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diff --git a/21204.txt b/21204.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..f2fa305 --- /dev/null +++ b/21204.txt @@ -0,0 +1,6399 @@ +The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Recent Revolution in Organ Building, by +George Laing Miller + + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + + + + +Title: The Recent Revolution in Organ Building + Being an Account of Modern Developments + + +Author: George Laing Miller + + + +Release Date: April 22, 2007 [eBook #21204] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII) + + +***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE RECENT REVOLUTION IN ORGAN +BUILDING*** + + +E-text prepared by Al Haines + + + +Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this + file which includes the original illustrations. + See 21204-h.htm or 21204-h.zip: + (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/2/1/2/0/21204/21204-h/21204-h.htm) + or + (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/2/1/2/0/21204/21204-h.zip) + + +Transcriber's note: + + This book contains a number of references to organ + notes in form "c3", where the "3" is superscripted. + In the text version of this e-book, the superscripted + characters are surrounded with the vertical bar symbol + "|", e.g. "c|3|". + + + + + +THE RECENT REVOLUTION IN ORGAN BUILDING + +Being an Account of Modern Developments + +by + +GEORGE LAING MILLER + +Fellow of the Royal College of Organists, Eng.; First Mus. Bac., +Dunelm.; Organist of Christ Church, Pelham Manor, N. Y.; late of All +Angels', New York; St. Clement's, Philadelphia, and Wallasey Parish +Church, England + +Second Edition + + + + + + + +[Frontispiece: The Organ in St. George's Hall, Liverpool, Eng. Built +by Henry Willis in 1855. Rebuilt 1867 and 1898. The White Marble Bust +Seen in Front is That of W. T. Best.] + + + +New York +The Charles Francis Press +1913 + +Copyright, 1909, 1913, by +George L. Miller +Entered at Stationers' Hall, London + +Reprinted by the Vestal Press, Vestal, N. Y. 13860 +1000 copies, 1969 +Second Reprinting, April 1971, 1000 copies +Write for catalog of other reprinted books in the field of piano and +organ literature + + + + +FOREWORD + +Some years ago the elders and deacons of a Scotch church were assembled +in solemn conclave to discuss the prospective installation of a pipe +organ. The table was piled high with plans and specifications and +discussion ran rife as to whether they should have a two-manual or a +three-manual instrument--a Great and Swell or a Great, Swell, and Choir +organ. At last Deacon MacNab, the church treasurer and a personage of +importance, got a chance to speak. + +"Mr. Chairman," said he, "I don't see why we should have a Great, a +Swell, and a Choir organ. I think that one organ is quite enough." + +Now, Deacon MacNab was a master tailor, and a good one at that; so the +musical man who was pushing the thing through appealed to his +professional instincts in explaining the situation by saying: + +"Surely, Mr. MacNab, you would not say that a man was properly dressed +with only a coat on! You would expect him to have on a coat, waistcoat +and trousers!" And the day was won for the three-manual organ. + +Of course there had been no organ in this church before, or the worthy +deacon might have known more about it. If he had read the second +chapter of this book, he would have known all about it. The following +pages have been written with the idea of helping those who may be +placed in a similar position; who may be called upon to decide the +serious question of the purchase of a new organ for their church, town +hall, or an auditorium, or the rebuilding of the old one now in use; +who are distracted by the conflicting plans and contending claims of +rival organ builders; who are disinclined to rely upon so-called +"expert" opinion, but wish to look into these things for themselves and +intelligently purchase an instrument which is thoroughly up-to-date in +every particular, which will not drive the organist to the verge of +profanity every time he plays upon it, and will not prove a snug source +of income to its builders--for repairs. + +The organ-student, the amateur, and eke the professional organist, will +also find much here that will interest them and lead to a better +understanding of the instrument. + +The revolution in organ-building herein described has for the most part +taken place under the personal notice of the author, during the last +fifty years. The organists of a younger generation are to be +congratulated on the facilities now placed at their disposal, mainly by +the genius and persevering efforts of four men--as hereinafter +described. + + + + +CONTENTS + + +CHAPTER I + +As It Was in the Beginning + + +CHAPTER II + +The Organ in the Nineteenth Century + + +CHAPTER III + +The Dawn of a New Era; the Pneumatic Lever + + +CHAPTER IV + +Pneumatic and Electro-pneumatic Actions--Tubular Pneumatics--Division +of Organs--Sound Reflection--Octave Couplers and Extensions + + +CHAPTER V + +Stop-keys--Control of the Stops + + +CHAPTER VI + +Radiating and Concave Pedal Boards--Pedal-stop Control--Suitable Bass +Attachments + + +CHAPTER VII + +Means of Obtaining Expression--Crescendo Pedal--Sforzando Pedal--Double +Touch--Balanced Swell Pedal--Control of Swell by Keys--Swell Boxes--the +Sound Trap Joint--Vacuum Swell Shutters + + +CHAPTER VIII + +A Revolution in Wind Supply--Springs vs. Weights--Individual +Pallets--Heavy Wind Pressures--Mechanical Blowers + + +CHAPTER IX + +Transference of Stops--Double Touch--Pizzicato Touch--the Unit +Organ--Sympathy + + +CHAPTER X + +Production of Organ Tone--Acoustics of Organ Pipes--Estey Open Bass +Pipes--Diapasons--Flutes--Strings--Reeds--Vowel Cavities--Undulating +Stops (Celestes)--Percussion Stops--the Diaphone + + +CHAPTER XI + +Tuning--Equal Temperament--New Method of Tuning Reeds + + +CHAPTER XII + +Progress of the Revolution in Our Own Country + + +CHAPTER XIII + +Chief Actors--Barker--Cavaille-Coll--Willis--Hope-Jones + + +CHAPTER XIV + +How We Stand To-day--Automatic Players--Specifications of Notable +Organs: St. George's Hall, Liverpool; Notre Dame, Paris; St. Paul's +Cathedral, London; Westminster Abbey; Balruddery, Scotland; Worcester +Cathedral; Yale University, U. S. A.; St. Paul's Cathedral, Buffalo; +Paris Theatre, Denver; Cathedral of St. John the Divine, New York; +University of Toronto, Canada; City Hall, Portland, Me.; Liverpool +Cathedral, England + + + + + INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS + + + The Organ in St. George's Hall, Liverpool, Eng. . . . _Frontispiece_ + Prehistoric Double Flutes + The Wind-chest; Front View. The Wind-chest; Side View. + The Pneumatic Lever + Nomenclature of Organ Keyboard + Portrait of Moitessier + Tubular Pneumatic Action + The First Electric Organ Ever Built + The Electro-Pneumatic Lever + Valve and Valve Seat, Hope-Jones Electric Action + Portrait of Dr. Peschard + Console, St. Paul's Cathedral, Buffalo + Console on Bennett System + Console, Trinity Church, Boston + Console, College of City of New York + Principle of the Sound Trap + Sound Trap Joint + The Vacuum Shutter + Series of Harmonics + Estey's Open Bass Pipes + Diapason Pipe with Leathered Lip + Haskell's Clarinet without Reed + Diagram of Reed Pipe + Vowel Cavities + Diaphone in Worcester Cathedral + Diaphone in Aberdeen University + Diaphone in St. Patrick's, N. Y. + Diaphone in Auditorium, Ocean Grove, N. J. + Diaphone in St. Paul's Cathedral, Buffalo + Diaphone Producing Foundation Tone. + New Method of Tuning Reeds + Portrait of Aristide Cavaille-Coll + Portrait of Charles Spachman Barker + Portrait of Henry Willis + Portrait of Robert Hope-Jones. + Keyboards of Organ, St. George's Hall + Keyboards of Organ, Notre Dame, Paris + Keyboards of Organ, Westminster Abbey + Organ in Balruddery Mansion, Dundee, Scotland + The Author Playing a Hope-Jones Unit Orchestra + + + + +THE RECENT REVOLUTION IN ORGAN BUILDING + + +CHAPTER I. + +AS IT WAS IN THE BEGINNING. + + "The Organ breathes its deep-voiced solemn notes, + The people join and sing, in pious hymns + And psalms devout; harmoniously attun'd, + The Choral voices blend; the long-drawn aisles + At every close the ling'ring strains prolong: + And now, of varied tubes and reedy pipes, + The skilful hand a soften'd stop controuls: + In sweetest harmony the dulcet strains steal forth, + Now swelling high, and now subdued; afar they float + In lengthened whispers melting into cadenced murmurs, + Forming soft melodious strains, and placid airs, + Spreading gently all around, then soaring up to Heav'n!" + --_Dryden_. + + +The origin of the pipe organ is lost in the mists of antiquity. +Tradition hath it that there was one in Solomon's Temple at Jerusalem, +the sound of which could be heard at the Mount of Olives. It has the +honor of being the first wind instrument mentioned in the Bible +(Genesis iv, 21), where we are told that "Jubal is the father of all +such as handle the harp and the organ." The Hebrew word here is +_ugab_, which is sometimes translated in the Septuagint by cithara (the +ancient lute), sometimes by _psalm_, sometimes by _organ_. Sir John +Stainer ("Dictionary of Musical Terms," p. 444) says: "It is probable +that in its earliest form the _ugab_ was nothing more than a +Pan's-pipes or syrinx, but that it gradually developed into a more +important instrument." The passage, however, shows that the ugab was +known in the time of Moses, who was "learned in all the learning of the +Egyptians." + +The flute, a component part of the organ, is one of the most ancient of +musical instruments. We find it pictured on the walls of early +Egyptian tombs, and specimens of it, still in playable condition, have +been unearthed and can be seen in our museums. Some of them were +double, as shown in the illustration. Side by side with these flutes +we find the shepherd's pipe with a reed or strip of cane in the +mouthpiece, which may be found in the Tyrol at the present day. The +next step was probably the bagpipes. Here we find four of these pipes +attached to a bag. The melody or tune is played on one of the pipes +furnished with holes for the purpose, while the other three give a +drone, bass. The bag, being blown up, forms a wind reservoir and the +amount of tone can be regulated by the pressure of the arm. Here we +have the precursor of the organ bellows. Next comes the Irish +bagpipes, with a bellows worked by the arm furnishing the wind to the +bag, the reservoir, and producing a much sweeter tone. This is one +line of advance. + +[Illustration: Pre-historic Double Flutes. From Assyrian and Egyptian +Tombs] + +On the other hand we have the syrinx or Pan's-pipes. Stainer says this +was undoubtedly the precursor of the organ. "It was formed of seven, +eight or nine short hollow reeds, fixed together by wax, and cut in +graduated lengths so as to produce a musical scale. The lower ends of +the reeds were closed and the upper open and on a level, so that the +mouth could easily pass from one pipe to another." This is the +instrument used at the present day by the Punch and Judy man. He wears +it fastened around his throat, turning his head from side to side as he +blows, while with his hands he beats a drum. + +The next step would be to combine a set of flutes or shepherd's pipes +with the wind reservoir of the bagpipes, placing a little slider under +the mouthpiece of each pipe which could be opened or closed at will, so +that they would not all speak at once. Then some genius steadied the +wind pressure by pumping air into a reservoir partly filled with water. +This was the so-called "hydraulic organ," which name has given rise to +the impression that the pipes were played by the water passing through +them--which is impossible. + +And so we come down the ages to the Christian era. The Talmud mentions +an organ (magrepha) having ten pipes played by a keyboard as being in +existence in the Second Century. "Aldhelm (who died A. D. 709) +mentions an organ which had gilt pipes. An organ having leaden pipes +was placed in the Church of S. Corneille, at Compiegne, in the middle +of the Eighth Century." St. Dunstan had an organ with pipes made of +brass. Then we have the organ in Winchester Cathedral, England, +described by Wulfstan of Winchester in his "Life of Saint Swithin." +This was a double organ, requiring two organists to play it. It +contained 400 pipes and had thirteen pairs of bellows. It was intended +to be heard all over Winchester in honor of St. Peter, to whom the +Cathedral was dedicated. + +The year was now A. D. 951, and this is an important date to remember, +as modern harmony took its rise about this time. Before this, as far +as we know, there had been no harmony beyond a drone bass, and the vast +companies of musicians described in Holy Writ and elsewhere must have +played and sung in octaves and unison. I quote Stainer again: + +"The large pipes of every key of the oldest organs stood in front; the +whole instrument sounded and shrieked in a harsh and loud manner. The +keyboard had eleven, twelve, even thirteen keys in diatonic succession +without semitones. It was impossible to get anything else than a +choral melody for one voice only on such an organ * * * the breadth of +a keyboard containing nine keys extended to three-quarters the length +of a yard, that of the single key amounted to three inches * * * even +from five to six inches * * * The valves of the keys and the whole +mechanism being clumsy, playing with the finger was not to be thought +of, but the keys were obliged to be struck with the clenched fist, and +the organist was often called '_pulsator organum_' (organ beater)." + +Gradually the keys were reduced in size and the semitones were added. +By 1499 they had almost reached the present normal proportions. In +1470 pedals were invented by Bernard, the German, a skilful musician of +Venice, the pipe work was improved and so we come to the Sixteenth +Century[1] after which the organ remained almost _in statu quo_ for +hundreds of years. + +Since then there have been four great landmarks in organ construction, +viz: + +1. The invention of the swell box by Jordan in 1713; + +2. The invention of the horizontal bellows, by Samuel Green, in 1789; + +3. The invention of the pneumatic lever by Barker in 1832; and the +electro-pneumatic action, by Peschard in 1866; and, + +4. The marvelous improvements in mechanism and tone production and +control in 1886 to 1913 by Robt. Hope-Jones. + + + +[1] The organ compositions of Frescobaldi, a celebrated Italian +organist who flourished 1591-1640, show that the organ must in his time +have been playable by the fingers. + + + + +CHAPTER II. + +THE ORGAN IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. + +Before proceeding further we propose to give a brief description of the +construction of the organ at the beginning of the last century and +explain the technical terms we shall use later. + +As everybody knows, the tone comes from the pipes, some of which are to +be seen in the front of the instrument. The pipes are of various +shapes and sizes and are arranged in ranks or rows upon the +_wind-chest_. Each of these ranks is called a _stop_ or _register_. +It should be borne in mind that this word _stop_ refers to the row of +pipes, and _not_ to the _stop-knobs_ by the keyboard which operate the +mechanism bringing the row of pipes into play. Much confusion of ideas +prevails on this point, and cheap builders used to take advantage of it +by providing two stop-knobs for each row of pipes, thereby making their +instruments appear to contain more pipes than were actually there. +This practice was at one time very prevalent in the United States. + +The early organ-builders to obtain variety of tone divided the pipes +into groups placed in various positions, each playable from a separate +keyboard, and this practice prevails to this day. An average church +organ will contain three or four wind-chests, each with its quota of +pipes and designated as follows: + +1. The Great organ, consisting of the front pipes and other +loud-speaking stops. Back of this and usually elevated above the level +of the Great organ pipes is + +2. The Swell organ, all the pipes of which are contained in a wooden +box with Venetian shutters in front, the opening or closing of which +modifies the tone; below the Swell box is placed + +3. The Choir organ, containing soft speaking pipes suitable for +accompanying the human voice; and back of all or on the sides is + +4. The Pedal organ, containing the large pipes played by the pedals. + +Larger instruments have still another wind-chest called the Solo organ, +the pipes of which are very loud and are usually placed high above the +Great organ. + +In some large English organs, notably that in the Town Hall of Leeds, a +further division was effected, the pipes of the Great organ being +placed on two wind-chests, one behind the other. They were known as +Front Great and Back Great. + +The original reason for dividing a church organ in this manner seems to +have been the impossibility of supplying a large number of stops with +wind from a single wind-chest. + +It will thus be seen that our average church organ is really made up of +three or four smaller organs combined. + +The _wind-chest_ is an oblong box supplied with air under pressure from +the bellows and containing the valves (called _pallets_) controlling +the access of the wind to the pipes. Between the pallet and the foot +of the pipe comes another valve called the _slider_, which controls the +access of the wind to the whole row of pipes or stop. The pallet is +operated from the keyboard by the _key action_. Every key on the +keyboard has a corresponding pallet in the wind-chest, and every +stop-knob operates a slider under the pipes, so that both a slider must +be drawn and a pallet depressed before any sound can be got from the +pipes. The drawings will make this plain. + +Fig. 1 is a front view and Fig. 2 a side view of the wind-chest. A is +the wind-chest into which compressed atmospheric air has been +introduced, either through the side or bottom, from the end of the +wind-trunk B. The pallets, C C C, are held against the openings, D D +D, leading from the wind-chest to the mouth of the pipes, by springs +underneath them. + +[Illustration: Fig. 1. The Wind-chest. Front View] + +The spring S (Fig. 2) keeps the pallet C against the opening into D. +The wires called _pull-downs_ (P, P, P), which pass through small holes +in the bottom of the wind-chest and are in connection with the +keyboard, are attached to a loop of wire called the _pallet-eye_, +fastened to the movable end of the pallet. A piece of wire is placed +on each side of every pallet to steady it and keep it in the +perpendicular during its ascent and descent, and every pallet is +covered at top with soft leather, to make it fit closely and work +quietly. When P is pulled down (Fig. 1) the pallet C descends, and air +from the wind-chest A rushes through D into the pipe over it. But the +slider _f_ is a narrow strip of wood, so placed between the woodwork +_g_ and _h_ that it may be moved backwards and forwards from right to +left, and is pierced with holes corresponding throughout to those just +under the pipes. If the apertures in the slider are under the pipes, +the opening of a pallet will make a pipe speak; if, however, the slider +has been moved so that the apertures do not correspond, even if the +pallet be opened and the chest full of air from the trunks, no sound +will be produced. + +[Illustration: Fig. 2. The Wind-chest. Side View] + +When the apertures in the slider are under those below the pipe, the +"stop," the handle of which controls the position of the slider, is +said to be _out_, or _drawn_. When the apertures do not correspond, +the stop is said to be _in_. Thus it is that when no stops are drawn +no sound is produced, even although the wind-chest be full of air and +the keys played upon. + +This wind-chest with the slider stop control is about all that is left +to us of the old form of key action. The pallets were connected to the +keys by a series of levers, known as the tracker action. + +There were usually six joints or sources of friction, between the key +and the pallet. To overcome this resistance and close the pallet +required a strong spring. Inasmuch as it would never do to put all the +large pipes (because of their weight) at one end of the wind-chest, +they were usually divided between the two ends and it became necessary +to transfer the pull of the keys sideways, which was done by a series +of _rollers_ called the _roller-board_. This, of course, increased the +friction and necessitated the use of a still stronger spring. That +with the increased area of the pallet is why the lower notes of the +organ were so hard to play. And to the resistance of the spring must +also be added the resistance of the wind-pressure, which increased with +every stop drawn. When the organ was a large one with many stops, and +the keyboards were coupled together, it required considerable exertion +to bring out the full power of the instrument; sometimes the organist +had to stand on the pedals and throw the weight of his body on the keys +to get a big chord. All kinds of schemes were tried to lighten the +"touch," as the required pressure on the keys is called, the most +successful of which was dividing the pallet into two parts which +admitted a small quantity of wind to enter the groove and release the +pressure before the pallet was fully opened; but even on the best of +organs the performance of music played with ease upon modern +instruments was absolutely impossible. + + + + +CHAPTER III. + +THE DAWN OF A NEW ERA--THE PNEUMATIC LEVER. + +Just as we no longer see four men tugging at the steering wheel of an +ocean steamer, the intervention of the steam steering gear rendering +the use of so much physical force unnecessary, so it now occurred to an +organ-builder in the city of Bath, England, named Charles Spachman +Barker,[1] to enlist the force of the organ wind itself to overcome the +resistance of the pallets in the wind-chest. This contrivance is known +as the _pneumatic lever_, and consists of a toy bellows about nine +inches long, inserted in the middle of the key action. The exertion of +depressing the key is now reduced to the small amount of force required +to open a valve, half an inch in width, which admits wind to the +bellows. The bellows, being expanded by the wind, pulls down the +pallet in the wind-chest; the bellows does all the hard work. The +drawing on the next page, which shows the lever as improved by the +eminent English organ-builder, Henry Willis, shows the cycle of +operation. + +When either the finger or foot is pressed upon a key connected with +_k_, the outer end of the back-fall _gg_ is pulled down, which opens +the pallet _p_. The compressed air in _a_ then rushes through the +groove _bb_ into the bellows _cc_, which rises and lifts with it all +the action attached to it by _l_. As the top of the bellows _cc_ +rises, it lifts up the throttle-valve _d_ (regulated by the wire _m_) +which prevents the ingress of any more compressed air by _bb_. But the +action of the key on _gg_, which opened the pallet _p_, also allowed +the double-acting waste-valve _e_ to close, and the tape _f_ hangs +loose. The compressed air, therefore, as it is admitted through _bb_ +cannot escape, but on the other hand when the key releases the outer +end of _g_, and lets it rise up again, the tape _f_ becomes tightened +and opens the waste-valve, the bellows _cc_ then drops into its closed +position. + +[Illustration: Fig. 3. The Pneumatic Lever] + +The organ touch could now be made as light as that of a pianoforte, +much lighter than ever before. + +This epoch-making invention, introduced in 1832, rendered possible +extraordinary developments. It was at first strangely ignored and +opposed. The English organ-builders refused to take it up. Barker was +at length driven to France, where, in the person of Aristide +Cavaille-Coll, he found a more far-seeing man. + +After Cavaille-Coll had fully demonstrated the practical value of +Barker's invention, Willis and others joined in its development, and +they contemporaneously overcame all difficulties and brought the +pneumatic action into general favor. + +This process, of course, took time, and up to about fifty years ago +pneumatic action was found only in a few organs of large calibre. + +The recent revolution in organ building and in organ tone, of which +this book treats, was founded upon the pneumatic and electro-pneumatic +actions invented by Barker.[2] + +It is safe to say that the art of organ building has advanced more +during the last fifty years than in any previous three centuries. We +are literally correct in saying that a veritable revolution has already +been effected--and the end is not yet. + +As leaders in this revolutionary movement, three names stand out with +startling prominence--Henry Willis, Aristide Cavaille-Coll and Robert +Hope-Jones. + +Others have made contributions to detail (notably Hilborne L. +Roosevelt), but it is due to the genius, the inventions and the work of +those three great men that the modern organ stands where it does to-day. + +We propose: + +1. To enumerate and describe the inventions and improvements that have +so entirely transformed the instrument; + +2. To trace the progress of the revolution in our own country; and, + +3. To describe the chief actors in the drama. + +In the middle of the last century all organs were voiced on light wind +pressure,[3] mostly from an inch and a half to three inches. True, the +celebrated builder, William Hill, placed in his organ at Birmingham +Town Hall, England, so early as 1833, a Tuba voiced on about eleven +inches wind pressure, and Willis, Cavaille-Coll, Gray and Davison, and +others, adopted high pressures for an occasional reed stop in their +largest organs; yet ninety-nine per cent. of the organs built +throughout the world were voiced on pressures not exceeding three and +one-half inches. + +In those days most organs that were met with demanded a finger force of +some twenty ounces before the keys could be depressed, when coupled, +and it was no uncommon thing for the organist to have to exert a +pressure of fifty ounces or more on the bass keys. (The present +standard is between three and four ounces. We are acquainted with an +organ in New York City which requires a pressure of no less than forty +ounces to depress the bass keys.) + +The manual compass on these organs seldom extended higher than f|2| or +g|3|, though it often went down to GG.[4] + +It was common to omit notes from the lower octave for economy's sake, +and many stops were habitually left destitute of their bottom octaves +altogether. Frequently the less important keyboards would not descend +farther than tenor C.[5] + +The compass of the pedal board (when there was a pedal board at all) +varied anywhere from one octave to about two and a quarter octaves. +The pedal keys were almost invariably straight and the pedal boards +flat. + +[Illustration: Fig. 4. Nomenclature of Organ Keyboard] + + +[1] The invention of the pneumatic lever has been claimed for Mr. +Hamilton, of Edinburgh, Scotland. It is, however, generally credited +to Barker and known as the "Barker pneumatic lever." (See also note +about Joseph Booth, page 129.) + +[2] Barker was also associated with Peschard, who in 1864 patented +jointly with him the electro-pneumatic action. (See page 37.) + +[3] The pressure of the wind supplied by the old horizontal bellows is +regulated by the weights placed on top. The amount of this pressure is +measured by a wind-gauge or anemometer invented by Christian Foermer +about 1677. It is a bent glass tube, double U shaped, into which a +little water is poured. On placing one end of it fitted with a socket +into one of the holes in the wind-chest (in place of a pipe) and +admitting the wind from the bellows the water is forced up the tube, +and the difference between the level of the surface of the water in the +two legs of the tube is measured in inches. Thus, we always talk of +the pressure of wind in an organ as being so many inches. + +[4] The organ in Great Homer Street Wesleyan Chapel, Liverpool, +England, had manuals extending down to CCC. It was built for a man who +could not play the pedals and thus obtained 16 ft. tone from the keys. +The old gallery organ in Trinity Church, New York, also has this +compass. + +[5] Tenor C is the lowest note of the tenor voice or the tenor violin +(viola). It is one octave from the bottom note of a modern organ +keyboard, which is called CC. The lowest note of the pedal-board is +CCC. Counting from the bottom upwards on the manual we have, +therefore, CC (double C), C (tenor C), c (middle C), c|1| (treble C), +c|2| (C in alt) and c|3| (C in altissimo). This is the highest note on +the keyboard of 61 keys. According to the modern nomenclature of the +_pianoforte_ keyboard this note is c|4|, and is frequently so stated +erroneously in organ specifications. + +GG is four notes below CC, _the break in the scale coming between GG +and FFF_. Tenor C is an important note to remember. Here is where the +cheap builder came in again. He cut his stops short at tenor C, +trusting to the pedal pipes to cover the deficiency. + + * * * * * * + +[Illustration: PROSPER-ANTOINE MOITESSIER, INVENTOR OF TUBULAR +PNEUMATIC ACTION] + +In the year 1845, Prosper-Antoine Moitessier, an organ-builder of +Montpellier, France, patented what he called "_abrege pneumatique_," an +organ action in which all back-falls and rollers were replaced by tubes +operated by exhaust air. In 1850 he built with this action an organ of +42 speaking stops for the church of Notre Dame de la Dalbade at +Toulouse. This organ lasted 33 years. In 1866 Fermis, schoolmaster +and village organist of Hanterire, near Toulouse, improved on +Moitessier's action by combining tubes conveying compressed air with +the Barker lever. An organ was built on this system for the Paris +Exhibition of 1867, which came under the notice of Henry Willis, by +which he was so struck that he was stimulated to experiment and develop +his action, which culminated in the St. Paul's organ in 1872. (From +article by Dr. Gabriel Bedart in Musical Opinion, London, July, 1908.) + + + + +CHAPTER IV. + +PNEUMATIC AND ELECTRO-PNEUMATIC ACTIONS. + +Undoubtedly the first improvements to be named must be the pneumatic +and electro-pneumatic actions. + +Without the use of these actions most of the advances we are about to +chronicle would not have been effected. + +As before stated, Cavaille-Coll and Willis worked as pioneers in +perfecting and in introducing the pneumatic action. + +The pneumatic action used by Willis, Cavaille-Coll and a score of other +builders leaves little to be desired. It is thoroughly reliable and, +where the keys are located close by the organ, is fairly prompt both in +attack and repetition. Many of the pneumatic actions made to-day, +however, are disappointing in these particulars. + + +TUBULAR PNEUMATICS.[1] + +In the year 1872 Henry Willis built an organ for St. Paul's Cathedral, +London, which was divided in two portions, one on each side of the +junction of the Choir with the Dome at an elevation of about thirty +feet from the floor. The keyboards were placed inside one portion of +the instrument, and instead of carrying trackers down and under the +floor and up to the other side, as had hitherto been the custom in such +cases, he made the connection by means of tubes like gaspipes, and made +a pulse of _wind_ travel down and across and up and into the pneumatic +levers controlling the pipes and stops. Sir John Stainer describes it +as "a triumph of mechanical skill." He was organist of St. Paul's for +many years and ought to know. This was all very well for a cathedral, +where + + ". . . . the long-drawn aisles + The melodious strains prolong" + +but here is what the eminent English organist, W. T. Best, said about +tubular pneumatic action as applied to another organ used for concert +purposes: "It is a complete failure; you cannot play a triplet on the +Trumpet, and I consider it the most d----nable invention ever placed +inside an organ." Notwithstanding these drawbacks this action became +very fashionable after its demonstration at St. Paul's, and was used +even in small organs in preference to the Barker lever. One builder +confessed to the writer that he had suffered severe financial loss +through installing this action. After expending considerable time (and +time is money) in getting it to work right, the whole thing would be +upset when the sexton started up the heating apparatus. The writer is +acquainted with organs in New York City where these same conditions +prevail. + +The writer, however, will admit having seen some tubular actions which +were fairly satisfactory, one in particular in the factory of Alfred +Monk, London, England, where for demonstration purposes the tubes were +fifty feet long. Dr. Bedart informs us that Puget, the famous organ +builder of Toulouse, France, sets fifty feet as the limit of usefulness +of this action. + +Henry Willis & Sons in their description of the organ in the Lady +Chapel of Liverpool Cathedral state that their action has been tested +to a repetition of 1,000 per minute, quicker than any human finger can +move. This is a square organ in one case, but we note they have +adopted the electric action for the great cathedral organ where the +distance of the pipes from the keys is too great for satisfactory +response. + +In view of the wide use at present of this action we give a drawing and +description of its operation as patented and made by Mr. J. J. Binns, +of Bramley, Leeds, England. J. Matthews, in his "Handbook of the +Organ," says that this action is very good and free from drawbacks. + +[Illustration: Fig. 5. Tubular Pneumatic Action] + +The tubes, N, from each key are fixed to the hole connected to the +small puffs P in the puff-board E. Air under pressure is admitted by +the key action and conveyed by the tubes N which raises the +corresponding button valves S|1|, lifting their spindles S and closing +the apertures T|2| in the bottom of the wind-chest A, and opening a +similar aperture T in the bottom of the cover-board F, causing the +compressed air to escape from the exhaust bellows M, which closes, +raising the solid valve H in the cover-board F and closing the aperture +J|1| in the wind-chest A, shuts off the air from the bellows, which +immediately closes, drawing down the pallet B, which admits air (or +wind) to the pipes. + +No tubular-pneumatic action is entirely satisfactory when the distance +between the keys and the organ is great. This is often due to a law of +nature rather than to imperfection of design or workmanship. + +Pneumatic pulses travel slowly--at a speed which does not reach 1,100 +feet per second. In large organs where necessarily some of the tubes +are short and some have to be long, it is impossible to secure +simultaneous speech from all departments of the instrument, and in +addition to this the crisp feeling of direct connection with his pipes, +which the old tracker action secured for the organist, is lost. + +It is generally thought amongst the more advanced of the builders and +organists qualified to judge, that the tubular-pneumatic action will +sooner or later be entirely abandoned in favor of the electro-pneumatic +action. Certain it is that the aid of electricity is now called in in +practically every large instrument that is built in this country, and +in an increasing proportion of those constructed abroad. + + +THE CRYING NEED FOR ELECTRIC ACTION. + +The instance of St. Paul's Cathedral cited above shows the demand that +existed at that time for means whereby the organ could be played with +the keyboards situated at some distance from the main body of the +instrument. In the Cathedrals the organ was usually placed on a screen +dividing the Choir from the Nave, completely obstructing the view down +the church. There was a demand for its removal from this position +(which was eventually done at St. Paul's, Chester, Durham, and other +Cathedrals). Then in the large parish churches the quartet of singers +in the west gallery where the organ was placed had been abolished. Boy +choirs had been installed in the chancel, leaving the organ and +organist in the west gallery, to keep time together as best they could. +In the Cathedrals, too, the organist was a long way off from the choir. +How glorious it would be if he could sit and play in their midst! +Henry Willis & Sons stated in a letter to the London _Musical News_, in +1890, that they had been repeatedly asked to make such arrangements but +had refused, "because Dame Nature stood in the way,"--which she +certainly did if tubular pneumatics had been used. The fact was that +up to this time all the electric actions invented had proved more or +less unreliable, and Willis, who had an artistic reputation to lose, +refused to employ them. As an instance of their clumsiness we may +mention that the best contact they could get was made by dipping a +platinum point in a cell containing mercury! Other forms of contact +rapidly oxidized and went out of business. + +Dr. Gauntlet, about the year 1852, took out a patent covering an +electric connection between the keys and the pallets of an organ,[2] +but the invention of the electro-pneumatic lever must be ascribed to +Barker and Dr. Peschard. The latter seems to have suggested the +contrivance and the former to have done the practical work. + +Bryceson Bros. were the first to introduce this action into English +organs. They commenced work along these lines in 1868, under the +Barker patents, their first organ being built behind the scenes at Her +Majesty's Opera House, Drury Lane, London, the keys being in the +orchestra. This organ was used successfully for over a year, after +which it was removed and shown as a curiosity in the London Polytechnic +Institute, recitals being given twice daily. + +Schmole and Molls, Conti, Trice and others took a leading part in the +work on the European continent, and Roosevelt was perhaps its greatest +pioneer in the United States. + +Various builders in many countries have more recently made scores of +improvements or variations in form and have taken out patents to cover +the points of difference, but none of these has done any work of +special importance. + +Not one of the early electric actions proved either quick or reliable, +and all were costly to install and maintain.