Collado's treatment of the morphology contains one quite obvious difference +from those of his predecessors: he isolates the particles of the language +as separate elements of the structure. While his effort is more or less +carelessly maintained by the type setter, his attempt to establish a +division between the semantemes (_shi_) and the morphemes (_ji_) of +Japanese by establishing formal distance between his _verba_ and +_particula_, reflects his consciousness that the morphological elements in +Japanese are of a different order than those in Latin. At times, such as +when he describes the preterit subjunctive as _agueta raba_, his divisions +fly in the face of derivational history. But he can claim a reasonable +justification for his decision by citing Rodriguez' rule for the formation +of this form; "add _raba_ to the preterit of the verb" (_Arte_, 18v). +Perhaps it is a prejudice founded upon familiarity with {9} contemporary +romanizations, but I cannot help but consider this attempt to give greater +independence to the particles as an improvement in the representation of +the morphological system. + +In all other significant facets of the morphology Collado follows the +principles established by Rodriguez with the one exception that in the +over-all systematization of the verbal formation and conjugation he follows +the classifications established in Lebrija's _Introductiones_ rather than +those which Rodriguez inherited from the _Institutiones_ of Alverez. The +most significant difference between the two systems is the use by Lebrija +of the term subjunctive in his description of the moods where Rodriguez +gives independent status to the conjunctive, conditional, concessive, and +potential. As we shall see, after presenting the conjugational system of +the verb within the framework of Lebrija, Collado breaks the expected +sequence of his description of the verb to interject a section on +conditional constructions and another on those of the potential. + +In the treatment of the tenses Collado breaks with Rodriguez in not +attempting to establish an imperfect for Japanese, but he does follow him +in the overall classification of the conjugations. Thus:[9] + + 1st Conjugation verbs ending in _e_, _gi_, and e.g., _ague, uru_ + _ji_ (_xi_ and _maraxi_) + 2nd Conjugation verbs ending in _i_ e.g., _iomi, u_ + 3rd Conjugation verbs ending in _ai_, _oi_, and e.g., _narai, ó_ + _ui_ + +To the description of this general system Collado adds the treatment of the +substantive verbs. This section in many respects is the weakest in his +grammar with a portion of his description lost in composing the final text. + +Since Collado does not, as Rodriguez, present the conjugations in +paradigmatic form, I have extracted from his presentation the most +representative forms of the verb _ague, uru_ for each of the categories of +the system, and presented them in Chart 2 for reference. + + CHART 2 + + THE CONJUGATIONAL SYSTEM + + _Affirmative_ _Negative_ + + INDICATIVE MOOD + + Present aguru aguenu + Perfect agueta aguenanda + {10} + Pluperfect aguete atta aguenande atta + Future agueôzu aguru mai + Future perfect aguete arǒzu ---- + + IMPERATIVE MOOD + + Present ague io aguru na + Future agueôzu aguru mai + + OPTATIVE MOOD + + Present avare ague io caxi avare aguru na caxi + Preterit agueôzu mono vo aguru mai mono vo + Future avare ague io caxi avare aguru na caxi + + SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD + + Present agureba agueneba + Perfect agueta reba aguenanda reba + Pluperfect aguete atta reba ---- + Future agueô toqi aguru mai qereba + + PERMISSIVE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD + + Present agueredomo aguenedomo + Preterit agueta redomo aguenanda redomo + Future agueôzu redomo aguru mai qeredomo + + INFINITIVE + + Present aguru coto aguenu coto + Preterit agueta coto aguenanda coto + Future agueô coto aguru mai coto + + GERUND IN _DI_ + + Present aguru [jibun] aguenu [jibun] + Future agueô [jibun] aguru mai [jibun] + + GERUND IN _DO_ + + ---- aguete agueĩde + + GERUND IN _DUM_ + + Present aguru tame aguenu tame + Future agueô tame aguru mai tame + + SUPINE IN _TUM_ + + ---- ague ni ---- + + SUPINE IN _TU_ + + ---- ague ---- + + PARTICIPLE + + Present aguru fito aguenu fito + Preterit agueta fito aguenando fito + Future agueô fito aguru mai fito + + The forms treated separately are: + + THE CONDITIONAL + + Present agueba aguezũba + Preterit agueta raba aguenanda raba + Future agueô naraba aguru mai naraba + + THE POTENTIAL + + Present aguru ró aguenu coto mo arózu + Preterit aguetçu ró aguenanzzu ró + Future agueôzu ró aguru mail coto mo arózu + +{11} + +_The Structure of Collado's and Rodriguez' Descriptions Contrasted_ + +In every section of his description, Collado is indebted to the material +presented by Rodriguez in his _Arte da Lingoa de Iapam_. The structure of +the _Ars Grammaticae_, however, follows a much more simplistic design than +that of the _Arte_. As a consequence Collado found it necessary to assemble +his data from various sections of Rodriguez' description. In the paragraphs +which follow we will briefly sketch the structural relation between these +two grammars. + +As he clearly states in his title to the main portion of the grammar +Collado bases his description on the _Introductiones_ of Antonio Lebriya, +and more specifically upon that portion of the great Latin grammar which +dealt with the parts of speech. Further, he limits himself to the spoken +language rather than attempting, as does Rodriguez, an integrated treatment +of both the spoken and written grammars. + +Under these influences Collado's grammar takes on the following form: + + A Prologue (including the phonology) 3-5 + The Body of the Grammar (by parts of speech) 6-61 + A Brief Syntax 61-66 + A Treatment of the Arithmetic 66-74 + A Note on the Written Language 74-75 + +In contrast Rodriguez' _Arte_, prepared under the influence of Alvarez' +_Institutiones_, develops its description over the span of three books +which treat both the spoken and written grammar in progressively greater +detail. Thus: + + The Introduction iii-v + + BOOK I + + The Declensions 1-2v + The Conjugations 2v-54 + The Parts of Speech (_Rudimenta_) 55-80v + + BOOK II + + The Syntax of the Parts of Speech 83-168 + Styles, Pronunciation, Poetics, etc. 168-184 + + BOOK III + + The Written Language 184v-206v + Names, Titles, etc. 206v-212v + The Arithmetic 212v-239 + +{12} + +Given these differing formats[10] it is clear that Collado is unable to +cope adequately with the more complex aspects of the grammar, specifically +those syntactic constructions to which Rodriguez devotes almost an entire +book. + +An analysis of Collado's description and a listing of the portions of +Rodriguez' grammar from which material was taken yields the following: + + _Collado_ _Rodriguez_ + + Phonology (3-5) {Parts of Speech (55-58) + {Book III (173-179v) + + Nouns (6-13) {Declensions (1-2v) + {Parts of Speech (59-61) + + Adjectives (9-11, 32-33) {Declensions (2-2v) + {Conjugations (47-52) + {Parts of Speech (61-67) + + Pronouns (13-18) {Declensions (2v) + {Parts of Speech (67-68) + + Verbs (18-49) {Conjugations (6v-54v) + {Parts of Speech (69-73) + {Syntax (83v-112v) + + Adverbs (49-57) {Parts of Speech (73v-77) + {Syntax (113-125) + + Prepositions (57-59) {Parts of Speech (73-73v) + {Syntax (140-148v) + + Conjunctions (59-60) {Parts of Speech (76-76v) + {Syntax (130-137) + + Exclamations (60-61) {Parts of Speech (76-76v) + {Syntax (125-130) + + Syntax (61-66) Book II (83-168) + + Arithmetic (66-75) Book III (212v-239) + + Written Language (74-75) Book III (184v-206v) + +Two aspects of Japanese were not able to be described with any degree of +satisfaction by Collado; the adjectives (_adjectiva_) and the prepositions +(_praepositio_). His difficulties, attributable to the basic structural +difference between Latin and Japanese, were compounded by the fact that +Rodriguez too was unable to find a satisfactory solution to their +description. + +With respect to the adjectives, Collado attempts to deal with their +functions in the manner appropriate to Latin, that is as a sub-class of +{13} nouns (pp. 9-11). He also recognizes their formal similarity to the +verb and treats them briefly as a sub-class of the substantive verb (pp. +32-33), but his heavy reliance upon the semantic categories of Latin does +not permit him to follow Rodriguez who is able more clearly to recognize +their formal as well as their functional distinctiveness. + +Concerning prepositions, Collado was confronted with an all but +insurmountable taxonomic problem. Here too Rodriguez was unable to develop +a completely satisfactory descriptive framework. In the _Arte_ the term +_posposição_ is used for those particles which function in a manner similar +to the Latin prepositions; e.g., _tameni_, _taixite_, and _tomoni_ (cf. +73-73v and 140-148v); the term _artigo_ is used for those particles having +the functions of the inflectional endings of Latin; e.g., _ga_, _ye_, and +_ni_ (cf. 1-2, 78, and 137-140); and the general term _particula_ is used +to cover the broad spectrum of particles that include adverbs, +conjunctions, and exclamations, as well as those otherwise unaccounted for +elements which end phrases, clauses, and sentences; e.g., _no_, _nite_, and +_yo_ (cf. 77-78 and 144-154v). + +Collado, rather than attempting to refine the system suggested by +Rodriguez, follows the _Arte_ in listing as _praepositio_ those elements +which translate the Latin prepositions (pp. 57-59) but uses the term +_particula_ to cover all the other particles of the language. + +This tendency of Collado's to retreat from the challenging problems left +unresolved by Rodriguez constitutes the greatest weakness of his +description. Given concise grammatical descriptions on the one hand and +over-simplified versions of previous works on the other, the _Ars +Grammaticae Iaponicae Linguae_ unfortunately falls among the latter. + +In his shorter work, the _Arte Breve_ of 1620, Rodriguez retains the same +general format, but makes every effort to reduce the description to its +barest essentials. Thus: + + BOOK I + + A General Note on the Language 1-2 + An Essay on How to Learn the Language 2v-6 + The Orthography 6-8 + Composition of the Syllables 8v-9v + The Way to Write and Pronounce the Letters 10-12v + The Declension of Nouns 13-18 + The Conjugation and Formation of Verbs 18-52 + {14} + + BOOK II + + The Rudimenta 52-59v + The Syntax 59v-66v + + BOOK III + + The Written Language 67-75 + The Various Kinds of Names 75v-98v + +Of particular interest in the context of Collado's grammar is the manner in +which Rodriguez displays the verbal system. While the _Ars Grammaticae_ +presents the verbal system as a series of alterational rules to be applied +to the base forms, the _Arte Breve_ goes even further than the _Arte_ to +differentiate the formational rules from the conjugational displays. +Rodriguez tries several devices to elucidate his material. For example, +Charts A and B below represent very early attempts to use a bordered format +for linguistic description. + +In order to indicate the differences to be found between the descriptions +presented by Rodriguez and Collado, I have extracted the formational rules +from the _Arte Breve_ and, setting aside only two short appendices dealing +with variant forms, present them here in their entirety. + +_THE CONJUGATION AND FORMATION OF THE TENSES AND MOODS OF THE VERBS_ + +_All the verbs of this language may be reduced _(se reduzem)_ to four +affirmative and three negative conjugations. This is because the negative +conjugation of the adjectival verb, which we discussed before,[11] agrees +with the second of the three conjugations; and the conjugation of the +substantive verb _Sǒrai_, _Sǒrǒ_, or _soro_, which is an abbreviated form +of _Samburai_, _samburǒ_[12] both in the affirmative and the negative is +reduced to the third conjugation. At this point we will treat the three +affirmative and three negative ordinary conjugations of the regular +personal verbs.[13] Following this, and on account of its particular usage +and formation, we will discuss the conjugation of the adjectival verb._ + +_The verbs of this language do not change _(naõ fẽ variedade)_ to show +person and number as do those of Latin; rather, one form _(voz)_ {15} is +used for all persons, singular and plural. Number and person are understood +according to the subject _(Naminativo [_sic_])_, or pronoun, which is +joined to the verb. The moods of the verb, which in this language have +distinct forms for the tenses, are indicative, imperative, conjunctive, +conditional, and preterit participle. The remaining moods are made up of +these forms joined to certain particles. Each mood has but three tenses +which have distinct forms; these are preterit, present, and future. These +forms are signified by the Japanese terms _(vocabulos)_ _Quaco_, _ghenzai_, +_mirai_. The preterit imperfect and pluperfect are made up of the present, +preterit, and preterit participle together with the substantive verb, as +will be seen below in the conjugations._ + +_Concerning the formation of the tenses and moods of the verbs in general, +one is reminded that to understand the actual root _(raiz)_ and the natural +formation of all the tenses and moods, both affirmative and negative, it is +extremely important to take notice of the usage of the _Goyn_,[14] which +are the five vowels _(cinco letras vogaes)_ in the syllables which are +below each aforementioned formation; and that it is also important to +understand _Canadzucai_,[15] which is the way to write with _Firagana_ as +well as the way one joins together syllables, or letters, to form other +words _(palauras)_, while noticing which syllable is changed by which, what +constitutes long, short, or diphthongal syllables, which combinations cause +contraction _(sincope)_, which cause augmentation _(incremento)_ of the +verb, whether one makes a syllable liquid _(liquescit)_[16] or not, and how +the tenses of the moods are written with the same _Cana_.[17] The term +_Goyn_, not only indicates the syllables, or _Cana_, which are transformed +to others, such as _Fa_, _Fe_, _Fi_, _Fo_, _Fu_, which are changed to the +closely related sounds _Ba_, _Be_, _Bi_, _Bo_, _Bu_ and _Pa_, _Pe_, _Pi_, +_Po_, _Pu_; but it also indicates another kind of change from one sound to +another in the same order _(ordem)_, as happens among the syllables _Fa_, +_Fe_, _Fi_, _Fo_, _Fu_. _Ba_, _Be_, _Bi_, _Bo_, _Bu_. _Ma_, _Me_, _Mi_, +_Mo_, _Mu_, {16} etc. where often by rule _(regna)_ _Ma_ is changed to +_Mi_; or to the contrary _Bu_ to _Ba_ and _Bi_ to _Ba_, and likewise for +others. The greater part of the formation of the tenses of each mood is +confined to such changes, as is clearly seen in the way one writes the +tense forms with _Cana_. It is to this that another change belongs. That +which exists among those syllables having a certain relationship and +rapport between them, as _Ma_, _Fa_, _Ba_, _Pa_; _Me_, _Fe_, _Be_, _Pe_; +_Mi_, _Fi_, _Bi_, _Pi_; _Mo_, _Fo_, _Bo_, _Po_; _Mu_, _Fu_, _Bu_, _Pu_; +with _Mu_ and _V_. Thus, what is written _Vma_ in _Cana_ is written _Muma_, +and _Mume_ written for _Vme_ in order to conform more closely to its +pronunciation.[18] Also _Mu_ is written for _Bu_[19] so that all the +harmony _(armonia)_ in the formations of this language are contained in the +rules for _Goyn_ and _Canadzucai_. Those who are informed see, as native +speakers, how the tenses are formed for any mood, and which letter, or +syllable, must be changed to another to affect a formation. Concerning this +matter there is a booklet[20] which teaches _Canadzucai_, and the general +rules on the subject. Teachers should have this booklet to teach more +easily and advantageously those students who are learning _Cana_. Lacking a +knowledge of _Goyn_ and _Canadzucai_, some of the rules which until now +have been used in the formation of verbs (some of which I have let remain +as they were), are not the original and natural rules as are the +_Goyn_.[21] They are rather devices, some forming affirmative tenses and +moods from negative forms and others forming them from yet other more +remote sources, which appear to correspond to formational rules, but for +which the proper rules are not known. The fact is that the affirmative as +well as negative are formed from the affirmative, beginning with the root, +as will be seen below._ + +_Speaking in general of the formation of the verb, the forms of the +indicative and imperative moods of all three conjugations are formed from +the root of the verb. The rest of the tenses in the other affirmative moods +are formed from either the indicative or imperative forms. In the same way, +the negative indicative present is formed from the root of the verb and the +other tenses of the indicative are formed from {17} the present form. The +other negative moods are formed from the indicative forms._ + +FORMATION OF THE TENSES FOR THE INDICATIVE AND IMPERATIVE MOODS OF THE +VERBS OF THE FIRST AFFIRMATIVE CONJUGATION + +_The final syllables of the roots of the first affirmative conjugation, by +which the verbs conjugated here are known, and from which the tenses of the +indicative will be formed, end in _E_, with the exception of the verb "to +do," _Xi_, or _Ii_, with its compounds and certain other verbs which end in +_I_. The verbs which belong to the first conjugation, are as follows [in +Charts A & B]._ + +_The verb _Xi_ "to do," with its compounds ending in _Xi_ or _Ii_, follows +the formation of the verbs of the first conjugation. _Ii_ is _Xi_ which has +been changed _(alterado)_ to _Ii_ because it follows the letter _N_. _Xi_ +conforms to the rules for the syllables which are changed _(se mudam)_ to +others. Thus:_ + + Xi _In the present change _Xi_ to Suru, xita, xeô, ôzu, ôzuru, + _Suru_. In the preterit add xeyo, xenu, _or_ zu. + Faixi _Ta_ to the root. In the future Faisuru, faixita, faixeô, + change _Xi_ to _Xeô_. In the faixeyo, faixenu. + Tayxi[22] imperative change _Xi_ to _Xe_ Tassuru, taxxita, taxxeò, + and add _Yo_, _i_, or _sai_. In taxxeyo, taxxenu. + Gaxxi the negative add _Nu_, or _zu_ Gassuru, gaxxita, gaxxeô, + to _Xe_._ gaxxeyo, gaxxenu. + + Zonji _In the present _Ii_ is changed Zonzuru, zonjita, zonjeô, + to _Zuru_. In the preterit _Ta_ ôzu, ôzuru, zonjeyo, + is added to the root. In the zonjenu. + Caronji future _Ii_ is changed to _Ieô_, Caronzuru, caronjita, + etc._ _etc._ + + Vomonji Vomonzuru, vomonjita. + Sanji Sanzuru, sanjita. + Goranji Goranzuru, goranjita. + Soranji Soranzuru, soranjita. + Ganji Canzuru, canjita. + Manji Manzuru, manjita. + +_Many of these verbs have another, less used, form made by adding _Ru_ to +the root; e.g., _Abi, abiru_; _Mochiy, mochiyru_; _xiy, xiyru_. Among these +are some that have only this second form and lack the first; e.g., _Mi, +miru_; _Ni, niru_; _Fi, firu_; _Cagammi, cagammiru_; _Ki, kiru_ "to dress," +as distinct from _Ki, kuru_ "to come"; and _y, yru_._ + +{18} + + CHART A + + [The Formation of First Conjugation Verbs Ending in _E_] + + ------------+---------+-----------------+-----------+------------ + _Syllables_ |_Roots_ |_Formation_ |_Present_ |_Preterit_ + ============+=========+=================+===========+============ + |Tate, |_In the present |Tatçuru. |Tateta. + | |change _Te_ to | | + Te, | |_Tçuru._ The | | + |Fate, |remainder are |Fatçuru. |Fateta. + | |from the root. | | + | |See above._ | | + | | | | + Ie, |Maje, |_Change _Ie_ to |Mazuru. |Majeta. + | |_Zuru_ in the | | + | |present. The | | + | |remainder are | | + | |from the root. | | + | |See above._ | | + | | | | + |Saxe, |_In the present |Sasuru. |Saxeta. + Xe, | |change _Xe_ to | | + | |Suru. The | | + |Mairaxe, |remainder are |Mairasuru. |Mairaxeta. + | |from the root. | | + | |See above._ | | + ============+=========+=================+===========+============ + + ------------+---------+------------+-------------+----------- + _Syllables_ |_Roots_ |_Future_ |_Imperative_ |_Negative_ + ============+=========+============+=============+=========== + |Tate, |Tateô, ôzu, |Tateyo. |Tatenu, + | |ôzuru. |Tatei, |_or_, zu. + Te, | | |tatesay.[23] | + |Fate, |Fateô, ôzu |Fateyo, |Fatenu, + | |ôzuru. |_etc._ |_or_, zu. + | | | | + | | | | + Ie, |Maje, |Majeô. |Majeyo, |Majenu, + | | |_etc._ |_or_, zu. + | | | | + |Saxe, |Saxeô. |Saxeyo. |Saxenu, + Xe, | | | |_or_, zu. + | | | | + |Mairaxe, |Mairaxeô. |Mairaxeyo, |Mairaxenu, + | | |_etc._ |_or_, zu. + | | | | + ============+=========+============+=============+=========== + +{19} + + CHART B + + ------------+---------+-----------------+------------+----------- + _Syllables_ |_Roots_ |_Formation_ |_Present_ |_Preterit_ + ============+=========+=================+============+=========== + Be, |Curabe, |_In the present |Curaburu. |Curabeta. + | |tense of these | | + | |eight forms, | | + Fe, |Fe, |change _E_ to |Furu, _or_, |Feta. + | |Vru. _In the |feru. | + | |preterit add | | + Ghe, |Aghe, |_Ta_ to the root.|Aghuru. |Agheta. + | |In the future | | + | |_ô, ôzu, ôzuru_ | | + Ke, |Tokoke, |to the root. |Todokuru. |Todoketa. + | |In the Negative | | + Me, |Motome, |present add |Motomuru. |Motometa. + | |_Nu_, or _zu_ | | + Ne, |Fane, |to the root._ |Fanuru. |Faneta. + Re, |Fanare, | |Fanaruru. |Fanareta. + Ye, |Ataye, | |Atayuru. |Atayeta. + +---------+-----------------+------------+----------- + |De, |_In the present |Dzuru. |Deta. + | |change _De_ to | | + |Ide, |_Dzuru_. The |Idzuru. |Ideta. + [De,] | |other tenses | | + |Mǒde, |are formed, as |Mǒdzuru. |Mǒdeta. + | |above, from | | + |Mede, |the root._ |Medzuru. |Medeta. + | | | | + ============+=========+=================+============+=========== + + ------------+---------+------------+----------------+----------- + _Syllables_ |_Roots_ |_Future_ |_Imperative_ |_Negative_ + ============+=========+============+================+=========== + Be, |Curabe, |Curabeô, |Curabeyo, |Curabenu, + | |ôzu, ôzuru. |ei, sai. |_or_, Curabezu. + | | | | + Fe, |Fe, |Feô, ôzu, |Feyo, fei, |fenu, + | |ôzuru. |fesai. |fezu. + | | | | + Ghe, |Aghe, |Agheô, |Agheyo, |Aghenu, + | |_etc._ |_etc._ |_etc._ + | | | | + Ke, |Tokoke, |Todokeô. |Todokeyo, |Todokenu, + | | |_etc._ |_etc._ + Me, |Motome, |Motoneô. |Motomeyo, |Motomenu, + | | |_etc._ |_etc._ + Ne, |Fane, |Faneô. |Faneyo. |Fanenu. + Re, |Fanare, |Fanareô. |Fanareyo. |Fanarenu. + Ye, |Ataye, |Atayeô. |Atayeyo. |Atayenu. + +---------+------------+----------------+----------- + |De, |Deô, ôzu, |Deyo, |Denu. + | |_etc._ |_etc._ | + |Ide, |Ideô, ôzu. |Ideyo. |Idenu. + [De,] | | | | + |Mǒde, |_This verb is defective and lacks + | |other forms._ + |Mede, |_This verb is defective and has no + | |other forms_. + ============+=========+============+================+=========== + +{20} + +FORMATION OF THE OPTATIVE, CONJUNCTIVE, AND CONDITIONAL MOODS, AND THE +PARTICIPLE + +_The optative mood does not have forms of its own but compensates for this +in part by adding to the imperative certain particles which indicate +desire, in part by adding to the future indicative particles which show +regret for not doing something, and in part by circumlocutions with the +conditional mood and certain particles, as will be seen in the +conjugations._ + +_The conjunctive mood has two sorts of proper forms. The first is the +common and ordinary form ending in _Eba_, corresponding to the Latin _cum_. +The other ends in _Domo_, corresponding to the particle "although _(posto +que)_." The other verbs of this mood do not have their own forms, but are +expressed by circumlocutions as we shall see.[24]_ + +_The present tense of the first conjunctive is formed from the present +indicative by changing the final _Ru_ to _Reba_; e.g., _Motomureba_. For +the preterit _Reba_ is added to the preterit indicative; e.g., +_Motometareba_. For the future the final _Ru_ of the third form of the +future indicative is changed to _Reba_; e.g., _Motomeôzureba_. For a second +form of the future the syllable _Rǒ_ is added to the indicative preterit +perfect; e.g., _Motometarǒ_. This particle is _Ran_ in the written +language; e.g., _Motometaran_.[25] An utterance _(oraçam)_ does not end in +this form, but must be followed by a noun.[26]_ + +_The present tense of the second conjunctive is formed by changing the +final _Ru_ of the present indicative to _Redomo_; e.g., _Motomuredomo_. For +the preterit _Redomo_ is added to the indicative preterit perfect; e.g., +_Motometaredomo_. Strictly speaking this form is _Motomete aredomo_, losing +the _E_ of the participle. Furthermore, _Motometa_, together with the other +preterit forms in _Ta_ is from _Motometearu_ which is first elided to +_Motometaru_ and then by common usage _(pratica)_ to _Motometa_. All of +which is seen in its _Canadzucai_. For the future, the final _Ru_ of the +future indicative is changed to _Redomo_; e.g., _Motomeôzuredomo_._ + +_The conditional mood, for the present tense, is formed by adding the +syllable _Ba_ to the root of the verb and _Naraba_ or _Ni voiteua_ to the +{21} present tense form; e.g., _Motomeba_, _motomuru naraba_, and +_motomuruni voiteua_. For the preterit, _Raba_, _Naraba_, or _Ni voiteua_ +are added to the indicative preterit; e.g., _Motometaraba_, which is in +reality _Motomete araba_, _motometa naraba_, and _motometani voiteua_. For +the future _Naraba_ or _Ni voiteua_ are added to the future forms; e.g., +_Motomeô naraba_ and _motomeôni voiteua_. The present tense forms are also +used for the future._ + +VERBS OF THE FIRST CONJUGATION THAT END IN I + +_There are some irregular verbs ending in _I_ which follow the formational +rules of the first conjugation, both affirmative and negative. There are a +precise number of them. Those which have been found to date are shown +below. They are formed for the present indicative by changing _I_ to _Uru_, +for the preterit by adding _Ta_ to the root of the verb, and for the future +by adding long _û_, _ûzu_, or _ûzuru_ to the same root. For the present +conditional _Ba_ is added to the root, for the preterit _Raba_ is added to +the preterit indicative, and for the future _Naraba_ is added to the future +indicative. For the present conjunctive the _Ru_ of the present indicative +is changed to _Reba_, for the preterit _Reba_ is added to the same preterit +indicative, and for the future the final _Ru_ of the future is changed to +_Reba_. All the other forms are formed as has been stated for the formation +of the first conjugation. Thus:[27]_ + + { Abi, aburu, abita, abiû, ûzu, ûzuru, abiyo, _or_ sai, abiba, + { taraba. + { Cabi, caburu, cabita, cabiû, ûzu, ûzuru, biyo, sai, biba, + { bitaraba. + Abi { Carabi, caraburu, bita, biû, ûzu, ûzuru, biyo, sai, biba, taraba. + { Sabi, saburu, sabita, sabiû, ûzu, ûzuru, sabiyo, bisai, biba, + { taraba. + { Vabi, vaburu, vabita, vabiû, ûzu, ûzuru, yo, sai, biba, + { bitaraaba. + + { Nobi, buru, bita, biû, ûzu, ûzuru, biyo, bisai, biba, bitaraba. + { Corobi, buru, bita, biû, biûzu, ûzuru, biyo, bisai, biba, + { bitaraba. + Obi { Forobi, buru, bita, biû, ûzu, ûzuru, biyo, bisai, biba, bitaraba. + { Fitobi, bu, bita, biû, ûzu, ûzuru, biyo, bisai, biba, bitaraba. + { Fokorobi, bu, bita, biû, ûzu, ûzuru, biyo, bisai, biba, bitaraba. + + Ubi { Furubi, bu, bita, biû, ûzu, ûzuru, biyo, bisai, biba, bitaraba. + +{22} + + Vochi, { Chi _to_ } Votçuru, chita, chiû, chiyo, chiba, tçureba. + Cuchi, { Tçuru } Cutçuru, chita, chiû, chiyo, chiba, tçureba. + + Fagi, { _Change_ } Fadzuru, fagita, giû, giyo, giba, gitaraba. + Vogi, { Gi _to_ } Vodzuru, gita, giû, giyo, giba, gitaraba. + Negi, { Dzu } Nedzuru, gita, giû, giyo, giba, gitaraba. + + Mochiy, } _the_ { Mochiyuru, mochiyta, chiyû, yûzu, ûzuru, iyo, + } _final_ { yba, yttaraba. + Xiy, } Y { Xiyuru, xiyta, yû iyo, yba ytaraba. + Mimixiy, } _to_ { Mimixiyta, mimixiyte, _Defective_. + Mexiy, } Yuru { Mexiytaru, mexiyte, _Defective_. + + Y, yru, yta, yû, ûzu, ûzuru, yyo, yba, yreba. _To be_ + Ki, kiru, kita kiû, kiyo, _&c._ _To wear_ + Ki, kuru, kita, kô, kôzu, kôzuru, koyo _or_ koi. _To Come_ + Coru, coruru, corita, coriû, _&c._ + Furi, fururu, furita, furiû, _&c._ + Iki, ikuru, ikita, ikiû, _&c._ + Ideki, idekuru, idekita, idekiû, _&c._ + Deki, dekuru, dekita, dekiû, _&c._ + Voki, vokuru, vokita, vokiû, _&c._ + Tçuki, tçukuru, tçukita, tçukiû, _&c._ + Vori, voruru, vorita, voriû, _&c._ + Vrami, vramuru, vramita, vramiû, _&c._ + Cagammi, cagammiru, cagammita, cagammiû, _&c._ + Mi, miru, mita, miû, _&c._ + Ni, niru, nita, niû, _&c._ + Sughi, sughuru, sughita, sughiû, _&c._ + +FORMATION OF THE VERBS OF THE SECOND CONJUGATION + +_All the roots of second conjugation verbs end in_ I. _There are eight +final syllables for these verbs; i.e._, Bi, Chi, Ghi, Ki, Mi, Ni, Ri, Xi. +_It is by these syllables that the verbs of the second conjugation (except +for those mentioned above as being in the first conjugation) are +recognized, and from which the tenses are formed._ + +_The roots ending in the syllables_ Bi, Ghi, Ki, Mi, _and_ Ri _change the_ +I _to_ V _for the present tense; e.g._, Tobi, tobu; Coghi, coghu; Caki, +caku; Yomi, yomu; Kiri, kiru. + +_Those ending in_ Chi _change to_ Tçu _for the present; e.g._, Mochi, +motçu; Cachi, catçu; Tachi, tatçu. + +_Those ending in_ Ni _change to_ Nuru _for the present; e.g._, Xini, +xinuru; Yni, ynuru.[28] + +{23} + +_Those ending in _Xi_ change to _Su_ for the present; e.g., _Fanaxi, +fanasu_; _Cudaxi, cudasu_; _Taraxi, tarasu_._ + +_For the preterit those ending _Obi_ and _Omi_ change to _ôda_; e.g., +_Yomi, yôda_; _Tobi, tôda_; _Yobi, yôda_; _Yorocobi, yorocôda_. _Tomi_ +becomes _tonda_._ + +_Those ending in _Abi_ and _Ami_ change to _ǒda_; e.g., _Yerabi, yerǒda_; +_Vogami, vogǒda_; _Yami, yǒda_._ + +_Those ending in _Imi_ change to _ûda_; e.g., _Najimi, najǔda_; _Nijimi, +nijǔda_; _Ximi, xûda_.[29]_ + +_Those ending in _Umi_ and _Ubi_ change their endings to _Vnda_ or in some +instances _ûda_. While some have two forms others have only one form which +is seen in use, the more general is _Vnda_; e.g., _Musubi, musunda_; +_Susumi, susunda_ or _susûda_; _Nusumi, nusunda_ or _nusûda_; _Sumi, sunda_ +or _sûda_; _Cumi, cunda_ only._ + +_Those ending in _Ebi_ and _Emi_ change to _Eôda_; e.g., _Sakebi, sakeôda_; +_Sonemi, soneôda_._ + +_Those ending in _Ghi_ change to _Ida_; e.g., _Auoghi, auoida_; _Voyoghi, +voyoida_; _Coghi, coida_._ + +_Those ending in _Ni_ change to _Inda_; e.g., _Xini, xinda_; _Yni, ynda_._ + +_Those ending in _Chi_ and _Ri_ change to _Tta_; e.g., _Machi, matta_; +_Cachi, catta_; _Tachi, tatta_; _Kiri, kitta_; _Chiri, chitta_; _Cari, +catta_._ + +_Those ending in _Ki_ and _Xi_ change to _Ita_; e.g., _Caki, caita_; _Faki, +faita_; _Nuki, nuita_; _Todoki, todoita_; _Sosoki, sosoita_; _Saxi, saita_; +_Fataxi, fataita_; _Maxi, maita_ or _maxita_; _Coxi, coita_ or _ oxita_. +The following add _Ta_ to the root; e.g., _Moxi, moxita_; _Muxi, muxita_; +_Fuxi, fuxita_; _Mexi, mexita_._ + +_The future can be formed in two ways. The first and more common way is to +change _I_ to _ǒ_, _ǒzu_, or _ǒzuru_; e.g., _Yomi, yomǒ, yomǒzu, yomǒzuru_; +_Yerabi, yerabǒ_, etc.; _Kiri, kirǒ_; _Xini, xinǒ_; _Auoghi, auogǒ_.[30] +Those ending in _Chi_ change to _Tǒ_; e.g., _Cachi, catǒ_, etc.; _machi, +matǒ_. Those ending in _Xi_ change to _Sǒ_; e.g., _Mǒxi, mǒsǒ_; _Nagaxi, +nagasǒ_; _Mexi, mesǒ_; _Coxi, cosǒ_, etc. The other way, which is easy too, +is to change the final _V_ of the present indicative to _ǒ_; e.g., _Yomu, +yomǒ_; _Kiku, kikǒ_; _Mǒsu, mǒsǒ_; _Mesu, mesǒ_. Those ending in {24} _çu_ +change to _Tǒ_; e.g., _Tatçu, tatǒ_; _Catçu, catǒ_. Those ending in _Nuru_ +change to _Nǒ_; e.g., _Xinuru, xinǒ_; _Ynuru, ynǒ_. This second rule seems +to be more naturally in accord with the rules for the Japanese language._ + +_The imperative changes the final _I_ of the root to _E_. Those ending in +_Chi_ change to _Te_; e.g., _Yome_; _Kike_; _Tamochi, tamote_; _Vchi, ute_; +_Machi, mate_._ + +_The present conjunctive is formed by adding _Ba_ to the imperative; e.g., +_Yomeba_; _Tateba_.[31] For the preterit, _Reba_ is added to the preterit +indicative; e.g., _Yôdarebe_.[32] For the future the final _Ru_ of the +future indicative is changed to _Reba_; e.g., _Yomǒzureba_. The conjunctive +in _Domo_ is formed in the same manner; e.g., _Yomedomo, yôdaredomo, +yomǒzuredomo_._ + +_The conditional is formed from the future indicative by changing the _ǒ_ +to _Aba_; e.g., _Yomaba_; _Tataba_.[33] The preterit is formed by adding +_Raba_ to the indicative preterit; e.g., _Yôdaraba_; _Tattaraba_.