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FOR PUBLIC DOMAIN ETEXTS*Ver.04.29.93*END* + + + + + +This etext was prepared by David Price, email ccx074@coventry.ac.uk +from the 1901 Cassell & Co. edition. + + + + + +UTOPIA + +by Thomas More + + + + +INTRODUCTION + + + + +Sir Thomas More, son of Sir John More, a justice of the King's +Bench, was born in 1478, in Milk Street, in the city of London. +After his earlier education at St. Anthony's School, in +Threadneedle Street, he was placed, as a boy, in the household of +Cardinal John Morton, Archbishop of Canterbury and Lord Chancellor. +It was not unusual for persons of wealth or influence and sons of +good families to be so established together in a relation of patron +and client. The youth wore his patron's livery, and added to his +state. The patron used, afterwards, his wealth or influence in +helping his young client forward in the world. Cardinal Morton had +been in earlier days that Bishop of Ely whom Richard III. sent to +the Tower; was busy afterwards in hostility to Richard; and was a +chief adviser of Henry VII., who in 1486 made him Archbishop of +Canterbury, and nine months afterwards Lord Chancellor. Cardinal +Morton--of talk at whose table there are recollections in "Utopia"- +-delighted in the quick wit of young Thomas More. He once said, +"Whoever shall live to try it, shall see this child here waiting at +table prove a notable and rare man." + +At the age of about nineteen, Thomas More was sent to Canterbury +College, Oxford, by his patron, where he learnt Greek of the first +men who brought Greek studies from Italy to England--William Grocyn +and Thomas Linacre. Linacre, a physician, who afterwards took +orders, was also the founder of the College of Physicians. In +1499, More left Oxford to study law in London, at Lincoln's Inn, +and in the next year Archbishop Morton died. + +More's earnest character caused him while studying law to aim at +the subduing of the flesh, by wearing a hair shirt, taking a log +for a pillow, and whipping himself on Fridays. At the age of +twenty-one he entered Parliament, and soon after he had been called +to the bar he was made Under-Sheriff of London. In 1503 he opposed +in the House of Commons Henry VII.'s proposal for a subsidy on +account of the marriage portion of his daughter Margaret; and he +opposed with so much energy that the House refused to grant it. +One went and told the king that a beardless boy had disappointed +all his expectations. During the last years, therefore, of Henry +VII. More was under the displeasure of the king, and had thoughts +of leaving the country. + +Henry VII. died in April, 1509, when More's age was a little over +thirty. In the first years of the reign of Henry VIII. he rose to +large practice in the law courts, where it is said he refused to +plead in cases which he thought unjust, and took no fees from +widows, orphans, or the poor. He would have preferred marrying the +second daughter of John Colt, of New Hall, in Essex, but chose her +elder sister, that he might not subject her to the discredit of +being passed over. + +In 1513 Thomas More, still Under-Sheriff of London, is said to have +written his "History of the Life and Death of King Edward V., and +of the Usurpation of Richard III." The book, which seems to +contain the knowledge and opinions of More's patron, Morton, was +not printed until 1557, when its writer had been twenty-two years +dead. It was then printed from a MS. in More's handwriting. + +In the year 1515 Wolsey, Archbishop of York, was made Cardinal by +Leo X.; Henry VIII. made him Lord Chancellor, and from that year +until 1523 the King and the Cardinal ruled England with absolute +authority, and called no parliament. In May of the year 1515 +Thomas More--not knighted yet--was joined in a commission to the +Low Countries with Cuthbert Tunstal and others to confer with the +ambassadors of Charles V., then only Archduke of Austria, upon a +renewal of alliance. On that embassy More, aged about thirty- +seven, was absent from England for six months, and while at Antwerp +he established friendship with Peter Giles (Latinised AEgidius), a +scholarly and courteous young man, who was secretary to the +municipality of Antwerp. + +Cuthbert Tunstal was a rising churchman, chancellor to the +Archbishop of Canterbury, who in that year (1515) was made +Archdeacon of Chester, and in May of the next year (1516) Master of +the Rolls. In 1516 he was sent again to the Low Countries, and +More then went with him to Brussels, where they were in close +companionship with Erasmus. + +More's "Utopia" was written in Latin, and is in two parts, of which +the second, describing the place ([Greek text]--or Nusquama, as he +called it sometimes in his letters--"Nowhere"), was probably +written towards the close of 1515; the first part, introductory, +early in 1516. The book was first printed at Louvain, late in +1516, under the editorship of Erasmus, Peter Giles, and other of +More's friends in Flanders. It was then revised by More, and +printed by Frobenius at Basle in November, 1518. It was reprinted +at Paris and Vienna, but was not printed in England during More's +lifetime. Its first publication in this country was in the English +translation, made in Edward's VI.'s reign (1551) by Ralph Robinson. +It was translated with more literary skill by Gilbert Burnet, in +1684, soon after he had conducted the defence of his friend Lord +William Russell, attended his execution, vindicated his memory, and +been spitefully deprived by James II. of his lectureship at St. +Clement's. Burnet was drawn to the translation of "Utopia" by the +same sense of unreason in high places that caused More to write the +book. Burnet's is the translation given in this volume. + +The name of the book has given an adjective to our language--we +call an impracticable scheme Utopian. Yet, under the veil of a +playful fiction, the talk is intensely earnest, and abounds in +practical suggestion. It is the work of a scholarly and witty +Englishman, who attacks in his own way the chief political and +social evils of his time. Beginning with fact, More tells how he +was sent into Flanders with Cuthbert Tunstal, "whom the king's +majesty of late, to the great rejoicing of all men, did prefer to +the office of Master of the Rolls;" how the commissioners of +Charles met them at Bruges, and presently returned to Brussels for +instructions; and how More then went to Antwerp, where he found a +pleasure in the society of Peter Giles which soothed his desire to +see again his wife and children, from whom he had been four months +away. Then fact slides into fiction with the finding of Raphael +Hythloday (whose name, made of two Greek words [Greek text] and +[Greek text], means "knowing in trifles"), a man who had