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diff --git a/old/2130.txt b/old/2130.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..b8f8a1a --- /dev/null +++ b/old/2130.txt @@ -0,0 +1,3926 @@ +The Project Gutenberg eBook, Utopia, by Thomas More, Edited by Henry Morley + + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + + + + +Title: Utopia + + +Author: Thomas More + +Release Date: April 22, 2005 [eBook #2130] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII) + + +***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK UTOPIA*** + + + + + + +Transcribed from the 1901 Cassell & Company Edition by David Price, email +ccx074@coventry.ac.uk + + + + + +UTOPIA + + +INTRODUCTION + + +Sir Thomas More, son of Sir John More, a justice of the King's Bench, was +born in 1478, in Milk Street, in the city of London. After his earlier +education at St. Anthony's School, in Threadneedle Street, he was placed, +as a boy, in the household of Cardinal John Morton, Archbishop of +Canterbury and Lord Chancellor. It was not unusual for persons of wealth +or influence and sons of good families to be so established together in a +relation of patron and client. The youth wore his patron's livery, and +added to his state. The patron used, afterwards, his wealth or influence +in helping his young client forward in the world. Cardinal Morton had +been in earlier days that Bishop of Ely whom Richard III. sent to the +Tower; was busy afterwards in hostility to Richard; and was a chief +adviser of Henry VII., who in 1486 made him Archbishop of Canterbury, and +nine months afterwards Lord Chancellor. Cardinal Morton--of talk at +whose table there are recollections in "Utopia"--delighted in the quick +wit of young Thomas More. He once said, "Whoever shall live to try it, +shall see this child here waiting at table prove a notable and rare man." + +At the age of about nineteen, Thomas More was sent to Canterbury College, +Oxford, by his patron, where he learnt Greek of the first men who brought +Greek studies from Italy to England--William Grocyn and Thomas Linacre. +Linacre, a physician, who afterwards took orders, was also the founder of +the College of Physicians. In 1499, More left Oxford to study law in +London, at Lincoln's Inn, and in the next year Archbishop Morton died. + +More's earnest character caused him while studying law to aim at the +subduing of the flesh, by wearing a hair shirt, taking a log for a +pillow, and whipping himself on Fridays. At the age of twenty-one he +entered Parliament, and soon after he had been called to the bar he was +made Under-Sheriff of London. In 1503 he opposed in the House of Commons +Henry VII.'s proposal for a subsidy on account of the marriage portion of +his daughter Margaret; and he opposed with so much energy that the House +refused to grant it. One went and told the king that a beardless boy had +disappointed all his expectations. During the last years, therefore, of +Henry VII. More was under the displeasure of the king, and had thoughts +of leaving the country. + +Henry VII. died in April, 1509, when More's age was a little over thirty. +In the first years of the reign of Henry VIII. he rose to large practice +in the law courts, where it is said he refused to plead in cases which he +thought unjust, and took no fees from widows, orphans, or the poor. He +would have preferred marrying the second daughter of John Colt, of New +Hall, in Essex, but chose her elder sister, that he might not subject her +to the discredit of being passed over. + +In 1513 Thomas More, still Under-Sheriff of London, is said to have +written his "History of the Life and Death of King Edward V., and of the +Usurpation of Richard III." The book, which seems to contain the +knowledge and opinions of More's patron, Morton, was not printed until +1557, when its writer had been twenty-two years dead. It was then +printed from a MS. in More's handwriting. + +In the year 1515 Wolsey, Archbishop of York, was made Cardinal by Leo X.; +Henry VIII. made him Lord Chancellor, and from that year until 1523 the +King and the Cardinal ruled England with absolute authority, and called +no parliament. In May of the year 1515 Thomas More--not knighted yet--was +joined in a commission to the Low Countries with Cuthbert Tunstal and +others to confer with the ambassadors of Charles V., then only Archduke +of Austria, upon a renewal of alliance. On that embassy More, aged about +thirty-seven, was absent from England for six months, and while at +Antwerp he established friendship with Peter Giles (Latinised AEgidius), +a scholarly and courteous young man, who was secretary to the +municipality of Antwerp. + +Cuthbert Tunstal was a rising churchman, chancellor to the Archbishop of +Canterbury, who in that year (1515) was made Archdeacon of Chester, and +in May of the next year (1516) Master of the Rolls. In 1516 he was sent +again to the Low Countries, and More then went with him to Brussels, +where they were in close companionship with Erasmus. + +More's "Utopia" was written in Latin, and is in two parts, of which the +second, describing the place ([Greek text]--or Nusquama, as he called it +sometimes in his letters--"Nowhere"), was probably written towards the +close of 1515; the first part, introductory, early in 1516. The book was +first printed at Louvain, late in 1516, under the editorship of Erasmus, +Peter Giles, and other of More's friends in Flanders. It was then +revised by More, and printed by Frobenius at Basle in November, 1518. It +was reprinted at Paris and Vienna, but was not printed in England during +More's lifetime. Its first publication in this country was in the +English translation, made in Edward's VI.'s reign (1551) by Ralph +Robinson. It was translated with more literary skill by Gilbert Burnet, +in 1684, soon after he had conducted the defence of his friend Lord +William Russell, attended his execution, vindicated his memory, and been +spitefully deprived by James II. of his lectureship at St. Clement's. +Burnet was drawn to the translation of "Utopia" by the same sense of +unreason in high places that caused More to write the book. Burnet's is +the translation given in this volume. + +The name of the book has given an adjective to our language--we call an +impracticable scheme Utopian. Yet, under the veil of a playful fiction, +the talk is intensely earnest, and abounds in practical suggestion. It +is the work of a scholarly and witty Englishman, who attacks in his own +way the chief political and social evils of his time. Beginning with +fact, More tells how he was sent into Flanders with Cuthbert Tunstal, +"whom the king's majesty of late, to the great rejoicing of all men, did +prefer to the office of Master of the Rolls;" how the commissioners of +Charles met them at Bruges, and presently returned to Brussels for +instructions; and how More then went to Antwerp, where he found a +pleasure in the society of Peter Giles which soothed his desire to see +again his wife and children, from whom he had been four months away. Then +fact slides into fiction with the finding of Raphael Hythloday (whose +name, made of two Greek words [Greek text] and [Greek text], means +"knowing in trifles"), a man who had been with Amerigo Vespucci in the +three last of the voyages to the new world lately discovered, of which +the account had been first printed in 1507, only nine years before Utopia +was written. + +Designedly fantastic in suggestion of details, "Utopia" is the work of a +scholar who had read Plato's "Republic," and had his fancy quickened +after reading Plutarch's account of Spartan life under Lycurgus. Beneath +the veil of an ideal communism, into which there has been worked some +witty extravagance, there lies a noble English argument. Sometimes More +puts the case as of France when he means England. Sometimes there is +ironical praise of the good faith of Christian kings, saving the book +from censure as a political attack on the policy of Henry VIII. Erasmus +wrote to a friend in 1517 that he should send for More's "Utopia," if he +had not read it, and "wished to see the true source of all political +evils." And to More Erasmus wrote of his book, "A burgomaster of Antwerp +is so pleased with it that he knows it all by heart." + +H. M. + + + + +DISCOURSES OF RAPHAEL HYTHLODAY, OF THE BEST STATE OF A COMMONWEALTH + + +Henry VIII., the unconquered King of England, a prince adorned with all +the virtues that become a great monarch, having some differences of no +small consequence with Charles the most serene Prince of Castile, sent me +into Flanders, as his ambassador, for treating and composing matters +between them. I was colleague and companion to that incomparable man +Cuthbert Tonstal, whom the King, with such universal applause, lately +made Master of the Rolls; but of whom I will say nothing; not because I +fear that the testimony of a friend will be suspected, but rather because +his learning and virtues are too great for me to do them justice, and so +well known, that they need not my commendations, unless I would, +according to the proverb, "Show the sun with a lantern." Those that were +appointed by the Prince to treat with us, met us at Bruges, according to +agreement; they were all worthy men. The Margrave of Bruges was their +head, and the chief man among them; but he that was esteemed the wisest, +and that spoke for the rest, was George Temse, the Provost of Casselsee: +both art and nature had concurred to make him eloquent: he was very +learned in the law; and, as he had a great capacity, so, by a long +practice in affairs, he was very dexterous at unravelling them. After we +had several times met, without coming to an agreement, they went to +Brussels for some days, to know the Prince's pleasure; and, since our +business would admit it, I went to Antwerp. While I was there, among +many that visited me, there was one that was more acceptable to me than +any other, Peter Giles, born at Antwerp, who is a man of great honour, +and of a good rank in his town, though less than he deserves; for I do +not know if there be anywhere to be found a more learned and a better +bred young man; for as he is both a very worthy and a very knowing +person, so he is so civil to all men, so particularly kind to his +friends, and so full of candour and affection, that there is not, +perhaps, above one or two anywhere to be found, that is in all respects +so perfect a friend: he is extraordinarily modest, there is no artifice +in him, and yet no man has more of a prudent simplicity. His +conversation was so pleasant and so innocently cheerful, that his company +in a great measure lessened any longings to go back to my country, and to +my wife and children, which an absence of four months had quickened very +much. One day, as I was returning home from mass at St. Mary's, which is +the chief church, and the most frequented of any in Antwerp, I saw him, +by accident, talking with a stranger, who seemed past the flower of his +age; his face was tanned, he had a long beard, and his cloak was hanging +carelessly about him, so that, by his looks and habit, I concluded he was +a seaman. As soon as Peter saw me, he came and saluted me, and as I was +returning his civility, he took me aside, and pointing to him with whom +he had been discoursing, he said, "Do you see that man? I was just +thinking to bring him to you." I answered, "He should have been very +welcome on your account." "And on his own too," replied he, "if you knew +the man, for there is none alive that can give so copious an account of +unknown nations and countries as he can do, which I know you very much +desire." "Then," said I, "I did not guess amiss, for at first sight I +took him for a seaman." "But you are much mistaken," said he, "for he +has not sailed as a seaman, but as a traveller, or rather a philosopher. +This Raphael, who from his family carries the name of Hythloday, is not +ignorant of the Latin tongue, but is eminently learned in the Greek, +having applied himself more particularly to that than to the former, +because he had given himself much to philosophy, in which he knew that +the Romans have left us nothing that is valuable, except what is to be +found in Seneca and Cicero. He is a Portuguese by birth, and was so +desirous of seeing the world, that he divided his estate among his +brothers, ran the same hazard as Americus Vesputius, and bore a share in +three of his four voyages that are now published; only he did not return +with him in his last, but obtained leave of him, almost by force, that he +might be one of those twenty-four who were left at the farthest place at +which they touched in their last voyage to New Castile. The leaving him +thus did not a little gratify one that was more fond of travelling than +of returning home to be buried in his own country; for he used often to +say, that the way to heaven was the same from all places, and he that had +no grave had the heavens still over him. Yet this disposition of mind +had cost him dear, if God had not been very gracious to him; for after +he, with five Castalians, had travelled over many countries, at last, by +strange good fortune, he got to Ceylon, and from thence to Calicut, where +he, very happily, found some Portuguese ships; and, beyond all men's +expectations, returned to his native country." When Peter had said this +to me, I thanked him for his kindness in intending to give me the +acquaintance of a man whose conversation he knew would be so acceptable; +and upon that Raphael and I embraced each other. After those civilities +were past which are usual with strangers upon their first meeting, we all +went to my house, and entering into the garden, sat down on a green bank +and entertained one another in discourse. He told us that when Vesputius +had sailed away, he, and his companions that stayed behind in New +Castile, by degrees insinuated themselves into the affections of the +people of the country, meeting often with them and treating them gently; +and at last they not only lived among them without danger, but conversed +familiarly with them, and got so far into the heart of a prince, whose +name and country I have forgot, that he both furnished them plentifully +with all things necessary, and also with the conveniences of travelling, +both boats when they went by water, and waggons when they travelled over +land: he sent with them a very faithful guide, who was to introduce and +recommend them to such other princes as they had a mind to see: and after +many days' journey, they came to towns, and cities, and to commonwealths, +that were both happily governed and well peopled. Under the equator, and +as far on both sides of it as the sun moves, there lay vast deserts that +were parched with the perpetual heat of the sun; the soil was withered, +all things looked dismally, and all places were either quite uninhabited, +or abounded with wild beasts and serpents, and some few men, that were +neither less wild nor less cruel than the beasts themselves. But, as +they went farther, a new scene opened, all things grew milder, the air +less burning, the soil more verdant, and even the beasts were less wild: +and, at last, there were nations, towns, and cities, that had not only +mutual commerce among themselves and with their neighbours, but traded, +both by sea and land, to very remote countries. There they found the +conveniencies of seeing many countries on all hands, for no ship went any +voyage into which he and his companions were not very welcome. The first +vessels that they saw were flat-bottomed, their sails were made of reeds +and wicker, woven close together, only some were of leather; but, +afterwards, they found ships made with round keels and canvas sails, and +in all respects like our ships, and the seamen understood both astronomy +and navigation. He got wonderfully into their favour by showing them the +use of the needle, of which till then they were utterly ignorant. They +sailed before with great caution, and only in summer time; but now they +count all seasons alike, trusting wholly to the loadstone, in which they +are, perhaps, more secure than safe; so that there is reason to fear that +this discovery, which was thought would prove so much to their advantage, +may, by their imprudence, become an occasion of much mischief to them. +But it were too long to dwell on all that he told us he had observed in +every place, it would be too great a digression from our present purpose: +whatever is necessary to be told concerning those wise and prudent +institutions which he observed among civilised nations, may perhaps be +related by us on a more proper occasion. We asked him many questions +concerning all these things, to which he answered very willingly; we made +no inquiries after monsters, than which nothing is more common; for +everywhere one may hear of ravenous dogs and wolves, and cruel +men-eaters, but it is not so easy to find states that are well and wisely +governed. + +As he told us of many things that were amiss in those new-discovered +countries, so he reckoned up not a few things, from which patterns might +be taken for correcting the errors of these nations among whom we live; +of which an account may be given, as I have already promised, at some +other time; for, at present, I intend only to relate those particulars +that he told us, of the manners and laws of the Utopians: but I will +begin with the occasion that led us to speak of that commonwealth. After +Raphael had discoursed with great judgment on the many errors that were +both among us and these nations, had treated of the wise institutions +both here and there, and had spoken as distinctly of the customs and +government of every nation through which he had past, as if he had spent +his whole life in it, Peter, being struck with admiration, said, "I +wonder, Raphael, how it comes that you enter into no king's service, for +I am sure there are none to whom you would not be very acceptable; for +your learning and knowledge, both of men and things, is such, that you +would not only entertain them very pleasantly, but be of great use to +them, by the examples you could set before them, and the advices you +could give them; and by this means you would both serve your own +interest, and be of great use to all your friends." "As for my friends," +answered he, "I need not be much concerned, having already done for them +all that was incumbent on me; for when I was not only in good health, but +fresh and young, I distributed that among my kindred and friends which +other people do not part with till they are old and sick: when they then +unwillingly give that which they can enjoy no longer themselves. I think +my friends ought to rest contented with this, and not to expect that for +their sakes I should enslave myself to any king whatsoever." "Soft and +fair!" said Peter; "I do not mean that you should be a slave to any king, +but only that you should assist them and be useful to them." "The change +of the word," said he, "does not alter the matter." "But term it as you +will," replied Peter, "I do not see any other way in which you can be so +useful, both in private to your friends and to the public, and by which +you can make your own condition happier." "Happier?" answered Raphael, +"is that to be compassed in a way so abhorrent to my genius? Now I live +as I will, to which I believe, few courtiers can pretend; and there are +so many that court the favour of great men, that there will be no great +loss if they are not troubled either with me or with others of my +temper." Upon this, said I, "I perceive, Raphael, that you neither +desire wealth nor greatness; and, indeed, I value and admire such a man +much more than I do any of the great men in the world. Yet I think you +would do what would well become so generous and philosophical a soul as +yours is, if you would apply your time and thoughts to public affairs, +even though you may happen to find it a little uneasy to yourself; and +this you can never do with so much advantage as by being taken into the +council of some great prince and putting him on noble and worthy actions, +which I know you would do if you were in such a post; for the springs +both of good and evil flow from the prince over a whole nation, as from a +lasting fountain. So much learning as you have, even without practice in +affairs, or so great a practice as you have had, without any other +learning, would render you a very fit counsellor to any king whatsoever." +"You are doubly mistaken," said he, "Mr. More, both in your opinion of me +and in the judgment you make of things: for as I have not that capacity +that you fancy I have, so if I had it, the public would not be one jot +the better when I had sacrificed my quiet to it. For most princes apply +themselves more to affairs of war than to the useful arts of peace; and +in these I neither have any knowledge, nor do I much desire it; they are +generally more set on acquiring new kingdoms, right or wrong, than on +governing well those they possess: and, among the ministers of princes, +there are none that are not so wise as to need no assistance, or at +least, that do not think themselves so wise that they imagine they need +none; and if they court any, it is only those for whom the prince has +much personal favour, whom by their fawning and flatteries they endeavour +to fix to their own interests; and, indeed, nature has so made us, that +we all love to be flattered and to please ourselves with our own notions: +the old crow loves his young, and the ape her cubs. Now if in such a +court, made up of persons who envy all others and only admire themselves, +a person should but propose anything that he had either read in history +or observed in his travels, the rest would think that the reputation of +their wisdom would sink, and that their interests would be much depressed +if they could not run it down: and, if all other things failed, then they +would fly to this, that such or such things pleased our ancestors, and it +were well for us if we could but match them. They would set up their +rest on such an answer, as a sufficient confutation of all that could be +said, as if it were a great misfortune that any should be found wiser +than his ancestors. But though they willingly let go all the good things +that were among those of former ages, yet, if better things are proposed, +they cover themselves obstinately with this excuse of reverence to past +times. I have met with these proud, morose, and absurd judgments of +things in many places, particularly once in England." "Were you ever +there?" said I. "Yes, I was," answered he, "and stayed some months +there, not long after the rebellion in the West was suppressed, with a +great slaughter of the poor people that were engaged in it. + +"I was then much obliged to that reverend prelate, John Morton, +Archbishop of Canterbury, Cardinal, and Chancellor of England; a man," +said he, "Peter (for Mr. More knows well what he was), that was not less +venerable for his wisdom and virtues than for the high character he bore: +he was of a middle stature, not broken with age; his looks begot +reverence rather than fear; his conversation was easy, but serious and +grave; he sometimes took pleasure to try the force of those that came as +suitors to him upon business by speaking sharply, though decently, to +them, and by that he discovered their spirit and presence of mind; with +which he was much delighted when it did not grow up to impudence, as +bearing a great resemblance to his own temper, and he looked on such +persons as the fittest men for affairs. He spoke both gracefully and +weightily; he was eminently skilled in the law, had a vast understanding, +and a prodigious memory; and those excellent talents with which nature +had furnished him were improved by study and experience. When I was in +England the King depended much on his counsels, and the Government seemed +to be chiefly supported by him; for from his youth he had been all along +practised in affairs; and, having passed through many traverses of +fortune, he had, with great cost, acquired a vast stock of wisdom, which +is not soon lost when it is purchased so dear. One day, when I was +dining with him, there happened to be at table one of the English +lawyers, who took occasion to run out in a high commendation of the +severe execution of justice upon thieves, 'who,' as he said, 'were then +hanged so fast that there were sometimes twenty on one gibbet!' and, upon +that, he said, 'he could not wonder enough how it came to pass that, +since so few escaped, there were yet so many thieves left, who were still +robbing in all places.' Upon this, I (who took the boldness to speak +freely before the Cardinal) said, 'There was no reason to wonder at the +matter, since this way of punishing thieves was neither just in itself +nor good for the public; for, as the severity was too great, so the +remedy was not effectual; simple theft not being so great a crime that it +ought to cost a man his life; no punishment, how severe soever, being +able to restrain those from robbing who can find out no other way of +livelihood. In this,' said I, 'not only you in England, but a great part +of the world, imitate some ill masters, that are readier to chastise +their scholars than to teach them. There are dreadful punishments +enacted against thieves, but it were much better to make such good +provisions by which every man might be put in a method how to live, and +so be preserved from the fatal necessity of stealing and of dying for +it.' 'There has been care enough taken for that,' said he; 'there are +many handicrafts, and there is husbandry, by which they may make a shift +to live, unless they have a greater mind to follow ill courses.' 'That +will not serve your turn,' said I, 'for many lose their limbs in civil or +foreign wars, as lately in the Cornish rebellion, and some time ago in +your wars with France, who, being thus mutilated in the service of their +king and country, can no more follow their old trades, and are too old to +learn new ones; but since wars are only accidental things, and have +intervals, let us consider those things that fall out every day. There +is a great number of noblemen among you that are themselves as idle as +drones, that subsist on other men's labour, on the labour of their +tenants, whom, to raise their revenues, they pare to the quick. This, +indeed, is the only instance of their frugality, for in all other things +they are prodigal, even to the beggaring of themselves; but, besides +this, they carry about with them a great number of idle fellows, who +never learned any art by which they may gain their living; and these, as +soon as either their lord dies, or they themselves fall sick, are turned +out of doors; for your lords are readier to feed idle people than to take +care of the sick; and often the heir is not able to keep together so +great a family as his predecessor did. Now, when the stomachs of those +that are thus turned out of doors grow keen, they rob no less keenly; and +what else can they do? For when, by wandering about, they have worn out +both their health and their clothes, and are tattered, and look ghastly, +men of quality will not entertain them, and poor men dare not do it, +knowing that one who has been bred up in idleness and pleasure, and who +was used to walk about with his sword and buckler, despising all the +neighbourhood with an insolent scorn as far below him, is not fit for the +spade and mattock; nor will he serve a poor man for so small a hire and +in so low a diet as he can afford to give him.' To this he answered, +'This sort of men ought to be particularly cherished, for in them +consists the force of the armies for which we have occasion; since their +birth inspires them with a nobler sense of honour than is to be found +among tradesmen or ploughmen.' 'You may as well say,' replied I, 'that +you must cherish thieves on the account of wars, for you will never want +the one as long as you have the other; and as robbers prove sometimes +gallant soldiers, so soldiers often prove brave robbers, so near an +alliance there is between those two sorts of life. But this bad custom, +so common among you, of keeping many servants, is not peculiar to this +nation. In France there is yet a more pestiferous sort of people, for +the whole country is full of soldiers, still kept up in time of peace (if +such a state of a nation can be called a peace); and these are kept in +pay upon the same account that you plead for those idle retainers about +noblemen: this being a maxim of those pretended statesmen, that it is +necessary for the public safety to have a good body of veteran soldiers +ever in readiness. They think raw men are not to be depended on, and +they sometimes seek occasions for making war, that they may train up +their soldiers in the art of cutting throats, or, as Sallust observed, +"for keeping their hands in use, that they may not grow dull by too long +an intermission." But France has learned to its cost how dangerous it is +to feed such beasts. The fate of the Romans, Carthaginians, and Syrians, +and many other nations and cities, which were both overturned and quite +ruined by those standing armies, should make others wiser; and the folly +of this maxim of the French appears plainly even from this, that their +trained soldiers often find your raw men prove too hard for them, of +which I will not say much, lest you may think I flatter the English. +Every day's experience shows that the mechanics in the towns or the +clowns in the country are not afraid of fighting with those idle +gentlemen, if they are not disabled by some misfortune in their body or +dispirited by extreme want; so that you need not fear that those well- +shaped and strong men (for it is only such that noblemen love to keep +about them till they spoil them), who now grow feeble with ease and are +softened with their effeminate manner of life, would be less fit for +action if they were well bred and well employed. And it seems very +unreasonable that, for the prospect of a war, which you need never have +but when you please, you should maintain so many idle men, as will always +disturb you in time of peace, which is ever to be more considered than +war. But I do not think that this necessity of stealing arises only from +hence; there is another cause of it, more peculiar to England.' 