[34]_ + +_The preterit participle is formed from the preterit by changing the _A_ to +_E_; e.g., _Yôde_; _Kite_; _Tatte_. The present participle, in _Te_, is +formed by adding _Te_ ['hand'] to the root of any verb. This is properly a +substantive and thus governs the genitive as do the other substantives. It +does not indicate tense; e.g., _Yomite_; _Cakite_; _Machite_, etc._ + +_The negative present can be formed in two ways. The first, and that which +accords with the rules for _Canadzucai_, is formed by changing _I_ of the +root to _Anu_ or _Azu_; e.g., _Corobi, corobanu, corobazu_; _Yomi, yomanu_, +etc.; _Coghi, coghanu_; _Caki, cacanu_;[35] _Kiri, kiranu_; _ini, inanu_. +Those ending in _Chi_ change to _Tanu_; e.g., _Tachi, tatanu_. Those ending +in _Xi_ change to _Sanu_; e.g., _Fanasanu_. Another formation common to all +is made with the future indicative by changing _ǒ_ to _Anu_ or _Azu_; e.g., +_Corobǒ, corobanu, corobazu_; _Yomǒ, yomanu_, etc.; _Coghǒ, coghanu_; +_Cakǒ, cakanu_; _Kirǒ, kiranu_; _Inǒ, inanu_; _Tatǒ, tatanu_; _Matǒ, +matanu_; _Fanasǒ, fanasanu_. This rule is common to all three conjugations +by changing the affirmative future indicative _ǒ_ to _Anu_ and the _ô_ {25} +and _û_ to _Nu_ or _Zu_;[36] e.g., _Todomeô, todomenu, todomezu_; _Saxeô, +saxenu_, etc.; _Tateô, tatenu_; _Miû, minu_; _Yomǒ, yomanu_; _Tatǒ, +tatanu_; _Fanasǒ, fanasanu_; _Narauǒ, narananu_; _Vomouǒ, vomouanu_; +_Furuuo, furuuanu_. For the second conjugation preterit, those in _Nu_ are +changed to _Nanda_: e.g., _Yomananda_. For the preterit participle _Da_ is +changed to _De_; e.g., _Yomanande_. For the second form of the negative +participle, the _Nu_ is changed to _Ide_; e.g., _Yomaide, Corobaide_, +_Tataide_, _Totonouaide_. For the future the particle _majij_[37] or _mai_ +is added to the affirmative present indicative; e.g., _Yomumajij, yomumai_; +_Matçumajij, matçumai_._ + +FORMATION OF THE THIRD CONJUGATION AND THE ROOTS FROM WHICH THE TENSES ARE +FORMED + +_The final syllables of the third conjugation are the diphthongs _Ai_, +_Oi_, _Vi_. By these syllables the verbs are known to belong to this +conjugation, and from them the tenses are formed. The present indicative is +formed by changing _Ai_ to _ǒ_, _Oi_ to _ô_, and _Vi_ to _û_; e.g., _Narai, +narǒ_; _Vomoi, vomô_; _furui, furû_. The preterit is formed by adding the +syllable _Ta_ to the present; e.g., _Narǒta_, _Vomôta_, _Furûta_. The +future is formed by changing the final _I_ of the root to _Vǒ, vǒzu, +vǒzuru_; e.g., _Narauǒ, narauǒzu_, etc.; _Vomouǒ, vomouǒzu_, etc.; _Furuuǒ, +furuuǒzu_, etc. The present imperative is formed by changing the final _I_ +to _Ye_; e.g., _Naraye_, _Vomoye_, _Furuye_._ + +_For the present conjunctive _Ba_ or _Domo_ is added to the imperative; +e.g., _Narayeba, narayedomo_; _Vomoyeba, vomoyedomo_; _Furuyeba, +furuyedomo_. For the preterit _Reba_ or _Redamo_[38] is added to the +indicative preterit; e.g., _Narǒtareba, narǒtaredomo_; _Vomôtareba, +vomôtaredomo_; _Furûtareba, furûtaredomo_._ + +_The present conditional is formed by changing _ǒ_ of the future to _Aba_; +e.g., _Narauaba_, _Vomouaba_, _Furuuaba_. The preterit is formed by adding +_Raba_ to the indicative preterit; e.g., _Narǒtaraba_, _Vomôtaraba_, +_Furûtaraba_._ + +{26} + +_The negative present is formed by changing the _I_ of the root to _Vanu_ +or _vazu_; e.g., _Narai, narauanu, narauazu_; _Vomoi, vomouanu_, etc.; +_Furui, Furuuana_, etc. This form can also be formed from the future by +changing the _ǒ_ to _Anu_ or _azu_; e.g., _Narauǒ, narananu_, etc. For the +preterit the _Nu_ is changed to _Nanda_; e.g., _Narauananda_. For the +preterit participle the _Da_ is changed to _De_; e.g., _Narauanande_. For +the second form the _Nu_ of the present is changed to _Ide_; e.g., +_Narauaide_, _Vomouaide_, _Furuuaide_. For the future the particle +_Majii_,[39] _maji_, or _mai_ is added to the affirmative present +indicative; _e.g._, _Narǒmajii, narǒmaji, narǒmai_; _Vomômajii, ji_, or +_mai_; _Furûmajii, ji_, or _mai_._ + +_The verb _Yy_ 'to speak' becomes _Yû, yûta, yuǒ, yye, yuanu_. _Yei_ or +_yoi_ 'to become sick' becomes _Yô, yôta, youǒ, yoye, yonanu_. The +substantive verb _Saburai_, which also belongs to this conjugation, becomes +_Saburǒ, saburauanu_; and _Sǒrai_ becomes _Sǒrǒ, soro, sǒraite, sǒraye, +sorouanu_._ + +Rodriguez follows these formational rules with a full display of all the +forms of the three conjugations. In his display he, like Alvarez before +him, recapitulates the appropriate rules for each form. Collado nowhere +presents his conjugational system as a paradigm but does, as we shall see, +include a full complement of example sentences in his description, +something which Rodriguez does not do in the _Arte Breve_. + +_Bibliography_ + +In the examination of any portion of the Christian materials certain works +are indispensable. Father Johannes Laures, S.J., _Kirishitan Bunko_ (Tokyo, +1957) remains the basic bibliographic source for the study of all sources +of the Christian Century, while Hashimoto Shinkichi, _Kirishitan kyōgi no +kenkyū_ (Tokyo, 1929) and Doi Tadao, _Kirishitan gogaku no kenkyū_ (Tokyo, +1942) serve as indespensible guides to our understanding of the linguistic +aspects of the field. A later contribution to the general bibliography has +been made by Fukushima Kunimichi, _Kirishitan shiryō to kokugo kenkyū_ +(Tokyo, 1973). + +The basic grammatical study of the period, based upon the _shōmono_ +materials, is Yuzawa Kōkichirō, _Muromachi jidai gengo no kenkyū_ {27} +(Tokyo, 1958). More closely related to the language reflected in the text +is his "Amakusabon Heike monogatari no gohō," in _Kyōiku ronbunshū_ (no. +539, Jan. 1929). An English treatment of the grammatical system of the +period is to be found in R. L. Spear, "A Grammatical Study of _Esopo no +Fabulas_," an unpublished doctoral thesis (Michigan, 1966). The phonology +has been carefully analyzed by Ōtomo Shin'ichi, _Muromachi jidai no kokugo +onsei no kenkyū_ (Tokyo, 1963), with a valuable contribution made in +English by J. F. Moran, "A Commentary on the _Arte Breve da Lingoa Iapao_ +of João Rodriguez, S.J., with Particular Reference to Pronunciation," an +unpublished doctoral thesis (Oxford, 1971). This latter work presents an +exhaustive examination of the phonological system reflected in the _Arte +Breve_ of 1620 within the framework of Berhard Bloch's phonemic theory. + +Two lexical works have been used as basic references in this translation. +The _Vocabulario de Lingoa de Iapam_ (hereafter the _Vocabulario_) produced +by the Jesuit Mission Press at Nagasaki in the years 1603 and 04. In a +carefully annotated version by Professor Doi, under the title _Nippo jisho_ +(Tokyo, 1960), this work is the most important single source for the +vocabulary of the period. The second work is the _Dictionarium sive +Thesauri Linguae Iaponicae Compendium_ (hereafter the _Dictionarium_) which +is the companion piece to the present text. This dictionary has been +carefully edited and cross-referenced by Ōtsuka Mitsunobu, under the title +_Koriyaado Ra Su Nichi jiten_ (Tokyo, 1966). In this form it has served as +a constant aid to the translator in the determination of the proper glosses +for the lexical items in the text. + +The aforementioned _Arte_ of 1604-08 by Rodriguez, has been the single most +frequently used tool in the preparation of this translation.[40] As the +most significant influence upon Collado's work and the source for most of +his material, both theoretical and practical, I have related the two works +at every point in the translation. In its Japanese version by Professor +Doi, _Rodorigesu Nihon daibunten_ (Tokyo, 1950), this work has been +invaluable in gaining a clearer understanding of many of the passages which +might have otherwise been obscure. + +Rodriguez' _Arte Breve_ of 1620, while having no influence upon the +preparation of the _Ars Grammaticae_, is nevertheless of fundamental {28} +importance as a work against which Collado's treatment of Japanese grammar +is to be judged. This shorter grammar is as yet to be fully translated into +English--Moran having limited his study to the treatment of the phonology. + +With respect to the text itself I have made this translation on the basis +of the facsimile edition published by the Tenri Central Library in 1972 as +part of its _Classica Japonica_ series. Ōtsuka Takanobu, _Koiyaado-cho +Nihongo bunten_ (Tokyo, 1934) and its revised edition under the title of +_Koriyaado Nihon bunten_ (Tokyo, 1957) have served as invaluable aids at +every step of the translation. + +Ōtsuka's second edition is of invaluable scholarly importance because it +contains a cross-reference to the Spanish manuscript from which Collado +prepared the printed Latin edition as well as a concordance to the Japanese +vocabulary.[41] This translation attempts to supplement Ōtsuka's invaluable +contribution by relating the Latin text of this grammar with Rodriguez' +_Arte_. + +_Editorial Conventions_ + +The Latin matrix of the text is printed in italic letters while the +Japanese is in roman. For this translation I have reversed the convention. +(In footnotes where the text is quoted the style of the original is +followed.) In making editorial corrections in the Japanese material the +corrected version is presented in brackets with periods to indicate the +general location; + + e.g., _mairu mai queredomo_ [... qeredomo] + +(The only exception to this rule is the correcting of a missing open _o_, +q.v.) Sentences that have been taken from the _Arte_ are indicated by the +parenthetical recording of the leaf number of the citation immediately +after the sentence; + + e.g., _xô tame no chôqui gia_ (22) 'it is.... + +Shorter sentences and specific words that in all likelihood have been taken +from the _Arte_ are not listed if they are to be found in the section +elsewhere noted as being the source of the material covered. Any {29} +significant alteration in the form of the source is noted. Since the _Arte_ +is numbered by the leaf, _v_ is added to the number to indicate the +_verso_. + +All the corrections made by the _errata_ (on page 75 of the text) have been +applied to the text without notation unless the correction is itself in +error. + +The punctuation follows the text with the following exceptions; + +1. In translating from Latin the English follows modern rules of +punctuation. + +2. Single quotes have been introduced into the text to mark glosses and +translations. + +3. In transcribing the Japanese citations any alteration of the original +punctuation is noted. + +4. The spacing of words in Japanese--a relatively casual matter in the +text--has been regularized on the basis of the predominant pattern. + +5. Two specific rules, based upon Collado's more or less consistent usage, +are followed in the citing of verb forms: + + a. In the most frequent citation of verbs, where the root form is + followed by the present indicative ending, a comma is used; + + e.g., _ari,u_; _ague,uru_; _mochi,tçu_ + + b. In an alternate form of citation, where the two forms are given in + their entirety, a colon is used; + + e.g., _ari:aru_; _ague:aguru_; _mochi:motçu_ + +Spelling and accentuation are treated in the following manner: + +1. The _ſ_ in all instances is represented by _s_. + +2. The usage of _v_ and _u_ has been regularized: the _v_ serves as the +consonant; and _u_ as the vowel, semi-vowel, and orthographic symbol; e.g., +_vaga_, _uie_, _quan_, and _agueta_. + +3. The predictable nasalization--marked by a tilde in the text--has not +been included in the translation unless the presence of nasalization is +morphologically significant; e.g., _tobu:tõda_. {30} + +4. The accent grave--which appears in no discernible pattern--is not +transcribed in the translation. + +5. The accent acute is used in the translation to mark the long _ú_ [u:] +and the long, open _ó_ [[IPA: Open-mid back rounded vowel]:], in those +places where the length is marked by Collado. Since the most frequent +typographical error in the text is the failure to mark the presence of +these long syllables, I follow the convention of correcting the absence of +this feature in the Latin text by using the inverted caret in the +translation. Thus, the appearance in the translation of _mósu_ indicates +that Collado recorded the length of this word, either by an accent acute +(e.g., _mósu_), or an inverted caret (e.g., _mǒsu_). The appearance of +_mǒsu_ indicates that he did not, and that its absence is being corrected. +The form _mǒsu_ in the translation is therefore the shorthand equivalent +for what would more regularly be _mosu_ [_mósu_]. + +6. The circumflex, which indicates the long, closed _ô_ [o:], is corrected +as other errors by placing the corrected version of the item in brackets; +e.g., _roppio_ [_roppiô_]. + + * * * * * + + +ARS +GRAMMATICAE +IAPONICAE +LINGVAE + +IN GRATIAM ET ADIVTORIVM +eorum, qui prædicandi Euangelij causa ad +Iaponiæ Regnum se voluerint conferre. + +_Composita, & Sacræ de Propaganda Fide Congregationi +dicata à Fr. Didaco Collado Ordinis Prædicatorum +per aliquot annos in prædicto Regno +Fidei Catholicæ propagationis +Ministro._ + +[Illustration] + +ROMÆ, +Typis & impensis Sac. Congr. de Propag. Fide. +MDCXXXII. +_SVPERIORVM PERMISSV_. + +{105} + + * * * * * + + +A +Grammar +of the Japanese +Language + +FOR THE SAKE AND HELP +of those who wish to go to the Kingdom of +Japan to preach the Gospel. + +Composed and dedicated to the Blessed Congregation for the +Propagation of the Faith by Brother Didico Collado, +O.P., who was for many years in that Kingdom +as a Minister for the Propagation of +the Catholic Faith. + +[Illustration] + +Printed by the Blessed Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith. +1632 +BY PERMISSION OF THE SUPERIORS. + +{106} + + * * * * * + + + It may be published if it please the Most Reverend Father, + Master of the Holy Apostolic Palace. + For the Archbishop of Umbria. The Vicar General. + + It may be published. + + Brother Nicolaus Riccardius, Master of the Holy Apostolic Palace, + Order of Preachers. + +{107} + + * * * * * + + +Prologue to the Reader + +_With Some Advice on the Correct Pronunciation of the Japanese Language_ + +Long ago, at the beginning of the establishment of our orthodox faith in +the Japanese kingdom, a grammar of this language was made by Father Ioannus +Rodriguez of the Society of Jesus.[42] However, since things rarely turn +out perfect at first attempt, and, because of the passing years that have +made it difficult to find a copy of this grammar; I thought that it would +honor God and the ministers who preach the faith (which cannot be taught +without the use of language) if I were to select examples (and there are +many) that are useful to this language, neglect those not accepted by the +experts of the language, add, with the help of God (who gives words to the +evangelists), the words that I have learned from experience, practice, and +continuous reading, and by such means offer up a handbook of the Japanese +language in which I would bring together in a brief span these examples +with those precepts which the preachers (for whom I began this work) need +to learn of the Japanese language. This is done because examples are +necessary with the rules and precepts so that it is possible to demonstrate +the rule which has just been explained. Not only have these examples been +selected for the greater help and enjoyment of the students, but also their +explanation has been added in Latin (which is the language most common to +theologians); thus the teacher will have very little left to be desired. +Even if all the elements included in this grammar, as in the dictionary +(which with the help of God I plan to publish shortly),[43] are polished +enough and sure enough to be used with trust; I would still want them to be +submitted to the judgement of the reader so that the preaching of the +faith, carried on with a more correct language, may become more fruitful. + +When two vowels follow each other in any Japanese word, they are not +pronounced as in the Latin word _valeo_ or in the Spanish, _vaca_, but each +is pronounced independently; _v_, _a_; _v_, _o_; _v_, _i_. + +{108} + +The letter _s_ is pronounced as _sç_; e.g., _susumuru_, _sçusçumuru_. + +The letter _j_ is pronounced smoothly (_blande_), as in the Portuguese +_joaõ_ and _judeo_. + +The letter _x_ is also pronounced smoothly, as in the Portuguese (4 +_queixumes_. + +When there is the sign ˆ over the letter _o_ it is pronounced _ou_ with the +lips almost closed and the mouth partly closed; e.g., _buppô_. + +When there is the sign ˇ or ´ over the letter _o_ it is pronounced with the +mouth open as if there were two letters, _oo_; e.g., _tenxó_ or +_gacuxǒ_.[44] + +If the signs we have just shown are over the letter _u_, it is pronounced +long as if there were two letters, _uu_; e.g., _taifú_ or _aiaǔ_. + +When the sign ˜ is over the vowel, the sign should be pronounced like an +_n_, not strongly but swiftly (_cursim_) and softly (_leniter_); e.g., +_vãga_.[45] + +_Qe_ and _Qi_ are written without _u_, because when _u_ follows _q_ or _c_ +both letters are pronounced as a _sinalepha_;[46] e.g., _quódai_ or +_quainin_. + +When _u_ follows _g_ and immediately after the _u_ is the letter _e_ or +_i_, it should be pronounced as in the Spanish word _guenin_; but if the +letter _e_ or _i_ follows _g_ immediately without the _u_, it should be +pronounced as in the Italian word _giorno_; e.g., _xitãgi_. + +The letter _z_ is pronounced with the same strength as in the Spanish word +_zumbar_; e.g., _mizu_. + +But if there are two _zz_ then they are pronounced more strongly; _e.g._, +_mizzu_. + +When there are two _tt_, _xx_, _zz_, _qq_, _cq_, _ij_, or _pp_[47] it is +important to persist in order to obtain perfect pronunciation and the exact +value of the word; for _mizu_ means 'honey' and _mizzu_ means 'water.' +Therefore, if the words are said with the same strength or the same +gentleness they can mean either 'water' or 'honey.' + +When _ch_ comes before a vowel it is pronounced as in the Spanish +_chimera_; e.g., _fochó_. + +{109} + +But if _nh_ comes before a vowel it is pronounced as in the Spanish _maña_; +e.g., _nhuva_. + +The letter _f_ is pronounced in various regions of Japan as it is in Latin. +In others it is pronounced as if it were an imperfect _h_. For both +pronunciations the lips and the mouth should be nearly, but not completely, +closed. + +When _tç_ is in a word (and it appears quite frequently) the student should +pray that God have mercy on his pronunciation because the word is very +difficult, and its pronunciation is not to be found (5 in any other +language. It is not truly pronounced _tç_, nor as _s_, nor as _c_ alone, +but rather by striking the tongue violently against the teeth in order to +pronounce both _t_ and _ç_, but with more _ç_ than _t_ seeming to be +sounded; e.g., _tçutçumu_. + +The letter _r_ is said smoothly and softly everywhere it is found, either +at the beginning or in the middle of a word; e.g., _ranguió_, or +_cutabiruru_. + +_Ya_, _ye_, _yo_, and _yu_ are pronounced as in Spanish.[48] + +When words ending in _i_ or _u_ are pronounced by the Japanese, the last +letter is almost not heard by the student. For instance, if he hears +_gozaru_ he will think he hears _gozar_, if he hears _fitotçu_ he will +believe he hears only _fitotç_, and when he hears _axi no fara_ he will +perceive only _ax no fara_. + +When a word ending in a vowel is followed immediately by a consonant, +particularly _b_ or _s_,[49] between that vowel and consonant is pronounced +the letter _n_, not perfectly, but softly; e.g., _sonõ gotoqu._ + +I have given special care to the accenting of words.[50] This has been done +so that the signs that have been placed correctly over the accented letter +will allow the listener to understand the meaning of the words and the +sentences of the speaker. For instance, _qèixèi_ has the accent on both +_èè_; _fìbicàxi_ has it on the first _i_ and on the a.[51] This same {110} +arrangement will be respected in the dictionary, with the accent being +written with the same degree of correctness as is able to be achieved with +great attention. If at times I have made mistakes, I am prepared to correct +them immediately. Concerning what has been explained too briefly or left +out of this grammar and the dictionary, learned people will be able to do +that when they add a third dictionary and a third grammar, since it is easy +to supply this material. Because I wish neither to be criticized by the +Head of our Order (_pater familias_) and the Lord our God, nor do I wish +this knowledge to be wrapped up in a handkerchief;[52] I want by these two +works to help and to cooperate in the salvation of the Japanese not only by +preaching but also by offering to the preachers, if I can, the tools of the +language and chiefly the method by which they might better learn the +Japanese language, a task made very difficult by the persecutions in Japan. +Farewell, Reader, and be of good cheer. Madrid, 30 August 1631. + + * * * * * + + +{111} (6 + +IN THIS GRAMMAR WE HAVE FOR THE MOST PART OBSERVED THE ARRANGEMENT WHICH +ANTONIUS NEBRISSENSIS AND OTHERS HAVE FOLLOWED IN LATIN FOR THE TREATMENT +OF SENTENCES, NAMELY NOUNS, PRONOUNS, ETC. + +_The Noun--Its Declension and Its Gender_ + +In the Japanese language there are no case declensions as there are in +Latin; but there are certain particles, which when suffixed to nouns, +determine the differences between the cases for both common and proper +nouns. The particles which form the nominative are five; _va_, _ga_, +_cara_, _no_, and _iori_. The particle _va_ is used when we want to give a +sort of reduplicative[53] and specific turn to the person or thing that is +signified by such a noun. It indicates either the first, second, or third +person; e.g., _Vatacuxi va mairanu_ 'I, or those related to me, will not +come.' The particle _no_ is suffixed to the second and third person, +especially if they are inferior in rank or in a sentence where there is a +relative construction which does not indicate a transitive action; e.g., +_sonata no móxita coto_ 'that which you said.' The particle _no_ is also +used when some indefinite form is used; e.g., _iie no aru ca miió_ [... +_miio_] 'see if there are houses.' The particle _ga_ is used usually for +the first and third persons of inferior status as well as for the second +person when he is the most lowly or is to be humiliated; e.g., _Pedro ga +qita_ 'Peter came.' This particle is also used to indicate something +indefinite, as has been said of the particle _no_; e.g., _coco ni va iie ga +nai ca?_ 'aren't the houses here?' It is also used in sentences that have a +relative construction which does not indicate a transitive action. If the +reference is to something of inferior or humble status the particle _ga_ is +also used; e.g., _soregaxi ga caita fumi_ 'the letter which I wrote,' +_sochi ga iúta coto_ 'what you said.' The particles _cara_ and _iori_ are +used to form the {112} nominative case when the sentence shows a transitive +action, especially if the sentence contains a relative construction; e.g., +_Deus iori cudasareta gracia_ 'the mercy which God gave,' _tono cara core +vo vôxe tçuqerareta_ 'the Lord taught this.' Sometimes the words are in the +nominative case without any particle; e.g., _Pedro Ioaõ vo iobareta_ 'Peter +called (7 John.' There are two particles for the genitive; i.e., _no_ and +_ga_. The particle _no_ is used for all persons of superior rank; e.g., +_Padre no võ qiru mono_ 'the priest's clothes, or habit.' The particle _ga_ +is used for people of inferior rank; e.g., _Pedro ga fumi_ 'Peter's +letter,' _sochi ga mono_ 'your thing,' _are ga cane_ 'your money,' _tono va +iocu ga fucai fito gia_ 'the Lord is of great cupidity, that is to say he +is very eager.' Sometimes the particle _to_ is suffixed to the genitive; +e.g., _Pedro no to degozaru_ 'it belongs to Peter.' But since this is not a +perfect way of speaking, it is better not to use it. I have cited it so +that if you hear it you will understand. When two nouns are joined to form +a single word, the one which is like an adjective does not require the +genitive particle; e.g., _cocuxu_ 'the Lord of the kingdom.' According to +the ordinary rule we should say _cocu no xu_. This way of forming the +genitive is very common in Japanese; e.g., _Maria coto_ 'Mary's thing.' + +Two particles form the dative; i.e., _ni_ and _ie_. For example, _Pedro ni +móxita_ 'I told Peter,' _Padre ie ague maraxita_ 'I gave, or offered, it to +the priest.' + +There are five particles which form the accusative case; i.e., _vo_, +_voba_, _va_, _ie_, and _ga_. The first, _vo_, is the most used; e.g., +_Pedro vo iobe_ 'call Peter.' _Va_ is used when one wishes to express in +particular a noun in the accusative; e.g., _niffon guchi va xiranu_[54] 'I +don't know Japanese.' The ending _voba_ is the same as _vo va_, changing +the second _v_ to _b_ they use it as _va_; e.g., _fune voba nori sutete; +cane bacari tori maraxita_ 'abandoning ship, I took only money, or gold, +with me.' _Ie_ is used to indicate the place to which one goes; e.g., _Roma +ie mairó_ 'I go to Rome.' _Ga_ is used for nouns which indicate non-living +or humble things; e.g., _are ie gozare, mono ga móxitai_ 'go there! I have +something to tell you.' The accusative is also formed without any particle, +as has {113} been shown in the example second before last, where the second +accusative is without a particle. + +The vocative is formed with the particle _icani_. It is not suffixed to +words as are the other particles but it is prefixed instead; e.g., _icani +qimi core vo goronjerarei_ 'look at this, My Lord.'[55] Usually, however, +the vocative is formed without any particle; e.g., _Padre sama_ (8 +_qicaxerareio_ 'listen, Reverend Father.' + +There are three particles for the ablative; i.e., _iori_, _cara_, and _ni_. +The third indicates the place in which; e.g., _iglesia ni gozaru_ 'he is in +church.' Sometimes _ni_ is used after _no_; e.g., _sonata no ni xi aru ca?_ +'are you going to make it yours, or take it for yours?' But this seems much +more a dative than an ablative. The particles _cara_ and _iori_ are more +common in the formation of the ablative; e.g., _Madrid cara maitta_ 'I came +from Madrid,' _Pedro iori corosareta_ 'he was killed by Peter.' + +There are four particles used to form the plural. They are placed +immediately after the noun they pluralize and before the particles which +indicate case. These four particles are _tachi_, _xu_, _domo_, and _ra_. +The first, _tachi_, forms the plural of those noble things which one wishes +to honor; e.g., _tono tachi_ 'lords.' The particle _xu_ forms the plural +for noble things but not those of the highest rank; e.g., _samurai xu_ +'nobles (_nobiles_), but not lords (_domini_).' The particle _domo_ is +suffixed to words which indicate humble things, either abstract, animate, +or inanimate; e.g., _fiacuxó domo_ 'farmer,' _ixi domo_ 'stones,' _mma +domo_ 'horses.' The particle _ra_ forms the plural of nouns which indicate +very low things which are to be despised; e.g., _Iudeo ra_ 'Jews.'[56] The +case particles which are required by the sentence are placed after the +pluralizing particles; e.g., _tono tachi no coto domo vo varú iú na_ 'don't +speak badly about the Lords' affairs.' + +There are some words that are plural in themselves; e.g., _tomo gara_ means +'men,' _Nan ban mono_ 'European things,' _Nan ban mono vo fomuru na_ 'don't +praise European things.' + +The particle _icani_, which as has been indicated above forms the vocative, +is not placed after but always before the pronouns which are {114} made +plural, while the particles which form the plural are placed after; e.g., +_icani Padre tachi vo qiqi nasare io_ 'listen to the priests.' + +But two of the four particles which form the plural, _domo_ and _ra_, are +with certain words singular. _Varera_ and _midomo_ mean 'I.' Sometimes both +are found together in the singular; e.g., _midomora_ 'I,' _midomora ga_ +'my, or mine.' The particles _domo_ and _ra_ are also (9 suffixed to the +singular when one wishes to humiliate the thing mentioned; e.g., _hara domo +ga itai_ 'I have a stomach ache,' _asu domo va aru mai_ 'tomorrow will not +come,' _asu ra va naró mode_ 'tomorrow will perhaps not come.' + +The particle _va_ is suffixed to singular and plural nouns which already +have a particle; e.g., _coco ie va mairanu_ 'he will not come here,' _coco +cara va denu_ 'he did not go out from here,' _coco ni va aru mai_ 'he will +not enter here.' Sometimes _va_ replaces the particles of the declension; +e.g., _fune de saie ióió tçuita ni, cachi va nacanaca naru mai_ (119v) 'I +arrived with such difficulty by ship: I would undoubtedly never have +arrived had I come by foot, or on foot.'[57] The particle _va_ here +replaces _cara_. + +Japanese does not have the genders feminine, masculine, and neuter as Latin +does. There are, however, certain nouns which are feminine or masculine +because of their meaning. Other nouns are common to both these genders. For +things which do not have a proper gender _vo_ is placed before masculine +nouns and _me_ before feminine; e.g., _voivo_ means 'male fish' and _meivo_ +'female fish,' _vojica_ means 'roe-buck,' _melica_ [_mejica_] +'roe-doe,'[58] _coma_ means 'horse,' _zoiacu_ 'mare,' _xô_ means 'male +hawk,' _dai_ 'female hawk,' _cotoi_ means 'bull,' _meuxi_ 'cow,' _votoco_ +means 'man,' _vonago_, _nhóbó_, or _vonna_ 'woman.' All these words are +placed in the dictionary as they come to mind. + +The nominal adjectives have no gender or declension but make use of the +same particles as the nouns. There are however many and diverse adjectives. +Certain ones end in _ai_ others in _oi_, _ei_, _ui_ and _ij_. There are +other, more proper adjectives, which are formed by adding _no_ to nouns. +When the first five types of adjectives are placed before nouns they are +then properly adjectives and do not in any way alter the composition of +{115} the sentence. But when they are placed after nouns they become more +like verbs and are in fact conjugated like them; e.g., _tacai iama_ 'a high +mountain,' _xiguei ideiri_ 'frequent comings and goings,' _caxicoi_ (10 +_fito_ 'a wise man,' _cavaij mono_ 'a wretched thing,' _aiaui coto_ 'a +dangerous thing,' _umare tçuqi no cuchi_ 'one's natural, or mother tongue.' +There are also adjectives ending in _na_ which, when they are placed before +nouns, do not alter the construction; e.g., _qirei na coto_ 'a clean +thing.' All the adjectives, except those ending in _no_, change their form +in some way when they occur before verbs. Those that end in _ai_ change to +_ó_; e.g., _cono iama va tacó gozaru_ 'this mountain is lofty.' Those +ending in _ei_ change to _eô_; e.g., _cono iama va xigueô gozaru_ 'these +mountains are dense.' Those ending in _oi_ change to _ô_; e.g., _caxicô +gozaru_ 'he is wise.' Those ending in _ui_ change to _ú_; e.g., _xei no +ficú gozaru_ 'he is small in stature.' Those ending in _ii_ [_ij_] change +to _iú_; e.g., _caiú gozaru_ 'it itches.'[59] Among those adjectives ending +in _ij_ there are many which come from verbs; e.g., _nozomi,u_ means 'to +wish,' and from it comes _nozomaxij_ 'which is to be wished for.' Other +adjectives come from nouns; e.g., _varambe_ means 'a child, or infant,' and +from this comes _varamberaxij_ which means 'childish.' Other examples may +be found in the dictionary. + +Adjectives which end in _na_ change the _na_ to _ni_ when they are placed +before verbs; e.g., _fuxin ni zonzuru_ 'I think it doubtful.' The +adjectives that end in _no_ sometimes change the _no_ to _na_; e.g., _bechi +no fito_ changes to _bechi na fito_ 'a different man.' Sometimes when it is +followed by a verb the _na_ changes to a _ni_; e.g., _bechi ni gozaru_ 'it +is different.' However, the meaning remains the same whether the word ends +in _na_ or _no_; e.g., _bechi no fito no cuhi cara qiita_ [... _cuchi_ ...] +is the same as _bechi na fito no cuchi cara qiita_ 'I heard it from the +mouth of a different person.'[60] The only difference in these forms is +that when the word ends in _no_ no change occurs as a consequence of what +follows. But, as has been said, those adjectives that end in _na_ change to +_ni_ when they come before a verb. If a substantive verb follows an +adjective, it is an elegant statement; e.g., _cono iami va tacó gozaru_ +'this mountain is high.' But if this kind of verb does not follow, the +sense {116} is not altered since the adjective is used as a substantive +verb. But this is not used before superiors. To them we will not say _cono +iama va tacai_ but rather _cono iama va tacó gozaru_. The same is true for +the other adjectives. + +Adjectives usually end in _i_ but infrequently these adjectives change to +_xi_ or to _qu_. _Ioi_, which means 'good,' changes to _ioqu_, or _ioxi_; +e.g., _ioqu dancó xite_, which has the meaning of 'offering good (11 +council.'[61] There are innumerable nouns which become adjectives if _na_ +is suffixed to them; e.g., _afo_ means 'ignorance' and from it comes the +word _afo na_ which means 'ignorant,' _jiiu_ means 'liberty' and _jiiu na_ +means 'which is free.' Other examples are offered by the dictionary. + +There are certain abstract nouns which become adjectives when they precede +a vocable (_vocabulis_) with the meaning of 'man'; e.g., _jifi_ means +'pity,' but when the word _jin_ is placed after it, it becomes _jifijin_ 'a +pitiable person.' _Fin_ means 'poverty,' but when the word _nin_ is +suffixed to it, it becomes _finnin_ 'a poor person.' In the same way, when +one suffixes _ja_ to _fin_, it makes _finja_, which also means 'a poor +person.' The word _ban_ means 'watch,' but if the word _ja_ is added to it, +it becomes _banja_ 'a careful person.' Many other examples can be found in +the dictionary. + +There are in Japanese certain words which are borrowed from Chinese, called +_cobita_[62] or _coie_, and are written together to form by their union a +noun and an adjective. Thus, _ten_ mean 'heaven,' _xu_ means 'lord,' and +_tenxu_ means 'lord of heaven.' + +The preterit of verbs (which will be taken up in their place) seem to have +the same strength and meaning as adjectives when they are used before +nouns; e.g., _iogoreta te_ 'dirty hands,' where _iogoreta_ is the preterit +of the verb _iogore,uru_ 'I became dirty.' _Caita qió_ means 'a written +book' and _caita_ is the preterit of the verb _caqi,u_ I write.' The +abstract (_abstracta_), or root from which the verb is formed, is itself a +noun which signifies the action of the verb in the abstract; e.g., {117} +_facari_ means 'measure,' and it comes from the verb _facari,u_ 'I measure' +while _fajime_ means 'beginning,' and comes from the verb _fajime,uru_ 'I +begin.' Others will be found in the dictionary. The prepositional particle +_mono_, when placed before an abstract or verbal noun, forms a noun which +indicates the subject who does the action; e.g., _mono_ before _caqi_ makes +_monocaqi_ 'one who writes.' This same particle when placed after a root +forms a noun which indicates the effect of an action; e.g., _caqimono_ 'a +writing.' + +The particle _goto_ placed after these same roots forms a noun (12 which +means a thing which is worthy of the action indicated by the verb; e.g., +_mi_ is the root of the verb _mi,uru_ 'I see,' and _migoto_ is 'a visible +thing, or a thing worthy of being seen'; while _qiqi_ is the root of the +verb _qiqi,u_ 'I hear,' and _qiqigoto_ means 'a thing which can be heard, +or is worthy of being heard.' + +If we place certain substantive nouns after certain of the verbal nouns +about which we have been speaking, there is formed a noun which has the +meaning of the action; e.g., _foxi_ is the root of the verb _foxi,u_ 'to +dry under the sun'; but, if _ivo_ 'fish' is placed after it, the meaning of +the expression _foxiivo_ becomes 'fish dried in the sun.' + +When the particle _dógu_ 'instrument' is placed after the root of a verb it +forms a noun meaning the cause or instrument of the action indicated by the +verb; e.g., _varaidógu_ 'the cause, or instrument of ridicule,' _caqidógu_ +'a writing instrument, or an instrument for writing.' + +The particle _me_ when suffixed to a verb forms a noun which indicates the +terminus of the action; e.g., _avaxe_ is the root of the verb _avaxe,uru_ +'to unite or join two things,' and _avaxeme_ means 'junction.' The same is +true of other forms. + +An abstract noun can be formed from those adjectives ending in _i_ if the +_i_ is changed to _sa_; e.g., _nagai_ means 'is long,' and _nagasa_ means +'length.' The adjectives ending in _na_ change the _na_ to _sa_ in order to +form abstract nouns; e.g., _aqiraca na_ which means 'clear' will become +_aqiracasa_ 'clarity.' + +Sometimes from two nouns taken together, often with a change in the first +or last letter, there is formed a third noun, which is quasi-descriptive +(_quasi connotativus_), almost like an adjective or noun with a {118} +genitive; e.g., from _qi_ 'wood' and _fotoqe_ 'idol' there results +_qibotoqe_ 'wooden idol,' with the _f_ changed to _p_ [_b_]. But if the +prefixed noun ends in _e_, this _e_ is changed to _a_ in the attributive of +the compound; e.g., _tçumasaqi_ 'the tip of the nail,' _canacugui_ 'iron +nails.' A word which is placed second in these compounds may change its +first letter; if it is _f_ it becomes _b_ or _p_, if it is _s_ it becomes +_z_, if it is _c_ it becomes _g_, if it is _tç_ it becomes _zz_, if it is +_x_ it becomes _j_; e.g., _caribune_, _buppô_, (13 _nigorizaqe_, +_soragoto_, _qizzumari_, and _sorajeimon_. See the dictionary. + +_Pronouns_ + +In the Japanese language there are no derivative pronouns, such as +_meus,a,um_, etc.; but the primitive pronouns, such as _mei_, _tui_, etc., +are used. These primitive forms do not have declensions for case, but +rather use the particles which are common to both nouns and pronouns. + +Certain particles (about which we will speak later) when added to a word +indicate honor and thereby form a pronoun or substitute for it in such +circumstances as pronouns would normally be used. Thus, if I say _von +fumi_, when speaking to someone else, it is immediately understood that I +am speaking about his letter and not mine; for if I were speaking about +mine I would not say _von fumi_ but only _fumi_, since the particle _von_, +which indicates honor, signifies 'your letter.' This is also true for such +particles as _mi_ which also attributes honor to the noun to which it is +joined. + +_First Person Pronouns--Ego, etc._[63] + +There are eight particles which signify 'I, mine, to me, etc.' They are +_vatacuxi_, _soregaxi_, _vare_, _mi_, _varera_, _midomo_, _midomora_, +_vare_.