been with +Amerigo Vespucci in the three last of the voyages to the new world +lately discovered, of which the account had been first printed in +1507, only nine years before Utopia was written. + +Designedly fantastic in suggestion of details, "Utopia" is the work +of a scholar who had read Plato's "Republic," and had his fancy +quickened after reading Plutarch's account of Spartan life under +Lycurgus. Beneath the veil of an ideal communism, into which there +has been worked some witty extravagance, there lies a noble English +argument. Sometimes More puts the case as of France when he means +England. Sometimes there is ironical praise of the good faith of +Christian kings, saving the book from censure as a political attack +on the policy of Henry VIII. Erasmus wrote to a friend in 1517 +that he should send for More's "Utopia," if he had not read it, and +"wished to see the true source of all political evils." And to +More Erasmus wrote of his book, "A burgomaster of Antwerp is so +pleased with it that he knows it all by heart." + +H. M. + + + + +DISCOURSES OF RAPHAEL HYTHLODAY, +OF THE BEST STATE OF A COMMONWEALTH + + + +Henry VIII., the unconquered King of England, a prince adorned with +all the virtues that become a great monarch, having some +differences of no small consequence with Charles the most serene +Prince of Castile, sent me into Flanders, as his ambassador, for +treating and composing matters between them. I was colleague and +companion to that incomparable man Cuthbert Tonstal, whom the King, +with such universal applause, lately made Master of the Rolls; but +of whom I will say nothing; not because I fear that the testimony +of a friend will be suspected, but rather because his learning and +virtues are too great for me to do them justice, and so well known, +that they need not my commendations, unless I would, according to +the proverb, "Show the sun with a lantern." Those that were +appointed by the Prince to treat with us, met us at Bruges, +according to agreement; they were all worthy men. The Margrave of +Bruges was their head, and the chief man among them; but he that +was esteemed the wisest, and that spoke for the rest, was George +Temse, the Provost of Casselsee: both art and nature had concurred +to make him eloquent: he was very learned in the law; and, as he +had a great capacity, so, by a long practice in affairs, he was +very dexterous at unravelling them. After we had several times +met, without coming to an agreement, they went to Brussels for some +days, to know the Prince's pleasure; and, since our business would +admit it, I went to Antwerp. While I was there, among many that +visited me, there was one that was more acceptable to me than any +other, Peter Giles, born at Antwerp, who is a man of great honour, +and of a good rank in his town, though less than he deserves; for I +do not know if there be anywhere to be found a more learned and a +better bred young man; for as he is both a very worthy and a very +knowing person, so he is so civil to all men, so particularly kind +to his friends, and so full of candour and affection, that there is +not, perhaps, above one or two anywhere to be found, that is in all +respects so perfect a friend: he is extraordinarily modest, there +is no artifice in him, and yet no man has more of a prudent +simplicity. His conversation was so pleasant and so innocently +cheerful, that his company in a great measure lessened any longings +to go back to my country, and to my wife and children, which an +absence of four months had quickened very much. One day, as I was +returning home from mass at St. Mary's, which is the chief church, +and the most frequented of any in Antwerp, I saw him, by accident, +talking with a stranger, who seemed past the flower of his age; his +face was tanned, he had a long beard, and his cloak was hanging +carelessly about him, so that, by his looks and habit, I concluded +he was a seaman. As soon as Peter saw me, he came and saluted me, +and as I was returning his civility, he took me aside, and pointing +to him with whom he had been discoursing, he said, "Do you see that +man? I was just thinking to bring him to you." I answered, "He +should have been very welcome on your account." "And on his own +too," replied he, "if you knew the man, for there is none alive +that can give so copious an account of unknown nations and +countries as he can do, which I know you very much desire." +"Then," said I, "I did not guess amiss, for at first sight I took +him for a seaman." "But you are much mistaken," said he, "for he +has not sailed as a seaman, but as a traveller, or rather a +philosopher. This Raphael, who from his family carries the name of +Hythloday, is not ignorant of the Latin tongue, but is eminently +learned in the Greek, having applied himself more particularly to +that than to the former, because he had given himself much to +philosophy, in which he knew that the Romans have left us nothing +that is valuable, except what is to be found in Seneca and Cicero. +He is a Portuguese by birth, and was so desirous of seeing the +world, that he divided his estate among his brothers, ran the same +hazard as Americus Vesputius, and bore a share in three of his four +voyages that are now published; only he did not return with him in +his last, but obtained leave of him, almost by force, that he might +be one of those twenty-four who were left at the farthest place at +which they touched in their last voyage to New Castile. The +leaving him thus did not a little gratify one that was more fond of +travelling than of returning home to be buried in his own country; +for he used often to say, that the way to heaven was the same from +all places, and he that had no grave had the heavens still over +him. Yet this disposition of mind had cost him dear, if God had +not been very gracious to him; for after he, with five Castalians, +had travelled over many countries, at last, by strange good +fortune, he got to Ceylon, and from thence to Calicut, where he, +very happily, found some Portuguese ships; and, beyond all men's +expectations, returned to his native country." When Peter had said +this to me, I thanked him for his kindness in intending to give me +the acquaintance of a man whose conversation he knew would be so +acceptable; and upon that Raphael and I embraced each other. After +those civilities were past which are usual with strangers upon +their first meeting, we all went to my house, and entering into the +garden, sat down on a green bank and entertained one another in +discourse. He told us that when Vesputius had sailed away, he, and +his companions that stayed behind in New Castile, by degrees +insinuated themselves into the affections of the people of the +country, meeting often with them and treating them gently; and