'What is +that?' said the Cardinal: 'The increase of pasture,' said I, 'by which +your sheep, which are naturally mild, and easily kept in order, may be +said now to devour men and unpeople, not only villages, but towns; for +wherever it is found that the sheep of any soil yield a softer and richer +wool than ordinary, there the nobility and gentry, and even those holy +men, the abbots! not contented with the old rents which their farms +yielded, nor thinking it enough that they, living at their ease, do no +good to the public, resolve to do it hurt instead of good. They stop the +course of agriculture, destroying houses and towns, reserving only the +churches, and enclose grounds that they may lodge their sheep in them. As +if forests and parks had swallowed up too little of the land, those +worthy countrymen turn the best inhabited places into solitudes; for when +an insatiable wretch, who is a plague to his country, resolves to enclose +many thousand acres of ground, the owners, as well as tenants, are turned +out of their possessions by trick or by main force, or, being wearied out +by ill usage, they are forced to sell them; by which means those +miserable people, both men and women, married and unmarried, old and +young, with their poor but numerous families (since country business +requires many hands), are all forced to change their seats, not knowing +whither to go; and they must sell, almost for nothing, their household +stuff, which could not bring them much money, even though they might stay +for a buyer. When that little money is at an end (for it will be soon +spent), what is left for them to do but either to steal, and so to be +hanged (God knows how justly!), or to go about and beg? and if they do +this they are put in prison as idle vagabonds, while they would willingly +work but can find none that will hire them; for there is no more occasion +for country labour, to which they have been bred, when there is no arable +ground left. One shepherd can look after a flock, which will stock an +extent of ground that would require many hands if it were to be ploughed +and reaped. This, likewise, in many places raises the price of corn. The +price of wool is also so risen that the poor people, who were wont to +make cloth, are no more able to buy it; and this, likewise, makes many of +them idle: for since the increase of pasture God has punished the avarice +of the owners by a rot among the sheep, which has destroyed vast numbers +of them--to us it might have seemed more just had it fell on the owners +themselves. But, suppose the sheep should increase ever so much, their +price is not likely to fall; since, though they cannot be called a +monopoly, because they are not engrossed by one person, yet they are in +so few hands, and these are so rich, that, as they are not pressed to +sell them sooner than they have a mind to it, so they never do it till +they have raised the price as high as possible. And on the same account +it is that the other kinds of cattle are so dear, because many villages +being pulled down, and all country labour being much neglected, there are +none who make it their business to breed them. The rich do not breed +cattle as they do sheep, but buy them lean and at low prices; and, after +they have fattened them on their grounds, sell them again at high rates. +And I do not think that all the inconveniences this will produce are yet +observed; for, as they sell the cattle dear, so, if they are consumed +faster than the breeding countries from which they are brought can afford +them, then the stock must decrease, and this must needs end in great +scarcity; and by these means, this your island, which seemed as to this +particular the happiest in the world, will suffer much by the cursed +avarice of a few persons: besides this, the rising of corn makes all +people lessen their families as much as they can; and what can those who +are dismissed by them do but either beg or rob? And to this last a man +of a great mind is much sooner drawn than to the former. Luxury likewise +breaks in apace upon you to set forward your poverty and misery; there is +an excessive vanity in apparel, and great cost in diet, and that not only +in noblemen's families, but even among tradesmen, among the farmers +themselves, and among all ranks of persons. You have also many infamous +houses, and, besides those that are known, the taverns and ale-houses are +no better; add to these dice, cards, tables, football, tennis, and +quoits, in which money runs fast away; and those that are initiated into +them must, in the conclusion, betake themselves to robbing for a supply. +Banish these plagues, and give orders that those who have dispeopled so +much soil may either rebuild the villages they have pulled down or let +out their grounds to such as will do it; restrain those engrossings of +the rich, that are as bad almost as monopolies; leave fewer occasions to +idleness; let agriculture be set up again, and the manufacture of the +wool be regulated, that so there may be work found for those companies of +idle people whom want forces to be thieves, or who now, being idle +vagabonds or useless servants, will certainly grow thieves at last. If +you do not find a remedy to these evils it is a vain thing to boast of +your severity in punishing theft, which, though it may have the +appearance of justice, yet in itself is neither just nor convenient; for +if you suffer your people to be ill-educated, and their manners to be +corrupted from their infancy, and then punish them for those crimes to +which their first education disposed them, what else is to be concluded +from this but that you first make thieves and then punish them?' + +"While I was talking thus, the Counsellor, who was present, had prepared +an answer, and had resolved to resume all I had said, according to the +formality of a debate, in which things are generally repeated more +faithfully than they are answered, as if the chief trial to be made were +of men's memories. 'You have talked prettily, for a stranger,' said he, +'having heard of many things among us which you have not been able to +consider well; but I will make the whole matter plain to you, and will +first repeat in order all that you have said; then I will show how much +your ignorance of our affairs has misled you; and will, in the last +place, answer all your arguments. And, that I may begin where I +promised, there were four things--' 'Hold your peace!' said the +Cardinal; 'this will take up too much time; therefore we will, at +present, ease you of the trouble of answering, and reserve it to our next +meeting, which shall be to-morrow, if Raphael's affairs and yours can +admit of it. But, Raphael,' said he to me, 'I would gladly know upon +what reason it is that you think theft ought not to be punished by death: +would you give way to it? or do you propose any other punishment that +will be more useful to the public? for, since death does not restrain +theft, if men thought their lives would be safe, what fear or force could +restrain ill men? On the contrary, they would look on the mitigation of +the punishment as an invitation to commit more crimes.' I answered, 'It +seems to me a very unjust thing to take away a man's life for a little +money, for nothing in the world can be of equal value with a man's life: +and if it be said, "that it is not for the money that one suffers, but +for his breaking the law," I must say, extreme justice is an extreme +injury: for we ought not to approve of those terrible laws that make the +smallest offences capital, nor of that opinion of the Stoics that makes +all crimes equal; as if there were no difference to be made between the +killing a man and the taking his purse, between which, if we examine +things impartially, there is no likeness nor proportion. God has +commanded us not to kill, and shall we kill so easily for a little money? +But if one shall say, that by that law we are only forbid to kill any +except when the laws of the land allow of it, upon the same grounds, laws +may be made, in some cases, to allow of adultery and perjury: for God +having taken from us the right of disposing either of our own or of other +people's lives, if it is pretended that the mutual consent of men in +making laws can authorise man-slaughter in cases in which God has given +us no example, that it frees people from the obligation of the divine +law, and so makes murder a lawful action, what is this, but to give a +preference to human laws before the divine? and, if this is once +admitted, by the same rule men may, in all other things, put what +restrictions they please upon the laws of God. If, by the Mosaical law, +though it was rough and severe, as being a yoke laid on an obstinate and +servile nation, men were only fined, and not put to death for theft, we +cannot imagine, that in this new law of mercy, in which God treats us +with the tenderness of a father, He has given us a greater licence to +cruelty than He did to the Jews. Upon these reasons it is, that I think +putting thieves to death is not lawful; and it is plain and obvious that +it is absurd and of ill consequence to the commonwealth that a thief and +a murderer should be equally punished; for if a robber sees that his +danger is the same if he is convicted of theft as if he were guilty of +murder, this will naturally incite him to kill the person whom otherwise +he would only have robbed; since, if the punishment is the same, there is +more security, and less danger of discovery, when he that can best make +it is put out of the way; so that terrifying thieves too much provokes +them to cruelty. + +"But as to the question, 'What more convenient way of punishment can be +found?' I think it much easier to find out that than to invent anything +that is worse; why should we doubt but the way that was so long in use +among the old Romans, who understood so well the arts of government, was +very proper for their punishment? They condemned such as they found +guilty of great crimes to work their whole lives in quarries, or to dig +in mines with chains about them. But the method that I liked best was +that which I observed in my travels in Persia, among the Polylerits, who +are a considerable and well-governed people: they pay a yearly tribute to +the King of Persia, but in all other respects they are a free nation, and +governed by their own laws: they lie far from the sea, and are environed +with hills; and, being contented with the productions of their own +country, which is very fruitful, they have little commerce with any other +nation; and as they, according to the genius of their country, have no +inclination to enlarge their borders, so their mountains and the pension +they pay to the Persian, secure them from all invasions. Thus they have +no wars among them; they live rather conveniently than with splendour, +and may be rather called a happy nation than either eminent or famous; +for I do not think that they are known, so much as by name, to any but +their next neighbours. Those that are found guilty of theft among them +are bound to make restitution to the owner, and not, as it is in other +places, to the prince, for they reckon that the prince has no more right +to the stolen goods than the thief; but if that which was stolen is no +more in being, then the goods of the thieves are estimated, and +restitution being made out of them, the remainder is given to their wives +and children; and they themselves are condemned to serve in the public +works, but are neither imprisoned nor chained, unless there happens to be +some extraordinary circumstance in their crimes. They go about loose and +free, working for the public: if they are idle or backward to work they +are whipped, but if they work hard they are well used and treated without +any mark of reproach; only the lists of them are called always at night, +and then they are shut up. They suffer no other uneasiness but this of +constant labour; for, as they work for the public, so they are well +entertained out of the public stock, which is done differently in +different places: in some places whatever is bestowed on them is raised +by a charitable contribution; and, though this way may seem uncertain, +yet so merciful are the inclinations of that people, that they are +plentifully supplied by it; but in other places public revenues are set +aside for them, or there is a constant tax or poll-money raised for their +maintenance. In some places they are set to no public work, but every +private man that has occasion to hire workmen goes to the market-places +and hires them of the public, a little lower than he would do a freeman. +If they go lazily about their task he may quicken them with the whip. By +this means there is always some piece of work or other to be done by +them; and, besides their livelihood, they earn somewhat still to the +public. They all wear a peculiar habit, of one certain colour, and their +hair is cropped a little above their ears, and a piece of one of their +ears is cut off. Their friends are allowed to give them either meat, +drink, or clothes, so they are of their proper colour; but it is death, +both to the giver and taker, if they give them money; nor is it less +penal for any freeman to take money from them upon any account +whatsoever: and it is also death for any of these slaves (so they are +called) to handle arms. Those of every division of the country are +distinguished by a peculiar mark, which it is capital for them to lay +aside, to go out of their bounds, or to talk with a slave of another +jurisdiction, and the very attempt of an escape is no less penal than an +escape itself. It is death for any other slave to be accessory to it; +and if a freeman engages in it he is condemned to slavery. Those that +discover it are rewarded--if freemen, in money; and if slaves, with +liberty, together with a pardon for being accessory to it; that so they +might find their account rather in repenting of their engaging in such a +design than in persisting in it. + +"These are their laws and rules in relation to robbery, and it is obvious +that they are as advantageous as they are mild and gentle; since vice is +not only destroyed and men preserved, but they are treated in such a +manner as to make them see the necessity of being honest and of employing +the rest of their lives in repairing the injuries they had formerly done +to society. Nor is there any hazard of their falling back to their old +customs; and so little do travellers apprehend mischief from them that +they generally make use of them for guides from one jurisdiction to +another; for there is nothing left them by which they can rob or be the +better for it, since, as they are disarmed, so the very having of money +is a sufficient conviction: and as they are certainly punished if +discovered, so they cannot hope to escape; for their habit being in all +the parts of it different from what is commonly worn, they cannot fly +away, unless they would go naked, and even then their cropped ear would +betray them. The only danger to be feared from them is their conspiring +against the government; but those of one division and neighbourhood can +do nothing to any purpose unless a general conspiracy were laid amongst +all the slaves of the several jurisdictions, which cannot be done, since +they cannot meet or talk together; nor will any venture on a design where +the concealment would be so dangerous and the discovery so profitable. +None are quite hopeless of recovering their freedom, since by their +obedience and patience, and by giving good grounds to believe that they +will change their manner of life for the future, they may expect at last +to obtain their liberty, and some are every year restored to it upon the +good character that is given of them. When I had related all this, I +added that I did not see why such a method might not be followed with +more advantage than could ever be expected from that severe justice which +the Counsellor magnified so much. To this he answered, 'That it could +never take place in England without endangering the whole nation.' As he +said this he shook his head, made some grimaces, and held his peace, +while all the company seemed of his opinion, except the Cardinal, who +said, 'That it was not easy to form a judgment of its success, since it +was a method that never yet had been tried; but if,' said he, 'when +sentence of death were passed upon a thief, the prince would reprieve him +for a while, and make the experiment upon him, denying him the privilege +of a sanctuary; and then, if it had a good effect upon him, it might take +place; and, if it did not succeed, the worst would be to execute the +sentence on the condemned persons at last; and I do not see,' added he, +'why it would be either unjust, inconvenient, or at all dangerous to +admit of such a delay; in my opinion the vagabonds ought to be treated in +the same manner, against whom, though we have made many laws, yet we have +not been able to gain our end.' When the Cardinal had done, they all +commended the motion, though they had despised it when it came from me, +but more particularly commended what related to the vagabonds, because it +was his own observation. + +"I do not know whether it be worth while to tell what followed, for it +was very ridiculous; but I shall venture at it, for as it is not foreign +to this matter, so some good use may be made of it. There was a Jester +standing by, that counterfeited the fool so naturally that he seemed to +be really one; the jests which he offered were so cold and dull that we +laughed more at him than at them, yet sometimes he said, as it were by +chance, things that were not unpleasant, so as to justify the old +proverb, 'That he who throws the dice often, will sometimes have a lucky +hit.' When one of the company had said that I had taken care of the +thieves, and the Cardinal had taken care of the vagabonds, so that there +remained nothing but that some public provision might be made for the +poor whom sickness or old age had disabled from labour, 'Leave that to +me,' said the Fool, 'and I shall take care of them, for there is no sort +of people whose sight I abhor more, having been so often vexed with them +and with their sad complaints; but as dolefully soever as they have told +their tale, they could never prevail so far as to draw one penny from me; +for either I had no mind to give them anything, or, when I had a mind to +do it, I had nothing to give them; and they now know me so well that they +will not lose their labour, but let me pass without giving me any +trouble, because they hope for nothing--no more, in faith, than if I were +a priest; but I would have a law made for sending all these beggars to +monasteries, the men to the Benedictines, to be made lay-brothers, and +the women to be nuns.' The Cardinal smiled, and approved of it in jest, +but the rest liked it in earnest. There was a divine present, who, +though he was a grave morose man, yet he was so pleased with this +reflection that was made on the priests and the monks that he began to +play with the Fool, and said to him, 'This will not deliver you from all +beggars, except you take care of us Friars.' 'That is done already,' +answered the Fool, 'for the Cardinal has provided for you by what he +proposed for restraining vagabonds and setting them to work, for I know +no vagabonds like you.' This was well entertained by the whole company, +who, looking at the Cardinal, perceived that he was not ill-pleased at +it; only the Friar himself was vexed, as may be easily imagined, and fell +into such a passion that he could not forbear railing at the Fool, and +calling him knave, slanderer, backbiter, and son of perdition, and then +cited some dreadful threatenings out of the Scriptures against him. Now +the Jester thought he was in his element, and laid about him freely. +'Good Friar,' said he, 'be not angry, for it is written, "In patience +possess your soul."' The Friar answered (for I shall give you his own +words), 'I am not angry, you hangman; at least, I do not sin in it, for +the Psalmist says, "Be ye angry and sin not."' Upon this the Cardinal +admonished him gently, and wished him to govern his passions. 'No, my +lord,' said he, 'I speak not but from a good zeal, which I ought to have, +for holy men have had a good zeal, as it is said, "The zeal of thy house +hath eaten me up;" and we sing in our church that those who mocked Elisha +as he went up to the house of God felt the effects of his zeal, which +that mocker, that rogue, that scoundrel, will perhaps feel.' 'You do +this, perhaps, with a good intention,' said the Cardinal, 'but, in my +opinion, it were wiser in you, and perhaps better for you, not to engage +in so ridiculous a contest with a Fool.' 'No, my lord,' answered he, +'that were not wisely done, for Solomon, the wisest of men, said, "Answer +a Fool according to his folly," which I now do, and show him the ditch +into which he will fall, if he is not aware of it; for if the many +mockers of Elisha, who was but one bald man, felt the effect of his zeal, +what will become of the mocker of so many Friars, among whom there are so +many bald men? We have, likewise, a bull, by which all that jeer us are +excommunicated.' When the Cardinal saw that there was no end of this +matter he made a sign to the Fool to withdraw, turned the discourse +another way, and soon after rose from the table, and, dismissing us, went +to hear causes. + +"Thus, Mr. More, I have run out into a tedious story, of the length of +which I had been ashamed, if (as you earnestly begged it of me) I had not +observed you to hearken to it as if you had no mind to lose any part of +it. I might have contracted it, but I resolved to give it you at large, +that you might observe how those that despised what I had proposed, no +sooner perceived that the Cardinal did not dislike it but presently +approved of it, fawned so on him and flattered him to such a degree, that +they in good earnest applauded those things that he only liked in jest; +and from hence you may gather how little courtiers would value either me +or my counsels." + +To this I answered, "You have done me a great kindness in this relation; +for as everything has been related by you both wisely and pleasantly, so +you have made me imagine that I was in my own country and grown young +again, by recalling that good Cardinal to my thoughts, in whose family I +was bred from my childhood; and though you are, upon other accounts, very +dear to me, yet you are the dearer because you honour his memory so much; +but, after all this, I cannot change my opinion, for I still think that +if you could overcome that aversion which you have to the courts of +princes, you might, by the advice which it is in your power to give, do a +great deal of good to mankind, and this is the chief design that every +good man ought to propose to himself in living; for your friend Plato +thinks that nations will be happy when either philosophers become kings +or kings become philosophers. It is no wonder if we are so far from that +happiness while philosophers will not think it their duty to assist kings +with their counsels." "They are not so base-minded," said he, "but that +they would willingly do it; many of them have already done it by their +books, if those that are in power would but hearken to their good advice. +But Plato judged right, that except kings themselves became philosophers, +they who from their childhood are corrupted with false notions would +never fall in entirely with the counsels of philosophers, and this he +himself found to be true in the person of Dionysius. + +"Do not you think that if I were about any king, proposing good laws to +him, and endeavouring to root out all the cursed seeds of evil that I +found in him, I should either be turned out of his court, or, at least, +be laughed at for my pains? For instance, what could I signify if I were +about the King of France, and were called into his cabinet council, where +several wise men, in his hearing, were proposing many expedients; as, by +what arts and practices Milan may be kept, and Naples, that has so often +slipped out of their hands, recovered; how the Venetians, and after them +the rest of Italy, may be subdued; and then how Flanders, Brabant, and +all Burgundy, and some other kingdoms which he has swallowed already in +his designs, may be added to his empire? One proposes a league with the +Venetians, to be kept as long as he finds his account in it, and that he +ought to communicate counsels with them, and give them some share of the +spoil till his success makes him need or fear them less, and then it will +be easily taken out of their hands; another proposes the hiring the +Germans and the securing the Switzers by pensions; another proposes the +gaining the Emperor by money, which is omnipotent with him; another +proposes a peace with the King of Arragon, and, in order to cement it, +the yielding up the King of Navarre's pretensions; another thinks that +the Prince of Castile is to be wrought on by the hope of an alliance, and +that some of his courtiers are to be gained to the French faction by +pensions. The hardest point of all is, what to do with England; a treaty +of peace is to be set on foot, and, if their alliance is not to be +depended on, yet it is to be made as firm as possible, and they are to be +called friends, but suspected as enemies: therefore the Scots are to be +kept in readiness to be let loose upon England on every occasion; and +some banished nobleman is to be supported underhand (for by the League it +cannot be done avowedly) who has a pretension to the crown, by which +means that suspected prince may be kept in awe. Now when things are in +so great a fermentation, and so many gallant men are joining counsels how +to carry on the war, if so mean a man as I should stand up and wish them +to change all their counsels--to let Italy alone and stay at home, since +the kingdom of France was indeed greater than could be well governed by +one man; that therefore he ought not to think of adding others to it; and +if, after this, I should propose to them the resolutions of the +Achorians, a people that lie on the south-east of Utopia, who long ago +engaged in war in order to add to the dominions of their prince another +kingdom, to which he had some pretensions by an ancient alliance: this +they conquered, but found that the trouble of keeping it was equal to +that by which it was gained; that the conquered people were always either +in rebellion or exposed to foreign invasions, while they were obliged to +be incessantly at war, either for or against them, and consequently could +never disband their army; that in the meantime they were oppressed with +taxes, their money went out of the kingdom, their blood was spilt for the +glory of their king without procuring the least advantage to the people, +who received not the smallest benefit from it even in time of peace; and +that, their manners being corrupted by a long war, robbery and murders +everywhere abounded, and their laws fell into contempt; while their king, +distracted with the care of two kingdoms, was the less able to apply his +mind to the interest of either. When they saw this, and that there would +be no end to these evils, they by joint counsels made an humble address +to their king, desiring him to choose which of the two kingdoms he had +the greatest mind to keep, since he could not hold both; for they were +too great a people to be governed by a divided king, since no man would +willingly have a groom that should be in common between him and another. +Upon which the good prince was forced to quit his new kingdom to one of +his friends (who was not long after dethroned), and to be contented with +his old one. To this I would add that after all those warlike attempts, +the vast confusions, and the consumption both of treasure and of people +that must follow them, perhaps upon some misfortune they might be forced +to throw up all at last; therefore it seemed much more eligible that the +king should improve his ancient kingdom all he could, and make it +flourish as much as possible; that he should love his people, and be +beloved of them; that he should live among them, govern them gently and +let other kingdoms alone, since that which had fallen to his share was +big enough, if not too big, for him:--pray, how do you think would such a +speech as this be heard?" + +"I confess," said I, "I think not very well." + +"But what," said he, "if I should sort with another kind of ministers, +whose chief contrivances and consultations were by what art the prince's +treasures might be increased? where one proposes raising the value of +specie when the king's debts are large, and lowering it when his revenues +were to come in, that so he might both pay much with a little, and in a +little receive a great deal. Another proposes a pretence of a war, that +money might be raised in order to carry it on, and that a peace be +concluded as soon as that was done; and this with such appearances of +religion as might work on the people, and make them impute it to the +piety of their prince, and to his tenderness for the lives of his +subjects. A third offers some old musty laws that have been antiquated +by a long disuse (and which, as they had been forgotten by all the +subjects, so they had also been broken by them), and proposes the levying +the penalties of these laws, that, as it would bring in a vast treasure, +so there might be a very good pretence for it, since it would look like +the executing a law