[64] The first four indicate a degree of superiority on the part of +those who use them. The others are more humble. Women use three other +particles _mizzucara_, _varava_, and _vagami_ which are not used by men. +The people in the countryside use two others, _vara_ [_vora_] and _vorara_, +while priests {119} when speaking of themselves use _gusô_, that is to say +'I, a worthless man of the cloth,' and old men when speaking of themselves +use _guró_, 'I, a worthless and despicable old man.' The king (_rex_) says +_chin_ or _maru_ which means 'I, the King.' (14 + +To form the plural of these pronouns the pluralizing particles _domo_ or +_ra_ are added; e.g., _midomo ga maitta toqi_ 'when we went.' To indicate +the difference between the cases, the endings about which we have spoken +are suffixed. + +_Second Person Pronouns--Tu, tui, tibi, etc._[65] + +There are many particles that form the second person pronoun. They are +differentiated to indicate those persons deserving no honor and respect, +those deserving some, moderate, great, or maximal honor and respect. In +speaking to inferiors there are three particles used for 'you'; _vare_, +_vonore_, and _sochi_. If _me_ or _mega_ is added as in _vareme_ or +_varemega_ it means we very much despise the person being spoken to. If we +speak to people who are on our own level, or just a little inferior, we use +one of the three particles _sonata_, _sonofǒ_, or _varesama_. If we speak +to a superior person, or someone on an equal level but with whom we must +speak elegantly, we use one of the seven particles _conata_, _qixo_, +_qifó_, _gofen_, _qiden_, _conatasama_, and _sonatasama_. When speaking to +persons of high rank, if we place the name of their office before _sama_, +it serves as a pronoun; e.g., _Padresama gozare_ 'will the Father come.' + +_Conata_, _cochi_, and _conofǒ_ mean 'I, mine,' but in the distributive +sense of 'from me, or what concerns me.' In the same way _sochi_, _sonofó_, +and _sonata_ mean 'you, from you, or what concerns you.' + +The plurals are formed by adding the particles listed above to the pronouns +according to the different degrees of honor. _Vonore domo_, _varera_, and +_sochira_ mean 'you' when speaking to inferiors. _Vare tachi_ and _sonata +domo_ mean 'you' with persons of the same rank. _Qifó tachi_, _vocatagata_, +and _vono vono_ mean 'you' to persons requiring honor. The declension of +these honorable expressions follows the declension (15 of common particles. + +{120} + +_Third Person Pronouns--Ille, illa, illud_[66] + +The two particles _care care_ and _are are_ mean 'this (_ille, illa, +illud_)' when speaking of inferior things.[67] There are four particles; +_aitçu_, _aitçume_, _areme_, and _caitçume_ which mean 'this' when one +wants to show disrespect for the things being spoken about. This idea is +emphasized if one adds _ga_ to those forms that end in _me_; e.g., +_aitçuga_ and _aitçumega_ 'this humble man.' _Cono_ means 'this (_hic, +haec, hoc_),' _sono_ means 'that (_iste, ista, istud_),' and _ano_ means +'that (_ille, illa, illud_).' These words require a noun after them; e.g., +_cono fito_ 'this man' with _cono mono_ having the same meaning but not +being an honorific expression. _Sono coto_ means 'that thing,' _ano fito_ +'that person,' _conata_ or _conofó_ 'here,' _sonata_ or _sonofó_ 'there,' +and _anofó_ 'there, yonder.' _Core_ means 'this (_hic_),' _sore_ 'that +(_istud_),' and _are_ 'that (_illud_).' These forms are in the neuter +gender and are not followed by nouns. Their plurals are _corera_, _sorera_, +and _arera_, while the others follow the common rules. _Cano_ means 'that +which we have mentioned'; e.g., _cano fito_ 'that person.' The pronoun 'a +certain (_quidam_)' is made with the particle _aru_; e.g., _aru fito_ 'a +certain person,' _aru tocoro ni_ 'in a certain place.' + +The pronoun 'each (_unusquisque_)' is formed with the particles _men men_ +and _sore sore_. + +The pronoun 'each and every (_universi & singuli_)' is formed with _tare mo +mina_. + +The pronoun 'anyone (_quicumque_)' is formed with _tare nite mo_, _tare +nite mo are_, and _tare nari tomo_. + +The particle _tare mo_, when placed before a negative, forms the pronoun +'no one, or nobody'; e.g., _tare mo mairananda_ 'nobody went.' The particle +_nani taru coto nari tomo_ means 'whatever happens, or whichever thing +happens.' The particle _mei mei_ means 'to each, or everyone in +particular.' + +The particle _goto_ makes the distributive pronoun meaning 'every.' This +form is used after vocables which are proper to the Japanese language; +i.e., _iomi_. The same results are achieved by placing the (16 particle +_mai_ before vocables which come from the Chinese language; i.e., {121} +_coie_. For example, _fi_ means 'day,' and _figoto ni_ means 'daily.' _Nen_ +is a Japanese borrowing from a Chinese word meaning 'year,' and _mainen_ +means 'every year, or all year.' The same result is obtained by the +repetition of the noun; e.g., _fito_ means 'person,' and _fitibito_ means +'all the people, or many people,' _fi_ means 'day,' and _fibi ni_ means +'all of the days, or every day.' + +The indefinite pronoun 'some (_aliqui_)' is formed with _niiotte_; e.g., +_toqi niiotte_ 'some times,' _fito niiotte_ 'some men.' + +The pronoun 'the same (_idem_)' is formed with _vonaji_; e.g., _vonaji +tocoro cara_ 'from the same place.' The particle _dôjen_ means the same +thing but in the neuter ; e.g., _dôjen degozaru_ 'it is the same.' This +word is used in reply to some one who has congratulated you, etc. + +The pronoun 'himself (_ipse_)' is formed with the particles _nuxi_, _sono +mi_, and _vaga_. The particle _vareto mi_ forms the pronoun 'himself +(_ipsemet_)'; e.g., _vareto mi ni ata vo nasu_ (96) 'he brings harm to +himself,' _mi vo vasurete; ta vo tasuquru_ 'he forgets himself and saves +others.' The particle _vatacuxi_ means 'a thing which belongs to oneself +(_re propria_)'; e.g., _vatacuxi no coto_ 'ones own thing,' _vatacuxi ni +ivareta_ 'he spoke for himself.' + +The pronoun 'somebody (_aliquis_)' is made with the particles _tare zo_ and +_taso_; e.g., _tare zo maittaraba_ 'if somebody were to come,' _taso sacana +ga aru ca tói ni iqe_ [... _toi_ ...] 'let someone go and ask if there is +food.' + +The neuter pronoun 'something (_aliquid_)' is formed with the particles +_nan zo_ and _nanica_; e.g., _nan zo ga araba cuvózu_ 'I would eat if there +were something,' _ima faia te ga jiiú ni gozaru fodo ni nanica caqi maraxô_ +'I would write something if I were to have my hands free, or untied.' + +The interrogative 'who (_quis_)' is translated with the three particles +_tare_, _taga_, and _taso_. The particles _taga_ or _tare no_ form the +genitive; e.g., _taga mono ca_ 'whose thing is this.' When someone comes to +the door and knocks, he says _mono mó_.[68] To this one responds _taso_, +_taga_, or _tare_ 'who is it?' _Nani_ means 'what (_quid_)'; e.g., _nani vo +suru_ (17 _ca_ or _nani goto vo suru ca?_ 'what are you doing?' _nani ni +sore vo totte iqu ca?_ 'for what reason do you bring this to me?' + +{122} + +_Relative Pronouns_ + +The relative pronoun is formed by placing the noun, in connection with +which there is a relative (_relativum_), after the verb; e.g., _ten ni +maximasu varera ga von voia_ 'Our Father who is in Heaven,' _deta tocoro +va_ 'the place from which he came out,' _te ni sumi no tçuita fito_ (88) 'a +man to whose hands ink is adhering.' If the sentence (_oratio_) requires a +nominative before the verb it must be formed with one of the particles +which indicate the nominative; _ga_, _no_, or _iori_. For example, +_vatacuxi ga caita fumi_ 'the letter which I wrote,' _conata no vôxerareta +coto_ 'the thing which Your Lordship says.' The third particle, _iori_, is +used when there is movement in the sentence; e.g., _Deus iori ataie +cudasareta gracia_ 'the grace which God provided, or gave,' _ano tocoro ni +amata no qió atta vo torareta_ (87v.) 'he brought what many books there +were in that place.' When two sentences containing a relation come together +the first is placed second by general rule,[69] and the second uses either +a past, present, or future particle according to what is required by the +sense of the sentence; e.g., _qesa Oracio vo móxita qió ga tçucuie no uie +ni aru vo motte coi_ 'bring the book which is on the desk (_sedila_) at +which I said my prayers this morning.' In this sentence _qió ga_, which is +the first relative, comes after the verb _móxita_; and the _vo_ which +stands for the second relative comes after the verb _aru_. When we want to +be more specific about that of which we are speaking we place the particle +_tocoro no_ between the thing itself and the verb; e.g., _vare to dôxin +xita tocoro no mono domo va mina buguen ni natta_ 'all those who agreed +with me became rich.' Sometimes the relative, because of the difficulty in +understanding it, is expressed by expositions (_per exponentes_). Thus, in +place of _ima corosareta Pedro no co va sonata no chijn gia_ which means +'the son of Peter who has just been killed was your friend,' we say _ima +Pedro corosareta sono co va sonata no chijn de gozaru_. + +Sometimes they join two particles, as determined by the case, and form a +kind of relative pronoun which is placed before the relative; e.g., _sono +tocoro de no dancó_ 'the consultation at that place,' (18 _Marsella ie no +fune_ 'the ship to Marseille,' _maire to no móxi goto dearu_ [ ... _gia_] +'it is said that I should go.' + +{123} + +_Mairu mai to no dancó ni qivamatta_ 'it was resolved that he not go,' +_maitte nochi no dancó_ 'the consultation he arrived after,' _varambe cara +no catagui_ 'a custom from youth,' _xô tame no chôgui gia_ (22) 'this is +the plan (_ars_) according to which it will be done,' _anofito no vo toró_ +'I shall take what belongs to that man.' This ends the note on relative +pronouns. + +_The Formation of the Verb and Its Conjugation_[70] + +The verbs in Japanese have no number or person. These distinctions are +indicated instead by the particles used in the formation of the plurals and +in the declensions. There are three affirmative conjugations and the same +number of negative. + +The root (_radix_) of the verb does not by itself indicate tense. For this +reason it is necessary to conjugate the verb in order to show the tenses. + +All the verbs of the first conjugation[71] end in e. Those ending in _gi_ +or _ji_, together with _xi_ and _maraxi_, although they end in _i_, are +also in the first conjugation. If the root ends in _de_ or _gi_, the +present form is made by changing them to _zzuru_; e.g., _fagi_ forms its +present in _fazzuru_ and means 'to blush,' _de_ becomes _zzuru_ and means +'to leave.' If the root ends in _je_ or _ji_ it changes in the present to +_zuru_; e.g., _maje:mazuru_ 'to mix,' _anji:anzuru_ 'to consider.' If they +end in _xe_ they change to _suru_; e.g., _avaxe:avasuru_ 'to join.' _Xi_ +and _maraxi_, which (as we have said) are in the first conjugation,[72] +change _xi_ to _suru_; e.g., _xi:suru_ 'to do,' _maraxi:marasuru_ which +also means 'to do.' If the root ends in _te_ it changes to _tçuru_; e.g., +_sodate:sodatçuru_ 'to nourish, or support.' The remaining roots which end +in _e_ change, in their separate ways, the _e_ to _uru_; e.g., _ague:aguru_ +'to offer,' _nigue:niguru_ 'to run away.' + +There are certain verbal preterits which have present tense meanings. They +are those which are passive in form but active in (19 meaning; e.g., +_cocoroieta_ 'to understand,' _qicoieta_ 'to hear,' _voboieta_ 'to +remember,' _qiqiieta_ 'to understand,' _zonjita_ 'to know,' and there may +{124} be many others. The verbs which follow belong to the first +conjugation even though their roots do not end as previously stated.[73] If +the present tense of these forms does not change the _i_ to _uru_ they are +exceptional; e.g., _abi,uru_ 'to wash oneself,' _fotobi,uru_ 'to become +soft,' _focorobi,uru_ 'to become unstitched,' _cabi_ [_cabi,uru_] 'to be +moldy,'[74] _sabi_ [_sabi,uru_] 'to rust,' _deqi_ [_deqi,uru_] 'to be +finished, or ended,' _cuchi:cutçuru_ 'to rot,' _michi:mitçuru_ 'to be +filled in by the sea,' _ini,uru_ 'to leave,' _nobi:nobiru_ or _noburu_ 'to +be spread out,' _tçuqi,uru_ 'to be used,' _vori:uru_ 'to descend from +above,' _xij:xijru_[75] 'to invite to dine, by compulsion,' _ni:niru_ 'to +resemble,' _mochij:mochiiuru_ 'to evaluate,' _ni:niru_ 'to cook,' _mi:miru_ +'to look at,' _cori,uru_ 'to correct,' _vochi:votçuru_ 'to fall,' _i:iru_ +'to exist, or be present,' _fugui,uru_ 'to pass, as time passes,' +_vabi,uru_ 'to beg for mercy,' _carabi,uru_ 'to become dry,' _iqi:iquru_ +'to live,' _fi:firu_ 'to become dry,' _qi:quru_ 'to come,' _qi:qiru_ 'to +dress oneself,' _voqi,uru_ 'to get out of bed.' The following four verbs +have irregular, as well as regular, present tenses;[76] _ataie_ has _atóru_ +'to give,' _vaqimaie_ has _vaqimǒru_ 'to discriminate,' _tonaie_ has +_tonóru_ 'to bless,' _sonaie_ has _sonóru_ 'to place in a high position.' + +_The Preterit, Perfect, Imperfect, and Pluperfect_ + +In Japanese there is no imperfect. In its place the perfect is used. The +perfect is formed in two ways. The first is by suffixing _ta_ to the root +of a verb ; e.g., _agueta_ is the preterit of the verb _ague,uru_ 'to +offer.' The second is by suffixing _te_ to the root and to that adding +_gozari,u_ or _ari,u_ which is then conjugated in the present or the +preterit of the second conjugation; e.g., _aguete gozaru_ or _aguete +gozatta_, or _aguete aru_ or _aguete atta_ 'offered, or had offered.' If +the particle _fáia_ [_faia_] is placed before the verb the expression is +strengthened; e.g., (20 _fáia aguete gozatta_ [_faia_ ...] 'I had already +offered it.' When the verb _ari,u_ is suffixed to the perfect it is not as +elegant a way of speaking as {125} when _gozari,u_ is used. Therefore when +speaking one must be careful about what one says, or in front of whom one +speaks, so as to give each person the honor he deserves. + +_The Future of the First Conjugation_ + +If the root of the verb ends in _te_ this syllable is changed to _teô_ or +_chô_ to form the future; e.g., _tate,uru_ will become _tateô_ or _tachô_ +'I shall build.'[77] If the root ends in _ji_ the future is formed by +changing _ji_ to _jô_; e.g., _xenji_ becomes _xenjô_ 'I shall prepare, or +brew, the medicine.' If the root ends in _xe_ [_xi_] it changes to _xô_; +e.g., _xi_ becomes _xô_, and _maraxi_ becomes _maraxô_ 'I shall do.' If it +ends in _ie_ it is changed to _io_ [_iô_]; e.g., _voxiie_ becomes _voxiio_ +[_vaxiiô_] 'I shall teach.' The remaining roots ending in _e_ suffix the +particles _ô_, _ôzu_, or _ôzuru_; e.g., _agueô_, _agueôzu_, or _agueôzuru_ +'I shall offer.' These endings are used for the first conjugation[78] even +when the roots end in _i_; e.g., _deqiôzu_ 'I shall be finished.' + +The future is also formed by taking the syllable _nu_ from the negative +present (see below) and putting in its place the particle _baia_. Thus, by +taking _nu_ away from _aguenu_ and putting in its place _baia_, we obtain +_aguebaia_ 'I will offer.' For _minu_ if you take away the _nu_ and put in +its place _baia_ it will become _mibaia_ 'I will see, or behold.' + +The future perfect is formed by suffixing the particles _te arózu_ or +_tarózu_ to the root; e.g., _aguete arózu_ or _aguetarózu_ 'I shall already +have offered.' The same results are obtained if _faia_ is placed before the +simple future; e.g., _faia agueôzu_. + +(21 + +_The Imperative of the First Conjugation_ + +The imperative of the first conjugation is formed with the root of the verb +alone, or with the addition of the particle _io_; e.g., _ague_ or _ague io_ +'offer!'[79] The future of the imperative is the future absolute _agueô_ or +_agueôzu_. This is a more elegant and polite way of speaking than giving a +command with the regular imperative. The imperative is also formed by +taking the _nu_ from the negative present (see below) and {126} putting in +its place the particle _sai_. Thus, if one takes the _nu_ from _aguenu_ and +replaces it with _sai_ it becomes _ague sai_ which means 'offer!' If the +particle _tai_ is placed after the root there is formed a kind of future or +optative by which the wish of the speaker is expressed. It is therefore an +elegant imperative; thus _mizzu fitotçu nomitai_ 'I would like to have a +drink of water' is the same as 'give me some water to drink.' When a +relative [clause] concerns a precept, rule, admonition, or prohibition the +imperative is expressed word for word in whatever the conjugation, +affirmative or negative; e.g., _Christiani naru na to no xógun no fatto ga +aru_ [_Christian ni_ ...] 'it is the law of the Shōgan (_imperator_) that +no one should become a Christian,' _Padre core vo coxiraie io to voxerareta +niiotte_ [... _vôxerareta_ ...] 'because the Priest told me to do it.' + +_The Optative of the First Conjugation_ + +The optative, both present and future, is the present tense of the +imperative with the particles _negavacu va_ or _avare_ placed before it and +the particles _gana_ or _caxi_ placed after it. Sometimes it is formed by +adding the particle _gana_ without any prefix; e.g., _negavacu va ague io +caxi?_ or _avare aguei gana_[80] 'would that you were to offer?' _avare +icanaru tengu, bangue mono nari tomo vare vo totte, fiie no iama ni noboxe +io caxi!_ (15v)[81] 'Oh! if there were some one, either devil or +soothsayer, who could make me ascend the mountain called Hie.' The particle +_gana_ when it is placed after a noun indicates a wish for the thing +specified by the noun; e.g., _saqe gana_ 'oh! sake'; and if (22 one is +asked if he would like something to drink, the answer is _nani gana_ 'would +that I had some.' + +The perfect of the optative is the second form of the future followed by +the particle _mono vo!_; e.g., _niqueozu mono vo!_ [_nigueôzu_ ...] 'would +that I had fled!' The same is achieved by _niguetaraba iocaró mono vo_. +Sometimes they say only _niguetaró va_ or _niguete aró ni va iocaró mono +vo_. + +{127} + +_The Subjunctive of the First Affirmative Conjugation_ + +The present tense of the subjunctive is formed by changing the _u_ in which +the present indicative ends to _eba_; e.g., _aguru_ becomes _agureba_ +'since I offer.' It is also formed from the present by adding _ni_, _de_, +_vo_, or _va_ to the particle _tocoro_ according to the case requirements +of the verb that follows, with the first verb being controlled by the noun; +e.g., _aru toqi Pedro chinsui xite iraruru tocoro ie fito ga qite_ +(16v)[82] 'since a certain man came to the place where Peter was when he +was drunk,' _nhóbó ni tachi vacarete iru tocoro ni_ (16v)[83] 'since they +were separated and divorced,' _có aru tocoro ni_ 'since things are this +way,' _ioso ie zzuru tocoro va fito ni corosareta_ (16v)[84] 'when he went +outside, he was killed by someone,' _go misa vo asobaruru tocoro vo uchi +coroita_ (121)[85] 'he killed him while he was celebrating mass.' This is a +general rule which applies to all conjugations. + +The perfect and the pluperfect of the subjunctive are formed from these +same tenses in the indicative with the addition of the particle _reba_; +e.g., _agueta reba_ 'since he had offered.' It is also formed by taking +away _gozaru_ from the preterit pluperfect and putting in its place _atta +reba_ or _atta_; but, when _atta_ is used, the particles _ni_, _vo_, _va_, +or _ie_ must be added according to the requirements of the following verb, +just as with _tocoro_ in the present tenses; e.g., _aguete atta reba_ or +_aguete atta ni_, _vo_, _va_, or _ie_ 'since I had already offered it.' + +The future of the subjunctive is formed by adding the particle _toqi_ to +the future indicative; e.g., _agueô toqi_ 'since he would offer it later.' + +The pluperfect subjunctive, with all the expressions (_vox_) which signify +that which comes after a completed action, is formed by (23 placing _cara_, +_nochi_, or _igo_ after the pluperfect indicative, minus _gozaru_; {128} +e.g., _aguete cara, nochi_, or _igo, mairó_ 'I shall leave after he has +offered it.' This is like _aguetaró toki mairó_ 'I shall leave after he has +already offered it.' _Agueôzuru ni_ or _agueôzuru tocoro ni_ means 'since +he was already prepared to offer it.' _Agueôzuru coto no saqi ni_ means 'a +little while before he offered it.' + +The present tense of the permissive subjunctive is formed in two ways. The +first is by changing the _u_ of the present indicative to _edomo_; e.g., +_aguredomo_ 'although I could offer it.' + +The preterit of the permissive subjunctive is formed by adding _redomo_ to +the preterit indicative; e.g., _agueta redomo_ 'although he had offered +it.' The future permissive is formed by adding _redomo_ to the second form +of the future indicative; e.g., _agueôzu redomo_ 'although he would be able +to offer it.' The second form of the permissive subjunctive is formed by +adding the particle _tomo_ to the present indicative; e.g., _aguru tomo_ +'although he could offer it.' The particles _mamaio_ or _madeio_ may also +be added to the present tense; e.g., _sore vo voxiiuru mamaio_ or _sore vo +voxiiuru madeio_ 'although he could teach this.' + +The preterit of the second permissive is formed by suffixing _ritomo_ to +the preterit indicative; e.g., _agueta ritomo_ 'although he had offered +it.' The same meaning is achieved by adding the particles _mamaio_ or +_madeio_ to the preterit indicative; e.g., _agueta mamaio_ or _agueta +madeio_; or by adding _tote_ to the preterit subjunctive; e.g., _aguetareba +tote_. + +The future permissive is formed by adding _tomo_ to the second form of the +future indicative; e.g., _agueozu tomo_ [_agueôzu tomo_ 'although he would +offer it']. It is also formed by adding _mamaio_ or _madeio_ to the same +future form. If the particle _tatoi_ is placed before the forms of the +permissive subjunctive great strength is added to the sentence; e.g., +_tatoi vôxeraruru tomo_ 'even though you may state this.' The same meaning +is obtained by removing the verbs _gozaru_ or _aru_ from the pluperfect +indicative and replacing it with the particle _mo_; e.g., _aguete mo_ +'although he may offer it.' The same _mo_ when placed after the present +indicative gives the same meaning; e.g., _doco de qiqi marasuru mo, sono +sata va mósanu_ 'although he hears that everywhere, he does not pay any +attention.' The same meaning is obtained by the sentences _ague mo xeio +caxi?_, _aguete mo xô madeio_, and _nanto mo ague caxi?_ {129} [... _aguei +caxi?_][86] 'although he offers.' _Aguru ni saxerarei_, (24 _agueta ni +saxerarei_, or _agueo ni saxerarei_ [_agueô_ ...] have the meanings of +'although he could have offered, although he could offer, or although he +would offer'; or one might say 'let us offer' or 'let us give.' + +_The Infinitive_ + +The present infinitive is formed by adding _coto_ or _to_ to the present +indicative; e.g., _aguru coto_ or _aguru to_ 'to offer.' + +The preterit infinitive is formed by adding the same particles to the +preterit indicative; e.g., _agueta coto_ or _agueta to_ 'to have offered.' +The future infinitive is formed by adding the same particles to the future +indicative; e.g., _agueô coto_ or _agueô to_ 'to be about to offer.' The +same meaning is obtained by adding _ióni_ to the present, preterit, or +future indicative; e.g., _nai nai guioi ni caqerareô ióni va vare mo +zonzuru fitobito mo zonjita_ (22v) 'I think and others believed me to have +been favored by you with many benefits,' _qeccu vare ni voxiie marasuru +ióni gozaru_ (117v) 'he is truly able to teach me,' _agueta ióni gozaru_ +'he is said to have offered it.' + +To ask or answer a question the infinitive is often subordinate to the verb +which follows; e.g., _nhóbógata ni vochita coto ga atta ca?_ 'did you fall +into the sin of adultery with this woman? is this what happened?' etc. All +the tenses of the infinitive are used in the same way. + +Sometimes the preterit infinitive is replaced by the pluperfect with +_gozaru_ or _aru_ removed; e.g., _Deus no minori vo firomete iocaró_ 'it is +good to spread the Gospel.' Sometimes the present or preterit indicative +plus _ga_ replaces the present or preterit of the infinitive; e.g., _sore +vo vôxeraruru ga varú gozaró_ 'it will be bad to say that,' _maitta ga maxi +gia_ (21) 'it is better to have come, or it was better to come.' + +When the substantive verb follows the infinitive, the particle _coto_ is +not required; e.g., _cosacazzuqi de va saqe vo nomu devanai_ (23) 'to drink +sake from a small glass is not to drink sake,' _core coso caqu de gozare_ +'this we are able to say, or better, write,' _caqu de gozatte coso_ 'this +is not the way for it to be written,' _sore va aguru devanai_ 'that is not +to offer it.' Some of these examples are taken from other (25 conjugations +but the general rule applies to all. The idea of the {130} infinitive is +also obtained by the following means of expression; _ague va_, _aguredomo_ +'although I offered, or even if I made it so that it was offered.' Because +this is a general rule for all the conjugations, they also say _qiqi va +tçucamatçure domo gatten xenu_ 'although I have listened, or done +everything necessary to hear; I still don't understand.' They also say +_aguru vo motte_ 'by offering, or with the fact that he is to offer,' +_aguru iori_ 'from the fact that he is to offer,' _aguru nitçuite_ 'about +the fact that he is to offer.' + +The gerund in _Di_ is the present or future indicative followed by the +particle _jibun_, or less frequently some other particle meaning 'time'; +e.g., _aguru jibun_ 'the time for offering,' _agueô ni qivamatta_ 'he made +the decision that it be offered,' _niguru jibun gia_ 'it is time to flee,' +_corosareôzuru ni aisadamatte arǒzu_ (13) 'it will have been decided that +he will be killed, or will have to be killed.' + +The gerund in _Do_ is formed in two ways. The first is by adding the +particles _ni_ or _tote_ to the present indicative; e.g., _aguruni_ or +_agurutote iurusareta_ 'I was freed by it being offered.' The second way is +by removing the verb _gozaru_ from the pluperfect; e.g., _aguete +cutabireta_ 'I became tired by offering, or raising up,' that is to say, +'from the action of presenting, or raising up, I suffered the result of +becoming tired.' There is also another elegant, and frequently used, way to +form the gerund in _Do_. It is done by placing the root of the verb in +front of another verb making a compound; e.g., _fiqi iosuru_ 'to approach, +pulling.' The roots which are used in this way do not change with respect +to their function. The gerund in _Do_ is also used to express purpose +_taixó to xite_ 'since he was a commander (_dux_), or was fulfilling the +function of a commander,' _von rei to xite_ 'giving thanks,' _rǒtai nomi ni +xite_ 'since he was an old man,' _tçucai xite ivaruru_ 'he said it as a +messenger.' + +The gerund in _Dum_ is formed by adding the particles _tame_ or _tote_ to +the present or future indicative; e.g., _aguru tame_ or _agueo tote_ +[_agueô tote_] 'in order to offer.' The same meaning is obtained by _aguru +ni fatto ga aru_ 'there is a law about offering,' unless this should be +considered a gerund in ni [_Di_]. + +The supine in _Tum_ is formed in two ways. The first is by adding _ni_ to +the root. The second is by adding _tameni_ to the present indicative; {131} +e.g., _tazzune ni maitta_ or _tazzunuru tameni maitta_ 'I came in order to +obtain it.' + +The supine in _Tu_ is the root of the verb alone. To obtain the same +meaning they also use _mósu ni voiobanu_ 'it is not necessary to (26 +speak.' + +The present, preterit, and future participles are formed by adding the +particles _fito_ or _mono_ to the indicative. When _fito_ is used the +result is a more honorable way of speaking; e.g., _aguru fito_ or _aguru +mono_ 'he who offers,' _agueta fito_ 'he who offered,' _agueô mono_ 'he who +will offer,' _Buppôgacu suru tomogara ni voite va_ (73v) 'as for those who +devote themselves to the study of the laws of idolatry,' _von vo xiru vo +fito to va iúzo; von vo xiranu voba chicuxó to coso iie_ (96v). In this +last sentence the _vo_ takes the place of the participle, and the sentence +therefore means 'those who know kindness (_beneficia_) are correctly called +men; those who do not know it are truly called beasts.' This is a general +rule for all the conjugations and therefore the example contains a verb +from the second conjugation. The participle is also made by adding _te_ +['hand'] to the root of the verb; e.g., _aguete_ 'one who offers.' + +_The First Negative Conjugation_ + +The negative root is formed by adding _zu_ to the affirmative root; e.g., +_aguezu_. + +The present tense is formed with _nu_ instead of _zu_; e.g., _aguenu_ 'I do +not offer.' This is a general rule no matter how the root ends. The only +exceptions are _xi_ and _maraxi_ which form the negative present in _xenu_ +and _maraxenu_ 'I do not do.' The roots that end in _ji_ change the _ji_ to +_je_ and then suffix the particle _nu_ to the present; e.g., _zonji_ in the +negative present becomes _zonienu_ [_zonjenu_] 'I do not know.' In some +areas of Japan they form the negative by removing the final _u_ from the +negative root and adding _ari,u_, which is then conjugated according to the +required tense; e.g., _aguezaru_ 'I do not offer,' _aguezatta_ 'I did not +offer,' _aguezatta reba_ 'since I did not offer.' They also say _aguezu +xite_ 'by not offering.'[87] + +{132} + +The negative of the preterit is formed in like manner by adding the +particle _nanda_ instead of _nu_; e.g., _aguenanda_ 'I did not offer,' +_zonjenanda_ 'I did not know,' _vorinanda_ 'I did not descend.' + +The pluperfect is formed by changing the last _a_ of the preterit to _e_ +and adding the verb _gozaru_ in the present and _gozatta_ in the preterit; +e.g., _aguenande gozaru_ or _aguenande gozatta_ 'I have not offered.' It is +also formed by adding _ide gozaru_ or _ide gozatta_ instead of (27 _nande +gozaru_; e.g., _agueide gozaru_ or _agueide gozatta_ 'I had not offered,' +_zonzeide gozaru_ [_zonjeide_ ... ][88] 'I had not known,' _vochiide +gozatta_ 'I had not fallen.' + +The negative future is formed by adding _mai_ or _maji_ to the affirmative +root or the affirmative present tense; e.g., _ague mai_ or _aguru maji_ +'you will not offer.' + +The imperative is formed by placing _na_ after the present indicative; +_aguru na_ 'do not offer.' + +It is also formed by placing _na_ before the root and _so_ after it; e.g., +_na ague so_ 'do not offer.' + +It is also formed by placing _na_ after the root; e.g., _ague na_ 'do not +offer,' _mixe na_ 'do not show,' _mesare na_ 'do not do.' The roots which +end in _xi_ or _ji_, but are in the first conjugation,[89] change the _i_ +to _e_ to form the negative imperative; e.g., _sǒ xe na_ or _só maraxe na_ +'do not do that,' _sǒ zonze na_ [_só zonje na_] 'do not think that.' + +The optative is formed by placing _negavacuva_ or _avare_ before the +negative imperative and placing _caxi_ or _gana_ after it; e.g., _avare +aguru na caxi_ 'oh! if only you would not offer,' and _negavacuva na ague +so gana_ with the same meaning. + +The preterit of the optative is formed by placing _mono vo_ after the +negative future; e.g., _aguru mai mono vo_ 'oh! if only you would not have +offered.' + +The negative subjunctive is formed by changing the _u_ which ends the +negative present to _eba_; e.g., _agueneba_ 'since he did not offer.' + +The preterit of the subjunctive is formed by adding _reba_ to the negative +preterit of the indicative; e.g., _aguenanda reba_ 'since he had not +offered.' + +{133} + +The future of the subjunctive is formed by adding _qereba_ to the negative +future; e.g., _niguru mai qereba_ 'since he is not going to escape.' + +The permissive subjunctive is formed by adding _domo_ to the negative +present after changing the final _u_ of the verb to _e_; e.g., _aguenedomo_ +'although he cannot offer.' They also say, and this usage is preferred, +_aguenaidemo_ or _agueidemo_ 'even if he not offer.'