[3] + +[Illustration: The First Electric Organ Ever Built. In the Collegiate +Church at Salon, Near Marseilles, France (1866).] + +This form of mechanism, therefore, earned a bad name and was making +little advance, if not actually being abandoned, when a skilled +electrician, Robert Hope-Jones, entered the field about 1886. Knowing +little of organs and nothing of previous attempts to utilize +electricity for this service, he made with his own hands and some +unskilled assistance furnished by members of his voluntary choir, the +first movable console,[4] stop-keys, double touch, suitable bass, etc., +and an electric action that created a sensation throughout the organ +world. In this action the "pneumatic blow" was for the first time +attained and an attack and repetition secured in advance of anything +thought possible at that time, in connection with the organ or the +pianoforte. + +Hope-Jones introduced the round wire contact which secures the ideally +perfect "nibbing points," and he makes these wires of dissimilar +non-corrosive metals (gold and platinum). + +He replaced previous rule-of-thumb methods by scientific calculation, +recognized the value of low voltage, good insulation and the avoidance +of self-induction, with the result that the electro-pneumatic action +has become (when properly made) as reliable as the tracker or pneumatic +lever mechanism. + + +DESCRIPTION OF THE ELECTRIC ACTION. + +The electric action consists substantially of a small bellows like the +pneumatic lever, but instead of the valve admitting the wind to operate +it being moved by a tracker leading from the key, it is opened by an +electro-magnet, energized by a contact in the keyboard and connected +therewith by a wire which, of course, may be of any desired length. We +illustrate one form of action invented and used by Hope-Jones.[5] + +Within the organ, the wires from the other end of the cable are +attached to small magnets specially wound so that no spark results when +the electric contact at the key is broken. This magnet attracts a thin +disc of iron about 1/4 inch in diameter, (held up by a high wind +pressure from underneath) and draws it downward through a space of less +than 1/100 of an inch. + + +The working is as follows: The box A is connected with the organ +bellows and so (immediately the wind is put into the organ) is filled +with air under pressure, which passes upwards between the poles of the +magnet N. Lifting the small iron disc L it finds its way through the +passage L into the small motor M, thus allowing the movable portion of +the motor M to remain in its lower position, the pallet C|1| being +closed and the pallet C|2| being open. Under these conditions, the +large motor B collapses and the pull-down P (which is connected with +the organ pallet) rises. + +[Illustration: Fig. 6. The Electro-Pneumatic Lever] + + +When a weak current of electricity is caused to circulate round the +coils of the electro-magnet N, the small armature disc J is drawn off +the valve-seat H on to the zinc plate K. + +The compressed air from within the small motor M escapes by way of the +passage L, through the openings in the valve seat H into the +atmosphere. The compressed air in the box A then acts upon the movable +portion of the small motor M in such a manner that it is forced upwards +and caused (through the medium of the pull-wire E) to lift the supply +pallet C|1| and close the exhaust pallet C|2|, thus allowing compressed +air to rush from the box A into the motor B and so cause this latter +motor to open and (through the medium of the pull down P) to pull the +soundboard pallet from its seat and allow wind to pass into the pipes. + +[Illustration: Fig. 7. Valve and Valve Seat, Hope-Jones Electric +Action] + +The valve-seat H has formed on its lower surface two crescent shaped +long and narrow slits. A very slight movement of the armature disc J, +therefore, suffices to open to the full extent two long exhaust +passages. The movement of this disc is reduced to something less than +the 1/100 part of an inch. It is, therefore, always very close to the +poles of the magnet, consequently a very faint impulse of electricity +will suffice (aided by gravity) to draw the disc off the valve-seat H. +The zinc plate K being in intimate contact with the iron poles of the +magnet N, protects the latter from rust by well-known electrical laws. +All the parts are made of metal, so that no change in the weather can +affect their relative positions. R is the point at which the large +motor B is hinged. G is a spring retaining cap in position; O the +wires leading from the keys and conveying the current to the magnet N; +Q the removable side of the box A. + +Fig. 7 represents a larger view of the plate K in which the magnet +poles N are rigidly fixed--of a piece of very fine chiffon M (indicated +by a slightly thicker line) which prevents particles of dust passing +through so as to interfere with the proper seating of the soft Swedish +charcoal iron armature disc J--of the distance piece L and of the valve +seat H. + +On the upper surface of this valve seat H another piece of fine chiffon +is attached to prevent possible passage of dust to the armature valve +J, from outside. + +As all parts of this apparatus are of metal changes in humidity or +temperature do not affect its regulation. + +The use of this action renders it possible for the console (or +keyboards, etc.) to be entirely detached from the organ, moved to a +distance and connected with the organ by a cable fifty or one hundred +feet or as many miles long. This arrangement may be seen, for example, +in the College of the City of New York (built by the E. M. Skinner +Co.), where the console is carried to the middle of the platform when a +recital is to be given, and removed out of the way when the platform is +wanted for other purposes. + +As all the old mechanism--the backfalls, roller-boards and trackers--is +now swept away, it is possible by placing the bellows in the cellar to +utilize the _inside of the organ_ for a choir-vestry, as was indeed +done with the pioneer Hope-Jones organ at St. John's Church, Birkenhead. + + +DIVISION OF ORGANS. + +Before the invention of pneumatic and electro-pneumatic action, organs +were almost invariably constructed in a single mass. It was, it is +true, possible to find instruments with tracker action that were +divided and placed, say, half on either side of a chancel, but +instances of the kind were rare and it was well nigh impossible for +even a muscular organist to perform on such instruments. + +The perfecting of tubular pneumatic and especially of electro-pneumatic +action has lent wonderful flexibility to the organ and has allowed of +instruments being introduced in buildings where it would otherwise have +been impossible to locate an organ. Almost all leading builders have +done work of this kind, but the Aeolian Company has been quickest to +seize the advantage of division in adapting the pipe organ for use in +private residences. + +Sound reflectors have recently been introduced, and it seems likely +that these will play an important part in organ construction in the +future. So far they appear to be employed only by Hope-Jones and the +firms with which he was associated. It has been discovered that sound +waves may be collected, focussed or directed, much in the same way that +light waves can. In the case of the Hope-Jones organ at Ocean Grove, +N. J., the greatest part of the instrument has been placed in a +basement constructed outside the original Auditorium. The sound waves +are thrown upward and are directed into the Auditorium by means of +parabolic reflectors constructed of cement lined with wood. The effect +is entirely satisfactory. In Trinity Cathedral, Cleveland, Ohio,[6] +Hope-Jones arranged for the Tuba to stand in the basement at the +distant end of the nave. Its tone is directed to a cement reflector +and from that reflector is projected through a metal grid set in the +floor, till, striking the roof of the nave, it is spread and fills the +entire building with tone. In St. Luke's Church, Montclair, N. J., he +adopted a somewhat similar plan in connection with the open 38-foot +pedal pipes which are laid horizontally in the basement. We believe +that the first time this principle was employed was in the case of the +organ rebuilt by Hope-Jones in 1892 at the residence of Mr. J. Martin +White, Balruddery, Dundee, Scotland. + + +OCTAVE COUPLERS. + +In the days of mechanical action, couplers of any kind proved a source +of trouble and added greatly to the weight of the touch. The natural +result was that anything further than unison coupling was seldom +attempted. + +In some organs hardly any couplers at all were present. + +In Schulze's great and celebrated organ in Doncaster, England, it was +not possible to couple any of the manuals to the pedals, and (if we +remember rightly) there were only two couplers in the whole instrument. +Shortly after the introduction of pneumatic action, an organ with an +occasional octave coupler, that is a coupler which depressed a key an +octave higher or lower than the one originally struck, was sometimes +met with. + +In the pioneer organ built by Hope-Jones in Birkenhead, England (about +1887), a sudden advance was made. That organ contains no less than 19 +couplers. Not only did he provide sub-octave and super-octave couplers +freely, but he even added a Swell Sub-quint to Great coupler! + +Octave couplers are now provided by almost all builders. + +Though condemned by many theorists, there is no doubt that in practice +they greatly add to the resources of the instruments to which they are +attached. We know of small organs where the electric action has been +introduced for no other reason than that of facilitating the use of +octave couplers, which are now a mere matter of wiring and give no +additional weight to the touch. + +Hope-Jones appears to have led in adding extra pipes to the wind-chest, +which were acted upon by the top octave of the octave couplers, thus +giving the organist a complete scale to the full extent of the +keyboards. He made the practice common in England, and the Austin +Company adopted it on his joining them in this country. The plan has +since become more or leas common. This is the device we see specified +in organ builders' catalogues as the "extended wind-chest," and +explains why the stops have 73 pipes to 61 notes on the keyboard. An +octave coupler without such extension is incomplete and is no more +honest than a stop which only goes down to Tenor C. + + + +[1] The researches of Dr. Gabriel Bedart, Professeur agrege Physiologie +in the University of Lille, France, a learned and enthusiastic organ +connoisseur, have brought to light the fact that the first tubular +pneumatic action was constructed by Moitessier in France in 1835. It +was designed upon the exhaust principle. + +[2] Dr. Gauntlett's idea was to play _all_ the organs shown in the +Great Exhibition in London, in 1851, from one central keyboard. He +proposed to place an electro-magnet inside the wind-chest under each +pallet, which would have required an enormous amount of electric +current. The idea was never carried out. This plan seems also to have +occurred to William Wilkinson, the organ-builder of Kendal, as far back +as 1862, but, after some experiments, was abandoned. An organ +constructed on similar lines was actually built by Karl G. Weigle, of +Echterdingen, near Stuttgart, Germany, in 1870, and although not at all +a success, he built another on the same principle which was exhibited +at the Vienna Exhibition in 1873. Owing to the powerful current +necessary to open the Pallets, the contacts fused and the organ was +nearly destroyed by fire on several occasions. + +[3] Sir John Stainer, in the 1889 edition of his "Dictionary of Musical +Terms," dismisses the electric action in a paragraph of four lines as +of no practical importance. In that same year the writer asked Mr. W. +T. Best to come over and look at the organ in St. John's Church, +Birkenhead, which was then beginning to be talked about, and he laughed +at the idea that any good could come out of an electric action. He was +a man of wide experience who gave recitals all over the country and was +thoroughly acquainted with the attempts that had been made up to that +time. He did not want to see any more electric organs. + +[4] Console--the keyboards, pedals and stop action by which the organ +is played; sometimes detached from the instrument. + +[5] from Matthews' "Handbook of the Organ," p. 52 _et seq_. + +[6] Organ built by the Ernest M. Skinner Co. + + * * * * * * + +[Illustration: DR. ALBERT PESCHARD. Inventor of Electro-Pneumatic +Action.] + +Dr. Albert Peschard was born in 1836, qualified as an advocate +(Docteur en droit), and from 1857 to 1875 was organist of the +Church of St. Etienne, Caen, France. He commenced to experiment in +electro-pneumatics in the year 1860, and early in 1861 communicated his +discoveries to Mr. Barker. From that date until Barker left France, +Peschard collaborated with him, reaping no pecuniary benefit therefrom. +Peschard, however, was honored by being publicly awarded the Medal of +Merit of the Netherlands; the Medal of Association Francaise pour +l'Avancement de la Science; Gold Medal, Exhibition of Lyons; and the +Gold Medal, Exhibition of Bordeaux. He died at Caen, December 23, +1903. (From Dr. Hinton's "Story of the Electric Organ.") + + + + +CHAPTER V. + +STOP-KEYS. + +On looking at the console of a modern organ the observer will be struck +by the fact that the familiar draw-stop knobs have disappeared, or, if +they are still there, he will most likely find in addition a row of +ivory tablets, like dominoes, arranged over the upper manual. If the +stop-knobs are all gone, he will find an extended row, perhaps two rows +of these tablets. These are the _stop-keys_ which, working on a +centre, move either the sliders in the wind-chest, or bring the various +couplers on manuals and pedals on or off. + +[Illustration: Fig. 8. Console, Showing the Inclined Keyboards First +Introduced Into This Country by Robert Hope-Jones] + +We learn from Dr. Bedart that as early as 1804 an arrangement +suggestive of the stop-key was in use in Avignon Cathedral. William +Horatio Clarke, of Reading, Mass., applied for a patent covering a form +of stop-key in 1877. Hope-Jones, however, is generally credited with +introducing the first practical stop-keys. He invented the forms most +largely used to-day, and led their adoption in England, in this +country, and indeed throughout the world. + +[Illustration: Fig. 9. Console on the Bennett System, Showing +Indicator Discs] + +Our illustration (Fig. 8) gives a good idea of the appearance of a +modern Hope-Jones console. The stop-keys will be seen arranged in an +inclined semi-circle overhanging and just above the keyboards. Fig. 9 +shows a console on the Bennett system. Figs. 10 and 11, hybrids, the +tilting tablet form of stop-keys being used for the couplers only. + +[Illustration: Fig. 10. Console of Organ in Trinity Church, Boston, +Mass. Built by Hutchings Organ Co.] + +There is much controversy as to whether stop-keys will eventually +displace the older fashioned draw-knobs. + +[Illustration: Fig. 11. Console of Organ in College of City of New +York. Built by The E. M. Skinner Co.] + +A few organists of eminence, notably Edwin H. Lemare, are strongly +opposed to the new method of control, but the majority, especially the +rising generation of organists, warmly welcome the change. It is +significant that whereas Hope-Jones was for years the only advocate of +the system, four or five of the builders in this country, and a dozen +foreign organ-builders, are now supplying stop-keys either exclusively +or for a considerable number of their organs. Austin, Skinner, Norman +& Beard, Ingram and others use the Hope-Jones pattern, but Haskell, +Bennett, Hele and others have patterns of their own. It is a matter of +regret that some one pattern has not been agreed on by all the builders +concerned.[1] + + +CONTROL OF THE STOPS. + +In older days all stop-keys were moved by hand, and as a natural +consequence few changes in registration could be made during +performance. + +Pedals for throwing out various combinations of stops were introduced +into organs about 1809; it is generally believed that J. C. Bishop was +the inventor of this contrivance. + +Willis introduced into his organs pneumatic thumb-pistons about the +year 1851. These pistons were placed below the keyboard whose stops +they affected. + +T. C. Lewis, of England, later introduced short key-touches arranged +above the rear end of the keys of the manual. Depression of these +key-touches brought different combinations of stops into use on the +keyboard above which they were placed. Somewhat similar key-touches +were used by the Hope-Jones Organ Co. and by the Austin Organ Co. + +Metal buttons or pistons located on the toe piece of the pedal-board +were introduced by the ingenious Casavant of Canada. They are now +fitted by various builders and appear likely to be generally adopted. +These toe-pistons form an additional and most convenient means for +bringing the stops into and out of action. + +At first these various contrivances operated only such combinations as +were arranged by the builder beforehand, but now it is the custom to +provide means by which the organist can so alter and arrange matters +that any combination piston or combination key shall bring out and take +in any selection of stops that he may desire. Hilborne Roosevelt of +New York, was the first to introduce these adjustable combination +movements. + +The introduction of the above means of rapidly shifting the stops in an +organ has revolutionized organ-playing, and has rendered possible the +performance of the orchestral transcriptions that we now so often hear +at organ recitals. + +In order to economize in cost of manufacture, certain of the +organ-builders, chiefly in America and in Germany, have adopted the +pernicious practice of making the combination pedals, pistons or keys +bring the various ranks of pipes into or out of action without moving +the stop-knobs. + +This unfortunate plan either requires the organist to remember which +combination of stops he last brought into operation on each keyboard, +or else necessitates the introduction of some indicator displaying a +record of the pistons that he last touched. In the organ in the +Memorial Church of the 1st Emperor William in Berlin, the builder +introduced a series of electric lights for this purpose. This device +can be seen in use in this country. + +When this plan is adopted the player is compelled to preserve a mental +image of the combinations set on every piston or pedal in the organ and +identify them instantly by the numbers shown on the indicator--an +impossibility in the case of adjustable combinations often +changed--impracticable in any case. + +Almost all the greatest organists agree in condemning the system of +non-moving stop-knobs, and we trust and believe that it will soon be +finally abandoned. + + + +[1] Organists find, after using them a short time, that a row of +stop-keys over the manuals is wonderfully easy to control. It is +possible to slide the finger along, and with one sweep either bring on +or shut off the whole organ. + + + + +CHAPTER VI. + +RADIATING AND CONCAVE PEDAL BOARDS. + +Pedal boards had always been made flat with straight keys until Willis +and the great organist, Dr. S. S. Wesley, devised the radiating and +concave board whereby all the pedal keys were brought within equal +distance of the player's feet. This was introduced in the organ in St. +George's Hall, Liverpool, in 1855, and Willis has refused to supply any +other type of board with his organs ever since. Curiously enough, the +advantages of this board were not appreciated by many players who +preferred the old type of board and at a conference called by the Royal +College of Organists in 1890 it was decided to officially recommend a +board which was concave, but had parallel keys. The following letter +to the author shows that the R. C. O. has experienced a change of heart +in this matter: + + +THE ROYAL COLLEGE OF ORGANISTS. + +LONDON, S. W., 27th May, 1909. + +Dear Sir: In answer to your inquiry the Resolutions and Recommendations +to which you refer were withdrawn by my Council some years ago. No +official recommendation is made by them now. It is stated in our +Calendar that the Council wish it understood that the arrangements and +measurements of the College organ are not intended to be accepted as +authoritative or final suggestions. I am, + +Yours faithfully, + THOMAS SHINDLER, + _Registrar_. + + +The radiating and concave board has been adopted by the American Guild +of Organists and has long been considered the standard for the best +organs built in the United States and Canada. It is self-evident that +this board is more expensive to construct than the other. That is why +we do not find it in low-priced organs. + +In most American organs built twenty years ago, the compass of the +pedal board was only two octaves and two notes, from CCC to D. +Sometimes two octaves only. Later it was extended to F, 30 notes, +which is the compass generally found in England. Following Hope-Jones' +lead, all the best builders have now extended their boards to g, 32 +notes, this range being called for by some of Bach's organ music and +certain pieces of the French school where a melody is played by the +right foot and the bass by the left. The chief reason is that g is the +top note of the string bass, and is called for in orchestral +transcriptions. Henry Willis & Sons have also extended the pedal +compass to g in rebuilding the St. George's Hall organ in 1898. + + +PEDAL STOP CONTROL. + +For a long time no means whatever of controlling the Pedal stops and +couplers was provided, but in course of time it became the fashion to +cause the combination pedals or pistons on the Great organ (and +subsequently on the other departments also) to move the Pedal stops and +couplers so as to provide a bass suited to the particular combination +of stops in use on the manual. This was a crude arrangement and often +proved more of a hindrance than of a help to the player. +Unfortunately, unprogressive builders are still adhering to this +inartistic plan. It frequently leads to a player upsetting his Pedal +combination when he has no desire to do so. It becomes impossible to +use the combination pedals without disturbing the stops and couplers of +the Pedal department. + +The great English organist, W. T. Best, in speaking of this, instanced +a well-known organ piece, Rinck's "Flute Concerto," which called for +quick changes from the Swell to the Great organ and _vice versa_, and +said that he knew of no instrument in existence on which it could be +properly played. An attempt had been made on the Continent to overcome +this difficulty by the use of two pedal-boards, placed at an angle to +each other, but it did not meet with success. + +The Hope-Jones plan (patented 1889) of providing the combination pedals +or pistons with a double touch was a distinct step in advance for it +enabled the organist by means of a light touch to move only the manual +registers and by means of a very much heavier touch on the combination +pedal or piston to operate also his Pedal stops and couplers. Most +large organs now built are furnished with a pedal for reversing the +position of the Great to Pedal coupler. Though to a certain extent +useful when no better means of control is provided, this is but a +makeshift. + +Thomas Casson, of Denbigh, Wales, introduced an artistic, though +somewhat cumbersome, arrangement. He duplicated the draw-knobs +controlling the Pedal stops and couplers and located one set of these +with the Great organ stops, another set with the Swell organ stops and +a third with the Choir. He placed in the key slip below each manual +what he called a "Pedal Help." When playing on the Great organ, he +would, by touching the "Pedal Help," switch into action the group of +Pedal stops and coupler knobs located in the Great department, +switching out of action all the other groups of Pedal stops and +couplers. Upon touching the "Pedal Help" under the Swell organ keys, +the Great organ group of Pedal stops and couplers would be rendered +inoperative and the Swell group would be brought into action. By this +means it was easy to prepare in advance groups of Pedal stops and +couplers suited to the combination of stops sounding upon each manual +and by touching a Pedal Help, to call the right group of Pedal stops +into action at any moment. The combination pedals affecting the Great +stop-knobs moved also the Pedal stop-knobs belonging to the proper +group. The Swell and Choir groups were similarly treated. + +But the simplest and best means of helping the organist to control his +Pedal department is the automatic "Suitable Bass" arrangement patented +by Hope-Jones in 1891 and subsequently. According to his plan a +"Suitable Bass" tablet is provided just above the rear end of the black +keys on each manual. + +Each of these tablets has a double touch. On pressing it with ordinary +force it moves the Pedal stop keys and couplers, so as to provide an +appropriate bass to the combination of stops in use on that manual at +the moment. On pressing it with much greater force it becomes locked +down and remains in that position until released by the depression of +the suitable bass tablet belonging to another manual, or by touching +any of the Pedal stop-knobs or stop-keys. + +When the suitable bass tablet belonging to any manual is thus locked +down, the stops and couplers of the Pedal department will automatically +move so as to provide at all times a bass that is suitable to the +combination of stops and couplers in use upon that particular manual. + +On touching the suitable bass tablet belonging to any other manual with +extra pressure, the tablet formerly touched will be released and the +latter will become locked down. The Pedal stops and couplers will now +group themselves so as to provide a suitable bass to the stops in use +on the latter-named manual, and will continue so to do until this +suitable bass tablet is in turn released. + +This automatic suitable bass device does not interfere with the normal +use of the stop-keys of the pedal department by hand. Directly any one +of these be touched, the suitable bass mechanism is automatically +thrown out of action. + +The combination pedals and pistons are all provided with double touch. +Upon using them in the ordinary way the manual stops alone are +affected. If, however, considerable extra pressure be brought to bear +upon them the appropriate suitable bass tablet is thereby momentarily +depressed and liberated--by this means providing a suitable bass. In +large organs two or three adjustable toe pistons are also provided to +give independent control of the Pedal organ. On touching any of these +toe pistons all suitable bass tablets are released, and any selection +of Pedal stops and couplers that the organist may have arranged on the +toe piston operated is brought into use. The Hope-Jones plan seems to +leave little room for improvement. It has been spoken of as "the +greatest assistance to the organist since the invention of combination +pedals." [1] + +Compton, of Nottingham, England[2] (a progressive and artistic +builder), already fits a suitable bass attachment to his organs and it +would seem likely that before long this system must become universally +adopted. + + + +[1] Mark Andrews, Associate of the Royal College of Organists, England, +President of the National Association of Organists and Sub-Warden of +the American Guild of Organists. + +[2] Mr. R. P. Elliott, organizer and late Vice-President of the Austin +Co., said on his last return from England that Compton was at that time +doing the most artistic work of any organ-builder in that country. He +is working to a great extent on the lines laid down by Hope-Jones, and +has the benefit of the advice and assistance of that well-known patron +of the art, Mr. J. Martin White. His business has lately been +reorganized under the title of John Compton, Ltd., in which company Mr. +White is a large shareholder. + + + + +CHAPTER VII. + +MEANS OF OBTAINING EXPRESSION. + + +CRESCENDO PEDAL. + +To most organs in this country, to many in Germany, and to a few in +other countries, there is attached a balanced shoe pedal by movement of +which the various stops and couplers in the organ are brought into +action in due sequence. By this means an organist is enabled to build +up the tone of his organ from the softest to the loudest without having +to touch a single stop-knob, coupler or combination piston. The +crescendo pedal, as it is called, is little used in England. It is the +fashion there to regard it merely as a device to help an incompetent +organist. It is contended that a crescendo pedal is most inartistic, +as it is certain to be throwing on or taking off stops in the middle, +instead of at the beginning or end of a musical phrase. In spite of +this acknowledged defect, many of the best players in this country +regard it as a legitimate and helpful device. + +We believe the first balanced crescendo pedal in this country was put +in the First Presbyterian Church organ at Syracuse, N. Y., by Steere, +the builder of the instrument. + + +SFORZANDO PEDAL--DOUBLE TOUCH. + +Under the name of Sforzando Coupler, the mechanism of which is +described and illustrated in Stainer's Dictionary, a device was +formerly found in some organs by which the keys of the Swell were +caused to act upon the keys of the Great. The coupler being brought on +and off by a pedal, sforzando effects could be produced, or the first +beat in cadi measure strongly accented in the style of the +orchestration of the great masters. Hope-Jones in his pioneer organ at +St. John's Church, Birkenhead, England, provided a pedal which brought +the Tuba on the Great organ. The pedal was thrown back by a spring on +being released from the pressure of the foot. Some fine effects could +be produced by this, but of course the whole keyboard was affected and +only chords could be played. Various complicated devices to bring out +a melody have been invented from time to time by various builders, but +all have been superseded by the invention of the "Double Touch." On a +keyboard provided with this device, extra pressure of the fingers +causes the keys struck to fall an additional eighth inch (through a +spring giving way), bringing the stops drawn on another manual into +play. If playing on the Swell organ, the Choir stops will sound as +well when the keys are struck with extra firmness; if playing on the +Choir the Swell stops sound; and if playing on the Great the Double +Touch usually brings on the Tuba or Trumpet. It is thus possible to +play a hymn tune in four parts on the Swell and bring out the melody on +the Choir Clarinet; to play on the Choir and bring out the melody on +the Swell Vox Humana or Cornopean; or to play a fugue with the full +power of the Great organ (except the Trumpet) and bring out the subject +of the fugue every time it enters, whether in the soprano voice, the +alto, tenor, or bass. + +In the latest Hope-Jones organs arrangements are made for drawing many +of the individual stops on the second touch, independently of the +couplers. + + +BALANCED