and the doing of justice. A fourth proposes the +prohibiting of many things under severe penalties, especially such as +were against the interest of the people, and then the dispensing with +these prohibitions, upon great compositions, to those who might find +their advantage in breaking them. This would serve two ends, both of +them acceptable to many; for as those whose avarice led them to +transgress would be severely fined, so the selling licences dear would +look as if a prince were tender of his people, and would not easily, or +at low rates, dispense with anything that might be against the public +good. Another proposes that the judges must be made sure, that they may +declare always in favour of the prerogative; that they must be often sent +for to court, that the king may hear them argue those points in which he +is concerned; since, how unjust soever any of his pretensions may be, yet +still some one or other of them, either out of contradiction to others, +or the pride of singularity, or to make their court, would find out some +pretence or other to give the king a fair colour to carry the point. For +if the judges but differ in opinion, the clearest thing in the world is +made by that means disputable, and truth being once brought in question, +the king may then take advantage to expound the law for his own profit; +while the judges that stand out will be brought over, either through fear +or modesty; and they being thus gained, all of them may be sent to the +Bench to give sentence boldly as the king would have it; for fair +pretences will never be wanting when sentence is to be given in the +prince's favour. It will either be said that equity lies of his side, or +some words in the law will be found sounding that way, or some forced +sense will be put on them; and, when all other things fail, the king's +undoubted prerogative will be pretended, as that which is above all law, +and to which a religious judge ought to have a special regard. Thus all +consent to that maxim of Crassus, that a prince cannot have treasure +enough, since he must maintain his armies out of it; that a king, even +though he would, can do nothing unjustly; that all property is in him, +not excepting the very persons of his subjects; and that no man has any +other property but that which the king, out of his goodness, thinks fit +to leave him. And they think it is the prince's interest that there be +as little of this left as may be, as if it were his advantage that his +people should have neither riches nor liberty, since these things make +them less easy and willing to submit to a cruel and unjust government. +Whereas necessity and poverty blunts them, makes them patient, beats them +down, and breaks that height of spirit that might otherwise dispose them +to rebel. Now what if, after all these propositions were made, I should +rise up and assert that such counsels were both unbecoming a king and +mischievous to him; and that not only his honour, but his safety, +consisted more in his people's wealth than in his own; if I should show +that they choose a king for their own sake, and not for his; that, by his +care and endeavours, they may be both easy and safe; and that, therefore, +a prince ought to take more care of his people's happiness than of his +own, as a shepherd is to take more care of his flock than of himself? It +is also certain that they are much mistaken that think the poverty of a +nation is a mean of the public safety. Who quarrel more than beggars? +who does more earnestly long for a change than he that is uneasy in his +present circumstances? and who run to create confusions with so desperate +a boldness as those who, having nothing to lose, hope to gain by them? If +a king should fall under such contempt or envy that he could not keep his +subjects in their duty but by oppression and ill usage, and by rendering +them poor and miserable, it were certainly better for him to quit his +kingdom than to retain it by such methods as make him, while he keeps the +name of authority, lose the majesty due to it. Nor is it so becoming the +dignity of a king to reign over beggars as over rich and happy subjects. +And therefore Fabricius, a man of a noble and exalted temper, said 'he +would rather govern rich men than be rich himself; since for one man to +abound in wealth and pleasure when all about him are mourning and +groaning, is to be a gaoler and not a king.' He is an unskilful +physician that cannot cure one disease without casting his patient into +another. So he that can find no other way for correcting the errors of +his people but by taking from them the conveniences of life, shows that +he knows not what it is to govern a free nation. He himself ought rather +to shake off his sloth, or to lay down his pride, for the contempt or +hatred that his people have for him takes its rise from the vices in +himself. Let him live upon what belongs to him without wronging others, +and accommodate his expense to his revenue. Let him punish crimes, and, +by his wise conduct, let him endeavour to prevent them, rather than be +severe when he has suffered them to be too common. Let him not rashly +revive laws that are abrogated by disuse, especially if they have been +long forgotten and never wanted. And let him never take any penalty for +the breach of them to which a judge would not give way in a private man, +but would look on him as a crafty and unjust person for pretending to it. +To these things I would add that law among the Macarians--a people that +live not far from Utopia--by which their king, on the day on which he +began to reign, is tied by an oath, confirmed by solemn sacrifices, never +to have at once above a thousand pounds of gold in his treasures, or so +much silver as is equal to that in value. This law, they tell us, was +made by an excellent king who had more regard to the riches of his +country than to his own wealth, and therefore provided against the +heaping up of so much treasure as might impoverish the people. He +thought that moderate sum might be sufficient for any accident, if either +the king had occasion for it against the rebels, or the kingdom against +the invasion of an enemy; but that it was not enough to encourage a +prince to invade other men's rights--a circumstance that was the chief +cause of his making that law. He also thought that it was a good +provision for that free circulation of money so necessary for the course +of commerce and exchange. And when a king must distribute all those +extraordinary accessions that increase treasure beyond the due pitch, it +makes him less disposed to oppress his subjects. Such a king as this +will be the terror of ill men, and will be beloved by all the good. + +"If, I say, I should talk of these or such-like things to men that had +taken their bias another way, how deaf would they be to all I could say!" +"No doubt, very deaf," answered I; "and no wonder, for one is never to +offer propositions or advice that we are certain will not be entertained. +Discourses so much out of the road could not avail anything, nor have any +effect on men whose minds were prepossessed with different sentiments. +This philosophical way of speculation is not unpleasant among friends in +a free conversation; but there is no room for it in the courts of +princes, where great affairs are carried on by authority." "That is what +I was saying," replied he, "that there is no room for philosophy in the +courts of princes." "Yes, there is," said I, "but not for this +speculative philosophy, that makes everything to be alike fitting at all +times; but there is another philosophy that is more pliable, that knows +its proper scene, accommodates itself to it, and teaches a man with +propriety and decency to act that part which has fallen to his share. If +when one of Plautus' comedies is upon the stage, and a company of +servants are acting their parts, you should come out in the garb of a +philosopher, and repeat, out of _Octavia_, a discourse of Seneca's to +Nero, would it not be better for you to say nothing than by mixing things +of such different natures to make an impertinent tragi-comedy? for you +spoil and corrupt the play that is in hand when you mix with it things of +an opposite nature, even though they are much better. Therefore go +through with the play that is acting the best you can, and do not +confound it because another that is pleasanter comes into your thoughts. +It is even so in a commonwealth and in the councils of princes; if ill +opinions cannot be quite rooted out, and you cannot cure some received +vice according to your wishes, you must not, therefore, abandon the +commonwealth, for the same reasons as you should not forsake the ship in +a storm because you cannot command the winds. You are not obliged to +assault people with discourses that are out of their road, when you see +that their received notions must prevent your making an impression upon +them: you ought rather to cast about and to manage things with all the +dexterity in your power, so that, if you are not able to make them go +well, they may be as little ill as possible; for, except all men were +good, everything cannot be right, and that is a blessing that I do not at +present hope to see." "According to your argument," answered he, "all +that I could be able to do would be to preserve myself from being mad +while I endeavoured to cure the madness of others; for, if I speak with, +I must repeat what I have said to you; and as for lying, whether a +philosopher can do it or not I cannot tell: I am sure I cannot do it. But +though these discourses may be uneasy and ungrateful to them, I do not +see why they should seem foolish or extravagant; indeed, if I should +either propose such things as Plato has contrived in his 'Commonwealth,' +or as the Utopians practise in theirs, though they might seem better, as +certainly they are, yet they are so different from our establishment, +which is founded on property (there being no such thing among them), that +I could not expect that it would have any effect on them. But such +discourses as mine, which only call past evils to mind and give warning +of what may follow, leave nothing in them that is so absurd that they may +not be used at any time, for they can only be unpleasant to those who are +resolved to run headlong the contrary way; and if we must let alone +everything as absurd or extravagant--which, by reason of the wicked lives +of many, may seem uncouth--we must, even among Christians, give over +pressing the greatest part of those things that Christ hath taught us, +though He has commanded us not to conceal them, but to proclaim on the +housetops that which He taught in secret. The greatest parts of His +precepts are more opposite to the lives of the men of this age than any +part of my discourse has been, but the preachers seem to have learned +that craft to which you advise me: for they, observing that the world +would not willingly suit their lives to the rules that Christ has given, +have fitted His doctrine, as if it had been a leaden rule, to their +lives, that so, some way or other, they might agree with one another. But +I see no other effect of this compliance except it be that men become +more secure in their wickedness by it; and this is all the success that I +can have in a court, for I must always differ from the rest, and then I +shall signify nothing; or, if I agree with them, I shall then only help +forward their madness. I do not comprehend what you mean by your +'casting about,' or by 'the bending and handling things so dexterously +that, if they go not well, they may go as little ill as may be;' for in +courts they will not bear with a man's holding his peace or conniving at +what others do: a man must barefacedly approve of the worst counsels and +consent to the blackest designs, so that he would pass for a spy, or, +possibly, for a traitor, that did but coldly approve of such wicked +practices; and therefore when a man is engaged in such a society, he will +be so far from being able to mend matters by his 'casting about,' as you +call it, that he will find no occasions of doing any good--the ill +company will sooner corrupt him than be the better for him; or if, +notwithstanding all their ill company, he still remains steady and +innocent, yet their follies and knavery will be imputed to him; and, by +mixing counsels with them, he must bear his share of all the blame that +belongs wholly to others. + +"It was no ill simile by which Plato set forth the unreasonableness of a +philosopher's meddling with government. 'If a man,' says he, 'were to +see a great company run out every day into the rain and take delight in +being wet--if he knew that it would be to no purpose for him to go and +persuade them to return to their houses in order to avoid the storm, and +that all that could be expected by his going to speak to them would be +that he himself should be as wet as they, it would be best for him to +keep within doors, and, since he had not influence enough to correct +other people's folly, to take care to preserve himself.' + +"Though, to speak plainly my real sentiments, I must freely own that as +long as there is any property, and while money is the standard of all +other things, I cannot think that a nation can be governed either justly +or happily: not justly, because the best things will fall to the share of +the worst men; nor happily, because all things will be divided among a +few (and even these are not in all respects happy), the rest being left +to be absolutely miserable. Therefore, when I reflect on the wise and +good constitution of the Utopians, among whom all things are so well +governed and with so few laws, where virtue hath its due reward, and yet +there is such an equality that every man lives in plenty--when I compare +with them so many other nations that are still making new laws, and yet +can never bring their constitution to a right regulation; where, +notwithstanding every one has his property, yet all the laws that they +can invent have not the power either to obtain or preserve it, or even to +enable men certainly to distinguish what is their own from what is +another's, of which the many lawsuits that every day break out, and are +eternally depending, give too plain a demonstration--when, I say, I +balance all these things in my thoughts, I grow more favourable to Plato, +and do not wonder that he resolved not to make any laws for such as would +not submit to a community of all things; for so wise a man could not but +foresee that the setting all upon a level was the only way to make a +nation happy; which cannot be obtained so long as there is property, for +when every man draws to himself all that he can compass, by one title or +another, it must needs follow that, how plentiful soever a nation may be, +yet a few dividing the wealth of it among themselves, the rest must fall +into indigence. So that there will be two sorts of people among them, +who deserve that their fortunes should be interchanged--the former +useless, but wicked and ravenous; and the latter, who by their constant +industry serve the public more than themselves, sincere and modest +men--from whence I am persuaded that till property is taken away, there +can be no equitable or just distribution of things, nor can the world be +happily governed; for as long as that is maintained, the greatest and the +far best part of mankind, will be still oppressed with a load of cares +and anxieties. I confess, without taking it quite away, those pressures +that lie on a great part of mankind may be made lighter, but they can +never be quite removed; for if laws were made to determine at how great +an extent in soil, and at how much money, every man must stop--to limit +the prince, that he might not grow too great; and to restrain the people, +that they might not become too insolent--and that none might factiously +aspire to public employments, which ought neither to be sold nor made +burdensome by a great expense, since otherwise those that serve in them +would be tempted to reimburse themselves by cheats and violence, and it +would become necessary to find out rich men for undergoing those +employments, which ought rather to be trusted to the wise. These laws, I +say, might have such effect as good diet and care might have on a sick +man whose recovery is desperate; they might allay and mitigate the +disease, but it could never be quite healed, nor the body politic be +brought again to a good habit as long as property remains; and it will +fall out, as in a complication of diseases, that by applying a remedy to +one sore you will provoke another, and that which removes the one ill +symptom produces others, while the strengthening one part of the body +weakens the rest." "On the contrary," answered I, "it seems to me that +men cannot live conveniently where all things are common. How can there +be any plenty where every man will excuse himself from labour? for as the +hope of gain doth not excite him, so the confidence that he has in other +men's industry may make him slothful. If people come to be pinched with +want, and yet cannot dispose of anything as their own, what can follow +upon this but perpetual sedition and bloodshed, especially when the +reverence and authority due to magistrates falls to the ground? for I +cannot imagine how that can be kept up among those that are in all things +equal to one another." "I do not wonder," said he, "that it appears so +to you, since you have no notion, or at least no right one, of such a +constitution; but if you had been in Utopia with me, and had seen their +laws and rules, as I did, for the space of five years, in which I lived +among them, and during which time I was so delighted with them that +indeed I should never have left them if it had not been to make the +discovery of that new world to the Europeans, you would then confess that +you had never seen a people so well constituted as they." "You will not +easily persuade me," said Peter, "that any nation in that new world is +better governed than those among us; for as our understandings are not +worse than theirs, so our government (if I mistake not) being more +ancient, a long practice has helped us to find out many conveniences of +life, and some happy chances have discovered other things to us which no +man's understanding could ever have invented." "As for the antiquity +either of their government or of ours," said he, "you cannot pass a true +judgment of it unless you had read their histories; for, if they are to +be believed, they had towns among them before these parts were so much as +inhabited; and as for those discoveries that have been either hit on by +chance or made by ingenious men, these might have happened there as well +as here. I do not deny but we are more ingenious than they are, but they +exceed us much in industry and application. They knew little concerning +us before our arrival among them. They call us all by a general name of +'The nations that lie beyond the equinoctial line;' for their chronicle +mentions a shipwreck that was made on their coast twelve hundred years +ago, and that some Romans and Egyptians that were in the ship, getting +safe ashore, spent the rest of their days amongst them; and such was +their ingenuity that from this single opportunity they drew the advantage +of learning from those unlooked-for guests, and acquired all the useful +arts that were then among the Romans, and which were known to these +shipwrecked men; and by the hints that they gave them they themselves +found out even some of those arts which they could not fully explain, so +happily did they improve that accident of having some of our people cast +upon their shore. But if such an accident has at any time brought any +from thence into Europe, we have been so far from improving it that we do +not so much as remember it, as, in aftertimes perhaps, it will be forgot +by our people that I was ever there; for though they, from one such +accident, made themselves masters of all the good inventions that were +among us, yet I believe it would be long before we should learn or put in +practice any of the good institutions that are among them. And this is +the true cause of their being better governed and living happier than we, +though we come not short of them in point of understanding or outward +advantages." Upon this I said to him, "I earnestly beg you would +describe that island very particularly to us; be not too short, but set +out in order all things relating to their soil, their rivers, their +towns, their people, their manners, constitution, laws, and, in a word, +all that you imagine we desire to know; and you may well imagine that we +desire to know everything concerning them of which we are hitherto +ignorant." "I will do it very willingly," said he, "for I have digested +the whole matter carefully, but it will take up some time." "Let us go, +then," said I, "first and dine, and then we shall have leisure enough." +He consented; we went in and dined, and after dinner came back and sat +down in the same place. I ordered my servants to take care that none +might come and interrupt us, and both Peter and I desired Raphael to be +as good as his word. When he saw that we were very intent upon it he +paused a little to recollect himself, and began in this manner:-- + +"The island of Utopia is in the middle two hundred miles broad, and holds +almost at the same breadth over a great part of it, but it grows narrower +towards both ends. Its figure is not unlike a crescent. Between its +horns the sea comes in eleven miles broad, and spreads itself into a +great bay, which is environed with land to the compass of about five +hundred miles, and is well secured from winds. In this bay there is no +great current; the whole coast is, as it were, one continued harbour, +which gives all that live in the island great convenience for mutual +commerce. But the entry into the bay, occasioned by rocks on the one +hand and shallows on the other, is very dangerous. In the middle of it +there is one single rock which appears above water, and may, therefore, +easily be avoided; and on the top of it there is a tower, in which a +garrison is kept; the other rocks lie under water, and are very +dangerous. The channel is known only to the natives; so that if any +stranger should enter into the bay without one of their pilots he would +run great danger of shipwreck. For even they themselves could not pass +it safe if some marks that are on the coast did not direct their way; and +if these should be but a little shifted, any fleet that might come +against them, how great soever it were, would be certainly lost. On the +other side of the island there are likewise many harbours; and the coast +is so fortified, both by nature and art, that a small number of men can +hinder the descent of a great army. But they report (and there remains +good marks of it to make it credible) that this was no island at first, +but a part of the continent. Utopus, that conquered it (whose name it +still carries, for Abraxa was its first name), brought the rude and +uncivilised inhabitants into such a good government, and to that measure +of politeness, that they now far excel all the rest of mankind. Having +soon subdued them, he designed to separate them from the continent, and +to bring the sea quite round them. To accomplish this he ordered a deep +channel to be dug, fifteen miles long; and that the natives might not +think he treated them like slaves, he not only forced the inhabitants, +but also his own soldiers, to labour in carrying it on. As he set a vast +number of men to work, he, beyond all men's expectations, brought it to a +speedy conclusion. And his neighbours, who at first laughed at the folly +of the undertaking, no sooner saw it brought to perfection than they were +struck with admiration and terror. + +"There are fifty-four cities in the island, all large and well built, the +manners, customs, and laws of which are the same, and they are all +contrived as near in the same manner as the ground on which they stand +will allow. The nearest lie at least twenty-four miles' distance from +one another, and the most remote are not so far distant but that a man +can go on foot in one day from it to that which lies next it. Every city +sends three of their wisest senators once a year to Amaurot, to consult +about their common concerns; for that is the chief town of the island, +being situated near the centre of it, so that it is the most convenient +place for their assemblies. The jurisdiction of every city extends at +least twenty miles, and, where the towns lie wider, they have much more +ground. No town desires to enlarge its bounds, for the people consider +themselves rather as tenants than landlords. They have built, over all +the country, farmhouses for husbandmen, which are well contrived, and +furnished with all things necessary for country labour. Inhabitants are +sent, by turns, from the cities to dwell in them; no country family has +fewer than forty men and women in it, besides two slaves. There is a +master and a mistress set over every family, and over thirty families +there is a magistrate. Every year twenty of this family come back to the +town after they have stayed two years in the country, and in their room +there are other twenty sent from the town, that they may learn country +work from those that have been already one year in the country, as they +must teach those that come to them the next from the town. By this means +such as dwell in those country farms are never ignorant of agriculture, +and so commit no errors which might otherwise be fatal and bring them +under a scarcity of corn. But though there is every year such a shifting +of the husbandmen to prevent any man being forced against his will to +follow that hard course of life too long, yet many among them take such +pleasure in it that they desire leave to continue in it many years. These +husbandmen till the ground, breed cattle, hew wood, and convey it to the +towns either by land or water, as is most convenient. They breed an +infinite multitude of chickens in a very curious manner; for the hens do +not sit and hatch them, but a vast number of eggs are laid in a gentle +and equal heat in order to be hatched, and they are no sooner out of the +shell, and able to stir about, but they seem to consider those that feed +them as their mothers, and follow them as other chickens do the hen that +hatched them. They breed very few horses, but those they have are full +of mettle, and are kept only for exercising their youth in the art of +sitting and riding them; for they do not put them to any work, either of +ploughing or carriage, in which they employ oxen. For though their +horses are stronger, yet they find oxen can hold out longer; and as they +are not subject to so many diseases, so they are kept upon a less charge +and with less trouble. And even when they are so worn out that they are +no more fit for labour, they are good meat at last. They sow no corn but +that which is to be their bread; for they drink either wine, cider or +perry, and often water, sometimes boiled with honey or liquorice, with +which they abound; and though they know exactly how much corn will serve +every town and all that tract of country which belongs to it, yet they +sow much more and breed more cattle than are necessary for their +consumption, and they give that overplus of which they make no use to +their neighbours. When they want anything in the country which it does +not produce, they fetch that from the town, without carrying anything in +exchange for it. And the magistrates of the town take care to see it +given them; for they meet generally in the town once a month, upon a +festival day. When the time of harvest comes, the magistrates in the +country send to those in the towns and let them know how many hands they +will need for reaping the harvest; and the number they call for being +sent to them, they commonly despatch it all in one day. + + + +OF THEIR TOWNS, PARTICULARLY OF AMAUROT + + +"He that knows one of their towns knows them all--they are so like one +another, except where the situation makes some difference. I shall +therefore describe one of them, and none is so proper as Amaurot; for as +none is more eminent (all the rest yielding in precedence to this, +because it is the seat of their supreme council), so there was none of +them better known to me, I having lived five years all together in it. + +"It lies upon the side of a hill, or, rather, a rising ground. Its +figure is almost square, for from the one side of it, which shoots up +almost to the top of the hill, it runs down, in a descent for two miles, +to the river Anider; but it is a little broader the other way that runs +along by the bank of that river. The Anider rises about eighty miles +above Amaurot, in a small spring at first. But other brooks falling into +it, of which two are more considerable than the rest, as it runs by +Amaurot it is grown half a mile broad; but, it still grows larger and +larger, till, after sixty miles' course below it, it is lost in the +ocean. Between the town and the sea, and for some miles above the town, +it ebbs and flows every six hours with a strong current. The tide comes +up about thirty miles so full that there is nothing but salt water in the +river, the fresh water being driven back with its force; and above that, +for some miles, the water is brackish; but a little higher, as it runs by +the town, it is quite fresh; and when the tide ebbs, it continues fresh +all along to the sea. There is a bridge cast over the river, not of +timber, but of fair stone, consisting of many stately arches; it lies at +that part of the town which is farthest from the sea, so that the ships, +without any hindrance, lie all along the side of the town. There is, +likewise, another river that runs by it, which, though it is not great, +yet it runs pleasantly, for it rises out of the same hill on which the +town