at +last they not only lived among them without danger, but conversed +familiarly with them, and got so far into the heart of a prince, +whose name and country I have forgot, that he both furnished them +plentifully with all things necessary, and also with the +conveniences of travelling, both boats when they went by water, and +waggons when they trained over land: he sent with them a very +faithful guide, who was to introduce and recommend them to such +other princes as they had a mind to see: and after many days' +journey, they came to towns, and cities, and to commonwealths, that +were both happily governed and well peopled. Under the equator, +and as far on both sides of it as the sun moves, there lay vast +deserts that were parched with the perpetual heat of the sun; the +soil was withered, all things looked dismally, and all places were +either quite uninhabited, or abounded with wild beasts and +serpents, and some few men, that were neither less wild nor less +cruel than the beasts themselves. But, as they went farther, a new +scene opened, all things grew milder, the air less burning, the +soil more verdant, and even the beasts were less wild: and, at +last, there were nations, towns, and cities, that had not only +mutual commerce among themselves and with their neighbours, but +traded, both by sea and land, to very remote countries. There they +found the conveniencies of seeing many countries on all hands, for +no ship went any voyage into which he and his companions were not +very welcome. The first vessels that they saw were flat-bottomed, +their sails were made of reeds and wicker, woven close together, +only some were of leather; but, afterwards, they found ships made +with round keels and canvas sails, and in all respects like our +ships, and the seamen understood both astronomy and navigation. He +got wonderfully into their favour by showing them the use of the +needle, of which till then they were utterly ignorant. They sailed +before with great caution, and only in summer time; but now they +count all seasons alike, trusting wholly to the loadstone, in which +they are, perhaps, more secure than safe; so that there is reason +to fear that this discovery, which was thought would prove so much +to their advantage, may, by their imprudence, become an occasion of +much mischief to them. But it were too long to dwell on all that +he told us he had observed in every place, it would be too great a +digression from our present purpose: whatever is necessary to be +told concerning those wise and prudent institutions which he +observed among civilised nations, may perhaps be related by us on a +more proper occasion. We asked him many questions concerning all +these things, to which he answered very willingly; we made no +inquiries after monsters, than which nothing is more common; for +everywhere one may hear of ravenous dogs and wolves, and cruel men- +eaters, but it is not so easy to find states that are well and +wisely governed. + +As he told us of many things that were amiss in those new- +discovered countries, so he reckoned up not a few things, from +which patterns might be taken for correcting the errors of these +nations among whom we live; of which an account may be given, as I +have already promised, at some other time; for, at present, I +intend only to relate those particulars that he told us, of the +manners and laws of the Utopians: but I will begin with the +occasion that led us to speak of that commonwealth. After Raphael +had discoursed with great judgment on the many errors that were +both among us and these nations, had treated of the wise +institutions both here and there, and had spoken as distinctly of +the customs and government of every nation through which he had +past, as if he had spent his whole life in it, Peter, being struck +with admiration, said, "I wonder, Raphael, how it comes that you +enter into no king's service, for I am sure there are none to whom +you would not be very acceptable; for your learning and knowledge, +both of men and things, is such, that you would not only entertain +them very pleasantly, but be of great use to them, by the examples +you could set before them, and the advices you could give them; and +by this means you would both serve your own interest, and be of +great use to all your friends." "As for my friends," answered he, +"I need not be much concerned, having already done for them all +that was incumbent on me; for when I was not only in good health, +but fresh and young, I distributed that among my kindred and +friends which other people do not part with till they are old and +sick: when they then unwillingly give that which they can enjoy no +longer themselves. I think my friends ought to rest contented with +this, and not to expect that for their sakes I should enslave +myself to any king whatsoever." "Soft and fair!" said Peter; "I do +not mean that you should be a slave to any king, but only that you +should assist them and be useful to them." "The change of the +word," said he, "does not alter the matter." "But term it as you +will," replied Peter, "I do not see any other way in which you can +be so useful, both in private to your friends and to the public, +and by which you can make your own condition happier." "Happier?" +answered Raphael, "is that to be compassed in a way so abhorrent to +my genius? Now I live as I will, to which I believe, few courtiers +can pretend; and there are so many that court the favour of great +men, that there will be no great loss if they are not troubled +either with me or with others of my temper." Upon this, said I, "I +perceive, Raphael, that you neither desire wealth nor greatness; +and, indeed, I value and admire such a man much more than I do any +of the great men in the world. Yet I think you would do what would +well become so generous and philosophical a soul as yours is, if +you would apply your time and thoughts to public affairs, even +though you may happen to find it a little uneasy to yourself; and +this you can never do with so much advantage as by being taken into +the council of some great prince and putting him on noble and +worthy actions, which I know you would do if you were in such a +post; for the springs both of good and evil flow from the prince +over a whole nation, as from a lasting fountain. So much learning +as you have, even without practice in affairs, or so great a +practice as you have had, without any other learning, would render +you a very fit counsellor to any king whatsoever." "You are doubly +mistaken," said he, "Mr. More, both in your opinion of me and in +the judgment you make of things: for as I have not that capacity +that you fancy I have, so if I had it, the public would not be one +jot the better when I had sacrificed my quiet to it. For most +princes apply