SWELL PEDAL + +At the commencement of the period of which we are treating (some fifty +years ago) the Swell shutters of almost all organs were made to fall +shut of their own weight, or by means of a spring. The organist might +leave his Swell-box shut or, by means of a catch on the pedal, hitch it +full open. + +When, however, he wanted the shutters in any intermediate position, he +had to keep his foot on the pedal in order to prevent its closing. + +The introduction of the balanced Swell pedal (Walcker, 1863) has +greatly increased the tonal resources of the organ. It is used almost +universally in this country, but strangely enough the country in which +the Swell-box was invented (England, 1712) lags behind, and even to-day +largely adheres to the old forms of spring pedal. + +A further and great step in advance appears in recent organs built by +the Hope-Jones Organ Company. The position of the swell shutters is +brought under the control of the organist's fingers as well as his +feet. Each balanced swell pedal is provided with an indicator key +fixed on the under side of the ledge of the music desk, where it is +most conspicuous to the eye of the performer. As the swell pedal is +opened by the organist's foot, the indicator key travels in a downward +direction to the extent of perhaps one inch and a quarter. As the +organist closes his pedal, the indicator key again moves upward into +its normal position. By means of this visible indicator key the +organist is always aware of the position of the swell shutters. +Through electric mechanism the indicator key is so connected with the +swell pedal that the slightest urging of the key either upward or +downward by the finger will shift the swell pedal and cause it to close +or open as may be desired and to the desired extent. When an organ +possesses four or five swell boxes, and when these swell boxes (as in +the case of Hope-Jones' organs) modify the tone by many hundred per +cent., it becomes highly important that the organist shall at all times +have complete and instant control of the swell shutters and shall be +conscious of their position without having to look below the keyboards. +Hope-Jones also provides what he calls a general swell pedal. To this +general swell pedal (and its corresponding indicator key) any or all of +the other swell pedals may be coupled at will. + +Hope-Jones has also recently invented a means of controlling the swell +shutters from the manual keys to a sufficient extent to produce certain +sforzando effects. + +When this contrivance is brought into use upon any manual and when no +keys upon that manual are being played, the swell shutters assume a +position slightly more open than normal in relation to the position of +the swell pedal. Directly any key upon the manual in question is +depressed, the swell shutters again resume their normal position in +relation to the swell pedal. This results in a certain emphasis or +attack at the commencement of each phrase or note that is akin to the +effect obtained from many of the instruments of the orchestra. + +These contrivances are applicable only to such organs as have the +balanced swell pedal. + + +SWELL BOXES. + +The invention of the Swell is generally attributed to Abraham Jordan. +He exhibited what was known as the nag's head Swell in St. Magnus' +Church, London, England, in the year 1731. + +The "nag's head" Swell, with its great sliding shutter, rapidly gave +place to the "Venetian" Swell shades, used almost universally to this +day. At the beginning of the period under consideration Swell boxes +were almost invariably made of thin boards and their effect upon the +strength of the tone was small. Willis was one of the first to realize +the artistic possibilities of the Swell organ and in almost all his +organs we find thick wooden boxes and carefully fitted shutters, and +often an inner swell box containing the delicate reeds, such as the Vox +Humana and Oboe. + +Many of the leading organ builders now employ this thicker +construction, and it is no uncommon thing to find Swell boxes measuring +three inches in thickness and "deadened" with sawdust or shavings +between the layers of wood of which they are formed. + +A few organs of Hutchings and other makers are provided with a double +set of shutters, so that sound waves escaping through the first set are +largely arrested by the second. The _crescendo_ and _diminuendo_ are +thus somewhat improved. + +By the adoption of scientific principles Hope-Jones has multiplied the +efficiency of Swell boxes tenfold. He points out that wood, hitherto +used in their construction, is one of the best known conductors of +sound and should, therefore, not be employed. The effects produced by +his brick, stone and cement boxes (Worcester Cathedral, England; McEwan +Hall, Edinburgh, Scotland, Ocean Grove, New Jersey, etc.) mark the dawn +of a new era in Swell-box construction and effect. It is now possible +to produce by means of scientific Swell boxes an increase or diminution +of tone amounting to many hundred per cent. + +We have heard the great Tuba at Ocean Grove, on 50-inch wind pressure, +so reduced in strength that it formed an effective accompaniment to the +tones of a single voice. + +The Hope-Jones method seems to be to construct the box and its shutters +(in laminated form) of brick, cement or other inert and non-porous +material, and to substitute for the felt usually employed at the joints +his patented "sound trap." This latter is so interesting and of such +import in the history of organ building that we append, on the next +page, illustrations and descriptions of the device. + +If a man should stand at one end of the closed passage (C) he will be +able to converse with a friend at the other end of the passage (D). +The passage will in fact act as a large speaking tube and a +conversation can be carried on between the two individuals, even in +whispers (Figure 12). + +This passage is analogous to the opening or nick between Swell shutters +of the ordinary type. + +If a man should stand in room 1 at A, he will be able to see a friend +standing in room 4 at B, but the two friends will not be able to +converse. When A speaks, the sound waves that he produces will spread +out and will fill room 1. A very small percentage of them will strike +the doorway or opening into room 2. In their turn these sound waves +will be diffused all through room 2, and again but a small percentage +of them will find access into room 3. The sound waves will by this +time be so much attenuated that the voice of the man standing in room 1 +will be lost. Any little tone, however, that may remain will become +dissipated in room 3, and it will not be possible for a person standing +in room 4 to hear the voice. + +[Illustration: Fig. 12. The Principle of the Sound Trap] + +This plan illustrates the principle of the sound trap joint. + +Figure 13 shows in section the joint between two Swell shutters. A +small proportion of the sound waves from inside the Swell box striking +the sound trap joint, as indicated by the arrow, will pass through the +nick between the two shutters, but these sound waves will become +greatly weakened in charging the groove A. Such of the sound waves is +pass through the second nick will become attenuated in charging the +chamber B. They will be further lost in the chamber C, and practically +none will remain by the time the chamber D is reached. + +It is Hope-Jones' habit to place the shutters immediately above the +pipes themselves, so that when they are opened the Swell box is left +practically without any top. It is in such cases not his custom to fit +any shutters in the side or front of the Swell box. + +[Illustration: Fig. 13. Sound Trap Joint] + +To relieve the compression of the air caused by playing for any length +of time with the shutters closed, he provides escape valves, opening +outside the auditorium. He also provides fans for driving all the cold +air out of the box before using the organ, thus equalizing the +temperature with the air outside--or he accomplishes this result +through the medium of gas, electric or steam heaters, governed by +thermostats. + +The Hope-Jones Vacuum Swell Shutters, with sound-trap joints, are shown +in Figures 14 and 15. + +It is well known that sound requires some medium to carry it. Readers +will doubtless be familiar with the well-known experiment illustrating +this point. An electric bell is placed under a glass dome. So long as +the dome is filled with air the sound of the bell can be heard, but +directly the air is pumped out silence results, even though it can be +seen that the bell is continuously ringing. As there is no air +surrounding the bell there is nothing to convey its vibrations to the +ear. + +That is why the hollow swell shutter, from the interior of which the +air has been pumped out, is such a wonderful non-conductor of sound. + +The shutters shown in Figures 14 and 15 are aluminum castings. + +Ribs R|1| and R|2| are provided to support the flat sides against the +pressure of the atmosphere, but each of these ribs is so arranged that +it supports only one flat side and does not form a means of +communication between one flat side and the other. Thus R|1| supports +one flat side whilst R|2| supports the other. The aluminum shutters +are supported by means of pivot P. + +[Illustration: Figs. 14-15. The Vacuum Shutter] + +They are very light and can therefore be opened and closed with great +rapidity. + +A very thin vacuum shutter forms a better interrupter of sound waves +than a brick wall two or three feet in thickness. + +When partially exhausted the aluminum shutters are dipped into a bath +of shellac. This effectually closes any microscopic blow-hole that may +exist in the metal. + +The use of Swell boxes of this vastly increased efficiency permits the +employment of larger scales and heavier pressures for the pipes than +could otherwise be used, and enormously increases the tonal flexibility +of the organ. + +It also does away with the need for soft stops in an organ, thus +securing considerable economy. Where all the stops are inclosed in +cement chambers (as in the case of recent Hope-Jones organs) and where +the sound-trap shutters are employed, _every_ stop is potentially a +soft stop. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII. + +A REVOLUTION IN WIND SUPPLY. + +Prior to the construction of the above-named organ at Birkenhead, +England, it had been the custom to obtain or regulate the pressure of +wind supplied to the pipes by means of loading the bellows with +weights. Owing to its inertia, no heavy bellows weight can be set into +motion rapidly. When, therefore, a staccato chord was struck on one of +these earlier organs, with all its stops drawn, little or no response +was obtained from the pipes, because the wind-chest was instantly +exhausted and no time was allowed for the inert bellows weights to fall +and so force a fresh supply of air into the wind-chests. + + +BELLOWS SPRINGS VERSUS WEIGHTS. + +In one of Hope-Jones' earliest patents the weights indeed remain, but +they merely serve to compress springs, which in turn, act upon the top +of the bellows. + +Before this patent was granted he had, however, given up the use of +weights altogether and relied entirely upon springs. + +This one detail--the substitution of springs for weights--has had a +far-reaching effect upon organ music. It rendered possible the entire +removal of the old unsteadiness of wind from which all organs of the +time suffered in greater or less degree. It quickened the attack of +the action and the speech of the pipes to an amazing extent and opened +a new and wider field to the King of Instruments. + +In the year 1894 John Turnell Austin, now of Hartford, Conn., took out +a patent for an arrangement known as the "Universal air-chest." In +this, the spring as opposed to the weight is adopted. The Universal +air-chest forms a perfect solution of the problem of supplying prompt +and steady wind-pressure, but as practically the same effect is +obtained by the use of a little spring reservoir not one hundredth part +of its size, it is questionable whether this Universal air-chest, +carrying, as it does, certain disadvantages, will survive. + + +INDIVIDUAL PALLETS. + +Fifty years ago the pallet and slider sound-board was well nigh +universally used, but several of the builders in Germany, and Roosevelt +in this country, strongly advocated, and introduced, chests having an +independent valve, pallet or membrane, to control the admission of wind +to each pipe in the organ.[1] + +In almost all of these instances small round valves were used for this +purpose. + +A good pallet and slider chest is difficult to make, and those +constructed by indifferent workmen out of indifferent lumber will cause +trouble through "running"--that is, leakage of wind from one pipe to +another. In poor chests of this description the slides are apt to +stick when the atmosphere is excessively damp, and to become too loose +on days when little or no humidity is present. + +Individual pallet chests are cheaper to make and they have none of the +defects named above. Most of these chests, however, are subject to +troubles of their own, and not one of those in which round valves are +employed permits the pipes to speak to advantage. + +Willis, Hope-Jones, Carlton C. Michell and other artists, after lengthy +tests, independently arrived at the conclusion that the best tonal +results cannot by any possibility be obtained from these cheap forms of +chest. Long pallets and a large and steady body of air below each pipe +are deemed essential.[2] + + +HEAVY WIND PRESSURES. + +As previously stated, the vast majority of organs built fifty years ago +used no higher wind pressure than 3 inches. Hill, in 1833, placed a +Tuba stop voiced on about 11 inches in an organ he built for Birmingham +Town Hall (England), but the tone was so coarse and blatant that such +stops were for years employed only in the case of very large +buildings.[3] Cavaille-Coll subsequently utilized slightly increased +pressures for the trebles of his flue stops as well as for his larger +reeds. As a pioneer he did excellent work in this direction. + +To Willis, however, must be attributed greater advance in the +utilization of heavy pressures for reed work. He was the first to +recognize that the advantage of heavy wind pressure for the reeds lay +not merely in the increase of power, but also in the improvement of the +quality of tone. Willis founded a new school of reed voicing and +exerted an influence that will never die. + +In organs of any pretensions it became his custom to employ pressures +of 8 to 10 inches for the Great and Swell chorus reeds and the Solo +Tubas in his larger organs were voiced on 20 or 25 inches. + +He introduced the "closed eschallot" (the tube against which the tongue +beats in a reed pipe) and created a revolution in reed voicing. He has +had many imitators, but the superb examples of his skill, left in +English Cathedral and town hall organs, will be difficult to surpass. + +Prior to the advent of Hope-Jones (about the year 1887) no higher +pressure than 25 inches had, we believe, been employed in any organ, +and the vast majority of instruments were voiced on pressures not +exceeding 3 inches. Heavy pressure flue voicing was practically +unknown, and in reeds even Willis used very moderate pressures, save +for a Tuba in the case of really large buildings. + +Hope-Jones showed that by increasing the weight of metal, bellying all +flue pipes in the centre, leathering their lips, clothing their flues, +and reversing their languids, he could obtain from heavy pressures +practically unlimited power and at the same time actually add to the +sweetness of tone produced by the old, lightly blown pipes. He used +narrow mouths, did away with regulation at the foot of the pipe, and +utilized the "pneumatic blow" obtained from his electric action. + +He also inaugurated "an entirely new departure in the science of reed +voicing." [4] + +He employs pressures as high as fifty inches and never uses less than +six. His work in this direction has exercised a profound influence on +organ building throughout the world, and leading builders in all +countries are adopting his pressures or are experimenting in that +direction. + +Like most revolutionary improvements, the use of heavy pressures was at +first vigorously opposed, but organists and acousticians are now filled +with wonder that the old low-pressure idea should have held sway so +long, in view of the fact that very heavy wind is employed for the +production of the best tone from the human voice and from the various +wind instruments of the orchestra. + +Karl Gottlieb Weigle, of Stuttgart, was a little in advance of many of +his confreres in using moderately heavy pressures, but he departed from +the leather lip and narrow mouth used by Hope-Jones and has obtained +power without refinement. + +In employing these heavy pressures of wind, increased purity and beauty +of tone should alone be aimed at. Power will take care of itself. + + +MECHANICAL BLOWERS. + +The "organ beater" of bygone days was invariably accompanied by the +"organ pumper," often by several of them. There is a well-known story +of how the man refused to blow any longer unless the organist said that +"_we_ had done very well to-day." The organ pumper's vocation is now +almost entirely gone, especially in this country, although we know of +organs in England which require four men "to blow the same" unto this +day. + +When Willis built the great organ in St. George's Hall, Liverpool, in +1855, he installed an eight-horsepower steam engine to provide the wind +supply. There is a six-horse steam engine in use in Chester Cathedral +(installed 1876). + +Gas and petrol (gasoline) engines have been used extensively in +England, providing a cheaper, but, with feeders, a less controllable, +prime mover. By far the commonest source of power has been the water +motor, as it was economical and readily governed, and as water pressure +was generally available, but the decline of the old-time bellows, with +the fact that many cities to-day refuse to permit motors to be operated +from the water mains, have given the field practically to the electric +motor, now generally used in connection with some form of rotary fans. +The principle of fans in series, first introduced by Cousans, of +Lincoln, England, under the name of the Kinetic Blower, is now accepted +as standard. This consists of a number of cleverly designed fans +mounted in series on one shaft, the first delivering air to the second +at, say, 3-inch pressure, to be raised another step and delivered to +the next in series, etc., etc. This plan permits tapping off desired +amounts of air at intermediate pressures with marked economy, and as it +is slow speed, and generally direct connected with its motor on the +same shaft, it is both quiet and mechanically efficient. + + + +[1] One object of this was to prevent what was called "robbing." While +the pressure of the wind might be ample and steady enough with only a +few stops drawn, it was found that when all the stops were drawn the +large pipes "robbed" their smaller neighbors of their due supply of +wind, causing them to sound flat. By giving each pipe a pallet or +valve to itself, the waste of wind in the large grooves was prevented. +Another object was to get rid of the long wooden slides, which in dry +weather were apt to shrink and cause leakage, and in damp weather to +swell and stick. + +[2] A striking instance of the difference between the two kinds of +pallet can be seen in All Angels' Church, New York. The organ was +built originally by Roosevelt, with two manuals and his patent +wind-chest. In 1890 the church was enlarged and Jardine removed the +organ to a chamber some thirty feet above the floor and fitted his +electric action to the Roosevelt wind-chest. At the same time he +erected an entirely new Choir organ, in the clerestory, with his +electric action fitted to long pallets. The superiority of attack and +promptness of speech, especially of the lower notes, of the Choir over +the Great and Swell organs is marvelous. The same thing can be seen at +St. James' Church, New York, where the Roosevelt organ was rebuilt with +additions by the Hope-Jones Organ Co. in 1908. + +[3] Some congregations could not stand them and had them taken out. + +[4] Wedgwood: "Dictionary of Organ Stops," p. 167. + + + + +CHAPTER IX. + +TRANSFERENCE OF STOPS. + +At the commencement of the period of which we are treating, the stops +belonging to the Swell organ could be drawn on that keyboard only; +similarly the stops on the Great, Choir and Pedal organs could be drawn +only on their respective keyboards. It is now becoming more and more +common to arrange for the transference of stops from one keyboard to +another. + +If this plan be resorted to as an effort to make an insufficient number +of stops suffice for a large building, it is bound to end in +disappointment and cannot be too strongly condemned. On the other +hand, if an organ-builder first provides a number stops that furnish +sufficient variety of tonal quality and volume that is ample for the +building in which the instrument is situated, and then arranges for the +transference of a number of the stops to other manuals than their own, +he will be adding to the tonal resources of the instrument in a way +that is worthy of commendation. Many organs now constructed have their +tonal effects more than doubled through adoption of this principle. + +It is difficult to say who first conceived the idea of transference of +stops, but authentic instances occurring in the sixteenth century can +be pointed out. During the last fifty years many builders have done +work in this direction, but without question the leadership in the +movement must be attributed to Hope-Jones. While others may have +suggested the same thing, he has worked the system out practically in a +hundred instances, and has forced upon the attention of the organ world +the artistic advantages of the plan. + +His scheme of treating the organ as a single unit and rendering it +possible to draw any of the stops on any of the keyboards at any +(reasonable) pitch, was unfolded before the members of the Royal +College of Organists in London at a lecture he delivered on May 5, 1891. + +When adopting this system in part, he would speak of "unifying" this, +that or the other stop, and this somewhat inapt phrase has now been +adopted by other builders and threatens to become general. + +Extraordinary claims of expressiveness, flexibility and artistic +balance are made by those who preside at "unit (Hope-Jones) organs," +but this style of instrument is revolutionary and has many opponents. +Few, however, can now be found who do not advocate utilization of the +principle to a greater or less degree in every organ. For instance, +who has not longed at times that the Swell Bourdon could be played by +the pedals? Or that the Choir Clarinet were also in the Swell? + +Compton, of Nottingham, England, employs this plan of stop extension +and transference, or unifying of stops, in all the organs he builds. + +As additional methods facilitating in some cases the transfer of stops +must be named the "double touch" and the "pizzicato touch." The +former, though practically introduced by Hope-Jones and found in most +of his organs built during the last fifteen years, was, we believe, +invented by a Frenchman and applied to reed organs. The pizzicato +touch is a Hope-Jones invention which, though publicly introduced +nearly twenty years since, did not meet with the recognition it +deserved until recently. The earliest example of this touch in the +United States is found in the organ at Hanson Place Baptist Church, +Brooklyn, N. Y., 1909. + +In the French Mustel reed organ the first touch is operated by +depressing the keys about a sixteenth part of an inch. This produces a +soft sound. A louder and different tone is elicited upon pushing the +key further down. In the pipe organ the double touch is differently +arranged. The first touch is the ordinary touch. Upon exerting a much +heavier pressure upon the key it will suddenly fall into the second +touch (about one-eighth of an inch deep) and will then cause an +augmentation of the tone by making other pipes speak. The device is +generally employed in connection with the couplers and can be brought +into or out of action at the will of the organist. For instance, if +the performer be playing upon his Choir Organ Flute and draws the Oboe +stop on the Swell organ, he can (provided the double-touch action be +drawn), by pressing any key or keys more firmly, cause those particular +notes to speak on the Oboe, while the keys that he is pressing in the +ordinary way will sound only the Flute. + +The pizzicato touch is also used mostly in connection with the +couplers. When playing upon a soft combination on the Great, the +organist may draw the Swell to Great "pizzicato" coupler. Whenever now +he depresses a Great key the Swell key will (in effect) descend with +it, but will be instantly liberated again, even though the organist +continue to hold his Great key. By means of this pizzicato touch (now +being fitted to all Hope-Jones organs built in this country) a great +variety of charming musical effects can be produced. + + +THE UNIT ORGAN. + +The Unit organ in its entirety consists of a single instrument divided +into five tonal families, each family being placed in its own +independent Swell box. The families are as follows: "Foundation"--this +contains the Diapasons, Diaphones, Tibias, etc.; "woodwind"--this +contains Flutes, Oboes, Clarinets, etc.; "strings"--this contains the +Gambas, Viols d' Orchestre, Dulcianas, etc.; "brass"--this contains the +Trumpets, Cornopeans and Tubas; "percussion"--this contains the +Tympani, Gongs, Chimes, Glockenspiel, etc. + +On each of the keyboards any of the stops, from the "foundation" group, +the "woodwind" group, the "string" group, the "brass" group and the +"percussion" group, may be drawn, and they may be drawn at 16 feet, at +8 feet, and, in some instances, at 4 feet, at 2 feet, at twelfth and at +tierce pitches. + +Arranged in this way an organ becomes an entirely different instrument. +It is very flexible, for not only can the tones be altered by drawing +the various stops at different pitches, but the various groups may be +altered in power of tone independently of each other. At one moment +the foundation tone may entirely dominate, by moving the swell pedals +the strings may be made to come to the front while the foundation tone +disappears; then again the woodwind asserts itself whilst the string +tone is moderated, till the opening of the box containing the brass +allows that element to dominate. The variety of the tonal combinations +is practically endless. + +The adoption of this principle also saves needless duplication of +stops. In the organ at St. George's Hall, England, there are on the +manuals 5 Open Diapasons, 4 Principals, 5 Fifteenths, 3 Clarinets, 2 +Orchestral Oboes, 3 Trumpets, 3 Ophicleides, 3 Trombas, 6 Clarions, 4 +Flutes, etc., etc. In the Hope-Jones Unit organ at Ocean Grove effects +equal to the above are obtained from only 6 stops. The organist of +Touro Synagogue, New Orleans, has expressed the opinion that his +ten-stop Unit organ is equal to an ordinary instrument with sixty stops. + + +SYMPATHY. + +A strong reason against the duplication of pipes of similar tone in an +organ is that curious acoustical phenomenon, the _bete noir_ of the +organ-builder, known as _sympathy_, or interference of sound waves. +When two pipes of exactly the same pitch and scale are so placed that +the pulsations of air from the one pass into the other, if blown +separately the tone of each is clear; blown together there is +practically no sound heard, the waves of the one streaming into the +other, and a listener hears only the rushing of the air. That the +conditions which produce sound are all present may be demonstrated by +conveying a tube from the mouth of either of the pipes to a listener's +ear, when its tone will be distinctly heard. In other words, one sound +destroys the other. Helmholtz explains this phenomenon by saying that +"when two equal sound waves are in opposition the one nullifies the +effect of the other and the result is a straight line," that is, no +wave, no sound. "If a wave crest of a particular size and form +coincides with another exactly like it, the result will be a crest +double the height of each one" (that is, the sound will be augmented). +* * * "If a crest coincides with a trough the result will be that the +one will unify the other," and the sound will be destroyed.[1] That is +why in the old-style organs the builder, when he used more than one +Diapason, tried to avoid this sympathy by using pipes of different +scale, but even then the results were seldom satisfactory; the big +pipes seemed to swallow the little ones. In the big organ in Leeds +Town Hall, England, there was one pipe in the Principal which nobody +could tune. The tuner turned it every possible way in its socket +without avail, and at last succeeded by removing it from the socket and +mounting it on a block at a considerable distance from its proper +place, the wind being conveyed to it by a tube. This is only one +instance of what frequently occurred. + +In the Hope-Jones organ the usual plan of putting all the C pipes on +one side of the organ and all the C# pipes on the other, is departed +from. The pipes are alternated and in this ingenious way sympathy is +largely avoided. + + + +[1] Broadhouse: "Musical Acoustics," p. 261. + + + + +CHAPTER X. + +THE PRODUCTION OF ORGAN TONE. + +We now come to the department of the organ which will be of more +interest to the listener, viz., the various organ tones. The general +shape and construction of the pipes now in use, judging from the +earliest drawings obtainable, have not changed for hundreds of years. +The ancients were not wanting in ingenuity and we have pictures of many +funny-looking pipes which were intended to imitate the growling of a +bear (this stop was sometimes labeled Vox Humana!), the crowing of a +cock, the call of the cuckoo, the song of the nightingale, and the +twitter of the canary, the ends of these pipes being bent over and +inserted in water, just as the player blows into a glass of water +through a quill in a toy symphony. Then there was the Hummel, a device +which caused two of the largest pipes in the organ to sound at once +_and awake those who snored during the sermon_! Finally there was the +Fuchsschwanz. A stop-knob bearing the inscription, "Noli me tangere" +(touch me not), was attached to the console. As a reward for their +curiosity, persons who were induced to touch the knob thereby set free +the catch of a spring, causing a huge foxtail to fly into their +faces--to the great joy and mirth of the bystanders. + +In order to understand what follows we must make a short excursion into +the realm of acoustics. We have already remarked upon the extreme +antiquity of the Flute. The tone of the Flute is produced by blowing +across a hole pierced in its side; in other words, _like a stream of +wind striking upon a cutting edge_. It is possible to produce a tone +in this way by blowing across the end of any tube made of any material, +of glass, or iron, or rubber, or cane, or even the barrel of an +old-fashioned door key. The primitive Flutes found in the Egyptian +tombs and also depicted on the ancient hieroglyphics are made of reed +or cane, about 14 inches long, possessing the usual six finger-holes. +The top end is not stopped with a cork, as in the ordinary Flute, but +is thinned off to a feather edge, leaving a sharp circular ring at +right angles to the axis of the bore. By blowing across this ring a +fair but somewhat feeble Flute tone is produced. + +The six holes being closed by the fingers, the ground tone of the tube +is produced. On lifting the fingers in successive order from the +bottom end, we get the seven notes of the major scale. Closing the +holes again and blowing harder, we get the scale _an octave higher_. +By blowing still harder we get an octave higher still. In other words, +we are now producing _harmonics_. + +It is possible to produce from a plain tube without finger-holes or +valves, such as the French Horn, by tightening the lips and increasing +the pressure of the player's breath, the following series of harmonics: + +[Illustration: Series of harmonics] + +The harmonics of a pianoforte string can be easily demonstrated by the +following experiment: Depress the "loud" pedal and strike any note in +the bass a sharp blow. On listening intently, the 3d, 5th, and 8th +(the common chord) of the note struck will be heard sounding all the +way up for several octaves. In this case the other strings of the +piano act as _resonators_, enabling the harmonics to be heard. + +Coming back to our Flute again and applying the knowledge we have +gained to an organ pipe, we observe: + +1. That the _pitch_ of the sound depends on the length of the tube. + +2. That the pitch of the sound _also_ depends on the amount of wind +pressure. + +From this last will be seen how important it is that the pressure of +the wind in an organ should be steady and uniform. Otherwise the pipes +will speak a harmonic instead of the sound intended--as, indeed, +frequently happens. + +When a stop is labeled "8 ft.," that means that the bottom pipe, CC is +8 feet long and the pitch will be that of the key struck. A "16-ft." +stop will sound an octave lower; a "4-ft." stop an octave higher. +These measurements refer to pipes which are open at the top and are +only correct in the case of very narrow pipes, such as the stop called +Dulciana. Wider pipes do not require to be so long in order to produce +8-ft. tone. + +"If a tube * * * open at both ends be blown across at one end, the +fundamental tone of the tube will be sounded; but if the hand be placed +at one end of the tube, so as to effectually close it, and the open end +be blown across as before, a sound will be heard exactly one octave +below that which was heard when both ends of the tube were open. One +of these pipes was an open pipe, the other a stopped pipe; and the +difference between the two is that which constitutes the two great +classes into which the flue pipes of organs are divided." [1] + +Thus by stopping up the end of an organ pipe we get 8-ft. tone from a +pipe only 4 ft. long, 16-ft. tone from a pipe 8 ft. long, and so on, +but with loss of power and volume. The harmonics produced from stopped +pipes are entirely different from those of the open ones; their +harmonic scale is produced by vibrations which are as 1, 2, 3, 4, etc., +those of a stopped pipe by vibrations which are as 1, 3, 5, 7. All +these harmonics are also called upper partials. + +The Estey Organ Company claim to have discovered a new principle in +acoustics in their Open Bass pipes, of which we show a drawing +opposite. This