[90] + +The preterit of the permissive subjunctive is formed by placing _redomo_ +after the negative preterit; e.g., _aguenanda redomo_ 'although he had not +offered.' _Aguenaidemo_ or _agueidemo_ 'although he would not be allowed to +offer,' is also said. + +The permissive future is formed by adding _qeredomo_ to the negative +future; e.g., _aguru mai qeredomo_ 'although he is not going to be allowed +to offer.' (28 + +Another way of forming the permissive subjunctive is to place the particle +_tomo_ after the negative root; e.g., _aguezu tomo_ 'although he is not +going to be able to offer.' It is also formed by placing _tote_ after the +[negative] present subjunctive; e.g., _agueneba tote_. A third way is to +add _mamaio_ or _madeio_ to the negative present; e.g., _aguenu mamaio_ or +_aguenu madeio_ 'although he cannot offer.' + +The preterit is formed by placing _ritomo_ after the negative preterit; +e.g., _aguenanda ritomo_ 'although he had not offered.' It is also formed +by placing _tote_ after the negative preterit of the subjunctive; e.g., +_aguenanda reba tote_, or better, _aguenaidemo_ or _agueidemo_ 'although he +does not offer, or had not offered.' + +The future is formed by placing _tomo_ after the negative future; e.g., +_aguemai tomo_ 'although he is not going to offer,' _vochiidemo_ 'although +he will not fall.' + +The present, preterit, and future infinitives are the present, preterit, +and future negative indicative present tenses followed by _coto_ or _to_; +e.g., _aguenu coto_ 'not to offer,' _aguenanda coto_ 'not to have offered,' +_aguru mai coto_ 'not to be going to offer.' + +Sometimes they use the negative present instead of the preterit in all the +conjugations; e.g., _mi maraxenu_ 'I did not see.' + +{134} + +The negative gerund in _Di_ is the same as the negative present or future; +e.g., _aguenu_ or _aguru mai_ 'of not offering.' + +The gerund in _Do_ is formed by placing _ni_ after the negative root or the +negative present tense; e.g., _aguezuni_ or _aguenuni_ 'by not offering.' +The same meaning is obtained with _agueide_, _aguenaide_ or _aguezu xite_. + +The gerund in _Dum_ is formed by placing _tote_ or _tame_ after the +[negative] present or future of the indicative; e.g., _aguenu tame_ or +_aguru mai tote_ 'in order not to offer.' + +The present, preterit, and future participles are formed by adding _fito_ +or _mono_ to the negative of the present, preterit, and future indicatives; +e.g., _aguenu fito_ 'he who is not offering,' _aguenanda mono_ 'he who did +not offer,' _aguru mai mono_ 'he who will not offer,' _aguenaide cara_ or +_agueide nochi_ 'after he had not offered, after they did not offer, or +after it was not offered.' + +(29 + +_The Second Affirmative Conjugation_ + +All the roots of the second conjugation end in _i_ and form their present +tense by changing _i_ to _u_; e.g., _iomi:iomu_ 'I read.' If the root ends +in _chi_ it changes its ending to _tçu_ e.g., _machi:matçu_ 'I wait.' If +the root ends in _xi_ it changes to _su_; e.g., _coroxi:corosu_ 'I kill.' + +For the preterit, if the root ends in _ami_ it changes to _óda_; e.g., +_cami:códa_ 'I ate, or chewed.' If it ends in _ebi_ or _emi_ it changes to +_eôda_; e.g., _saqebi:saqeôda_ 'I am injured,' _sonemi:soneoda_ [_soneôda_] +'I envied, or I had envy.' If it ends in _obi_ or _omi_ it changes to +_ôda_; e.g., _corobi:corôda_ 'he fell,' _comi:côda_ 'it enclosed itself.' +If it ends in _umi_ it changes to _únda_ [_unda_]; e.g., _casumi:casunda_ +'it is cloudy.' The same change is made for roots ending in _imi_; e.g., +_canaximi:canaxúnda_ [_canaxunda_] 'he became sad.' If it ends in _gui_ it +changes to _ida_; e.g., _fegui:feida_ 'it is divided.' _Xini,uru_ has the +preterit _xinda_ 'he is dead,' and _ini:uru_ has the preterit _inda_ 'he +left.' While in this respect they [_xini_ and _ini_] are in the second +conjugation, in the other tenses they are in the first. A root ending in +_chi_ or _ri_ changes in the preterit to _tta_; e.g., _mochi:motçu_ in the +preterit becomes _motta_ 'he received,' _chiri,u:chitta_ 'it is scattered.' +Those which end in _xi_ or _qi_ change to _ita_; e.g., _coroxi,u:coroita_ +'he killed,' _qiqi,u:qiita_ 'he heard,' _xiqi,u:xiita_ 'he stretched it +out.' {135} + +The future is formed by changing the _i_ in which the root ends to _ó, ǒzu, +ózuru_; e.g., _iomó_, _iomǒzu_, or _iomózuru_ 'you will read.' If the root +ends in _chi_ it changes to _tó_; e.g., _machi:mató_ 'I shall wait.' A root +ending in _xi_ changes to _só_; e.g., _móxi,u:mósó_ 'I shall say, or +speak.' + +The imperative is formed by changing the _i_ in which the root ends to _e_; +e.g., _iomi:iome_ 'read! or may you read.' If the root ends in _chi_ it +changes to _te_; e.g., _machi:mate_ 'wait!' The imperative is also formed +by changing the _nu_ in which the negative present ends to _ai_; if you +remove the _nu_ from _iomanu_ and replace it with _ai_ it gives you _yomai_ +'read!'[91] This is a common rule for the third conjugation, but this +imperative is used only when addressing inferiors. + +The future of the imperative is the future absolute; e.g., (30 _iomó_ 'you +will read.' This is used when addressing very low people. + +The remaining tenses of the optative, subjunctive, gerund, and infinitive +are formed in the same way and with the same particles as are used for each +in the first conjugation. + +_The Second Negative Conjugation_ + +The root of the negative second conjugation is made by changing _i_, in +which the affirmative root ends, to _azu_; e.g., _iomi:iomazu_ 'not +reading.' + +If the root ends in _chi_ the present tense is formed by changing it to +_tanu_; e.g., _machi:matanu_ 'I do not wait.' If it ends in _xi_ it changes +to _sanu_; e.g., _coroxi:corosanu_ 'I do not kill.' If they end in any +other way change _i_ to _anu_; e.g., _corobi:corobanu_ 'I do not fall.' + +The preterit is formed by changing the _nu_ of the present tense to +_nanda_; e.g., _corobanu:corobananda_ 'I did not fall,' _iomananda_ 'I did +not read.' The other tenses are formed in the same way as the negative +first conjugation. + +_The Third Affirmative Conjugation_ + +The roots of the third conjugation end in _ai_, _oi_, or _ui_. Those ending +in _ai_ change to _ó_ to form the present; e.g., _narai:naró_ 'I learn.' +Those {136} ending in _oi_ change to _ô_; e.g., _vomoi:vomô_ 'I think.' +Those ending in _ui_ change to _ú_; e.g., _cui:cú_ 'I eat.' + +The preterit is formed by adding _ta_ to the present tense; e.g., _naróta_ +'I learned,' _vomôta_ 'I thought,' _cúta_ 'I ate.' + +The pluperfect is formed by changing the final _a_ of the preterit to _e_ +and adding the verb _gozaru_ in the present and _gozatta_ in the past, in +the same way as we have described for the first conjugation; e.g., _naróte +gozaru_ or _narǒte gozatta_ 'I have already learned.' + +The future is formed by changing the final _i_ of the root to _vó_, _vózu_, +or _vózuru_; e.g., _naravó_, _naravǒzu_, or _naravózuru_ 'I shall learn.' +If the root ends in _oi_ it is changed to _vô_, _vôzu_, or _vôzuru_ [_vǒ_, +_vǒzu_, (31 or _vǒzuru_]; e.g., _vomoi:vomouô_, _vomovozu_, or _vomovôzuru_ +[_vomoi:vomovǒ_, _vomovǒzu_, or _vomovǒzuru_] 'I shall think.'[92] + +The imperative is formed by placing _e_ after the root; e.g., _naraie_ +'learn!' _toie_ 'ask!' _cuie_ 'eat!'[93] It is also formed by removing the +syllable _nu_ from the negative present tense and replacing it with the +letter _i_; e.g., _naravai_ 'learn!' _tovai_ 'ask!' _cuvai_ 'eat!' This +form is used when addressing inferiors, as are those of the other +conjugations. + +_The Third Negative Conjugation_ + +The root of the third negative conjugation is formed by changing the _i_ of +the affirmative root to _vazu_; e.g., _naravazu_, _tovazu_, and _cuvazu_. +The present tense is formed by changing the _i_ to _vanu_; e.g., _naravanu_ +'I do not learn,' _tovanu_ 'I do not ask,' _cuvanu_ 'I do not eat.' + +The preterit is formed by changing the _i_ of the root to _vananda_; e.g., +_naravananda_ 'I did not learn,' _tovananda_ 'I did not ask,' _cuvananda_ +'I did not eat.' + +The pluperfect is formed by changing the final _a_ of the preterit to _e_ +and adding the verb _gozaru_ or _gozatta_; e.g., _cuvanande gozatta_ 'I had +{137} not eaten,' or _naravanande gozaru_ 'I had not learned.' The +remaining forms are like the other conjugations.[94] + +If the substantive verb is placed after the gerund in _Do_ for all the +affirmative and negative conjugations, it means that the action signified +by the gerund is or is not done; e.g., _aguete aró_ 'it will already be +offered,' _cono qió ga caite gozaranu_ 'this book is not written,' _agueide +arózu_ 'he will not yet have offered.' The substantive verbs are +_gozaru:gozaranu_, _voru:vori nai_, _dea_ or _gia:devanai_, _aru:aranu_ or +_gozaranu_, _voru:voranu,_ and each of these verbs follows the general +rules for its conjugation.[95] + +If the substantive verb from any of the conjugations is placed after the +infinitive form it means that whatever is signified by the infinitive is, +was, or will be; or the negative thereof; e.g., _aguru coto aró_ 'it will +be that he offers,' that is to say 'he will offer,' _naróta coto gozaru +mai_ 'he will not learn.' All these substantive verbs are conjugated in the +second conjugation to which they belong by virtue of the fact that their +(32 roots end in _i_; _ari,u:gozari,u_. + +_The Conjugation of the Negative Substantive Verb_ + +The negative substantive verb is _nai_, _gozanai_, or _vori nai_ which +means 'not to be.' Its root is _naqu_, _gozanaqu_, or _vori naqu_. + +The preterit is formed by changing the _i_ in which the present tense ends +to _c_ and then adding the preterit of _ari,u_ which is _atta_; e.g., +_nacatta_ or _gozanacatta_ 'he was not.' The other tenses are conjugated, +as is _ari,u_, in the second conjugation. + +The imperative is _nacare_, _nanaiso_, or _nai na_ 'be not!' + +{138} + +The subjunctive is formed by changing the _i_ of the present tense to +_qereba_; e.g., _naqereba_ or _gozanaqereba_ 'if it be not.' + +The permissive subjunctive is formed by changing the _i_ of the present to +_qeredomo_; e.g., _gozanaqeredomo_ 'although he is not.' + +The preterit of the subjunctive is formed by adding _redomo_ to the +preterit of the indicative; e.g., _nacatta redomo_ 'although he was not.' + +The substantive [verb] with the particle _tomo_ is formed with the root; +e.g., _naqu tomo_ 'even if it were not.' The gerund is _nó_, _nóte_, _naqu +xite_, or _nacatte_ 'since it is not.' The remaining are formed as above, +with the verb _ari,u_ added, and are conjugated in the second conjugation. + +Adjectives, when they do not precede verbs, are conjugated in the same way +as the negative substantive verb. The adjectives, which have been said +above to end in _ai_, _ei_, _oi_, _ui_, and _ij_, form their roots by +changing the final _i_ to _qu_; e.g., _fucaqu_ is the root of 'deep,' +_ioqu_ the root of 'good,' _xiguequ_ the root of 'dense,' _varuqu_ the root +of 'bad,' and _vonajiqu_ the root of 'the same.' + +The present tense is the form (_vox_) of the adjective itself; e.g., _ioi_ +'good,' _fucai_ 'deep,' _varui_ 'bad,' _vonaji_ 'the same.'[96] + +The preterit is formed by changing the _i_ of the adjective to _c_ or _q_ +and adding _ari,u_. This form is then conjugated according to (33 the tense +required by the sentence. + +The permissive subjunctive with _tomo_ is _fucaqu tomo_ or _fucai tomo_ +'although deep.' + +The gerund in _Do_ is _fucóte_ 'since it was deep,' _ióte_ 'since it was +good,' _canaxiúte_ [_canaxúte_][97] 'since it was sad,' _xingueote_ +[_xigeôte_][98] 'since it was dense.' It also takes the form of _fucó +xite_, _fucaqu xite_, or _fucacatte_, or again _iô xite_, _ioqu xite_, or +_iocatte_. + +The adjectives which end in _na_ are not conjugated. There is, however, a +gerund in _Do_. For example, _aqiracana_ has for its gerund _aqiracani +xite_ 'since it was clear,' and with the same meaning there is _aqiraca +de_. _Arisóna_ has _arisǒni xite_ 'since it became apparent, or easy to +believe.' _Ióna_ has _ióni_ as in _ióni xite_ 'since it is in a good way, +or since it has a good manner.' _Cava ga fucóte vatarananda_ 'because the +{139} river was deep, I did not cross it,' _xebǒte irarenu_ 'since it was +narrow, he was unable to enter,' _varúte cuvarenu_ 'it is inedible, or it +cannot be eaten, because it is bad.' The other tenses of the adjective, as +has been said, are formed with the verb _ari,u_ and conjugated according to +the requirements of the sentence. The negative conjugation is also formed +with _ari,u_; e.g., if the root is _fucacarazu_ the present tense is +_fucacaranu_ 'it is not deep.' The preterit is _fucacarananda_ 'it was not, +etc.' + +_The Conditional Particles_[99] + +There are five particles which make an utterance (_oratio_) conditional; +_naraba_, _ni voite va_, _raba_, _va_, and _ba_. When the first two are +placed after any verb, affirmative or negative, present, preterit, or +future, the result is that the verb becomes conditional. For example; +_niguru naraba_ 'if you flee,' _iôda ni voite va_ 'if you had read,' +_naravó naraba_ 'if you will learn,' _cuvazu ni voite va_[100] 'if you do +not eat.' Sometimes _voi_ [_voite_] is removed from _ni voite va_; _agueô +ni va_ 'if you would offer,' _aguetaró ni va_ 'if you would have offered.' +Sometimes _voite_ [_voite va_] is removed, leaving only _ni_; e.g., _mairó +ni coso, nen goro ni mǒsǒzure_ (19) 'if I go, or if I shall have gone, I +will tell him so in a friendly way,' _xitaró ni coso, saisocu tçuqu maji +qere_ (19) 'if I (34 had done it, it would not have been done with +diligence and persuasion.' + +The particle _raba_ is placed after the preterit;[101] e.g., _naróta raba_ +'if I would have learned,' _naravananda raba_ 'if I would not have +learned.' + +The particle _va_ is added to the negative roots of all three conjugations; +e.g., _aguezu va_ 'if I not offer,' _iomazu va_ 'if I not read,' _naravazu +va_ 'if I not learn,' _naqu va_ 'if it not be,' _fucacarazu va_ 'if it be +not deep.' + +The particle _ba_ has the same effect and is, like _va_, joined to the +root; _aguezũba_, _iomazũba_, _naravazũba_.[102] If the particle _ba_ +replaces the negative _zu_, an affirmative conditional is formed; e.g., +_agueba_, 'if I offer,' _iomaba_ 'if I read,' _naravaba_ 'if I learn,' and +_iocaraba_ 'if it be good.' The particle _va_ is not only added to the +negative roots of adjectives, but also to the affirmative; e.g., _fucaqu +va_ 'if it be deep,' _vonajiqu va_ 'if it be the same.' Sometimes they use +this expression to give the idea 'if it be not {140} too troublesome, will +you do it.' They also say _aguemajiqu va_ 'if you would not offer.' + +The particle _ni voite va_ is joined to nouns in such a way as to +substitute for the substantive verb; e.g., _jójó ni voite va uqe toró_ +(121v)[103] 'I shall get it, if it be very good, or the best,' +_curuxicarazaru gui ni voite va_ 'if it would not have been unpleasant, or +if it had not been an unpleasant thing.' + +If the particle _saie_ is placed in a clause (_oratio_) in which there is +already a conditional particle, it adds strength to the meaning; e.g., +_fune saie mairu naraba_ 'if only a ship were to come,' _sonata saie +vocutabire naku va_ (118) 'if he be not tired,' or it might be said 'as for +me, or as far as it depends upon me, I am not tired.' + +The particle _saie_ alone sometimes forms a conditional; e.g., _Niffon no +xôcocu ni saie caióna coto gozaru fodo ni_ [_Nifon_ ...] (118) 'if in the +small kingdom of Japan things of this kind be found, or exist,' that is to +say 'how much more there will be in a large one,' _coco moto no tocai ni +saie meivacu itasu ióni gozaru fodoni, etc._ (118) 'on the voyage here I +suffered very much, and so ...,' _fito saie côquai suru mono vo iurusu ni +ivan ia, Deus ni voite voia?_ [... _va?_] (118v) 'if one forgives one who +repents, how much more will God,' _core fodo xei vo iruru saie coto +naricanuru ni; ucato xite va, incadeca banji canavǒzo?_ [... _icadeca_ ...] +(119) 'if gathering all one's strength this can be done only with +difficulty, how could it be done if it were done without any strength?,' +_core saie xinicui ni_ 'if this be difficult to do,' _fune de saie ioio +tçuita_ (35 _ni, cachi va nananaca naru mai_ [... _nacanaca naru mai_] +(119v) 'if I arrived by ship with such difficulties, without doubt I could +not have done it on foot.' + +_The Potential Verb_[104] + +The placing of the particle rǒ[105] after the present or future tense makes +a potential; e.g., _aguru rǒ_ 'he perhaps offers,' _nigueozurǒ_ +[_nigueôzurǒ_] 'he will perhaps escape.' + +The preterit is made by changing _ta_ to _tçu_ and adding rǒ; e.g., {141} +_aguetçurǒ_ 'he perhaps offered.' But if it is added to the negative +preterit, the _da_ must be changed to _zzu_; e.g., _aguenanzzurǒ_ 'it has +perhaps not been offered, etc.' + +The present potential is also formed by adding _arǒzu_ [_mo arǒzu_] or +other future verbs to the infinitive; e.g., _aguru coto mo arǒzu_ or _ague +mo xôzu_ 'he will perhaps offer.' + +The preterit is formed by adding this same future to the preterit +infinitive; e.g., _agueta coto mo arǒzu_ 'he perhaps offered.' + +The future is _agueô coto mo arǒzu_ 'he will perhaps offer.' The negative +is formed in the same way; e.g., _aguenu_, _aguenanda_, or _aguru mai coto +mo arǒzu_ 'he perhaps does not offer, he perhaps did not offer, or he will +perhaps not offer.' When we wish to say that something is perhaps the case +we use _mono_ instead of _coto_; e.g., _noxenanda mono de arózu_ 'they +perhaps did not place it aboard ship,' _iqi chigǒta mono de arǒzu_ 'they +seem not to have met along the way,' _moreqicoieta mono de gozarǒ ca to +zonzuru_ 'I believe it is perhaps as it has been said.' + +To express the meaning 'become' the verb _nari,u_ is added to the adjective +and then conjugated according to the requirements of the adjective taken +adverbally; e.g., _fucǒ naru_ 'it becomes deep,' _varǔ natta_ 'it became +bad.' Also they say _fucǒ aru_ 'it is deep,' and sometimes _fucǒ nai_ 'it +is not deep.' They obtain this same meaning by conjugating _nai_ according +to the tense required by the sentence. They also use _fucǒ nai coto mo +arǒzu_ 'perhaps it will be that this is not deep.' (36 + +_The Conjugation of Irregular Verbs_[106] + +The verb _qi,uru_ 'to come' has _quru_ 'I come,' _qita_ 'I came,' _côzu_ 'I +shall come,' _coi_ or _coio_ 'come!' _qitareba_ 'since he will have come, +or would have come,' _qitaredomo_ 'although he came.' The negative root is +_côzu_ [_cozu_] and the negative present is _conu_ 'I do not come.' _Mede_, +which is the root of the verb meaning 'to enjoy,' has a present in +_mezzuru_ and its gerund in _Do_ is _medete_ 'by enjoying.' _Cui_, which is +the root of the verb meaning 'to be mournful,' has its present in _cuiuru_. +{142} Its gerund in _Do_ is _cuite_ 'by mourning,' its negative root is +_cuizu_, and its negative present is _cuinu_. _Araie_, which is the root of +the verb 'to be,'[107] has a present in _araiuru_ or _arǒru_ 'it is.' +_Furi_, which is the root of the verb 'to become old,' has a preterit in +_furita_ 'he became old,' and a gerund in _Do_ which is _furite_ 'by +becoming old.' _Fe_, the root of the verb meaning 'to cross over,' has a +present in _furu_ 'he crosses over,' and a preterit in _feta_ 'he crossed +over.' _Tari,u_ is a verb which signifies that a thing is complete or +entire. It has a present in _taru_ 'it is complete,' a preterit in _tatta_ +'it was complete,' and a future in _tari maraxo_ [_maraxô_] 'it will be +complete.' Its negative root is _tarazu_, its negative present is _taranu_, +its preterit is _tarananda_ 'it was not complete,' its future is _taru mai_ +'it will not be complete,' and its imperfect subjunctive is _taraneba_ +'since it has not been completed.' + +The [negative] permissive is _taranedomo_, the infinitive is _taranu coto_, +and the gerund in _Do_ is _taraide_ or _tarazu xite_. The verb _taxi:tasu_, +which means 'to complete, or finish,' has a future in _taxi maraxô_ 'I +shall finish.' _Tasanu_ is the negative present. _Tari_ [_Tarai_] is the +root of the verb _tarǒ_ which has the meaning 'to be completed.' In the +negative the preterit is _taravananda_ 'it was not completed,' the +subjunctive is _taravaneba_ 'since it is not completed,' the permissive is +_taravanedomo_, the infinitive is _taravanu coto_, and the gerund in _Do_ +is _taravaide_ or _taravaxu xite_ [_taravazu xite_]. _Vocotari_ is the root +of the verb _vocotaru_ 'to be negligent.' It has an infinitive in _vocotaru +coto_, a negative root in _vocotarazu_, and a negative present in +_voicotaranu_ [_vocotaranu_]. _Voi_ is the root of a verb which has a +preterit in _voita_ 'he was old.' (37 _Voitaru_ has the same meaning. The +negative present is _voinu_ and the gerund in _Do_ is _voite_. _Urei_ is +the root of the verb 'to be sad.' It has a present in _ureô_, an imperative +in _ure io_ [_ureie io_][108] an infinitive in _ureoru coto_ [_ureôru_ +...].[109] Its gerund in _Do_ is _ureite_. _Tomi_ is the root of the verb +_tomu_ or _tomeru_ 'to become rich.' Its preterit is _tonda_, its gerund in +_Do_ is _tonde_, and its negative root is _tomazu_. _Saiguiri,u_ means 'to +go before, or anticipate.' Its preterit is _saiguitta_ and its gerund in +_Do_ is _saiguitte_. + +{143} + +_The Aforementioned Verbs--Their Formation and Diversity_[110] + +In this language there are simple active, causative active, passive, +neutral, and impersonal verbs.[111] All are conjugated by the three +conjugations according to the way in which their roots terminate. + +From certain adjectives come (_procedo_) certain verbs; e.g., from _catai_ +'hard' comes _catame,uru_ 'I make hard' which is active, _catamari,u_ 'I +become hard' which is neutral, _catamerare,uru_ 'I am made hard' which is +passive. From the adjective _canaxii_ 'sad' comes _canaximi,u_ which means +'to be sad.' + +The causative verbs (_verba faciendi facere_) are formed with the particles +_saxe_ or _xe_. The first is added to the roots of verbs in the first +conjugation,[112] while the second is [not] added to the roots of the +second and third conjugation, but rather to the negative present after the +_nu_ has been removed; e.g., _aguesaxe,uru_ 'I make him offer,' +_iomaxe,uru_ 'I make him read,' _naravaxe,uru_ 'I make him learn.' All of +these forms are in the first conjugation because the particles end in e. +Sometimes, but rarely, _saxe_ follows verbs of the second and third +conjugation, but this is to make the verbs more elegant. It is used with +the particle _rare_ to honor someone; e.g., _iomasaxe rare,uru_ ['he makes +him read']. _Padre va dojucu ni cathecismo vo naravasaxeraruru_ 'the priest +orders his servant to learn his cathecism,'[113] _mono no fon vo fito ni_ +(38 _iomasaxeraruru_ (162v.) 'he makes him read his book.' + +The passive verbs (_verba passiva_) are made with the particles _rare_ and +_re_. The particle _rare_ is added to the active verbs, according to the +way explained before, after removing the _nu_ from the negative form; e.g., +_aguerare,uru_ 'I am offered it,' _iomare,uru_ 'I am read to,' +_naravare,uru_ 'I am taught.' They use these passive forms to mean 'to be +read to by someone,' or 'to be, or not to be legible.' There are other +passive forms which come from neutral verbs or verbs which have neutral +meanings. They are also formed with the particles _rare_ and _re_, but when +they are so formed they do not govern the cases common to {144} the passive +(for which see below) but rather the cases of the verbs from which they +come; e.g., from _agari,u_ comes _agarare,uru_; and, since _agari,u_ 'I +ascend' requires the accusative, this verb also requires the accusative. +For example; _cono iama ie agararenu_ (102) 'it is not possible to climb +this mountain, or this mountain is unable to be climbed,' _xiro cara +derarenu_ (102) 'it is not possible to leave the castle,' _xebóte irarenu_ +(102) 'it is not possible to penetrate because it is too narrow, or +confined,' _cono michi va arucarenu_ (102) 'it is not possible to walk this +street,' _natçu va coco ni irare mai_ 'it will not be possible to live here +during the summer,' _cono fude de va cacarenu_ (102) 'it cannot be written +with this pen,' _fima ga nóte cacarenanda_ (102) 'it cannot be written +because of the lack of time,' _cono bun ni coso cacaruru mono de gozare_ +(69v) 'it will indeed be well written in this way,' _axi ga itóte +arucarenu_ (102) 'it is impossible to walk because of painful feet.' All of +these passive verbs are of the first conjugation.[114] The neutral verbs +(_verba neutra_) are those which have a neutral meaning; i.e., being +initiated by oneself, and not by others. For example; _ivo ga toruru_ 'the +fish are caught,' _caje ga toruru_ 'the wind ceases,' _ito ga qiruru_ 'the +string is cut,' _ji ga iomuru_ (100) 'the letter [Chinese character] is +well read,' _aqi,u_ 'I am uncovered.' _Qiri,u_ 'I cut' is active, +_qirare,uru_ is passive, and _qire,uru_ 'I am cut' is neutral. This last +form is used when a sword cuts well because it is sharp. _Qiraxe,uru_ is a +causative verb which means 'I make someone cut.' _Ague,uru_ means 'I +raise,' _aguerare,uru_ 'I am raised' passively, _aguesaxe,uru_ 'I make +someone raise,' _agari,u_ 'I am raised' neutrally, _agarare,uru_ 'to be +ascendable,' _agaraxe,uru_ 'I cause something to be raised, or I cause him +or it to raise himself or itself.' If to these verbs are added the +particles which indicate honor (see below) other combinations are made. The +adjectives when they are conjugated have a neutral meaning; e.g., _fidarui_ +'I am thirsty,' _fucacatta_ 'it was deep.' + +The impersonal verbs (_verba impersonalia_) do not name or refer to a +person; e.g., _mi vo fatasu tomo itçuvari vo ivanu mono gia_ (39 (69v) +'even if one were to die, one should not tell a lie,' _mono mo tabezu saqe +mo nomaide ichinichi fataraqu mono ca?_ (69v) 'is it possible to work all +day without eating anything or drinking any wine?', _xujin no_ {145} _maie +de sono ióna coto vo iú mono ca?_ 'is it possible to speak this way in +front of ones lord?' Concerning the conjugations for these verbs they +follow the rules according to their roots. + +The root of any verb of whatever conjugation can be taken from its +conjugation and changed to another conjugation by adding one of the +particles of honor (_honor_). The resulting form will belong to the +conjugation determined by the final letter of the particle. These particles +are: _maraxi,uru_, _ari,u_, _saxerare,uru_, _xerare,uru_, _nasare,uru_, +_saxemaxi,u_, _tamai,ó_, _rare_ and _re_.[115] + +The particle _maraxi_ does not add honor to that which is talked about, but +rather it is used to speak honorably to those in front of us. For example; +_cui,u_ means 'I eat,'[116] but a servant in front of his master will not +say _nezumi ga cúta_ 'the mice ate the cheese'; he will rather say _nezumi +ga cui maraxita_. By itself _cui,u_ is in the third conjugation because its +root ends in _ui_, but if _maraxi_ is added it becomes a verb in the first +conjugation. When we refer to something about a people (_natio_) we do not +show honor to that word but only pay attention to the person we are +speaking to by adding _maraxi_ or not. For example, if we are addressing an +inferior we say _Nan ban jin va core vo cuvanu_; but if we are addressing a +person of nobility we say _Nan ban jin va core vo cui maraxenu_ 'Europeans +do not eat this.' When _ari,u_ is added to the root of any verb it attaches +a middling (_mediocris_) degree of honor; e.g., _modori aró ca?_ 'are you +going to come back?' If you add _vo_ in front of the verb it is honored +moderately (_satis_); e.g., _vomodori aró ca?_ 'Your Lordship is going to +come back?' _Tono sama vo xini atta toqi_ 'when the master died,' _Deus +cono xecai vo gosacu atta_ 'God created the world.'[117] We use these +particles when we are speaking with honored persons whom we like and with +whom we are on friendly terms. + +The particle _nasare,uru_ gives the highest (_supremus_), or moderately +great (_satis magnus_) honor and is placed after the root of the verb; +e.g., _Deus cono xecai vo gosacu nasareta_ 'God created the world.' + +The particles _rare_ and _re_ add a middling and not a great amount {146} +of honor to the verbs to which they are added. The particle _rare_ is added +mainly when we are talking about someone who is absent. It is formed by +taking the _nu_ from the negative present and replacing (40 it with this +particle; e.g., _aguerare,uru_ means 'I offer' when the person to whom the +offering is made requires a middling degree of honor and respect +(_reverentia_). This verb coincides letter for letter with the passive but +is distinguished from it by the cases which it governs. The particle _re_ +is placed after verbs of the second and third conjugation only; e.g., +_iomare,uru_ 'to read' and _naravare,uru_ 'to learn,' said of a person +having a good reputation. We speak in this way when speaking of those who +are equal to us and the servants of our lord, but not of other servants, or +nobles. + +The particles _saxemaxi_ and _xemaxi_ give the same degree of honor as +_ari,u_ and _rare_ or _re_. These particles are added to the root of a +first conjugation verb,[118] or to the negative present from which the _nu_ +has been removed; _aguesaxemasu_ 'he offers.' _Maxi,u_ [_Xemaxi,u_] is +added to the negative present of the second and third conjugation verbs +after taking away _nu_; e.g., _iomaxemasu_ 'he reads,' and _naravaxemasu_ +'he learns.' + +The particles _saxerare,uru_ and _xerare,uru_ attribute great honor. The +first is added to the negative present of verbs in the first +conjugation[119] after the _nu_ is removed, and the second is added to the +[other] negatives in the same way; e.g., _aguesaxeraruru_ 'I offer,' +_iomaxeraruru_ 'I read,' _naravaxeraruru_ 'I learn.' Because these forms +coincide letter for letter with the honorific causative, the particle +_ari,u_ may be placed after the verb and the particle _vo_ may be placed +before to avoid confusion; e.g., _yomaxe aru_ [_vo iomaxe aru_] 'I read' +and _naravaxe aru_ [_vo naravaxe aru_] 'I learn.' + +The passive verb, concerning which see below, also permits the particle +_saxerare,uru_; e.g., _viamavaresaxeraruru_ (99v) 'I am honored.' + +The particle _tamai,ó_ bestows the highest honor. We use it when speaking +of God, saints, kings, or generals. It is added to the roots of verbs and +conjugated in the third conjugation. It is placed after the root of the +passive form when referring to God; e.g., _Deus filio, umare_ {147} _tamǒ +toqi_ 'when the son of God was born,' _Deus agamerare tamǒ_ 'God is +honored.' + +The particle _tate matçuri,u_ makes the meaning of the verb to which it is +added humble. It is placed after the root of affirmative verbs; e.g., _Deus +vo gotaixet ni zonji tate matçuru coto va ichi sugureta jen gia_ 'to love +God is the supreme virtue.' This particle permits some degree of honor if +_re_ is added to it after the final _e_ [_i_] has been changed to a. Thus, +when speaking of the saints in respect to God, one says, (41 _Sancto +Domingo, Deus vo gotaixet ni zonji tatematçurareta_ 'St. Dominic loved +God.' + +The particle _maraxi_ [_mairaxi_][120] is able to elevate to honor the +particle _rare_; e.g., _tono iori cono coto vo Padre ni +vataximairaxerareta_ 'the lord gave it to the priest.' + +_Certain Verbs Which of Themselves Indicate Honor_[121] + +_Mesare,uru_ indicates any act which can be done, or which is properly done +by a noble person (_persona nobilis_). This includes such things as eating, +drinking, sailing, riding a horse, etc. _Vôxerare,uru_ means that a noble +person speaks. _Vomaraxi,uru_ and _vomaraxi ari,u_ mean that a noble person +gives. _Voxe,uru_ [_Vôxe,uru_] and _vôxe ari,u_ mean that a middling person +(_persona mediocris_) says or declares. + +Verbs preceded by _vôxe_ or _mexi_ are given the same degree of honor by +either; e.g., _vôxe tçuqerare,uru_ 'I declare,' _mexi tçucavare,uru_ 'I +serve,' which have the same meanings as _tçuqerare,uru_ and +_tçucavare,uru_. To call someone we use _coi_ with an inferior, with +someone not quite as inferior we use _iorai_, with someone a little better +we use _vaxei_, while _vogiare_ is the superior way to call. _Gozare_, +which means that your Lordship should come, and _gozarǒ_ in the future +tense are even more honorable ways to indicate the imperative. _Voide +nasarei_, _voide nasareô_, or _voide nasarei caxi_ mean 'might your +Lordship come,' or 'Oh! would that your Lordship come.' _Cudasare,uru_ +means that a noble person gives. _Tamavari,u_ means that a noble person +gives to an inferior. _Tamóri,u_ means that a middling person gives. _Mizzu +vo nomaxete tamǒre_ 'Give me a drink of water.' _Cudasare,uru_ and +_tamóri,u_ mean {148} that a humble person eats honoring his food. +_Coximexi,u_ and _qicoximexi,u_ mean that a noble person eats and hears. +_Voboximexi,u_ and _voboximesare,uru_ mean that a noble person thinks. +_Saxerare,uru_ means that a noble person does. _Nasare,uru_, _asobaxi,u_, +and _asobasare,iuru_ [_asobasare,uru_] mean that a noble person does what +is proper to him such as hunting, writing, reading, or reciting. _Ii,ú_ is +used when the person addressed is humbler than the person or thing spoken +to; (42 and _mexi,u_ [_móxi,u_] means the person or the thing spoken to is +addressed with honor. Therefore I would be incorrect were I to say _mi ni +móxe_ 'tell me!' I should rather say _mi ni iie_. I should not say _tono ni +iie_ 'tell it to the lord,' but rather _tono ni móxe_. _Mairi,u_ means to +go to a place to which honor should be shown; e.g., _iglesia ie maire_ 'go +to church!' _Cure,uru_ and _toraxe,uru_ mean to give in a way that humbles +the person to whom the thing is given. _Cui,ú_ means 'to eat' without +showing respect (_respectus_); _mexi,u_ also means 'to eat' but it is +cultivated (_urbanum_); e.g., in addressing those deserving respect I will +not say _mexi vo cui maraxita_ but rather _mexi vo tabe maraxita_ 'I ate.' +_Mairi,u_ or _vomairari,u_ [_vomairi ari,u_] means that a middling person +eats, while _agaraxerare,uru_ and _voagari ari,u_ are nobler ways to say +this. _Qiqi,u_ means to hear and _uqetamavari,u_ and _uqetamóri,u_ mean to +hear in a way which honors the person heard; e.g., _goiqen vo uqetamǒtta_ +'I heard your advice.' _Móxi ague,uru_ means to speak in a way which +humbles oneself while bestowing honor on the person being addressed. _Móxi +ire,uru_ means to speak between equals (_equales_). _Chómon xi,uru_ means +to listen to the word of God. _Goranji,zuru_ or _goranjerare,uru_ is to +look at a noble thing. _Xi,uru_ means to do in common way, _itaxi,u_ means +to do in a cultivated way, and _tçucamatçuri,u_ means to do in a humble +way. + +_Cautionary Remarks on the Conjugations of the Verb_[122] + +The particle _nama_ placed before any verb in any tense means that the +action has been done poorly or in an incomplete manner; e.g., _nama aró_ 'I +wash poorly,' _nama iaqu_ 'I am incompletely broiled.' + +{149} + +If the particles _tçui_, _cai_, _uchi_, _faxe_, _voi_, _ai_, and +_tori_[123] are placed in front of a verb they do not change the meaning, +but they add emphasis; e.g., _uchi cobosu_ has the same meaning as _cobosu_ +'I pour,' _faxe noboru_ is the same as _noboru_ 'I ascend,' _voxi comi,u_ +is the same as _comi,u_ 'I enclose,' _ai cavari,u_ is the same as +_cavari,u_ 'I am changed,' _tçui mavari,u_ is the same as _mavari,u_ 'I go +around,' and _tori firogue,uru_ is the same as _firogue,uru_ 'I spread +out.' + +The particle _qitte_ is the gerund in _Do_ for the verb _qiri,u_ and when +it is placed after the roots of certain verbs it gives them great emphasis; +e.g., _tanomiqitte_ 'imploring with great prayers,' _vomoiqitte_ (43 +'assuming a strong resolution.' The verbs _tanomiqiri,u_ and _vomoiqiri,u_ +are also used. + +The particle _ma_, when placed in front of certain verbs and nouns, gives +them a stronger meaning; e.g., _mamucai_ 'quite present,' _macuroi_ +'completely black.' + +The particle, or better root of the verb, _macari,u_, when placed before +verbs of motion, makes the verbs modest and a bit more cultivated; e.g., +_macari noboru_ 'I ascend,' _macari cudari,u_ 'I descend,' and _macari +i,iru_ 'I am present.' + +The particle _va_ placed after a sentence confirms what has been said +before, as one might boast of making a prediction; e.g., _fune va +cuchinotçu ie iru va_ 'the ship calls at Kuchinotsu; and, if he says so or +not, I say so,' _aru va_ 'see if it is not as I have said.' + +The particle _aidani_ means 'between' in the sense of the time consumed in +performing an action; e.g., _agura aidani_ [_aguru aidani_] 'while +offering,' _iôda aidani_ 'while he read,' _naravózuru aidani_ 'while he +will learn.' + +The particle _ga_ means 'but;' _só iú ga; nanto aró ca?