themselves more to affairs of war than to the useful +arts of peace; and in these I neither have any knowledge, nor do I +much desire it; they are generally more set on acquiring new +kingdoms, right or wrong, than on governing well those they +possess: and, among the ministers of princes, there are none that +are not so wise as to need no assistance, or at least, that do not +think themselves so wise that they imagine they need none; and if +they court any, it is only those for whom the prince has much +personal favour, whom by their fawning and flatteries they +endeavour to fix to their own interests; and, indeed, nature has so +made us, that we all love to be flattered and to please ourselves +with our own notions: the old crow loves his young, and the ape +her cubs. Now if in such a court, made up of persons who envy all +others and only admire themselves, a person should but propose +anything that he had either read in history or observed in his +travels, the rest would think that the reputation of their wisdom +would sink, and that their interests would be much depressed if +they could not run it down: and, if all other things failed, then +they would fly to this, that such or such things pleased our +ancestors, and it were well for us if we could but match them. +They would set up their rest on such an answer, as a sufficient +confutation of all that could be said, as if it were a great +misfortune that any should be found wiser than his ancestors. But +though they willingly let go all the good things that were among +those of former ages, yet, if better things are proposed, they +cover themselves obstinately with this excuse of reverence to past +times. I have met with these proud, morose, and absurd judgments +of things in many places, particularly once in England." "Were you +ever there?" said I. "Yes, I was," answered he, "and stayed some +months there, not long after the rebellion in the West was +suppressed, with a great slaughter of the poor people that were +engaged in it. + +"I was then much obliged to that reverend prelate, John Morton, +Archbishop of Canterbury, Cardinal, and Chancellor of England; a +man," said he, "Peter (for Mr. More knows well what he was), that +was not less venerable for his wisdom and virtues than for the high +character he bore: he was of a middle stature, not broken with +age; his looks begot reverence rather than fear; his conversation +was easy, but serious and grave; he sometimes took pleasure to try +the force of those that came as suitors to him upon business by +speaking sharply, though decently, to them, and by that he +discovered their spirit and presence of mind; with which he was +much delighted when it did not grow up to impudence, as bearing a +great resemblance to his own temper, and he looked on such persons +as the fittest men for affairs. He spoke both gracefully and +weightily; he was eminently skilled in the law, had a vast +understanding, and a prodigious memory; and those excellent talents +with which nature had furnished him were improved by study and +experience. When I was in England the King depended much on his +counsels, and the Government seemed to be chiefly supported by him; +for from his youth he had been all along practised in affairs; and, +having passed through many traverses of fortune, he had, with great +cost, acquired a vast stock of wisdom, which is not soon lost when +it is purchased so dear. One day, when I was dining with him, +there happened to be at table one of the English lawyers, who took +occasion to run out in a high commendation of the severe execution +of justice upon thieves, 'who,' as he said, 'were then hanged so +fast that there were sometimes twenty on one gibbet!' and, upon +that, he said, 'he could not wonder enough how it came to pass +that, since so few escaped, there were yet so many thieves left, +who were still robbing in all places.' Upon this, I (who took the +boldness to speak freely before the Cardinal) said, 'There was no +reason to wonder at the matter, since this way of punishing thieves +was neither just in itself nor good for the public; for, as the +severity was too great, so the remedy was not effectual; simple +theft not being so great a crime that it ought to cost a man his +life; no punishment, how severe soever, being able to restrain +those from robbing who can find out no other way of livelihood. In +this,' said I, 'not only you in England, but a great part of the +world, imitate some ill masters, that are readier to chastise their +scholars than to teach them. There are dreadful punishments +enacted against thieves, but it were much better to make such good +provisions by which every man might be put in a method how to live, +and so be preserved from the fatal necessity of stealing and of +dying for it.' 'There has been care enough taken for that,' said +he; 'there are many handicrafts, and there is husbandry, by which +they may make a shift to live, unless they have a greater mind to +follow ill courses.' 'That will not serve your turn,' said I, 'for +many lose their limbs in civil or foreign wars, as lately in the +Cornish rebellion, and some time ago in your wars with France, who, +being thus mutilated in the service of their king and country, can +no more follow their old trades, and are too old to learn new ones; +but since wars are only accidental things, and have intervals, let +us consider those things that fall out every day. There is a great +number of noblemen among you that are themselves as idle as drones, +that subsist on other men's labour, on the labour of their tenants, +whom, to raise their revenues, they pare to the quick. This, +indeed, is the only instance of their frugality, for in all other +things they are prodigal, even to the beggaring of themselves; but, +besides this, they carry about with them a great number of idle +fellows, who never learned any art by which they may gain their +living; and these, as soon as either their lord dies, or they +themselves fall sick, are turned out of doors; for your lords are +readier to feed idle people than to take care of the sick; and +often the heir is not able to keep together so great a family as +his predecessor did. Now, when the stomachs of those that are thus +turned out of doors grow keen, they rob no less keenly; and what +else can they do? For when, by wandering about, they have worn out +both their health and their clothes, and are tattered, and look +ghastly, men of quality will not entertain them, and poor men dare +not do it, knowing that one who has been bred up in idleness and +pleasure, and who was used to walk about with his sword and +buckler, despising all the neighbourhood with an insolent scorn as +far below him, is not fit for the spade and mattock; nor will he +serve a poor man for so small a hire and in so low a diet as he can +afford to give him.' To this he answered, 'This sort of men ought +to be particularly cherished, for in them consists the force of the +armies for which we have occasion; since their birth inspires them +with a nobler sense of honour than is to be found among tradesmen +or ploughmen.' 