stands, and so runs down through it and falls into the Anider. The +inhabitants have fortified the fountain-head of this river, which springs +a little without the towns; that so, if they should happen to be +besieged, the enemy might not be able to stop or divert the course of the +water, nor poison it; from thence it is carried, in earthen pipes, to the +lower streets. And for those places of the town to which the water of +that small river cannot be conveyed, they have great cisterns for +receiving the rain-water, which supplies the want of the other. The town +is compassed with a high and thick wall, in which there are many towers +and forts; there is also a broad and deep dry ditch, set thick with +thorns, cast round three sides of the town, and the river is instead of a +ditch on the fourth side. The streets are very convenient for all +carriage, and are well sheltered from the winds. Their buildings are +good, and are so uniform that a whole side of a street looks like one +house. The streets are twenty feet broad; there lie gardens behind all +their houses. These are large, but enclosed with buildings, that on all +hands face the streets, so that every house has both a door to the street +and a back door to the garden. Their doors have all two leaves, which, +as they are easily opened, so they shut of their own accord; and, there +being no property among them, every man may freely enter into any house +whatsoever. At every ten years' end they shift their houses by lots. +They cultivate their gardens with great care, so that they have both +vines, fruits, herbs, and flowers in them; and all is so well ordered and +so finely kept that I never saw gardens anywhere that were both so +fruitful and so beautiful as theirs. And this humour of ordering their +gardens so well is not only kept up by the pleasure they find in it, but +also by an emulation between the inhabitants of the several streets, who +vie with each other. And there is, indeed, nothing belonging to the +whole town that is both more useful and more pleasant. So that he who +founded the town seems to have taken care of nothing more than of their +gardens; for they say the whole scheme of the town was designed at first +by Utopus, but he left all that belonged to the ornament and improvement +of it to be added by those that should come after him, that being too +much for one man to bring to perfection. Their records, that contain the +history of their town and State, are preserved with an exact care, and +run backwards seventeen hundred and sixty years. From these it appears +that their houses were at first low and mean, like cottages, made of any +sort of timber, and were built with mud walls and thatched with straw. +But now their houses are three storeys high, the fronts of them are faced +either with stone, plastering, or brick, and between the facings of their +walls they throw in their rubbish. Their roofs are flat, and on them +they lay a sort of plaster, which costs very little, and yet is so +tempered that it is not apt to take fire, and yet resists the weather +more than lead. They have great quantities of glass among them, with +which they glaze their windows; they use also in their windows a thin +linen cloth, that is so oiled or gummed that it both keeps out the wind +and gives free admission to the light. + + + +OF THEIR MAGISTRATES + + +"Thirty families choose every year a magistrate, who was anciently called +the Syphogrant, but is now called the Philarch; and over every ten +Syphogrants, with the families subject to them, there is another +magistrate, who was anciently called the Tranibore, but of late the +Archphilarch. All the Syphogrants, who are in number two hundred, choose +the Prince out of a list of four who are named by the people of the four +divisions of the city; but they take an oath, before they proceed to an +election, that they will choose him whom they think most fit for the +office: they give him their voices secretly, so that it is not known for +whom every one gives his suffrage. The Prince is for life, unless he is +removed upon suspicion of some design to enslave the people. The +Tranibors are new chosen every year, but yet they are, for the most part, +continued; all their other magistrates are only annual. The Tranibors +meet every third day, and oftener if necessary, and consult with the +Prince either concerning the affairs of the State in general, or such +private differences as may arise sometimes among the people, though that +falls out but seldom. There are always two Syphogrants called into the +council chamber, and these are changed every day. It is a fundamental +rule of their government, that no conclusion can be made in anything that +relates to the public till it has been first debated three several days +in their council. It is death for any to meet and consult concerning the +State, unless it be either in their ordinary council, or in the assembly +of the whole body of the people. + +"These things have been so provided among them that the Prince and the +Tranibors may not conspire together to change the government and enslave +the people; and therefore when anything of great importance is set on +foot, it is sent to the Syphogrants, who, after they have communicated it +to the families that belong to their divisions, and have considered it +among themselves, make report to the senate; and, upon great occasions, +the matter is referred to the council of the whole island. One rule +observed in their council is, never to debate a thing on the same day in +which it is first proposed; for that is always referred to the next +meeting, that so men may not rashly and in the heat of discourse engage +themselves too soon, which might bias them so much that, instead of +consulting the good of the public, they might rather study to support +their first opinions, and by a perverse and preposterous sort of shame +hazard their country rather than endanger their own reputation, or +venture the being suspected to have wanted foresight in the expedients +that they at first proposed; and therefore, to prevent this, they take +care that they may rather be deliberate than sudden in their motions. + + + +OF THEIR TRADES, AND MANNER OF LIFE + + +"Agriculture is that which is so universally understood among them that +no person, either man or woman, is ignorant of it; they are instructed in +it from their childhood, partly by what they learn at school, and partly +by practice, they being led out often into the fields about the town, +where they not only see others at work but are likewise exercised in it +themselves. Besides agriculture, which is so common to them all, every +man has some peculiar trade to which he applies himself; such as the +manufacture of wool or flax, masonry, smith's work, or carpenter's work; +for there is no sort of trade that is in great esteem among them. +Throughout the island they wear the same sort of clothes, without any +other distinction except what is necessary to distinguish the two sexes +and the married and unmarried. The fashion never alters, and as it is +neither disagreeable nor uneasy, so it is suited to the climate, and +calculated both for their summers and winters. Every family makes their +own clothes; but all among them, women as well as men, learn one or other +of the trades formerly mentioned. Women, for the most part, deal in wool +and flax, which suit best with their weakness, leaving the ruder trades +to the men. The same trade generally passes down from father to son, +inclinations often following descent: but if any man's genius lies +another way he is, by adoption, translated into a family that deals in +the trade to which he is inclined; and when that is to be done, care is +taken, not only by his father, but by the magistrate, that he may be put +to a discreet and good man: and if, after a person has learned one trade, +he desires to acquire another, that is also allowed, and is managed in +the same manner as the former. When he has learned both, he follows that +which he likes best, unless the public has more occasion for the other. + +The chief, and almost the only, business of the Syphogrants is to take +care that no man may live idle, but that every one may follow his trade +diligently; yet they do not wear themselves out with perpetual toil from +morning to night, as if they were beasts of burden, which as it is indeed +a heavy slavery, so it is everywhere the common course of life amongst +all mechanics except the Utopians: but they, dividing the day and night +into twenty-four hours, appoint six of these for work, three of which are +before dinner and three after; they then sup, and at eight o'clock, +counting from noon, go to bed and sleep eight hours: the rest of their +time, besides that taken up in work, eating, and sleeping, is left to +every man's discretion; yet they are not to abuse that interval to luxury +and idleness, but must employ it in some proper exercise, according to +their various inclinations, which is, for the most part, reading. It is +ordinary to have public lectures every morning before daybreak, at which +none are obliged to appear but those who are marked out for literature; +yet a great many, both men and women, of all ranks, go to hear lectures +of one sort or other, according to their inclinations: but if others that +are not made for contemplation, choose rather to employ themselves at +that time in their trades, as many of them do, they are not hindered, but +are rather commended, as men that take care to serve their country. After +supper they spend an hour in some diversion, in summer in their gardens, +and in winter in the halls where they eat, where they entertain each +other either with music or discourse. They do not so much as know dice, +or any such foolish and mischievous games. They have, however, two sorts +of games not unlike our chess; the one is between several numbers, in +which one number, as it were, consumes another; the other resembles a +battle between the virtues and the vices, in which the enmity in the +vices among themselves, and their agreement against virtue, is not +unpleasantly represented; together with the special opposition between +the particular virtues and vices; as also the methods by which vice +either openly assaults or secretly undermines virtue; and virtue, on the +other hand, resists it. But the time appointed for labour is to be +narrowly examined, otherwise you may imagine that since there are only +six hours appointed for work, they may fall under a scarcity of necessary +provisions: but it is so far from being true that this time is not +sufficient for supplying them with plenty of all things, either necessary +or convenient, that it is rather too much; and this you will easily +apprehend if you consider how great a part of all other nations is quite +idle. First, women generally do little, who are the half of mankind; and +if some few women are diligent, their husbands are idle: then consider +the great company of idle priests, and of those that are called religious +men; add to these all rich men, chiefly those that have estates in land, +who are called noblemen and gentlemen, together with their families, made +up of idle persons, that are kept more for show than use; add to these +all those strong and lusty beggars that go about pretending some disease +in excuse for their begging; and upon the whole account you will find +that the number of those by whose labours mankind is supplied is much +less than you perhaps imagined: then consider how few of those that work +are employed in labours that are of real service, for we, who measure all +things by money, give rise to many trades that are both vain and +superfluous, and serve only to support riot and luxury: for if those who +work were employed only in such things as the conveniences of life +require, there would be such an abundance of them that the prices of them +would so sink that tradesmen could not be maintained by their gains; if +all those who labour about useless things were set to more profitable +employments, and if all they that languish out their lives in sloth and +idleness (every one of whom consumes as much as any two of the men that +are at work) were forced to labour, you may easily imagine that a small +proportion of time would serve for doing all that is either necessary, +profitable, or pleasant to mankind, especially while pleasure is kept +within its due bounds: this appears very plainly in Utopia; for there, in +a great city, and in all the territory that lies round it, you can scarce +find five hundred, either men or women, by their age and strength capable +of labour, that are not engaged in it. Even the Syphogrants, though +excused by the law, yet do not excuse themselves, but work, that by their +examples they may excite the industry of the rest of the people; the like +exemption is allowed to those who, being recommended to the people by the +priests, are, by the secret suffrages of the Syphogrants, privileged from +labour, that they may apply themselves wholly to study; and if any of +these fall short of those hopes that they seemed at first to give, they +are obliged to return to work; and sometimes a mechanic that so employs +his leisure hours as to make a considerable advancement in learning is +eased from being a tradesman and ranked among their learned men. Out of +these they choose their ambassadors, their priests, their Tranibors, and +the Prince himself, anciently called their Barzenes, but is called of +late their Ademus. + +"And thus from the great numbers among them that are neither suffered to +be idle nor to be employed in any fruitless labour, you may easily make +the estimate how much may be done in those few hours in which they are +obliged to labour. But, besides all that has been already said, it is to +be considered that the needful arts among them are managed with less +labour than anywhere else. The building or the repairing of houses among +us employ many hands, because often a thriftless heir suffers a house +that his father built to fall into decay, so that his successor must, at +a great cost, repair that which he might have kept up with a small +charge; it frequently happens that the same house which one person built +at a vast expense is neglected by another, who thinks he has a more +delicate sense of the beauties of architecture, and he, suffering it to +fall to ruin, builds another at no less charge. But among the Utopians +all things are so regulated that men very seldom build upon a new piece +of ground, and are not only very quick in repairing their houses, but +show their foresight in preventing their decay, so that their buildings +are preserved very long with but very little labour, and thus the +builders, to whom that care belongs, are often without employment, except +the hewing of timber and the squaring of stones, that the materials may +be in readiness for raising a building very suddenly when there is any +occasion for it. As to their clothes, observe how little work is spent +in them; while they are at labour they are clothed with leather and +skins, cut carelessly about them, which will last seven years, and when +they appear in public they put on an upper garment which hides the other; +and these are all of one colour, and that is the natural colour of the +wool. As they need less woollen cloth than is used anywhere else, so +that which they make use of is much less costly; they use linen cloth +more, but that is prepared with less labour, and they value cloth only by +the whiteness of the linen or the cleanness of the wool, without much +regard to the fineness of the thread. While in other places four or five +upper garments of woollen cloth of different colours, and as many vests +of silk, will scarce serve one man, and while those that are nicer think +ten too few, every man there is content with one, which very often serves +him two years; nor is there anything that can tempt a man to desire more, +for if he had them he would neither be the, warmer nor would he make one +jot the better appearance for it. And thus, since they are all employed +in some useful labour, and since they content themselves with fewer +things, it falls out that there is a great abundance of all things among +them; so that it frequently happens that, for want of other work, vast +numbers are sent out to mend the highways; but when no public undertaking +is to be performed, the hours of working are lessened. The magistrates +never engage the people in unnecessary labour, since the chief end of the +constitution is to regulate labour by the necessities of the public, and +to allow the people as much time as is necessary for the improvement of +their minds, in which they think the happiness of life consists. + + + +OF THEIR TRAFFIC + + +"But it is now time to explain to you the mutual intercourse of this +people, their commerce, and the rules by which all things are distributed +among them. + +"As their cities are composed of families, so their families are made up +of those that are nearly related to one another. Their women, when they +grow up, are married out, but all the males, both children and +grand-children, live still in the same house, in great obedience to their +common parent, unless age has weakened his understanding, and in that +case he that is next to him in age comes in his room; but lest any city +should become either too great, or by any accident be dispeopled, +provision is made that none of their cities may contain above six +thousand families, besides those of the country around it. No family may +have less than ten and more than sixteen persons in it, but there can be +no determined number for the children under age; this rule is easily +observed by removing some of the children of a more fruitful couple to +any other family that does not abound so much in them. By the same rule +they supply cities that do not increase so fast from others that breed +faster; and if there is any increase over the whole island, then they +draw out a number of their citizens out of the several towns and send +them over to the neighbouring continent, where, if they find that the +inhabitants have more soil than they can well cultivate, they fix a +colony, taking the inhabitants into their society if they are willing to +live with them; and where they do that of their own accord, they quickly +enter into their method of life and conform to their rules, and this +proves a happiness to both nations; for, according to their constitution, +such care is taken of the soil that it becomes fruitful enough for both, +though it might be otherwise too narrow and barren for any one of them. +But if the natives refuse to conform themselves to their laws they drive +them out of those bounds which they mark out for themselves, and use +force if they resist, for they account it a very just cause of war for a +nation to hinder others from possessing a part of that soil of which they +make no use, but which is suffered to lie idle and uncultivated, since +every man has, by the law of nature, a right to such a waste portion of +the earth as is necessary for his subsistence. If an accident has so +lessened the number of the inhabitants of any of their towns that it +cannot be made up from the other towns of the island without diminishing +them too much (which is said to have fallen out but twice since they were +first a people, when great numbers were carried off by the plague), the +loss is then supplied by recalling as many as are wanted from their +colonies, for they will abandon these rather than suffer the towns in the +island to sink too low. + +"But to return to their manner of living in society: the oldest man of +every family, as has been already said, is its governor; wives serve +their husbands, and children their parents, and always the younger serves +the elder. Every city is divided into four equal parts, and in the +middle of each there is a market-place. What is brought thither, and +manufactured by the several families, is carried from thence to houses +appointed for that purpose, in which all things of a sort are laid by +themselves; and thither every father goes, and takes whatsoever he or his +family stand in need of, without either paying for it or leaving anything +in exchange. There is no reason for giving a denial to any person, since +there is such plenty of everything among them; and there is no danger of +a man's asking for more than he needs; they have no inducements to do +this, since they are sure they shall always be supplied: it is the fear +of want that makes any of the whole race of animals either greedy or +ravenous; but, besides fear, there is in man a pride that makes him fancy +it a particular glory to excel others in pomp and excess; but by the laws +of the Utopians, there is no room for this. Near these markets there are +others for all sorts of provisions, where there are not only herbs, +fruits, and bread, but also fish, fowl, and cattle. There are also, +without their towns, places appointed near some running water for killing +their beasts and for washing away their filth, which is done by their +slaves; for they suffer none of their citizens to kill their cattle, +because they think that pity and good-nature, which are among the best of +those affections that are born with us, are much impaired by the +butchering of animals; nor do they suffer anything that is foul or +unclean to be brought within their towns, lest the air should be infected +by ill-smells, which might prejudice their health. In every street there +are great halls, that lie at an equal distance from each other, +distinguished by particular names. The Syphogrants dwell in those that +are set over thirty families, fifteen lying on one side of it, and as +many on the other. In these halls they all meet and have their repasts; +the stewards of every one of them come to the market-place at an +appointed hour, and according to the number of those that belong to the +hall they carry home provisions. But they take more care of their sick +than of any others; these are lodged and provided for in public +hospitals. They have belonging to every town four hospitals, that are +built without their walls, and are so large that they may pass for little +towns; by this means, if they had ever such a number of sick persons, +they could lodge them conveniently, and at such a distance that such of +them as are sick of infectious diseases may be kept so far from the rest +that there can be no danger of contagion. The hospitals are furnished +and stored with all things that are convenient for the ease and recovery +of the sick; and those that are put in them are looked after with such +tender and watchful care, and are so constantly attended by their skilful +physicians, that as none is sent to them against their will, so there is +scarce one in a whole town that, if he should fall ill, would not choose +rather to go thither than lie sick at home. + +"After the steward of the hospitals has taken for the sick whatsoever the +physician prescribes, then the best things that are left in the market +are distributed equally among the halls in proportion to their numbers; +only, in the first place, they serve the Prince, the Chief Priest, the +Tranibors, the Ambassadors, and strangers, if there are any, which, +indeed, falls out but seldom, and for whom there are houses, well +furnished, particularly appointed for their reception when they come +among them. At the hours of dinner and supper the whole Syphogranty +being called together by sound of trumpet, they meet and eat together, +except only such as are in the hospitals or lie sick at home. Yet, after +the halls are served, no man is hindered to carry provisions home from +the market-place, for they know that none does that but for some good +reason; for though any that will may eat at home, yet none does it +willingly, since it is both ridiculous and foolish for any to give +themselves the trouble to make ready an ill dinner at home when there is +a much more plentiful one made ready for him so near hand. All the +uneasy and sordid services about these halls are performed by their +slaves; but the dressing and cooking their meat, and the ordering their +tables, belong only to the women, all those of every family taking it by +turns. They sit at three or more tables, according to their number; the +men sit towards the wall, and the women sit on the other side, that if +any of them should be taken suddenly ill, which is no uncommon case +amongst women with child, she may, without disturbing the rest, rise and +go to the nurses' room (who are there with the sucking children), where +there is always clean water at hand and cradles, in which they may lay +the young children if there is occasion for it, and a fire, that they may +shift and dress them before it. Every child is nursed by its own mother +if death or sickness does not intervene; and in that case the +Syphogrants' wives find out a nurse quickly, which is no hard matter, for +any one that can do it offers herself cheerfully; for as they are much +inclined to that piece of mercy, so the child whom they nurse considers +the nurse as its mother. All the children under five years old sit among +the nurses; the rest of the younger sort of both sexes, till they are fit +for marriage, either serve those that sit at table, or, if they are not +strong enough for that, stand by them in great silence and eat what is +given them; nor have they any other formality of dining. In the middle +of the first table, which stands across the upper end of the hall, sit +the Syphogrant and his wife, for that is the chief and most conspicuous +place; next to him sit two of the most ancient, for there go always four +to a mess. If there is a temple within the Syphogranty, the Priest and +his wife sit with the Syphogrant above all the rest; next them there is a +mixture of old and young, who are so placed that as the young are set +near others, so they are mixed with the more ancient; which, they say, +was appointed on this account: that the gravity of the old people, and +the reverence that is due to them, might restrain the younger from all +indecent words and gestures. Dishes are not served up to the whole table +at first, but the best are first set before the old, whose seats are +distinguished from the young, and, after them, all the rest are served +alike. The old men distribute to the younger any curious meats that +happen to be set before them, if there is not such an abundance of them +that the whole company may be served alike. + +"Thus old men are honoured with a particular respect, yet all the rest +fare as well as they. Both dinner and supper are begun with some lecture +of morality that is read to them; but it is so short that it is not +tedious nor uneasy to them to hear it. From hence the old men take +occasion to entertain those about them with some useful and pleasant +enlargements; but they do not engross the whole discourse so to +themselves during their meals that the younger may not put in for a +share; on the contrary, they engage them to talk, that so they may, in +that free way of conversation, find out the force of every one's spirit +and observe his temper. They despatch their dinners quickly, but sit +long at supper, because they go to work after the one, and are to sleep +after the other, during which they think the stomach carries on the +concoction more vigorously. They never sup without music, and there is +always fruit served up after meat; while they are at table some burn +perfumes and sprinkle about fragrant ointments and sweet waters--in +short, they want nothing that may cheer up their spirits; they give +themselves a large allowance that way, and indulge themselves in all such +pleasures as are attended with no inconvenience. Thus do those that are +in the towns live together; but in the country, where they live at a +great distance, every one eats at home, and no family wants any necessary +sort of provision, for it is from them that provisions are sent unto +those that live in the towns. + + + +OF THE TRAVELLING OF THE UTOPIANS + + +If any man has a mind to visit his friends that live in some other town, +or desires to travel and see the rest of the country, he obtains leave +very easily from the Syphogrant and Tranibors, when there is no +particular occasion for him at home. Such as travel carry with them a +passport from the Prince, which both certifies the licence that is +granted for travelling, and limits the time of their return. They are +furnished with a waggon and a slave, who drives the oxen and looks after +them; but, unless there are women in the company, the waggon is sent back +at the end of the journey as a needless encumbrance. While they are on +the road they carry no provisions with them, yet they want for nothing, +but are everywhere treated as if they were at home. If they stay in any +place longer than a night, every one follows his proper occupation, and +is very well used by those of his own trade; but if any man goes out of +the city to which he belongs without leave, and is found rambling without +a passport, he is severely treated, he is punished as a fugitive, and +sent home disgracefully; and, if he falls again into the like fault, is +condemned to slavery. If any man has a mind to travel only over the +precinct of his own city, he may freely do it, with his father's +permission and his wife's consent; but when he comes into any of the +country houses, if he expects to be entertained by them, he must labour +with them and conform to their rules; and if he does this, he may freely +go over the whole precinct, being then as useful to the city to which he +belongs as if he were still within it. Thus you see that there are no +idle persons among them, nor pretences of excusing any from labour. There +are no taverns, no ale-houses, nor stews among them, nor any other +occasions of corrupting each other, of getting into corners, or forming +themselves into parties; all