invention (by William E. Haskell) enables the builders +to supply open bass tone in organ chambers and swell boxes where there +is not room for full-length pipes. + +[Illustration: Fig. 16. Estey's Open Bass Pipes--Wood and Metal] + +Referring to the illustration, it will be seen that the pipes are +partly open and partly stopped, with a tuning slide in the centre. The +builders write as follows: + +"The inserted tube, or complementing chamber, in the pipe is such in +length as to complete the full length of the pipe. It is, as will be +noted, smaller in scale than the outside pipe. The effect is to +produce the vibration that would be obtained with a full-length pipe, +and in no way does it interfere with the quality of tone. In fact, it +assists the pipe materially in its speech. This is most noticeable in +a pipe such as the 32-foot Open Diapason, which when made full length +is quite likely to be slow in speech. With this arrangement the pipe +takes its speech very readily and is no slower in taking its full +speech than an ordinary 16-foot Open Diapason. + +"We have worked this out for all classes of tone--string, flute and +diapason--and the law holds good in every instance." + +Helmholtz was the first to demonstrate that the _quality_ of all +musical tones depends entirely upon the presence or absence of their +upper partials. In the hollow tone of the Flute they are almost +entirely absent; in the clanging tone of the Trumpet many of the higher +ones are present; and if we take an instrument like the Cymbals we get +the whole of the upper lot altogether. + +The different qualities of tone of the organ pipes are therefore +determined: (1) By the material of which the pipes are made; (2) by the +shape of the pipe; (3) by the amount of wind pressure; (4) by the shape +and size of the mouth, the relation of the lip to the stream of wind +impinging on it from a narrow slit, and the shape and thickness of the +lip itself. The manipulation of the mouth and lip to produce the tone +desired is called voicing and calls for considerable artistic skill. +The writer recollects an instance of a clever voicer (Gustav Schlette) +taking a new organ in hand, which was not quite satisfactory, and on +the following Sunday he hardly knew it again. + +Another kind of harmonics must now be described, called combinational +or Tartini tones (from Tartini, a celebrated Italian violinist of the +XVII century, who first described them). "These tones," says +Helmholtz, "are heard whenever two musical tones of different pitches +are sounded together loudly and continuously." There is no necessity +for giving a table of all of their tones here; we select the two most +useful. If two notes at an interval of a fifth are held down, a note +one octave below the lower one will be heard. So organ builders take +two pipes--one 16 feet long (CCC) and one 10 2/3 feet long (GG)--which +make the interval of the fifth, and, by sounding them together, produce +the tone of a pipe 33 feet long (CCCC). This is the stop which will be +found labeled "32-ft. Resultant." Hope-Jones makes a stop which he +calls Gravissima, 64-ft. Resultant, in his large organs. Many contend +that this system produces better results than if pipes of the actual +lengths of 32 or 64 feet were employed. Indeed, a pipe 64 feet long +would be inaudible; the human ear has its limitations and refuses to +recognize tone lower than 32 feet (just as we cannot lift water by a +suction pump over 32 feet)--_but_, these great pipes _produce +harmonics_ which wonderfully reinforce the tone of the organ. +Therefore their use is worth while. + +The other combinational tone to which we refer is that produced by the +interval of a major third. It sounds two octaves below the lower note. +The writer is not aware that this has ever been used as an organ stop, +but it is found written in the organ compositions of Guilmant and other +first-rate composers. It will be seen that a skilful organist, with a +knowledge of these tones, can produce effects from small organs not +available to the ordinary player. + +Reverting once more to our Flute, whose tube is shortened by lifting +the fingers from the holes, it is not generally known that this can be +done with an organ pipe; the writer has met with instances of it in +England. The two lowest pipes of the Pedal Open Diapason were each +made to give two notes by affixing a pneumatic valve near the top of +the pipe. When the valve was closed the pipe gave CCC. When the +organist played CCC sharp, wind was admitted to the valve, which +opened, and this shortened the pipe. The device worked perfectly, only +that it was not possible to hold down both CCC and CCC sharp and make +"thunder"! The organist of Chester Cathedral had been playing his +instrument twice daily for ten years before he found this out, and then +he only discovered it when the pipes were taken down to be cleaned. It +is an admirable makeshift where a builder is cramped for room. + +Organ pipes are divided into three families--Flues, Reeds and +Diaphones. The flues are subdivided into Diapasons, Flutes, and +Strings, and we now proceed to consider each of these groups separately. + + +DIAPASONS. + +The pipes usually seen in the front of an organ belong to the Great +organ Open Diapason, long regarded as the foundation tone of the +instrument. The Open Diapason may vary in size (or scale) from 9 +inches diameter at CC to 3 inches. The average size is about 6 inches. + +The Diapasons of the celebrated old organ-builders, Father Schmidt, +Renatus Harris, Green, Snetzler and others, though small in power, were +most musical in tone quality. Though sounding soft near the organ, the +tone from these musical stops seems to suffer little loss when +traveling to the end of quite a large building. About the year 1862 +Schulze, in his celebrated organ at Doncaster, England, brought into +prominence a new and much more brilliant and powerful Diapason. The +mouths of the pipes were made very wide and they were more freely +blown. Schulze's work was imitated by T. C. Lewis, of England, and by +Willis. It has also exercised very great influence on the work done by +almost all organ-builders in this country, in Germany, and elsewhere. +Schulze's method of treatment added largely to the assertiveness and +power of the tone, but gave the impression of the pipes being overblown +and led to the loss of the beautiful, musical, and singing quality of +tone furnished by the older Diapasons. Hard-toned Diapasons became +almost the accepted standard. Willis even went so far as to slot all +of his Diapason pipes, and Cavaille-Coll sometimes adopted a similar +practice. Walker, in England, and Henry Erben, in this country, +continued to produce Diapasons having a larger percentage of foundation +tone and they and a few other builders thus helped to keep alive the +old traditions. + +In the year 1887 Hope-Jones introduced his discovery that by leathering +the lips of the Diapason pipes, narrowing their mouths, inverting their +languids and increasing the thickness of the metal, the pipes could be +voiced on 10, 20, or even 30-inch wind, without hardness of tone, +forcing, or windiness being introduced. He ceased to restrict the toe +of the pipe and did all his regulation at the flue. + +His invention has proved of profound significance to the organ world. +The old musical quality, rich in foundation tone, is returning, but +with added power. Its use, in place of the hard and empty-toned +Diapasons to which we had perforce become accustomed, is rapidly +growing. The organs in almost all parts of the world show the +Hope-Jones influence. Few builders have failed now to adopt the +leathered lip. + +Wedgwood, in his "Dictionary of Organ Stops," pp. 44, 45, says: + +"Mr. Ernest Skinner, an eminent American organ-builder,[2] likens the +discovery of the leathered lip to the invention by Barker of the +pneumatic lever, predicting that it will revolutionize organ tone as +surely and completely as did the latter organ mechanism, an estimate +which is by no means so exaggerated as might be supposed. The +leathered Diapason, indeed, is now attaining a zenith of popularity +both in England and America.[3] A prominent German builder also, who, +on the author's recommendation, made trial of it, was so struck with +the refined quality of tone that he forthwith signified his intention +of adopting the process. A few isolated and unsuccessful experimental +attempts at improving the tone of the pipes by coating their lips with +paper, parchment, felt, and kindred substances, have been recorded, but +undoubtedly the credit of having been the first to perceive the value +and inner significance of the process must be accorded to Mr. Robert +Hope-Jones. It was only at the cost of considerable thought and labour +that he was able to develop his crude and embryonic scientific theory +into a process which bids fair to transform modern organ building. The +names of Cavaille-Coll and George Willis, and of Hope-Jones, will be +handed down to posterity as the authors of the most valuable +improvements in the domains of reed-voicing and flue-voicing, +respectively, which have been witnessed in the present era of organ +building." + +The desire for power in Diapason tone first found expression in this +country by the introduction into our larger organs of what was called a +Stentorphone. This was a large metal Diapason of ordinary +construction, voiced on heavy wind pressure. It was most harsh, +unmusical and inartistic. It produced comparatively little foundation +tone and a powerful chord of harmonics, many of them dissonant. In +Germany, Weigle, of Stuttgart, introduced a similar stop, but actually +exaggerated its want of refinement by making the mouth above the normal +width. As knowledge of the Hope-Jones methods spreads, these coarse +and unmusical stops disappear. He is without question right in urging +that the chief aim in using heavy pressure should be to increase +refinement, not power of tone. Sweet foundation tone produced from +heavy wind pressure always possesses satisfactory power. He is also +unquestionably right in his contention that when great nobility of +foundation tone is required, Diapasons should not be unduly multiplied, +but Tibias or large Flutes should be used behind them. + +Every epoch-making innovation raises adversaries. + +We learn from these that pure foundation tone does not blend. True, +there are examples of organs where the true foundation tone exists but +does not blend with the rest of the instrument, but it is misleading to +say that "pure foundation tone does not blend." Hope-Jones has proved +conclusively that by exercise of the requisite skill it does and so +have others who follow in his steps. A view of the mouth of a +Hope-Jones heavy pressure Diapason, with inverted languid, leather lip +and clothed flue, is given in Figure 17. + +[Illustration: Fig. 17. Diapason Pipe with Leathered Lip] + +The dull tone of the old Diapasons was due to the absence of the upper +harmonics or partials. With the introduction of the Lutheran chorale +and congregational singing it was found that the existing organs could +not make themselves heard above the voices. But it was discovered +empirically that by adding their harmonics artificially the organs +could be brightened up and even made to overpower large bodies of +singers. Hence the introduction of the Mixture stops (also called +compound stops), which were _compounded_ of several ranks of pipes. +The simplest form was the Doublette sounding the 15th and 22nd (the +double and treble octave) of the note struck. Other ranks added +sounded the 12th, 19th, and so on, until it was possible to obtain not +only the full common chord, but also some of the higher harmonics +dissonant to this chord, from a single key. + + +THE DECLINE OF MIXTURES. + +Fifty years ago it was common to find the number of ranks of mixtures +in an organ largely exceed the total number of foundation stops. +Mixtures were inserted in the pedal departments of all large organs. +Organists of the time do not seem to have objected and many of the +leading players strongly opposed Hope-Jones when he came out as the +champion of their abolition. These stops greatly excited the ire of +Berlioz, who declaims against them in his celebrated work on +orchestration. + +The tone of these old organs, when all the Mixture work is drawn, is +well nigh ludicrous to modern ears, and it is hard to suppress a smile +when reading the statements and arguments advanced in favor of the +retention of Mixtures by well-known organists of the last generation. +These mutation stops still have their place in large instruments, but +it is no longer thought that they are necessary to support the singing +of a congregation and that they should be voiced loudly. The decline +of Mixture work has in itself entirely altered and very greatly +improved the effect of organs when considered from a musical point of +view. The tone is now bright and clear. Mr. James Wedgwood says: + +"The tendency to exaggerate the 'upper work' of the organ reached a +climax in the instrument built by Gabler, in 1750, for the Monastic +Church at Weingarten, near Ravensburg. This organ comprised no less +than ninety-five ranks of Mixture, including two stops of twenty-one +and twenty ranks, respectively. Toward the close of the Eighteenth +Century, the Abt Voegler (1749-1814) came forward with his +'Simplification System,' one feature of which consisted in the +abolition of excessive Mixture work. The worthy Abbe, who was a +capable theorist and a gifted player, and possessed of an eccentric +and, therefore, attractive personality, secured many followers, who +preached a crusade against Mixture work. The success of the movement +can well be measured by the amount of apologetic literature it called +forth, and by the fact that it stirred the theorists to ponder for +themselves what really was the function of the Mixture. * * * The +announcement by Mr. Hope-Jones at the beginning of the last decade of +the past century of his complete discardment of all Mixture and +mutation work may fairly be stated to have marked a distinct epoch in +the history of the controversy." + +It is indeed strange to find that this man, who did much to discourage +the use of mixtures, has never quite abandoned their employment and is +to-day the sole champion of double sets of mixture pipes, which he puts +in his organs under the name of Mixture Celestes! However, these are +very soft and are of course quite different in object and scope from +the old-fashioned mixture--now happily extinct. + + +FLUTES. + +The chief developments in Flutes that have taken place during the +period under consideration are the popularization of the double length, +or "Harmonic," principle,[4] by Cavaille-Coll, by William Thynne and +others, and the introduction of large scale leather-lipped "Tibias" by +Hope-Jones. + +Harmonic Flutes, of double length open pipes,[5] are now utilized by +almost all organ builders. Speaking generally, the tone is pure and +possesses considerable carrying power. Thynne, in his Zauber Floete, +introduced stopped pipes blown so as to produce their first harmonic +(an interval of a twelfth from the ground tone). The tone is of quiet +silvery beauty, but the stop does not seem to have been largely adopted +by other builders. Perhaps the most beautiful stop of this kind +produced by Thynne is the one in the remarkable organ in the home of +Mr. J. Martin White, Balruddery, Dundee, Scotland. + +The Hope-Jones leathered Tibias have already effected a revolution in +the tonal structure of large organs. They produce a much greater +percentage of foundation tone than the best Diapasons and are finding +their way into most modern organs of size. They appear under various +names, such as Tibia Plena, Tibia Clausa, Gross Floete, Flute +Fundamentale and Philomela. + +"The word Tibia has consistently been adapted to the nomenclature of +organ stops on the Continent (of Europe) for some centuries. The word +Tibia is now used in this country to denote a quality of tone of an +intensely massive, full and clear character, first realized by Mr. +Hope-Jones, though faintly foreshadowed by Bishop in his Clarabella. +It is produced from pipes of a very large scale, yielding a volume of +foundation tone, accompanied by the minimum of harmonic development. +Even from a purely superficial point of view, the tone of the Tibia +family is most attractive; but, further, its value in welding together +the constituent tones of the organ and coping with modern reed-work is +inestimable." [6] + +"The Tibia Plena was invented by Mr. Hope-Jones, and first introduced +by him into the organ at St. John's, Birkenhead, England, about 1887. +It is a wood Flute of very large scale, with the mouth on the narrow +side of the pipe. The block is sunk, and the lip, which is of +considerable thickness, is usually coated with a thin strip of leather +to impart to the tone the requisite smoothness and finish. It is +voiced on any wind pressure from 4-inch upwards. The Tibia Plena is +the most powerful and weighty of all the Tibia tribe of stops. It is, +therefore, invaluable in large instruments. * * * The Tibia Profunda +and Tibia Profundissima are 16-ft. and 33-ft. Pedal extensions of the +Tibia Plena." [7] + +"The Tibia Clausa is a wood Gedackt of very large scale (in other +words, a stopped pipe), furnished with leather lips. It was invented +by Mr. Hope-Jones. The tone is powerful and beautifully pure and +liquid. The prevailing fault of the modern Swell organ is, perhaps, +the inadequacy of the Flute work. * * * It was the recognition of this +shortcoming which led to the invention of the Tibia Clausa." [8] + +The Tibia Dura is another of Mr. Hope-Jones' inventions. It is an open +wood pipe of peculiar shape, wider at the top than the bottom, and +described by Wedgwood as of "bright, hard, and searching" tone. + +The Tibia Minor was invented by Mr. John H. Compton, of Nottingham, +England, one of the most artistic builders in that country. "The Tibia +Minor bears some resemblance to Mr. Hope-Jones' Tibia Clausa, but being +destined more for use on an open wind-chest, differs in some important +respects. The stop is now generally made of wood, though several +specimens have been made of metal. In all cases the upper lip is +leathered. The tone of the Tibia Minor is extraordinarily effective. +In the bass it is round and velvety * * * in the treble the tone +becomes very clear and full * * * it forms a solo stop of remarkably +fine effect, and in combination serves to add much clearness and +fulness of tone to the treble, and, in general, exercises to the +fullest extent the beneficial characteristics of the Tibia class of +stop already detailed. If only by reason of the faculty so largely +exercised, of thus mollifying and enriching the upper notes of other +stops--which too often prove hard and strident in tone--the Tibia Minor +deserves recognition as one of the most valuable of modern tonal +inventions." [9] + +The Tibia Mollis, invented by Mr. Hope-Jones, is a Flute of soft tone, +composed of rectangular wooden pipes. The name Tibia Mollis is also +employed by Mr. John H. Compton to denote a more subdued variety of his +Tibia Minor. + +Other Flutes found in organs are the Stopped Diapason, Clarabella, +Clarinet Flute, Rohrfloete ("Reed-flute"), Wald Floete, Flauto Traverso, +Suabe Flute, Clear Flute, Doppel Floete (with two mouths), Melodia, +Orchestral Flute, etc., each of a different quality of tone and varying +in intensity. The Philomela as made by Jardine is a melodia with two +mouths. + + +STRINGS. + +Under this head are grouped the stops which imitate the tones of such +stringed instruments as the Viola, the Violoncello, the Double Bass, +and more especially the old form of Violoncello, called the Viol di +Gamba, which had six strings and was more nasal in tone. + +At the commencement of the period herein spoken of string-toned stops +as we know them to-day scarcely existed. This family was practically +represented by the Dulciana and by the old slow-speaking German Gamba. +These Gambas were more like Diapasons than strings. + +Edmund Schulze made an advance and produced some Gambas and Violones +which, though of robust and full-bodied type, were pleasant and musical +in tone. They were at the time deemed capable of string-like effects. + +To William Thynne belongs the credit of a great step in advance. The +string tones heard in the Michell and Thynne organ at the Liverpool, +England, exhibition in 1886 were a revelation of the possibilities in +this direction, and many organs subsequently introduced contained +beautiful stops from his hands--notably the orchestral-toned instrument +in the residence of J. Martin White, Dundee, Scotland--an ardent +advocate of string tone. Years later Thynne's partner, Carlton C. +Mitchell, produced much beautiful work in this direction. Hope-Jones +founded his work on the Thynne model and by introducing smaller scales, +bellied pipes and sundry improvements in detail, produced the keen and +refined string stops now finding their way into all organs of +importance. His delicate Viols are of exceedingly small scale (some +examples measuring only 1 1/8 inches in diameter at the 8-foot note). +They are met with under the names of Viol d' Orchestre, Viol Celeste +and Dulcet.[10] These stops have contributed more than anything else +towards the organ suitable for the performance of orchestral music. + +Haskell has introduced several beautiful varieties of wood and metal +stops of keen tone, perhaps the best known being the labial Oboe and +Saxophone, commonly found in Estey organs. His work is destined to +exert considerable influence upon the art. + +Other string-toned stops found nowadays in organs are the Keraulophon, +Aeoline, Gemshorn, Spitzfloete, Clariana, Fugara, Salicet, Salicional, +and Erzaehler.[11] + + +REEDS. + +As remarked in our opening chapter, pipes with strips of cane or reeds +in the mouthpiece are of great antiquity, being found side by side with +the flutes in the Egyptian tombs. These reeds, as those used at the +present day, were formed of the outer siliceous layer of a tall grass, +_Arundo donax_, or _sativa_, which grows in Egypt and the south of +Europe. They were frequently double, but the prototype of the reed +organ-pipe is to be seen in the clarinet, where the reed is single and +beats against the mouthpiece. Of course, an artificial mouthpiece has +to be provided for our organ-pipe, but this is called the _boot_. See +Figure 19, which shows the construction of a reed organ-pipe. A is the +boot containing a tube called the eschallot B, partly cut away and the +opening closed by a brass _tongue_ C, which vibrates under pressure of +the wind. D is the wire by which the tongue is tuned; E the body of +the pipe which acts as a resonator. + +[Illustration: Fig. 18. Haskell's Clarinet Without Reed] + +In the last half-century the art of reed voicing has been entirely +revolutionized. Prior to the advent of Willis, organ reeds were poor, +thin, buzzy things, with little or no grandeur of effect, and were most +unmusical in quality. Testimony to the truth of this fact is to be +found in old instruction books for organ students. It is there stated +that reeds should never be used alone, but that a Stopped Diapason or +other rank of flue pipes must always be drawn with them to improve the +tone quality. + +[Illustration: Fig. 19. Diagram of Reed Pipe] + +Willis created an entirely new school of reed voicing. He was the +first to show that reeds could be made really beautiful and fit for use +without help from flue stops. When he wanted power he obtained it by +raising the pressure, in order that he might be able to afford still to +restrain the tone and to consider only beauty of musical quality. + +He was the first to show that every trace of roughness and rattle could +be obviated by imparting to the reed tongue exactly the right curve. + +He restrained too emphatic vibrations in the case of the larger reed +tongues by affixing to them with small screws, weights made of brass. +He quickly adopted the practice of using harmonic, or double-length +tubes, for the treble notes, and secured a degree of power and +brilliance never before dreamed possible. + +Willis gave up the open eschallot in favor of the closed variety, +thereby securing greater refinement of musical quality, though of +course sacrificing power of tone. He designed many varieties of reed +tubes, the most notable departure from existing standards being +probably his Cor Anglais and Orchestral Oboe. + +Under the guiding genius of Willis, the Swell organ--which had hitherto +been a poor and weak department, entirely over-shadowed by the +Great--became rich, powerful and alive with angry reeds, which were +nevertheless truly musical in effect. Hope-Jones took up the work +where Willis left it, and has not only pushed the Willis work to its +logical conclusion, but has introduced a new school of his own. + +He has taken the Willis chorus reeds and by doubling the wind pressures +and increasing the loading and thickness of tongues, has produced +results of surpassing magnificence. From the Willis Cor Anglais he has +developed his Double English Horn, from the Willis Oboe his Oboe Horn, +and from the Willis Orchestral Oboe the thin-toned stops of that class +now being introduced by Austin, Skinner and by his own firm. His chief +claim to distinction in this field, however, lies in the production of +the smooth reed tone now so rapidly coming into general use; in his +85-note Tuba; in the use of diminutive eschallots with mere saw-cut +openings; in providing means for making reed pipes stand in tune almost +as well as flue pipes; and in the utilization of "vowel cavities" for +giving character to orchestral-toned reeds. + +The latter are of particular interest, as their possibilities are in +process of development. The results already achieved have done much to +make the most advanced organ rival the orchestra. + +To exemplify the principle of the vowel cavities Hope-Jones was in the +habit, in his factory in Birkenhead, England, in 1890, of placing the +end of one of his slim Kinura reed pipes in his mouth and by making the +shape of the latter favor the oo, ah, eh, or ee, entirely altered and +modified the quality of tone emitted by the pipe. + +Some years ago in an organ built for the Presbyterian Church, +Irvington-on-Hudson, N. Y., Hope-Jones introduced a beating reed having +no pipes or resonators of any kind. He is using this form of reed in +most of his organs now building. + +In England this vowel cavity principle has been applied to Orchestral +Oboes, Kinuras and Vox Humanas, but in this country it was introduced +but seven years ago and has so far been adapted only to Orchestral +Oboes. At the time of writing it is being introduced in connection +with Hope-Jones' Vox Humanas and Kinuras. Examples are to be seen in +the Wanamaker (New York) organ; in Park Church, Elmira; Buffalo +Cathedral; Columbia College, St. James' Church, New York; College of +the City of New York; Ocean Grove Auditorium, and elsewhere. There +undoubtedly lies a great future before this plan for increasing the +variety of orchestral tone colors. Figure 20 shows a vowel cavity +applied to a Vox Humana (Norwich Cathedral, England), Figure 21 to an +Orchestral Oboe (Worcester Cathedral, England), and Figure 22 to a +Kinura (Kinoul, Scotland). + +[Illustration: Fig. 20. Vox Humana with Vowel Cavity Attached. Fig. +21. Orchestral Oboe with Vowel Cavity Attached Fig. 22. Kinura with +Vowel Cavity Attached] + +Builders who have not mastered the art of so curving their reed tongues +that buzz and rattle are impossible have endeavored to obtain +smoothness of tone by leathering the face of the eschallot. This +pernicious practice has unfortunately obtained much headway in the +United States and in Germany. It cannot be too strongly condemned, for +its introduction robs the reeds of their characteristic virility of +tone. Reeds that are leathered cannot be depended upon; atmospheric +changes affect them and put them out of tune. + +The French school of reed voicing, led by Cavaille-Coll, has produced +several varieties that have become celebrated. Many French Orchestral +reeds are refined and beautiful in quality and the larger Trumpets and +Tubas, though assertive and blatant, are not unmusical. The French +school, however, does not appear to be destined to exercise any great +influence upon the art in this country. (For further information +regarding reeds see chapter on tuning.) + + +UNDULATING STOPS--CELESTES. + +The writer is not aware who first introduced into the organ a rank of +soft-toned pipes purposely tuned a trifle sharp or flat to the normal +pitch of the organ, so as to cause a beat or wave in the tone. Fifty +years ago such stops were sparingly used and many organists condemned +their employment altogether. Stops of the kind were hardly ever found +in small organs and the largest instruments seldom contained more than +one. + +A great development in this direction has taken place and further +advance seems to be immediate. Already most builders introduce a +Celeste into their small organs and two or three into their larger +instruments--whilst Hope-Jones' organs are planned with Vox Humana +Celestes, Physharmonica Celestes, Kinura Celestes and even Mixture +Celestes! + +Most modern Celestes are tuned sharp, the effect being more animated +than if it were tuned flat; but the aggregate effect and general +utility of the stop are greatly enhanced by the use of two ranks of +pipes, one being tuned sharp and the other flat to the organ pitch. A +three-rank Celeste (sharp, flat, and unison) formed one of the novel +features of the organ in Worcester Cathedral, England, built by +Hope-Jones in 1896. Wedgwood credits its invention to Mr. Thomas +Casson. The three-rank Celeste is also to be found in the organs of +the Bennett Organ Company. + +Apart from the inherent beauty of the tones there is much to be said in +favor of the presence of these stops--if the organ is to be used as an +adjunct to, or a substitute for, the orchestra. The whole orchestra is +one huge and ever-varying "Celeste." Were it not so its music would +sound dead and cold. Few of the instrumentalists ever succeed in +playing a single bar absolutely in tune with the other components of +the band. + + +PERCUSSION STOPS. + +This class of stop is also now finding its way into organs more +generally than heretofore. Resonating gongs giving, when skillfully +used, effects closely resembling a harp have been introduced freely by +the Aeolian Company in its house organs, and there seems no possible +objection to such introduction. The tone is thoroughly musical and +blends perfectly with the other registers. Under the name of "Chimes" +these resonant gongs are now finding place in many Church and Concert +organs. Tubular bells are also used in a similar capacity by all the +leading organ-builders, + +The greatest development in this direction is found in the Hope-Jones +Unit Orchestra. In these instruments fully one-third of the speaking +stops rely on percussion for production of their tones. Even small +instruments of this type have all got the following percussion stops: +Chimes, Chrysoglott, Glockenspiel, Electric Bells (with resonators), +Xylophone, and carefully-tuned Sleigh Bells--in addition to single +percussive instruments, such as Snare-drum, Bass-drum, Kettle-drum, +Tambourine, Castanets, Triangle, Cymbals, and Chinese Gong. + +As all these tone producers are enclosed in a thick Swell box, an +artist is able to employ them with as much refinement of effect as is +heard when they are heard in a Symphony Orchestra. + +Mr. Hope-Jones informs the writer that he has just invented an electric +action which strikes a blow accurately proportioned to the force +employed in depressing the key, thus obtaining expression from the +fingers as in the pianoforte. He will apply this to the percussion +stops in organs he may build in the future. + +When skilfully employed many of these percussion stops blend so +perfectly with the flue and reed pipes that they become an important +integral part of the instrument--not merely a collection of fancy stops +for occasional use. + + +THE DIAPHONE. + +The invention of the Diaphone by Hope-Jones in 1894 will some day be +regarded as the most important step in advance hitherto achieved in the +art of organ building. The existence of patents at present prevents +general adoption of the invention and limits it to the instruments made +by one particular builder. In addition to this the Diaphone takes so +many forms and covers so large a field that time must necessarily pass +before its full possibilities are realized. + +Enough was, however, done by Hope-Jones in connection with the organs +he built in England a dozen or eighteen years ago to leave the +experimental stage and prove the invention to be of the greatest +practical importance to the future of organ building. The author's +opinion that before long every new large organ will be built upon the +Diaphone as a foundation, is shared by all who have had opportunity to +judge. By no other means known to-day can anything approaching such +grand and dignified Diapason tone be produced. Were twenty large +Diapasons added to the instrument in Ocean Grove, N. J., or to that in +the Baptist Temple, Philadelphia, and were the Diaphone removed, the +instrument would suffer most seriously. In the Pedal department no +reed or flue pipe can begin to compare with a Diaphone, either in +attack or in volume of tone. + +In Figure 23 we give a sectional view of the first large Diaphone made, +namely that constructed for the Hope-Jones organ in Worcester +Cathedral, Eng., 1896. + +[Illustration: Fig. 23. Diaphone in Worcester Cathedral, Eng.] + +M is a pneumatic motor or bellows to which is attached a rod bearing +the compound and spring valve V, V|1|, working against the spring S. +On the admission of wind (under pressure) to the box A, the motor M is +caused to collapse, and thereby to open the valves V, V|1|. Wind then +rushes into the chamber B, and entering the interior of motor M through +the passage C, equalizes the pressure in the motor. The action of the +springs now serves to close the valves V, V|1|, and to open out the +motor M, whereupon the process is repeated. + +[Illustration: Fig. 24. Diaphone in Aberdeen University.] + +In Fig. 24 we illustrate the Diaphone in the Hope-Jones organ built for +Aberdeen University, Scotland. The action is as follows: + +Wind from the organ bellows enters the pipe foot F, and raises the +pressure in the chamber C. The air in the chamber will press upon the +back of the valve V, tending to keep it closed. It will press also +upon the bellows or motor M, and as this bellows has a much larger area +than that of the valve, it will instantly collapse, and, through the +medium of the tail piece T, will pull the valve V off its seat