'You may as well say,' replied I, 'that you must +cherish thieves on the account of wars, for you will never want the +one as long as you have the other; and as robbers prove sometimes +gallant soldiers, so soldiers often prove brave robbers, so near an +alliance there is between those two sorts of life. But this bad +custom, so common among you, of keeping many servants, is not +peculiar to this nation. In France there is yet a more pestiferous +sort of people, for the whole country is full of soldiers, still +kept up in time of peace (if such a state of a nation can be called +a peace); and these are kept in pay upon the same account that you +plead for those idle retainers about noblemen: this being a maxim +of those pretended statesmen, that it is necessary for the public +safety to have a good body of veteran soldiers ever in readiness. +They think raw men are not to be depended on, and they sometimes +seek occasions for making war, that they may train up their +soldiers in the art of cutting throats, or, as Sallust observed, +"for keeping their hands in use, that they may not grow dull by too +long an intermission." But France has learned to its cost how +dangerous it is to feed such beasts. The fate of the Romans, +Carthaginians, and Syrians, and many other nations and cities, +which were both overturned and quite ruined by those standing +armies, should make others wiser; and the folly of this maxim of +the French appears plainly even from this, that their trained +soldiers often find your raw men prove too hard for them, of which +I will not say much, lest you may think I flatter the English. +Every day's experience shows that the mechanics in the towns or the +clowns in the country are not afraid of fighting with those idle +gentlemen, if they are not disabled by some misfortune in their +body or dispirited by extreme want; so that you need not fear that +those well-shaped and strong men (for it is only such that noblemen +love to keep about them till they spoil them), who now grow feeble +with ease and are softened with their effeminate manner of life, +would be less fit for action if they were well bred and well +employed. And it seems very unreasonable that, for the prospect of +a war, which you need never have but when you please, you should +maintain so many idle men, as will always disturb you in time of +peace, which is ever to be more considered than war. But I do not +think that this necessity of stealing arises only from hence; there +is another cause of it, more peculiar to England.' 'What is that?' +said the Cardinal: 'The increase of pasture,' said I, 'by which +your sheep, which are naturally mild, and easily kept in order, may +be said now to devour men and unpeople, not only villages, but +towns; for wherever it is found that the sheep of any soil yield a +softer and richer wool than ordinary, there the nobility and +gentry, and even those holy men, the dobots! not contented with the +old rents which their farms yielded, nor thinking it enough that +they, living at their ease, do no good to the public, resolve to do +it hurt instead of good. They stop the course of agriculture, +destroying houses and towns, reserving only the churches, and +enclose grounds that they may lodge their sheep in them. As if +forests and parks had swallowed up too little of the land, those +worthy countrymen turn the best inhabited places into solitudes; +for when an insatiable wretch, who is a plague to his country, +resolves to enclose many thousand acres of ground, the owners, as +well as tenants, are turned out of their possessions by trick or by +main force, or, being wearied out by ill usage, they are forced to +sell them; by which means those miserable people, both men and +women, married and unmarried, old and young, with their poor but +numerous families (since country business requires many hands), are +all forced to change their seats, not knowing whither to go; and +they must sell, almost for nothing, their household stuff, which +could not bring them much money, even though they might stay for a +buyer. When that little money is at an end (for it will be soon +spent), what is left for them to do but either to steal, and so to +be hanged (God knows how justly!), or to go about and beg? and if +they do this they are put in prison as idle vagabonds, while they +would willingly work but can find none that will hire them; for +there is no more occasion for country labour, to which they have +been bred, when there is no arable ground left. One shepherd can +look after a flock, which will stock an extent of ground that would +require many hands if it were to be ploughed and reaped. This, +likewise, in many places raises the price of corn. The price of +wool is also so risen that the poor people, who were wont to make +cloth, are no more able to buy it; and this, likewise, makes many +of them idle: for since the increase of pasture God has punished +the avarice of the owners by a rot among the sheep, which has +destroyed vast numbers of them--to us it might have seemed more +just had it fell on the owners themselves. But, suppose the sheep +should increase ever so much, their price is not likely to fall; +since, though they cannot be called a monopoly, because they are +not engrossed by one person, yet they are in so few hands, and +these are so rich, that, as they are not pressed to sell them +sooner than they have a mind to it, so they never do it till they +have raised the price as high as possible. And on the same account +it is that the other kinds of cattle are so dear, because many +villages being pulled down, and all country labour being much +neglected, there are none who make it their business to breed them. +The rich do not breed cattle as they do sheep, but buy them lean +and at low prices; and, after they have fattened them on their +grounds, sell them again at high rates. And I do not think that +all the inconveniences this will produce are yet observed; for, as +they sell the cattle dear, so, if they are consumed faster than the +breeding countries from which they are brought can afford them, +then the stock must decrease, and this must needs end in great +scarcity; and by these means, this your island, which seemed as to +this particular the happiest in the world, will suffer much by the +cursed avarice of a few persons: besides this, the rising of corn +makes all people lessen their families as much as they can; and +what can those who are dismissed by them do but either beg