_ 'they say so, but +will it be so?' or 'it may be so, but I don't know for certain,' _furi va +furu mai ga, fune no dasu coto naró ca xiranu_ 'it's not raining any more, +but I still don't know if it will be possible to launch the boat or not,' +_sono qinpen ni va gozaru mai ga; doco cara toraxeraruru zo?_ (20)[124] +'there are probably none in the neighborhood, or in the surroundings, so +from where can they be gotten?' + +{150} + +The particle _gotoqu_ is added to the present, preterit, and future tenses +meaning 'in the same way'; e.g., _coxiraiuru gotoqu_ 'in the same way as +you furnish or carry out,' _qiita gotoqu_ 'as I heard.' The form is +sometimes _ga gotoqu_; e.g., _móxita ga gotoqu_ 'as he said,' _caracavózu +ga gotoqu_ 'as in jest I will tease or laugh at.' This same meaning is +obtained with _iǒni_; _Nifon no catagui vo xirareta iǒni, vôxeraruru_ +(122v) 'he speaks as one who knows the customs of Japan,'[125] _mósu ióni_ +'as I say.' The particle _furi_ is also used for the same purpose; e.g., +_toza no chijocu vo nogareôzuru tameni catana vo saita furi vo mixerareta_ +(123) 'he showed himself wearing his sword in order to avoid the danger of +infamy.' _minu furi vo saxerareta_ (123) 'he made it known that he did not +see.' + +The particle _saie_ is used [with the negative] to mean 'not at all'; e.g., +_mma saie nacatta_ (118)[126] 'there are not any horses at all,' _cotoba +saie xiranu mono_ (118) 'he does not know how to speak at all,' _ji saie +mixiranu mono_ 'he does not know any letters at all.' This same particle is +used for emphasis; e.g., _qiden to saie mǒxeba_ (119) 'it would (44 suffice +if you were to say that you are,' _Padre no tçucavaruru to saie móxeba_ 'if +only he had said that this was useful to the priest,' or one might say 'it +would suffice if, etc.' + +The particle _qere_ is a confirmative particle which comes at the end of a +sentence with the meaning 'therefore'; e.g., _maitta qere_ 'therefore he +came,' _sate só aru qere_ 'finally this is the situation.'[127] + +The particle _coso_ is of great importance among the Japanese for they use +it first in an adversative sense (_in sensu adversativo_); _core coso ió +gozare_ [... _iô_ ...] 'he is truly good.'[128] If the sentence in which +this particle is found ends in a verb, that verb ends in _e_, as in the +example above. If the verb is in the preterit it ends in _re_; e.g., _yô +coso gazattare!_ (117) 'you are welcome! (_bene veneris!_).' The exceptions +to this rule are when the sentence does not end in a verb or an adjective; +e.g., _core coso xixó yô_ [... _io_] (116) 'he is a true teacher,' when +after the particle _coso_ there is in the sentence a gerund in _e_, a +permissive in _tomo_, or a {151} potential preterit in _tçuró_ or +_zzuró_;[129] e.g., _vare coso iro iro xinro tçucamatçutte cutatireba +toxiiórini nari maraxita_ [... _cutabireba toxiiorini_ ...] (117) +'suffering many and various hardships, I became an old man,' _vare coso +corosaruru tomo_ 'if I be killed,' _fara coso tattçurǒ_ (117) 'he was +perchance quite angry,' _sato chicaqereba coso fi ga miiure_ (116) 'the +fire is already seen because the village is so near.' This [last] sentence +ends in _e_ because it does not contain an exception to the rule. +_Vóxerareta coto domo vo go côquai de coso gozarózure_ (97) 'without doubt +you will do penance for what you have said,' _catajiqe nǒ coso gozare_ (97) +'I congratulate you very much and thank you.' If someone says, 'Who did +that?' the answer is _Patre coso_ [_Padre coso_] 'the Priest did.' If +someone asks, 'is there anyone who did that?' and if he does not hear, or +does not understand the answer, and asks again, the person who answered +will say _Juan coso_ 'I have already said it was John.' + +When someone is careless about what was said, or when he has not heard +something and asks again, the answer is; e.g., _tovoru na to iieba_ 'I have +already told you not to pass through,' _iome to iieba_ 'I have already told +you to read,' _Padre coso to iieba_ 'I have already told you that it is the +Priest.' + +Adding the particles _maieni_ and _saqini_ to the negative present tense +makes the construction affirmative; e.g., _iglesia ie mairanu maieni_ +(141v) 'before he goes to church.' They are also added to the affirmative +future tense; e.g., _mairǒzuru tote no saqini_ 'a little before (45 I +come.' + +The particle _tocoro_ signifies the time during which the action indicated +by the verb is done. It is placed after the verb; _taburu tocoro ni_ 'when +I was eating,' _tabeta tocoro ni_ 'after dinner,' _tabeôzuru tocoro ni_ or +_tabeôzuru ni_ 'when I will be eating.' It also serves as a reduplicative +particle which denotes a reduplication to the degree possible; e.g., _jesu +christo humanidad no von tocoro va_ (121v)[130] 'Jesus Christ in so far as +he was a man,' _vonore ga foxxezaru tocoro vo fodocosu coto nacare_ (121) +'as you do not want done to you, do not do to others,' _fudai no tocoro vo +vo iurusu_ [... _tocoro vo iurusu_] (120v) 'I gave him his freedom,' _fito +no acu no tocoro ni va dôxin xenu_ (121v) 'I do {152} not consent to the +sins of man,' _utagó tocoro mo nai_ (120v) 'there remains no place to +doubt, or for doubt,' _nocoru tocoro mo nai_ 'it does not remain any more,' +_tçuini, sono tocoro ie mairózu_ (121v) 'finally he will arrive at this +place,' _fumbet ni voiobanu tocoro gia_ (121v) 'there are some things which +are not understood, or to which one's comprehension does not extend,' _nani +mo nai tocoro vo iô qicoximexe_ (120v) 'will your Lordship kindly eat from +this littleness which is nothing.' From these examples it is possible to +see the force of this particle. + +The particles _tocoro_, _made_, and _made de gozaru_ are often added to an +utterance (_cadentia_). They do not have any special meaning and are the +same as _coto de gozaru_; e.g., _naranu made_ or _naranu coto de gozaru_ +mean the same as _naranu_ 'it is not possible.' _Guijet tçucamatçurǒ to +zonzuru coto va cacugo itasanu coto gia_ (10v) 'the breaking of this +friendship does not come to mind.' Here the _itasanu coto gia_ is the same +as _itasanu_ alone. + +The particle _madeio_ is used to confirm what has been said; e.g., _caita +madeio_ 'that which I wrote, I wrote.' + +The particle _toqi_ when added to the present tense, forms a preterit +imperfect; e.g., _jennin tachi va saigo ni voiobi tamó toqi va buji ni +gozatta_ 'when saints arrive at the time of their death, they are peaceful +and quiet.' + +Changing the _ta_ of the preterit to _tçu_ and the _da_ of the negative to +_zzu_[131] the meaning becomes 'I do it this way and then that way'; e.g., +_mono vo caitçu, iôzzu, nando xite curasu bacari gia_ 'I spend my life +reading, writing and doing other things,' _tattçu itçu vocu iori zaxiqi ie +ide zaxiqi iori vocu ie iri xitten battǒ xeraruru_ (11v) 'standing and +sitting, entering and departing, he stands up and falls down.' The particle +_ri_ gives the same meaning after the preterit; e.g., _xeqen no mono va +netari voqitari nǒdari curasu bacari gia_ (11) 'men of the world spend +their lives sleeping, arising, and drinking,' _mazzu_ (46 _ite niva vo mo +facaxetari, cusa vo mo ficaxetari iroiro no xigoto vo ategǒte cosó +mairǒzure_ [... _coso_ ...] (10v) 'I shall go and sweep out the courtyard +(_atrium_), pull up the weeds, and then having dispensed with these things +I shall go,' _ima cono io fuqe iuqeba nome ia, utaie ia fito bito motçu, +utǒtçu sacamori suru_ (129) 'when it already is late at {153} night, urging +themselves on to drink and sing, the men enjoy themselves dancing and +singing.' + +The particle _ie_, which is the root of the verb _ie iuru_ [_ie:uru_][132] +'I can,' signifies, when placed before negative verbs, that the action +expressed by the verb cannot be done; e.g., _ie iomanu_ 'I cannot read.' +This particle is also placed after the infinitive; e.g., _iomanu coto vo +ienu_ 'I cannot read.' _Iomi va ieide_, or _iomi mo ieide_ 'since I could +not read, or not being able to read' is also said. The infinitive sometimes +acts as a substitute verb (_suppositum verbum_); e.g., _xinuru coto va +vosoroxij_ 'it is terrible to die.' + +The particle _tai_ 'I want' is added to the roots of verbs and signifies +the desire to do the thing indicated by the verb; e.g., _mizzu vo nomi +tai_[133] 'I want to drink some water,' _mizzu vo nomi tó gozaru_ or _mizzu +vo nomi tó zonzuru_, but these last two forms are more noble. Here is an +example of the noble form in the negative, _tǒ mo nai_; e.g., _mizzu vo +nomi tǒ mo nai_ 'I do not want to drink water,' and _mizzu vo nomi tǒ mo +gozaranu_. _Mairu tó mo zonjenu_ means 'I do not want to go.' When the +particle _tai_ is added to adjectives, or verbs indicating a sensory act +(_actionem sensitiuam_) in the first person,[134] the _i_ is changed to +_c_; and the verb _ari,u_ is added and conjugated in the tense required by +the sentence; e.g., _cuitacatta_ 'I wanted to eat.' If the verb is in the +second or third person, the _i_ is changed to _g_ and again the verb +_ari,u_ is added, or an honorific particle depending upon what the person +deserves, or without it as an absolute form. But if the person is inferior, +the _i_ is changed to _c_ as said before. + +The particle _de_ sometimes gives a subjunctive sense when it is added to +nouns; e.g., _varãbe de xinda_ 'he died a child, or when he was a child,' +_vare ga buchófó de tofó mo gozanai_ (163v)[135] [... _buchôfó_ ...] 'since +I am clumsy and not careful, nothing will work out in a way that will be +harmonious.' + +The particle _ió_ 'way' is added to the roots of verbs and also to the +{154} verbs themselves. When the root governs the genitive, the verb +governs the same case; e.g., _cono qiǒ no iomi ió va_ 'the way of (47 +reading this book,' or _cono qió vo iomu iǒ va_. In the first sentence +_qiǒ_ is in the genitive with the particle _no_; in the second sentence it +is in the accusative with _vo_ because _yomu_ governs this case. _Tei_ +signifies an extraordinary and marvelous way of doing something; e.g., +_machicanuru tei vo goron jerarei_ (122)[136] 'might your Lordship observe +the way that they are expectant.' Also, _arisama_ means 'way,' _me mo +aterarenu arisama gia_ 'it is a way, or a form (_figura_), which is unable +to be seen.' + +_Sama_ indicates the time of the action of the verb to which it is added +while governing the case required by the verb. It is added to the root of +the verb; e.g., _saqe vo nomi sama ni_ (105) 'when he actually drank the +wine,' _iado ie caieri sama ni_ (105) 'when he returned home,' _fune iori +agari sama ni_ (105) 'when he actually disembarked from the ship,' _fune ni +nori sama ni_ 'when he actually boarded the ship.' + +When there are in a sentence two verbs whose actions form a single action, +the first verb is put into the form of the gerund in _Do_; e.g., _mizzu vo +motte coi_ 'bring some water, or come bringing water,' _fune vo voite coi_ +'bring the boat here, or come poling the boat,' _core vo totte iqe_ 'take +this, or carry this and go.' + +The gerund in _Do_ when added to verbs of asking, giving, or doing, means +that one is asking to know or to acquire the thing which is indicated by +the verb to which it is added; e.g., _nifon guchi vo voxiiete cure io_ +'teach me Japanese,' _sǒ voxerarete cudasaruru na_ [_sǒ vôxerarete_ ...] +'your Lordship ought not say that,' _Deus no coto vo catatte tamǒre_ 'do me +the favor of relating to me those things which pertain to God.' + +The particle _mo_ placed after the gerund in _Do_, whether it ends in _te_ +or _de_, means 'although'; e.g., _sǒ mǒxite mo_ 'although you say so,' _ica +fodo susumete mo, corobu mai_ 'no matter how much you try to persuade me, I +will not deny the faith.' They also use _sǒ mǒxeba atte mo_ 'even if you +say that,' _dǒxitemo cǒxitemo_ (134v) 'what ever you do.' + +If the particle _coso_ (see above) is added to the affirmative gerund in +_Do_; and, if the sentence ends in this particle, the sentence becomes +{155} negative; e.g., _mite coso_ 'I did not see anything,' _atte coso_ +'there is no way.' But if the sentence does not end in _coso_, it becomes +affirmative (48 and emphatic; e.g., _mite coso gozare_ (116) 'I certainly +saw.' The verb ends in _e_ according to the rule explained above when the +particle _coso_ was being discussed. + +When the negative gerund in _Do_, which ends in _e_, is followed by _va_, +_naranu_, or _canavanu_ it expresses necessity or the impossibility of the +contrary; e.g., _mairaide canavanu_ (106v)[137] 'it is necessary to go,' +_ivaide va no coto naredomo, nanto xô ca?_ 'and if the thing which is said +to be necessary happens, what shall I do?' _xitagavaide naranu_ 'it is +necessary to obey.' The same meaning, but with less strength, is obtained +with the future of the affirmative or negative infinitive and the +permissive subjunctive in _domo_; e.g., _mairǒ coto de gozatta redomo_ +(18)[138] 'although I should have gone,' _mairu mai queredomo_ [... +_qeredomo_] (18)[139] 'although I should not be going,' _mairǒ coto de +gozanacatta redomo_ (18) 'although I did not have to go.' They also use the +negative gerund in _Do_ to obtain the meaning of 'if not'; e.g., _òracio vo +mǒsaide cú na_ 'do not eat unless you have said your prayers.' + +The gerund in _e_ indicates an action already done; e.g., _mexi cúte coi_ +'come after eating!' _cono qió ga caite gozaru_ 'this book was written,' +_chichi ni fumi vo cacaide cuiaxiú gozaru_ [... _cuiaxú_ ...] 'I am ashamed +that I did not send a letter to your father,' _cono qió ga caite gozaranu_ +'this book was not written.' + +The particle _nagara_, when added to the root of a verb, forms a gerund in +_Do_ if it is followed by a verb indicating a repugnant or contrary action; +e.g., _toganin Deus iori bacutai no go von, o uqetatematçuri nagara; +caietta somuqi tatematçuru_ [... _go von vo uqe_ ...][140] 'sinners +receiving, or even if sinners receive, benefits from God, they will offend +him rather than be grateful,' _Jesu Cristo Deus de gozari nagara, fito ni +taixite cruz ni cacaraxerareta_ 'while Jesus Christ was a God, he was +crucified for man.' _Nagara_ is also added to nouns; e.g., _quantai nagara_ +(136v) 'although there was some lack of education,' _sannin nagara_ (137) +'three at the same time, or even if there are three' _aqiraca_ {156} +_nagara_ (136v) 'although he is famous.' In this instance _aqiraca na_ +loses its _na_ as do all the other adjectives that end in _na_. + +The particle _iasui_ is added to the roots of active and passive verbs to +form the supine in _Tu_; e.g., _iomi iasui_ 'easy to read,' _corosare +iasui_ 'easy to be killed.' The same thing is achieved by the following way +of speaking; _iúte va vosoroxij_ 'it is terrible to say,' _mite va_ (49 +_fuxiguina_ 'it is admirable to see,' _iú vo mo vosoroxij_ 'it is terrible +to say.' + +The Adverbs + +_First Section_[141] + +Adverbs are formed from adjectives ending in _ai_ by changing the _ai_ to +_ó_; e.g., _fucó_ 'deeply,' for those ending in _oi_ by changing the _oi_ +to _ô_; e.g., _caxico_ [_caxicô_] 'wisely,' for those ending in _ei_ by +changing the _ei_ to _eô_; e.g., _xigueo_ [_xigueô_] 'densely,' for those +ending in _ui_ by changing the _ui_ to _ú_; e.g., _aiǔ_ 'in danger,' and +for those ending in _ij_ by changing the _ij_ to _iú_; e.g., _cavaiú_ +'unhappily.' + +_Adverbs of Place_[142] + +The interrogative pronouns are eight in number; _izzucu_[?], _izzucata_[?], +_donata_[?], _doco?_, _dochi?_, _dochira?_, _dono tocoro_[?], and _dono +fǒ?_, and they signify 'which place?' To these adverbs are added the +particles _va_, _no_, _ni_, _ie_, _vo_, _cara_, and _iori_ according to the +case required, such as 'from where,' 'whither,' 'through which place,' 'in +what place,' etc. _Made_ can also be added to them with the meaning of 'to +the limit of which'; _doco made ie iqó ca_[?] 'up to where will you go?' +The interrogative particle, _ca?_ or _zo_[?], is added to these questions +but it is better to use _zo_ rather than _ca_ in sentences with an +interrogative particle; e.g., _izzuru ie maitta zo_ 'where did you go,' +_dono tocoro vo tovotta zo_ 'at which place did you cross,' _doco iori itta +zo_ 'through where did he enter,' _dochi cara qita zo?_ 'from where did he +come?', {157} _donata va Pedro no iado zo_[?] 'which is Peter's house?', +_doco ni voru zo_[?] 'where, or in what place is he?' One may respond in +many ways; _cono tocoro_, _coto moto_, [_coco moto_], _core_, _conata_, +_cochi_, _cochira_, _coco_, _cocora_, _cono cata_, _cono fǒ_, which mean +'here (_hic_)'; _sono tocoro_, _soco moto_, _sore_, _sonata_, _sochi_, +_sochira_, _soco_, _socora_, _sono cata_, _sono fǒ_ (50 which mean 'there +(_istic_)'; _ano tocoro_, _asoco moto_, _are_, _anata_, _achi_, _achira_, +_asoco_, _asocora_, _ano cata_, _anofó_, which mean 'there (_illic_).' To +these particles are added the case particles. The interrogative adverbs +with the case particles and _mo_ added mean 'everywhere,' 'through every +place,' or 'to every place,' e.g., _dono tocoro ie mo tovorǒ_ 'I shall go +everywhere,' _doco ni mo_ 'everywhere,' _doco cara mo_ 'from everywhere.' +However, if, instead of _mo_, _nari tomo_ is added the meaning becomes 'any +place,' in a distributive sense; e.g., _doco ie nari tomo mairǒ_ 'I shall +go to each place individually.' The same meaning is obtained by _doco zo_ +with the case particles placed between the _doco_ and the _zo_; e.g., _doco +ni zo aru fodo ni_ 'if someone is any place.' _Coco caxico_ means 'here and +there.' _Doco mo caxico mo_ means 'the whole place.' The case particles are +placed before _mo_; e.g., _doco ni mo caxico ni mo_ 'in the whole place,' +but after the adverb; e.g., _coco caxico ni_ 'here and there,' _coco caxico +ie doco_, _caxico iori_ [_coco caxico ie_ 'to here and there,' _coco caxico +iori_ 'from here and there'], etc.[143] + +The particle _uie_ means 'above.' The genitive case is placed before it; +e.g., _fandai no uie ni voqe_ 'place it on the table,' _cono uie va gozaru +mai_ 'it will not be above this,' that is to say 'it will not be better +than this,' _sono uie ni_ 'about that,' _sono uie no sata vo catari are_ +'tell me about that,' _core va izzure iori mo uie de gozaru_ 'one will not +discover anything better than his,' that is to say 'this is the best.' +_Xita_ means 'below.' It governs the genitive; e.g., _fandai no xita ni +voqe_ 'place it under the table,' _micotoba no xita iori_ (141v) 'when the +king finishes speaking,' _voxita vo cudasarei_ (141v) 'would your Lordship +be so kind as to give to me that which remains of your drink.' + +The particle _soba_ means 'side' and governs the genitive; e.g., _fito no +soba vo fanaruru_ 'he separates himself from the side of another.' + +The particle _maie_ means 'before' and governs the genitive; e.g., _fito no +maie vo tovoru_ 'I pass in front of someone else,' _cacugo no maie_ {158} +(141v) 'according to ones disposition,' _funbet no maie_ (141v) 'as I +believe, or think, or according to the sense (_iuxta sensum_).' + +The particle _mavari_ means 'around' and governs the genitive; e.g., +_iglesia no mavari ni tçuchi vo nague sutçuru na_ 'do not put earth around +the church.' + +The particle _uchi_ means 'within,' and the noun which precedes it must be +in the genitive; e.g., _iglesia no uchi_ 'in the church,' _ano fito va, +fito no uchi de va nai_ 'that man is not among men,' that is (51 to say 'he +is not a man,' _futacuchi cúta coto va, cúta uchi de va nai_ (142v)[144] +'to eat two mouthfuls is not to eat.' + +The particle _foca_ means 'outside,' and the genitive is placed before it; +e.g., _igelsia no foca ni_ 'outside the church,' _foca ie iqe_ 'go out, or +go outside.' Sometimes the genitive particle is replaced by _iori_; e.g., +_Deus vonago ichinin iori foca tçucuri tamavanu_ (142v)[145] 'God did not +create but one woman,' that is to say 'he created just one,' _Tengu fito ni +acu vo susumuru iori foca va, nai_ (142v) 'the Devil does nothing if he is +not persuaded by man to sin,' _goxǒ vo tasucaru tame baptismo vo sazzucaru +iori foca bechi no michi ga nai_ 'there is no other way to save men than by +baptism,' that is to say 'without baptism we cannot be saved.' _Deus no +gracia iori foca_ 'without the grace of God.' + +The particle _naca_ means 'in the middle.' It is used when the material is +either dense or defuse; e.g., _qi no naca ni_ 'in the wood,' _fito no naca +ni_ 'among the men.' + +The particle _nacaba_ means 'in the midst of things' when referring to a +sequence. It follows the genitive; e.g., _dangui no nacaba ni_ 'in the +midst of the sermon,' _sore vo qijte, nacaba va vosore; nacaba va aqirete +ita_ (145v) 'hearing that, he feared and was afraid,' that is to say 'he +spent most of his time being afraid.' + +The particle _ato_ means 'behind' and governs the genitive; e.g., _sonata +no ato cara mairǒ_ 'I shall come after you' that is to say 'I shall follow +you.' + +The particle _vaqi_ means 'near' and governs the genitive; e.g., _Pedro no +vaqi_ 'near Peter,' _misa no vaqi_ 'the mass is ended,' _cono vaqi_ 'in the +last few days.' All of these adverbs require after them the cases that are +required by the verb which follows. + +{159} + +_Adverbs of Interrogation and Response_[146] + +There are many ways to ask 'why?' or 'for what reason[?]'; e.g., +_najeni_[?], _najoni_[?], _nani xini?_, _nani tote ca?_, _nani no iuie +ni?_, _nanto xita coto ni?_, _nani no xisai ni iotte?_. The question 'how?' +is said; _nanto xite?_, _nanto iǒ ni_[?], _icani to xite?_ The answer is +'because' or 'for the reason that'; e.g., _sono iuie va_, _najeni to iúni_. +'Because' is also said; _tocoro de_, _fodo ni_, _ni iotte_, or _sacai ni_. +The first expresses (52 the greatest degree of causality, the second not so +much, and the third the least. + +_Uie va_ means 'since (_cum_ or _si quidem_)'; e.g., _toganai uie va +qizzucai ga nai_ (40v)[147] 'I am not afraid because I have no fault.' The +same meaning is achieved by the particle _cara_; e.g., _caiǒ ni iro vo +misuru cara va; cacusu coto va iranu_ 'since you have thus shown your +feelings (_iro_), you can't hide them.' 'Since (_si quidem_)' means +approximately the same as _toqi va_ and _xicaru toqi va_. _Sari nagara_ +means 'but,' _sari tote va_ means 'until,' _saru tote va_ means 'since the +thing is this way,' _saru tote va, qicoienu coto gia_ 'since it is so, it +is unbearable.' + +_Adverbs of Time_[148] + +One asks 'when' with _itçu_ or _itçugoro_. One asks 'from what day' with +_icca saqi_ or _icca maie_, 'from what month' with _icutçuqi saqi_, and +'from what year' with _nannen maie_. Usually _ni_ is added when it is +required by the verb, and the interrogatives _ca_ or _zo_ are always put at +the end of the sentence, with _zo_ preferred. + +One answers 'now' with _ima_ or _tada ima_, and 'already' with _mǒ_, e.g., +_mǒ iqe_ 'be already gone!' 'Sometimes' is said with _toqi ni iotte_ or +_jibun ni iotte_. 'Afterwards' is _nochi_. _Sore cara_ or _sore iori_ means +'after that,' _core cara_ or _core iori_ means 'after this,' and _are iori_ +or _are cara_ means 'after that.' 'Immediately' is said with _iagate_. +'Afterwards' or 'again' is _ima iori nochi_, _ima iori xite va_, or _ima +iori igo_. 'This morning' is said with _qesa_. _Connichi_ or _qio_ [_qiô_] +is 'today,' and _asu_ or _miônichi_ [_miónichi_][149] is 'tomorrow.' +'Tomorrow morning' is _asa_, _axitatô_, or {160} _asatocu_, and 'tomorrow +night' is _mionia_ [_miǒia_]. 'Before' is _ijen_ or _saqi ni_. 'Yesterday' +is _qinô_ or _sacujit_. 'The day before yesterday' is _vototoi_ or _futçuca +saqi ni_. 'Several days in the past' is _cono giǔ_. _Cono fodo_ and +_xenjit_ have the same meaning, as does _xendo_. _Condo_ means 'several +days in the future.' 'The day after tomorrow' is _asatte_ or _miógonichi_. +'Three days hence' is _xiasatte_ or _miómiógonichi_. _Qiônen_ [_Qionen_] or +_cozo_ means 'last year.' 'This year' is _cotoxi_. 'Two years ago' is +_vototoxi_ or _votodoxi_. 'Three years ago' is _sanuruvotodoxi_ [_sannuru +votodoxi_].[150] 'Immediately' is _tachimaqi_ [_tachimachi_] (53 or _socuij +ni_ [_socuji ni_]. _Sunavachi_ is also 'immediately.' _Tanteqi_ is 'in a +moment.' + +_Itçumade?_ means 'until when?' _Itçumademo_ means 'always.' _Itçu cara_ +means 'after what time.' _Itçu iori_ means 'from what time.' + +_Adverbs of Negation_[151] + +_Iia_ or _iia_ [_iia iia_][152] means 'not.' _Só devanai_ means 'it is not +so.' _Iccana_ or _iccanagueni_ means 'by no means,' _iume iume_ means 'not +even in a dream,' _sarani_, _ichiien_, _catçute_, or _catçute motte_ means +'in no way,' and _io_, _iomo_, or _iomo iomo_ means 'without thinking'; +e.g., _catçute mairu mai_ 'in no way shall I come,' _iomo só va gozaru mai_ +(117v) 'it will in no way come to mind why it will be so.' When affirmative +verbs are added to these adverbs they become negative; e.g., _iomo iomo to +mǒxitareba vo mairi atta_ (117v) 'although you said you would not go, you +went,' _io mairó_ 'in no way shall I go.' + +_Adverbs of Affirmation_[153] + +_Nacanaca_ means 'it is so,' _vó_ means 'so,' when one agrees. _Gueni_ or +_gueni gueni_ means 'it is thus'; e.g., _gueni gueni só mo aró_ 'without +doubt the situation is thus.' _Chódo_ means 'at all.' _Saiǒni_, _sono bun_, +_sono gotoqu_, _sǒ de gozaru_, _sore sore_, _massǒ gia_, or _xicato_ means +'it is so.' _Mottomo_ means that something is reasonably said. _Guioi no +gotoqu_ means 'as your Lordship believes, or says.' _Mochiron_ indicates +that a thing does not come in to doubt or discussion. _Nacanaca naru_ {161} +_coto de gozaranu_ means 'truly it is not possible.' _Nacanaca no coto_ +indicates a thing with which it is possible to agree. _Macotoni_ means +'truly,' as does _xinjit_ or _xinjitni_. _Xeimon_ means 'I affirm by oath.' +_Isasaca_ or _isasaca motte_ means 'not even a little,' and _issai_ or +_ixxet_ means 'in no way, or by no means,' and when these particles are +added to the affirmative they mean 'truly.' + +(54 + +_Comparative Adverbs_[154] + +_Iori_, _iori mo_, and _iori mo navo_ mean 'more' in a comparison. The +person compared is in the nominative case and the person to whom he is +compared is in the ablative with one of the particles which we have listed +above; e.g., _Pedro va juan iori mo gacuxó de gozaru_ 'Peter is wiser than +John,' _soco ie noboru iori va; mairanu ga maxi gia_ 'it is better not to +go than to climb up there.' _Gotoqu_, _mama_, and _iǒni_ are adverbs of +similitude (_adverbia similitudinis_) and require the genitive for the +thing with which the comparison is made. If the particle is preceded by a +verb, no genitive is required; e.g., _no iama ie nari tomo qitai mama ni +qite, nurureba, nugui suteraruru_ (124v) 'if they were to go to the +mountains or the plains wearing such clothes as they want to wear, they +will have to take them off when they become wet on account of the water.' +_Vomô mama ni, vomô gotoqu_, and _vomô iǒni_, mean 'as I think,' _cono mi +no mama ni_ 'according to his desires, or his pleasure.' _Fodo_ means 'to +such a degree as (_tantum_),' or 'just as (_quasi_)'; e.g., _qifen ano fito +fodo no gacuxó de gozaru_[155] 'you are as wise as he,' _fara ga cudaru +fodo ioi_ 'he will recover as soon as he has a bowel movement,' _michi vo +aruqu fodo cutabiruru_ (123v) 'as I walk so I get tired,' _acai fodo ioi_ +'the redder the better,' _xinuru fodo no vazzurai de va nai_ 'this disease +is not strong enough to cause death,' _fune ni mesaruru fodo naraba vare mo +norózu_ (124) 'if Your Lordship would take up the task of boarding the +ship, so shall I,' _tamexi mo nai fodo ni atta to mǒsu_ (124v) 'they say it +was as if it had never been,' _voquru fodo araba sore ie mairǒzu_ (124) 'if +I am able to arrive at the state where I can get up from bed, I shall come +to you,' _chicara no fodo vo mite_ 'seeing the degree of his strength,' +_fodo nó tçuita_ 'he arrived in {162} an instant,' _core fodo_ 'as this,' +_sore fodo_ 'as that,' _are fodo_ 'as that,' _vovoi fodo_ 'while more,' +_sucunai fodo_ 'while less.' + +(55 + +_Superlative Adverbs_[156] + +_Uie_ means 'the highest'; e.g., _christian no voxiie va izzure iori mo uie +de gozaru_ 'the doctrine and faith of Christianity are supreme, or above +all,' _cono saqe no uie va nai_ 'there is no better wine than that.' _Ichi_ +or _daiichi_ means 'supreme, or unique'; e.g., _gacuxǒ no uchi ni Sancto +Thomas daiichi de gozatta_ 'among wise men Saint Thomas was the best,' +_core va are iori uie_ 'this is superior to that.' The particle _xita_ has +the opposite meaning of 'inferior, or the lowest'; e.g., _xiqitai va anima +iori xita de gozaru_ (141) 'the body is inferior to the soul.' + +_Adverbs of Intensity and Exaggeration_[157] + +_Ichidan_, _chicagoro_, and _iccǒ_ mean 'intensely (_valde_)'; e.g., +_chicagoro no vo cocoro gaqe de gozaru_ 'this is the greatest care and +diligence,' _sore va icco varui coto gia_ 'this is extremely bad.' +_Bexxite_ means 'chiefly,' _tori vaqe_ means 'especially,' _coto no foca_ +means 'rarely, or extraordinarily,' _icanimo_ means 'intensely,' and +_amarini_ means 'too much.' As has been said, adverbs are formed from +adjectives according to the rules above, and these adverbs mean adverbially +what the adjectives mean adjectivally; e.g., _fucai_ means 'deep,' and +_fucó_ means 'deeply.' _Icani mo xizzucani_ means 'extremely quietly,' +_tani coto ni_ means 'extraordinarily,' and _xitatacani_ or _guiósanni_ +means 'in a way that is to be feared' that is to say 'too much.' See the +dictionary.[158] + +_Accumulative Adverbs_[159] + +_Voxinabete_ means 'universally'; _sôbet_ means 'generally,' as do +_tçuneni_ and _sojite_ [_sôjite_]; _feijeini_ means 'regularly'; and +_voioso_, _tabun_, _vocata_, _ioppodoni_ mean 'for the most part,' and +_qeccu_ or _caiette_ (56 means 'after all.' _Tennen_ means 'perhaps,' as do +_xijen_ and _icasama_. _Sadamete_ means 'probably,' _canarazu_ means +'without doubt,' _moxi xijien_ [_moxi xijen_] means 'perhaps,' _xǒtocu_ +means 'naturally,' _jinen_ {163} means 'by chance,' _xidai vidai ni_ or +_jen jen ni_ means 'gradually,' and _vonozzucara_ means 'by oneself.' + +_Adverbs that Conclude and Claim Attention_[160] + +_Ficqiǒ_ and _tçuini_ mean 'finally, or in conclusion.' _Tçugǒ_ means 'in +summary.' _Nǒ nǒ_ means 'is it not so?' e.g., _nǒ nǒ icani qicaxeruru ca?_ +'do you hear me then?' _Moxi_[161] means 'ho there (_heus_),' but it is an +elegant word; e.g., _moxi Padre sama_ 'ho there, Reverend Father.' _Iare_ +also means 'ho there,' but with inferiors; e.g., _iare tarǒ quaja to iieba_ +'saying "Ho there, Tarōkaja."' _Iai_ means 'ho there' with very low people; +e.g., _iai sochi ga motta mono va nani zo?_ 'hey! what is it that you +bring?' _Ia_ has the same meaning; e.g., _ia vo tono bara domo va nani vo +savagu zo?_ (128) 'hey! you soldiers and good men, why do you quarrel?' The +particle _ai_ has the same meaning but it is placed after the sentence; +e.g., _izzure mo mina qiqe ai_ (129) 'hey! all of you listen.' + +The particles _ca_ and _zo_, as has been said above, are used as +interrogatives. The particles _ia_ and _caia_ have the same function but +they are more humble; e.g., _are va tare caia?_ 'who is he?', _core ia_[?] +'this?', _io fuqete tare ca va tazzuneô zo?_ (89v) 'when it becomes late at +night, who will be able to visit?', _sore de arǒ ca to iú coto gia_ 'I +said, "will it be this?"' + +_No?_ asks for agreement; e.g., _gozarǒ ca no?_ 'will he come?'[162] _mairǒ +to voxerareta no?_ [... _vôxerareta no?_] 'did he say that he will come?' +_no Pedro dono?_ 'isn't that so, Peter?' _Na_[?] means the same thing, but +it is used with inferiors; e.g., _sǒ qiita na?_ 'didn't you hear so?' +Sometimes, in a sentence containing _zo_, _baxi_, which is a dubitive +particle (_particula dubitandi_), is placed; e.g., _nanto xita xisai de +baxi gozaru zo?_ (122v)[163] 'for what reason did this happen?', _sate +nanto iú voqiacu de baxi gozaru zo_[?] (123) 'what is the name of your +guest?', _goiô baxi gozaru ca?_ 'isn't there something of use to you?' + +_Io_ and _zo_ strengthen or give cadence to the sentence; e.g., _caita zo_ +{164} 'he truly wrote,' _maitta io_ 'he certainly came,' _sono toqi vare_ +(57 _va ichi dan varui tçucai vo xiraruite gozaru io_ [... _siaruite_ ...] +(95) 'at that time I was following bad advice.' _Bacari_ means 'only, or in +only one way,' _sore ni caguitte_ means 'that only,' _core ni caguirazu_ +'not only this.' _Bacari_ also means 'more or less'; e.g., _fiacu bacari_ +'there were a hundred,' _fiacunin bacari corosareta_ 'about one hundred men +were killed.' _Nó_, _nóte_, _naqu xite_, and _naqute_ mean 'without'; e.g., +_raxxi mo nó_ 'without reason or order,' _cacugo nó_ 'without any +preparation.' + +The adverbs of sound (_adverbia sonus_) are many and vary in accordance +with the way that the Japanese perceive the sound. The particle _to_ is +added to them; e.g., _va va to xite_ 'vociferously saying _wa wa_,' and if +they add _meqi,u_, it means to make even a louder noise; e.g., _va meqi,u_ +'to shout saying _wa_.' + +_The Case Prepositions_[164] + +_Tame_ or _ni_ means 'concerning';[165] e.g., _sonata no tame_ 'for you +(_tibi_).' It governs the genitive which precedes it; _nan no tame_ 'for +what,' _nani ni naru ca?