and +allow the compressed air in the chamber C to rush into the resonator or +pipe P. Owing to the inertia of the column of air contained in the +pipe P, a momentary compression will take place at the lower end of the +pipe, and the pressure of the air inside the motor M will, in +consequence, be raised. The motor having now increased pressure both +sides, will no longer keep the valve off its seat, and the spring S +will open the motor and close the valve. The compression caused by the +admission of the puff of air into the lower parts of the pipe P will be +followed by the usual rarefaction, and as this rarefaction will exhaust +or suck the air from the inside of the motor M, the valve will again be +lifted from its seat, and the cycle of operations will be repeated as +long as the wind supply is kept up. A series of regular puffs of wind +will thus be delivered into the lower part of the resonator or pipe, +resulting in a musical note. + +Figs. 25, 26, 27 represent the first Diaphone heard in a public +building in this country, namely that of a model sounded in St. +Patrick's Cathedral, New York City, in 1905. In this form of Diaphone +the pressure of air operating the Diaphone has been varied between 10 +inches and 500 inches, without perceptible variation in the pitch of +the note emitted. + +[Illustration: Figs. 25, 26, 27. Diaphone in St. Patrick's Cathedral, +New York] + +Referring to Fig. 25, the chamber WW is supplied with air under +pressure whenever the organist presses a key or pedal calling into use +this particular note. The pressure of air enters through the circular +engine supply port S, thus raising the pressure in the chamber C and +forcing in an upward direction the aluminum piston P through the medium +of the division D (colored black), which forms a portion of the +aluminum piston. + +When the lower edge of the piston has risen a certain distance it will +uncover the circular engine exhaust port E, and will allow the +compressed air to escape into the atmosphere. At this moment the rise +of the piston will have closed the engine supply port S. + +The momentum acquired by the piston (see Fig. 27) will cause it to +travel upward a little further, and this upward travel of the division +D will cause a compression of air to take place at the foot of the +resonator or pipe R. This compression will be vastly increased through +the simultaneous opening of the eight circular speaking ports SP. + +The pressure of the compressed air at the foot of the resonator E will +now by acting on the upper surface of the division D depress the +aluminum piston until the engine supply port S is again opened. + +By this time the compression at the foot of resonator R will have +traveled up the pipe in the form of a sound wave, and will have been +followed by the complementary rarefaction. This rarefaction on the +upper side will render more effective the pressure of the compressed +air again admitted through the engine supply port S on the underside of +division D. + +It will be seen that this cycle of operations will be repeated as long +as the organist holds down his pedal or key admitting compressed air to +the chamber W. + +As the aluminum piston P is very light and is in no way impeded in its +movement or swing, the speed of its vibration, and consequently the +pitch of the note emitted, will be governed by the length of the +resonator or pipe R. + +The tone given by this particular form of Diaphone possesses a peculiar +sweetness in quality, while the power is limited only by the pressure +of air used to operate it. + +[Illustration: Fig. 28. Diaphone in the Auditorium, Ocean Grove, N. J.] + +In Fig. 28 we give an illustration of the form of Diaphone used in the +Hope-Jones Unit organ at the Auditorium, Ocean Grove, N. J. + +P is a pallet controlling the admission of air into the body of the +pipe P|1|. M is a motor adapted for plucking open the pallet P through +the medium of strap _s_. The box B is permanently supplied with air +under pressure from the bellows. When the valves V and V|1| are in the +position shown in the drawing, the Diaphone is out of action, for the +wind from the box B will find its way through the valve V (which is +open) into the interior of the motor M. + +When it is desired to make the note speak, the small exterior motors +M|1| and M|2| are simultaneously inflated by the electro-pneumatic +action operated by depressing the pedal key. The valve V will +thereupon be closed and the valve V|1| be opened. As the pressure of +air inside the motor M will now escape into the pipe or resonator P|1|, +the motor will collapse and the pallet P will be opened in spite of the +action of the spring S which tends to keep it closed. + +The wind in the box B will now suddenly rush into the lower end of the +pipe P|1|, and by causing a compression of the air at that point will +again raise the pressure of the air inside the motor M. The pallet +will thereupon close and the cycle of operations will be repeated--thus +admitting a series of puffs of wind into the foot of the pipe P|1| and +thereby producing a musical tone of great power. + +As the valve V|1| is open, the sound waves formed in the pipe P|1| will +govern the speed of vibration of the motor M. It will thus be obvious +that the Diaphone will always be in perfect tune with the resonator or +pipe P|1|, and that the pitch of the note may be altered by varying the +length of the pipe. + +[Illustration: Fig. 29. Diaphone in St. Paul's Cathedral, Buffalo, N. +Y.] + +In Fig. 29 will be found an illustration of the Diaphone (or valvular +reed) used in the Hope-Jones organ at St. Paul's Cathedral, Buffalo, N. +Y. + +Upon depressing a key, wind is admitted into the box B. Pressing upon +the valve V it causes it to close against its seat in spite of the +action of the spring S. This, however, does not take place until a +pulse of air has passed into the foot of the pipe P, thereby +originating a sound wave which in due time liberates the valve V and +allows the spring S to move it off its seat and allow another puff of +air to enter the pipe P. By this means the valve V is kept in rapid +vibration and a powerful tone is produced from the pipe P. At +Middlesborough, Yorkshire, England, Hope-Jones fitted a somewhat +similar Diaphone of 16 feet pitch about 1899, but in this case the +resonator or pipe was cylindrical in form and measured only 8 feet in +length. + +In Fig. 30 will be found another type of Diaphone in which the tone is +produced through the medium of a number of metal balls, covering a +series of holes or openings into the bottom of a resonator or pipe, and +admitting intermittent puffs of air. + +[Illustration: Fig. 30. Diaphone Producing Foundation Tone] + +The action is as follows. Air under pressure enters the chamber B +through the pipe foot A, and passing up the ports C, C|1|, C|2|, etc., +forces the metal balls D, D|1|, D|2|, etc., upwards into the chamber E; +the bottom end of the resonator or pipe. The pressure of air above the +balls in the resonator E, then rises until it equals or nearly equals +the pressure of air in chamber B. This is owing to the fact that the +column of air in the pipe or resonator E possesses weight and inertia, +and being elastic, is momentarily compressed at its lower end. This +increased pressure above the balls allows them to return to their +original position, under the influence of gravity. By the time they +have returned to their original position, the pulse of air compression +has traveled up the pipe in the form of a sound wave, and the +complementary rarefaction follows. + +The cycle of movement will then be repeated numerous times per second, +with the result that a very pure foundation tone musical note will be +produced. + +The Diaphone is tuned like ordinary flue pipes and will keep in tune +with them; the pressure of wind (and consequently the power of the +tone) may be varied without affecting the pitch. The form of the pipe +or resonator affects the quality of the tone; it may be flue-like or +reedy in character, or even imitate a Pedal Violone, a Hard and Smooth +Tuba, an Oboe, or a Clarinet. + + * * * * * * * * + +In closing this chapter, the writer desires to express indebtedness for +much of the material therein to the comprehensive "Dictionary of Organ +Stops," by James Ingall Wedgwood, Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries, +Scotland, and Fellow of the Royal Historical Society (published by the +Vincent Music Co., London, England). Although the title is somewhat +forbidding, it is a most interesting book and reveals an amount of +original research and personal acquaintance with organs in England and +the Continent that is simply marvelous. It ought to be in the library +of every organist. + + + +[1] Broadhouse, J., "Musical Acoustics," p. 27. + +[2] Mr. Skinner has built some of the finest organs in this country. + +[3] Much of Roosevelt's finest work is now being improved by various +builders by leathering the lips. + +[4] The "Harmonic" principle is described in Dom Bedos' book, published +in 1780, as applied to reeds, and Dr. Bedart states that this principle +was applied to flutes as early as 1804. + +[5] That is to say, the pipes are made double the length actually +required, but are made to sound an octave higher by means of a hole +pierced half-way up the pipe. + +[6] Wedgwood; "Dictionary of Organ Stops," p. 150. + +[7] Wedgwood: _Ibid_., p. 153. + +[8] Wedgwood: _Ibid_., p. 151. + +[9] Wedgwood: _Ibid_. p. 153. + +[10] "The Hope-Jones pattern of Muted Viol is one of the most beautiful +tones conceivable."--Wedgwood: "Dictionary of Organ Stops," p. 173. + +[11] The Erzaehler, a modified Gemshorn, is found only in organs built +by Ernest M. Skinner. + + + + +CHAPTER XI. + +TUNING. + +Having described the improvements in pipes, we now consider how they +are tuned, and the first thing we must notice is the introduction of +equal temperament. + +About fifty years ago most organs were so tuned that the player had to +limit himself to certain key signatures if his music was to sound at +all pleasant. Using excessive modulation or wandering into forbidden +keys resulted in his striking some discordant interval, known as the +"wolf." The writer remembers being present at a rehearsal of Handel's +"Messiah" in St. George's Hall, Liverpool, Eng., in 1866, when the +organ was tuned on the unequal temperament system, and there was a +spirited discussion between the conductor and Mr. W. T. Best, who +wanted the orchestra to play "Every Valley" in the key of E flat so as +to be in better tune with the organ. + +The modern keyboard is imperfect. One black key is made to serve, for +instance, for D sharp and for E flat, whereas the two notes are in +reality not identical.[1] To secure correct tuning and tone intervals +throughout, forty-eight keys per octave are required, instead of the +twelve now made to suffice. + +In what is called the _equal temperament_ system the attempt is made to +divide the octave into twelve equal parts or semi-tones, thus rendering +all keys alike. To do this it is necessary to slightly flatten all the +fifths and sharpen the major thirds. The difference from just +intonation is about one-fiftieth of a semi-tone. Although recommended +and used by J. S. Bach, equal temperament was not introduced into +English organs until 1852. + +Much has been lost by adopting equal temperament, but more has been +gained. To a sensitive ear, the sharp thirds and fourths, the flat +fifths and other discordant intervals of our modern keyed instrument, +are a constant source of pain; but the average organist has become so +accustomed to the defect that he actually fails to notice it! + +The change to equal temperament has on the other hand greatly increased +the scope of the organ and has rendered possible the performance of all +compositions and transcriptions regardless of key or modulation. + +The tuning of an organ is seriously affected by the temperature of the +surrounding air. Increased heat causes the air in the open pipes to +expand and sound sharp contrasted with the stopped pipes through which +the air cannot so freely circulate. The reeds are affected +differently, the expansion of their tongues by heat causing them to +flatten sufficiently to counteract the sharpening named above. Hence +the importance of an equable temperature and the free circulation of +air through swell-boxes, as described on page 59, _ante_. + + +NEW METHOD OF REED TUNING. + +Organ reed pipes, especially those of more delicate tone, fail to stand +well in tune, especially when the tuner is in a hurry or when he does +not know enough of his business to take the spring out of the reed wire +after the note has been brought into tune. + +Few persons fully understand the reason why reeds fail to stand in tune +as they ought to. + +[Illustration: Figs. 31-35. New Method of Tuning Reeds] + +Figures 31, 32, and 33 will serve to make clear the chief cause for +reeds going out of tune. Figure 31 may be taken to represent a reed +block, eschallot, tongue and tuning wire at rest. + +In this case the tuning wire will be pressing firmly against the tongue +at the point B, but said tuning wire will not be subjected to any +abnormal strain. + +Turning to Figure 32, if we use the reed knife and slightly lift the +tuning wire at the point C, friction against the tongue at the point B +will prevent said point B from moving upward. (In this connection it +must be borne in mind that the co-efficient of friction in repose is +much greater than the co-efficient of friction in motion.) + +In consequence of the drawing up of the tuning wire at point C, and the +frictional resistance at point B holding the latter steady, the lower +part of the tuning wire will assume the shape shown in Figure 32, and +point A will in consequence move farther away from the tongue. + +Now, if the reeds be left in this state and the organ be used for any +length of time, it will be found that point B of the tuning wire will +have risen upward until the abnormal strain upon the tuning-wire spring +has been satisfied. In consequence of this, this particular note will +be sounding flatter in pitch than it ought to do. + +Conversely, if the portion of the tuning wire lettered C be slightly +driven down, as in Figure 33, the retarding effect of the friction of +repose at point B will cause the lower portion of the tuning wire to +approach nearer the tongue than it should do. + +If now this reed be left in this state, after the pipe has been used +for some time and the tongue has been vibrating, it will be found that +point B on this tuning wire will have traveled nearer to the tip of the +tongue, in order to relieve the abnormal strain upon the lower portion +of the tuning wire. Point A will then have resumed its normal position. + +In Figures 32 and 33, the defective action of the lower portion of the +tuning spring has been purposely exaggerated in order to make the point +clear. This bending of the tuning wires, however, takes place to a +much larger extent than most organ builders imagine. It is the chief +reason why reeds fail to stand in tune. + +When point A on the reed tuning wires is rigidly supported and held by +force in its normal position, reeds can be made to stand in tune almost +as well as flue pipes. + +Figure 34 represents the Hope-Jones method of supporting the tuning +wire at point A. It consists of having a brass tube T inserted in the +block moulds before the block is cast. This tube T therefore becoming +an integral part of the block itself. The inside bore of tube T is of +such diameter that the tuning wire fits snugly therein. + +In Figure 35 another method used by him for accomplishing the same +purpose is shown. In this case a lug L is cast upon the block, +forming, indeed, a portion of said block. The lower end of lug L is +formed into a V, which partly embraces a tuning wire and supports it in +such manner as to prevent improper movement of said tuning wire at +point A. + +When this method of construction is employed, the reeds are very much +easier to tune, and, when once tuned, will stand infinitely better than +reeds made in the ordinary way. + + + +[1] Some organs have been made (notably that in Temple Church, London) +with separate keys for the flats and sharps. + + + + +CHAPTER XII. + +PROGRESS OF THE REVOLUTION IN OUR OWN COUNTRY. + +In the study of the art of organ-building one cannot fail to be struck +by the fact that almost all the great steps in advance have been due to +Englishmen: the compound horizontal bellows, the concussion bellows, +the swell box, the pneumatic lever, the tubular-pneumatic action, the +electro-pneumatic action, the Universal air chest, the leathered lip, +the clothed flue, the diaphone, smooth reed tone, imitative string +tone, the vowel cavity, tone reflectors, cement swell boxes, the sound +trap joint, suitable bass, the unit organ, movable console, radiating +and concave pedal board, combination pedals, combination pistons and +keys, the rotary blower--and many other items--were the inventions and +work of Englishmen. + +Speaking in general terms, this country lagged very far behind not only +England, but also behind France, and even Germany, in the art of +organ-building until comparatively a few years ago. + +It has recently advanced with extraordinary rapidity, and if it be not +yet in the position of leader, it is certainly now well abreast of +other nations. + +Hilborne Roosevelt constructed a number of beautiful organs in this +country, beginning his work about the year 1874. While his organs +altogether lacked the impressive dignity of the best European +instruments of the period, they were marked by beauty of finish and +artistic care in construction. He invented the adjustable combination +action, and this forms about all his original contribution destined to +live and influence the organ of the future. Nevertheless, his marks on +organ-building in this country were great and wholly beneficial. He +studied the art in Europe (especially France) and introduced into this +country many features at that time practically unknown here. Several +of the organs constructed by his firm are in use to-day and are in a +good state of repair. They contain Flutes that it would be hard to +surpass, Diapasons that are bold and firm, and far above the average, +though thought by some to lack weight and dignity of effect. The +action is excellent and the materials employed and the care and +workmanship shown throughout cannot be too highly praised. + +Roosevelt must be set down as the leader of the revolution which, by +the introduction of foreign methods, has in the last twenty years so +completely transformed organ-building in the United States. + +Roosevelt was also the pioneer in using electro-pneumatic action here. +Accounts had reached England of his wonderful organ in Garden City +Cathedral, part of which was in the gallery, part in the chancel, part +in the roof, and part in the choir vestry in the basement. The author, +on arriving in Philadelphia in 1893, as organist of St. Clement's +Church there, was anxious to see a Roosevelt electric organ and was +invited to see one in the concert hall of Stetson's hat factory. He +was shown one of the magnets, which was about six inches long! Here is +an account of the organ in Grace Church, New York City, which appeared +in the American Correspondence of the London _Musical News_, February +15, 1896: + +There are three organs in this church by Roosevelt--in the chancel, in +the west gallery, and an echo in the roof, electrically connected and +playable from either of the keyboards, one in the chancel and one in +the gallery. The electric action is of an old and clumsy pattern, +operated from storage batteries filled from the electric-light main, +and requiring constant attention. The "full organs" and "full swells" +go off slowly, with a disagreeable effect, familiar to players on +faulty pneumatic instruments. + + +This organ has lately been entirely rebuilt with new action and vastly +improved by Mr. E. M. Skinner. + +In 1894 the writer made the acquaintance of the late Mr. Edmund +Jardine, who was then building a new organ for Scotch Presbyterian +Church in Central Park West, with an entirely new electric action that +had been invented by his nephew. Of course by this time Mr. +Hope-Jones' inventions were well known over here, and Mr. Jardine told +the writer that some of the other organ-builders had been using actions +which were as close imitations of the Hope-Jones as it was possible to +get without infringement of patents. The Jardine action seemed to the +writer a very close imitation also, and he can testify to its being a +good one, as he later on had nearly three years experience of it at All +Angels' Church. + +But the pioneers had troubles of their own, no doubt, caused by using +too large and heavy magnets, which exhausted the batteries faster than +the current could be produced. The writer had this experience with the +batteries at two different churches and had some difficulty in getting +the organ-builders to see what was the matter. The steady use of the +organ for an hour-and-a-half's choir rehearsal would exhaust the +batteries. The organ-builder would be notified, and, on coming next +day, _would not find anything the matter_, the batteries having +recovered themselves in the interim. Finally, two sets of batteries +were installed with a switch by the keyboard, so that the fresh set +could be brought into use on observing signs of exhaustion. Many +churches have installed small dynamos to furnish current for the key +action. Even in these cases signs of weakness are often apparent--the +organist in playing full does not get all the notes he puts down. Same +cause of trouble--too heavy magnets. Here is where the Hope-Jones +action has the whip-hand over all others, all the current it requires +being supplied by a single cell! At the writer's churches there were +six and eight cells. Most of the electric organs erected in this +country, 1894-1904, have had to be entirely rebuilt. + +About the year 1894 Ernest M. Skinner (at that time Superintendent of +the Hutchings Organ Co., of Boston, Mass.), went over to England to +study the art in that country. He was well received by Hope-Jones, by +Willis and others. He introduced many of the English inventions into +this country--the movable console (St. Bartholomew's, New York; +Symphony Hall, Boston, etc.), increased wind pressure and the leathered +lip (Grace Church, Plymouth Church, Columbia College, College of the +City of New York, Cleveland Cathedral, etc.), smooth heavy pressure +reeds, Tibias (Philomela) small scale strings, etc. In this work +Skinner eventually had the advantage of Hope-Jones' services as +Vice-President of his own company and of the assistance of a number of +his men from England. + +About the year 1895 Carlton C. Michell, an English organ-builder, who +had been associated with Thynne and with Hope-Jones, and who had as the +latter's representative set up new-type organs in Baltimore, Md., and +Taunton, Mass., joined the Austin Organ Co., Hartford, Conn. He +rapidly introduced modern string tone and other improvements there. + +In 1903 Hope-Jones came to this country and also joined the Austin +Organ Co. as its Vice-President, whereupon that company adopted his +stop-keys, wind pressures, scales, leathered lip, smooth reeds, +orchestral stops, etc. (Albany Cathedral, Wanamaker's organ, New York, +the organs now standing in the Brooklyn Academy of Music, and others.) + +In 1907 the Hope-Jones Organ Co., Elmira, N. Y., commenced the +construction of organs containing all these and other English +improvements (Ocean Grove, N. J.; Buffalo Cathedral, N. Y.; New +Orleans, La., etc.). + +The influence of the work already done by the aforenamed pioneers in +this country is being manifested in a general improvement in organ tone +and mechanism throughout the United States. + +Musical men, hearing the new tones and musical effects now produced, +realize for the first time the grandeur and refinement and amazing +variety of musical effects that the organ is capable of yielding; on +returning to their own churches they are filled with "divine +discontent," and they do not rest until a movement for obtaining a new +organ, or at least modernizing the old one, is set on foot. The +abandonment of old ideas as to the limitations of the organ is begun, +new ideals are being set up, and a revolution which will sweep the +whole country has now obtained firm foothold. + +Until recently England unquestionably led in the development of the +organ, and Hope-Jones led England. Now that his genius is at work in +this country, who shall set limit to our progress? Even when +expressing himself through other firms, his influence entirely altered +the standard practice of the leading builders, and now, since direct +expression has been obtained, improvements have appeared with even +greater rapidity. + +It is the author's opinion (based on a wide knowledge of the +instruments in both countries) that in the course of the last ten years +this country has made such great strides in the art that it may now +claim ability to produce organs that are quite equal to the best of +these built in England. And he ventures to prophesy that in less than +another ten years, American-built organs will be accepted as the +world's highest standard. + +At a banquet given in his honor in New York in 1906, the late Alexandre +Guilmant complained that no organ that he had played in this country +possessed majesty of effect. The advent of Hope-Jones has entirely +changed the situation. Tertius Noble, late of York Minster, England, +who has just come to this country, asserts that organs can be found +here equal to or superior to any built in England, and the celebrated +English organist, Edwin Lemare, pronounced the reeds at Ocean Grove, N. +J., the finest he had ever heard. + +[Illustration: ARISTIDE CAVAILLE-COLL.] + + + + +CHAPTER XIII. + +THE CHIEF ACTORS IN THE DRAMA. + +We now purpose to give a brief account of the leaders in +revolutionizing the King of Instruments, the men whose genius and +indomitable perseverance in the face of prejudice, discouragement and +seemingly insurmountable obstacles, financial and otherwise, have made +the modern organ possible. First of all these comes + +CHARLES SPACHMAN BARKER, + +who was born at Bath, England, on Oct. 10, 1806. Left an orphan when +five years old, he was brought up by his godfather, who gave him such +an education as would fit him for the medical profession, and he was in +due time apprenticed to an apothecary and druggist in Bath. This +apothecary used to draw teeth, and it was Barker's duty to hold the +heads of the patients, whose howls and screams unnerved him so that he +refused to learn the business and left before his term of +apprenticeship expired. + +Dr. Hinton does not credit the story that Barker, accidentally +witnessing the operations of an eminent organ-builder (Bishop, of +London) who was erecting an organ in his neighborhood, determined on +following that occupation, and placed himself under that builder for +instruction in the art. It seems to be admitted, however, that after +spending most of the intervening time in London, he returned to Bath +two years afterwards and established himself as an organ-builder there. + +About 1832 the newly built large organ in York Minster attracted +general attention, and Barker, impressed by the immense labor +occasioned to the player by the extreme hardness of touch of the keys, +turned his thoughts toward devising some means of overcoming the +resistance offered by the keys to the fingers. The result was the +invention of the pneumatic lever by which ingenious contrivance the +pressure of the wind which occasioned the resistance to the touch was +skilfully applied to lessen it. He wrote to Dr. Camidge, then the +organist of the Cathedral, begging to be allowed to attach one of his +levers in a temporary way to one of the heaviest notes of his organ. +Dr. Camidge admitted that the touch of his instrument was "sufficient +to paralyze the efforts of most men," but financial difficulties stood +in the way of the remedy being applied. Barker offered his invention +to several English organ-builders, but finding them indisposed to adopt +it, he went to Paris, in 1837, where he arrived about the time that +Cavaille-Coll was building a large organ for the Church of St. Denis. +M. Cavaille-Coll had adopted the practice of making his flue and reed +pipes produce harmonic tones by means of wind of heavy pressure; but he +encountered difficulty as the touch became too heavy for practical use. +Mr. Barker's apparatus, which simply overpowered the resistance that +could not be removed, was therefore an opportune presentation; he took +out a _brevet d' invention_ for it in 1839, and M. Cavaille-Coll +immediately introduced it, together with several harmonic stops, into +the St. Denis organ. Besides the organ of St. Denis, Barker's +pneumatic lever was applied to those of St. Roch, La Madeleine, and +other churches in Paris. + +"Barker's connection with Cavaille was not of long duration, and we +next find him in the Daublaine & Callinet organ-building company. At +this time the company was rebuilding the magnificent organ at St. +Sulpice, the acknowledged masterpiece of Cliquot, the French 'Father +Schmidt.' * * * + +"During the time this restoration of the organ was in hand, Louis +Callinet experienced acute financial difficulties, and, failing to +induce Daublaine, his partner, to advance him a relatively small sum, * +* * Callinet became so bitterly incensed that one day, going to the +organ on some trifling pretext, he entirely wrecked it with axe and +handsaw. + +"This act of vengeance or criminal folly involved Daublaine in the same +financial ruin as himself, and through this tragic occurrence the firm +in which Barker was beginning to be securely established came to an +end. Callinet, being absolutely penniless, was not prosecuted, but +ended his days in the employ of Cavaille as voicer and tuner. + +"Nor was this the only disaster which occurred during the time Barker +was with Daublaine & Callinet. In 1844 (December 16th), it was +Barker's ill-fortune to kick over a lighted candle while trying to +remove a cipher in the organ his firm had recently erected in St. +Eustache, which occasioned the total destruction of the organ. * * * + +"The outlook seemed unpromising for Barker when the firm of Daublaine & +Callinet came to an end. The good will of that concern was, however, +purchased by M. Ducroquet (a capitalist), who entrusted him with its +management. + +"J. B. Stoltz, Daublaine & Callinet's foreman, a very able man and a +splendid workman, feeling aggrieved at Barker's promotion, seceded and +set up for himself, his place in the new firm being filled by M. +Verschneider, in whom Barker found efficient support in matters of +technical knowledge and skill. + +"During the time Barker was with M. Ducroquet the present organ at St. +Eustache was built, to replace that so unfortunately destroyed by fire; +also an organ which was exhibited at the great exhibition of London in +1851. * * * + +"In the Paris exhibition of 1855 Barker was admitted as an exhibitor, +independently of M. Ducroquet (who was in bad health and on the eve of +retiring from business), obtaining a first-class medal and nomination +as Chevalier of the Legion of Honor. + +"At the death of M. Ducroquet, which occurred shortly afterwards, +Merklin took over the business carried on by Ducroquet, and Barker +remained with him until 1860, when he set up on his own account in +partnership with M. Verschneider, before named, and it was during the +decade 1860-70 that the electric organ came into being." + +The story of Dr. Peschard's invention has been already set forth in +this book (see page 37). Barker seems to have been somewhat jealous of +him and always described the action as "Pneumato-electrique," objecting +to the term "Electro-pneumatic," although this was putting the cart +before the horse. Dr. Hinton says: "Though I was much in touch with +Barker during part of his brief period of activity in electric work, +Peschard's name was rarely mentioned and carried little meaning to me. +I did not know if Peschard were a living or a dead scientist, and if I +(a mere youth at the time) ever thought of him, it was as being some +kind of bogie Barker had to conciliate." + +Bryceson Brothers, of London, exhibited an organ at the Paris +Exposition Universelle in the Champ de Mars in 1867, on which daily +recitals were given by Mons. A. L. Tamplin, who induced Mr. Henry +Bryceson to visit the electric organ then being erected in the Church +of St. Augustin. Mr. Bryceson, being convinced that this was the +action of the future, lost no time in investigating the system +thoroughly, and arranged with Barker for the concession of the sole +rights of his invention as soon as he should obtain his English patent, +which he got in the following year. Barker, however, repented him of +his bargain, and the exclusive rights were eventually waived by the +Brycesons, although they retained the right to use the patent +themselves. They made considerable improvements on Barker's action, +the chief defects of which seem to have been the resistance of the +pallets (which had to be plucked from their seats; he did not even use +the split pallet) and the cost of maintenance of the batteries, which +rapidly deteriorated from the action of the powerful acids employed. A +full description and drawing of Peschard's and Barker's action will be +found in Dr. Hinton's "Story of the Electric Organ." + +This same Paris Exposition of 1867 is also responsible for the +introduction of tubular-pneumatic action into England by Henry Willis. +He there saw the organ by Fermis which induced him to take up that +mechanism and develop it to its present perfection. + +The Franco-Prussian War of 1870 drove Barker from Paris, his factory +was destroyed in the bombardment, and thus at the age of 64 he was +again cast adrift. He came to England and found, on attempting to take +out a patent for his pneumatic lever, that all the organ-builders were +using what they had formerly despised! + +He succeeded, however, in obtaining the contract for a new organ for +the Roman Catholic Cathedral in Dublin, Ireland, and it was arranged +that he should receive a certain sum in advance, and a monthly +allowance up to the amount of the estimated cost of the instrument. He +seems to have had trouble in obtaining expert workmen and only +succeeded in getting a motley crowd of Frenchmen, Germans, Dutch and +Americans. They spoke so many different languages that a Babel-like +confusion resulted. Hilborne Roosevelt, the great American +organ-builder, was at that time in Europe, and in response to Barker's +earnest entreaty, came to Dublin _incognito_, so as not to detract from +Barker's reputation as the builder. Roosevelt's direction and advice +were most invaluable, being moreover given in the most chivalrous and +generous spirit; but, notwithstanding this and the excellent material +of which the organ was constructed, the result was anything but an +artistic or financial success. + +[Illustration: CHARLES SPACHMAN BARKER.] + +Barker built an organ for the Roman Catholic Cathedral at Cork, which +was no better, and this was his last work. These misfortunes +culminated in an appeal to his countrymen for subscriptions on his +behalf in the musical papers. In his old age he had married the +eighteen-year-old daughter of M. Ougby, his late foreman. He died at +Maidstone, Eng., November 26, 1879. + +This sketch of Barker's career is taken partly from Grove's Dictionary +of Music, from Hopkins and Rimbault's History, and from Dr. Hinton's +"Story of the Electric Organ." The paragraphs within quotation marks +are verbatim from this book by kind permission of Dr. Hinton, whom we +have to thank also for the portrait of Barker which appears on another +page. + + +ARISTIDE CAVAILLE-COLL. + +The following sketch of the life of this eminent artist is taken from +Dr. Bedart's forthcoming book on "Cavaille-Coll and His Times," and +from Le Monde Musical, of Paris, October 30, 1899, translated by Mr. +Robert F. Miller, of Boston. The portrait is from the same magazine. + + +Aristide Cavaille-Coll was born at Montpellier, France, on the 4th day +of February, 1811. He was the son of Dominique Cavaille-Coll, who was +well known as an organ-builder in Languedoc, and grandson of Jean +Pierre Cavaille, the builder of the organs of Saint Catherine and Merci +of Barcelona. The name of Coll was that of his grandmother. If we +should go back further we find at the commencement of the Eighteenth +Century at Gaillac three brothers--Cavaille-Gabriel, the father of Jean +Pierre; Pierre, and Joseph, who also was an organ-builder. Aristide +Cavaille, therefore, came honestly by his profession and at the age of +18 years was entrusted by his father to direct the construction of the +organ at Lerida, in which he introduced for the first time the manual +to pedal coupler and the system of counter-balances in the large wind +reservoirs. + +In 1834 Aristide, realizing the necessity of cultivating his knowledge +of physics and mechanics, went to Paris, where he became the pupil of +Savart and of Cagnard-Latour. The same year a competition was opened +for the construction of a large organ in the royal church of St. Denis; +Aristide submitted his plan and succeeded in obtaining the contract. +This success decided the Messrs. Cavaille to remove their organ factory +to Paris, where they established themselves in the Rue Neuve St. +George. On account of repairs being made to the church building, the +organ of St. Denis was not finished until 1841, but it showed +improvements of great importance, first and foremost of which was the +Barker pneumatic lever (see _ante_, page 120). The wind pressure was +on a new system, whereby increased pressure was applied to the upper +notes, giving more regularity of tone to each stop. The wind +reservoirs were provided with double valves, insuring a more steady +supply, whether all the stops were played together or separately. The +introduction of Harmonic stops was practically an innovation, as their +use hitherto had been almost prohibited by the difficulty of playing on +a high wind pressure (see _ante_, page 21). This enriched the organ +with a new group of stops of a superior quality on account of the +roundness and volume of sound. + +In 1840 Cavaille-Coll submitted to the Academie des Sciences the result +of his experimental studies of organ pipes; on the normal tone of the +organ and its architecture; the length of pipes in regard to intonation +and precision in blowing. He made many experiments and improvements in +wind supply. He was also the inventor of "Poikilorgue," an expressive +organ, which was the origin of the harmonium. + +Between 1834 and 1898 he built upward of 700 organs, including Saint +Sulpice, Notre Dame, Saint Clotilde, la Madeleine, le Trocadero, Saint +Augustin, Saint Vincent de Paul, la Trinite (all in Paris); Saint Ouen +at Rouen, Saint Sernin at Toulouse; the Cathedrals at Nancy, Amsterdam, +and Moscow; the Town Halls of Sheffield and Manchester, England. The +most celebrated of these is Saint Sulpice, which contains 118 stops and +was opened in April 29, 1862.