or rob? +And to this last a man of a great mind is much sooner drawn than to +the former. Luxury likewise breaks in apace upon you to set +forward your poverty and misery; there is an excessive vanity in +apparel, and great cost in diet, and that not only in noblemen's +families, but even among tradesmen, among the farmers themselves, +and among all ranks of persons. You have also many infamous +houses, and, besides those that are known, the taverns and ale- +houses are no better; add to these dice, cards, tables, football, +tennis, and quoits, in which money runs fast away; and those that +are initiated into them must, in the conclusion, betake themselves +to robbing for a supply. Banish these plagues, and give orders +that those who have dispeopled so much soil may either rebuild the +villages they have pulled down or let out their grounds to such as +will do it; restrain those engrossings of the rich, that are as bad +almost as monopolies; leave fewer occasions to idleness; let +agriculture be set up again, and the manufacture of the wool be +regulated, that so there may be work found for those companies of +idle people whom want forces to be thieves, or who now, being idle +vagabonds or useless servants, will certainly grow thieves at last. +If you do not find a remedy to these evils it is a vain thing to +boast of your severity in punishing theft, which, though it may +have the appearance of justice, yet in itself is neither just nor +convenient; for if you suffer your people to be ill-educated, and +their manners to be corrupted from their infancy, and then punish +them for those crimes to which their first education disposed them, +what else is to be concluded from this but that you first make +thieves and then punish them?' + +"While I was talking thus, the Counsellor, who was present, had +prepared an answer, and had resolved to resume all I had said, +according to the formality of a debate, in which things are +generally repeated more faithfully than they are answered, as if +the chief trial to be made were of men's memories. 'You have +talked prettily, for a stranger,' said he, 'having heard of many +things among us which you have not been able to consider well; but +I will make the whole matter plain to you, and will first repeat in +order all that you have said; then I will show how much your +ignorance of our affairs has misled you; and will, in the last +place, answer all your arguments. And, that I may begin where I +promised, there were four things--' 'Hold your peace!' said the +Cardinal; 'this will take up too much time; therefore we will, at +present, ease you of the trouble of answering, and reserve it to +our next meeting, which shall be to-morrow, if Raphael's affairs +and yours can admit of it. But, Raphael,' said he to me, 'I would +gladly know upon what reason it is that you think theft ought not +to be punished by death: would you give way to it? or do you +propose any other punishment that will be more useful to the +public? for, since death does not restrain theft, if men thought +their lives would be safe, what fear or force could restrain ill +men? On the contrary, they would look on the mitigation of the +punishment as an invitation to commit more crimes.' I answered, +'It seems to me a very unjust thing to take away a man's life for a +little money, for nothing in the world can be of equal value with a +man's life: and if it be said, "that it is not for the money that +one suffers, but for his breaking the law," I must say, extreme +justice is an extreme injury: for we ought not to approve of those +terrible laws that make the smallest offences capital, nor of that +opinion of the Stoics that makes all crimes equal; as if there were +no difference to be made between the killing a man and the taking +his purse, between which, if we examine things impartially, there +is no likeness nor proportion. God has commanded us not to kill, +and shall we kill so easily for a little money? But if one shall +say, that by that law we are only forbid to kill any except when +the laws of the land allow of it, upon the same grounds, laws may +be made, in some cases, to allow of adultery and perjury: for God +having taken from us the right of disposing either of our own or of +other people's lives, if it is pretended that the mutual consent of +men in making laws can authorise man-slaughter in cases in which +God has given us no example, that it frees people from the +obligation of the divine law, and so makes murder a lawful action, +what is this, but to give a preference to human laws before the +divine? and, if this is once admitted, by the same rule men may, in +all other things, put what restrictions they please upon the laws +of God. If, by the Mosaical law, though it was rough and severe, +as being a yoke laid on an obstinate and servile nation, men were +only fined, and not put to death for theft, we cannot imagine, that +in this new law of mercy, in which God treats us with the +tenderness of a father, He has given us a greater licence to +cruelty than He did to the Jews. Upon these reasons it is, that I +think putting thieves to death is not lawful; and it is plain and +obvious that it is absurd and of ill consequence to the +commonwealth that a thief and a murderer should be equally +punished; for if a robber sees that his danger is the same if he is +convicted of theft as if he were guilty of murder, this will +naturally incite him to kill the person whom otherwise he would +only have robbed; since, if the punishment is the same, there is +more security, and less danger of discovery, when he that can best +make it is put out of the way; so that terrifying thieves too much +provokes them to cruelty. + +"But as to the question, 'What more convenient way of punishment +can be found?' I think it much easier to find out that than to +invent anything that is worse; why should we doubt but the way that +was so long in use among the old Romans, who understood so well the +arts of government, was very proper for their punishment? They +condemned such as they found guilty of great crimes to work their +whole lives in quarries, or to dig in mines with chains about them. +But the method that I liked best was that which I observed in my +travels in Persia, among the Polylerits, who are a considerable and +well-governed people: they pay a yearly tribute to the King of +Persia, but in all other respects they are a free nation, and +governed by their own laws: they lie far from the sea, and are +environed with hills; and, being contented with the productions of +their own country, which is very fruitful, they have little +commerce with any other nation; and as they, according to the +genius of their country, have no inclination to enlarge their +borders, so their mountains and the pension they pay