_ 'for what is it?', _nani ni xô ca?_ 'what do you +do that for?', _nani no iô ni tatçu ca?_ (171v) 'for what is it needed, or +useful?', _maitte no iô va?_ (130) 'what's the use of going?' + +_Tai xite_ means 'on account of' or 'against'; e.g., _tengu ni tai xite +teqito_ 'to fight against the devil, or resist him,' _Deus ni tai xite +cuguio vo coraiuru_ 'I endure the pain (_labor_) because of God.' _Uie +iori_ also means 'because'; e.g., _von jifi no uie iori_ (167) 'because of +his mercy.' + +_Ni iotte_ signifies the reason for which; e.g., _Deus iori fito no jento +acu ni iotte go fempô vo ataiesaxerareozu_ [... _ataiesaxerareôzu_] (146v) +'God gives to man according to his virtues and vices.' This form is derived +from the verb _iori,u_. + +_Ni tçuite_ means 'around, or about' and is derived from the verb +_tçuqi,u_; e.g., _core ni tçuite_, _core ni tçuqi_, or _core ni tçuqete_ +means 'about that.' _Sono gui ni voite va zonjenu_ (120) 'I do not know +anything about this matter,' _Vôxe va mottomo naredomo vagami ni totte va +canai gatai_ (120) 'Your Lordship speaks well but what concerns me is that +(58 {165} it is difficult to do.' _Dai quan ni itatte va ichinin bacari +sadame io_ (120)[166] 'decide that which concerns the steward only.' +_Itatte_ and _totte_[167] are the gerunds of verbs just as the preceding. +They also say _Padre coto va_ 'the things belonging to the priest,' _varera +coto va_ 'about my things, or those things which belong to me.' _Xitagatte_ +or _xitagǒte_ means 'near' and is the gerund of the verb _xitagari,u_ or +_xitagai,ó_. As with the other verbs it governs the dative case; e.g., +_guioi ni xitagatte_ or _xitagǒte_ 'according to Your Lordship's +understanding.' _Xidai_ has the same meaning; e.g., _conata xidai_ +'according to your wishes.' Sometimes it is added to the roots of verbs; +e.g., _mairi xidai_ 'according to when he comes, or according to his +coming.' + +_Ni_ indicates the place in which. _Ni voite_ has the same meaning but +indicates permanence; e.g., _fatto va fuximi ni voite vôxeidasareta_ 'he +established the law while he was in Fushimi,' _Bungo funai ni itatte_ 'in +the city of Funai in the kingdom of Bungo,' _iglesia ni uoru_ 'he is in +church.' + +_De_ indicates the place of an action; e.g., _michi de Pedro ni vǒta_ 'I +met Peter in the street.' The same particle _de_, together with _vo motte_, +indicate the instrument with which an action is done; e.g., _bo vo motte +Pedro vo uchi coroita_ 'he killed Peter with a stick,' _Padre sama +catarareta de navo qicoieta_ 'from what the Reverend Father told me, it +became easier to understand,' _necqi de xinda_ 'he died of a fever.' + +_Cara_ or _iori_ indicate the place from which; e.g., _iglesia cara_ 'from +church.' They also say _fune cara maitta_ 'he came by ship' and _cachi cara +maitta_ 'he came on foot.' _Fune de maitta_ is the same as _fune cara +maitta_ and _fune ni notte maitta_. _Fana cara me cara miguruxij mono gia_ +'it is unpleasant to the nose and the eyes.' _Iori_ indicates the place +through which; e.g., _sama iori faitta_ 'he entered through the window.' + +_Tomo ni_ means 'at the same time'; e.g., _sonata to tomo ni mairǒzu_ I +shall go at the same time as you,' _mǒsu to tomo ni_ 'at the same time as +he spoke.' + +_Ie_ indicates the place to which; e.g., _achi ie mairǒ_ 'I shall go +directly to court (_curia_),' _miiaco no cata ie noboru_ 'he went up to +court' and also _miiaco no fǒ ie noboru_. They also say _miiaco no iori_, +{166} _miiaco sama_, or _miiaco no gotoqu noboru_, but this is not a good +way of speaking and is more characteristic of a rustic (_rusticus_). + +_De_ indicates the material from which; e.g., _tçuchi de cavara_ (59 _vo +tçuquru_ 'to make bricks out of earth or mud,' _nande core vo tçuquru ca?_ +'from what is this made?' + +_Uie_ means 'concerning'; e.g., _zuibun codomo no uie vo fito ni mo naxi +marasuru iǒni to cocoro gaqe marasuru_ 'with great diligence I took care of +my sons so as to make them men.' _Sonata no fiquan no vo saiban mesare io_ +[... _no uie vo_ ...] (141) 'take care of your servants.' + +_Made_ means 'until'; _asu made_ 'until morning,' _inochi vo uxinǒ made aru +mai_ 'he will not lose his life, or he will not arrive at the loss of his +life,' _sore made vomoi mo ioranu gui gia_ 'it will not come to my mind,' +_cocoro zaxi areba canavanu made mo xei vo iruru_ 'when something is wished +for, one uses his strength up to the point of impossibility,' _mǒsu made mo +nai_ 'it is not necessary to say,' _cono tocoro made maitta_ 'I came to +this place.' + +_Conjunction and Separation_[168] + +_To_ means 'and'; e.g., _Pedro to juan to Nagasaqi ie ita_ 'Peter and John +went to Nagasaki,' _core to, are to vo toru_ 'I take this and that.' _Mo_ +has the same meaning; e.g., _Pedro mo juan mo Nagasaqi cara modotta_ 'Peter +and John returned from Nagasaki,' _naqu mono mo ari, varó mono mo aru_ +'there are those who cry and those who laugh. _Mo_ is often placed before +negative verbs; e.g., _nanigoto mo gazaranu ca?_ 'is that not something +new?' + +_Mata_ means 'and,' whether it is found between nouns or verbs. _Ca_ means +'or'; e.g., _Pedro ca; juan ca coi to iie_ 'tell Peter or John to come.' +_Arui va_ also means 'or'; e.g., _arui va Pedro, arui va juan_ 'either +Peter or John,' _arui va iomu, arui va caqu_ 'I either read or write.' +_Moxi va_ means 'if in fact,' and it is used in the middle of a sentence; +e.g., _moxi va cane ga nai naraba_ 'if in fact you were to have no money.' + +_Mata va_ is used to bind the sentences more tightly together (_ad +orationem contexturam_). It means 'besides that, or besides'; e.g., (60 +_arui va iamai ga vocoru ca, mata va isogui no fumi qitaru ca etc._ [... +_ca_, etc.] (135) 'either some sickness occurs, or besides that some urgent +letter arrives.' + +{167} + +_Xicareba_ means 'since things are this way,' _sari nagara_ means 'but,' +_sǒ aru tocoro de_ means 'since it is thus,' _saraba_ means 'since it is +so,' and _sareba sareba_ means 'since then.' _Ca?_ means 'if'; e.g., +_maitta ca mi io_ 'see if he came, or went,' _maitta ca xiranu_ 'I don't +know if he went.' _Iara_ means 'if,' but distributively (_divisive_); e.g., +_fito iara chicuxǒ iara xiranu_ 'I don't know if it's man or beast,' _nani +iara to mǒxita_ 'I wonder what he said.' + +Some disjunctive and emphatic particles are formed from _nanica_ and +_tocacu_ with the addition of other particles; e.g., _nani ia ca ia?_ +'which thing?' The same meaning is expressed by _nani iara ca iara?_ and +_nanto iara cato iara?_ _Nanto xite_, _cato xite_ means 'how,' _nanto mo +cato mo_ means 'in no way,' and _nani mo ca mo_ means 'nothing.' _Nanigoto +mo cagoto mo, mina içtuvari naru zo_ [... _itçuvari_ ...] 'when all is said +and done they are all lies.' _Nani no ca no_, and _nanto xite_, _cato xite_ +are ways to excuse oneself. _Nani no ca no to iúte_ means 'saying this and +that.' _Domo como_ means 'in whatever way it is,' as does _dǒ xite mo cǒ +xite mo_. _Dǒ xite cǒ xite_ means 'doing this and that differently.' _Dǒ xô +cǒ xô_ means 'I shall do this and that.' + +_Tomo cacumo_ means 'all the same,' as do _toni cacuni_, _tonimo cacunimo_, +and _totemo cacutemo_. _Core to ij; care to ij_ means 'saying this and +that, or making excuses.' _Care core_ means 'this and that,' _coco caxico_ +means 'here and there (_hic and illic_).' _Vomoxirô, vocaxu_[169] +[_vomoxirovocaxǔ_] is used when accommodating oneself almost to flattery. + +If the particle _motte_ is added to the particles _catçute_, _isasaca_, +_tomoni_, _nani_, and _nani nani iori_ [... and _nani iori_] it adds +strength and force; e.g., _catçute motte sǒ aru mai_ 'the situation will +not be this way at all.' + +_Interjections_[170] + +_Sate_, _sate sate_, [_satemo_,] and _satemo satemo_ are interjections of +admiration; e.g., _satemo Deus no voqinaru vonjifi cana_ 'oh! great mercy +of God!' + +{168} + +_Avare_ is the interjection for pity; e.g., _avare mutçucaxij io no naca +cana_ 'oh! world replete with misery!' + +_Ha!_[171] is the interjection of penetence; e.g., _ha faxi demo_ (61 +_vomoxiroi ga; tocoro ni iote qicoie canuru_ [... _ni iotte_ ...] (127v) +'ah, the workmanship of the sound and the harmony of the singing is most +graceful, but it is not able to be heard well.' + +_Iara!_ is the interjection for joy and pain; e.g., _iara iara medeta ia_ +(128) 'oh! how much I rejoice.' _Ia_ is also used; e.g., _satemo iiaxii +iatçubara ia_ (129)[172] 'oh! how vile and despicable,' _gongo dǒdan +fuxigui na xisai cana_ (128v) 'oh! how rare and ridiculous a reason.' _Iei_ +is the interjection of wonder; e.g., _iei Padre sama cochi gozaru io_ 'oh! +here is the Reverend Father.' + +_Hat_ is the interjection that indicates that one is repentent; e.g., +_Benqei core vo mite hat coto naxi to zonjite, sono mama niva ni bǒ vo +voraxi,_ etc. (127v) 'Benkei seeing this,' etc.[173] + +_The Syntax and the Cases that are Governed by the Verbs_[174] + +The nominative is placed at the beginning of the sentence and the verb at +the end: the remaining elements are placed according to the cadence +(_cadentia_) of the sentence; e.g., _Pedro va Nagasaqi de xutrai xita iqi +iqi ni tçuite juan vo coroita_ 'Peter killed John because of an argument +that took place in Nagasaki.' In certain sentences of serious import a +substitute verb (_verbum suppositum_) is placed after the verb, but this is +rare; e.g., _tare mo canavanu futari no qimi ni tçucǒru coto va_ (84)[175] +'no one can serve two masters.' In this sentence the substitute verb is +_tçucǒru coto va_. _Core ni iote tanomi tatematçuru itçumo virgen_ [_Core +ni iotte_ ...] (84) 'therefore I pray to the ever virgin [Mary].' + +Clauses (_orationes_) in the absolute or permissive subjunctive, +infinitive, conditional, and causative are always placed before clauses +that are in the indicative or imperative, even if it does not make sense +{169} in Latin or any other European language; e.g., _achi cara tomeraruru +tomo; tomaru na_ 'do not stay, even if they want you to remain,' _sore vo +qiitareba, fara vo tatete modotta_ 'when he heard that, he came back very +angry,' _taxicani uqetamotta ni iotte coso, móxi ague maraxitare_ 'I +listened carefully, and then I spoke,' _faiǒ gozatta raba vo mexi vo xinjô +mono vo_ 'if you had come earlier, I would have offered you food.' + +When there are two verbs in the same sentence, the first will (62 be in the +gerund form and the other will be in the tense that is required by the +sense of the sentence; e.g., _core vo totte giqi ni mi ga comono ni vataxe_ +'take this and give it to my servant at once.' + +When there are two or more clauses which have the same subject or tense, +only the last verb will be in the tense that is required by the sense of +the sentence. The other verbs will be in the root form, while still others +will be in the gerund in _e_ form; e.g., _tovazunba cotaiezu, voxe raba +tçuxxinde qiqi_ [_tovazũba_ ... _vôxe_ ... _qiqe_] (85v)[176] 'if they +don't ask don't answer: if they speak listen carefully,' _Deus no vo coto +vo macoto ni uqe, go voqite mo camavaide, sono mama inferno ni vochita_ 'he +did not believe in God, and he did not respect His precepts; therefore, he +fell into Hell.' + +Verbs are always placed in the third person to indicate honor. No one +honors himself except the king when he is speaking of himself; e.g., +_iorocobi ni voboximesu_ 'I am enjoying it very much.' + +When there are many adjectives in a sentence, they will all be in the +adverbial form except the last; e.g., _qe nangǒ, iro curô, icanimo +utçucuxij mono_ [_qe nagǒ_ ...][177] 'a very beautiful person with long, +black hair.' + +The particle _to_ is placed before verbs of understanding, believing, and +hearing, takes the place of the verb 'to be,' and means 'that'; _fito to +zonjita_ 'I thought, or believed that he was a man,' _qixó vo jennin to +vomovô ca?_ [_qixo_ ... _vomovǒ ca?_] 'shall I believe that you are a +saint?' _Amata no fito xini no fonovo ni moiuru vo misaxerareô_ (20)[178] +'you {170} will see many men burning in the flames of indignation.' Here +one has replaced _to_ with _moiuru vo_, which is a substitute verb. When +_mo_ is added to _to_ it strongly affirms what is said; e.g., _mairó to mo_ +'I shall certainly go, or I will be going.' + +The particle _to_, in the first meaning, is sometimes replaced by _iǒni_; +e.g., _agueta iǒni gozaru_ 'they say that he offered it,' _ica iǒna fito to +va xiranu_ 'I did not know what kind of a man he was.' Sometimes the +substantive verb takes the place of the particle _to_; e.g., _mairó de +gozatta_ 'he said that he would come,' _xô de va naqeredomo_ 'although I +did not say that I would do it.' + +_Qiuzo core vo mite, ima vo saigo no coto de areba_ (97)[179] 'seeing this, +Kiso believed that the hour of death was present, etc.' Here the +substantive verb replaces _to_ and serves as an active verb governing the +accusative _ima vo_, which also replaces _to_. The particles _sǒna_ and +_guena_ mean 'it seems.' _Sǒna_ is added to the roots of verbs; e.g., +_deqi_ (63 _sǒna_ 'it seems that it is finished.' If a substantive verb is +placed after this particle the _a_ is changed to _i_; e.g., _deqi sǒni +gozaru_ 'it seems that he will finish,' _deqi sǒni mo zonjenu_ 'I believe +that it will not be finished.'[180] _Sǒna_ is also added to adjectives in +_i_, and when it is the _i_ is lost; e.g., _io sǒna_ 'it seems good, or it +seems that it is good,' _xigue sǒna_ 'it seems dense,' and _aiau sǒna_ 'it +seems that I am in danger.' If this particle is added to adjectives in +_na_, the _na_ is lost; e.g., _aqiraca sǒna_ 'it seems that it is clear.' + +The particle _guena_ is added to the nouns and verbs previously formed; +e.g., _maitta guena_ 'I believe that he has come.' If a substantive verb is +added to this particle the _a_ changes to _i_; e.g., _maitta gueni gozaru_ +'I believe that he has come.' _Sǒna_ means 'it seems,' and _guena_ means 'I +believe,' but either of these forms may occasionally be used in any of the +examples given. + +When a sentence has two preterits, the first may be in the preterit and the +second in the future; e.g., _qesa cara sǒ vôxerareta raba mo faia de +maraxô_ 'If you would have said that this morning, I would have already +left.' + +When reporting what someone else has said, it is said this way; {171} +_Padre mósaruru va: iagate sonata ie mairó to mǒsaruru_ 'the priest said +that he was going to come.' Sometimes when one is excusing himself he will +use _no_ in place of _to_; e.g., _asu no, raiguat no, nando to noburu na_ +'don't spread around that it is tomorrow, next month, or whenever.' + +When _vo_ follows _n_ it loses its _v_; e.g., _go von o uqetatematçutta_ 'I +received benefits.'[181] + +Adverbs are always placed before their verbs except for the adverbs of time +which are placed at the beginning of the sentence; e.g., _sore vo qijte +iccó xicari maraxita_ 'hearing that he was very angry,' _qiô nen espana +cara vatatta toqi_ [_qio nen_ ...] 'when I sailed from Spain last year.' +Each verb requires before it a subject in the nominative case, either +expressed or understood; e.g., _vare iqe_ or _iqe_ 'come!', where the +_vare_ is understood. In some sentences this rule is not respected; e.g., +_xisai voba core ni mósare maraxozu_ [... _maraxôzu_] 'he will explain, or +give the reason for this.' In the following case we do not see the +nominative, but rather _are ni va_, which is in the dative or ablative; +_are ni va, navo voixri atta_ [... _voxiri atta_] 'he knows better.' In +this sentence the _are ni va_ ought to be in the nominative. _Cacaru vo ni +va cogane no cusari vo icusugi mo tçuqeta dógu de gozaru_ (138v) 'for a +necklace (_torques_) he had a chain of gold with many links.' + +_Core ni va gozonji aru mai_ 'Your Lordship does not know (64 about this.' +Here the _core ni va_ replaces the accusative which is governed by +_zonji,uru_. + +The impersonal verb or the infinitive requires a nominative before it; +e.g., _Pedro va maitta to mósu_ 'they say that Peter came.' + +The verb _iri,u_, which means 'to need,' governs two nominatives, one for +the thing and the other for the person in need; e.g., _vatacuxi va cono +cane ga iru_ 'I need, or I have a necessity for this money.' It also +governs the dative for the person; e.g., _sono tame ni va cane ga iranu_ +'he does not need any gold, or money.' + +The active verb requires the accusative before it; e.g., _cane vo motanu_ +'I have no money.' + +Certain _cobita_ or _coie_ nouns, as we have said above, are borrowed from +Chinese and govern the same cases as the Japanese verbs to which {172} they +correspond; e.g., _niva vo qenbut no aida ni mexi vo coxiraie io_ 'prepare +the food while we visit the garden.' The noun _qenbut_ requires the +accusative _niva vo_. The same is true with _fito ni guenzan suru_ (97) +which is like _fito ni vó_ 'I meet the man.' The _guenzan_ governs the +dative just as does the verb _ai,ó_. + +When a borrowed word (_vocabulum cobitum_)[182] is a compound of two +elements it is possible to determine if it is a verb by seeing if the first +part has the meaning of a verb; e.g., _jóten_ is a verb which means 'to +ascend to heaven' with the _jǒ_ meaning to 'go up.' _Tenjǒ_ is a noun in +which the _jǒ_ is placed after the _ten_ and means 'heaven.' + +The passive verb has the ablative for its agent (_persona agente_); e.g., +_Pedro cara corosareta_ 'he was killed by Peter,' but it is better that it +govern the dative; e.g., _Pedro ni corosareta_, or _Pedro va nusubito ni +cane vo torareta_ 'Peter had his money stolen by thieves.' + +There are also certain neutral verbs which govern the accusative as if they +were active verbs; e.g., _xiqitai vo fanaruru_ 'to depart from the body, or +to die,' _axi vo vazzuró_ 'to have a pain in the foot.' This is also true +for _nigue,uru_ 'to escape,' _nogare,uru_ 'to evade,' _de,uru_ 'to go out,' +_noqe,uru_ 'to retreat,' _tovori,u_ 'to go across,' _nori,u_ 'to sail,' as +in _caixǒ vo noru_ 'I sail the sea,' _iuqi,u_ 'to walk,' as in _michi vo +iuqu_ 'I walk the streets,' _vovari,u_ 'to finish,' _mairi,u_ as in _xogui +vo mairu_ 'I play chess (_tabula laterucularia_),' _iorocobi,u_ as in +_cocoro vo iorocobu_ 'I gladden the heart,' _abi,uru_, as in _mizzu vo +abiru_[183] 'I wash myself with water, or I pour water on myself,' +_avaremi,u_ 'I am sad,' (65 _canaximi,u_ 'I am unhappy,' _coie,uru_ 'to +cross over,' _fabacari,u_ 'to be shy,' _facarai,ǒ_ 'to take care of,' +_faxiri,u_ 'to sail,' as in _caixǒ, vo, faxiru_ [_caixǒ vo faxiru_] 'I sail +the sea,' _fagi,zzuru_ 'to be ashamed,' _fedate,tçuru_ 'to separate,' +_fe,uru_ 'to spend,' as in _ficazu vo furu_ 'I spend many days,' +[_fumaie,uru_ 'to be based on,' as in] _dori vo fumaiuru_ 'to be based on +reason, or to have reason as a basis,' _itami,u_ 'to be sick,' _mavari,u_ +'to go around,' as in _cono cotovari vo móxi mavatta_ 'he goes around and +spreads the news here and there,' _meguri,u_ has the same meaning, +_nagusami,u_ 'to please,' as in _cocoro vo nagusamu_ 'I make the heart +{173} happy,' _naqi,u_ 'to weep,' _tasucari,u_ 'to be saved,' as in _inochi +vo tasucaru_ 'I am saved from the dangers of life,' or _goxǒ vo tasucaru_ +'to be saved for a future life,' _tachi,tçu_ 'to go away from,' as in +_tocoro vo tatçu_ 'I go away from this place,' _tomurai,ó_ 'to make a +funeral for the dead,' _ucagai,ó_ 'to inquire with hesitation,' _voximi,u_ +'to value,' _urami,u_ 'to enquire,' _xinobi,u_ 'to wait in hiding, almost +insidiously,' as in _fito no me vo xinobu_ 'I am careful lest someone see +me.'[184] A few of these verbs which require the accusative of location +admit to the use of the ablative with the particles _cara_ or _iori_; e.g., +_tocoro vo tatçu_ is the same as _tocoro iori tatçu_ 'I leave the place.' + +There are some active verbs which require two accusative cases; e.g., +_fori,u_, _daxi,u_, _fanaxi,u_, _tate,tçuru_. For example, _Pedro vo soco +vo voi idaita_ 'they led Peter away from that place.' It is possible that +it governs the ablative of location; e.g., _Pedro vo soco cara voi daita_ +[... _voi idaita_]. Some take either the dative or the accusative; e.g., +_fito vo_, or _fito ni fanare,uru_ 'to go away from the men,' _Deus vo_, or +_Deus ni somuqi,u_ 'to offend God.' Verbs of this kind are generally verbs +of fearing, offending, or going away.[185] + +Many verbs of helping, harming, damning, obeying, recognizing as superior +or inferior, being subjugated, being victorious, and similar verbs govern +the dative; e.g., _chiie saicacu iǒni coieta_ 'he is superior to others in +wisdom and industry.'[186] + +Verbs of giving, promising, and the like, govern the accusative for the +thing and the dative for the person; e.g., _fito ni cane vo cururu_ 'to +give money to someone.'[187] + +There are many verbs which permit before themselves the roots of other +verbs without change, letting the roots take on the function of an +infinitive; e.g., _qiqi fajime,uru_ 'to begin to hear.' Some of these verbs +are: _nare,uru_ 'to become accustomed,' _tçuqe,uru_ with the same (66 +meaning, _fate,tçuru_ 'to finish,' _narai,ó_ 'to learn,' _some,uru_ 'to +begin,' _todoqe,uru_ 'to continue,' _ate,tçuru_ 'to direct,' _atari,u_ 'to +find by chance,' _vaqe,uru_ 'to divide,' _cane,uru_ 'to be able to do with +difficulty,' _soconai,ǒ_ 'to be wrong,' _sumaxi,u_ 'to finish,' _sugoxi,u_ +'to exceed,' _fague maxi,u_ {174} 'to work much and intensely,' _aqi,u_ 'to +become bored,' _tai_ 'to want,' and _tǒ mo nai_ 'to not want.'[188] If the +roots of verbs are placed before certain adjectives ending in _i_, they +form a kind of supine in _Tu_; e.g., _iomi iasui_ (92) 'easy to read +(_facile lectu_),' etc. + +A numeral, if a substantive noun is placed after it, must be in the +genitive case; e.g., _fitotçu no toga_ 'one sin.' The same is true with the +particle _fodo_ when it means 'all'; e.g., _aru fodo no fito_ 'how so ever +many.' The same is true with _iori_; e.g., _Nanban iori no mono_ 'things +from Europe.' But this is a relative formation (_relatiuum_). The genitive +is also required with nouns that mean much or little; e.g., _amata no fito_ +'many men.' These nouns are; _bechi_ 'other,' _fon_ 'one's own,' _cazucazu_ +'many,' _sama zama_ 'many ways.' _Iro iro_ 'much' is the same as _iorozzu_ +and _izzure_. _Issai_ means 'all,' as does _vono vono_, _cotogotoqu_, and +_reqi reqi_ for a noble person, _igue_ 'that which follows,' _nocori_ 'that +which remains,' _itçumo_ 'always,' _itçumo no coto_ 'that which always is,' +_tçune_ 'usual,' _ima_ 'now.' _Isasaca_ means 'a little,' as does _soto_ or +_sucoxi_, _xotocu_ 'natural,' _sono foca_ 'others.'[189] These nouns are in +the genitive if they are followed by a substantive noun, but when they are +not followed by a noun they must be taken as adjectives. If they are +followed by a verb rather than a noun, they do not require the genitive; +e.g., _iorozzu dancǒ xite iocarǒ_ 'it will be good if you all confer.' + +Japanese Arithmetic and Numerical Matters +Concerning Which Much Painful +Labor Is Required + +There are two ways to count in Japanese.[190] The first is with the +ordinary numerals which are called _iomi_. With these one is able to count +to ten; e.g., _fitotçu_ means 'one,' which is also used to (67 say 'a +little,' as in _saqe fitotçu nomaxite tamǒre_ 'give me a little sake to +drink.' _Futatçu_ means 'two,' _mitçu_ 'three,' _iotçu_ 'four,' _itçutçu_ +'five,' _mutçu_ 'six,' _nanatçu_ 'seven,' _iatçu_ 'eight,' _coconotçu_ +'nine,' and _tovo_ {175} 'ten.' _Icutçu_ means 'what?' and is used when one +does not have the proper number. + +The second way of counting is with the _coie_ vocables which are borrowed +from Chinese. These numbers are not used by themselves to count to ten; but +are rather used when counting things which are represented by Chinese, and +not Japanese vocables. These bound numerals (_termini numerales_) are: +_ichi_ 'one,' _ni_ 'two,' _san_ 'three,' _xi_ 'four,' _go_ 'five,' _rocu_ +'six,' _xichi_ 'seven,' _fachi_ 'eight,' _cu_ 'nine,' _jú_ 'ten.' The +numbers eleven and above are made by joining these numbers together. Thus, +'eleven' is _jǔichi_; _júni_ is 'twelve,' _júsan_ 'thirteen,' _júcu_ +'ninteen.' The tens are obtained by placing one of the numbers in front of +ten; e.g., _nijú_ 'twenty,' _sanjú_ 'thirty,' _sanjǔichi_ 'thirty-one,' +_cujǔ_ 'ninety.' _Fiacu_ means 'hundred,' _fiacu ichi_ 'one hundred and +one,' _fiacu jǔ_ 'one hundred and ten,' _fiacu sanjǔ_ 'one hundred and +thirty,' _ni fiacu_ 'two hundred,' _sambiacu_ 'three hundred.' _Xen_ means +'thousand,' and _xen roppiacu sanjǔ ichi_ is 'sixteen thirty-one.' + +By placing the Japanese numerals in front of Japanese vocables, which are +called _iomi_, and by removing the _tçu_ of the aforementioned numbers +before they are joined to nouns or verb stems, one is able to enumerate +those things which are indicated by the vocable; e.g., _fito cotoba_ 'one +word,' _futa cotovari_ 'two reasons,' _mi ami_ 'three nets, or three casts +of the net,' _iocama_ 'to bake something four times in an oven,' _itçu +caqe_ 'five attacks,' _mu casane_ 'six robes, or covers,' _nana catana_ +'seven wounds by a sword,' _ia catague_ 'eight loads,' _cu cavari_[191] +'nine changes,' _to cusa_ 'ten varieties.' Above the number ten this way of +counting is not used, instead they say _iro júichi_ or _júichi no iro_ for +'eleven colors.' The interrogative is _icutçu_. If the thing being +questioned is placed after the interrogative the particle _no_ is added; +e.g., _itçucu no qi zo_ [_icutçu_ ...] 'how many trees are there?' To such +a question the answer is _futatçu_ 'two,' _mitçu_ 'three,' etc. If the +_tçu_ is removed from _icutçu_, one may place it in front of the thing +being asked about; e.g., _icu tocoro_ 'how many places?' _icu toqi_ 'how +many hours?'; also _fito fanaxi_ 'one sermon, or conversation,' _futa sugi_ +'two treads,' _io te_ 'four hands, as in a fight,' _itçu tçubu_ 'five +grains,' _mu tocoro_ 'six (68 places,' _ia mavari_ 'six [eight] circuits,' +_cu ninai_ 'nine loads, carried in {176} the Japanese fashion on a stick +with the load in front,' _to vatari_ 'ten crossings.' It is possible to +count the same thing in different ways. Thus, _mu tocoro_ is also _mutçu no +tocoro_ and _tocoro mutçu_ 'six places.' _Fito ie_ means 'one plain thing,' +_futa ie_ 'doubled, or duplicate,' _mi ie_ 'triplicate,' etc. In the same +way one may add Chinese numerals to Chinese vocables, or _coie_. Usually in +this way of counting a [phonetic] change occurs in either the number or the +thing counted. Sometimes this change is in the first part, sometimes in the +second, and at other times in both. This is particularly true with the +first, second, third, sixth, tenth, and one hundredth numbers. With the +items below, if nothing is noted, it is an indication that nothing is +changed. + +When asking about men one says _icutari?_ 'how many men?' The response is +made by adding _nin_ to the Chinese numeral; e.g., _ichi nin_ 'one man,' +_ni nin_ 'two men,' _iottari_ 'four men'; this is because _xinin_ means +'dead person.' + +When asking about days one says _icca_ 'how many days?' The response is _fi +fitoi_,[192] because _ichi nichi_ means 'one entire solar day,' _futçuca_ +'two days,' _micca_ 'three days,' _iocca_ 'four days,' _itçuca_ 'five +days,' _muica_ 'six days,' _nanuca_ 'seven days,' _iǒca_ 'eight days,' +_coconoca_ 'nine days,' _toca_[193] 'ten days,' _fatçuca_ 'twenty days.' +The remaining days are counted with _coie_ numerals. + +When counting nights _ia_ is added to the _coie_ numerals; e.g., _ichi ia_ +'one night,' _ni ia_ 'two nights,' etc. It is also possible to add _io_ +which means 'night' in Japanese to the _iomi_ numeral; e.g., _icu io_ 'how +many nights?' _futa io_ 'two nights,' _nana io_ 'seven nights,' etc. + +When enumerating the months of the year _guat_ is added to the _coie_ +numeral, with the exception that the first month is called _xóguat_. The +second is _niguat_, the third is _saguat_,[194] the fourth is _xiguat_, the +eleventh is _ximotçuqi_, and the twelfth and last is _xi vasu_. When +counting months the _tçu_ is removed from the _iomi_ numeral and the word +_tçuqi_, which means 'month,' is added. _Icutçuqi?_ means 'how many +months.' In response one says _fitotçuqi_ 'one month,' up to ten which is +_totçuqi_, and from there on one counts with _coie_ numerals; e.g., +_júichiguat_ 'eleven months.' If one wants to ask what month it is, {177} +January, February, one says _nanguat_. The first month of the (69 Japanese +year is March. + +In the enumeration of the years _nen_ is placed after the _coie_ numeral. +In asking how many, _nen_ [_nan_] is placed before _nen_; e.g., _nannen_ +'how many years?' In response one says _ichinen_ 'one year,' _ionen_ 'four +years,' _sanganen_ 'three years,' _sǒ ionen_[195] 'three or four years,' +_sǒ xijúnen_ 'thirty or forty years,' _fatachi_ means 'twenty years of +age,' as does _nijǔnen_, _nijǔ no toxi_, or _toxi niju_. They ask with +_icutoxi_ or _toxi icutçu_ 'how old are you.' They count the age of men and +animals such as cattle and horses by adding _sai_ to the _coie_ numeral; +e.g., _issai_ 'one,' _nisai_ 'two,' _sanzai_ 'three.' + +In counting turns (_visis_) _do_ is added to the _coie_ numerals; e.g., +_nando_ 'how many times,' _ichido_ 'once,' _iodo_ 'four times,' _godo_ +'five times,' _sai san_ 'twice or thrice.' + +In the enumeration of ships _sô_ is placed after the _coie_ numeral; e.g., +_nanzo_ [_nanzô_] 'how many ships,' to which one answers _issô_ 'one ship,' +_niso_ [_nisô_] 'two,' _sanzô_ 'three,' _fassô_ 'eight,' _jússô_ [_jissô_] +'ten.' + +_Ichiren_ 'one string,' _niren_ 'two,' _saren_ 'three,' as in figs or +pearls. + +When enumerating sermons, homilies (_tractatus_), or repetitions of things, +_fen_ is placed after the numeral; e.g., _ippen_ 'one sermon,' _nifen_ +'two,' _sanben_ 'three,' _ave maria fiacu gojippen_ 'one hundred and fifty +Hail Mary's.' + +In counting gold currency _momme_ is placed after the numeral; e.g., _ichi +momme_ 'one _momme_,' _ni momme_ 'two,' _san mome_ [_san momme_] 'three.' +When a _momme_ is divided into tenths it is called an _ippun_ [_fun_]. +Thus, _ippun_ means one tenth part of a _momme_, _nifun_ means 'two +tenths,' _gofun_ means half the basic unit (_media dragma_), _roppun_ means +'six tenths of a _momme_.' + +When the tenth part of a _momme_ is divided again into ten parts it is +counted as _ichirin_, _nirin_, _sarin_, _iorin_, _gorin_, _rocurin_, +_xichirin_, _fachirin_, and _curin_. Then comes _ippun_, which is one tenth +of a _momme_. _Fiacu me_ means 'one hundred _momme_,' _fiacu ichi momme_ +'one hundred and one,' _icquan me_ means 'one thousand _momme_,' +_jicquanme_ means 'ten thousand.' There are other coins of silver which are +counted by placing _mai_ or _mon_ after the numeral; e.g., _ichi mon_ means +one of {178} that unit, _ni mon_ is 'two,' _San mai_ is three hundred +_mon_. They no longer produce a coin which is one half of the gold coin, +but one thousand of these coins make _icquan_, while _jicquan_ is 'ten (70 +thousand _quan_.'[196] + +_Core va ica fodo ni suru_ 'how much is this worth?' or _ica fodo ni uru_ +'at what price will you sell this?' _Ni momme suru_ 'I consider it worth +two _momme_,' or _ni momme ni iasui_ 'I can sell this for more than two +_momme_, or at two _momme_ this is cheap.' + +The enumeration of liquid measurements is done by placing the particle _xô_ +in front of the liquid quantity; e.g., _ixxo_ [_ixxô_] 'one _xô_,' _nixo_ +[_nixô_] 'two,' _sango_ [_sanjô_] 'three.' Ten _xô_ are _itto_ which is the +particle _to_ placed after the numeral; _nito_ means 'twenty _xô_,' _sando_ +'thirty.' For one tenth of a _xô_ one places the particle _go_ after the +numeral; e.g., _Ichigo_ 'one _go_,' _nigo_ 'two,' _sango_ 'three,' _ixxô +gogo_ 'one and one half _xô_.' _Fatto_ is eighty _xô_. One hundred _xô_ +make _ichi cocu_. By placing the _cocu_ after numerals one obtains _ni +cocu_ 'two hundred _xô_,' _sangocu_ 'three hundred,' _jiccocu_ 'one +thousand,' _xencocu_ 'ten thousand,' _ichi mangocu_ 'one hundred thousand.' + +The enumeration of the measurements of human height is achieved by placing +_fito_ [_firo_] after the _iomi_ numerals; e.g., _fito firo_ 'one _firo_,' +_futa firo_ 'two,' _jippiro_ 'ten.' The measurement of a span (_palmus_) is +made by adding _xacu_ to the _coie_ numerals; e.g., _ixxacu_ 'one span, or +three spans by the Spanish measuring system,'[197] _sanjaku_ 'three.' +_Goxacu_ is the same as _fito firo_ which is a measurement we have referred +to before. Six _xacu_ make up a measurement called _icqen_ 'one _qen_,' +_nicqen_ [_niqen_] 'two,' _jicqen_ 'ten,' and _sanguen_ 'three.' From sixty +of these measurements one makes a measurement called _icchó_, that is 'one +mountain path,' _nicchǒ_ [_nichǒ_] 'two,' _jichiǒ [jicchǒ]_ 'ten,' _sangiǒ_ +'three.' From sixty-three [thirty-six] _chô_, as measured in the northern +part of Japan, one obtains _ichiri_ which is one league or one miliar. One +enumerates by adding _ri_ to the _coie_ numerals; e.g., _niri_ 'two,' +_sanri_ 'three,' _gori_ 'five,' _júri_ 'ten'; _iori_ is 'four,' because +_xiri_ means anus.[198] _Fan michi_ {179} means 'a half of a league.' They +say; _ioco fan miqi tate ichiri_ [... _michi_ ...] 