[1] + +The fine period of Cavaille-Coll was during the Empire, about 1850. +The Emperor Napoleon III, to flatter the clergy and the bishops, +ordered the Cathedral organs to be rebuilt, and gave the order to +Cavaille-Coll. He in many instances preserved the old soundboards, +dividing them on two ventils for reeds and for flues, increased the +wind pressures, introduced pneumatic levers, and transformed the small +Tenor C Swells into large 15 to 20 stop Swells, _with 16-foot reeds_ +included, and so crowned the fine flue work and mixture work of these +Cathedral organs. + +We all know the fine effect of a large Swell. The French Cathedral +organs were deprived of this tonal resonance in 1850, and +Cavaille-Coll, by judicious overhauling, use of good materials, and by +the addition of large Swells, _transformed the sonority of these large +instruments located in splendid positions_ above the grand west +entrance doors of these fine Gothic buildings. + +Cavaille-Coll, during his long career, received from the Universal +Expositions the highest honors. He was appointed a Chevalier of the +Legion of Honor in 1849, and officer of the same order in 1878. He was +also Honorary President of the Chamber of Syndicates of Musical +Instruments. + +Much enfeebled by age, he in 1898 relinquished the direction of his +factories to one of his best pupils, M. Charles Mutin, who has never +ceased to maintain the high integrity of the house. + +Aristide Cavaille-Coll died peacefully and without suffering on October +13, 1899, in his 89th year. He was interred with military honors. A +simple service was held at Saint Sulpice and M. Charles Widor played +once more, for the last time to the illustrious constructor, the grand +organ which was the most beautiful conception of his life. + + * * * * * * * * + +We have in the course of our review mentioned some of Cavaille-Coll's +principal contributions to the progress of organ-building, his +development of harmonic stops and use of increased wind pressures. Mr. +W. T. Best, in 1888, in a report to the Liverpool Philharmonic Society +as to the purchase of a new organ for their Hall, recommended +Cavaille-Coll as "the best producer of pure organ tone" at that time. +Next to him he placed T. C. Lewis & Sons, then W. Hill & Son. + +But the organists of the world have to thank Cavaille-Coll chiefly for +the assistance he gave Barker in developing the pneumatic lever, +without which the present tonal system with its heavy wind pressures +would have been impossible of attainment. + +"Blest be the man," said Sancho Panza, "who first invented sleep! And +what a mercy he did not keep the discovery to himself!" Joseph Booth, +of Wakefield, England, put what he called a "puff bellows" to assist +the Pedal action in the organ of a church at Attercliffe, near +Sheffield, in 1827. But he kept the invention to himself, and it only +came to light 24 years after his death! Note on the other hand the +perseverance of Barker. For five weary years he kept on trying one +builder after another to take up his idea without avail, and then took +it beyond the seas. Which reminds us of the Rev. William Lee, the +inventor of the stocking-knitting frame in the time of Queen Elizabeth, +whose countrymen "despised him and discouraged his invention. * * * +Being soon after invited over to France, with promises of reward, +privileges and honor by Henry IV * * * he went, with nine workmen and +as many frames, to Rouen, in Normandy, where he wrought with great +applause." Thus does history repeat itself. + + +HENRY WILLIS. + +The following sketch of the greatest organ-builder of the Victorian Era +has been condensed from an interview with him as set forth in the +London _Musical Times_ for May, 1898. + + +Henry Willis was born in London on April 27, 1821. His father was a +builder, a member of the choir of Old Surrey Chapel, and played the +drums in the Cecilian Amateur Orchestral Society. The subject of this +sketch began to play the organ at very early age; he was entirely +self-taught and never had a lesson in his life. + +In 1835, when he was fourteen years of age, he was articled for seven +years to John Gray (afterwards Gray & Davidson), the organ-builder. +During his apprenticeship he invented the special manual and pedal +couplers which he used in all his instruments for over sixty years. He +had to tune the organ in St. George's Chapel, Windsor, where he made +the acquaintance of Sir George Elvey, who took a great fancy to the boy +tuner. + +While still "serving his time" and before he was out of his teens, +Henry Willis was appointed organist of Christ Church, Hoxton. In the +early fifties he was organist of Hampstead Parish Church, where he had +built a new organ, and for nearly thirty years he was organist at +Islington, Chapel-of-Ease, which post he only resigned after he had +passed the Psalmist's "three score years and ten." In spite of the +engrossing claims of his business, Mr. Willis discharged his duties as +organist with commendable faithfulness; he would often travel 150 miles +on a Saturday in order to be present at the Sunday services. In his +younger days he also played the double-bass and played at the +provincial Musical Festivals of 1871 and 1874. + +After his apprenticeship expired he lived in Cheltenham for three +years, where he assisted an organ-builder named Evans, who afterwards +became known as a manufacturer of free reed instruments. They produced +a model of a two-manual free reed instrument with two octaves and a +half of pedals which was exhibited at Novello's, in London. Here +Willis met the celebrated organist, Samuel Sebastian Wesley. + +[Illustration: Henry Willis] + +About the year 1847 Henry Willis started in business for himself as an +organ-builder, and his first great success was in rebuilding the organ +in Gloucester Cathedral. "It was my stepping-stone to fame," he says. +"The Swell, down to double C, had twelve stops and a double Venetian +front. The _pianissimo_ was simply astounding. I received 400 pounds +for the job, and I was presumptuous enough to marry." + +For the Great Exhibition of 1851 in the Crystal Palace (then in Hyde +Park), Mr. Willis erected a magnificent organ which attracted +extraordinary attention and was visited by the Queen and Prince +Consort. It had three manuals and pedals, seventy sounding stops and +seven couplers. There were twenty-two stops on the Swell, and the +Swell bellows was placed inside the Swell box. The manual compass +extended to G in _altissimo_ and the pedals from CCC to G--32 notes. +There were other important features in this remarkable instrument which +went a long way towards revolutionizing the art of organ-building. +First, the introduction of pistons, inserted between the key-slips, +which replaced the clumsy composition pedals then in vogue. Again, to +use Mr. Willis' own words, "that Exhibition organ was the great pioneer +of the improved pneumatic movement. A child could play the keys with +all the stops drawn. It never went wrong." + +This organ was afterwards re-erected in Winchester Cathedral in 1852, +and was in constant use for forty years before being renovated. It was +also the means of procuring Willis the order for the organ in St. +George's Hall, Liverpool. "The Town Clerk of Liverpool wrote to me," +said Mr. Willis, "to the effect that a committee of the Corporation +would visit the Exhibition on a certain day at 6 A. M., their object +being to test the various organs with a view to selecting a builder for +the proposed new instrument in St. George's Hall. He asked me if I +could be there. I was there--all there! The other two competing +builders, X and Z, in anticipation of the visit, tuned their organs in +the afternoon of the previous day, with the result that, owing to the +abnormal heat of the sun through the glass roof, the reeds were not fit +to be heard! I said nothing. At five o'clock on the following morning +my men and I were there to tune the reeds of my organ in the cool of +the morning of that lovely summer's day. At six o'clock the Liverpool +committee, which included the Mayor and the Town Clerk in addition to +S. S. Wesley and T. A. Walmisley, their musical advisers, duly +appeared. Messrs. X and Z had specially engaged two eminent organists +to play for them. I retained nobody. But I had previously said to +Best, who had given several recitals on my organ at the Exhibition, 'It +would not be half a bad plan if you would attend to-morrow morning at +six o'clock, as you usually do for practice.' Best was there. After +the two other organs had been tried, the Town Clerk came up and said: +'We have come to hear your organ, Mr. Willis. Are you going to play it +yourself?' I said, 'There's one of your own townsmen standing there +(that was Best); ask him.' He did ask him. 'Mr. Best has no objection +to play,' said the Town Clerk, 'but he wants _five_ guineas!' 'Well, +give it to him; the Corporation can well afford it.' The matter was +arranged. Best played the overture to 'Jessonda' by Spohr, and it was +a splendid performance." The organ was quite a revelation to the +Liverpudlians, and after talking it over in private for twenty minutes +the committee decided to recommend Willis to the Council to build the +organ in St. George's Hall. He had, however, serious differences with +Dr. S. S. Wesley, who wanted both the manuals and pedals to begin at +GG. "I gave in to him in regard to the manuals," said Mr. Willis, "but +I said, 'unless you have the pedal compass to C, I shall absolutely +decline to build your organ.'" And so the matter was compromised. But +Willis lived to see the manual compass of his magnificent Liverpool +organ changed to CC (in 1898). When the organ was finished he +recommended that Best should be appointed organist, although Dr. Wesley +officiated at the opening ceremony in 1855. Not only did Willis +practically get Best appointed to Liverpool, but he had previously +coached him up in his playing of overtures and other arrangements for +the organ. "I egged him on," said the veteran organ-builder, and we +all know with what results. Notwithstanding all that Best owed to +Willis, he quarreled with him violently towards the close of his career +over the care of the St. George's Hall organ. As Best told the writer, +"not because Willis _could_ not, but because he _would_ not" do certain +things in the way of repairs, that he claimed did not come under his +contract. This led to the care of the organ being transferred to T. C. +Lewis & Sons, but it was given back to Willis after Best's death. + +Mr. Willis gained a wide and deservedly high reputation as the builder +of many Cathedral organs--upwards of sixteen. His largest instrument +is that in the Royal Albert Hall, London. He designed it entirely +himself; he had not to compete for the building of it, but had _carte +blanche_ in regard to every detail. + +There was an amusing incident in connection with deciding upon the +pitch of the instrument. The authorities arranged that Sir Michael +Costa, Mr. R. K. Bowley, then general manager of the Crystal Palace, +and some of the leading wind-instrument players of the day, including +Lazarus (a famous clarinetist), should attend at the factory to settle +the question of the pitch of the organ. "They also brought a +violinist," said Mr. Willis; "but I couldn't see what a fiddler, who is +a very useful man in his way, had to do with settling the pitch. (I +should tell you," added Mr. Willis, _sotto voce_, "that _I_ had +formulated some idea of the proper pitch before these gentlemen +arrived.) However, we duly proceeded, Costa presiding over the +conclave. When they began to blow into their different instruments +each man had a different pitch! It was a regular pandemonium! By and +by we settled upon something which was considered satisfactory, and we +bade each other good morning." The sequel need not be told. We leave +it to our readers to draw their own conclusions as to whether the Royal +Albert Hall organ was actually tuned to the pitch of Messrs. Costa, +Bowley, Lazarus & Co., or to that previously decided upon by Mr. Willis. + +He erected two large organs for the Alexandra Palace, and one in +Windsor Castle with two keyboards, one in St. George's Hall, and one in +His Majesty's Private Chapel, whereby the instrument is available for +use in both places. + +It was entirely owing to Willis' dominating personality that the organ +in St. Paul's Cathedral was rebuilt in its present form. He had the +old screen taken down and the old organ case, which happened to be +alike on both sides, he cut in two and re-erected on each side of the +choir. The change also involved the removal of the statues of Lord +Nelson and Lord Cornwallis. When one of the committee asked him if he +proposed to have two organists for his divided organ, he replied, "You +leave that to me." And proceeded to invent[2] his tubular pneumatic +action (see page 25). When this organ was used for the first time at +the Thanksgiving service for the recovery of the Prince of Wales from +typhoid fever in 1873, the pneumatic action for the pedals was not +finished. Willis rigged up a temporary pedal board inside the organ +near the pedal pipes and played the pedal part of the service music +himself while George Cooper was at the keys in the regions above. +After the service Goss said to Ousley, who was present, "What do you +think of the pedal organ?" "Magnificent!" replied the Oxford +Professor. "You know that the pipes are a long way off; did the pedals +seem to go exactly together with the manuals?" Goss asked. +"Perfectly," replied Ousley, "but why do you ask me in that way?" Then +Goss let out the secret--for it was really a great secret at the time. + +Willis' great hobby was yachting. He owned a 54-ton yacht named the +_Opal_, and attributed the wonderful health he enjoyed to his numerous +sea voyages. "I have circumnavigated the whole of England and +Scotland," he said, "and I am my own captain. Those two men over +there" (pointing to two of his employees working in the factory) "are +my steward and shipwright. The steward is a fisherman--a fisherman +being very useful as a weather prophet. * * * I do all the repairs to +the yacht myself and have re-coppered her bottom two or three times. I +also put entirely new spars into her, and there stands her old mast. +Some years ago I injured the third and fourth fingers of both my hands +with the ropes passing through them. These four fingers became bent +under, and for a long time I had to play my services with only the +thumb and two fingers of each hand. But Dr. Macready, a very clever +surgeon, begged me to allow him to operate on my disabled fingers, with +the result that I can use them as of old, or nearly so." + +Henry Willis died in London on February 11, 1900, in his 80th year, +deeply mourned by all who knew him, and was interred in Highgate +cemetery. In the course of this work we have referred to the many +improvements he effected in organ construction and reed voicing. As +Sir George Grove said, his organs are celebrated for "their excellent +engineering qualities." Clever, ingenious, dauntless and +resourceful--qualities blended together with a plentiful supply of +sound judgment and good common sense--were some of the striking +characteristics of this remarkable man. He gave his personal attention +to every department of his factory; nothing was too insignificant to +claim his notice; his thoroughness was extraordinary--every pipe went +through his hands. An organist himself, he was always thinking of the +player in laying out his instruments. He had a remarkably inventive +genius, which he turned to good account in the mechanical portions of +his organs. He took infinite pains with everything and his enthusiasm +knew no bounds. But, above all, he possessed in a striking degree that +attribute which a similar successful worker once aptly described as +"_obstinate_ perseverance." He had a strong aversion to newspaper men +and sent them away without ceremony. While free from conceit, he was +not always amenable to dictation, especially when he had disputes with +architects--in which the architects were generally worsted. + +He regarded his organ in St. Paul's Cathedral (rebuilt in 1899), as his +_magnum opus_. "There is nothing like it in the world," he remarked, +with pardonable pride, one Saturday when Sir George Martin was playing +that kingly king of instruments. To paraphrase the inscription on +Purcell's monument in Westminster Abbey:-- + + "He has gone where only his own Harmony can be excelled," + +leaving behind him many noble specimens of his remarkable achievements. + + +ROBERT HOPE-JONES. + +Robert is the third son of the late William Hope-Jones, Hooton Grange, +Cheshire, England. + +His father, a man of means, was prominent as one of the pioneers in +organizing the volunteer army of Great Britain. He was musical, +playing the cornet and having an unusual tenor voice. His mother +(Agnes Handforth)--also musical and a gifted singer--was a daughter of +the Rector of Ashton-under-Lyne, Lancashire,--a highly nervous woman. + +[Illustration: Robert Hope-Jones] + +There were nine children of the marriage--two girls and seven boys. +Robert appeared on the ninth of February, 1859. He inherited in +exaggerated degree his mother's highly strung nervous nature. +Melancholy, weak and sickly as a child, he was not expected to live. +To avoid the damp and cold of English winters he was periodically taken +to the south of France. Deemed too delicate for school, a private +tutor was provided. Joining in sports or games was out of the question +for so sensitive and delicate a youth,--what more natural, therefore, +than that he should become a dreamer--a thinker? Too ill for any real +study, his musical instincts drove him to the organ, and we find him +playing for occasional services at Eastham Parish Church at the age of +nine. After his father's death, when he was about fourteen, he spent a +couple of years in irregular attendance at school, and at the time of +his confirmation was persuaded that by superhuman effort of will his +physical disabilities might be disregarded and a life of some value be +worked out. Then began the desperate struggle that gradually overcame +every obstruction and resulted in the establishment of an iron will and +determination to succeed that no misfortunes have been able to quell. +His want of health greatly interfered with his career till he was +nearly thirty years of age. + +When fifteen he became voluntary organist and choir-master to the +Birkenhead School Chapel. Two or three years later he simultaneously +held a similar office at St. Luke's Church, Tranmere, where he trained +a boy choir that became widely celebrated. For this Church he bought +and set up a fine organ. He subsequently served as Churchwarden and +was active in many other Church offices. He erected an organ in the +Claughton Music Hall and organized and conducted oratorio performances +in aid of various Church funds; training a large voluntary chorus and +orchestra for the purpose. For Psalms whose verses are arranged in +groups of three, he wrote what he called "triple chants"--a form of +composition since adopted by other Church writers; he also composed +Canticles, Kyries and other music for the services of the Church. + +Though St. Luke's Church was situated in a poor neighborhood, the men +and boys forming his choir not only gave their services but also +gratuitously rang the Church bell, pumped the organ bellows, bought all +the music used at the services, paid for the washing of the surplices +and helped raise money for the general Church fund. Hope-Jones' +enthusiasm knew no bounds and he had the knack of imparting it to those +who worked under him. + +So earnest and energetic was this young man that in spite of +indifferent health and without at once resigning his work at St. +Luke's, he became choirmaster and honorary organist of St. John's +Church, Birkenhead, doing similar work in connection with that +institution. He trained both the latter-named choir together, and the +writer (whose son was in St. John's choir) frequently assisted him by +playing the organ at the services on Sunday. It was at this Church and +in connection with this organ that Hope-Jones did his first great work +in connection with organ-building. The improved electric action, +movable console and many other matters destined to startle the organ +world, were devised and made by him there, after the day's business and +the evening's choir rehearsals. He had voluntary help from +enthusiastic choirmen and boys, who worked far into the night--on some +occasions all night. Certain of these men and boys are to-day +occupying responsible positions with the Hope-Jones Organ Company. + +All this merely formed occupation for his spare time. About the age of +seventeen he began his business career. He was bound apprentice to the +large firm of Laird Bros., engineers and shipbuilders, Birkenhead, +England. After donning workman's clothes and going through practical +training in the various workshops and the drawing office, he secured +appointment as chief electrician of the Lancashire and Cheshire +(afterwards the National) Telephone Company. In connection with +telephony he invented a multitude of improvements, some of which are +still in universal use. About this time he devised a method for +increasing the power of the human voice, through the application of a +"relay" furnished with compressed air. The principle is now utilized +in the best phonographs and other voice-producing machines. He also +invented the "Diaphone," now being used by the Canadian Government for +its fog signal stations and declared to be the most powerful producer +of musical sound known (in a modified form also adapted to the church +organ). + +About 1889 he resigned his connection with the telephone company in +order that he might devote a greater part of his attention to the +improvement of the church organ, a subject which, as we have seen, was +beginning to occupy much of his spare time. He had private practice as +a consulting engineer, but gradually his "hobby"--organ +building--crowded out all other employment--much to his financial +disadvantage and to the gain of the musical world. + +His organ at St. John's Church, Birkenhead, became famous. It was +visited by thousands of music lovers from all parts of the world. +Organs built on the St. John's model were ordered for this country +(Taunton, Mass., and Baltimore, Md.), for India, Australia, New +Zealand, Newfoundland, France, Germany, Malta, and for numbers of +English cathedrals, churches, town halls, etc. Nothing whatever was +spent on advertisement. The English musical press for years devoted +columns to somewhat heated discussion of Hope-Jones' epoch-making +inventions, and echoes appeared in the musical periodicals of this and +other countries. + +In spite of every form of opposition, and in spite of serious financial +difficulties, Hope-Jones built organs that have influenced the art in +all parts of the globe. He proved himself a prolific inventor and can +justly claim as his work nine-tenths of the improvements made in the +organ during the last twenty years. Truly have these words been used +concerning him--"the greatest mind engaged in the art of organ-building +in this or in any other age." + +Every organist fully acquainted with his work endorses it, and upwards +of thirty organ-builders have honored themselves by writing similar +testimony. The Austin Organ Company, of Hartford, Conn., says: "We +have taken considerable pains to study his system and to satisfy +ourselves as to the results he has achieved. There is, we find, no +doubt whatever that he has effected a complete revolution in the +development of tone." + +Sir George Grove, in his "Dictionary of Music and Musicians" (p. 551), +says: "No reference to this description of action [electric] as set up +in recent years would be complete without mentioning the name of Mr. +Robert Hope-Jones. * * * The researches in the realm of organ tone by +Mr. Hope-Jones and others who are continually striving for excellence +and the use of an increased and more varied wind-pressure (ranging from +3 to 25 inches) all combine to produce greater variety and superiority +in the quality of organ tone than has ever existed before." + +Elliston in his book on Organ Construction devotes considerable space +to a description of the organs built by Hope-Jones in England and +Scotland, and says: "The Hope-Jones system embraces many novelties in +tone and mechanism." + +Matthews, in his "Handbook of the Organ," referring to the Hope-Jones +instruments, says: + +"In his electric action Mr. Hope-Jones sought not only to obtain a +repetition of the utmost quickness, but also to throw the reeds and +other pipes into vibration by a 'percussive blow,' so to speak; being +in this way enabled to produce certain qualities of tone unobtainable +from ordinary actions. Soundness and smoothness of tone from the more +powerful reeds, and great body and fullness of tone as well as depth +from the pedal stops, are also noticeable features in these organs." + +Ernest M. Skinner, of Boston, used the following words: "Your patience, +research and experiment have done more than any other one agency to +make the modern organ tone what it is. I think your invention of the +leathered lip will mean as much to organ tone as the Barker pneumatic +lever did to organ action, and will be as far-reaching in its effect. + +"I believe you were the first to recognize the importance of a low +voltage of electric action, and that the world owes you its thanks for +the round wire contact and inverted magnet. + +"Since I first became familiar with your work and writing I have found +them full of helpful suggestions." + +At first Hope-Jones licensed a score of organ-builders to carry out his +inventions, but as this proved unsatisfactory, he entered the field as +an organ-builder himself, being liberally supported by Mr. Thomas +Threlfall, chairman of the Royal Academy of Music; J. Martin White, +Member of the British Parliament, and other friends. + +It was, perhaps, too much to expect that those who had so far profited +from Hope-Jones' contracts and work should remain favorably disposed +when he became a rival and a competitor. + +For nearly twenty years he has met concerted opposition that would have +crushed any ordinary man--attacks in turn against his electrical +knowledge, musical taste, voicing ability, financial standing, and +personal character. His greatest admirers remain those who, like the +author, have known him for thirty years; his greatest supporters are +the men of the town in which he lives; his warmest friends, the +associates who have followed him to this country after long service +under him in England. + +Long before Hope-Jones reached his present eminence, and dealing with +but one of his inventions, Wedgwood, a Fellow of the Royal Historical +Society and a learned student of organ matters, classed him with +Cavaille-Coll and Willis, as one whose name "will be handed down to +posterity"--the author of most valuable improvements.