to the +Persian, secure them from all invasions. Thus they have no wars +among them; they live rather conveniently than with splendour, and +may be rather called a happy nation than either eminent or famous; +for I do not think that they are known, so much as by name, to any +but their next neighbours. Those that are found guilty of theft +among them are bound to make restitution to the owner, and not, as +it is in other places, to the prince, for they reckon that the +prince has no more right to the stolen goods than the thief; but if +that which was stolen is no more in being, then the goods of the +thieves are estimated, and restitution being made out of them, the +remainder is given to their wives and children; and they themselves +are condemned to serve in the public works, but are neither +imprisoned nor chained, unless there happens to be some +extraordinary circumstance in their crimes. They go about loose +and free, working for the public: if they are idle or backward to +work they are whipped, but if they work hard they are well used and +treated without any mark of reproach; only the lists of them are +called always at night, and then they are shut up. They suffer no +other uneasiness but this of constant labour; for, as they work for +the public, so they are well entertained out of the public stock, +which is done differently in different places: in some places +whatever is bestowed on them is raised by a charitable +contribution; and, though this way may seem uncertain, yet so +merciful are the inclinations of that people, that they are +plentifully supplied by it; but in other places public revenues are +set aside for them, or there is a constant tax or poll-money raised +for their maintenance. In some places they are set to no public +work, but every private man that has occasion to hire workmen goes +to the market-places and hires them of the public, a little lower +than he would do a freeman. If they go lazily about their task he +may quicken them with the whip. By this means there is always some +piece of work or other to be done by them; and, besides their +livelihood, they earn somewhat still to the public. They all wear +a peculiar habit, of one certain colour, and their hair is cropped +a little above their ears, and a piece of one of their ears is cut +off. Their friends are allowed to give them either meat, drink, or +clothes, so they are of their proper colour; but it is death, both +to the giver and taker, if they give them money; nor is it less +penal for any freeman to take money from them upon any account +whatsoever: and it is also death for any of these slaves (so they +are called) to handle arms. Those of every division of the country +are distinguished by a peculiar mark, which it is capital for them +to lay aside, to go out of their bounds, or to talk with a slave of +another jurisdiction, and the very attempt of an escape is no less +penal than an escape itself. It is death for any other slave to be +accessory to it; and if a freeman engages in it he is condemned to +slavery. Those that discover it are rewarded--if freemen, in +money; and if slaves, with liberty, together with a pardon for +being accessory to it; that so they might find their account rather +in repenting of their engaging in such a design than in persisting +in it. + +"These are their laws and rules in relation to robbery, and it is +obvious that they are as advantageous as they are mild and gentle; +since vice is not only destroyed and men preserved, but they are +treated in such a manner as to make them see the necessity of being +honest and of employing the rest of their lives in repairing the +injuries they had formerly done to society. Nor is there any +hazard of their falling back to their old customs; and so little do +travellers apprehend mischief from them that they generally make +use of them for guides from one jurisdiction to another; for there +is nothing left them by which they can rob or be the better for it, +since, as they are disarmed, so the very having of money is a +sufficient conviction: and as they are certainly punished if +discovered, so they cannot hope to escape; for their habit being in +all the parts of it different from what is commonly worn, they +cannot fly away, unless they would go naked, and even then their +cropped ear would betray them. The only danger to be feared from +them is their conspiring against the government; but those of one +division and neighbourhood can do nothing to any purpose unless a +general conspiracy were laid amongst all the slaves of the several +jurisdictions, which cannot be done, since they cannot meet or talk +together; nor will any venture on a design where the concealment +would be so dangerous and the discovery so profitable. None are +quite hopeless of recovering their freedom, since by their +obedience and patience, and by giving good grounds to believe that +they will change their manner of life for the future, they may +expect at last to obtain their liberty, and some are every year +restored to it upon the good character that is given of them. When +I had related all this, I added that I did not see why such a +method might not be followed with more advantage than could ever be +expected from that severe justice which the Counsellor magnified so +much. To this he answered, 'That it could never take place in +England without endangering the whole nation.' As he said this he +shook his head, made some grimaces, and held his peace, while all +the company seemed of his opinion, except the Cardinal, who said, +'That it was not easy to form a judgment of its success, since it +was a method that never yet had been tried; but if,' said he, 'when +sentence of death were passed upon a thief, the prince would +reprieve him for a while, and make the experiment upon him, denying +him the privilege of a sanctuary; and then, if it had a good effect +upon him, it might take place; and, if it did not succeed, the +worst would be to execute the sentence on the condemned persons at +last; and I do not see,' added he, 'why it would be either unjust, +inconvenient, or at all dangerous to admit of such a delay; in my +opinion the vagabonds ought to be treated in the same manner, +against whom, though we have made many laws, yet we have not been +able to gain our end.' When the Cardinal had done, they all +commended the motion, though they had despised it when it came from +me, but more particularly commended what related to the vagabonds, +because it was his own observation + +"I do not know whether it be worth while to tell what followed, for +it was very ridiculous; but I shall venture at it, for as it is not +foreign to this matter, so some good use may be made of it. There +was a Jester standing by, that counterfeited the fool so naturally +that he seemed