men live in full view, so that all are +obliged both to perform their ordinary task and to employ themselves well +in their spare hours; and it is certain that a people thus ordered must +live in great abundance of all things, and these being equally +distributed among them, no man can want or be obliged to beg. + +"In their great council at Amaurot, to which there are three sent from +every town once a year, they examine what towns abound in provisions and +what are under any scarcity, that so the one may be furnished from the +other; and this is done freely, without any sort of exchange; for, +according to their plenty or scarcity, they supply or are supplied from +one another, so that indeed the whole island is, as it were, one family. +When they have thus taken care of their whole country, and laid up stores +for two years (which they do to prevent the ill consequences of an +unfavourable season), they order an exportation of the overplus, both of +corn, honey, wool, flax, wood, wax, tallow, leather, and cattle, which +they send out, commonly in great quantities, to other nations. They +order a seventh part of all these goods to be freely given to the poor of +the countries to which they send them, and sell the rest at moderate +rates; and by this exchange they not only bring back those few things +that they need at home (for, indeed, they scarce need anything but iron), +but likewise a great deal of gold and silver; and by their driving this +trade so long, it is not to be imagined how vast a treasure they have got +among them, so that now they do not much care whether they sell off their +merchandise for money in hand or upon trust. A great part of their +treasure is now in bonds; but in all their contracts no private man +stands bound, but the writing runs in the name of the town; and the towns +that owe them money raise it from those private hands that owe it to +them, lay it up in their public chamber, or enjoy the profit of it till +the Utopians call for it; and they choose rather to let the greatest part +of it lie in their hands, who make advantage by it, than to call for it +themselves; but if they see that any of their other neighbours stand more +in need of it, then they call it in and lend it to them. Whenever they +are engaged in war, which is the only occasion in which their treasure +can be usefully employed, they make use of it themselves; in great +extremities or sudden accidents they employ it in hiring foreign troops, +whom they more willingly expose to danger than their own people; they +give them great pay, knowing well that this will work even on their +enemies; that it will engage them either to betray their own side, or, at +least, to desert it; and that it is the best means of raising mutual +jealousies among them. For this end they have an incredible treasure; +but they do not keep it as a treasure, but in such a manner as I am +almost afraid to tell, lest you think it so extravagant as to be hardly +credible. This I have the more reason to apprehend because, if I had not +seen it myself, I could not have been easily persuaded to have believed +it upon any man's report. + +"It is certain that all things appear incredible to us in proportion as +they differ from known customs; but one who can judge aright will not +wonder to find that, since their constitution differs so much from ours, +their value of gold and silver should be measured by a very different +standard; for since they have no use for money among themselves, but keep +it as a provision against events which seldom happen, and between which +there are generally long intervening intervals, they value it no farther +than it deserves--that is, in proportion to its use. So that it is plain +they must prefer iron either to gold or silver, for men can no more live +without iron than without fire or water; but Nature has marked out no use +for the other metals so essential as not easily to be dispensed with. The +folly of men has enhanced the value of gold and silver because of their +scarcity; whereas, on the contrary, it is their opinion that Nature, as +an indulgent parent, has freely given us all the best things in great +abundance, such as water and earth, but has laid up and hid from us the +things that are vain and useless. + +"If these metals were laid up in any tower in the kingdom it would raise +a jealousy of the Prince and Senate, and give birth to that foolish +mistrust into which the people are apt to fall--a jealousy of their +intending to sacrifice the interest of the public to their own private +advantage. If they should work it into vessels, or any sort of plate, +they fear that the people might grow too fond of it, and so be unwilling +to let the plate be run down, if a war made it necessary, to employ it in +paying their soldiers. To prevent all these inconveniences they have +fallen upon an expedient which, as it agrees with their other policy, so +is it very different from ours, and will scarce gain belief among us who +value gold so much, and lay it up so carefully. They eat and drink out +of vessels of earth or glass, which make an agreeable appearance, though +formed of brittle materials; while they make their chamber-pots and close- +stools of gold and silver, and that not only in their public halls but in +their private houses. Of the same metals they likewise make chains and +fetters for their slaves, to some of which, as a badge of infamy, they +hang an earring of gold, and make others wear a chain or a coronet of the +same metal; and thus they take care by all possible means to render gold +and silver of no esteem; and from hence it is that while other nations +part with their gold and silver as unwillingly as if one tore out their +bowels, those of Utopia would look on their giving in all they possess of +those metals (when there were any use for them) but as the parting with a +trifle, or as we would esteem the loss of a penny! They find pearls on +their coasts, and diamonds and carbuncles on their rocks; they do not +look after them, but, if they find them by chance, they polish them, and +with them they adorn their children, who are delighted with them, and +glory in them during their childhood; but when they grow to years, and +see that none but children use such baubles, they of their own accord, +without being bid by their parents, lay them aside, and would be as much +ashamed to use them afterwards as children among us, when they come to +years, are of their puppets and other toys. + +"I never saw a clearer instance of the opposite impressions that +different customs make on people than I observed in the ambassadors of +the Anemolians, who came to Amaurot when I was there. As they came to +treat of affairs of great consequence, the deputies from several towns +met together to wait for their coming. The ambassadors of the nations +that lie near Utopia, knowing their customs, and that fine clothes are in +no esteem among them, that silk is despised, and gold is a badge of +infamy, used to come very modestly clothed; but the Anemolians, lying +more remote, and having had little commerce with them, understanding that +they were coarsely clothed, and all in the same manner, took it for +granted that they had none of those fine things among them of which they +made no use; and they, being a vainglorious rather than a wise people, +resolved to set themselves out with so much pomp that they should look +like gods, and strike the eyes of the poor Utopians with their splendour. +Thus three ambassadors made their entry with a hundred attendants, all +clad in garments of different colours, and the greater part in silk; the +ambassadors themselves, who were of the nobility of their country, were +in cloth-of-gold, and adorned with massy chains, earrings and rings of +gold; their caps were covered with bracelets set full of pearls and other +gems--in a word, they were set out with all those things that among the +Utopians were either the badges of slavery, the marks of infamy, or the +playthings of children. It was not unpleasant to see, on the one side, +how they looked big, when they compared their rich habits with the plain +clothes of the Utopians, who were come out in great numbers to see them +make their entry; and, on the other, to observe how much they were +mistaken in the impression which they hoped this pomp would have made on +them. It appeared so ridiculous a show to all that had never stirred out +of their country, and had not seen the customs of other nations, that +though they paid some reverence to those that were the most meanly clad, +as if they had been the ambassadors, yet when they saw the ambassadors +themselves so full of gold and chains, they looked upon them as slaves, +and forbore to treat them with reverence. You might have seen the +children who were grown big enough to despise their playthings, and who +had thrown away their jewels, call to their mothers, push them gently, +and cry out, 'See that great fool, that wears pearls and gems as if he +were yet a child!' while their mothers very innocently replied, 'Hold +your peace! this, I believe, is one of the ambassadors' fools.' Others +censured the fashion of their chains, and observed, 'That they were of no +use, for they were too slight to bind their slaves, who could easily +break them; and, besides, hung so loose about them that they thought it +easy to throw their away, and so get from them." But after the +ambassadors had stayed a day among them, and saw so vast a quantity of +gold in their houses (which was as much despised by them as it was +esteemed in other nations), and beheld more gold and silver in the chains +and fetters of one slave than all their ornaments amounted to, their +plumes fell, and they were ashamed of all that glory for which they had +formed valued themselves, and accordingly laid it aside--a resolution +that they immediately took when, on their engaging in some free discourse +with the Utopians, they discovered their sense of such things and their +other customs. The Utopians wonder how any man should be so much taken +with the glaring doubtful lustre of a jewel or a stone, that can look up +to a star or to the sun himself; or how any should value himself because +his cloth is made of a finer thread; for, how fine soever that thread may +be, it was once no better than the fleece of a sheep, and that sheep, was +a sheep still, for all its wearing it. They wonder much to hear that +gold, which in itself is so useless a thing, should be everywhere so much +esteemed that even man, for whom it was made, and by whom it has its +value, should yet be thought of less value than this metal; that a man of +lead, who has no more sense than a log of wood, and is as bad as he is +foolish, should have many wise and good men to serve him, only because he +has a great heap of that metal; and that if it should happen that by some +accident or trick of law (which, sometimes produces as great changes as +chance itself) all this wealth should pass from the master to the meanest +varlet of his whole family, he himself would very soon become one of his +servants, as if he were a thing that belonged to his wealth, and so were +bound to follow its fortune! But they much more admire and detest the +folly of those who, when they see a rich man, though they neither owe him +anything, nor are in any sort dependent on his bounty, yet, merely +because he is rich, give him little less than divine honours, even though +they know him to be so covetous and base-minded that, notwithstanding all +his wealth, he will not part with one farthing of it to them as long as +he lives! + +"These and such like notions have that people imbibed, partly from their +education, being bred in a country whose customs and laws are opposite to +all such foolish maxims, and partly from their learning and studies--for +though there are but few in any town that are so wholly excused from +labour as to give themselves entirely up to their studies (these being +only such persons as discover from their childhood an extraordinary +capacity and disposition for letters), yet their children and a great +part of the nation, both men and women, are taught to spend those hours +in which they are not obliged to work in reading; and this they do +through the whole progress of life. They have all their learning in +their own tongue, which is both a copious and pleasant language, and in +which a man can fully express his mind; it runs over a great tract of +many countries, but it is not equally pure in all places. They had never +so much as heard of the names of any of those philosophers that are so +famous in these parts of the world, before we went among them; and yet +they had made the same discoveries as the Greeks, both in music, logic, +arithmetic, and geometry. But as they are almost in everything equal to +the ancient philosophers, so they far exceed our modern logicians for +they have never yet fallen upon the barbarous niceties that our youth are +forced to learn in those trifling logical schools that are among us. They +are so far from minding chimeras and fantastical images made in the mind +that none of them could comprehend what we meant when we talked to them +of a man in the abstract as common to all men in particular (so that +though we spoke of him as a thing that we could point at with our +fingers, yet none of them could perceive him) and yet distinct from every +one, as if he were some monstrous Colossus or giant; yet, for all this +ignorance of these empty notions, they knew astronomy, and were perfectly +acquainted with the motions of the heavenly bodies; and have many +instruments, well contrived and divided, by which they very accurately +compute the course and positions of the sun, moon, and stars. But for +the cheat of divining by the stars, by their oppositions or conjunctions, +it has not so much as entered into their thoughts. They have a +particular sagacity, founded upon much observation, in judging of the +weather, by which they know when they may look for rain, wind, or other +alterations in the air; but as to the philosophy of these things, the +cause of the saltness of the sea, of its ebbing and flowing, and of the +original and nature both of the heavens and the earth, they dispute of +them partly as our ancient philosophers have done, and partly upon some +new hypothesis, in which, as they differ from them, so they do not in all +things agree among themselves. + +"As to moral philosophy, they have the same disputes among them as we +have here. They examine what are properly good, both for the body and +the mind; and whether any outward thing can be called truly _good_, or if +that term belong only to the endowments of the soul. They inquire, +likewise, into the nature of virtue and pleasure. But their chief +dispute is concerning the happiness of a man, and wherein it +consists--whether in some one thing or in a great many. They seem, +indeed, more inclinable to that opinion that places, if not the whole, +yet the chief part, of a man's happiness in pleasure; and, what may seem +more strange, they make use of arguments even from religion, +notwithstanding its severity and roughness, for the support of that +opinion so indulgent to pleasure; for they never dispute concerning +happiness without fetching some arguments from the principles of religion +as well as from natural reason, since without the former they reckon that +all our inquiries after happiness must be but conjectural and defective. + +"These are their religious principles:--That the soul of man is immortal, +and that God of His goodness has designed that it should be happy; and +that He has, therefore, appointed rewards for good and virtuous actions, +and punishments for vice, to be distributed after this life. Though +these principles of religion are conveyed down among them by tradition, +they think that even reason itself determines a man to believe and +acknowledge them; and freely confess that if these were taken away, no +man would be so insensible as not to seek after pleasure by all possible +means, lawful or unlawful, using only this caution--that a lesser +pleasure might not stand in the way of a greater, and that no pleasure +ought to be pursued that should draw a great deal of pain after it; for +they think it the maddest thing in the world to pursue virtue, that is a +sour and difficult thing, and not only to renounce the pleasures of life, +but willingly to undergo much pain and trouble, if a man has no prospect +of a reward. And what reward can there be for one that has passed his +whole life, not only without pleasure, but in pain, if there is nothing +to be expected after death? Yet they do not place happiness in all sorts +of pleasures, but only in those that in themselves are good and honest. +There is a party among them who place happiness in bare virtue; others +think that our natures are conducted by virtue to happiness, as that +which is the chief good of man. They define virtue thus--that it is a +living according to Nature, and think that we are made by God for that +end; they believe that a man then follows the dictates of Nature when he +pursues or avoids things according to the direction of reason. They say +that the first dictate of reason is the kindling in us a love and +reverence for the Divine Majesty, to whom we owe both all that we have +and, all that we can ever hope for. In the next place, reason directs us +to keep our minds as free from passion and as cheerful as we can, and +that we should consider ourselves as bound by the ties of good-nature and +humanity to use our utmost endeavours to help forward the happiness of +all other persons; for there never was any man such a morose and severe +pursuer of virtue, such an enemy to pleasure, that though he set hard +rules for men to undergo, much pain, many watchings, and other rigors, +yet did not at the same time advise them to do all they could in order to +relieve and ease the miserable, and who did not represent gentleness and +good-nature as amiable dispositions. And from thence they infer that if +a man ought to advance the welfare and comfort of the rest of mankind +(there being no virtue more proper and peculiar to our nature than to +ease the miseries of others, to free from trouble and anxiety, in +furnishing them with the comforts of life, in which pleasure consists) +Nature much more vigorously leads them to do all this for himself. A +life of pleasure is either a real evil, and in that case we ought not to +assist others in their pursuit of it, but, on the contrary, to keep them +from it all we can, as from that which is most hurtful and deadly; or if +it is a good thing, so that we not only may but ought to help others to +it, why, then, ought not a man to begin with himself? since no man can be +more bound to look after the good of another than after his own; for +Nature cannot direct us to be good and kind to others, and yet at the +same time to be unmerciful and cruel to ourselves. Thus as they define +virtue to be living according to Nature, so they imagine that Nature +prompts all people on to seek after pleasure as the end of all they do. +They also observe that in order to our supporting the pleasures of life, +Nature inclines us to enter into society; for there is no man so much +raised above the rest of mankind as to be the only favourite of Nature, +who, on the contrary, seems to have placed on a level all those that +belong to the same species. Upon this they infer that no man ought to +seek his own conveniences so eagerly as to prejudice others; and +therefore they think that not only all agreements between private persons +ought to be observed, but likewise that all those laws ought to be kept +which either a good prince has published in due form, or to which a +people that is neither oppressed with tyranny nor circumvented by fraud +has consented, for distributing those conveniences of life which afford +us all our pleasures. + +"They think it is an evidence of true wisdom for a man to pursue his own +advantage as far as the laws allow it, they account it piety to prefer +the public good to one's private concerns, but they think it unjust for a +man to seek for pleasure by snatching another man's pleasures from him; +and, on the contrary, they think it a sign of a gentle and good soul for +a man to dispense with his own advantage for the good of others, and that +by this means a good man finds as much pleasure one way as he parts with +another; for as he may expect the like from others when he may come to +need it, so, if that should fail him, yet the sense of a good action, and +the reflections that he makes on the love and gratitude of those whom he +has so obliged, gives the mind more pleasure than the body could have +found in that from which it had restrained itself. They are also +persuaded that God will make up the loss of those small pleasures with a +vast and endless joy, of which religion easily convinces a good soul. + +"Thus, upon an inquiry into the whole matter, they reckon that all our +actions, and even all our virtues, terminate in pleasure, as in our chief +end and greatest happiness; and they call every motion or state, either +of body or mind, in which Nature teaches us to delight, a pleasure. Thus +they cautiously limit pleasure only to those appetites to which Nature +leads us; for they say that Nature leads us only to those delights to +which reason, as well as sense, carries us, and by which we neither +injure any other person nor lose the possession of greater pleasures, and +of such as draw no troubles after them. But they look upon those +delights which men by a foolish, though common, mistake call pleasure, as +if they could change as easily the nature of things as the use of words, +as things that greatly obstruct their real happiness, instead of +advancing it, because they so entirely possess the minds of those that +are once captivated by them with a false notion of pleasure that there is +no room left for pleasures of a truer or purer kind. + +"There are many things that in themselves have nothing that is truly +delightful; on the contrary, they have a good deal of bitterness in them; +and yet, from our perverse appetites after forbidden objects, are not +only ranked among the pleasures, but are made even the greatest designs, +of life. Among those who pursue these sophisticated pleasures they +reckon such as I mentioned before, who think themselves really the better +for having fine clothes; in which they think they are doubly mistaken, +both in the opinion they have of their clothes, and in that they have of +themselves. For if you consider the use of clothes, why should a fine +thread be thought better than a coarse one? And yet these men, as if +they had some real advantages beyond others, and did not owe them wholly +to their mistakes, look big, seem to fancy themselves to be more +valuable, and imagine that a respect is due to them for the sake of a +rich garment, to which they would not have pretended if they had been +more meanly clothed, and even resent it as an affront if that respect is +not paid them. It is also a great folly to be taken with outward marks +of respect, which signify nothing; for what true or real pleasure can one +man find in another's standing bare or making legs to him? Will the +bending another man's knees give ease to yours? and will the head's being +bare cure the madness of yours? And yet it is wonderful to see how this +false notion of pleasure bewitches many who delight themselves with the +fancy of their nobility, and are pleased with this conceit--that they are +descended from ancestors who have been held for some successions rich, +and who have had great possessions; for this is all that makes nobility +at present. Yet they do not think themselves a whit the less noble, +though their immediate parents have left none of this wealth to them, or +though they themselves have squandered it away. The Utopians have no +better opinion of those who are much taken with gems and precious stones, +and who account it a degree of happiness next to a divine one if they can +purchase one that is very extraordinary, especially if it be of that sort +of stones that is then in greatest request, for the same sort is not at +all times universally of the same value, nor will men buy it unless it be +dismounted and taken out of the gold. The jeweller is then made to give +good security, and required solemnly to swear that the stone is true, +that, by such an exact caution, a false one might not be bought instead +of a true; though, if you were to examine it, your eye could find no +difference between the counterfeit and that which is true; so that they +are all one to you, as much as if you were blind. Or can it be thought +that they who heap up a useless mass of wealth, not for any use that it +is to bring them, but merely to please themselves with the contemplation +of it, enjoy any true pleasure in it? The delight they find is only a +false shadow of joy. Those are no better whose error is somewhat +different from the former, and who hide it out of their fear of losing +it; for what other name can fit the hiding it in the earth, or, rather, +the restoring it to it again, it being thus cut off from being useful +either to its owner or to the rest of mankind? And yet the owner, having +hid it carefully, is glad, because he thinks he is now sure of it. If it +should be stole, the owner, though he might live perhaps ten years after +the theft, of which he knew nothing, would find no difference between his +having or losing it, for both ways it was equally useless to him. + +"Among those foolish pursuers of pleasure they reckon all that delight in +hunting, in fowling, or gaming, of whose madness they have only heard, +for they have no such things among them. But they have asked us, 'What +sort of pleasure is it that men can find in throwing the dice?' (for if +there were any pleasure in it, they think the doing it so often should +give one a surfeit of it); 'and what pleasure can one find in hearing the +barking and howling of dogs, which seem rather odious than pleasant +sounds?' Nor can they comprehend the pleasure of seeing dogs run after a +hare, more than of seeing one dog run after another; for if the seeing +them run is that which gives the pleasure, you have the same +entertainment to the eye on both these occasions, since that is the same +in both cases. But if the pleasure lies in seeing the hare killed and +torn by the dogs, this ought rather to stir pity, that a weak, harmless, +and fearful hare should be devoured by strong, fierce, and cruel dogs. +Therefore all this business of hunting is, among the Utopians, turned +over to their butchers, and those, as has been already said, are all +slaves, and they look on hunting as one of the basest parts of a +butcher's work, for they account it both more profitable and more decent +to kill those beasts that are more necessary and useful to mankind, +whereas the killing and tearing of so small and miserable an animal can +only attract the huntsman with a false show of pleasure, from which he +can reap but small advantage. They look on the desire of the bloodshed, +even of beasts, as a mark of a mind that is already corrupted with +cruelty, or that at least, by too frequent returns of so brutal a +pleasure, must degenerate into it. + +"Thus though the rabble of mankind look upon these, and on innumerable +other things of the same nature, as pleasures, the Utopians, on the +contrary, observing that there is nothing in them truly pleasant, +conclude that they are not to be reckoned among pleasures; for though +these things may create some tickling in the senses (which seems to be a +true notion of pleasure), yet they imagine that this does not arise from +the thing itself, but from a depraved custom, which may so vitiate a +man's taste that bitter things may pass for sweet, as women with child +think pitch or tallow taste sweeter than honey; but as a man's sense, +when corrupted either by a disease or some ill habit, does not change the +nature of other things, so neither can it change the nature of pleasure. + +"They reckon up several sorts of pleasures, which they call true ones; +some belong to the body, and others to the mind. The pleasures of the +mind lie in knowledge, and in that delight which the contemplation of +truth carries with it; to which they add the joyful reflections on a well- +spent life, and the assured hopes of a future happiness. They divide the +pleasures of the body into two sorts--the one is that which gives our +senses some real delight, and is performed either by recruiting Nature +and supplying those parts which feed the internal heat of life by eating +and drinking, or when Nature is eased of any surcharge that oppresses it, +when we are relieved from sudden pain, or that which arises from +satisfying the appetite which Nature has wisely given to lead us to the +propagation of the species. There is another kind of pleasure that +arises neither from our receiving what the body requires, nor its being +relieved when overcharged, and yet, by a secret unseen virtue, affects +the senses, raises the passions, and strikes the mind with generous +impressions--this is, the pleasure that arises from music. Another kind +of bodily pleasure is that which results from an undisturbed and vigorous +constitution of body, when life and active spirits seem to actuate every +part. This lively health, when entirely free from all mixture of pain, +of itself gives an inward pleasure, independent of all external objects +of delight; and though this pleasure does not so powerfully affect us, +nor act so strongly on the senses as some of the others, yet it may be +esteemed as the greatest of all pleasures; and almost all the Utopians +reckon it the foundation and basis of all the other joys of life, since +this alone makes the state of life easy and desirable, and when this is +wanting, a man is really capable of no other pleasure. They look upon +freedom