[3] + +Early in his organ-building career, Hope-Jones had the good fortune to +meet J. Martin White, of Balruddery, Dundee, Scotland. Mr. White, a +man of large influence and wealth, not only time and again saved him +from financial shipwreck and kept him in the organ-building business, +but rendered a far more important service in directing Hope-Jones' +efforts toward the production of orchestral effects from the organ. + +Mr. White, in spite of his duties as a member of the British +Parliament, and in spite of the calls of his business in Scotland and +in this country, has managed to devote much time and thought to the art +of organ playing and organ improvement. + +Thynne, who did pioneer work in the production of string tone from +organ pipes, owes not a little to Martin White; while Hope-Jones +asserts that he derived all his inspiration in this field from +listening to the large and fine organ in Mr. White's home. + +Mr. White argued that the Swell Organ should be full of violin tone and +be, as the strings in the orchestra, the foundation of accompaniment as +well as complete in themselves. He lent to Hope-Jones some of his +"string" pipes to copy in Worcester Cathedral, whence practically all +the development of string tone in organs has come. Mr. White further +urged that the whole organ should be in swell boxes. + +It is extraordinary that an outsider like Mr. White, a man busy in so +many other lines of endeavor, should exert such marked influence on the +art of organ building, but it remains a fact that but for his artistic +discernment and for the encouragement so freely given, the organ would +not to-day be supplanting the orchestra in theatres and hotels, nor be +what it is in the churches and halls. + +Mr. White has for nearly thirty years helped, enthused and encouraged, +not only artistic organ-builders like Casson, Thynne, Hope-Jones and +Compton, but also the more progressive of the prominent organists. + +All honor to Martin White! + + * * * * * * * * + +In the spring of 1903 Hope-Jones visited this country. At the +instigation of Mr. R. P. Elliot, the organizer, Vice-President and +Secretary of the Austin Organ Company, of Hartford, Conn., he decided +to remain here and join that corporation, taking the office of +Vice-president. Subsequently a new firm--Hope-Jones & Harrison--was +tentatively formed at Bloomfield, N. J., in July, 1904, but as +sufficient capital could not be obtained, Hope-Jones and his corps of +skilled employees joined the Ernest M. Skinner Company, of Boston, +Hope-Jones taking the office of Vice-president, in 1905. Working in +connection with the Skinner Company, Hope-Jones constructed and placed +a fine organ in Park Church, Elmira, N. Y., erected in memory of the +late Thomas K. Beecher. He there met, as chairman of the committee, +Mr. Jervis Langdon (Treasurer of the Chamber of Commerce, Elmira). +That gentleman secured the industry for his city by organizing a +corporation to build exclusively Hope-Jones organs. + +This "Hope-Jones Organ Company" was established in February, 1907, the +year of the financial panic. It failed to secure the capital it sought +and was seriously embarrassed throughout its three years' existence. +It built about forty organs, the best known being the one erected in +the great auditorium at Ocean Grove, N. J. + +The patents and plant of the Elmira concern were acquired by the +Rudolph Wurlitzer Co. in April, 1910, and Mr. Hope-Jones entered its +employ, with headquarters at its mammoth factory at North Tonawanda, N. +Y., continuing to carry on the business under his own name. + +Robert Hope-Jones is a member of the British Institute of Electrical +Engineers; of the Royal College of Organists, London, England; of the +American Guild of Organists; and of other bodies. + +In 1893 he married Cecil Laurence, a musical member of one of the +leading families of Maid stone, England. This lady mastered the +intricacies of her husband's inventions, and to her help and +encouragement in times of difficulty he attributes his success. + + * * * * * * * * + +We suppose that the reason "history repeats itself" is to be found in +the fact that human nature does not vary, but is much the same from +generation to generation. From the Bible we learn that one Demetrius, +a silversmith of Ephesus, became alarmed at the falling off in demand +for silver shrines to Diana, caused by the preaching of the Apostle +Paul, and called his fellow craftsmen together with the cry of "Our +craft is in danger," and set the whole city in an uproar. (Acts +xix-24.) + +In the year 1682 a new organ was wanted for the Temple Church in +London, England, and "Father" Smith and Renatus Harris, the +organ-builders of that day, each brought such powerful influence to +bear upon the Benchers that they authorized _both_ builders to erect +organs in the church, one at each end. They were alternately played +upon certain days, Smith's organ by Purcell and Dr. Blow, and Harris' +organ by Baptist Draghi, organist to Queen Catherine. An attempt by +the Benchers of the Middle Temple to decide in favor of Smith stirred +up violent opposition on the part of the Benchers of the Inner Temple, +who favored Harris, and the controversy raged bitterly for nearly five +years, when Smith's organ was paid for and Harris' taken away. This is +known in history as "The Battle of the Organs." In the thick of the +fight one of Harris' partisans, who had more zeal than discretion, made +his way inside Smith's organ and cut the bellows to pieces. + +In 1875-76 the organ in Chester Cathedral, England, was being rebuilt +by the local firm of J. & C. H. Whiteley. The London silversmiths took +alarm at the Cathedral job going to a little country builder and got +together, with the result that, one by one, Whiteleys' men left their +employ, tempted by the offer of work at better wages in London, and had +there not been four brothers in the firm, all practical men, they would +have been unable to fulfil their contract. The worry was partly +responsible for the death of the head of the firm soon after. + +All this sounds like a chapter from the dark ages, of long, long ago, +and we do not deem such things possible now. + +But listen! In the year 1895 what was practically the first Hope-Jones +electric organ sold was set up in St. George's Church, Hanover Square, +London, England. + +The furor it created was cut short by a fire, which destroyed the organ +and damaged the tower of the church. With curious promptitude +attention was directed to the danger of allowing amateurs to make crude +efforts at organ-building in valuable and historic churches, and to the +great risk of electric actions. Incendiarism being more than +suspected, the authorities of the church ordered from Hope-Jones a +similar organ to take the place of the one destroyed. + +About the same time a gimlet was forced through the electric cable of a +Hope-Jones organ at Hendon Parish Church, London, England. Shortly +afterwards the cable connecting the console with the Hope-Jones organ +at Ormskirk Parish Church, Lancashire, England, was cut through. At +Burton-on-Trent Parish Church, sample pipes from each of his special +stops were stolen. + +At the Auditorium, Ocean Grove, N. J., an effort to cripple the new +Hope-Jones organ shortly before one of the opening recitals in 1908 was +made. And in the same year, on the Sunday previous to Edwin Lemare's +recital on the Hope-Jones organ in the First Universalist Church, +Rochester, N. Y., serious damage was done to some of the pipes in +almost each stop in the organ. + + * * * * * * * * + +Robert Hope-Jones died at Rochester, N. Y., on September 13, 1914, aged +55 years, and was interred at Elm Lawn Cemetery, No. Tonawanda, near +Niagara Falls, N. Y. + +Since his association with the Rudolph Wurlitzer Company in April, +1910, they have built under his personal supervision the organs in the +Baptist Temple, Philadelphia; the rooms of the Ethical Culture Society, +New York; and amongst others the unit orchestras in the Vitagraph +Theatre, New York; the Crescent Theatre, Brooklyn; the Paris Theatre, +Denver, Colo.; the Imperial Theatre, Montreal; and the Pitt Theatre, +Pittsburgh, Pa., which last Hope-Jones considered his chef d'oeuvre. + + + +[1] Dr. W. C. Carl, of New York, who is well acquainted with these +instruments, considers the one in Notre Dame to be better than St. +Sulpice and more representative of Cavaille-Coll's work, even if a +little smaller. We therefore give that specification, page 157. + +[2] Exhaust tubular pneumatic had been practically applied in France as +early as 1849 and pressure tubular pneumatic in 1867. See page 23. + +[3] "Dictionary of Organ Stops," p. 44 and elsewhere. + + + + +NOTE.--This book has been translated into French, and published with +annotations by Dr. G. Bedart, Professor Agrege a la Universite de +Lille, France, under the title of "Revolution Recente dans la Facture +d'Orgue." Lille: Librairie Generale Tallandier, 5, Rue Faidherbe. +Prix net 4 Fr. + + + + +CHAPTER XIV. + +HOW WE STAND TO-DAY. + +Looking backward over the field we have traversed we find that the +modern organ is an entirely different instrument from that of the +Nineteenth Century. + +Tracker action, bellows weights, the multitude of weak, drab-toned +stops, have disappeared, and in their place we have stops of more +musical character, greater volume, under perfect and wide control; new +families of string and orchestral tones; great flexibility, through +transference of stops; an instrument of smaller bulk than the old one, +but yet of infinitely greater resources. + +In his "Handbook of the Organ" (page 24), J. Matthews says: "There can +be no _finality_ in organ building. Whilst the violin fascinates by +its perfection, the organ does so no less by its almost infinite +possibilities, and modern science is fast transforming it into a highly +sensitive instrument. The orchestral effects and overwhelming +_crescendos_ possible from such organs as those described in this work, +'double touch,' new methods of tone production, such as the Diaphone, +the ease with which all the resources of a powerful instrument can now +be placed instantaneously at the performer's command are developments +of which Bach and Handel never dreamed." + +And the modern tendency of the best builders is to make the organ still +more orchestral in character, by the addition of carillons and other +percussion stops. + +The late W. T. Best, one of the finest executants who ever lived, +stated to a friend of the writer who asked him why he never played the +Overture to Tannhauser, that he considered its adequate rendition upon +the organ impossible, "after having had the subject under review for a +long time." Nowadays many organists find it possible to play the +Overture to Tannhauser; the writer pleads guilty himself. Dr. Peace +played it at the opening of Mr. White's organ at Balruddery and stated +that he found the fine string tones it contained of peculiar value for +Wagnerian orchestral effects. Dr. Gabriel Bedart says that music ought +to be specially written for these new instruments. + +While we associate the organ chiefly with its use in Church services, a +new field is opening up for it in Concert Halls, Theatres, Auditoriums, +College and School Buildings, Ballrooms of Hotels, Public Parks and +Seaside Resorts, not as a mere adjunct to an orchestra but to take the +place of the orchestra itself. The Sunday afternoon recitals in the +College of the City of New York are attended by upwards of 2,500 +people, many hundreds being unable to gain admittance; and the daily +recitals at Ocean Grove during July and August, 1909, reaped a harvest +of upwards of $4,000 in admission fees. Organs have been installed in +some of the palatial hotels in New York and other cities, and one is +planned for an ocean pier, where the pipes will actually stand under +sea level, the sound being reflected where wanted and an equable +temperature maintained by thermostats. + +Organists have found it necessary to make special study of these new +instruments, and the University of the State of New York has thought +the matter of sufficient importance to justify it in chartering the +"Hope-Jones Unit Orchestra School" as an educational institution. + +Our review would be incomplete without some mention of + + +AUTOMATIC PLAYERS. + +When one listens to the Welte-Mignon Piano Player, it seems difficult +to believe that a skilled artist is not at the keyboard performing the +music. + +The exact instant of striking each note and the duration during which +the key is held are faithfuly recorded and reproduced with absolute +accuracy, and a pretty close approximation to the power of blow with +which each key is struck is obtained. + +The first of these, that is, the time and duration of the note, is +directly recorded from the artist who plays the piece to be reproduced. +The second of these, that is, the power of tone, is subsequently added +to the record either by the artist himself or by musicians who have +carefully studied his manner of playing. + +The result of this is a very faithful reproduction of the original +performance. + +In the case of the organ, the pressure with which the keys are struck +does not need to be recorded or reproduced, but instead of this, we +have to operate the various stops or registers and the various swell +shades if we would obtain a faithful reproduction mechanically of the +piece of music played by an artist on the organ. + +Automatic Players are attached to many pipe organs. They, for the most +part, consist of ordinary piano players so arranged that they operate +the keys, or the mechanism attached to the keys, of an organ. + +This is a very poor plan, and the resulting effect is thoroughly +mechanical and unsatisfactory. Only one keyboard is played upon at a +time as a rule, and neither the stops nor the pedals, nor the +expression levers are operated at all. + +The Aeolian Company, of New York, effected an improvement some years +ago when they introduced what they term the double tracker bar. In +this case, the holes in the tracker bar are made smaller than usual and +they are staggered--or arranged in two rows. Every evenly numbered +hole is kept on the lower row, and the oddly numbered holes are raised +up to form a second row. + +Provided the paper be tracked very accurately, and be given careful +attention, this plan adopted by the Aeolian Company allows of two +manuals of an organ being played automatically; but still the stops and +expression levers are left to be operated by hand. + +More recently a plan has been brought out by Hope-Jones that provides +for the simultaneous performance of music upon two manuals and upon the +pedals--each quite independent of the other. It also provides for the +operation of all the stops individually in a large organ, and for the +operation of the expression levers. + +A switch is furnished so that when desired the stops and expression +levers may be cut off and left to be operated by hand. The Hope-Jones +Tracker Bar has no less than ten lines of holes--it is, of course, +correspondingly wide. + +We look for a great development in the direction of organs played by +mechanical means. + +The piano player has done a very great deal to popularize the +pianoforte and in the same way it is believed that the automatic player +will do a very great deal to popularize the organ. + +Many people who cannot play the organ will be induced to have them in +their homes if they knew that they can operate them at any time +desired, even in the absence of a skilled performer. + +We now give specifications of some of the most notable organs of the +world, all of which have been built or rebuilt since the year 1888, and +embody modern ideas in mechanism, wind pressures, and tonal resources. +First in the writer's estimation comes the + + +ORGAN IN ST. GEORGE'S HALL, LIVERPOOL, ENG. + +This noble instrument was built by Henry Willis to the specification of +Dr. S. S. Wesley, by whom it was opened on the 29th and 30th of May, +1855. The writer made its acquaintance in 1866, when it was tuned on +the unequal temperament system. In 1867 Mr. Best succeeded in getting +it re-tuned in equal-temperament, several improvements were made, and +the wind pressure on four of the reed stops on the Solo organ increased +from 9 1/2 inches to 22 inches. In 1898 the organ was thoroughly +rebuilt with tubular pneumatic action in place of the Barker levers. +The compass of the manuals was changed from GG--a|3| to CC--c|4|,[1] +five octaves, and the pedals were carried up to g--33 notes. A Swell +to Choir coupler was added (!) and various changes made in the stops, +the Vox Humana transferred from the Swell to the Solo organ, and two of +the Solo wind-chests were enclosed in a Swell-box. We note that the +Tubas are still left outside. The cast-iron pipes of the lowest octave +of the 32-ft. Double Open Diapason on the Pedal organ were replaced by +pipes of stout zinc, and four composition pedals added to control the +Swell stops. + +[Illustration: Keyboards of Organ, in St. George's Hall, Liverpool. +Two Rows of Stops at Left Omitted] + +The following is the specification of the organ as it now stands, in +its revised form: + +FIRST MANUAL (CHOIR), 18 STOPS. + + FEET. FEET. + Double Diapason 16 Gamba 4 + Open Diapason 8 Twelfth 2 2/3 + Clarabella 8 Fifteenth 2 + Stopped Diapason 8 Flageolet 2 + Dulciana 8 Sesquialtera, 3 ranks + Viol da Gamba 8 Trumpet 8 + Vox Angelica 8 Cremona 8 + Principal 4 Orchestral Oboe 8 + Harmonic Flute 4 Clarion 4 + + +SECOND MANUAL (GREAT), 25 STOPS. + + FEET. FEET. + Dble. Open Diap. (metal) 16 Twelfth 2 2/3 + Open Diapason, No. 1 8 Fifteenth 2 + Open Diapason, No. 2 8 Harmonic Piccolo 2 + Open Diapason, wood 8 Doublette, 2 ranks + Open Diapason, No. 3 8 Sesquialtera, 5 ranks + Stopped Diapason 8 Mixture, 4 ranks + Violoncello 8 Trombone 16 + Quint 5 1/2 Trombone 8 + Viola 4 Ophicleide 8 + Principal, No. 1 4 Trumpet 8 + Principal, No. 2 4 Clarion, No. 1 4 + Flute 4 Clarion, No. 2 4 + Tenth 3 1/2 + + +THIRD MANUAL (SWELL), 25 STOPS. + + FEET. FEET. + Double Diapason (metal) 16 Piccolo 2 + Open Diapason, No. 1 8 Doublette, 2 ranks + Open Diapason, No. 2 8 Fourniture, 5 ranks + Dulciana 8 Trombone 16 + Viol da Gamba 8 Contra Hautboy 16 + Stopped Diapason 8 Ophicleide 8 + Voix Celeste 8 Trumpet 8 + Principal 4 Horn 8 + Octave Viola 4 Oboe 8 + Flute 4 Clarionet 8 + Twelfth 2 2/3 Clarion, No. 1 4 + Fifteenth, No. 1 2 Clarion, No. 2 4 + Fifteenth, No. 2 2 + +FOURTH MANUAL (SOLO), 15 STOPS. + + FEET. FEET. + Viol da Gamba 8 Vox Humana 8 + Open Diapason, wood 8 Orchestral Oboe 8 + Stopped Diapason 8 Corno di Bassetto 8 + Flute (Orchestral) 4 *Ophicleide 8 + Flute Piccolo 2 *Trumpet 8 + Contra Fagotto 16 *Clarion, No. 1 4 + Trombone 8 *Clarion, No. 2 4 + Bassoon 8 + +These stops are all placed in a new swell-box, except those marked*, +which are on the heavy wind pressure. + + +PEDAL ORGAN (17 STOPS). + + FEET. FEET. + Double Open Quint (metal) 5 1/2 + Diapason (wood) 32 Fifteenth 4 + Double Open Fourniture, 5 ranks + Diapason (metal) 32 Mixture, 3 ranks + Open Diapason (wood) 16 Posaune 32 + Open Diapason (metal) 16 Contra Fagotto 16 + Salicional (metal) 16 Ophicleide 16 + Bourdon (wood) 16 Trumpet 8 + Bass Flute (wood) 8 Clarion 4 + Principal (wood) 8 + + +COUPLERS. + + Solo Super-Octave. Choir to Great. + Solo Sub-Octave. Choir Super-Octave. + Solo to Great. Choir Sub-Octave. + Swell to Great Super-Octave. Solo to Pedals. + Swell to Great Unison. Swell to Pedals. + Swell to Great Sub-Octave. Great to Pedals. + Swell to Choir. Choir to Pedals. + + +In addition to these coupling movements there are other accessories, +consisting of 36 pneumatic pistons, 6 to each manual, and 12 acting +upon the Pedal stops. There are also 6 composition pedals acting upon +the "Great" and "Pedal" stops simultaneously, and 4 pedals acting upon +the Swell organ pistons. The Swell and Solo organs are each provided +with tremulants. + +Two large bellows in the basement of the Hall, and blown by two steam +engines of 8 h.p. and 1/2 h.p. respectively, supply the wind, which +passes from the bellows to 14 reservoirs in various positions in the +instrument, the pressure varying from 3 1/2 to 22 inches. + + +ORGAN IN THE CATHEDRAL OF NOTRE-DAME, PARIS, FRANCE. + +The ancient organ in the Cathedral of Notre-Dame de Paris was built in +the reign of Louis XV by Thierry Leselope and the best workmen of his +time. In the Eighteenth Century repairs and additions were made by the +celebrated Cliquot. Further repairs were made by Dalsey from 1832 to +1838, and in 1863 the French Government confided the complete +reconstruction of the instrument to Aristide Cavaille-Coll. He spent +five years over the work, and the new organ was solemnly inaugurated on +the 6th of March, 1868. + +[Illustration: Keyboards, Cathedral Notre Dame, Paris] + +It will be noticed that this illustration is not a photograph, but a +wood engraving, drawn by hand, and the artist was evidently not a +musician--he only shows 38 keys on each manual; there should be 56. + + +It stands in a gallery over the west door of the Cathedral. It has +five manuals of 56 notes each, CC to g|3|, pedal of 30 notes, CCC to F; +86 sounding stops "controlled by 110 registers"; 32 combination pedals, +and 6,000 pipes, the longest being 32 feet. The action is +Cavaille-Coll's latest improvement on the Barker pneumatic lever. The +wind reservoirs contain 35,000 litres of compressed air, fed by 6 pairs +of _pompes_ furnishing 600 litres of air per second. Here is the +specification: + +PEDAL ORGAN (16 STOPS). + + FEET. FEET. + Principal-Basse 32 Quinte 5 2/3 + Contre-Basse 16 Septieme 4 4/7 + Grosse Quinte 10 2/3 Centre Bombarde 32 + Sous-Basse 16 Bombarde 16 + Flute 8 Trompette 8 + Grosse Tierce 6 2/5 Basson 16 + Violoncelle 8 Basson 8 + Octave 4 Clairon 4 + +FIRST CLAVIER (GRAND CHOEUR), 12 STOPS. + + FEET. FEET. + Principal 8 Larigot 1 1/3 + Prestant 4 Septieme 1 1/7 + Bourdon 8 Piccolo 1 + Quinte 2 2/3 Tuba Magna 16 + Doublette 2 Trompette 8 + Tierce 1 3/5 Clairon 4 + +SECOND CLAVIER (GBAND ORGUE), 14 STOPS. + + FEET. FEET. + Violon-Basse 16 Octave 4 + Montre 8 Doublette 2 + Bourdon 16 Fourniture, 2 to 5 ranks + Flute Harmonique 8 Cymbale, 2 to 5 ranks + Viola de Gambe 8 Basson 16 + Prestant 4 Basson-Hautbois 8 + Bourdon 8 Clairon 4 + +THIRD CLAVIER (BOMBARDES), 14 STOPS. + + FEET. FEET. + Principal-Basse 16 Quinte 2 2/3 + Principal 8 Septieme 2 1/7 + Sous-Basse 16 Doublette 2 + Flute Harmonique 8 Cornet, 2 to 5 ranks + Grosse Quinte 5 1/3 Bombarde 16 + Octave 4 Trompette 8 + Grosse Tierce 3 1/5 Clairon 4 + +FOURTH CLAVIER (POSITIF), 14 STOPS. + + FEET. FEET. + Montre 16 Flute Douce 4 + Flute Harmonique 8 Doublette 2 + Bourdon 16 Piccolo 1 + Salcional 8 Plein Jeu, 3 to 6 ranks + Prestant 4 Clarinette-Basse 16 + Unda Maris 8 Cromorne 8 + Bourdon 8 Clarinette Aigue 4 + +FIFTH CLAVIER (RECIT EXPRESSIF), 16 STOPS. + + FEET. FEET. + Voix Humaine 8 *Prestant 4 + *Basson-Hautbois 8 *Plein Jeu, 4 to 7 ranks + *Diapason 8 Quinte 2 2/3 + *Flute Harmonique 4 Octavin 2 + Voix Celeste 8 Cornet, 3 to 5 ranks + *Flute Octav 4 Bombarde 16 + Voile de Gambe 8 Trompette 8 + Quintaton 16 Clairon 4 + + +The printed specification kindly furnished to us by Dr. William C. +Carl, of New York, who obtained it specially from Mr. Charles Mutin, of +Paris, Cavaille-Coll's successor in business, is not clear on the +matter of couplers. Apparently all the manuals can be coupled to the +Grand Choeur; the Grand Orgne and the Grand Choeur to the Pedals; and +each manual has a suboctave coupler on itself. One of the combinations +to the Pedal organ is designated, "Effets d'orage"--a thunder stop. + +The organ was completely overhauled and renovated by Cavaille-Coll +shortly before his death (in 1899) and the stops marked * were inserted +in the Swell (Recit Expressif) in place of others. The inauguration +announcement states that it is one of the largest and most complete in +Europe, and that independently of the perfection of the mechanism it +possesses a power and variety of tone hitherto unknown in organ +building, and now only realized for the first time. It is undoubtedly +Cavaille-Coll's finest work, and a lasting monument to his genius. + + +ST. PAUL'S CATHEDRAL ORGAN, LONDON, ENG. + +The old organ in St. Paul's Cathedral, London, on which Sir John Goss +played, and which had felt the magic touch of Mendelssohn, had 13 stops +on the Great, 7 on the Swell, 8 on the Choir and only one on the Pedal. +It stood in a case on the screen between the choir and the nave of the +Cathedral. We have noted elsewhere in this book how Willis had this +screen removed, and rebuilt the organ on each side in 1872. In 1891 it +was rebuilt in its present form as noted below. The writer first saw +and heard this organ in 1873, and never failed, on his frequent visits +to London in later years, to attend a service in St. Paul's Cathedral, +where there are two choral services daily all the year round. No +summer vacations here. The effect of the Tuba ringing up into the dome +is magnificent. Willis looked upon this organ as his _chef d' oeuvre_, +saying "There is nothing like it in the whole world!" + +The Great organ is situated on the north side of the chancel. The +Swell and Choir organs are on the south side. The Solo organ and +one-third of the Pedal organ are under the first arch on the north side +of the chancel. The Altar organ, which can be played through the Solo +organ keys, is under the second arch on the north side of the chancel. +The remaining two-thirds of the Pedal organ and three Tuba stops occupy +the northeast quarter gallery in the dome. The keyboards are on the +north side of the chancel, inside the organ case, and can be seen from +the "whispering gallery." There are five manuals, CC to c|3|, 61 +notes; pedals CCC to g, 32 notes. + +PEDAL ORGAN (NORTHEAST GALLERY OF DOME), 10 STOPS + + FEET. FEET. + Double Diapason 32 Octave 8 + Open Diapason, No. 1 16 Mixture, 3 ranks + Open Diapason, No. 2 16 Contra Posaune 32 + Violone Open Diapason 16 Bombardon 16 + Violoncello 8 Clarion 4 + +PEDAL ORGAN (UNDER ARCH, NORTH SIDE OF CHANCEL), 8 STOPS + + FEET. FEET. + Violone 16 Octave 8 + Bourdon 16 Ophicleide 16 + Open Diapason 16 + +CHOIR ORGAN, 11 STOPS + + FEET. FEET. + Contra Gamba 16 Flute Harmonique 4 + Open Diapason 8 Principal 4 + Dulciana 8 Flageolet 2 + Violoncello 8 Corno di Bassetto 8 + Claribel Flute 8 Cor Anglais 8 + Lieblich Gedackt 8 + +GREAT ORGAN, 16 STOPS + + FEET. FEET. + Double Diapason 16 Principal 4 + Open Diapason, No. 1 8 Octave Quint 3 + Open Diapason, No. 2 8 Super Octave 2 + Open Diapason, No. 3 8 Fourniture, 3 ranks + Open Diapason, No. 4 8 Mixture, 3 ranks + Open Diapason 8 Trombone 16 + Quint, metal 6 Tromba 8 + Flute Harmonique 4 Clarion 4 + +SWELL ORGAN, 13 STOPS + + FEET. FEET. + Contra Gamba 16 Fifteenth 2 + Open Diapason 8 Echo Cornet, 3 ranks + Lieblich Gedackt 8 Contra Posaune 16 + Salicional 8 Cornopean 8 + Vox Angelica 8 Hautbois 8 + Principal 4 Clarion 4 + +SOLO ORGAN (NOT IN SWELL BOX), 3 STOPS + + FEET. FEET. + Flute Harmonique 8 Piccolo 2 + Concert Flute Harmonique 4 + +SOLO ORGAN (IN SWELL BOX), 10 STOPS + + FEET. FEET. + Open Diapason 8 Tuba 8 + Gamba 8 Orchestral Oboe 8 + Contra Fagotto 16 Corno di Bassetto 8 + Contra Posaune 16 Cornopean 8 + Cor Anglais 8 Flute 8 + +ALTAR ORGAN (PLAYED THROUGH SOLO ORGAN KEYS), 5 STOPS + + FEET. FEET. + Contra Gamba 16 Vox Humana 8 + Gamba 8 Tremulant + Vox Angelica, 3 ranks 8 + +TUBA ORGAN, 6 STOPS + + FEET. FEET. + Double Tuba (in Tuba (in quarter gallery) 4 + quarter gallery) 16 Tuba Major (over Great organ) 8 + Tuba, (in quarter gallery) 8 Clarion (over Great organ) 4 + +COUPLERS AND ACCESSORIES--PNEUMATIC + + Swell to Great Sub-octave. Dome Tubas to Great. + Swell to Great Unison. Chancel Tubas to Great. + Swell to Great Super-octave. Chancel Tubas to Great. + Solo to Swell. + +COUPLERS--MECHANICAL + + Tuba Organ to Pedal. Great Organ to Pedal. + Solo Organ to Pedal. Choir Organ to Pedal. + Swell Organ to Pedal. + +Six Pistons operate on the whole Organ. + +About forty Adjustable Pistons and Composition Pedals. + + +The mechanism is entirely new. The quarter dome portion of the organ +is playable by electric agency; the rest being entirely pneumatic. +There are one hundred draw-stops. The most novel features are the new +Altar and Tuba organs. The former, containing Vox Humana, Vox Angelica +(3 ranks), and two Gambas (16 and 8 feet) serves for distant and +mysterious effects and to support the priest while intoning at the +altar; while the Tuba organ produces effects of striking brilliancy; +three of the Tubas being located in the northeast quarter-gallery and +speaking well into the body of the building. Among the accessories, +also, may be noted the large supply of adjustable combination pistons, +which bring the various sections of the instrument well under the +player's control. Various wind pressures are employed, from 3 1/2 to +25 inches. + + +WESTMINSTER ABBEY ORGAN, LONDON, ENG. + +All good Americans when they visit London go to Westminster Abbey, and +will be interested in the organ there; in fact we believe it was +largely built with American money. The house of William Hill & Son, +who built this organ, is the oldest firm of organ-builders in England, +being descended from the celebrated artist, John Snetzler, whose +business, founded in 1755, passed into the possession of Thomas Elliot, +and to his son-in-law, William Hill (inventor of the Tuba), in the +earlier part of the Nineteenth Century. The business has been in the +Hill family nearly a hundred years and is now directed by William +Hill's grandson. The firm has built many notable instruments in Great +Britain and her colonies (Sydney) celebrated for the refinement and +purity of their tone. + +[Illustration: The Console, Westminster Abbey] + +The organ in Westminster Abbey is placed at each side of the choir +screen, except the Celestial organ, which is placed in the triforium of +the south transept (Poets' Corner) and connected with the console by an +electric cable 200 feet long. The form of action used is Messrs. +Hill's own, and the "stop-keys" therefor (made to a pattern suggested +by Sir Frederick Bridge) will be seen in the picture to the left of the +music desk. Note that this organ can be played from two keyboards. +The main organ has pneumatic action throughout. It was commenced in +1884, added to as funds were available, and finished in 1895. The +specification (containing the additions made in 1908-9) follows: + +GREAT ORGAN (14 STOPS) + + FEET. FEET. + Double Open Diapason 16 Harmonic Flute 4 + Open Diapason, large scale 8 Twelfth 2 2/3 + Open Diapason, No. 1 8 Fifteenth 2 + Open Diapason, No. 2 8 Mixture, 4 ranks + Open Diapason, No. 3 8 Double Trumpet 16 + Hohl Floete 8 Posaune 8 + Principal 4 Clarion 4 + +CHOIR ORGAN (11 STOPS) + + FEET. FEET. + Gedackt 16 Nason Flute 4 + Open Diapason 8 Suabe Flute 4 + Keraulophon 8 Harmonic Gemshorn 4 + Dulciana 8 Contra Fagotto 16 + Lieblich Gedackt 8 Cor Anglais 8 + Principal 4 + +SWELL ORGAN (18 STOPS) + + FEET. FEET. + Double Diapason, Bass 16 Dulcet 4 + Double Diapason, Treble 16 Principal 4 + Open Diapason, No. 1 8 Lieblich Floete 4 + Open Diapason, No. 2 8 Fifteenth 2 + Rohr Floete 8 Mixture, 3 ranks + Salicional 8 Oboe 8 + Voix Celestes 8 Double Trumpet 16 + Dulciana 8 Cornopean 8 + Hohl Floete 8 Clarion 4 + +SOLO ORGAN (8 STOPS) + + FEET. FEET. + Gamba 8 _In a Swell Box_ + Rohr Floete 8 Orchestral Oboe 8 + Lieblich Floete 4 Clarinet 8 + Harmonic Flute 4 Vox Humana 8 + Tuba Mirabilis + (heavy wind) 8 + +CELESTIAL ORGAN (17 STOPS) + +First Division-- + + FEET. FEET. + Double Dulciana, Bass 16 Voix Celestes 8 + Double Dulciana, Treble 16 Hohl Floete 8 + Flauto Traverso 8 Dulciana Cornet, 6 ranks + Viola di Gamba 8 + +The following Stops are available, when desired, on the Solo keyboard, +thus furnishing an independent Instrument of two Manuals; whilst in +combination with Coupler Keys, Nos. 1 and 2, Coupler Keys Nos. 3 and 4 +can be interchanged, thus reversing the Claviers. + +Second Division-- + + FEET. FEET. + Cor de Nuit 8 Vox Humana 8 + Suabe Flute 4 Spare Slide + Flageolet 2 Glockenspiel, 3 ranks + Harmonic Trumpet 8 Gongs (three octaves of + Musette 8 brass gongs, struck by + Harmonic Oboe 8 electro-pneumatic hammers). + +ORGAN (10 STOPS) + + FEET. FEET. + Double Open Diapason 32 Bass Flute 8 + Open Diapason 16 Violoncello 8 + Open Diapason 16 Contra Posaune 32 + Bourdon 16 Posaune 16 + Principal 8 Trumpet 8 + +Manuals--CC to a|3|. Pedal--CCC to F. + +The entire instrument is blown by a gas engine, actuating a rotary +blower and high pressure feeders. + +There are 24 Couplers; 10 Combination Pedals affecting Great, Swell, +and Pedal stops; 24 Combination Pistons, and 3 Crescendo Pedals. + + +In 1908-1909 the organ was refitted throughout with William Hill & +Sons' latest type of tubular pneumatic action (excepting the Celestial +organ, for which the electric action was retained), an entirely new +console was provided, a large-scale Open Diapason added to the reed +soundboard of the Great organ, and several additions made to the +couplers and combination pistons. + +William Hill & Sons are also the builders of the organ in the Town +Hall, Sydney, Australia, once the largest in the world; it has 126 +speaking stops. It may be looked upon as the apotheosis of the old +style of organ-building, with low pressures, duplication, and mixtures. +The highest pressure used is 12 inches and there are no less than 45 +ranks of mixtures which were characterized by Sir J. F. Bridge as being +"like streaks of silver." The writer saw this organ in the builder's +factory in London before it was shipped to Sydney. A unique novelty +was the Contra Trombone on the Pedal of 64 feet actual length. The +bottom pipes were doubled up into three sections and the tongue of the +reed of the CCCCC pipe was two feet long. Although almost inaudible +when played alone this stop generated harmonics which powerfully +reinforced the tone of the full organ. The organ is inclosed in a case +designed by Mr. Arthur Hill after old renaissance examples. + + +ORGAN IN THE MANSION OF J. MARTIN WHITE, ESQ., BALRUDDERY, SCOTLAND + +The organs heretofore described have been somewhat on the old lines, +but we come now, in 1894, to "the dawn of a new era," and the star of +Hope-Jones appears on the horizon. With the exception of an instrument +rebuilt by Hope-Jones in Dundee Parish Church, this is the first organ +with electric action in Scotland. + +[Illustration: Organ in Hall of Balruddery Mansion, Dundee, Scotland] + +Balruddery mansion, the rural residence of Mr. J. Martin White, stands +in a fair country seven miles to the west of Dundee. The grounds of +the mansion are a dream of sylvan beauty, with the broad bosom of the +River Tay within the vision and beyond that the blue line of the Fife +shore. + +The organ is the work of three hands. It was originally built by +Casson; the most notable characters in the voicing are due to Thynne; +and it remained for Mr. Hope-Jones to entirely reconstruct it with his +electric action, stop-keys, double touch, pizzicato touch and some of +his new stops. The console is movable, connected with the organ by a +cable about one inch thick, containing about 1,000 wires, enabling the +player to hear the organ as the audience hears it. + +Referring to the view of the hall on page 167, the Great organ is in +the chamber behind the pipes seen in the upper gallery. The Swell and +Solo organs are in the attic above, and the sound of these can be made +distant by shutting the Swell shutters, or brought near by opening +them. The pedal pipes are put upside down so that their open ends may +be toward the music room. + + +SPECIFICATION. + +Three manuals, CC to a|3|, 58 notes. Pedal CCC to F, 30 notes. + +PEDAL ORGAN (G STOPS). + + FEET. FEET. + Open Diapason 16 Principal 8 + "Great" Bourdon 16 (Partly from 16 feet + "Swell" Violone 16 open.) + Ophicleide 16 Couplers: + (First and second touch, Great to Pedal. + partly from Tuba.) Swell to Pedal. + "Swell" Viola 8 Solo to Pedal. + + +GREAT ORGAN (9 STOPS). + +In swell box No. 2, except the Open Diapason, Clarabel and Sourdine. + + FEET. FEET. + Bourdon 16 Principal 4 + Open Diapason 8 Zauber Floete 4 + Clarabel 8 Piccolo 2 + Sourdine 8 Mixture, 5 ranks + Gedackt 8 + Couplers: Swell to Great (first and second touch). + " Swell to Great Sub-Octave. + " Swell to Great Super-Octave. + " Solo Unison to Great (first, second, and pizzicato touch). + " Solo to Super-Octave to Great. + 5 Composition Pedals. + +SWELL ORGAN (10 STOPS). + +In Swell Box No. 1. + + FEET. FEET. + Violone 16 Geigen Principal 4 + Geigen Open 8 Horn 8 + Violes d' Orchestre 8 Oboe 8 + Harmonic Flute 8 Violes Celestes (Tenor C) 8 + Echo Salcional 8 Vox Angelica (Tenor C) 8 + Couplers: Sub-Octave and Super-Octave. + " Solo to Swell (second touch). + " Great to Swell (second touch). + 5 Composition Pedals. + +SOLO ORGAN (5 STOPS). + +In Swell Box No. 2. + + FEET. FEET. + Harmonic Flute Tuba Mirabilis + (8 inches wind) 8 (8 inches wind) 8 + Violoncello 8 Cor Anglais 8 + Clarionet 8 + Couplers: Sub-Octave; Super-Octave. + +GENERAL ACCESSORIES. + + Three Pedal Studs _p, f, ff_. + Sforzando Pedal _f, ff_. + Stop Switch (Key and Pedal). + Tremulant (Swell and Solo). + + +ORGAN IN WORCESTER CATHEDRAL, ENGLAND. + +Next in chronological order comes the epoch-making organ in Worcester +Cathedral, England, built by Hope-Jones in 1896. Here he gave to the +world the result of his researches into the production of organ tone, +and we make bold to say that no other instrument has so revolutionized +and exerted such an influence on the art of organ-building both in +England and the United States. Here for the first time we find that +wonderful invention, the Diaphone, and even the nomenclature of the +various stops is new, however familiar they may be now, seventeen years +later. Hope-Jones is reported to have spent several days in the +Cathedral studying its acoustic properties before planning this organ, +and the result was a marvelous ensemble of tone. The fame thereof +spread abroad and eminent musicians made pilgrimages from all parts of +the earth to see and hear it, as mentioned in our account of Yale +University Organ later. + +Charles Heinroth, Organist and Director of Music, Carnegie Institute, +Pittsburgh, Pa., says: + +"I don't believe I could forget my first impression on hearing the +Worcester Cathedral organ, to me a perfect masterpiece. At once a +sense of something