'a half a _ri_ wide and +one _ri_ long,' _faba icqen_ 'the width is one _qen_,' _iofǒ futa firo_ +'two _hiro_ on all sides.' + +The cardinal numbers first, second, etc. are made by adding _ban_ to the +_coie_ numerals; e.g., _ichi ban_ 'first,' _ni ban_ 'second.' To these are +also added _me_, as said before; e.g., _xi ban me_ 'fourth.' One may also +make the cardinal numbers by placing _dai_ in front of the _coie_ (71 +numerals; e.g., _daiichi_ 'first,' _daini_ 'second,' etc. + +The enumeration of multiples is done by adding _bai_ to the numbers; e.g., +_ichibai_ 'double,' _nibai_ 'triple,' _sanbai_ 'quadruple,'[199] _fiacu +zobai_ 'one hundred fold.' + +The enumeration of the parts from the whole is done by placing _buichi_ +after the numeral; e.g., _ni buichi_ 'one from two parts,' _san buichi_ +'one from three parts.' + +To indicate one tenth _vari_ is placed after the numeral; e.g., _ichi vari_ +'one from ten parts,' _xi vari gobu_ 'four and one half from ten parts.' +_Jú buichi_ is the same as _ichi vari_. + +The enumeration of oars, muskets, and long things made of wood is done by +placing _chó_ after the numerals; e.g., _icchó_ 'one oar,' _nichó_ 'two,' +_sangiǒ_ 'three,' _jichó_ [_jicchó_] 'ten.' + +The enumeration of fish and fire wood is done by placing _con_ after the +numerals;[200] e.g., _iccon_, 'one fish,' _sangon_ 'three,' _jiccon_ 'ten,' +_fiaccon_ 'one hundred,' _fiacu gojǔ sangon_ 'one hundred and fifty-three.' +This is the amount Saint Peter caught, and even though he caught that +number the net did not tear. + +The enumeration of leaves of paper and sheets of gold, etc. is done by +placing _mai_ after the numeral; e.g., _ichimai_ 'one leaf,' _cami gomai_ +'five leaves of paper.' + +The enumeration of the stories of a house is done by placing _cai_ after +the numeral; e.g., _nicai_ 'the first floor,' _sangai_ 'the second,' +_xigai_ 'the third,' _gocai_ 'the fourth,' when counted as in a house in +Madrid. + +The enumeration of utensils and cups for drinking is done by placing _fai_ +after the numeral; e.g., _ippai_ 'one drink, or one draught,' _nifai_ +'two,' _sanbai_ 'three,' _jippai_ 'ten.' + +{180} + +The enumeration of rolls of silk or the like is done by placing _tan_ after +the numeral; e.g., _ittan_ 'one roll,' _nitan_ 'two,' _sandan_ 'three,' +_jittan_ 'ten.' _Xichitan bune_ is a ship with a sail seven _tan_ wide. + +This is also said by adding _mai_ to the numeral; e.g., _gomai_ 'five,' as +in _gomai bune_ 'a ship having a sail five _mai_ wide.' + +The enumeration of four-footed animals is done by placing _fiqi_ after the +numeral; e.g., _ippiqi_ 'one animal,' _nifiqi_ 'two,' _sanbiqi_ 'three,' +_roppiqi_ 'six,' _jippiqi_ 'ten,' _fiappiqi_ 'one hundred,' _xenbiqi_ 'one +thousand.' + +The enumeration of images, pictures, and medicines is done (72 by placing +_fucu_ after the numeral; e.g., _ippucu_ 'one item,' _nifucu_ 'two,' +_sanbucu_ 'three,' _roppucu_ 'six,' _jippucu_ 'ten.' Needles are also +counted this way. + +The enumeration of pounds (_libra_) is done by placing _qin_ after the +numeral; e.g., _icqin_ 'one pound,' _niqin_ 'two,' _sanguin_ 'three,' +_rocqin_ 'six,' _jicqin_ 'ten,' _fiacqin_ 'one hundred,' _xenqin_ 'one +thousand.' + +The enumeration of masses and congregations of men is done by placing _za_ +after the numeral; e.g., _ichiza_ 'one congregation,' _niza_ 'two,' _sanza_ +'three,' _jǔza_, or better _toza_ 'ten.' + +The enumeration of sacks of rice, wheat, and the like, is done by placing +_fiô_ after the numeral; e.g., _ippiô_ 'one sack,' _nifiô_ 'two,' _sanbiô_ +'three,' _xifio_ [_xifiô_] 'four,' _roppio_ [_roppiô_] 'six,' _jippio_ +[_jippiô_] 'ten,' _fiiappio_ [_fiappiô_] 'one hundred,' _xembiô_ [_xenbiô_] +'one thousand.' + +The enumeration of pieces of wood, reeds, and needles is done by placing +_fon_ after the numeral; e.g., _ippon_ 'one item,' _nifon_ 'two,' _sanbon_ +'three,' _roppon_ 'six,' _jippon_ 'ten,' _fiappon_ 'one hundred,' _xenbon_ +'one thousand.' + +The enumeration of bundles (_fasciculus_) is done by placing _va_ after the +numeral; e.g., _ichiva_ 'one bundle,' _niva_ 'two,' _sanba_ 'three,' +_jippa_ 'ten,' _júichiva_ 'eleven,' _ni jippa_ 'twenty.' + +The enumeration of burdens or the packs that horses carry is done by +placing _só_ after the numeral; e.g., _issó_ 'one burden,' _nisǒ_ 'two,' +_sanzó_ 'three,' _jissǒ_ 'ten.' In the same way one counts those +furnishings called _biǒbu_; two or a pair from a set is called _issó_, etc. + +The enumeration of that which in the vernacular is called a quire of paper +(_mano de papel_) is done by placing _giô_ after the numeral; e.g., +_ichigio_ [_ichigiô_] 'one quire,' _nigio_ [_nigiô_] 'two,' _sangiô_ +'three,' so on {181} to ten. Units of ten are counted by adding _socu_ to +the numeral; e.g., _issocu_ 'ten quires, or what in the vernacular is +called a half ream (_media resma_),' _nisocu_ 'twenty, or an entire ream.' +With this particle _socu_ added to numerals one also counts pairs of shoes; +e.g., _issocu_ 'a pair of shoes.' + +The enumeration of substance (_substantia_) is done by placing _tai_ after +the numeral; e.g., _ittai_ 'one substance,' _nitai_ 'two,' _sandai_ +'three.' _Deus no von tocoro va goittai de gozaru_ 'God as God is of one +substance and one essence.' + +The enumeration of the divisions in a writing (_capitulum_) is done by +placing _cagiô_ after the numeral; e.g., _iccagiô_ 'one chapter,' (73 +_nicagio_ [_nicagiô_] 'two,' _sangagio_ [_sangagiô_] 'three,' _roccagio_ +[_roccagiô_] 'six,' _fiaccagio_ [_fiaccagiô_] 'one hundred.' + +The enumeration of drops is done by placing _teqi_ after the numeral; e.g., +_itteqi_ 'one drop,' _jitteqi_ 'ten.' The same meaning is obtained by +adding _xizzucu_ to the _iomi_ numeral; e.g., _fito xizzucu_ 'one drop,' +etc. In this case the _tçu_ must be removed from the numeral. + +The enumeration of the pairs of small sticks (_paxillus_) with which they +eat is done by placing _tçui_ after the numeral; e.g., _itçui_ [_ittçui_] +'one pair,' _jittçui_ 'ten.' + +The enumeration of bundles is done by placing _ca_ after the numeral; e.g., +_icca_ 'one bundle,' _nica_ 'two,' _sanga_ 'three.' + +The enumeration of books is done by placing _quan_ after the numeral; e.g., +_icquan_ 'one book,' _niquan_ 'two,' _sanguan_ 'three,' _roquan_ +[_rocquan_] 'six,' _jiquan_ [_jicquan_] 'ten.' + +With the interrogative _nan_, when it is placed before one of these nouns, +it changes it in the same way as does the number three; e.g., _ano mmadomo +va nanbiki zo?_ 'how many horses are there?' + +The enumeration of kingdoms (_regnum_) is done by placing _cacocu_ after +the numeral; e.g., _iccacocu_ 'one kingdom,' _nicacocu_ 'two,' _sangacocu_ +'three,' _jiccacocu_ 'ten.' Kingdoms are divided into provinces or +districts called _gun_, and this word also is placed after the numeral; +e.g., _ichigun_ 'one province,' _nigun_ 'two,' _sangun_ 'three,' etc. + +Sermons and exhortations are enumerated by placing _dan_ after the numeral; +_ichidan_ 'one sermon, or assembly.' Words are enumerated by {182} placing +_gon_ or _guen_ after the numeral; e.g., _ichigon_ 'one word,' _sanguen_ +'three words.' + +Placing the particle _zzutçu_ after either _coie_ or _iomi_ numerals gives +the meaning of 'each'; e.g., _ichinin ni uxi sanbiki zzutçu vo toraxeta_ +'he let the men have three oxen each,' _ichinin zzutçu saqe sanbai zzutçu +vo nomareta_ 'each man drank three sake each.' + +In speaking of two or three things separately, they join the two numbers; +e.g., _xigonin_ 'four or five men,' from which others may be copied. + +The honorific particles are four; _vo_, _von_, _go_, and _mi_.[201] The +first two are joined to _iomi_ vocables. The last two are joined to _coie_, +or Chinese vocables. The last is the most honorific and is used when +speaking of things divine; e.g., _midexi tachi_ 'disciples of Christ the +Lord,' _goichinin vocoite cudasarei_ 'please send one from among the +Lords.' + +The words which follow have honorific particles that have (74 been added by +the speaker. However, the honor is shown to the person addressed or to +those related to him; e.g., _go focô_ [_go fôcô_] 'a duty,' _von furu mai_ +'a banquet,' _von cotoba_ 'a word, or a sermon,' _von mono gatari_ 'a +conversation,' _von natçucaxij_ or _von nocori vovoi_ which mean the same +as what the Portuguese call _saudades_ (nostalgia) and the Spanish call +_carino_ (affection), _von tori avaxe_ 'intercession,' _von mi mai_ 'a +visit,' _von cha_ 'that which one drinks when they invite you,' _go dancó_ +'a consultation or congregation for the purpose of obtaining advice,' _von +rei_ 'an act of gratitude,' _von busata_ 'a lapse of good manners,' _vo +motenaxi_ 'to treat well and elegantly,' _go chiso_ [_go chisô_] 'esteem,' +_go iqen_ 'an opinion,' e.g., _fabacari nagara go iqen vo mǒxitai_ 'forgive +me but I would like to give you some advice,' etc. + +Some Rules on the Conjugation of the Verb +in the Written Language + +If the final _u_ is removed from the negative present it becomes an +affirmative verb; e.g., _oracio vo tçutomen toqi va_ 'when I say my +prayers,' {183} _xosa no tçutomen tame ni va_ 'in order to execute the +work,' _michibiqi tamavan to voboximexi_ 'thinking of leading forth.'[202] + +For the affirmative future _beqi_ is added to the affirmative form with the +_ru_ removed; for the future negative _becarazu_ is added to the +affirmative form; e.g., _mǒsu beqi_ 'you will speak,' _mósu becarazu_ 'you +will not speak.' When the sentence ends in the future, _beqi_ is changed to +_bexi_. + +The infinitive for the future is formed by adding _coto_ to the future +tense; e.g., _iomu beqi coto_. The subjunctive is formed by adding _qereba_ +to the root of the verb; e.g., _sugure qereba_. + +The gerund in _Do_ is formed by adding _te_ to the root of the verb; e.g., +_qiqi tamaite_. + +The substantive verb in the written language is _nari,u_ or _qeri,u_. If it +comes at the end of the sentence it takes the root form;[203] e.g., _sadame +naqi io no ixei nari_ 'it is the dignity of a world without stability.' + +The preterit is formed by adding _ari,u_ [_tari,u_] to the root; e.g., +_suguretaru_. If the form comes at the end of a sentence _ari,u_ (75 +[_tari,u_] is retained in the root form; e.g., _suguretari_. + +The pluperfect is formed by placing _nari_ after the present tense; e.g., +_ague tamǒ nari_ 'they had shown respect.' + +Even though there are other rules for the written language, if the reader +knows Japanese well enough to read books, he will be able to progress in +the language without difficulty. + +_PRAISE BE TO GOD_ + + * * * * * + + +{185} + +Works Consulted + +Alvarez, Manuel (Emmanuel Alvarus), _De Institutione Grammatica, Libri +III_, Lisbon, 1572. (Also Amakusa, 1594. Cf. _Laures_ #14.) + +Collado, Diego, O.P., _Ars Grammaticae Iaponicae Linguae_, Rome, 1632. +(Trans. by Ōtsuka Takanobu as _Koiyaado-chō Nippon bunten_, 1934 and +revised as _Koryaado Nihon bunten_, 1957. Cf. _Laures_ #54.) + +Collado, Diego, O.P., _Dictionarium sive Thesauri Linguae Iaponicae +Compendium_, Rome, 1632. (Edited by Ōtsuka Mitsunobu as _Koryaado +Ra-Su-Nichi jiten_, 1966. Cf. _Laures_ #56.) + +Collado, Diego, O.P., _Niffon no cotõba ni yô confesion_, Rome, 1632. +(Transcribed by Ōtsuka Mitsunobu as _Koryaado zangeroku_, 1957. Cf. +_Laures_ #56.) + +Doi Tadao [Japanese], _Kirishitan gogaku no kenkyū_ [Japanese], Tokyo, +1971. + +Doi Tadao [Japanese], "Koryaado Nihon bunten no seiritsu [Japanese]," +_Nihon gogaku shinkō iinkai kenyū hōkoku_, #3, 1941. + +Doi Tadao [Japanese], ed., _Nippo jisho_ [Japanese], Tokyo, 1960. (Japanese +edition of the _Vocabulario_.) + +Doi Tadao [Japanese], trs., _Rodorigesu Nihon daibunten_ [Japanese] Tokyo, +1955. (Trans. of Rodriguez' _Arte_.) + +Fukushima Kunimichi [Japanese], _Kirishitan Shiryō to kokugo kenkyū_ +[Japanese], Tokyo, 1973. + +Hashimoto Shinkichi [Japanese], _Kirishitan kyōgi no kenkyū_ [Japanese], +Tokyo, 1928. + +Iwai Yoshio [Japanese], _Nihongohō-shi: Muromachi-jidai hen_ [Japanese] +Tokyo, 1973. + +Laures, Johannes, S.J., _Kirishitan Bunko_, Tokyo, 1957. + +Lebrija, Antonio (Antonius Nebrissensis), _Introductiones Latinae_, +Salamanca, 1481. + +Moran, Joseph F., _A Commentary on the Arte Breve da Lingoa Iapoa of João +Rodriguez, S.J.: With Particular Reference to Pronunciation_, Unpublished +doctoral thesis, Oxford, 1971. + +Ōtomo Shin'ichi [Japanese], _Muromachi-jidai no kokugo-onsei no kenkyū_ +[Japanese], Tokyo, 1963. + +Ōtsuka Mitsunobu [Japanese], ed., _Koryaado Ra-Su-Nichi jiten_ [Japanese], +Tokyo, 1966. (Japanese edition of Collado's _Dictionarium_.) + +Ōtsuka Mitsunobu [Japanese], ed., _Koryaado zangeroku_ [Japanese], Tokyo, +1957. (Japanese edition of Collado's _Confesion_.) + +{186} Ōtsuka Takanobu [Japanese], tr., _Koiyaado-chō Nihongo bunten_ +[Japanese], Tokyo, 1934. (Revised as _Koryaado Nihon bunten_ [Japanese], +Tokyo, 1957. Translation of Collado's _Ars Grammaticae_.) + +Rodriguez, João, S.J., _Arte Breve da Lingoa Iapoa_, Macao, 1620. (Cf. +_Laures_ #35.) + +Rodriguez, João, S.J., _Arte da Lingoa de Iapam_, Nagasaki, 1604-1608. +(Translated by Doi Tadao as _Rodorigesu Nihon daibunten_, 1955. Cf. +_Laures_ #28.) + +Rodriguez, João, S.J., ed., _Vocabulario da Lingoa de Iapam_, Nagasaki, +1603-1604. (Edited by Doi Tadao as _Nippo Jisho_, 1960. Cf. _Laures_ #27.) + +Thurot, Charles, _Extraits de divers manuscrits Latins pour servir a +l'historie des doctrines grammaticales au moyen-age_, Paris, 1869. + +Yuzawa Kōkichirō [Japanese], _Muromachi-jidai gengo no Kenkyū_ [Japanese], +Tokyo, 1958. + + * * * * * + + +{187} + +Index To Grammatical Categories + +The list which follows refers to the location of the general categories +defined by Collado's description of Japanese. A broader classification of +the grammar will be found in the table of contents while the specific +grammatical elements are listed in the index which follows. + + ablative (_see_ cases) + accusative (_see_ cases) + adjectival roots 114, 116, 138, 139 + adjectives 114-117, 138, 139 + adjectives, conditional 139 + gerund 138 + negative 138, 139 + permissive 138 + adverbial roots 115, 139, 162 + adverbs 156-164 + adverbs, accumulative 162 + affirmative 160 + comparative 161 + conclusive 163 + exaggerative 162 + exclamatory 163 + intensifying 162 + interrogative 159 + locational 156 + negative 160 + superlative 162 + temporal 159 + adversitive (_see_ particles) + alternative (_see_ particles) + arithmetic 174-182 + auxiliaries 145-147, 149 + auxiliaries, emphatic 149 + humble 147 + honorific 145, 146, 147 + + cases 111-113 + cases, ablative 113 + accusative 112 + dative 112 + genitive 112, 174 + nominative 111 + vocative 113 + causative (_see_ verbs) + conditional (_see_ moods) + confirmation (_see_ particles) + conjugations 166, 167 + comparatives 161 + copulas 137 + copulas, negative 137 + + dative (_see_ cases) + deciderative (_see_ particles) + disjunctive (_see_ particles) + disjunctive constructions 167 + distributive (_see_ particles) + dubitive (_see_ particles) + + emphatic (_see_ particles) + exclamatory (_see_ adverbs, particles) + + future tense (_see_ verbs) + + genitive (_see_ cases) + gerund (_see_ verbs) + + honorific (_see_ auxiliaries, particles, verbs) + + imperative (_see_ moods) + imperfect aspect (_see_ verbs) + infinitive (_see_ verbs) + intensifier (_see_ particles) + interjections 126, 132, 167, 168 + interrogative (_see_ particles) + irregular verbs (_see_ verbs) + + moods 125-142 + moods, conditional 139, 140 + imperative 125, 126, 132, 135-137 + optative 126, 132 + permissive 127-129, 133, 138, 139, 155 + potential 140, 141 + subjunctive 127, 128, 131-133, 138, 153 + + negative (_see_ verbs) + neutral (_see_ verbs) + nominalizers (_see_ particles) + nominative (_see_ cases) + nouns 111-118 + + optative (_see_ moods, particles) + + participle (_see_ verbs) + particles 113-120, 148-156, 164-168, 182 + particles, adversative 150, 153, 154 + alternative 152 + deciderative 126, 153 + {188} + disjunctive 167 + distributive 120, 157 + dubitive 162, 163 + emphatic 124, 125, 149, 167, 150 + exclamatory 163 + honorific 118, 119, 146, 147, 182 + intensive 120, 148, 149, 162, 163, 164 + interrogative 156, 159, 163, 168 + nominalizing 117 + optative 126, 132 + pejorative 119, 120 + permissive 128, 133 + pluralizing 113, 114, 118, 119 + presumptive 170 + quotative 168, 170, 171 + temporal 149, 154, 159 + particles of manner 153, 154 + particles of possibility 153 + particles of similarity 149, 150, 161 + passive (_see_ verbs) + perfect aspect (_see_ verbs) + pejorative (_see_ particles) + permissive (_see_ moods, particles) + pluralizers (_see_ particles) + pluperfect tense (_see_ verbs) + possibility (_see_ particles) + potential (_see_ moods, verbs) + prepositions 164, 165, 166 + present tense (_see_ verbs) + presumptive (_see_ particles) + preterit tense (_see_ verbs) + pronouns 118-122 + pronouns, first person 118, 119 + second person 119 + third person 120, 121 + + quotative (_see_ particles) + + relative constructions 122 + + subjunctive (_see_ moods, particles) + substantive verbs (_see_ copulas) + superlatives 162 + supine (_see_ verbs) + syntax 168-174 + + temporal (_see_ particles, adverbs) + + verbal roots 123, 131, 134-136 + verbs 123-156 + verbs, causative 143 + future 125, 135-137 + gerund 129, 130, 134, 138, 154, 155, 174, 183 + honorific 145-147 + imperfect 152 + infinitive 128-130, 133 + irregular 141, 142 + negative, future 132, 133, 141 + pluperfect 132, 136 + present 131, 136 + preterit 131 + neutral 172 + participle 131, 134 + passive 143, 172 + perfect 124, 137 + pluperfect 125 + potential 144 + present 123, 134, 135 + preterit 124, 134-137 + supine 130, 131, 156 + + vocative (_see_ cases) + + written style 182, 183 + + * * * * * + + +{189} + +Index to Grammatical Elements + +There follows a list of those elements which Collado describes in his +grammar. To a certain degree I have regularized his morphophonological +analysis. For example, the preterit permissive form, described by Collado +as _redomo_ after a preterit verb, is cross-listed as _-ta redomo_ in order +to bring together morphologically similar forms. All forms occurring in the +text with the honorific _gozaru_, etc. are indexed as _aru_, etc. For +example, the element found in _aguenande gozaru_ 'I have not offered' will +be indexed under _-nande aru_. As a general rule in this index items +beginning with a hyphen are classified as endings, while the remaining +items are particles. + +The spelling used in this index is that of the original. Those readers more +familiar with the modified Hepburn system of romanization, as reflected in +Kenkyūsha's Dictionary, will find the following simplified chart of help. +Syllables presented in _Kenkyūsha_ as beginning with the following initial +letters will have the corresponding spellings in Collado's grammar: + + _e = ie_ | _k = ca, qi, cu, qe, co_ + _o = vo_ | _s = sa, xi, su, xe, so_ + ----------| _z = za, ji, zu, je, zo_ + _h = f_ | _t = ta, chi, tçu, te, to_ + _y = i_ | _d = da, gi, zzu, de, do_ + _w = v_ | + +The citations are numbered according to their location in the translation +and are limited to those places where the element is explained or used to +demonstrate a grammatical point. + +The following abbreviations are used: + + abl. ablative excl. exclamatory part. participle + adj. adjective fut. future perf. perfect + adv. adverb gen. genitive perm. permissive + advers. adversitive ger. gerund pot. potential + acc. accusative hon. honorific plup. pluperfect + aff. affirmative imp. imperative prep. preposition + alt. alternative ind. indicative pres. present + aux. auxiliary verb inf. infinitive pret. preterit + concl. conclusive interj. interjection pron. pronoun + cond. conditional interr. interrogative quot. quotative + conj. conjunction intens. intensive subj. subjunctive + const. construction irr. irregular temp. temporal + cop. copula loc. locative v. verb + dat. dative n. noun voc. vocative + disj. disjunctive neg. negative writ. written style + dist. distributive nom. nominative 1st 1st conjugation + dub. dubitive opt. optative 2nd 2nd conjugation + emph. emphatic p. particle 3rd 3rd conjugation + +{190} + + _-aba_ (cond., 2nd) 139 + _-ai_ (adj.) 114, 138 + _-ai_ (imp.) 135, n. 91 + _-ai_ (v. root, 3rd) 135 + _ai_ (emph.) 149 + _ai_ (hort.) 163 + _aidani_ (temp.) 149 + _-ananda_ (neg. pret., 2nd) 135 + _-anu_ (neg. pres., 2nd) 135 + _arisama_ (p. of manner) 154 + _ari,u_ (hon. aux.) 145, 146 + _arui va_ (conj.) 166 + _avare_ (interj.) 168; + (w. opt.) 126, 132 + _-azu_ (neg. root, 2nd) 135 + + _-ba_ (cond.) 139 + _-ba atte mo_ (advers.) 153 + _bacari_ (intens.) 164 + _-baia_ (w. fut.) 125 + _-ba tote_ (perm.) 133 + _baxi_ (dub.) 163 + _becarazu_ (neg. fut., writ.) 183 + _beqi_ (fut., writ.) 183 + _beqi coto_ (fut. inf., writ.) 183 + _bexi_ (fut., writ.) 183 + + _ca_ (interr.) 156, 163; + (temp.) 159; + (conj.) 167 + _cai-_ (intens.) 149 + _caia_ (interr.) 163 + _cana_ (interj.) 168 + _canavanu_ (w. const. showing necessity) 155 + _cara_ (nom.) 111; + (abl.) 113; + (w. subj.) 127; + (w. neutral v.) 172; + (w. passive v.) 172 + _-carananda_ (neg. pret. adj.) 139 + _-caranu_ (neg. pres. adj.) 139 + _-carazu_ (neg. adj. root) 139 + _-catte_ (neg. adj. ger.) 138 + _caxi_ (w. opt.) 126, 132; + (w. subj.) 128 + _coso_ (advers.) 150; + (w. ind. ending in _-e_) 150; + (neg. meaning w. aff. ger.) 154 + _coto_ (w. inf.) 129, 133; + (w. pot.) 154 + _coto gia_ (p. w. no special meaning) 152 + _coto mo arózu_ (w. pot.) 141 + + _-da_ (see _-ta_) + _-dari_ (see _-tari_) + _-de_ (see _-te_) + _de_ (prep.) 165, 166; + (w. subj.) 127, 153 + _-demo_ (see _-temo_) + _dógu_ (nominalizer) 117 + _-domo_ (perm.) 127, 133, 138 + _domo_ (p. of necessity) 155 + _domo_ (n. pluralizer) 113, 114, 119 + + _-e_ (ind. w. _coso_) 150 + _-e_ (see _-te_) + _-e_ (v. root, 1st) 123 + _-e_ (imp.) 135, 136, 137 + _-eba_ (pres. cond., 1st) 139 + _-edomo_ (see _redomo_) + _-ei_ (adj.) 114, 138 + _-enu_ (neg. pres., 1st) 131 + _-eô_ (adv.) 115, 156 + _-eô_ (fut., 1st) 125 + _-eôda_ (pret., 1st) 135 + _-ezu_ (neg. v. root, 1st) 131 + + _faia_ (emph.) 124, 125 + _faxi-_ (intens.) 149 + _fito_ (w. part.) 131, 134 + _fodo_ (w. gen.) 174 + _furi-_ (p. of similarity) 150 + + _ga_ (nom.) 111; + (gen.) 112; + (acc.) 112; + (w. inf.) 129; + (in relative const.) 122 + _ga_ (intens. w. pron.) 120 + _ga_ (conj.) 148 + _ga gotoqu_ (p. of similarity) 149 + _gana_ (w. opt.) 126, 132 + _go_ (hon.) 182 + _goto_ (dist.) 120 + _goto_ (nominalizer) 117 + _gotoqu_ (p. of similarity) 150, 161 + _guena_ (presumptive) 170 + + _ha_ (interj.) 168 + _hat_ (interj.) 168 + + _-i_ (adj.) 116 + _-i_ (imp.) 135, 136 + {191} + _-i_ (v. root, 2nd) 134 + _-i_ (irr. v. root, 1st) 123 + _ia_ (excl.) 163 + _ia_ (interj.) 168 + _iai_ (excl.) 163 + _iara_ (interj.) 168; + (w. disj. const.) 167 + _iare_ (excl.) 163 + _-iasui_ (w. supine) 156 + _icani_ (voc.) 113; + (w. plurals) 113 + _-i caxi_ (perm.) 129 + _-ide_ (neg. ger.) 134 + _-ide arózu_ (neg. plup. showing completed action) 137 + _-ide aru_ (neg. plup.) 132 + _-ide atta_ (neg. plup.) 132 + _-ide canavanu_ (ending showing necessity) 155 + _-idemo_ (neg. fut. perm.) 133, 154 + _-ide naranu_ (ending showing necessity) 155 + _-ide nochi_ (neg. ger.) 134 + _-ide va_ (ending showing necessity) 155 + _ie_ (acc.) 112; + (dat.) 112; + (prep.) 165; + (w. subj.) 127 + _ie_ (w. neg. possibility) 153 + _ie,uru_ (aux. of neg. possibility) 152 + _iei_ (interr.) 168 + _igo_ (w. subj.) 127 + _-ij_ (adj.) 114, 138 + _io_ (intens.) 163 + _io_ (imp.) 125 + _ió_ (p. of manner) 153 + _io caxi_ (w. opt.) 126 + _ióni_ (w. inf.) 129; + (w. quot.) 170 + _iori_ (nom.) 111; + (abl.) 113; + (w. inf.) 130; + (w. ger.) 174; + (w. comparative const.) 161; + (w. relative const.) 122 + _iori mo_ (w. comparative const.) 161 + _iori mo nao_ (w. comparative const.) 161 + _-i tomo_ (perm. adj.) 138 + _-iú_ (adv.) 115, 156 + + _jibun_ (w. ger.) 130 + + _ma-_ (v. intensifier) 149 + _macari-_ (p. showing modesty) 149 + _made_ (prep.) 166 + _made gia_ (p. w. no special meaning) 152 + _madeio_ (w. perm.) 128, 133; + (p. of confirmation) 152 + _mai_ (dist.) 120 + _mai_ (neg. fut.) 132 + _mai coto_ (neg. fut. inf.) 133 + _mai coto mo arózu_ (neg. fut. pot.) 141 + _maieni_ (w. neg. v.) 133 + _mai mono_ (neg. ger.) 134 + _mai mono vo_ (neg. opt.) 132 + _mai qereba_ (neg. subj.) 133 + _mai qeredomo_ (neg. perm.) 133, 155 + _mairaxi,u_ (hon. aux.) 147 + _mai tomo_ (neg. fut. perm.) 133 + _mai tote_ (neg. ger.) 134 + _maji_ (neg. fut., cf. _mai_) 132 + _maji qere_ (neg. cond.) 139 + _majiqu va_ (neg. cond.) 140 + _mamaio_ (w. perm.) 128, 133 + _maraxi,u_ (hon. aux.) 145 + _mata_ (conj.) 166 + _mata va_ (conj.) 166 + _me_ (pejorative, w. pron.) 119, 120 + _me_ (p. showing terminus of action) 117 + _me-_ (feminine) 114 + _mega_ (pejorative, w. pron.) 119, 120 + _mexi-_ (hon.) 147 + _mi-_ (hon.) 118, 182 + _mo_ (conj.) 166; + (dist.) 157; + (advers. w. ger.) 154; + (w. subj.) 128 + _mono_ (p. showing performer of action) 117 + _mono_ (w. part.) 131, 134; + (w. pot.) 141 + _mono de arózu_ (w. cond.) 141 + _mono vo_ (w. opt.) 126, 132 + _motte_ (emph.) 167 + _moxi_ (excl.) 163 + _moxi va_ (conj.) 166 + + _-n_ (pres., writ.) 182 + _na_ (concl.) 163 + _na_ (neg. imp.) 132, 137 + {192} + _na_ (adj.) 115, 117, 138 + _na caxi_ (neg. opt.) 132 + _-nagara_ (ger.) 155 + _nal coto mo arózu_ (neg. pot. w. adj.) 141 + _-naide_ (neg. ger.) 134 + _-naide cara_ (neg. ger.) 134 + _-naidemo_ (neg. perf. perm.) 133 + _nama_ (p. showing incomplete action) 148 + _-nanda_ (neg. pret.) 132 + _-nanda coto_ (neg. pret. inf.) 133 + _-nanda mono_ (neg. ger.) 134 + _-nanda mono de arózu_ (neg. perf. pot.) 141 + _-nandaraba_ (neg. perf. cond.) 139 + _-nanda reba_ (neg. perf. subj.) 133 + _-nanda reba tote_ (neg. perf. perm.) 133 + _-nanda redomo_ (neg. perf. subj.) 133 + _-nanda ritomo_ (neg. perf. perm.) 133 + _-nanda to_ (neg. perf. inf.) 133 + _-nande aru_ (neg. plup.) 132 + _-nande atta_ (neg. plup.) 132 + _-nanzzu ró_ (neg. perf. pot.) 141 + _-naraba_ (cond.) 139 + _naranu_ (w. const. showing necessity) 155 + _nari,u_ (pot. aux. w. adj.) 141 + _nasare,uru_ (hon. aux.) 145 + _na ... so_ (neg. imp.) 132, 137 + _-neba_ (neg. subj.) 132 + _-neba tote_ (neg. perm.) 133 + _-nedomo_ (neg. perm.) 133 + _negavacu va_ (w. opt.) 126, 132 + _ni_ (dat.) 112; + (abl.) 113; + (prep.) 164, 165; + (w. ger.) 130, 134; + (w. cond.) 138; + (w. subj.) 127; + (w. supine) 130, 131; + (w. passive v.) 172; + (adv. form of _na_) 121 + _ni iotte_ (prep.) 164; + (w. indefinite pron.) 121 + _ni itatte_ (prep.) 165 + _ni tai xite_ (prep.) 164 + _ni tçuite_ (prep.) 164; + (w. inf.) 130 + _ni totte_ (prep.) 165 + _ni va_ (w. cond.) 139 + _ni voite va_ (prep.) 165; + (w. cond.) 139, 140 + _ni xitagatte_ (prep.) 165 + _ni xitagóte_ (see _ni xitagatte_) + _ni xite_ (w. ger.) 130, 138 + _no_ (nom.) 111; + (gen.) 112; + (w. quote.) 171; + (to form adj.) 114; + (in relative const.) 122 + _nó_ (p. of confirmation) 163 + _nochi_ (w. subj.) 127 + _no gotoqu_ (prep., dialect) 166 + _no iori_ (prep.) 165 + _-nu_ (neg. pres., 1st) 131 + _-nu madeio_ (neg. pres. perm., 1st) 133 + _-nu maie ni_ (w. aff. meaning) 151 + _-nu mamaio_ (neg. pres. perm., 1st) 133 + + _o_ (form of _vo_ after _n_) 171 + _-ó_ (pres., 3rd) 135 + _-ó_ (fut., 2nd) 135; + (fut. imp., 2nd) 135 + _-ó_ (adv.) 115, 156 + _-ô_ (pres., 3rd) 136 + _-ô_ (fut., 1st) 125; + (fut. imp., 1st) 125 + _-ô_ (adv.) 115, 156 + _-ô coto_ (fut. inf., 1st) 129 + _-ô coto mo arózu_ (fut. pot., 1st) 141 + _-óda_ (pret., 2nd) 134 + _-ôda_ (pret., 2nd) 134 + _-ô fito_ (fut. part., 1st) 131 + _-oi_ (adj.) 114, 138 + _-oi_ (v. root, 3rd) 135 + _-ô mono_ (fut. part., 1st) 131 + _-ô ni_ (ger., 1st) 130 + _-ô tame_ (ger., 1st) 130 + _-óte_ (adj. ger.) 138 + _-ôte_ (adj. ger.) 138 + _-ô to_ (fut. inf., 1st) 129 + _-ô toqi_ (fut. subj., 1st) 127 + _-ô tote_ (ger., 1st) 130 + _-ó xite_ (adj. ger.) 138 + _-ôzu_ (fut., 2nd) 135 + _-ôzu_ (imp., 1st) 125 + _-ôzu mono vo_ (perf. opt., 1st) 126 + _-ôzure_ (fut., 1st, w. _coso_) 151 + _-ôzuru_ (fut., 2nd) 135 + {193} + _-ôzuru_ (fut., 1st) 125 + _-ôzuru coto no saqi ni_ (plup. subj., 1st) 128 + _-ôzuru ni_ (plup. subj., 1st) 128 + _-ôzuru tocoro ni_ (plup. subj., 1st) 128 + _-ôzu tomo_ (fut. perm., 1st) 128 + + _qere_ (p. of confirmation) 150 + _qereba_ (w. subj.) 133, 138 + _qeredomo_ (w. perm.) 133, 139 + _-qi_ (adj.) 116 + _qiri,u_ (emph. aux.) 149 + _-qu_ (adj. root) 138 + _-qu tomo_ (adj. perm.) 138 + _-qu va_ (adj. cond.) 139 + _-qu xite_ (adj. ger.) 138 + + _ra_ (pluralizer) 113, 114, 118, 119 + _-raba_ (cond.) 139 + _-rare,uru_ (pot., 1st) 144; + (hon., 1st) 145; + (passive, 1st) 143 + _-re,uru_ (pot., w. 2nd & 3rd) 144; + (hon., w. 2nd & 3rd) 145, 147; + (passive, w. 2nd & 3rd) 143 + _-re_ (pret. ending after _coso_, see _-tare_) 150 + _-reba_ (subj., 1st) 127 + _reba_ (w. perf. subj.) 132; + (w. cop.) 138 + _-redomo_ (perm., 1st) 128 + _redomo_ (w. perf. perm.) 133; + (w. inf.) 130; + (w. cop.) 138 + _-ri_ (alt.) 152 + _ritomo_ (w. perf. perm.) 128, 133 + _ró_ (pot.) 140 + _-ru_ (see _-uru_) + + _sa_ (nominalizer for adj.) 117 + _sai_ (imp.) 126 + _saie_ (emph.) 150; + (w. cond.) 140; + (w. neg. const.) 150 + _sama_ (prep., dialect) 166 + _sama_ (temp.) 154 + _sama_ (hon.) 119 + _saqini_ (w. neg. v.) 151 + _saraba_ (conj.) 167 + _sareba sareba_ (conj.) 167 + _sari nagara_ (conj.) 167 + _satemo_ (interj.) 167 + _satemo satemo_ (interj.) 167 + _sate sate_ (interj.) 167 + _-saxe,uru_ (causative) 143 + _saxemaxi,u_ (hon. aux.) 145 + _-saxerare,uru_ (hon.) 146 + _só aru tocoro de_ (conj.) 167 + _sóna_ (p. of presumption) 170 + + _-ta_ (pret., 1st) 124, 134, 136; + (w. adj. function) 116 + _-tacatta_ (pret. of _-tai_) 153 + _tachi_ (pluralizer) 113, 119 + _-ta coto_ (pret. inf., 1st) 129 + _-ta fito_ (pret. part., 1st) 131 + _-tagari,u_ (2nd & 3rd person deciderative) 153 + _-tai_ (deciderative) 153; + (w. imp. meaning) 126 + _-ta madeio_ (per. perm., 1st) 128 + _tamai,ó_ (hon. aux.) 145 + _-ta mamaio_ (perf. perm., 1st) 128 + _tame_ (prep.) 164; + (w. ger.) 130, 134 + _tameni_ (w. supine) 130 + _-ta mono_ (pret. part., 1st) 131 + _-ta mono de arózu_ (perf. pot., 1st) 141 + _-taraba_ (perf. cond., 1st) 139 + _-taraba iocaró mono va_ (perf. opt., 1st) 126 + _-tare_ (pret. ending w. _coso_) 150 + _-ta reba_ (perf. subj., 1st) 127 + _-ta reba tote_ (perf. perm., 1st) 128 + _-ta redomo_ (perf. perm., 1st) 128 + _-tari_ (pret. writ.) 183 + _-tari_ (alt.) 152 + _-ta ritomo_ (perf. perm., 1st) 128 + _-taró ni va_ (perf. cond., 1st) 139 + _-taró va_ (perf. opt.) 126 + _-tarózu_ (plup., 1st) 125 + _tate matçuri,u_ (humble aux.) 147 + _-ta to_ (pret. inf., 1st) 129 + _tatoi_ (w. perm.) 128 + _-tçu_ (alt.) 152 + _tçui-_ (intens.) 148 + _-tçu ró_ (perf. pot., 1st) 140, 151 + _-te_ (ger.) 129, 130, 155, 183; + (inf.) 129 + _-te_ (part.) 131 + _-te aranu_ (neg. pret., completed action) 137 + _-te aró_ (fut., completed action) 137 + {194} + _-te aró ni va iocaró mono vo_ (perf. opt.) 126 + _-te arózu_ (perf.) 124, 137 + _-te atta_ (perf.) 124, 137; + (w. perf. subj.) 127 + _-te atta reba_ (plup. subj.) 127 + _-te cara_ (plup. subj.) 127 + _-te coso_ (w. neg. meaning) 154 + _tei_ (p. of manner) 154 + _-te igo_ (plup. subj.) 127 + _-te mo_ (subj.) 128; + (w. advers.) 154 + _-te nochi_ (plup. subj.) 127 + _to_ (gen.) 112 + _to_ (conj.) 166 + _to_ (w. inf.) 129, 133 + _to_ (quot.) 168; + (w. adv. of sound) 163 + _tocacu_ (disj.) 167 + _tocoro_ (w. subj.) 127; + (p. of completed action) 151 + _tocoro gia_ (p. w. no special meaning) 151 + _tocoro no_ (w. relative const.) 122 + _-tomo_ (w. perm.) 128, 133, 138, 150 + _to mo_ (quot.) 170 + _-tó mo nai_ (neg. of _-tai_) 153 + _toqi_ (w. subj.) 127; + (w. pret. imperfect) 152 + _tori-_ (intens.) 149 + _tote_ (w. perm.) 128, 133; + (w. ger.) 134 + _to tomo ni_ (prep.) 165 + _to xite_ (w. ger.) 130 + _-tta_ (pret., 2nd) 134 + + _-u_ (pres., 2nd) 134 + _-ú_ (adv.) 115, 156 + _-ú_ (pres., 3rd) 136 + _uchi-_ (intens.) 149 + _-ui_ (adj.) 115, 138 + _-ui_ (v. root, 3rd) 135 + _uie_ (prep.) 166 + _uie iori_ (prep.) 164 + _-unda_ (pret., 2nd) 134 + _-ureba_ (pres. cond.) 139 + _-uru_ (pres., 1st) 123 + _-uru fito_ (pres. part., 1st) 131 + _-uru iori_ (pres. inf., 1st) 130 + _-uru jibun_ (ger., 1st) 130 + _-uru madeio_ (pres. perm., 1st) 128 + _-uru mamaio_ (pres. perm., 1st) 128 + _-uru mo_ (fut. perm., 1st) 128 + _-uru mono_ (pres. part., 1st) 131 + _-uru ni_ (ger., 1st) 130 + _-uru ni tçuite_ (pres. inf., 1st) 130 + _-uru tame_ (ger., 1st) 130 + _-uru tameni_ (supine, 1st) 130 + _-uru tomo_ (fut. perm., 1st) 128 + _-uru tote_ (ger., 1st) 130 + _-uru vo motte_ (pres. inf., 1st) 128 + + _va_ (nom.) 111; + (acc.) 112; + (w. subj.) 127; + (w. inf.) 130; + (w. cond.) 139; + (w. other p.) 114; + (replacing other p.) 114; + (w. const. showing necessity) 155 + _va_ (p. of confirmation) 149 + _-vaba_ (cond., 3rd) 139 + _-vananda_ (neg. pret., 3rd) 136 + _-vanande aru_ (neg. pret., 3rd) 136 + _-vanande atta_ (neg. pret., 3rd) 136 + _-vanu_ (neg. pres., 3rd) 136 + _-vazu_ (neg. root, 3rd) 136 + _vo_ (acc.) 113; + (w. subj.) 127; + (w. neutral v.) 172; + (becomes _o_ after _n_) 171 + _vo-_ (hon.) 146, 182 + _vo-_ (masculine) 114 + _-vó_ (fut., 3rd) 136 + _voba_ (acc.) 112 + _voi-_ (intens.) 149 + _vo motte_ (prep.) 165; + (w. inf.) 130 + _von-_ (hon.) 118, 182 + _vôxe-_ (hon.) 147 + _-vózu_ (fut., 3rd) 136 + _-vózuru_ (fut., 3rd) 136 + + _-xe,uru_ (causative) 143 + _xemaxi,u_ (hon. aux.) 145 + _-xerare,uru_ (hon.) 146 + _-xi_ (adj.) 116 + _xicareba_ (conj.) 167 + _xidai_ (prep.) 165 + _xite_ (w. neg. ger.) 131, 134 + _xu_ (n. pluralizer) 113 + + _-zaru_ (neg. pres., dialect) 131 + {195} + _-zatta_ (neg. pret., dialect) 131 + _-zatta reba_ (neg. perf. subj. dialect) 131 + _zo_ (interr.) 156, 159, 163; + (temp.) 159; + (dub.) 162; + (intens.) 