from pain, if it does not rise from perfect health, to be a state +of stupidity rather than of pleasure. This subject has been very +narrowly canvassed among them, and it has been debated whether a firm and +entire health could be called a pleasure or not. Some have thought that +there was no pleasure but what was 'excited' by some sensible motion in +the body. But this opinion has been long ago excluded from among them; +so that now they almost universally agree that health is the greatest of +all bodily pleasures; and that as there is a pain in sickness which is as +opposite in its nature to pleasure as sickness itself is to health, so +they hold that health is accompanied with pleasure. And if any should +say that sickness is not really pain, but that it only carries pain along +with it, they look upon that as a fetch of subtlety that does not much +alter the matter. It is all one, in their opinion, whether it be said +that health is in itself a pleasure, or that it begets a pleasure, as +fire gives heat, so it be granted that all those whose health is entire +have a true pleasure in the enjoyment of it. And they reason thus:--'What +is the pleasure of eating, but that a man's health, which had been +weakened, does, with the assistance of food, drive away hunger, and so +recruiting itself, recovers its former vigour? And being thus refreshed +it finds a pleasure in that conflict; and if the conflict is pleasure, +the victory must yet breed a greater pleasure, except we fancy that it +becomes stupid as soon as it has obtained that which it pursued, and so +neither knows nor rejoices in its own welfare.' If it is said that +health cannot be felt, they absolutely deny it; for what man is in +health, that does not perceive it when he is awake? Is there any man +that is so dull and stupid as not to acknowledge that he feels a delight +in health? And what is delight but another name for pleasure? + +"But, of all pleasures, they esteem those to be most valuable that lie in +the mind, the chief of which arise out of true virtue and the witness of +a good conscience. They account health the chief pleasure that belongs +to the body; for they think that the pleasure of eating and drinking, and +all the other delights of sense, are only so far desirable as they give +or maintain health; but they are not pleasant in themselves otherwise +than as they resist those impressions that our natural infirmities are +still making upon us. For as a wise man desires rather to avoid diseases +than to take physic, and to be freed from pain rather than to find ease +by remedies, so it is more desirable not to need this sort of pleasure +than to be obliged to indulge it. If any man imagines that there is a +real happiness in these enjoyments, he must then confess that he would be +the happiest of all men if he were to lead his life in perpetual hunger, +thirst, and itching, and, by consequence, in perpetual eating, drinking, +and scratching himself; which any one may easily see would be not only a +base, but a miserable, state of a life. These are, indeed, the lowest of +pleasures, and the least pure, for we can never relish them but when they +are mixed with the contrary pains. The pain of hunger must give us the +pleasure of eating, and here the pain out-balances the pleasure. And as +the pain is more vehement, so it lasts much longer; for as it begins +before the pleasure, so it does not cease but with the pleasure that +extinguishes it, and both expire together. They think, therefore, none +of those pleasures are to be valued any further than as they are +necessary; yet they rejoice in them, and with due gratitude acknowledge +the tenderness of the great Author of Nature, who has planted in us +appetites, by which those things that are necessary for our preservation +are likewise made pleasant to us. For how miserable a thing would life +be if those daily diseases of hunger and thirst were to be carried off by +such bitter drugs as we must use for those diseases that return seldomer +upon us! And thus these pleasant, as well as proper, gifts of Nature +maintain the strength and the sprightliness of our bodies. + +"They also entertain themselves with the other delights let in at their +eyes, their ears, and their nostrils as the pleasant relishes and +seasoning of life, which Nature seems to have marked out peculiarly for +man, since no other sort of animals contemplates the figure and beauty of +the universe, nor is delighted with smells any further than as they +distinguish meats by them; nor do they apprehend the concords or discords +of sound. Yet, in all pleasures whatsoever, they take care that a lesser +joy does not hinder a greater, and that pleasure may never breed pain, +which they think always follows dishonest pleasures. But they think it +madness for a man to wear out the beauty of his face or the force of his +natural strength, to corrupt the sprightliness of his body by sloth and +laziness, or to waste it by fasting; that it is madness to weaken the +strength of his constitution and reject the other delights of life, +unless by renouncing his own satisfaction he can either serve the public +or promote the happiness of others, for which he expects a greater +recompense from God. So that they look on such a course of life as the +mark of a mind that is both cruel to itself and ungrateful to the Author +of Nature, as if we would not be beholden to Him for His favours, and +therefore rejects all His blessings; as one who should afflict himself +for the empty shadow of virtue, or for no better end than to render +himself capable of bearing those misfortunes which possibly will never +happen. + +"This is their notion of virtue and of pleasure: they think that no man's +reason can carry him to a truer idea of them unless some discovery from +heaven should inspire him with sublimer notions. I have not now the +leisure to examine whether they think right or wrong in this matter; nor +do I judge it necessary, for I have only undertaken to give you an +account of their constitution, but not to defend all their principles. I +am sure that whatever may be said of their notions, there is not in the +whole world either a better people or a happier government. Their bodies +are vigorous and lively; and though they are but of a middle stature, and +have neither the fruitfullest soil nor the purest air in the world; yet +they fortify themselves so well, by their temperate course of life, +against the unhealthiness of their air, and by their industry they so +cultivate their soil, that there is nowhere to be seen a greater +increase, both of corn and cattle, nor are there anywhere healthier men +and freer from diseases; for one may there see reduced to practice not +only all the art that the husbandman employs in manuring and improving an +ill soil, but whole woods plucked up by the roots, and in other places +new ones planted, where there were none before. Their principal motive +for this is the convenience of carriage, that their timber may be either +near their towns or growing on the banks of the sea, or of some rivers, +so as to be floated to them; for it is a harder work to carry wood at any +distance over land than corn. The people are industrious, apt to learn, +as well as cheerful and pleasant, and none can endure more labour when it +is necessary; but, except in that case, they love their ease. They are +unwearied pursuers of knowledge; for when we had given them some hints of +the learning and discipline of the Greeks, concerning whom we only +instructed them (for we know that there was nothing among the Romans, +except their historians and their poets, that they would value much), it +was strange to see how eagerly they were set on learning that language: +we began to read a little of it to them, rather in compliance with their +importunity than out of any hopes of their reaping from it any great +advantage: but, after a very short trial, we found they made such +progress, that we saw our labour was like to be more successful than we +could have expected: they learned to write their characters and to +pronounce their language so exactly, had so quick an apprehension, they +remembered it so faithfully, and became so ready and correct in the use +of it, that it would have looked like a miracle if the greater part of +those whom we taught had not been men both of extraordinary capacity and +of a fit age for instruction: they were, for the greatest part, chosen +from among their learned men by their chief council, though some studied +it of their own accord. In three years' time they became masters of the +whole language, so that they read the best of the Greek authors very +exactly. I am, indeed, apt to think that they learned that language the +more easily from its having some relation to their own. I believe that +they were a colony of the Greeks; for though their language comes nearer +the Persian, yet they retain many names, both for their towns and +magistrates, that are of Greek derivation. I happened to carry a great +many books with me, instead of merchandise, when I sailed my fourth +voyage; for I was so far from thinking of soon coming back, that I rather +thought never to have returned at all, and I gave them all my books, +among which were many of Plato's and some of Aristotle's works: I had +also Theophrastus on Plants, which, to my great regret, was imperfect; +for having laid it carelessly by, while we were at sea, a monkey had +seized upon it, and in many places torn out the leaves. They have no +books of grammar but Lascares, for I did not carry Theodorus with me; nor +have they any dictionaries but Hesichius and Dioscerides. They esteem +Plutarch highly, and were much taken with Lucian's wit and with his +pleasant way of writing. As for the poets, they have Aristophanes, +Homer, Euripides, and Sophocles of Aldus's edition; and for historians, +Thucydides, Herodotus, and Herodian. One of my companions, Thricius +Apinatus, happened to carry with him some of Hippocrates's works and +Galen's Microtechne, which they hold in great estimation; for though +there is no nation in the world that needs physic so little as they do, +yet there is not any that honours it so much; they reckon the knowledge +of it one of the pleasantest and most profitable parts of philosophy, by +which, as they search into the secrets of nature, so they not only find +this study highly agreeable, but think that such inquiries are very +acceptable to the Author of nature; and imagine, that as He, like the +inventors of curious engines amongst mankind, has exposed this great +machine of the universe to the view of the only creatures capable of +contemplating it, so an exact and curious observer, who admires His +workmanship, is much more acceptable to Him than one of the herd, who, +like a beast incapable of reason, looks on this glorious scene with the +eyes of a dull and unconcerned spectator. + +"The minds of the Utopians, when fenced with a love for learning, are +very ingenious in discovering all such arts as are necessary to carry it +to perfection. Two things they owe to us, the manufacture of paper and +the art of printing; yet they are not so entirely indebted to us for +these discoveries but that a great part of the invention was their own. +We showed them some books printed by Aldus, we explained to them the way +of making paper and the mystery of printing; but, as we had never +practised these arts, we described them in a crude and superficial +manner. They seized the hints we gave them; and though at first they +could not arrive at perfection, yet by making many essays they at last +found out and corrected all their errors and conquered every difficulty. +Before this they only wrote on parchment, on reeds, or on the barks of +trees; but now they have established the manufactures of paper and set up +printing presses, so that, if they had but a good number of Greek +authors, they would be quickly supplied with many copies of them: at +present, though they have no more than those I have mentioned, yet, by +several impressions, they have multiplied them into many thousands. If +any man was to go among them that had some extraordinary talent, or that +by much travelling had observed the customs of many nations (which made +us to be so well received), he would receive a hearty welcome, for they +are very desirous to know the state of the whole world. Very few go +among them on the account of traffic; for what can a man carry to them +but iron, or gold, or silver? which merchants desire rather to export +than import to a strange country: and as for their exportation, they +think it better to manage that themselves than to leave it to foreigners, +for by this means, as they understand the state of the neighbouring +countries better, so they keep up the art of navigation which cannot be +maintained but by much practice. + + + +OF THEIR SLAVES, AND OF THEIR MARRIAGES + + +"They do not make slaves of prisoners of war, except those that are taken +in battle, nor of the sons of their slaves, nor of those of other +nations: the slaves among them are only such as are condemned to that +state of life for the commission of some crime, or, which is more common, +such as their merchants find condemned to die in those parts to which +they trade, whom they sometimes redeem at low rates, and in other places +have them for nothing. They are kept at perpetual labour, and are always +chained, but with this difference, that their own natives are treated +much worse than others: they are considered as more profligate than the +rest, and since they could not be restrained by the advantages of so +excellent an education, are judged worthy of harder usage. Another sort +of slaves are the poor of the neighbouring countries, who offer of their +own accord to come and serve them: they treat these better, and use them +in all other respects as well as their own countrymen, except their +imposing more labour upon them, which is no hard task to those that have +been accustomed to it; and if any of these have a mind to go back to +their own country, which, indeed, falls out but seldom, as they do not +force them to stay, so they do not send them away empty-handed. + +"I have already told you with what care they look after their sick, so +that nothing is left undone that can contribute either to their case or +health; and for those who are taken with fixed and incurable diseases, +they use all possible ways to cherish them and to make their lives as +comfortable as possible. They visit them often and take great pains to +make their time pass off easily; but when any is taken with a torturing +and lingering pain, so that there is no hope either of recovery or ease, +the priests and magistrates come and exhort them, that, since they are +now unable to go on with the business of life, are become a burden to +themselves and to all about them, and they have really out-lived +themselves, they should no longer nourish such a rooted distemper, but +choose rather to die since they cannot live but in much misery; being +assured that if they thus deliver themselves from torture, or are willing +that others should do it, they shall be happy after death: since, by +their acting thus, they lose none of the pleasures, but only the troubles +of life, they think they behave not only reasonably but in a manner +consistent with religion and piety; because they follow the advice given +them by their priests, who are the expounders of the will of God. Such +as are wrought on by these persuasions either starve themselves of their +own accord, or take opium, and by that means die without pain. But no +man is forced on this way of ending his life; and if they cannot be +persuaded to it, this does not induce them to fail in their attendance +and care of them: but as they believe that a voluntary death, when it is +chosen upon such an authority, is very honourable, so if any man takes +away his own life without the approbation of the priests and the senate, +they give him none of the honours of a decent funeral, but throw his body +into a ditch. + +"Their women are not married before eighteen nor their men before two-and- +twenty, and if any of them run into forbidden embraces before marriage +they are severely punished, and the privilege of marriage is denied them +unless they can obtain a special warrant from the Prince. Such disorders +cast a great reproach upon the master and mistress of the family in which +they happen, for it is supposed that they have failed in their duty. The +reason of punishing this so severely is, because they think that if they +were not strictly restrained from all vagrant appetites, very few would +engage in a state in which they venture the quiet of their whole lives, +by being confined to one person, and are obliged to endure all the +inconveniences with which it is accompanied. In choosing their wives +they use a method that would appear to us very absurd and ridiculous, but +it is constantly observed among them, and is accounted perfectly +consistent with wisdom. Before marriage some grave matron presents the +bride, naked, whether she is a virgin or a widow, to the bridegroom, and +after that some grave man presents the bridegroom, naked, to the bride. +We, indeed, both laughed at this, and condemned it as very indecent. But +they, on the other hand, wondered at the folly of the men of all other +nations, who, if they are but to buy a horse of a small value, are so +cautious that they will see every part of him, and take off both his +saddle and all his other tackle, that there may be no secret ulcer hid +under any of them, and that yet in the choice of a wife, on which depends +the happiness or unhappiness of the rest of his life, a man should +venture upon trust, and only see about a handsbreadth of the face, all +the rest of the body being covered, under which may lie hid what may be +contagious as well as loathsome. All men are not so wise as to choose a +woman only for her good qualities, and even wise men consider the body as +that which adds not a little to the mind, and it is certain there may be +some such deformity covered with clothes as may totally alienate a man +from his wife, when it is too late to part with her; if such a thing is +discovered after marriage a man has no remedy but patience; they, +therefore, think it is reasonable that there should be good provision +made against such mischievous frauds. + +"There was so much the more reason for them to make a regulation in this +matter, because they are the only people of those parts that neither +allow of polygamy nor of divorces, except in the case of adultery or +insufferable perverseness, for in these cases the Senate dissolves the +marriage and grants the injured person leave to marry again; but the +guilty are made infamous and are never allowed the privilege of a second +marriage. None are suffered to put away their wives against their wills, +from any great calamity that may have fallen on their persons, for they +look on it as the height of cruelty and treachery to abandon either of +the married persons when they need most the tender care of their consort, +and that chiefly in the case of old age, which, as it carries many +diseases along with it, so it is a disease of itself. But it frequently +falls out that when a married couple do not well agree, they, by mutual +consent, separate, and find out other persons with whom they hope they +may live more happily; yet this is not done without obtaining leave of +the Senate, which never admits of a divorce but upon a strict inquiry +made, both by the senators and their wives, into the grounds upon which +it is desired, and even when they are satisfied concerning the reasons of +it they go on but slowly, for they imagine that too great easiness in +granting leave for new marriages would very much shake the kindness of +married people. They punish severely those that defile the marriage bed; +if both parties are married they are divorced, and the injured persons +may marry one another, or whom they please, but the adulterer and the +adulteress are condemned to slavery, yet if either of the injured persons +cannot shake off the love of the married person they may live with them +still in that state, but they must follow them to that labour to which +the slaves are condemned, and sometimes the repentance of the condemned, +together with the unshaken kindness of the innocent and injured person, +has prevailed so far with the Prince that he has taken off the sentence; +but those that relapse after they are once pardoned are punished with +death. + +"Their law does not determine the punishment for other crimes, but that +is left to the Senate, to temper it according to the circumstances of the +fact. Husbands have power to correct their wives and parents to chastise +their children, unless the fault is so great that a public punishment is +thought necessary for striking terror into others. For the most part +slavery is the punishment even of the greatest crimes, for as that is no +less terrible to the criminals themselves than death, so they think the +preserving them in a state of servitude is more for the interest of the +commonwealth than killing them, since, as their labour is a greater +benefit to the public than their death could be, so the sight of their +misery is a more lasting terror to other men than that which would be +given by their death. If their slaves rebel, and will not bear their +yoke and submit to the labour that is enjoined them, they are treated as +wild beasts that cannot be kept in order, neither by a prison nor by +their chains, and are at last put to death. But those who bear their +punishment patiently, and are so much wrought on by that pressure that +lies so hard on them, that it appears they are really more troubled for +the crimes they have committed than for the miseries they suffer, are not +out of hope, but that, at last, either the Prince will, by his +prerogative, or the people, by their intercession, restore them again to +their liberty, or, at least, very much mitigate their slavery. He that +tempts a married woman to adultery is no less severely punished than he +that commits it, for they believe that a deliberate design to commit a +crime is equal to the fact itself, since its not taking effect does not +make the person that miscarried in his attempt at all the less guilty. + +"They take great pleasure in fools, and as it is thought a base and +unbecoming thing to use them ill, so they do not think it amiss for +people to divert themselves with their folly; and, in their opinion, this +is a great advantage to the fools themselves; for if men were so sullen +and severe as not at all to please themselves with their ridiculous +behaviour and foolish sayings, which is all that they can do to recommend +themselves to others, it could not be expected that they would be so well +provided for nor so tenderly used as they must otherwise be. If any man +should reproach another for his being misshaped or imperfect in any part +of his body, it would not at all be thought a reflection on the person so +treated, but it would be accounted scandalous in him that had upbraided +another with what he could not help. It is thought a sign of a sluggish +and sordid mind not to preserve carefully one's natural beauty; but it is +likewise infamous among them to use paint. They all see that no beauty +recommends a wife so much to her husband as the probity of her life and +her obedience; for as some few are caught and held only by beauty, so all +are attracted by the other excellences which charm all the world. + +"As they fright men from committing crimes by punishments, so they invite +them to the love of virtue by public honours; therefore they erect +statues to the memories of such worthy men as have deserved well of their +country, and set these in their market-places, both to perpetuate the +remembrance of their actions and to be an incitement to their posterity +to follow their example. + +"If any man aspires to any office he is sure never to compass it. They +all live easily together, for none of the magistrates are either insolent +or cruel to the people; they affect rather to be called fathers, and, by +being really so, they well deserve the name; and the people pay them all +the marks of honour the more freely because none are exacted from them. +The Prince himself has no distinction, either of garments or of a crown; +but is only distinguished by a sheaf of corn carried before him; as the +High Priest is also known by his being preceded by a person carrying a +wax light. + +"They have but few laws, and such is their constitution that they need +not many. They very much condemn other nations whose laws, together with +the commentaries on them, swell up to so many volumes; for they think it +an unreasonable thing to oblige men to obey a body of laws that are both +of such a bulk, and so dark as not to be read and understood by every one +of the subjects. + +"They have no lawyers among them, for they consider them as a sort of +people whose profession it is to disguise matters and to wrest the laws, +and, therefore, they think it is much better that every man should plead +his own cause, and trust it to the judge, as in other places the client +trusts it to a counsellor; by this means they both cut off many delays +and find out truth more certainly; for after the parties have laid open +the merits of the cause, without those artifices which lawyers are apt to +suggest, the judge examines the whole matter, and supports the simplicity +of such well-meaning persons, whom otherwise crafty men would be sure to +run down; and thus they avoid those evils which appear very remarkably +among all those nations that labour under a vast load of laws. Every one +of them is skilled in their law; for, as it is a very short study, so the +plainest meaning of which words are capable is always the sense of their +laws; and they argue thus: all laws are promulgated for this end, that +every man may know his duty; and, therefore, the plainest and most +obvious sense of the words is that which ought to be put upon them, since +a more refined exposition cannot be easily comprehended, and would only +serve to make the laws become useless to the greater part of mankind, and +especially to those who need most the direction of them; for it is all +one not to make a law at all or to couch it in such terms that, without a +quick apprehension and much study, a man cannot find out the true meaning +of it, since the generality of mankind are both so dull, and so much +employed in their several trades, that they have neither the leisure nor +the capacity requisite for such an inquiry. + +"Some of their neighbours, who are masters of their own liberties (having +long ago, by the assistance of the Utopians, shaken off the yoke of +tyranny, and being much taken with those virtues which they observe among +them), have come to desire that they would send magistrates to govern +them, some changing them every year, and others every five years; at the +end of their government they bring them back to Utopia, with great +expressions of honour and esteem, and carry away others to govern in +their stead. In this they seem to have fallen upon a very good expedient +for their own happiness and safety; for since the good or ill condition +of a nation depends so much upon their magistrates, they could not have +made a better choice than by pitching on men whom no advantages can bias; +for wealth is of no use to them, since they must so soon go back to their +own country, and they, being strangers among them, are not engaged in any +of their heats or animosities; and it is certain that when public +judicatories are swayed, either by avarice or partial affections, there +must follow a dissolution of justice, the chief sinew of society. + +"The Utopians call those nations that come and ask magistrates from them +Neighbours; but those to whom they have been of more particular service, +Friends; and as all other nations are perpetually either making leagues +or breaking them, they never enter into an alliance with any state. They +think leagues are useless things, and believe that if the common ties of +humanity do not knit men together, the faith of promises will have no +great effect; and they are the more confirmed in this by what they see +among the nations round about them, who are no strict observers of +leagues and treaties. We know how religiously they are observed in +Europe, more particularly where the Christian doctrine is received, among +whom they are sacred and inviolable! which is partly owing to the justice +and goodness of the princes themselves, and partly to the reverence they +pay to the popes, who, as they are the most religious observers of their +own promises, so they exhort all other princes to perform theirs, and, +when fainter methods do not prevail, they compel them to it by the +severity of the pastoral censure, and think that it would be the most +indecent thing possible if men who are particularly distinguished by the +title of 'The Faithful' should not religiously keep the faith of their +treaties. But in that new-found world, which is not more distant from us +in situation than the people are in their manners and course of life, +there is no trusting to leagues, even though they were made with all the +pomp of the most sacred ceremonies; on the contrary, they are on this +account the sooner broken, some slight pretence being found in the words +of the treaties, which are purposely couched in such ambiguous terms that +they can never be so strictly bound but they will always find some +loophole to escape at, and thus they break both their leagues and their +faith; and this is done with such impudence, that those very men who +value themselves on having suggested these expedients to their princes +would, with a haughty scorn, declaim against such craft; or, to speak +plainer, such fraud and deceit, if they found private men make use of it +in their bargains, and would readily say that they deserved to be hanged. + +"By this means it is that all sort of justice passes in the world for a +low-spirited and vulgar virtue, far below the dignity of royal +greatness--or at least there are set up two sorts of justice; the one is +mean and creeps on the ground, and, therefore, becomes none but the lower +part of mankind, and so must be kept in severely by many restraints, that +it may not break out beyond the bounds that are set to it; the other is +the peculiar virtue of princes, which, as it is more majestic than that +which becomes the rabble, so takes a freer compass, and thus lawful and +unlawful are only measured by pleasure and interest. These practices of +the princes that lie about Utopia, who make so little account of their +faith, seem to be the reasons that determine them to engage in no +confederacy. Perhaps they would change their mind if they lived among +us; but yet, though treaties were more religiously observed, they would +still dislike the custom of making them, since the world has taken up a +false maxim upon it, as if there were no tie of nature uniting one nation +to another, only separated perhaps by a mountain or a river, and that all +were born in a state of hostility, and so might lawfully do all that +mischief to their neighbours against which there is no provision made by +treaties; and that when treaties are made they do not cut off the enmity +or restrain the licence of preying upon each other, if, by the +unskilfulness of wording them, there are not effectual provisoes made +against them; they, on the other hand, judge that no man is to be +esteemed our enemy that has never injured us, and that the partnership of +human nature is instead of a league; and that kindness and good nature +unite men more effectually and with greater strength than any agreements +whatsoever, since thereby the engagements of men's hearts become stronger +than the bond and obligation of words. + + + +OF THEIR MILITARY DISCIPLINE + + +They detest war as a very brutal thing, and which, to the reproach of +human nature, is more practised by men than by any sort of beasts. They, +in opposition to the sentiments of almost all other nations, think that +there is nothing more inglorious than that glory that is gained by war; +and therefore, though they accustom themselves daily to military +exercises and the discipline of war, in which not only their men, but +their women likewise, are trained up, that, in cases of necessity, they +may not be quite useless, yet they do not rashly engage in war, unless it +be either to defend themselves or their friends from any unjust +aggressors, or, out of good nature or in compassion, assist an oppressed +nation in shaking off the yoke of tyranny. They, indeed, help their +friends not only in defensive but also in offensive wars; but they never +do that unless they had been consulted before the breach was made, and, +being satisfied with the grounds on which they went, they had found that +all demands of reparation were rejected, so that a war was unavoidable. +This they think to be not only just when one neighbour makes an inroad on +another by public order, and carries away the spoils, but when the +merchants of one country are oppressed in another, either under pretence +of some unjust laws, or by the perverse wresting of good ones. This they +count a juster cause of war than the other, because those injuries are +done under some colour of laws. This was the only ground of that war in +which they engaged with the Nephelogetes against the Aleopolitanes, a +little before our time; for the merchants of the former having, as they +thought, met with great injustice among the latter, which (whether it was +in itself right or wrong) drew on a terrible war, in which many of their +neighbours were engaged; and their keenness in carrying it on being +supported by their strength in maintaining it, it not only shook some +very flourishing states and very much afflicted others, but, after a +series of much mischief ended in the entire conquest and slavery of the +Aleopolitanes, who, though before the war they were in all respects much +superior to the Nephelogetes, were yet subdued; but, though the Utopians +had assisted them in the war, yet they pretended to no share of the +spoil. + +"But, though they so vigorously assist their friends in obtaining +reparation for the injuries they have received in affairs of this nature, +yet, if any such frauds were committed against themselves, provided no +violence was done to their persons, they would only, on their being +refused satisfaction, forbear trading with such a people. This is not +because they consider their neighbours more than their own citizens; but, +since their neighbours trade every one upon his own stock, fraud is a +more sensible injury to them than it is to the Utopians, among whom the +public, in such a case, only suffers, as they expect no thing in return +for the merchandise they export but that in which they so much abound, +and is of little use to them, the loss does not much affect them. They +think, therefore, it would be too severe to revenge a loss attended with +so little inconvenience, either to their lives or their subsistence, with +the death of many persons; but if any of their people are either killed +or wounded wrongfully, whether it be done by public authority, or only by +private men, as soon as they hear of it they send ambassadors, and demand +that the guilty persons may be delivered up to them, and if that is +denied, they declare war; but if it be complied with, the offenders are +condemned either to death or slavery. + +"They would be both troubled and ashamed of a bloody victory over their +enemies; and think it would be as foolish a purchase as to buy the most +valuable goods at too high a rate. And in no victory do they glory so +much as in that which is gained by dexterity and good conduct without +bloodshed. In such cases they appoint public triumphs, and erect +trophies to the honour of those who have succeeded; for then do they +reckon that a man acts suitably to his nature, when he conquers his enemy +in such a way as that no other creature but a man could be capable of, +and that is by the strength of his understanding. Bears, lions, boars, +wolves, and dogs, and all other animals, employ their bodily force one +against another, in which, as many of them are superior to men, both in +strength and fierceness, so they are all subdued by his reason and +understanding. + +"The only design of the Utopians in war is to obtain that by force which, +if it had been granted them in time, would have prevented the war; or, if +that cannot be done, to take so severe a revenge on those that have +injured them that they may be terrified from doing the like for the time +to come. By these ends they measure all their designs, and manage them +so, that it is visible that the appetite of fame or vainglory does not +work so much on there as a just care of their own security. + +"As soon as they declare war, they take care to have a great many +schedules, that are sealed with their common seal, affixed in the most +conspicuous places of their enemies' country. This is carried secretly, +and done in many places all at once. In these they promise great rewards +to such as shall kill the prince, and lesser in proportion to such as +shall kill any other persons who are those on whom, next to the prince +himself, they cast the chief balance of the war. And they double the sum +to him that, instead of killing the person so marked out, shall take him +alive, and put him in their hands. They offer not only indemnity, but +rewards, to such of the persons themselves that are so marked, if they +will act against their countrymen. By this means those that are named in +their schedules become not only distrustful of their fellow-citizens, but +are jealous of one another, and are much distracted by fear and danger; +for it has often fallen out that many of them, and even the prince +himself, have been betrayed, by those in whom they have trusted most; for +the rewards that the Utopians offer are so immeasurably great, that there +is no sort of crime to which men cannot be drawn by them. They consider +the risk that those run who undertake such services, and offer a +recompense proportioned to the danger--not only a vast deal of gold, but +great revenues in lands, that lie among other nations that are their +friends, where they may go and enjoy them very securely; and they observe +the promises they make of their kind most religiously. They very much +approve of this way of corrupting their enemies, though it appears to +others to be base and cruel; but they look on it as a wise course, to +make an end of what would be otherwise a long war, without so much as +hazarding one battle to decide it. They think it likewise an act of +mercy and love to mankind to prevent the great slaughter of those that +must otherwise be killed in the progress of the war, both on their own +side and on that of their enemies, by the death of a few that are most +guilty; and that in so doing they are kind even to their enemies, and +pity them no less than their own people, as knowing that the greater part +of them do not engage in the war of their own accord, but are driven into +it by the passions of their prince. + +"If this method does not succeed with them, then they sow seeds of +contention among their enemies, and animate the prince's brother, or some +of the nobility, to aspire to the crown. If they cannot disunite them by +domestic broils, then they engage their neighbours against them, and make +them set on foot some old pretensions, which are never wanting to princes +when they have occasion for them. These they plentifully supply with +money, though but very sparingly with any auxiliary troops; for they are +so tender of their own people that they would not willingly exchange one +of them, even with the prince of their enemies' country. + +"But as they keep their gold and silver only for such an occasion, so, +when that offers itself, they easily part with it; since it would be no +convenience to them, though they should reserve nothing of it to +themselves. For besides the wealth that they have among them at home, +they have a vast treasure abroad; many nations round about them being +deep in their debt: so that they hire soldiers from all places for +carrying on their wars; but chiefly from the Zapolets, who live five +hundred miles east of Utopia. They are a rude, wild, and fierce nation, +who delight in the woods and rocks, among which they were born and bred +up. They are hardened both against heat, cold, and labour, and know +nothing of the delicacies of life. They do not apply themselves to +agriculture, nor do they care either for their houses or their clothes: +cattle is all that they look after; and for the greatest part they live +either by hunting or upon rapine; and are made, as it were, only for war. +They watch all opportunities of engaging in it, and very readily embrace +such as are offered them. Great numbers of them will frequently go out, +and offer themselves for a very low pay, to serve any that will employ +them: they know none of the arts of life, but those that lead to the +taking it away; they serve those that hire them, both with much courage +and great fidelity; but will not engage to serve for any determined time, +and agree upon such terms, that the next day they may go over to the +enemies of those whom they serve if they offer them a greater +encouragement; and will, perhaps, return to them the day after that upon +a higher advance of their pay. There are few wars in which they make not +a considerable part of the armies of both sides: so it often falls out +that they who are related, and were hired in the same country, and so +have lived long and familiarly together, forgetting both their relations +and former friendship, kill one another upon no other consideration than +that of being hired to it for a little money by princes of different +interests; and such a regard have they for money that they are easily +wrought on by the difference of one penny a day to change sides. So +entirely does their avarice influence them; and yet this money, which +they value so highly, is of little use to them; for what they purchase +thus with their blood they quickly waste on luxury, which among them is +but of a poor and miserable form. + +"This nation serves the Utopians against all people whatsoever, for they +pay higher than any other. The Utopians hold this for a maxim, that as +they seek out the best sort of men for their own use at home, so they +make use of this worst sort of men for the consumption of war; and +therefore they hire them with the offers of vast rewards to expose +themselves to all sorts of hazards, out of which the greater part never +returns to claim their promises; yet they make them good most religiously +to such as escape. This animates them to adventure again, whenever there +is occasion for it; for the Utopians are not at all troubled how many of +these happen to be killed, and reckon it a service done to mankind if +they could be a means to deliver the world from such a lewd and vicious +sort of people, that seem to have run together, as to the drain of human +nature. Next to these, they are served in their wars with those upon +whose account they undertake them, and with the auxiliary troops of their +other friends, to whom they join a few of their own people, and send some +man of eminent and approved virtue to command in chief. There are two +sent with him, who, during his command, are but private men, but the +first is to succeed him if he should happen to be either killed or taken; +and, in case of the like misfortune to him, the third comes in his place; +and thus they provide against all events, that such accidents as may +befall their generals may not endanger their armies. When they draw out +troops of their own people, they take such out of every city as freely +offer themselves, for none are forced to go against their wills, since +they think that if any man is pressed that wants courage, he will not +only act faintly, but by his cowardice dishearten others. But if an +invasion is made on their country, they make use of such men, if they +have good bodies, though they are not brave; and either put them aboard +their ships, or place them on the walls of their towns, that being so +posted, they may find no opportunity of flying away; and thus either +shame, the heat of action, or the impossibility of flying, bears down +their cowardice; they often make a virtue of necessity, and behave +themselves well, because nothing else is left them. But as they force no +man to go into any foreign war against his will, so they do not hinder +those women who are willing to go along with their husbands; on the +contrary, they encourage and praise them, and they stand often next their +husbands in the front of the army. They also place together those who +are related, parents, and children, kindred, and those that are mutually +allied, near one another; that those whom nature has inspired with the +greatest zeal for assisting one another may be the nearest and readiest +to do it; and it is matter of great reproach if husband or wife survive +one another, or if a child survives his parent, and therefore when they +come to be engaged in action, they continue to fight to the last man, if +their enemies stand before them: and as they use all prudent methods to +avoid the endangering their own men, and if it is possible let all the +action and danger fall upon the troops that they hire, so if it becomes +necessary for themselves to engage, they then charge with as much courage +as they avoided it before with prudence: nor is it a fierce charge at +first, but it increases by degrees; and as they continue in action, they +grow more obstinate, and press harder upon the enemy, insomuch that they +will much sooner die than give ground; for the certainty that their +children will be well looked after when they are dead frees them from all +that anxiety concerning them which often masters men of great courage; +and thus they are animated by a noble and invincible resolution. Their +skill in military affairs increases their courage: and the wise +sentiments which, according to the laws of their country, are instilled +into them in their education, give additional vigour to their minds: for +as they do not undervalue life so as prodigally to throw it away, they +are not so indecently fond of it as to preserve it by base and unbecoming +methods. In the greatest heat of action the bravest of their youth, who +have devoted themselves to that service, single out the general of their +enemies, set on him either openly or by ambuscade; pursue him everywhere, +and when spent and wearied out, are relieved by others, who never give +over the pursuit, either attacking him with close weapons when they can +get near him, or with those which wound at a distance, when others get in +between them. So that, unless he secures himself by flight, they seldom +fail at last to kill or to take him prisoner. When they have obtained a +victory, they kill as few as possible, and are much more bent on taking +many prisoners than on killing those that fly before them. Nor do they +ever let their men so loose in the pursuit of their enemies as not to +retain an entire body still in order; so that if they have been forced to +engage the last of their battalions before they could gain the day, they +will rather let their enemies all escape than pursue them when their own +army is in disorder; remembering well what has often fallen out to +themselves, that when the main body of their army has been quite defeated +and broken, when their enemies, imagining the victory obtained, have let +themselves loose into an irregular pursuit, a few of them that lay for a +reserve, waiting a fit opportunity, have fallen on them in their chase, +and when straggling in disorder, and apprehensive of no danger, but +counting the day their own, have turned the whole action, and, wresting +out of their hands a victory that seemed certain and undoubted, while the +vanquished have suddenly become victorious. + +"It is hard to tell whether they are more dexterous in laying or avoiding +ambushes. They sometimes seem to fly when it is far from their thoughts; +and when they intend to give ground, they do it so that it is very hard +to find out their design. If they see they are ill posted, or are like +to be overpowered by numbers, they then either march off in the night +with great silence, or by some stratagem delude their enemies. If they +retire in the day-time, they do it in such order that it is no less +dangerous to fall upon them in a retreat than in a march. They fortify +their camps with a deep and large trench; and throw up the earth that is +dug out of it for a wall; nor do they employ only their slaves in this, +but the whole army works at it, except those that are then upon the +guard; so that when so many hands are at work, a great line and a strong +fortification is finished in so short a time that it is scarce credible. +Their armour is very strong for defence, and yet is not so heavy as to +make them uneasy in their marches; they can even swim with it. All that +are trained up to war practise swimming. Both horse and foot make great +use of arrows, and are very expert. They have no swords, but fight with +a pole-axe that is both sharp and heavy, by which they thrust or strike +down an enemy. They are very good at finding out warlike machines, and +disguise them so well that the enemy does not perceive them till he feels +the use of them; so that he cannot prepare such a defence as would render +them useless; the chief consideration had in the making them is that they +may be easily carried and managed. + +"If they agree to a truce, they observe it so religiously that no +provocations will make them break it. They never lay their enemies' +country waste nor burn their corn, and even in their marches they take +all possible care that neither horse nor foot may tread it down, for they +do not know but that they may have use for it themselves. They hurt no +man whom they find disarmed, unless he is a spy. When a town is +surrendered to them, they take it into their protection; and when they +carry a place by storm they never plunder it, but put those only to the +sword that oppose the rendering of it up, and make the rest of the +garrison slaves, but for the other inhabitants, they do them no hurt; and +if any of them had advised a surrender, they give them good rewards out +of the estates of those that they condemn, and distribute the rest among +their auxiliary troops, but they themselves take no share of the spoil. + +"When a war is ended, they do not oblige their friends to reimburse their +expenses; but they obtain them of the conquered, either in money, which +they keep for the next occasion, or in lands, out of which a constant +revenue is to be paid them; by many increases the revenue which they draw +out from several countries on such occasions is now risen to above +700,000 ducats a year. They send some of their own people to receive +these revenues, who have orders to live magnificently and like princes, +by which means they consume much of it upon the place; and either bring +over the rest to Utopia or lend it to that nation in which it lies. This +they most commonly do, unless some great occasion, which falls out but +very seldom, should oblige them to call for it all. It is out of these +lands that they assign rewards to such as they encourage to adventure on +desperate attempts. If any prince that engages in war with them is +making preparations for invading their country, they prevent him, and +make his country the seat of the war; for they do not willingly suffer +any war to break in upon their island; and if that should happen, they +would only defend themselves by their own people; but would not call for +auxiliary troops to their assistance. + + + +OF THE RELIGIONS OF THE UTOPIANS + + +"There are several sorts of religions, not only in different parts of the +island, but even in every town; some worshipping the sun, others the moon +or one of the planets. Some worship such men as have been eminent in +former times for virtue or glory, not only as ordinary deities, but as +the supreme god. Yet the greater and wiser sort of them worship none of +these, but adore one eternal, invisible, infinite, and incomprehensible +Deity; as a Being that is far above all our apprehensions, that is spread +over the whole universe, not by His bulk, but by His power and virtue; +Him they call the Father of All, and acknowledge that the beginnings, the +increase, the progress, the vicissitudes, and the end of all things come +only from Him; nor do they offer divine honours to any but to Him alone. +And, indeed, though they differ concerning other things, yet all agree in +this: that they think there is one Supreme Being that made and governs +the world, whom they call, in the language of their country, Mithras. +They differ in this: that one thinks the god whom he worships is this +Supreme Being, and another thinks that his idol is that god; but they all +agree in one principle, that whoever is this Supreme Being, He is also +that great essence to whose glory and majesty all honours are ascribed by +the consent of all nations. + +"By degrees they fall off from the various superstitions that are among +them, and grow up to that one religion that is the best and most in +request; and there is no doubt to be made, but that all the others had +vanished long ago, if some of those who advised them to lay aside their +superstitions had not met with some unhappy accidents, which, being +considered as inflicted by heaven, made them afraid that the god whose +worship had like to have been abandoned had interposed and revenged +themselves on those who despised their authority. + +"After they had heard from us an account of the doctrine, the course of +life, and the miracles of Christ, and of the wonderful constancy of so +many martyrs, whose blood, so willingly offered up by them, was the chief +occasion of spreading their religion over a vast number of nations, it is +not to be imagined how inclined they were to receive it. I shall not +determine whether this proceeded from any secret inspiration of God, or +whether it was because it seemed so favourable to that community of +goods, which is an opinion so particular as well as so dear to them; +since they perceived that Christ and His followers lived by that rule, +and that it was still kept up in some communities among the sincerest +sort of Christians. From whichsoever of these motives it might be, true +it is, that many of them came over to our religion, and were initiated +into it by baptism. But as two of our number were dead, so none of the +four that survived were in priests' orders, we, therefore, could only +baptise them, so that, to our great regret, they could not partake of the +other sacraments, that can only be administered by priests, but they are +instructed concerning them and long most vehemently for them. They have +had great disputes among themselves, whether one chosen by them to be a +priest would not be thereby qualified to do all the things that belong to +that character, even though he had no authority derived from the Pope, +and they seemed to be resolved to choose some for that employment, but +they had not done it when I left them. + +"Those among them that have not received our religion do not fright any +from it, and use none ill that goes over to it, so that all the while I +was there one man was only punished on this occasion. He being newly +baptised did, notwithstanding all that we could say to the contrary, +dispute publicly concerning the Christian religion, with more zeal than +discretion, and with so much heat, that he not only preferred our worship +to theirs, but condemned all their rites as profane, and cried out +against all that adhered to them as impious and sacrilegious persons, +that were to be damned to everlasting burnings. Upon his having +frequently preached in this manner he was seized, and after trial he was +condemned to banishment, not for having disparaged their religion, but +for his inflaming the people to sedition; for this is one of their most +ancient laws, that no man ought to be punished for his religion. At the +first constitution of their government, Utopus having understood that +before his coming among them the old inhabitants had been engaged in +great quarrels concerning religion, by which they were so divided among +themselves, that he found it an easy thing to conquer them, since, +instead of uniting their forces against him, every different party in +religion fought by themselves. After he had subdued them he made a law +that every man might be of what religion he pleased, and might endeavour +to draw others to it by the force of argument and by amicable and modest +ways, but without bitterness against those of other opinions; but that he +ought to use no other force but that of persuasion, and was neither to +mix with it reproaches nor violence; and such as did otherwise were to be +condemned to banishment or slavery. + +"This law was made by Utopus, not only for preserving the public peace, +which he saw suffered much by daily contentions and irreconcilable heats, +but because he thought the interest of religion itself required it. He +judged it not fit to determine anything rashly; and seemed to doubt +whether those different forms of religion might not all come from God, +who might inspire man in a different manner, and be pleased with this +variety; he therefore thought it indecent and foolish for any man to +threaten and terrify another to make him believe what did not appear to +him to be true. And supposing that only one religion was really true, +and the rest false, he imagined that the native force of truth would at +last break forth and shine bright, if supported only by the strength of +argument, and attended to with a gentle and unprejudiced mind; while, on +the other hand, if such debates were carried on with violence and +tumults, as the most wicked are always the most obstinate, so the best +and most holy religion might be choked with superstition, as corn is with +briars and thorns; he therefore left men wholly to their liberty, that +they might be free to believe as they should see cause; only he made a +solemn and severe law against such as should so far degenerate from the +dignity of human nature, as to think that our souls died with our bodies, +or that the world was governed by chance, without a wise overruling +Providence: for they all formerly believed that there was a state of +rewards and punishments to the good and bad after this life; and they now +look on those that think otherwise as scarce fit to be counted men, since +they degrade so noble a being as the soul, and reckon it no better than a +beast's: thus they are far from looking on such men as fit for human +society, or to be citizens of a well-ordered commonwealth; since a man of +such principles must needs, as oft as he dares do it, despise all their +laws and customs: for there is no doubt to be made, that a man who is +afraid of nothing but the law, and apprehends nothing after death, will +not scruple to break through all the laws of his country, either by fraud +or force, when by this means he may satisfy his appetites. They never +raise any that hold these maxims, either to honours or offices, nor +employ them in any public trust, but despise them, as men of base and +sordid minds. Yet they do not punish them, because they lay this down as +a maxim, that a man cannot make himself believe anything he pleases; nor +do they drive any to dissemble their thoughts by threatenings, so that +men are not tempted to lie or disguise their opinions; which being a sort +of fraud, is abhorred by the Utopians: they take care indeed to prevent +their disputing in defence of these opinions, especially before the +common people: but they suffer, and even encourage them to dispute +concerning them in private with their priest, and other grave men, being +confident that they will be cured of those mad opinions by having reason +laid before them. There are many among them that run far to the other +extreme, though it is neither thought an ill nor unreasonable opinion, +and therefore is not at all discouraged. They think that the souls of +beasts are immortal, though far inferior to the dignity of the human +soul, and not capable of so great a happiness. They are almost all of +them very firmly persuaded that good men will be infinitely happy in +another state: so that though they are compassionate to all that are +sick, yet they lament no man's death, except they see him loath to part +with life; for they look on this as a very ill presage, as if the soul, +conscious to itself of guilt, and quite hopeless, was afraid to leave the +body, from some secret hints of approaching misery. They think that such +a man's appearance before God cannot be acceptable to Him, who being +called on, does not go out cheerfully, but is backward and unwilling, and +is as it were dragged to it. They are struck with horror when they see +any die in this manner, and carry them out in silence and with sorrow, +and praying God that He would be merciful to the errors of the departed +soul, they lay the body in the ground: but when any die cheerfully, and +full of hope, they do not mourn for them, but sing hymns when they carry +out their bodies, and commending their souls very earnestly to God: their +whole behaviour is then rather grave than sad, they burn the body, and +set up a pillar where the pile was made, with an inscription to the +honour of the deceased. When they come from the funeral, they discourse +of his good life, and worthy actions, but speak of nothing oftener and +with more pleasure than of his serenity at the hour of death. They think +such respect paid to the memory of good men is both the greatest +incitement to engage others to follow their example, and the most +acceptable worship that can be offered them; for they believe that though +by the imperfection of human sight they are invisible to us, yet they are +present among us, and hear those discourses that pass concerning +themselves. They believe it inconsistent with the happiness of departed +souls not to be at liberty to be where they will: and do not imagine them +capable of the ingratitude of not desiring to see those friends with whom +they lived on earth in the strictest bonds of love and kindness: besides, +they are persuaded that good men, after death, have these affections; and +all other good dispositions increased rather than diminished, and +therefore conclude that they are still among the living, and observe all +they say or do. From hence they engage in all their affairs with the +greater confidence of success, as trusting to their protection; while +this opinion of the presence of their ancestors is a restraint that +prevents their engaging in ill designs. + +"They despise and laugh at auguries, and the other vain and superstitious +ways of divination, so much observed among other nations; but have great +reverence for such miracles as cannot flow from any of the powers of +nature, and look on them as effects and indications of the presence of +the Supreme Being, of which they say many instances have occurred among +them; and that sometimes their public prayers, which upon great and +dangerous occasions they have solemnly put up to God, with assured +confidence of being heard, have been answered in a miraculous manner. + +"They think the contemplating God in His works, and the adoring Him for +them, is a very acceptable piece of worship to Him. + +"There are many among them that upon a motive of religion neglect +learning, and apply themselves to no sort of study; nor do they allow +themselves any leisure time, but are perpetually employed, believing that +by the good things that a man does he secures to himself that happiness +that comes after death. Some of these visit the sick; others mend +highways, cleanse ditches, repair bridges, or dig turf, gravel, or stone. +Others fell and cleave timber, and bring wood, corn, and other +necessaries, on carts, into their towns; nor do these only serve the +public, but they serve even private men, more than the slaves themselves +do: for if there is anywhere a rough, hard, and sordid piece of work to +be done, from which many are frightened by the labour and loathsomeness +of it, if not the despair of accomplishing it, they cheerfully, and of +their own accord, take that to their share; and by that means, as they +ease others very much, so they afflict themselves, and spend their whole +life in hard labour: and yet they do not value themselves upon this, nor +lessen other people's credit to raise their own; but by their stooping to +such servile employments they are so far from being despised, that they +are so much the more esteemed by the whole nation. + +"Of these there are two sorts: some live unmarried and chaste, and +abstain from eating any sort of flesh; and thus weaning themselves from +all the pleasures of the present life, which they account hurtful, they +pursue, even by the hardest and painfullest methods possible, that +blessedness which they hope for hereafter; and the nearer they approach +to it, they are the more cheerful and earnest in their endeavours after +it. Another sort of them is less willing to put themselves to much toil, +and therefore prefer a married state to a single one; and as they do not +deny themselves the pleasure of it, so they think the begetting of +children is a debt which they owe to human nature, and to their country; +nor do they avoid any pleasure that does not hinder labour; and therefore +eat flesh so much the more willingly, as they find that by this means +they are the more able to work: the Utopians look upon these as the wiser +sect, but they esteem the others as the most holy. They would indeed +laugh at any man who, from the principles of reason, would prefer an +unmarried state to a married, or a life of labour to an easy life: but +they reverence and admire such as do it from the motives of religion. +There is nothing in which they are more cautious than in giving their +opinion positively concerning any sort of religion. The men that lead +those severe lives are called in the language of their country +Brutheskas, which answers to those we call Religious Orders. + +"Their priests are men of eminent piety, and therefore they are but few, +for there are only thirteen in every town, one for every temple; but when +they go to war, seven of these go out with their forces, and seven others +are chosen to supply their room in their absence; but these enter again +upon their employments when they return; and those who served in their +absence, attend upon the high priest, till vacancies fall by death; for +there is one set over the rest. They are chosen by the people as the +other magistrates are, by suffrages given in secret, for preventing of +factions: and when they are chosen, they are consecrated by the college +of priests. The care of all sacred things, the worship of God, and an +inspection into the manners of the people, are committed to them. It is +a reproach to a man to be sent for by any of them, or for them to speak +to him in secret, for that always gives some suspicion: all that is +incumbent on them is only to exhort and admonish the people; for the +power of correcting and punishing ill men belongs wholly to the Prince, +and to the other magistrates: the severest thing that the priest does is +the excluding those that are desperately wicked from joining in their +worship: there is not any sort of punishment more dreaded by them than +this, for as it loads them with infamy, so it fills them with secret +horrors, such is their reverence to their religion; nor will their bodies +be long exempted from their share of trouble; for if they do not very +quickly satisfy the priests of the truth of their repentance, they are +seized on by the Senate, and punished for their impiety. The education +of youth belongs to the priests, yet they do not take so much care of +instructing them in letters, as in forming their minds and manners +aright; they use all possible methods to infuse, very early, into the +tender and flexible minds of children, such opinions as are both good in +themselves and will be useful to their country, for when deep impressions +of these things are made at that age, they follow men through the whole +course of their lives, and conduce much to preserve the peace of the +government, which suffers by nothing more than by vices that rise out of +ill opinions. The wives of their priests are the most extraordinary +women of the whole country; sometimes the women themselves are made +priests, though that falls out but seldom, nor are any but ancient widows +chosen into that order. + +"None of the magistrates have greater honour paid them than is paid the +priests; and if they should happen to commit any crime, they would not be +questioned for it; their punishment is left to God, and to their own +consciences; for they do not think it lawful to lay hands on any man, how +wicked soever he is, that has been in a peculiar manner dedicated to God; +nor do they find any great inconvenience in this, both because they have +so few priests, and because these are chosen with much caution, so that +it must be a very unusual thing to find one who, merely out of regard to +his virtue, and for his being esteemed a singularly good man, was raised +up to so great a dignity, degenerate into corruption and vice; and if +such a thing should fall out, for man is a changeable creature, yet, +there being few priests, and these having no authority but what rises out +of the respect that is paid them, nothing of great consequence to the +public can proceed from the indemnity that the priests enjoy. + +"They have, indeed, very few of them, lest greater numbers sharing in the +same honour might make the dignity of that order, which they esteem so +highly, to sink in its reputation; they also think it difficult to find +out many of such an exalted pitch of goodness as to be equal to that +dignity, which demands the exercise of more than ordinary virtues. Nor +are the priests in greater veneration among them than they are among +their neighbouring nations, as you may imagine by that which I think +gives occasion for it. + +"When the Utopians engage in battle, the priests who accompany them to +the war, apparelled in their sacred vestments, kneel down during the +action (in a place not far from the field), and, lifting up their hands +to heaven, pray, first for peace, and then for victory to their own side, +and particularly that it may be gained without the effusion of much blood +on either side; and when the victory turns to their side, they run in +among their own men to restrain their fury; and if any of their enemies +see them or call to them, they are preserved by that means; and such as +can come so near them as to touch their garments have not only their +lives, but their fortunes secured to them; it is upon this account that +all the nations round about consider them so much, and treat them with +such reverence, that they have been often no less able to preserve their +own people from the fury of their enemies than to save their enemies from +their rage; for it has sometimes fallen out, that when their armies have +been in disorder and forced to fly, so that their enemies were running +upon the slaughter and spoil, the priests by interposing have separated +them from one another, and stopped the effusion of more blood; so that, +by their mediation, a peace has been concluded on very reasonable terms; +nor is there any nation about them so fierce, cruel, or barbarous, as not +to look upon their persons as sacred and inviolable. + +"The first and the last day of the month, and of the year, is a festival; +they measure their months by the course of the moon, and their years by +the course of the sun: the first days are called in their language the +Cynemernes, and the last the Trapemernes, which answers in our language, +to the festival that begins or ends the season. + +"They have magnificent temples, that are not only nobly built, but +extremely spacious, which is the more necessary as they have so few of +them; they are a little dark within, which proceeds not from any error in +the architecture, but is done with design; for their priests think that +too much light dissipates the thoughts, and that a more moderate degree +of it both recollects the mind and raises devotion. Though there are +many different forms of religion among them, yet all these, how various +soever, agree in the main point, which is the worshipping the Divine +Essence; and, therefore, there is nothing to be seen or heard in their +temples in which the several persuasions among them may not agree; for +every sect performs those rites that are peculiar to it in their private +houses, nor is there anything in the public worship that contradicts the +particular ways of those different sects. There are no images for God in +their temples, so that every one may represent Him to his thoughts +according to the way of his religion; nor do they call this one God by +any other name but that of Mithras, which is the common name by which +they all express the Divine Essence, whatsoever otherwise they think it +to be; nor are there any prayers among them but such as every one of them +may use without prejudice to his own opinion. + +"They meet in their temples on the evening of the festival that concludes +a season, and not having yet broke their fast, they thank God for their +good success during that year or month which is then at an end; and the +next day, being that which begins the new season, they meet early in +their temples, to pray for the happy progress of all their affairs during +that period upon which they then enter. In the festival which concludes +the period, before they go to the temple, both wives and children fall on +their knees before their husbands or parents and confess everything in +which they have either erred or failed in their duty, and beg pardon for +it. Thus all little discontents in families are removed, that they may +offer up their devotions with a pure and serene mind; for they hold it a +great impiety to enter upon them with disturbed thoughts, or with a +consciousness of their bearing hatred or anger in their hearts to any +person whatsoever; and think that they should become liable to severe +punishments if they presumed to offer sacrifices without cleansing their +hearts, and reconciling all their differences. In the temples the two +sexes are separated, the men go to the right hand, and the women to the +left; and the males and females all place themselves before the head and +master or mistress of the family to which they belong, so that those who +have the government of them at home may see their deportment in public. +And they intermingle them so, that the younger and the older may be set +by one another; for if the younger sort were all set together, they +would, perhaps, trifle away that time too much in which they ought to +beget in themselves that religious dread of the Supreme Being which is +the greatest and almost the only incitement to virtue. + +"They offer up no living creature in sacrifice, nor do they think it +suitable to the Divine Being, from whose bounty it is that these +creatures have derived their lives, to take pleasure in their deaths, or +the offering up their blood. They burn incense and other sweet odours, +and have a great number of wax lights during their worship, not out of +any imagination that such oblations can add anything to the divine nature +(which even prayers cannot do), but as it is a harmless and pure way of +worshipping God; so they think those sweet savours and lights, together +with some other ceremonies, by a secret and unaccountable virtue, elevate +men's souls, and inflame them with greater energy and cheerfulness during +the divine worship. + +"All the people appear in the temples in white garments; but the priest's +vestments are parti-coloured, and both the work and colours are +wonderful. They are made of no rich materials, for they are neither +embroidered nor set with precious stones; but are composed of the plumes +of several birds, laid together with so much art, and so neatly, that the +true value of them is far beyond the costliest materials. They say, that +in the ordering and placing those plumes some dark mysteries are +represented, which pass down among their priests in a secret tradition +concerning them; and that they are as hieroglyphics, putting them in mind +of the blessing that they have received from God, and of their duties, +both to Him and to their neighbours. As soon as the priest appears in +those ornaments, they all fall prostrate on the ground, with so much +reverence and so deep a silence, that such as look on cannot but be +struck with it, as if it were the effect of the appearance of a deity. +After they have been for some time in this posture, they all stand up, +upon a sign given by the priest, and sing hymns to the honour of God, +some musical instruments playing all the while. These are quite of +another form than those used among us; but, as many of them are much +sweeter than ours, so others are made use of by us. Yet in one thing +they very much exceed us: all their music, both vocal and instrumental, +is adapted to imitate and express the passions, and is so happily suited +to every occasion, that, whether the subject of the hymn be cheerful, or +formed to soothe or trouble the mind, or to express grief or remorse, the +music takes the impression of whatever is represented, affects and +kindles the passions, and works the sentiments deep into the hearts of +the hearers. When this is done, both priests and people offer up very +solemn prayers to God in a set form of words; and these are so composed, +that whatsoever is pronounced by the whole assembly may be likewise +applied by every man in particular to his own condition. In these they +acknowledge God to be the author and governor of the world, and the +fountain of all the good they receive, and therefore offer up to him +their thanksgiving; and, in particular, bless him for His goodness in +ordering it so, that they are born under the happiest government in the +world, and are of a religion which they hope is the truest of all others; +but, if they are mistaken, and if there is either a better government, or +a religion more acceptable to God, they implore His goodness to let them +know it, vowing that they resolve to follow him whithersoever he leads +them; but if their government is the best, and their religion the truest, +then they pray that He may fortify them in it, and bring all the world +both to the same rules of life, and to the same opinions concerning +Himself, unless, according to the unsearchableness of His mind, He is +pleased with a variety of religions. Then they pray that God may give +them an easy passage at last to Himself, not presuming to set limits to +Him, how early or late it should be; but, if it may be wished for without +derogating from His supreme authority, they desire to be quickly +delivered, and to be taken to Himself, though by the most terrible kind +of death, rather than to be detained long from seeing Him by the most +prosperous course of life. When this prayer is ended, they all fall down +again upon the ground; and, after a little while, they rise up, go home +to dinner, and spend the rest of the day in diversion or military +exercises. + +"Thus have I described to you, as particularly as I could, the +Constitution of that commonwealth, which I do not only think the best in +the world, but indeed the only commonwealth that truly deserves that +name. In all other places it is visible that, while people talk of a +commonwealth, every man only seeks his own wealth; but there, where no +man has any property, all men zealously pursue the good of the public, +and, indeed, it is no wonder to see men act so differently, for in other +commonwealths every man knows that, unless he provides for himself, how +flourishing soever the commonwealth may be, he must die of hunger, so +that he sees the necessity of preferring his own concerns to the public; +but in Utopia, where every man has a right to everything, they all know +that if care is taken to keep the public stores full no private man can +want anything; for among them there is no unequal distribution, so that +no man is poor, none in necessity, and though no man has anything, yet +they are all rich; for what can make a man so rich as to lead a serene +and cheerful life, free from anxieties; neither apprehending want +himself, nor vexed with the endless complaints of his wife? He is not +afraid of the misery of his children, nor is he contriving how to raise a +portion for his daughters; but is secure in this, that both he and his +wife, his children and grand-children, to as many generations as he can +fancy, will all live both plentifully and happily; since, among them, +there is no less care taken of those who were once engaged in labour, but +grow afterwards unable to follow it, than there is, elsewhere, of these +that continue still employed. I would gladly hear any man compare the +justice that is among them with that of all other nations; among whom, +may I perish, if I see anything that looks either like justice or equity; +for what justice is there in this: that a nobleman, a goldsmith, a +banker, or any other man, that either does nothing at all, or, at best, +is employed in things that are of no use to the public, should live in +great luxury and splendour upon what is so ill acquired, and a mean man, +a carter, a smith, or a ploughman, that works harder even than the beasts +themselves, and is employed in labours so necessary, that no commonwealth +could hold out a year without them, can only earn so poor a livelihood +and must lead so miserable a life, that the condition of the beasts is +much better than theirs? For as the beasts do not work so constantly, so +they feed almost as well, and with more pleasure, and have no anxiety +about what is to come, whilst these men are depressed by a barren and +fruitless employment, and tormented with the apprehensions of want in +their old age; since that which they get by their daily labour does but +maintain them at present, and is consumed as fast as it comes in, there +is no overplus left to lay up for old age. + +"Is not that government both unjust and ungrateful, that is so prodigal +of its favours to those that are called gentlemen, or goldsmiths, or such +others who are idle, or live either by flattery or by contriving the arts +of vain pleasure, and, on the other hand, takes no care of those of a +meaner sort, such as ploughmen, colliers, and smiths, without whom it +could not subsist? But after the public has reaped all the advantage of +their service, and they come to be oppressed with age, sickness, and +want, all their labours and the good they have done is forgotten, and all +the recompense given them is that they are left to die in great misery. +The richer sort are often endeavouring to bring the hire of labourers +lower, not only by their fraudulent practices, but by the laws which they +procure to be made to that effect, so that though it is a thing most +unjust in itself to give such small rewards to those who deserve so well +of the public, yet they have given those hardships the name and colour of +justice, by procuring laws to be made for regulating them. + +"Therefore I must say that, as I hope for mercy, I can have no other +notion of all the other governments that I see or know, than that they +are a conspiracy of the rich, who, on pretence of managing the public, +only pursue their private ends, and devise all the ways and arts they can +find out; first, that they may, without danger, preserve all that they +have so ill-acquired, and then, that they may engage the poor to toil and +labour for them at as low rates as possible, and oppress them as much as +they please; and if they can but prevail to get these contrivances +established by the show of public authority, which is considered as the +representative of the whole people, then they are accounted laws; yet +these wicked men, after they have, by a most insatiable covetousness, +divided that among themselves with which all the rest might have been +well supplied, are far from that happiness that is enjoyed among the +Utopians; for the use as well as the desire of money being extinguished, +much anxiety and great occasions of mischief is cut off with it, and who +does not see that the frauds, thefts, robberies, quarrels, tumults, +contentions, seditions, murders, treacheries, and witchcrafts, which are, +indeed, rather punished than restrained by the severities of law, would +all fall off, if money were not any more valued by the world? Men's +fears, solicitudes, cares, labours, and watchings would all perish in the +same moment with the value of money; even poverty itself, for the relief +of which money seems most necessary, would fall. But, in order to the +apprehending this aright, take one instance:-- + +"Consider any year, that has been so unfruitful that many thousands have +died of hunger; and yet if, at the end of that year, a survey was made of +the granaries of all the rich men that have hoarded up the corn, it would +be found that there was enough among them to have prevented all that +consumption of men that perished in misery; and that, if it had been +distributed among them, none would have felt the terrible effects of that +scarcity: so easy a thing would it be to supply all the necessities of +life, if that blessed thing called money, which is pretended to be +invented for procuring them was not really the only thing that obstructed +their being procured! + +"I do not doubt but rich men are sensible of this, and that they well +know how much a greater happiness it is to want nothing necessary, than +to abound in many superfluities; and to be rescued out of so much misery, +than to abound with so much wealth: and I cannot think but the sense of +every man's interest, added to the authority of Christ's commands, who, +as He was infinitely wise, knew what was best, and was not less good in +discovering it to us, would have drawn all the world over to the laws of +the Utopians, if pride, that plague of human nature, that source of so +much misery, did not hinder it; for this vice does not measure happiness +so much by its own conveniences, as by the miseries of others; and would +not be satisfied with being thought a goddess, if none were left that +were miserable, over whom she might insult. Pride thinks its own +happiness shines the brighter, by comparing it with the misfortunes of +other persons; that by displaying its own wealth they may feel their +poverty the more sensibly. This is that infernal serpent that creeps +into the breasts of mortals, and possesses them too much to be easily +drawn out; and, therefore, I am glad that the Utopians have fallen upon +this form of government, in which I wish that all the world could be so +wise as to imitate them; for they have, indeed, laid down such a scheme +and foundation of policy, that as men live happily under it, so it is +like to be of great continuance; for they having rooted out of the minds +of their people all the seeds, both of ambition and faction, there is no +danger of any commotions at home; which alone has been the ruin of many +states that seemed otherwise to be well secured; but as long as they live +in peace at home, and are governed by such good laws, the envy of all +their neighbouring princes, who have often, though in vain, attempted +their ruin, will never be able to put their state into any commotion or +disorder." + +When Raphael had thus made an end of speaking, though many things +occurred to me, both concerning the manners and laws of that people, that +seemed very absurd, as well in their way of making war, as in their +notions of religion and divine matters--together with several other +particulars, but chiefly what seemed the foundation of all the rest, +their living in common, without the use of money, by which all nobility, +magnificence, splendour, and majesty, which, according to the common +opinion, are the true ornaments of a nation, would be quite taken +away--yet since I perceived that Raphael was weary, and was not sure +whether he could easily bear contradiction, remembering that he had taken +notice of some, who seemed to think they were bound in honour to support +the credit of their own wisdom, by finding out something to censure in +all other men's inventions, besides their own, I only commended their +Constitution, and the account he had given of it in general; and so, +taking him by the hand, carried him to supper, and told him I would find +out some other time for examining this subject more particularly, and for +discoursing more copiously upon it. And, indeed, I shall be glad to +embrace an opportunity of doing it. In the meanwhile, though it must be +confessed that he is both a very learned man and a person who has +obtained a great knowledge of the world, I cannot perfectly agree to +everything he has related. However, there are many things in the +commonwealth of Utopia that I rather wish, than hope, to see followed in +our governments. + + + +***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK UTOPIA*** + + +******* This file should be named 2130.txt or 2130.zip ******* + + +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: +https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/2/1/3/2130 + + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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