out of the ordinary took hold of me at hearing the +tone quality of the various stops and combinations--it seemed +altogether uncommon." + +Similar opinions were expressed by many others. + +There were two organs in Worcester Cathedral. The older of the two, +standing on the north side of the choir, though it had been rebuilt by +Hill & Son, contained pipes over 200 years old from the original +instrument by Renatus Harris. The second organ, built by Hill & Son in +1875, stood in the south transept. It was a gift to the Cathedral from +the late Earl of Dudley. + +In 1895-1896 Hope-Jones constructed a new organ retaining the Renatus +Harris and some of the Hill pipes. It stands in three portions, part +against the south wall of the transept and part on either side of the +choir, all controlled from the console originally placed inside the +screen just west of the choir stalls, but since moved into the north +choir aisle. It was planned to have the Solo Tuba on a wind pressure +of 100 inches, but we regret to say the funds for this have not been +forthcoming. The specification follows; the compass of the manuals is +from CC to c|4|, 61 notes; of the pedals, CCC to F, 30 notes. + +GREAT ORGAN (11 STOPS). + + FEET. FEET. + Diapason Phonon 16 Octave Diapason 4 + Tibia Plena 8 Quintadena 4 + Diapason Phonon 8 Harmonic Piccolo 2 + Open Diapason 8 Tuba Profunda 16 + Hohl Flute 8 Tuba 8 + Viol d'Amour 8 + +SWELL ORGAN (15 STOPS). + + FEET. FEET. + Contra Viola 16 String Gamba 8 + Violes Celestes 8 Quintaton 8 + Tibia Clausa 8 Gambette 4 + Horn Diapason 8 Harmonic flute 4 + Harmonic Piccolo 2 Cor Anglais (free) 8 + Double English Horn 16 Vox Humana 8 + Cornopean 8 Clarinet 8 + Oboe 8 + +CHOIR ORGAN (10 STOPS). + + FEET. FEET. + Double Open Diapason 16 Dulciana 8 + Open Diapason 8 Flute 4 + Cone Leiblich Gedackt 8 Flautina 2 + Viol d'Orchestre 8 Cor Anglais (beating) 8 + Tiercina 8 Clarionet 8 + +SOLO ORGAN (5 STOPS). + FEET. FEET. + Rohr Flute 4 Tuba Sonora 8 + Bombarde 16 Orchestral Oboe 8 + Tuba Mirabilis 8 + +PEDAL ORGAN (13 STOPS). + + FEET. FEET. + Gravissima 64 Octave Violone 8 + Double Open Diapason 32 Flute 8 + Contra Violone 32 Diaphone 32 + Tibia Profunda 16 Diaphone 16 + Open Diapason 16 Tuba Profunda 16 + Violone 16 Tuba 8 + Bourdon 16 + +Couplers: Choir, Great, Swell, Solo to Pedal; light wind Great Sub Oct +(on itself); Great reeds Super Oct (on themselves); Solo to Great, Sub, +Super and Unison; Swell to Great, Sub, Super and Unison; Choir to +Great, Sub and Unison. Swell Sub and Super Octave (on itself); Solos +to Swell; Choir to Swell. + +Choir Sub and Super Octave (on itself); Swell to Choir, Sub, Super and +Unison. + +Solo Organ Sub and Super Octave (on itself). + +Solo Tuba to Great 2d touch. + +Swell to Great 2d touch. + +Swell to Choir 2d touch. + +Choir to Swell 2d touch. + +Solo and Pedal Tubas have double tongues and are voiced on 20 inches of +wind. + +Accessories: 5 compound composition keys for Great and Pedal, Swell and +Pedal, Solo; 3 for Choir and Pedal, and 2 to each manual for couplers; +2 combination keys; Tremulant to Swell; 5 composition pedals; Stop +Switch, Key and Pedal. + +The composition keys between the manuals if touched in the centre give +automatically an appropriate Pedal bass in addition to the particular +stops acted upon; but if touched on one side do not disturb the Pedal +department. All combination movements affect the stop keys themselves. +The "stop switch" enables the player to prepare in advance any special +combination of stops and couplers, bringing them into play at the +moment desired. The organ is blown by a six-horse gas engine. + + +ORGAN IN WOOLSEY HALL, YALE UNIVERSITY, + +NEW HAVEN, CONN. + +This magnificent instrument, built by the Hutchings-Votey Organ Company +in 1902, possesses increased foundation tone and higher wind pressures. +The late Professor Samuel S. Sanford, devoted much time and interest in +its design. He visited Worcester Cathedral, England, and was +profoundly impressed with the new epoch in tone production heralded by +that organ. He made an effort to have Mr. Hope-Jones voice one of his +Tibias and Smooth Tubas for the Yale organ; and though his effort was +not successful, leading features of the Worcester instrument were +frankly imitated and generously acknowledged. It was largely due to +the liberality of Mr. George S. Hutchings in interpreting the terms of +the contract that such a complete instrument was secured for the +University. In recognition of this and in view of Mr. Hutchings' +artistic contributions to the art of organ-building, the University +conferred upon him the honorary degree of Master of Arts. The +Diapasons are voiced on pressures ranging from 3 1/2 to 22 inches; the +reeds in the Great and Swell on 10 inches, and the Tuba on 22 inches. +The builders state that the mixtures have been inserted at the request +of many noted organists. There are now 78 sounding stops. + +Compass of Manuals from CC to c|4|, 61 notes. Compass of Pedals from +CCC to g, 32 notes. + +GREAT ORGAN (19 STOPS). + + FEET. FEET. + Diapason 16 Octave 4 + Quintaton 16 Wald Flute 4 + Diapason 8 Gambette 4 + Diapason 8 Twelfth 2 2/3 + Diapason 8 Fifteenth 2 + Doppel Floete 8 Mixture, 5 ranks + Principal Flute 8 Trumpet 16 + Gross Gamba 8 Trumpet 8 + Viol d'Amour 8 Clarion 4 + Gemshorn 8 + + +SWELL ORGAN (21 STOPS). + + FEET. FEET. + Contra Gamba 16 Vox Celestis 8 + Bourdon 16 Harmonic Flute 4 + Stentorphone 8 Principal 4 + Diapason 8 Violina 4 + Gamba 8 Flautino 2 + Bourdon 8 Dolce Cornet, 6 ranks + Flauto Traverso 8 Posaune 16 + Salicional 8 Cornopean 8 + Quintadena 8 Oboe 8 + Unda Maris 8 Vox Humana 8 + Aeoline 8 Tremolo + +CHOIR ORGAN (13 STOPS). + +(Inclosed in a Swell Box) + + FEET. FEET. + Contra Dulciana 16 Violoncello 8 + Diapason 8 Viola 4 + Melodia 8 Flauto Traverse 4 + Viol d'Orchestre 8 Piccolo Harmonique 2 + Lieblich Gedacht 8 Clarinet 8 + Dulciana 8 Contra Fagotto 16 + Viol Celeste, 2 ranks 8 Tremolo + +SOLO ORGAN (6 STOPS). + +(In a Swell Box) + + FEET. FEET. + Tibia Plena 8 Hohlpfeife 4 + Tuba Sonora 8 Dolce 8 + Gross Flute 8 Orchestral Oboe 8 + +PEDAL ORGAN (19 STOPS). + + FEET. FEET. + Gravissima (Resultant) 64 Contra Bass (Resultant) 32 + Diapason 32 Diapason 16 + Contra Bourdon 32 Diapason 16 + +There are 20 Couplers; 29 Combination Pistons; 11 Composition Pedals; 3 +Balanced Swell Pedals and Balanced Crescendo Pedal. + + +ORGAN IN ST. PAUL'S CATHEDRAL, BUFFALO, N. Y. + +This instrument, built by the Hope-Jones Organ Company and opened +Christmas, 1908, in one of the finest churches in America, takes +position among the great and important organs of the New World. It is +built on the "Unit" principle, and is divided between the extreme ends +of the lofty structure. + +The chancel organ, consisting of four extended stops, occupies the old +organ chamber, which opens into the chancel and the transept of the +church. This portion of the instrument stands in a cement swell box, +its tone being thrown through the arch and into the chancel by means of +reflectors. It contains a Diaphone, the full organ being very +powerful, although its various tones can be reduced to whispers by +closing the laminated lead shutters, which are electrically controlled +through the general swell pedal at the console. + +The other division of the instrument, the organ proper, is located in +the gallery at the distant end of the nave of the church, and in an +adjacent room. This gallery division, complete in itself, represents +the latest type of Unit organ. Speaking generally, all the stops are +common to all four manuals, and to the pedals, and can be drawn at +various pitches. Following more or less the analogy of the orchestra, +the organ is divided into four distinct portions, each enclosed in its +own cement swell box with its laminated lead shutters, controlled +electrically from the console swell pedals. These divisions represent, +respectively: "Foundation," "wood wind," "string" and "brass." + +The entire instrument is played from one console, located in the nave, +connected with the chancel organ by an electric cable sixty feet in +length, and with the gallery organ by one of one hundred and sixty +feet. This key desk is of the well-known Hope-Jones type, which +appeals so strongly to most organists. It contains all the latest +conveniences: Stop-keys, in semi-circular position above the manuals; +combination keys, which move the stop-keys (with switch-board within +easy reach for changing the selection of stops); suitable bass tablets, +saving time and worry to the player; double touch, offering its wealth +of tonal effects, etc. Through the operation of a small tablet the +organs can be played separately or together. + +COMPASS: MANUALS, 61 NOTES; PEDALS, 32 NOTES. + +PEDAL ORGAN (16 STOPS). + + FEET. FEET. + _Foundation._ Cello 8 + Tibia Profundissima 32 Cello Celeste 8 + Resultant Bass 32 _Brass._ + Tibia Profunda 16 Ophicleide 16 + Contra Tibia Clausa 16 Trombone 16 + Open Diapason 16 Tuba 8 + Tibia Plena 8 Clarion 4 + Tibia Clausa 8 Great to Pedal. + _Wood Wind._ Swell to Pedal. + Clarinet 16 Swell Octave to Pedal. + _String._ Choir to Pedal. + Contra Viola 16 One Stud to release all + Dulciana 16 Suitable Basses. + +GREAT ORGAN (14 STOPS). + + FEET. FEET. + _Foundation._ _Wood Wind._ + Tibia Profunda 16 Concert Flute 8 + Contra Tibia Clausa 16 Flute 4 + Tibia Plena 8 _String._ + Tibia Clausa 8 Dulciana 8 + Open Diapason 8 _Brass._ + Horn Diapason 8 Ophicleide 16 + Octave 4 Tuba 8 + Swell Octave to Great. + Tromba 8 Swell Sub to Great. + Clarion 4 Choir Unison to Great. + Swell Sub to Great. Choir Octave to Great. + Swell Unison to Great. Tuba to Great Second Touch. + +One Double Touch Tablet to cause the Pedal Stops and Couplers to move +so as at all times to furnish automatically a Suitable Bass. + +Ten Double Touch Adjustable Combination Keys for Great Stops and +Suitable Bass. + +CHOIR ORGAN (22 STOPS). + + FEET. FEET. + _Foundation._ Quintadena 8 + Contra Tibia Clausa 16 Quint Celeste (Ten C) 8 + Tibia Clausa 8 Dulciana 8 + Horn Diapason 8 Unda Maris (Ten C) 8 + Gambette 4 + _Wood Wind._ Octave Celeste 4 + Orchestral Oboe (Ten C) 16 Quintadena 4 + Concert Flute 8 Quint Celeste 4 + Clarinet 8 _Brass._ + Oboe Horn 8 Trombone 16 + Orchestral Oboe 8 Tuba 8 + Vox Humana 8 Tromba 8 + Flute 4 _Percussion._ + _String._ Harmonic Gongs 8 + Contra Viola 16 Harmonic Gongs 4 + Viole d' Orchestre 8 Unison Off. Sub-Octave. Octave + Viole Celeste 8 Choir to Swell Second Touch. + +One Double Touch Tablet to cause the Pedal Stops and Couplers to move +so as at all times to furnish automatically a Suitable Bass. + +Ten Double Touch Adjustable Combination Keys for Swell Stops and +Suitable Bass. + +CHOIR ORGAN (22 STOPS). + + FEET. FEET. + _Foundation._ Flute 4 + Contra Tibia Clausa 16 Piccolo 2 + Tibia Clausa 8 _String._ + Horn Diapason 8 Dulciana 16 + _Wood Wind._ Viole d' Orchestre 8 + Clarinet 16 Viole Celeste 8 + Vox Humana (Ten C) 16 Quintadena 8 + Concert Flute 8 Quint Celeste 8 + Clarinet 8 Dulciana 8 + Oboe Horn 8 Unda Maris (Ten C) 8 + Orchestral Oboe 8 Dulcet 4 + Vox Humana 8 Unda Maris 4 + FEET. Swell Sub to Choir + _Percussion._ Swell Unison to Choir + Harmonic Gongs 8 Swell Octave to Choir + Unison Off. Sub-Octave. Octave. Swell to Choir second touch + +One Double Touch Tablet to cause the Pedal Stops and Couplers to move +so as at all times to furnish automatically a Suitable Bass. + +Ten Double Touch Adjustable Combination Keys for Choir Stops and +Suitable Bass. + +SOLO ORGAN (8 STOPS). + + FEET. FEET. + _Foundation._ Clarion 4 + Tibia Profunda 16 _Percussion._ + Tibia Plena 8 Harmonic Gongs 8 + Open Diapason 8 Great to Solo. + _Brass._ Swell Sub to Solo. + Ophicleide 16 Swell Unison to Solo. + Tuba 8 Swell Octave to Solo. + Tromba 8 + Four Adjustable Combination Keys. + +CHANCEL PEDAL ORGAN (2 STOPS). + + FEET. FEET. +Diaphonic Diapason 16 Bourdon 16 + +CHANCEL GREAT ORGAN (7 STOPS). + + FEET. FEET. + Bourdon 16 Flote 4 + Open Diapason 8 Octave Gamba 4 + Doppel Flote 8 Horn 8 + Gamba 8 + +CHANCEL CHOIR ORGAN (4 STOPS). + + FEET. FEET. + Doppel Flote 8 Flote 4 + Gamba 8 Horn 8 + +GENERAL. + +Sforzando Pedal, Balanced Swell Pedal for Foundation, Balanced Swell +Pedal for Wood Wind, Balanced Swell Pedal for String, Balanced Swell +Pedal for Brass. + +General Balanced Swell Pedal for all or any of the above. + +Five Keys for indicating and controlling the position of the various +Swell Pedals. + +Tremulant for Wood Wind. + +Tremulant for String. + + +ORGAN KNOWN AS THE HOPE-JONES UNIT ORCHESTRA, IN THE PARIS THEATRE, +DENVER, COLORADO. + +This fine instrument was installed in May, 1913, and hailed by the +people of Denver with great enthusiasm. The president of the Paris +Theatre Company, writing under date of June 9, says: + +"The wonderful instrument * * * is proving a source of interest to the +whole city and has materially added to the fame of 'The Paris' as the +leading picture theatre of Denver. No thirty-piece orchestra could +accompany the pictures so well as the Hope-Jones Unit Orchestra does. +Neither would it so completely carry away with enthusiasm the crowd +that flock to hear it." + +[Illustration: The Author Playing a Hope-Jones Unit Orchestra.] + +Only the keyboards are visible from the auditorium; the instrument is +placed on each side of the proscenium, occupying the place of the usual +stage boxes, the tone being reflected into the theatre through +ornamental case work. The 32-foot open diaphone is located behind the +picture screen. The specification: + +PEDAL ORGAN (32 NOTES). + + FEET. FEET. + Diaphone 32 Octave 8 + Ophicleide 16 Clarinet 8 + Diaphone 16 Cello 8 + Bass 16 Flute 8 + Tuba Horn 8 Flute 4 + Bass Drum, Kettle Drum, Crash Cymbals--Second Touches. + Great to Pedal; Solo Octave to Pedal. + Diaphone 32 ft. Second Touch; Ophicleide 16 ft. Pizzicato Touch. + Six Adjustable Toe Pistons. + +ACCOMPANIMENT ORGAN (61 NOTES). + + FEET. FEET. + Vox Humana (Ten C) 16 Octave Celeste 4 + Tuba Horn 8 Flute 4 + Diaphonic Diapason 8 Twelfth 2 2/3 + Clarinet 8 Piccolo 2 + Viole d'Orchestre 8 Chrysoglott 4 + Viole Celeste 8 Snare Drum + Flute 8 Tambourine + Vox Humana 8 Castanets + Viol 4 + +Triangle, Cathedral Chimes, Sleigh Bells, Xylophone, Tuba Horn, Solo to +Accompaniment--Second Touches. + +Flute, Solo to Accompaniment--Pizzicato Touch. + +Ten Adjustable Combination Pistons. + +One Double Touch Tablet to cause the Pedal Stops and Couplers to move +so as at all times to furnish automatically a Suitable Bass. + +GREAT ORGAN (61 NOTES). + + FEET. FEET. + Ophicleide 16 Clarinet (Ten C) 16 + Diaphone 16 Contre Viole (Ten C) 16 + Bass 16 Tuba Horn 8 + Diaphonic Diapason 8 Flute 4 + Clarinet 8 Twelfth 2 2/3 + Viole d'Orchestre 8 Viol 2 + Viole Celeste 8 Piccolo 2 + Flute 8 Tierce 1 3/5 + Vox Humana 8 Chrysoglott 4 + Clarion 4 Bells 4 + Viol 4 Sleigh Bells 4 + Octave Celeste 4 Xylophone 2 + Octave, Solo to Great. + Ophicleide, Solo to Great--Second Touches. + Solo to Great Pizzicato Touch. + Ten Adjustable Combination Pistons. + +One Double Touch Tablet to cause the Pedal Stops and Couplers to move +so as at all times to furnish automatically a Suitable Bass. + +SOLO ORGAN (37 NOTES). + + FEET. FEET. + Tibia Clausa 8 Quintadena 8 + Trumpet 8 Cathedral Chimes 8 + Orchestral Oboe 8 Bells 4 + Kinura 8 Sleigh Bells 4 + Oboe Horn 8 Xylophone 2 + Six Adjustable Combination Pistons. + +GENERAL. + +Two Expression Levers, two Indicating and Controlling Keys, Thunder +Pedal (Diaphone), Thunder Pedal (Reed), Two Tremulants, Re-Iterator for +Strings, Re-Iterator for Solo. + +One Double Touch Sforzando Pedal, First Touch, Full Stops, Second +Touch, Percussion. + +One Double Touch Sforzando Pedal, First Touch Snare Drum, Second Touch +Bass Drum, and Crash Cymbals. + + +CATHEDRAL OF ST. JOHN THE DIVINE, NEW YORK CITY. + +This organ was built by the Ernest M. Skinner Company, Boston, Mass., +in 1911. It is the gift of Mr. and Mrs. Levi P. Morton, and is said to +have cost $50,000. It is contained in two cases on each side of the +triforium of the chancel and blown by an electric installation of 85 +h.p. + +GREAT ORGAN (21 STOPS). + + FEET. FEET. + Diapason 16 Harmonic Flute 8 + Bourdon 16 Octave 4 + 1st Diapason 8 Gambette 4 + 2d Diapason 8 Flute 4 + 3d Diapason 8 Fifteenth 2 + Philomela 8 Mixture + Grosse Floete 8 Trombone 8 + Hohl Flute 8 Ophicleide 16 + Gedackt 8 Harmonic Tuba 8 + Gamba 8 Harmonic Clarion 4 + Erzaehler + +SWELL ORGAN (26 STOPS). + + FEET. FEET. + Dulciana 16 1st Flute 4 + Bourdon 16 2d Flute 4 + 1st Diapason 8 Violin 4 + 2d Diapason 8 Flautino 2 + 3d Diapason 8 Mixture + Spitz Floete 8 Trumpet 16 + Salicional 8 English Horn 16 + Viola 8 Cornopean 8 + Claribel Flute 8 French Trumpet 8 + Aeoline 8 Oboe 8 + Voix Celestes 8 Vox Humana 8 + Unda Maris 8 Clarion 4 + Gedackt 8 Tremolo + Octave 4 + +CHOIR ORGAN (IN BOX) (18 STOPS). + + FEET. FEET. + Gedackt 16 Piccolo 2 + Gamba 16 Fagotto 16 + Diapason 8 Saxaphone 8 + Geigen Principal 8 Clarinet 8 + Dulciana 8 English Horn 8 + Dulcet 8 Orchestral Oboe 8 + Concert Flute 8 Vox Humana 8 + Quintadena 8 Carillons + Flute 4 Tremolo + Fugara 4 + +SOLO ORGAN (17 STOPS). + + FEET. FEET. + Stentorphone 8 Gamba 8 + Philomela 8 Hohl Pfeife 4 + Claribel Flute 8 Flute 4 + Harmonic Flute 8 Octave 4 + Voix Celestes 8 Cymbal + Ophicleide 16 Choir Clarinet 8 + Tuba 8 Choir Orchestral Oboe 8 + Tuba Mirabilis 8 Clarion 4 + Flugel Horn 8 Tremolo + +PEDAL ORGAN (24 STOPS). + + FEET. FEET. + Diapason 32 1st Octave 8 + Contra Violone 32 2d Octave 8 + Violone 16 Super Octave 4 + 1st Diapason 16 Bombarde 32 + 2d Diapason 16 Euphonium 16 + Gamba 16 Ophicleide 16 + 1st Bourdon 16 English Horn 16 + 2d Bourdon 16 Tuba Mirabilis 8 + Dulciana 16 Tuba 8 + Gedackt 8 1st Clarion 4 + Quinte 10 2/3 2d Clarion 4 + 'Cello 8 Pizzicato 8 + +There are 32 Couplers. Stop Knobs are used, with Stop Keys for the +Couplers. (See illustration of the College of City of New York, page +45.) + +Suitable combination action adjustable at Console, and visibly +affecting the registers. + +The organ is provided with the following Expression Pedals and +appliances: + +Sforzando Pedal, Great to Pedal Reversible, Swell to Pedal Reversible, +Balanced Swell Pedal, Balanced Choir Pedal, Balanced Solo Pedal, +Crescendo Pedal. + + +ORGAN IN UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO, CANADA. + +Many fine organs have been erected in Canada and the northern part of +the United States by Casavant Freres, of St. Hyacinthe, Province of +Quebec, among which we may mention the Church of Notre-Dame in +Montreal, the Cathedrals of Montreal and Ottawa, the Northwestern +University, Chicago, and the Grand Opera House, Boston. The organ in +the Convocation Hall of the University of Toronto has 4 manuals of 61 +notes, CC to c|4|; pedals of 32 notes, CCC to g; electro-pneumatic +action; 76 speaking stops; 32 couplers, and 4,800 pipes. + +The organ was inaugurated June 6, 1912. + +The specification follows: + +GREAT ORGAN (10 STOPS). + + FEET. FEET. + *Double Open Diapason 16 **Octave 4 + *Bourdon 16 **Harmonic Flute 4 + *Open Diapason (large) 8 *Principal 4 + *Open Diapason (medium) 8 **Twelfth 2 2/3 + **Violin Diapason 8 **Fifteenth 2 + *Doppel Floete 8 **Harmonics (15-17-10-b21-22) + *Flute Harmonique 8 **Double trumpet 16 + **Gemshorn 8 **Tromba 8 + * Stops marked * can be played by Coupler in Super Octave. + ** Stops marked ** can be played by Coupler in Sub Octave. + [Transcriber's note: in "Harmonics", the "b21" above, the "b" + represents the music "flat" symbol.] + +SWELL ORGAN (17 STOPS). + + FEET. FEET. + Gedeckt 16 Piccolo 2 + Open Diapason 8 Mixture 3 rks. + Clarabella 8 Cornet 4 rks. + Stopped Diapason 8 Bassoon 16 + Dolcissimo 8 Cornopean 8 + Viola di Gamba 8 Oboe 8 + Voix Celeste 8 Vox Humana 8 + Fugara 4 Clarion 4 + Flauto Traverso 4 + Wind pressure 5 inches; Cornopean and Clarion 6 inches. + Wind pressure 4 inches; Large Open Diapason and Reeds 6 inches. + +CHOIR ORGAN (ENCLOSED) (12 STOPS). + + FEET. FEET. + Salicional 16 Suabe Flute 4 + Open Diapason 8 Violina 4 + Melodia 8 Quint 2 2/3 + Gamba 8 Flageolet 2 + Dulciana 8 Contra Fagotto 16 + Lieblich Gedeckt 8 Clarinet 8 + Wind pressure, 3 1/2 inches. + +SOLO ORGAN (DIVISION I, ENCLOSED) (8 STOPS). + + FEET. FEET. + Rohr Floete 8 Concert Flute 4 + Quintadena 8 Orchestral Oboe 8 + Viole d'Orchestre 8 Cor Anglais 8 + Violes Celestes (2 rks.) 8 Celesta + +SOLO ORGAN (DIVISION II, ENCLOSED) (8 STOPS). + + FEET. FEET. + + Stentorphone 8 Harmonic Piccolo 2 + Tibia Plena 8 Tuba Magna 16 + Violoncello 8 Tuba Mirabilis 8 + Octave 4 Tubular Chimes + + Wind pressure, 12 inches. + +PEDAL ORGAN (15 STOPS). + + FEET. FEET. + Double Open 32 Violoncello 8 + Open Diapason (wood) 16 Octave 8 + Open Diapason (metal) 16 Bourdon 8 + Violone 16 Super Octave 4 + Dulciana 16 Trombone 16 + Bourdon 16 Trumpet 8 + Gedeckt 16 Clarion 4 + Flute 8 + +Wind pressure, 5 inches; Reeds, 12 inches. + +There are 32 Couplers operated by Draw-stops, also by Pistons and +reversible Pedals. + +Combination Pistons, 6 to each Manual, and 4 (Pistons) to the Pedals. +Four Foot Pistons on all Stops and Couplers; one Foot Piston for Great +to Pedal reversible; one Foot Piston for Full Organ. + +Balanced Swell Pedal to Swell, Choir, and Solo; Balanced Crescendo +Pedal. + +Tremulants to Choir, Swell, and Solo. + + +CITY HALL, PORTLAND, MAINE. + +This organ was built by the Austin Organ Company, of Hartford, Conn., +in 1912. It was presented to the city of Portland by Mr. Cyrus K. +Curtis, of the Saturday Evening Post, in memory of the late Hermann +Kotschmar, whose "Te Deum" is well known in the United States. The +organ is in a handsome case on the platform at one end of the hall and +is entitled to take its place among the world's great instruments. It +is certainly a coincidence that those who have been associated with Mr. +Hope-Jones in business now rank as the foremost organ builders in +America, as witness this fine organ and that in the Cathedral of St. +John the Divine in New York. + +The Portland organ has four manuals of 61 notes, CC to c|3|, and pedal +of 32 notes, CCC to g. There are 88 sounding stops and 33 couplers. + +GREAT ORGAN (18 STOPS). + + FEET. FEET. + Sub Bourdon 32 2d Open Diapason 8 + Bourdon 16 3d Open Diapason 8 + Violone Dolce 16 Violoncello 8 + 1st Open Diapason 8 Gemshorn 8 + Doppel Flute 8 Double Trumpet 16 + Clarabella 8 Trumpet 8 + Octave 4 Clarion 4 + Hohl Flute 4 Cathedral Chimes (enclosed + Octave Quint 3 in Solo Box). + Super Octave 2 + +SWELL ORGAN (16 STOPS). + + FEET. FEET. + Quintaton 16 Harmonic Flute 4 + Diapason Phonon 8 Flautino 2 + Horn Diapason 8 Mixture, 3 and 4 ranks + Viole d'Gamba 8 Contra Fagotto 16 + Rohr Flute 8 Cornopean 8 + Flauto Dolce 8 Oboe 8 + Unda Maris 8 Vox Humana 8 + Muted Viole 8 Tremulant + Principal 4 + +ORCHESTRAL ORGAN (13 STOPS). + + FEET. FEET. + Contra Viole 16 Quintadena 8 + Geigen Principal 8 Flute d'Amour 4 + Concert Flute 8 Flageolet 2 + Dulciana 8 French Horn 8 + Viole d'Orchestra 8 Clarinet 8 + Viole Celeste 8 Cor Anglais 8 + Vox Seraphique 8 Tremulant + +SOLO ORGAN (12 STOPS) + + FEET. FEET. + Violone 16 Concert Piccolo 2 + Flaute Major, Open Chests 8 Tuba Profunda 16 + Grand Diapason 8 Harmonic Tuba 8 + Gross Gamba 8 Tuba Clarion 4 + Gamba Celeste 8 Orchestral Oboe (enclosed) 8 + Flute Overte 4 Tuba Magna 8 + +ECHO ORGAN (IN ROOF) (7 STOPS). + + FEET. FEET. + Cor de Nuit 8 Echo Cornet, 3 ranks + Gedackt 8 Vox Humana 8 + Vox Angelica 8 Harp + Viole Aetheria 8 Tremulant + Fern Flute 4 + +PEDAL ORGAN (AUGMENTED) (21 STOPS). + + FEET. FEET. + Contra Magnaton 32 Gross Flute 8 + Contra Bourdon 32 Violoncello 8 + Magnaton 16 Octave Flute 4 + Open Diapason 16 Contra Bombarde 32 + Violone 16 Bombarde (25-inch wind) 16 + Dulciana (from Great) 16 Tuba Profunda 16 + First Bourdon 16 Harmonic Tuba 8 + Contra Viole 16 Tuba Clarion 4 + Second Bourdon 16 (From Solo Enclosed) + Lieblich Gedackt (Echo) 16 Contra Fagotto 16 + Gross Quint 10 1/2 (From Swell) + Flauto Dolce 8 + +There are 6 Composition Pedals to the Pedal Organ and 8 Adjustable +Pistons to each Manual controlling the Stops and Couplers. Stop-keys +are used. + +Accessory: Balanced Crescendo Pedal, adjustable, not moving registers; +Balanced Swell Pedal; Balanced Orchestral Pedal; Balanced Solo and Echo +Pedal; Great to Pedal, reversible; Solo and Echo to Great, reversible; +Sforzando Pedal. + + +LIVERPOOL CATHEDRAL, ENGLAND. + +The firm of Henry Willis & Sons was established in 1845 by the late +"Father" Willis, who took his two sons, Vincent Willis and Henry +Willis, into partnership with him in 1878. The majority of the patents +and improvements produced by the firm were solely the work of "Father" +Willis, although his son Vincent was associated with him in certain of +the later patents. Vincent Willis left the firm in 1894, six years +previous to the death of "Father" Willis, which occurred in February, +1900, and the business has since been carried on by his son, Mr. Henry +Willis, with whom is associated Mr. Henry Willis, Jr., the grandson of +the founder. + +The famous traditions of the firm in the field of reed-voicing and flue +tone have been maintained by the present partners, who are both +experienced voicers; and in general up-to-date mechanical details the +firm is in the forefront of the English organ-building industry; as is +evidenced by their recently obtaining the contract for the magnificent +divided organ which they have now under construction (1913) for the +enormous New Cathedral of Liverpool, the specification of which is here +appended. + +There are five manuals, of 61 notes, CC to c|3|, and a radiating and +concave pedal board of 32 notes, CCC to g. There are no extensions or +duplications. With the exception of the Celestes, which go down to FF +only, every stop is complete, of full compass. There are 167 speaking +stops and 48 couplers, making a total of 215 draw stop knobs. + +PEDAL ORGAN (33 STOPS). + + FEET. FEET. + Dble. Open Diapason, wood 32 *Violoncello, metal 8 + Dble. Open Diapason, metal 32 Flute, metal 8 + Contra Violone, metal 32 *Quintadena, metal 8 + Double Quint, wood 21 1/3 Twelfth, metal 5 1/3 + Open Diapason No. 1, wood 16 Fifteenth, metal 4 + Open Diapason No. 2, wood 16 Mixture, 17th, 19th, 22d + Open Diapason No. 3, wood 16 Fourniture, 19, b2l, 22, 26, 29 + Open Diapason, metal 16 Contra Trombone 32 + Contra Basso, metal 16 *Contra Ophicleide 32 + *Geigen, metal 16 Trombone 16 + Dolce, metal 16 Bombardon 16 + *Violone, metal 16 *Ophicleide 16 + Bourdon, wood 16 *Fagotto 16 + *Quintaton, metal 16 Octave Trombone 8 + Quint, wood 10 2/3 *Octave Bassoon 8 + Octave, wood 8 Clarion 4 + Principal, metal 8 + * Stops marked * are in separate Swell Box. + Wind pressures: 6, 7, 10, 15, and 25 inches. + +CHOIR ORGAN (23 STOPS). + + FEET. FEET. + Contra Dulciana 16 *Gambette 4 + *Contra Gamba 16 Dulciana 2 + Open Diapason 8 *Flageolet 2 + *Violin Diapason 8 *Dulciana Mixture, 10, 12, 17, + Rohr Flute 8 19, 22 + *Claribel Flute 8 *Bass Clarinet 16 + Dulciana 8 *Baryton, dble. vox humana 16 + *Gamba 8 *Corno di Bassetto 8 + *Unda Maris (FF) 8 *Cor Anglais 8 + Flute Ouverte 4 *Vox Humana 8 + *Suabe Flute 4 *Trumpet (orchestral) 8 + Dulcet 4 *Clarion 4 + * Stops marked * in separate Swell Box. + + Wind pressures: 4 inches; Trumpet and Clarion, 7 inches. + +GREAT ORGAN (28 STOPS, 1 COUPLER). + + FEET. FEET. + Double Open Diapason 16 Octave Diapason 4 + Contra Tibia 16 Principal 4 + Bourdon 16 Flute Couverte 4 + Double Quint 10 2/3 Flute Harmonique 4 + Open Diapason, No. 1 8 Twelfth 2 2/3 + Open, No. 2 8 Fifteenth 2 + Open, No. 3 8 Piccolo Harmonique 2 + Open, No. 4 8 Mixture, 10, 12, 17, 19, 22 + Open, No. 5 8 Sesquialtera, 19, b21, 22, 26, 29 + Open, No. 6 8 Double Trumpet 16 + Tibia Major 8 Trumpet 8 + Tibia Minor 8 Trompette Harmonique 8 + Stopped Diapason 8 Clarion 4 + Doppel Floete 8 Solo Trombas on Great + Quint 5 1/3 (By Coupler) + Wind pressures: 5, 10, and 15 inches. + [Transcriber's note: in "Sesquialtera", the "b21" above, the "b" + represents the music "flat" symbol.] + +SWELL ORGAN (31 STOPS). + + FEET. FEET. + Contra Geigen 16 Lieblich Floete 4 + Contra Saliciona 16 Doublette 2 + Lieblich Bordun 16 Lieblich Piccolo 2 + Open Diapason, No. 1 8 Lieblich Mixture, 17, 19, 22 + Open Diapason, No. 2 8 Full Mixture, 12, 17, 19, b21, 22 + Geigen 8 Double Trumpet 16 + Tibia 8 Wald Horn 16 + Flauto Traverso 8 Contra Hautboy 16 + Wald Floete 8 Trumpet 8 + Lieblich Gedackt 8 Trompette Harmonique 8 + Echo Gamba 8 Cornopean 8 + Salicional 8 Hautboy 8 + Vox Angelica (FF) 8 Krummhorn 8 + Octave 4 Clarion, No. 1 4 + Geigen Principal 4 Clarion, No. 2 4 + Salicet 4 + Wind pressures: 5, 7, 10, and 15 inches. + [Transcriber's note: in "Full Mixture", the "b21" above, the "b" + represents the music "flat" symbol.] + +SOLO ORGAN (23 STOPS). + + FEET. FEET. + *Contra Hohl Floete 16 Concert Flute 4 + Contra Viole 16 Octave Viole 4 + *Hohl Floete 8 Piccolo Harmonique 2 + Flute Harmonique 8 Violette 2 + Viol de Gambe 8 Cornet de Violes, 10, 12, 15 + Viol d'Orchestre 8 Cor Anglais 16 + Viole Celeste (FF) 8 Clarinet (orchestral) 8 + *Octave Hohl Floete 4 Bassoon (orchestral) 8 + French Horn (orchestral) 8 Tromba Real 8 + Oboe (orchestral) 8 Tromba Clarion 4 + Contra Tromba 16 *Diapason Stentor 8 + Tromba 8 + All Stops in a Swell Box except Stops marked *. + Wind pressures: 7, and 20 inches. + +CLAVIER DES BOMBARDES (TUBA ORGAN) (6 STOPS). + + FEET. FEET. + Contra. Tuba 16 Octave Bombardon 4 + Bombardon 8 Tuba Clarion 4 + Tuba Mirabilis 8 Tuba Magna 8 + +Wind pressures: 30 inches; Tuba Magna, 50 inches. + +The Stops of this department will be played from the fifth Keyboard, +the action being controlled by Draw-stop Knob marked "Tuba On." + +ECHO ORGAN (19 MANUAL AND 4 PEDAL STOPS). + +ECHO PEDAL. + + FEET. FEET. + Salicional 16 Fugara 8 + Echo Bass 16 Dulzian (reed) 16 + +ECHO MANUAL. + + FEET. FEET. + Quintaton 16 Flautina 2 + Echo Diapason 8 Harmonica Aetheria (flute + Cor de Nuit 8 mixture), 10, 12, 15 + Carillon (gongs) 8 Chalumeau 16 + Flauto Amabile 8 Cor Harmonique 8 + Muted Viole 8 Trompette 8 + Aeoline Celeste (FF) 8 Musette 8 + Celestina 4 Voix Humaine 8 + Fernfloete 4 Hautbois d'Amour 8 + Rohr Nasat 2 2/3 Hautbois Octaviante 4 + +Wind pressures: 3 1/2 and 7 inches. + +Both Pedal and Manual Stops in Swell Box. The Echo Manual Stops played +from the fifth Keyboard, the action being controlled by Draw-stop Knob +marked "Echo On." + +Arranged in two double columns on the left-hand or bass jamb are 48 +draw-stop knobs for the Couplers and Tremulants. The principal +Couplers may also be operated by reversible pistons and the Tremulants +(3) by reversible pedals. There are also 5 reversible pedal pistons +for the Manual to Pedal Couplers. In addition to the usual +Inter-manual Couplers there are on the Choir, Swell, Solo, and Echo +organs Sub and Super and Unison (off) Couplers, each on its own Manual. + +A novelty is a coupler labeled Solo Tenor to Pedal. By its use the +upper 20 notes of the pedal-board are available for a tenor solo by the +right foot, at the same time the Pedal tones are cut off from these +notes and the remainder of the pedal-board is available for use by the +left foot as a bass. + +The stop control is effected in the first place by 9 Adjustable +Combination Pedals to the Pedal Organ. Then there are 9 Adjustable +Combination Pistons to the Choir, Great, Swell, Solo and Echo organs +and 5 to the Tuba organ. It is possible to couple each set of these +Manual Pistons to the Pedal organ Combination Pedals, either by +draw-stops or by piston, thus moving pedal and manual stops +synchronously. + +All these Combination Pedals and Pistons move the draw-stop knobs, +showing a valuable index of their position to the organist. + +There are 5 Adjustable Pistons on the treble key frame (and 5 +duplicates on the bass key frame) for special combinations, on Manuals, +Pedal, and Couplers. + +There are 5 pedals to operate the various swell boxes of the lever +locking type--a locking movement allowing the performer to leave pedal +in any position. The swell pedal for the Pedal stops can be coupled to +any of the others. + +The Tremulants have attachments allowing the performer to increase or +decrease the rapidity of the _vibrato_ at will. + +The action throughout is electro-pneumatic and tubular-pneumatic +(according to distance of pipes from keyboard), excepting the Manual to +Pedal Couplers, which are mechanical to pull down the manual keys. + +There are seven separate blowing installations of electric motors. + + +The instrument occupied two special chambers on each side of the +chancel, and a portion of the south chancel triforium. There are four +fronts, two facing the chancel and two (32 feet) facing the transepts. +The console is placed on the north side above the choir stalls. The +organ is the gift of Mrs. James Barrow and cost (without cases) about +$90,000. The specification was drawn up by Mr. W. J. Ridley, nephew of +Mrs. Barrow, with the full approval of her committee, Mr. Charles +Collins, Mr. E. Townsend Driffield, the Cathedral organist, Mr. F. H. +Burstall, F. R. C. O., and Henry Willis & Sons. + + +It is claimed that this organ is now "the largest in the world." We +give the dimensions of some notable instruments for the sake of +comparison: + +Paris, St. Sulpice, 118 stops; London, Albert Hall, 124; Sydney Town +Hall, 144; St. Louis Exposition, 167; Hamburg, St. Michael's, 163, and +Liverpool Cathedral, 215. + + + +[1] This is really only c|3| (see footnote, page 22), but we have +decided to adopt the usual nomenclature. + +James Ingall Wedgwood, in writing his excellent "Dictionary of Organ +Stops," felt it incumbent upon him to offer an apology, or rather, +justification for introducing the name of Hope-Jones so frequently. + +The author of this present volume feels the same embarrassment. He, +however, does not see how it would be possible for him, or for any +future writer, who values truth, to avoid reiteration of this man's +name and work when writing about the modern organ. + + * * * * * * * * + +The author's thanks are due to the Austin Organ Company, the Bennett +Organ Company, Dr. W. C. Carl, the Estey Organ Company, the Hook & +Hastings Company, the Hope-Jones Organ Company, the Hutchings Organ +Company, Mr. M. P. Moller, Messrs. J. H. & S. C. Odell, and the E. M. +Skinner Company, of the United States; to Messrs. Casavant Freres, of +Canada; to Messrs. J. H. Compton, W. Hill & Son, Dr. J. W. Hinton, +Alfred Kirkland, John Moncrieff Miller, and Henry Willis & Sons, of +England; to Dr. Gabriel Bedart, of Lille, and M. Charles Mutin, of +Paris, France, for valuable data, photographs and drawings, kindly +furnished for this book. + + + +***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE RECENT REVOLUTION IN ORGAN +BUILDING*** + + +******* This file should be named 21204.txt or 21204.zip ******* + + +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: +https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/2/1/2/0/21204 + + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. 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