162 + _-zu_ (neg. v. root, 1st) 131 + _-zũba_ (neg. cond.) 139 + _-zumba_ (see _zũba_) + _-zu tomo_ (neg. perf. perm., 1st) 133 + _-zu va_ (neg. cond.) 139 + _-zu xite_ (neg. ger., 1st) 131, 134 + _-zzu_ (alt.) 152 + _-zzu ró_ (perf. pot.) 140, 151 + + * * * * * + + +Notes + +[1] Diego Collado, O.P., _Niffon no Cotoba no Yô Confesion_, etc. (Rome, +1632). For further bibliographic data cf. Johannes Laures, _Kirishitan +Bunko_ (Tokyo, 1957). Cf. also Ōtsuka Mitsunobu, _Koriyaado zangeroku_ +(Tokyo, 1967), for a Japanese transliteration and concordance. It should be +noted that the material in this work had no direct influence upon the +concurrently written grammar. The only example in the _Ars Grammaticae_ +which might have been borrowed from the _Confesion_ is on p. 23 where we +find _doco de qiqi marasuru mo, sono sata va mósanu_ 'although this is +heard everywhere, I have heard nothing of it.' which parallels the +_Confesion_, p. 6, l. 18; _docu _[_sic_]_ de qiqi marasuru mo; sono sata ga +gozaranu_ 'one hears about this everywhere; but, it doesn't seem to be so.' + +[2] The bibliographical data on these and other works directly related to +the study of Collado's Grammar will be found in the section on bibliography +which follows. + +[3] Other works by Collado have come down to us; cf. a memorial by him +published in 1633 (Laures, _Kirishitan Bunko_, item 411). Such material is, +however, only peripherally related to the study of language. + +[4] For a brilliantly written biography see Michael Cooper, S.J., +_Rodrigues the Interpreter: An Early Jesuit in Japan and China_ (Tokyo, +1974). + +[5] The Press of the Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith was +founded in 1626 when the Congregation was at the height of its activity. +Grammars of the major non-European languages published during this period +are: + + _Date_ _Language_ _Grammarian_ + + 1628 Syrian Abraham Ecchell + 1630 Ethiopian V. M. Rearino + 1631 Arabic Thomas Obicini + 1632 Japanese Diego Collado + 1636 Coptic A. Kircher + 1637 Arabic Germano de Silesia + 1642 Arabic P. Guadagnoli + 1643 Georgian F. M. Maggio + 1645 Armenian Clemente Galano + 1647 Syrian J. Acurense + 1650 Arabic Antonio de Aguila + 1661 Persian Ignazio de Jesu + +[6] Rodriguez' own work is strongly influenced by the format found in +Manuel Alvarez (1526-1582), _De Institutione Grammatica, Libri III_ +(Lisbon, 1572). So much a part of the training in the Society of Jesus was +this work that an edition was printed in 1594 as one of the earliest +products of the Mission Press at Amakusa. + +[7] The palatal semi-vowel is represented, as in most the Christian +materials, by a number of transcriptional devices such as _i_, _e_, _h_, +and palatal consonants; e.g., _fiacu_, _agueô_, _cha_, and _xô_. + +[8] See the translation, p. [82], n. 8. + +[9] Collado's and Rodriguez' analyses agree in classifying the _ni-dan_ +verbs and _suru_ into one conjunction, the _yo-dan_ verbs into a second, +and the _ha-gyō_ of the _yo-dan_ into a third. + +[10] It should be recalled that the _Ars Grammaticae_ is numbered by the +page and the _Arte_ by the leaf. + +[11] See p. 14, under _Dos nomes adiectivos_, where the initial distinction +is drawn between nominal and verbal adjectives. + +[12] Rodriguez does not treat the substantive verb in _Arte Breve_, but +refers the reader to his earlier work for its description. + +[13] _Verbo pessoal_ as contrasted with _verbo substantivo_ and _verbo +adjectivo_. + +[14] Rodriguez defines this term elsewhere (_Arte_, 56) as the vowels, _A_, +_I_, _V_, _Ye_, _Vo_, in that order. See also the introduction to the +_Vocabulario_. + +[15] This term, not found in the _Arte_, is applied to the entire complex +of "spelling" rules which Rodriguez introduces into his description. While +no clear-cut influences can be established, it is generally held by Doi and +others that these rules are based upon _Kanazukai no chikamichi_ or some +similar work. See _Kokugogaku taikei_, Vol. 9 (Tokyo, 1964), pp. 69-77. + +[16] Latin _liquesco_, "to become fluid, or melt." Used here as a term to +describe the palatal and labial series. + +[17] This last phrase is to be understood in the context of the following +passages which deal with euphonic change in the absence of a devise, +_nigori ten_, to show voicing. + +[18] Rodriguez used _Vma_ regularly in the _Arte_, but notes the variant +_Muma_ on 178v. + +[19] Presumably a reference to such variants as _Samurô_ for _Saburô_. + +[20] _Liurinho_, presumably a treatise such as the _Kanazukai no +chikamichi_, by Ichijō Kanera. + +[21] In this passage Rodriguez is suggesting that certain European +grammarians, out of ignorance of native grammatical theory, have +misinterpreted the formational rules; and that, perhaps for pedogogical +convenience, he has retained some of these "unnatural" rules in his +description. + +[22] Read _Taxxi_. + +[23] Read _tatesai_. The punctuation _Tateyo_. _Tatei_, _tatesai_, is in +all likelihood a typesetter's error for _Tateyo_, _tatei_, _tatesai_. + +[24] The conjugational display (27v) lists _motomuruni_ and +_motomurutocoroni_. + +[25] Rodriguez is here confusing the usage of the classical particle _ran, +ramu_ with the construction _te + ara + mu_. + +[26] In the conjugational charts we find: + + _motomeô_ } + _motometarǒ_ } _toki_ + _motomeôzuru_ } + +[27] The following notes are necessary to correct the printer's errors that +occur in this listing: + +a. In the perfect conditional of _Vabi_ read _bitaraba_ for _bitaraaba_. + +b. The form _Fitobi_ should in all likelihood read _Fotobi_ 'to be wet.' + +c. The forms _Fotobi_, _Fokorobi_, and _Fusabi_ are all given present +indicatives in _bu_. There seems to be no reason for the ending appropriate +to the classical _shūshikei_ to be used for these particular verbs and the +_bu_ is taken as a misprint of _buru_. The _Arte_ (28) lists these forms as +regular. + +d. In the perfect conditional of _Mochiy_ read _ytaraba_ for _yttaraba_. + +e. The form _Coru_ should read _Cori_. + +f. It will be noticed in the final segment of this listing, beginning with +Y, Rodriguez makes no effort to distinguish among _Kami-ichidan_, +_kami-nidan_, and the irregular verb _Ki_ 'to come.' + +[28] By this single rule Rodriguez brings the two _na-hen_ verbs into the +second conjugation. + +[29] Read _najûda_ and _nijûda_. + +[30] Although the spelling _auoghǒ_ would contain a redundancy it would +agree with such forms as _aghuru_, _coghanu_ and _coghǒ_ found elsewhere. + +[31] This use of the imperative reflects a purely formal solution to the +morphological problem. + +[32] Read _Yôdareba_. + +[33] This rule, which consciously or unconsciously associates the future +and the conditional, is also applied to the third conjugation, while the +first conjugation uses the root. + +[34] The future is the same as the present. + +[35] This spelling of the final root consonant with a _c_ is irregular for +verbs. Cf. _cakanu_ just below. + +[36] The association of the negative with the future, and by extension with +the conditional, suggests a keen awareness of the underlying system, +particularly since the _Canadzucai_ rules to which he refers require the +formation be made from the present. It should be noted that this rule is +significantly more elegant than that which derives the negative from the +root. + +[37] The _ij_ in the original is the digraph _ij_, as elsewhere. + +[38] Read _Redomo_. + +[39] _Majij_ with the digraph would be more regular. + +[40] A photostatic copy of the entire text has been made available by Shima +Shōzō, _Rodorigesu Nihon daibunten_ (Tokyo, Bunka Shobō, 1969). + +[41] Ōtsuka's comparison of the Spanish manuscript with the printed version +of the text suggests that many of the typographical errors found in our +text are the result of material being too hastily transcribed from a more +correct original while the work was being translated from Latin. + +[42] This Reference is to _Arte_ of 1604-8. The _Arte Breve_, printed in +1620 in Macao, was not available to Collado. + +[43] The _Dictionarium sive Thesauri Linguae Iaponicae_, which was in fact +published at the same time. + +[44] See the Introduction for the regularized usage of these symbols in the +translation. (The transcription of _gacuxǒ_, and the _aiaǔ_ below, are at +variance with the rule for the translation and are here transcribed as +printed.) + +[45] This convention is not transcribed in the translation (cf. +Introduction). + +[46] More regularly _synaloephy_--the contraction of two syllables into +one. + +[47] The geminates that actually appear in the text are; _tt_, _xx_, _zz_, +_cq_, _ij_ & _pp_, as well as _cc_ (_cch_), _mm_, _nn_, and _ss_. Two +appear initially _mm_, as in _mma_ 'horse,' and _zz_, as in _zzuru_ 'to +leave.' The form _qq_ which would be phonetically equivalent to _cq_ is not +recorded. + +[48] This sequence is not used in the body of the grammar, rather the less +phonetically accurate _ia_, _ie_, etc. It should be noted that the +_Dictionarium_, which was written contemporaniously, does use _y_ for the +semivowel. + +[49] For _s_ read _g_. The _Arte_ (177v) discusses this phenomenon as being +characteristic of vowels before _d_, _dz_, and _g_. + +[50] Since in fact the accent has been carelessly recorded in the text--in +places added in an almost random fashion by either the author, his helpers, +or the printer--we have not included its marking in the translation. (Cf. +Introduction.) + +[51] The _Dictionarium_ has the spelling _fibicàxi_ in one entry and in the +only other it is transcribed as above. + +[52] Acts, 19:20. Referring to the servant in the parable of the pounds who +is condemned for keeping his money "laid away in a napkin." + +[53] The text uses _reduplicatiuus_, with the grammatical meaning of plural +singular; e.g., the singular I with the meaning of myself and those around +me. + +[54] Both the _Dictionarium_ and the _Vocabulario_ have either _Nifon_ or +_Nippon_, but do not record this form. It seems not to be a simple +typographical error since the spelling is used in the title of the +companion piece to this work, the _Confesion_, and since the text itself +has _niffion_ and it is changed to _niffon_ in the _errata_. _Nifon_ +appears on page 43. + +[55] The _Arte_ and the _Vocabulario_ use the forms _goran_ and _gorǒ_ in +free variation. Collado here and in the _Dictionarium_ uses what appears to +be the less phonetically accurate transcription. The Spanish manuscript has +_goranjerarei_. + +[56] May I submit this as a candidate for the most exotic bit of +anti-semitism in Christendom. + +[57] The text reads _funè-de_, and apparently Collado is attempting to +indicate both accent and nasalization at the same time. He does not +continue this practice. + +[58] The text has _caper silvester_ 'the wild he-goat' presumably the +_capreolus capreolus_ which is similar in appearance to the Japanese deer, +_cervus sika_. + +[59] While this rule is operative for _caij_, it creates difficulties after +_x_. Rodriguez' rule is _ij_ becomes _ǔ_ with the example of _ataraxǔ_. +Collado's rule would create _ataraxiú_. (Cf. p. 33.) + +[60] Neither Collado nor Rodriguez make a clear distinction between the +quantitative function of _no_ and the qualitative function of _na_. + +[61] Collado usually make a clear distinction between colloquial and +literary forms. He apparently is suggesting that these non-colloquial forms +are heard in the spoken language. Here, not only is the style left +unexplained, but the translation _faciendo bonam consultationem_ is less +than ellucidating. Here the _ioqu_ is in fact adverbial. + +[62] From _kobu_ 'to flatter.' An abbreviation of _kobita kotoba_, and used +to indicate refined speech; i.e., that speech containing Chinese +borrowings. See Doi Tadao, _Kirishitan gogaku no kenkyū_ (Tokyo, 1942, pp. +67-70). The term is also found in the introduction to the _Vocabulario_ in +the expression _palauras Cobitas_. + +[63] The text reads _De pronomine secundae personae_.... + +[64] This list, unquestionably derived from the _Arte_ (67v), has been in +several ways confounded. The _mi_ is out of order and the second _vare_ is +clearly in error. If we put aside the genitive forms from Rodriguez' list, +the first four forms should be _vare_, _varera_, _vatacuxi_, and +_soregaxi_. Rodriguez' second set consists of _mi_, _midomo_, and +_midomora_. We would suggest that Collado meant to include _ura_, which is +listed by Rodriguez as the genitive form _vraga_. I offer _vatacuxi_, +_soregaxi_, _vare_, _varera_, _mi_, _midomo_, _midomora_, and _ura_ as the +intended list, with the order of _mi_ and _varera_ reversed to accommodate +the sentence which follows. + +[65] The forms for the second person are derived from the _Arte_ (68). +Throughout this section the accent marks are quite erratic. In several +places, for example, Collado has _sónata_ and even _sónatá_. + +[66] In the material which follows Collado has brought together items from +several sections of the _Arte_; for the interrogatives see (65-65v), the +indefinites (66), and the demonstratives (68). + +[67] These reduplicated forms are not derived from Rodriguez' description +and are apparently misstatements of the forms _care_ and _are_ which would +otherwise be missing. + +[68] An abbreviated form of _monomósu_; cf. _Arte_ (139v). + +[69] Collado is here speaking with reference to the normal order in Latin. + +[70] The treatment of the verbal system by Collado follows in a general way +the _Arte_ (6v-54v). In the material that follows specific references will +be made when a comparison of the two works is suggested. + +[71] The text has _secundae coniugationis_. This error, which is repeated +throughout the text, is not present in the Spanish manuscript. + +[72] The text again has _secundae coniugationis_. + +[73] This list covering the _Kami-ichidan_ and _Kami-nidan_ verbs is +derived from a similarly defined sub-group of the first conjugation in the +_Arte_ (28). Since the verbs _cabi_, _sabi_, and _deqi_ are in no way +indicated as extraordinary in Rodriguez' presentation, I have amended the +text to include their present tense form. + +[74] The text reads for this gloss _fucore afficior_. The proper word is +_mucore_ 'mould,' with the literal translation being 'I am affected by +mould.' + +[75] The _Dictionarium_ has this verb listed as _kami-nidan_, _xij_, _uru_, +and therefore not exceptional. + +[76] Cf. _Arte_ (7) where a similar list is presented. + +[77] For the source of Collado's description of the future tense cf. _Arte_ +(7v). + +[78] The text reads _secundae coniugationis_. + +[79] Rodriguez more correctly has this rule as the root plus _i_ or _yo_; +e.g., _aguei_ or _agueyo_. The form _aguei_ is used by Collado in the +construction of the optative below. + +[80] This form is correct but does not follow his rule for the formation of +the imperative (see note 79). + +[81] Rodriguez has _baquemono_ 'evil spirit' and the Spanish manuscript +_baqemono_, rather than _banguemono_ 'soothsayer.' + +[82] Extracted from Rodriguez' version of a sentence in the Amakusa edition +of Esop's Fables (p. 417). The original reads, _Arutoqi Xantho chinsui xite +yraruru tocoroye, fitoga qite daicaino vxiuouo fitocuchino nomi tçucusaruru +michiga arǒcato tôni_,... 'One time when Xantho [Esop's master] was drunk, +a man came and asked if there was a way to drink all the waters of the +ocean in one swallow....' it is abbreviated by Collado in such a way as to +obscure the construction. + +[83] Also apparently extracted from the _Esopo_ (p. 477). The original has, +... _riǒbǒni tachiuacarete yru tocoroni qitçunega yosocara coreuo mite, +futatçuno nacani vocareta fittçu jiuo totte curǒta_, 'when they [two lions] +had gone their separate ways, the fox, seeing this from afar, took the +sheep which had been between the two of them and ate it.' By changing +_riǒbǒ_ to _nhóbó_ Collado created a less than satisfactory example. + +[84] Modeled on _Iyeuo idzuru tocorouo cubiuo quiri votoita_ 'when he went +outside his head was cut off.' + +[85] Modeled on _Missauo asobasaruru tocoroye vôjei faxe atçumatta_ 'when +mass was being celebrated, many came running and gathered around.' + +[86] Apparently modelled after _Arte_ (20v) _nantomo voxiare caxi_ +'whatever you say,' with the imperative formation again confounded. + +[87] Rodriguez (25v) specifies the location of this usage as Chūgoku, +Bungo, Hakata, and other _Ximo_ districts. + +[88] This example, together with _so zonze na_ below, reflects the loss of +a distinction between _z_ and _j_ which was taking place during this +period. + +[89] The text has _secundae coniugationis_. + +[90] The _Arte_ (27) records here _aguenedomo_, _aguenuto mǒxedomo_, +_aguezutomo_, _aguenebatote_, and _agueidemo_. Neither _aguenaidemo_ nor +the participle _aguenaide_, below, are found in the _Arte_, though they are +attested to elsewhere. Cf. Yuzawa Kōkichirō, _Edo kotoba no kenkyū_ (Tokyo, +1954), p. 626. + +[91] This rule, derived from Rodriguez (_Arte_, 29), is misformulated by +Collado. Rodriguez' rule is correct; change the _nu_ of the negative +present to _i_. It is formulated correctly for the third conjugation, +below. + +[92] Collado's rule clearly confuses the formulation of the present with +that of the future. Significantly in the _Arte_ Rodriguez never refers to +the future forms of any verb other than his model _narai_. If Collado had +had access to the _Arte Breve_ he would have found (41) the following +principal parts for _vomoi_; _ vomoi_, _vomô_, _vomôta_, _vomovǒ_, +_vomoye_. The only other use in the _Ars Grammaticae_ of this form is on +page 62 where Collado has the incorrect form _vomovô_. The manuscript does +not record this form. + +[93] Although Collado's transcription permits this rule to yield the +appropriate forms, it obscures the fact that the final _i_ of the root is a +vowel, while the _i_ of the imperative is a semivowel. Rodriguez' +transcription better reflects the phonological facts; _naraye_, _vomoye_, +and _cuye_. + +[94] This completes Collado's treatment of the third negative conjugation. +The two paragraphs which follow are part of his treatment of the +substantive verb. There is no section heading for the affirmative +substantive verb; and clearly a portion of the text has been deleted. The +Spanish manuscript (cf. Ōtsuka's 1957 edition, p. 45) includes a new +section which begins by recording the following substantive verb forms; +_ari:aru_, _gozari:gozaru_, _i:iru_, and _vori:voru_. + +[95] Collado's presentation of the substantive verbs is obscure. The text +reads: _Verba verò substantiua sunt_, gozaru, gozaranu, voru, uori nai, dea +_vel_ gia: deuanai, aru:aranu, _vel_, gozaranu uoru ùôrinai, _&_ .... The +translation attempts to punctuate the list to reflect the contrast between +affirmative and negative forms. The main confusion is the apparent effort +to contrast _voru_ and _vorinai_. _Voru_ (glossed by the supplement of the +_Vocabulario_ as _estar_, and used in the _Dictionarium_ as the gloss for +_existo_, _etc._) is not used by Rodriguez in the _Arte_. _Vorinai_ +(unglossed in the dictionaries) is clearly defined by Rodriguez as the +negative of the polite verb _voriaru_, which is derived by him from _von +iri+aru_ (_Arte_, 165v). Possibly Collado had intended to contrast _voru_ +with _voranu_ and _voriaru_ with _vorinai_ but confounded the two pairs and +then repeated his error at the end of the list; or again he may, in the +absence of Rodriguez' guidance, have simply misunderstood the matter. +Putting the alternative forms aside, the list should read +_gozaru:gozaranu_, _vori aru:vori nai_, _gia:devanai_, _aru:aranu_, and +_voru:voranu_. Collado's treatment is patterned only loosely after the +_Arte_ (2v-6v). + +[96] Collado seems to be unaware of the irregularity of _vonaji_. + +[97] Collado is following the general rule established on p. 10 for such +forms as _caij_. He might better have followed Rodriguez who would +transcribe _canaxǔte_, as do we. + +[98] The missing 'closed o' aside, Collado's transcription of this form +with an _n_ is indicative of the clarity with which he perceived the +nasalization in this context. + +[99] Cf. _Arte_ (18v-19v). + +[100] The text reads _cú vaau ni voite va_, with the errata changing the +verb to _cuvazu_. + +[101] This historically inaccurate rule is derived from the _Arte_ (18v). + +[102] In the one example of this construction, on page 62, Collado has the +form _tovazunba_. + +[103] The original is in the _soro_ style; _Iǒjǒni voiteua uquetori +mǒsubequ soro._ + +[104] Cf. _Arte_ (19v). + +[105] Here and throughout the section Collado transcribes as _ro_ the +potential particle which should correctly be written _ró_ (cf. _Arte_, +11v). It will be noticed that all but one instance of the 'open o' on p. 35 +of the text has been left unmarked. + +[106] Collado has derived this list from the _Arte_ (45-47). His +terminology is, however, rather misleading. What he classifies as _verba +irregularia_ are those which Rodriguez considers deponent, that is _verbo +defectiuo_, with the term _verbo irregular_ being used by Rodriguez for the +adjective. Given this misunderstanding Collado begins his list with an +explanation of the irregularities of _qi,uru_. This verb is on Rodriguez' +list only because "it lacks certain forms in the affirmative" (45v). +Rodriguez has a list of 43 deponent verbs, beginning with _tari_, from +which Collado has selected the first 14 and then a few from the remainder. + +[107] In the restricted context of an adjectival; cf. modern _arayuru +koto_. + +[108] Cf. _Arte_ (45v) where Rodriguez transcribes _vreyeyo_. + +[109] Loc. cit. Rodriguez presents _vreôru_ as an alternative form for +_vreô_ in the present tense and then selects that variant for the +infinitive. + +[110] Formation (_formatio_) is to be understood here in the sense of +derivation, and diversity (_differentia_) in the sense of class membership. + +[111] The opening paragraphs of this section follow the _Arte_ (68-70 and +96-108v). The list of particles, beginning with _maraxi_, follows 160-168. + +[112] The text, here and in the next sentence, reads _secundae +coningationis_. + +[113] The form _dojucu_ is incorrect. It is taken by Ōtsuka to be _dōshuku_ +'a person living in the same house.' The _Vocabulario_ records the item +_dôjucu_ 'a young boy who serves a priest.' _Dôjucu_ best fits Collado's +translation. + +[114] The text again reads _secundae coniugationis_. + +[115] Cf. _Arte_ (160-164) from which this list and the following material +have been derived. + +[116] Throughout his treatment of the respect language Collado glosses his +verb forms in the first person, even though that translation might be +inappropriate to any context. + +[117] Rodriguez (_Arte_, 162v) specifies the distribution of _vo_ and _go_, +using _gosacu atta_ as his example of the construction in context of a +Chinese vocabulary item. Collado does not refer to this distinction. + +[118] The text reads _secundae coniugationis_. + +[119] The text reads _secundae coniugationis_. + +[120] Ōtsuka (1957) suggests _maraxi_ is correct and alters the example. +Since the list begins with _maraxi_, I assume the error to be in the +citation. + +[121] The material for this section is derived from the _Arte_ (164v-168). + +[122] While the material for this section is drawn from various sections of +the _Arte_, the bulk of the particles and their descriptions are derived +from Rodriguez' treatment of postpositional (73-77) and adverbial +constructions (112v-125). + +[123] Rodriguez' list (77v) runs as follows; _vchi_, _voi_, _faxe_, _ai_, +_tori_, _mexi_, _tçui_, and _voxi_. On the basis of Collado's examples +_voxi_ should have been included in his list. + +[124] Collado's transcription _qinpen_ is phonemically correct while being +phonetically less accurate than Rodriguez' _quimpen_. + +[125] Collado has altered Rodriguez' version from _Nippon_, even though the +_Dictionarium_ glosses _consuetudo japonica_ as _Nippon catagui_. + +[126] Collado, in the _Dictionarium_ and here, prefers _mmu_ to _uma_. + +[127] This particle is not described in the _Arte_. + +[128] Rodriguez (_Arte_, 116) records _Core coso yocarǒzure_ and states +that in this context _coso_ has the same meaning as _Queccu_ and _Cayette_. + +[129] Cf. the _Arte_ (117) where the list is given as _Reba_, _Ni_, _Tomo_, +the potential, and _Te_. + +[130] Rodriguez' version runs _Iesu Christo fitono vontocoroua_. (For +Collado's use of _reduplicatiuus_ see note 53.) + +[131] As the first example indicates, the _zzu_ variant is not restricted +to the negative preterit, but is the form which appears for _da_ in all +contexts, as here with the preterit of _iomu_. + +[132] In the absence of other examples it is not possible to determine if +Collado assumed the present tense form to be _iuru_ or _uru_. The +correction here follows the spelling used consistently in the _Arte_. + +[133] Both Collado and Rodriguez agree that verbs ending in _tai_ govern +the accusative case; cf. _Nanigaxiuo yobitai_ (_Arte_, 14v). + +[134] The text reads _secunda persona_. + +[135] Rodriguez has _Vatacuxiua nantomo buchôfôde tofǒ ga gozanai_ [... +_buchôfǒde_ ...]. + +[136] Rodriguez uses the transcription _gorǒjerarei_ in the example from +which this sentence is derived. (The ten other occurrences in the _Arte_ +have _goran_.) The _Dictionarium_ uses only _goron_, while the +_Vocabulario_ lists both _goran_ and _goron_. The Spanish manuscript has +_goran_. + +[137] Rodriguez has _mairade canauanu_. + +[138] The _Arte_ has the plain form _mairǒcotode attaredomo_. + +[139] The _Arte_ has _mairumajiqueredomo_. + +[140] Perhaps an attempt to follow the rule, established in the syntax +below, that states the _v_ of the accusative particle is lost after _n_. If +this is the intent, the comma is in error. + +[141] Rodriguez treats adverbs in two sections of the _Arte_; under the +parts of speech (73v-77), and under the syntax (113-125). As has been +observed in the introduction, there is little consistancy of classification +between Rodriguez and Collado in this area of grammatical description. + +[142] The interrogatives are derived from the _Arte_ (110v) and are +presented in substantially the same order. The adverbial particles which +begin with _uie_ are taken from (140-148v) and classified by Rodriguez as +_posposiçao_. + +[143] The errata has; page 50, line 10, _doco_ read _coco_. This would +require the _doco zo_ above to read _coco zo_. It seems that the errata +should have read; page 50, line 16, which would have corrected this error. +The punctuation is not corrected by the errata. + +[144] Rodriguez has the complete version; _Fitocuchi futacuchi cǔ cotoua +cǔta vchideua nai_. + +[145] Rodriguez uses _vonna_ for _vonago_. + +[146] The material for this section is derived from the _Arte_ (74v and +76v). + +[147] Rodriguez has _Ayamari nai vyeua_, ... + +[148] For the temporal interrogatives cf. _Arte_ (89v-90v) and for the +remaining forms 107-107v. + +[149] Cf. the _Dictionarium_ under _cras_. + +[150] The _Vocabulario_ has _sãnuru_ and _sannuru_ as the _ombin_ form of +the attributive perfective _sarinuru_. + +[151] Cf. _Arte_ (74v). + +[152] The Spanish manuscript has _iya iya_. + +[153] Cf. _Arte_ (74v). + +[154] Cf. _Arte_ (75, 94v, and 123v-124v). + +[155] Cf. _Arte_ (94v) _Quixoua ano fito fodono gacuxǒdeua nai._ + +[156] Cf. _Arte_ (95 and 141). + +[157] Cf. _Arte_ (75). + +[158] The _Dictionarium_ has a selection of a dozen intensifying adverbs +listed under _valde_. + +[159] Cf. _Arte_ (74v, 75, and 76). + +[160] Cf. _Arte_ (74, 75, and 75v). + +[161] The _Dictionarium_ also has the spelling _moxi_ which suggests that +Collado perceived a different vowel quantity than Rodriguez who has _mǒxi_, +as does the _Vocabulario_. + +[162] The Latin particle is _nonne_, which expects an affirmative answer. + +[163] Rodriguez, and consequently Doi (_Nihon daibunten_, p. 449), have +_xidai_ for _xisai_. The original source is the _Esopo no Fabulas_ where on +p. 493 the form is _xisai_. + +[164] While the material for this section has been drawn from various +portions of the _Arte_, Rodriguez handles the bulk of the matters dealt +with here on 106v-108v and 140-148v. + +[165] The text is not clear at this point. It reads: Tame, _significat ni +vel erga: v.g._ ... where one would expect: Tame _vel_ ni _significat erga: +v.g._ ... Ōtsuka translates this passage as if it were the later, as do I. + +[166] Collado has recast into the colloquial a quote from the _Shikimoku_. +Rodriguez records: _Mata daiquanni itatteua ichininnomi sadamubequi nari_. + +[167] The text reads: itatte _v.g._ totte.... where the _v.g._ is clearly a +misprint of _vel_. + +[168] Cf. _Arte_ (130-137). + +[169] This item is the only one in this paragraph which Rodriguez does not +list as a _casane cotoba_ on 134v of the _Arte_. Collado is apparently +interpreting this construction as a repetition of two adverbs, as for +example _coco caxico_. If so, the form should be spelled _vomoxirô_, +_vocaxiú_ (if we follow his rule for the formation of adverbs from _ij_ +ending adjectives). However, the form which he seems to be recording is +more likely the compound adverb which is listed in the _Vocabulario_ as +_vomoxirovocaxǔ_ and glossed as _contemporizando de boa maneira_ +'temporizing in a carefree manner.' The spelling that we suggest is derived +from the attested lexical item without the application of Collado's +formational rules. + +[170] Cf. _Arte_ (125-130v). + +[171] This interjection, together with _hat_ below, are the only uses of +initial _h_ found in the description. Rodriguez transcribes the latter item +as _at_ or _vat_ (_Arte_, 127) which suggests a close relationship between +the labial and glottal aspirates. + +[172] Rodriguez has _Benquei satemo yasaxij yatçubaraya_. + +[173] Rodriguez has: ... _nituaye bǒno saxivorosu_. The entire passage +would be, 'Benkei, seeing this, thought, "Oh, this isn't very important," +and dropped the stick into the garden.' which Rodriguez explains to mean +being sorry for not paying sufficient attention to a matter. + +[174] The material for this section is derived from various sections in +Book II of the _Arte_. + +[175] Matthew, 6:24. + +[176] Rodriguez has the spelling _touazumba_. In transcribing the form +Collado failed to follow the rule he established in his treatment of +conditional constructions. + +[177] The model for this sentence appears to be _Arte_ (62): _Ichidan +medzuraxij yenoco, que nagǒ, uquino gotoqu xirǒ_ [_sic_], _me curô, cauo +icanimo airaxijuo cureta._ If this is the source of Collado's example, he +is clearly demonstrating his sensitivity to the nasalization of such items +such as _nagǒ_. The _Dictionarium_ under _longus_ has _nagai_. + +[178] Collado's transcription is unable accurately to express the proper +phonological, or morphological, form of _shin'i_ 'indignation.' He would +have been well advised to follow Rodriguez' model and transcribe this item +as _xiny_ with the specification that consonant plus _y_ indicates a +morphological juncture. + +[179] Rodriguez has the spelling _Quiso_, which agrees with the _Amakusaban +Heike_ (p. 239), the ultimate source of the sentence. Collado's spelling in +the translation is _quiuzo_. The Spanish manuscript has _Kiso_. + +[180] One might expect the more literal 'I do not believe that it will be +finished,' but Collado has _credo quod non finietur_. + +[181] This rule, which might more appropriately have been included with the +phonology, is not followed in Collado's description, with the possible +exception of p. 48 where the same construction is apparently used. + +[182] Collado here demonstrates the absorbitive capacity of Latin as he +creates an accusative singular adjective from the past attributive of the +verb _kobu_. + +[183] The use of _abiru_, where one would expect _aburu_, may be a simple +typographical error or evidence that Collado accepted the shift from +_ni-dan_ to _ichi-dan katsuyō_ as unworthy of notice. Rodriguez (_Arte_, +101v) has _midzuuo aburu_. + +[184] This list is derived from the _Arte_ (101v-102v). From _abi,uru_ on, +the list is in the same order as that made by Rodriguez. _Fanaruru_, +_zzuru_, _nosquru_, _noru_, _vovaru_, and _mairu_ are Collado's +contributions. + +[185] Cf. _Arte_ (101v). + +[186] Cf. _Arte_ (100). + +[187] Cf. _Arte_ (98). + +[188] Cf. _Arte_ (104). + +[189] Cf. _Arte_ (64 and 79). + +[190] The material presented in this section is gleaned from the exhaustive +treatment of the numerical system which makes up the last 20 leaves of +Rodriguez' grammar. + +[191] This compound does not follow the rule, since _cu_ is not a _iomi_ +numeral. See also _cu ninai_ below. + +[192] Rodriguez has _fitoi_ or _fifitoi_ (Arte, 228v). + +[193] While this form fits the general rule for combining counters and +days, Rodriguez (_Arte_, 228v) has _tǒca_, which is a misprint for _tôca_, +cf. Doi, _Daibunten_, p. 818. + +[194] Spelled with a tilde, _sãguat_, as are all the other forms before +_guat_. + +[195] For the _sǒ_ and _sa_ allomorph of _san_ cf. _Arte_ (173v). + +[196] Rodriguez gives the following equivalents in the monetary system on +217-217v of the _Arte_: ... ten _Rin_ in one _Fun_, ten _Fun_ in one +_Momme_, one thousand _Momme_ in one _Quamme_. + +[197] The text is confused at this point. It runs: Ixxacu, _unus palmus seu +tertia quam Hispania vocant_ sanjacu. _tres_, ... + +[198] The text has _culus_ 'posterior,' but the errata changes the word to +_anus_. The original seems closer to the Japanese. + +[199] The examples here lag one behind the glosses. + +[200] Here and elsewhere Collado combines homophonous enumerators which +Rodriguez keeps distinct. Cf. _Arte_ (220-223v) for an extensive list of +enumerators. + +[201] Cf. _Arte_ (159-159v). + +[202] This rule, apparently an invention of Collado's, has no precedent in +Rodriguez or in linguistic derivation. The _n_ in this construction is the +contracted form of the classical _mu_, the source for what Collado calls +the future. + +[203] These forms might better have been presented as _nari,i_ and _qeri,i_ +to indicate that the sentence-ending forms are _nari_ and _qeri_. + + * * * * * + + +Corrections made to printed original. + +p. 14. `BOOK II. The Rudamenta' corrected to `Rudimenta'. + +Ib. `While the Arts Grammaticae presents ...' corrected to `Ars +Grammaticae'. + +p. 16. `booklet which teaches Canaduzcai' changed to much other uses as +`Canadzucai'. + +p. 17. `Tassuru, taxxita, taxxeò ...' the last amended to match the +paradigm `taxxeô'. + +p. 19. `Motoneô.' in future column, amended to fit the paradigm `Motomeô'. + +p. 20. Heading, `Conjuctive' corrected to `Conjunctive'. + +p. 21. Table of irregular verbs, the left hand column has separate entries +`A' and `Bi', these appear to mean a single entry `Abi'. + +p. 24. `Those ending in çu change to Tǒ' - `to' omitted in text. + +Ib. `thus governs the genative' corrected to `genitive'. + +p. 116. `There are ennumerable nouns' corrected to `innumerable'. + +p. 117. `a visable thing' corrected to `visible'. + +p. 118. `primative pronouns' corrected to `primitive'. + +p. 132. `I did not decend.' corrected to `descend'. + +p. 136. `vomi:vomô', from the context and other references (and the Latin +text) the root should be `vomoi'. + +p. 179. `xi ban me forth' corrected to `fourth'. + +Footnote 27 a is applied to `Nobi', this should be `Vabi'. + +Footnote 62. `The term is also found in the introduction to the +Vorabulario', corrected to `Vocabulario'. + +Footnote 106. `verbo defectino' (from Portuguese text) corrected to +`defectiuo' as a more likely corruption than from `defectivo'. + +Footnote 109. `selects that varient' corrected to `variant'. + +Footnote 131. `the zzu varient' corrected to `variant'. + +Footnote 169. `temperizing in a carefree manner' corrected to +`temporizing'. + +Footnote 169. `Spelled with a tilda' corrected to `tilde'. + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Diego Collado's Grammar of the +Japanese Language, by Diego Collado + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK JAPANESE LANGUAGE *** + +***** This file should be named 21197-0.txt or 21197-0.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/2/1/1/9/21197/ + +Produced by David Starner, Keith Edkins and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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