to be really one; the jests which he offered were so +cold and dull that we laughed more at him than at them, yet +sometimes he said, as it were by chance, things that were not +unpleasant, so as to justify the old proverb, 'That he who throws +the dice often, will sometimes have a lucky hit.' When one of the +company had said that I had taken care of the thieves, and the +Cardinal had taken care of the vagabonds, so that there remained +nothing but that some public provision might be made for the poor +whom sickness or old age had disabled from labour, 'Leave that to +me,' said the Fool, 'and I shall take care of them, for there is no +sort of people whose sight I abhor more, having been so often vexed +with them and with their sad complaints; but as dolefully soever as +they have told their tale, they could never prevail so far as to +draw one penny from me; for either I had no mind to give them +anything, or, when I had a mind to do it, I had nothing to give +them; and they now know me so well that they will not lose their +labour, but let me pass without giving me any trouble, because they +hope for nothing--no more, in faith, than if I were a priest; but I +would have a law made for sending all these beggars to monasteries, +the men to the Benedictines, to be made lay-brothers, and the women +to be nuns.' The Cardinal smiled, and approved of it in jest, but +the rest liked it in earnest. There was a divine present, who, +though he was a grave morose man, yet he was so pleased with this +reflection that was made on the priests and the monks that he began +to play with the Fool, and said to him, 'This will not deliver you +from all beggars, except you take care of us Friars.' 'That is +done already,' answered the Fool, 'for the Cardinal has provided +for you by what he proposed for restraining vagabonds and setting +them to work, for I know no vagabonds like you.' This was well +entertained by the whole company, who, looking at the Cardinal, +perceived that he was not ill-pleased at it; only the Friar himself +was vexed, as may be easily imagined, and fell into such a passion +that he could not forbear railing at the Fool, and calling him +knave, slanderer, backbiter, and son of perdition, and then cited +some dreadful threatenings out of the Scriptures against him. Now +the Jester thought he was in his element, and laid about him +freely. 'Good Friar,' said he, 'be not angry, for it is written, +"In patience possess your soul."' The Friar answered (for I shall +give you his own words), 'I am not angry, you hangman; at least, I +do not sin in it, for the Psalmist says, "Be ye angry and sin +not."' Upon this the Cardinal admonished him gently, and wished +him to govern his passions. 'No, my lord,' said he, 'I speak not +but from a good zeal, which I ought to have, for holy men have had +a good zeal, as it is said, "The zeal of thy house hath eaten me +up;" and we sing in our church that those who mocked Elisha as he +went up to the house of God felt the effects of his zeal, which +that mocker, that rogue, that scoundrel, will perhaps feel.' 'You +do this, perhaps, with a good intention,' said the Cardinal, 'but, +in my opinion, it were wiser in you, and perhaps better for you, +not to engage in so ridiculous a contest with a Fool.' 'No, my +lord,' answered he, 'that were not wisely done, for Solomon, the +wisest of men, said, "Answer a Fool according to his folly," which +I now do, and show him the ditch into which he will fall, if he is +not aware of it; for if the many mockers of Elisha, who was but one +bald man, felt the effect of his zeal, what will become of the +mocker of so many Friars, among whom there are so many bald men? +We have, likewise, a bull, by which all that jeer us are +excommunicated.' When the Cardinal saw that there was no end of +this matter he made a sign to the Fool to withdraw, turned the +discourse another way, and soon after rose from the table, and, +dismissing us, went to hear causes. + +"Thus, Mr. More, I have run out into a tedious story, of the length +of which I had been ashamed, if (as you earnestly begged it of me) +I had not observed you to hearken to it as if you had no mind to +lose any part of it. I might have contracted it, but I resolved to +give it you at large, that you might observe how those that +despised what I had proposed, no sooner perceived that the Cardinal +did not dislike it but presently approved of it, fawned so on him +and flattered him to such a degree, that they in good earnest +applauded those things that he only liked in jest; and from hence +you may gather how little courtiers would value either me or my +counsels." + +To this I answered, "You have done me a great kindness in this +relation; for as everything has been related by you both wisely and +pleasantly, so you have made me imagine that I was in my own +country and grown young again, by recalling that good Cardinal to +my thoughts, in whose family I was bred from my childhood; and +though you are, upon other accounts, very dear to me, yet you are +the dearer because you honour his memory so much; but, after all +this, I cannot change my opinion, for I still think that if you +could overcome that aversion which you have to the courts of +princes, you might, by the advice which it is in your power to +give, do a great deal of good to mankind, and this is the chief +design that every good man ought to propose to himself in living; +for your friend Plato thinks that nations will be happy when either +philosophers become kings or kings become philosophers. It is no +wonder if we are so far from that happiness while philosophers will +not think it their duty to assist kings with their counsels." +"They are not so base-minded," said he, "but that they would +willingly do it; many of them have already done it by their books, +if those that are in power would but hearken to their good advice. +But Plato judged right, that except kings themselves became +philosophers, they who from their childhood are corrupted with +false notions would never fall in entirely with the counsels of +philosophers, and this he himself found to be true in the person of +Dionysius. + +"Do not you think that if I were about any king, proposing good +laws to him, and endeavouring to root out all the cursed seeds of +evil that I found in him, I should either be turned out of his +court, or, at least, be laughed at for my pains? For instance, +what could I signify if I were about the King of France, and were +called into his cabinet council, where several wise men, in his +hearing, were proposing many expedients; as, by what arts and +practices Milan may be kept, and Naples, that has so often slipped +out of their hands, recovered; how the Venetians, and after them +the rest of Italy, may be subdued; and then how Flanders, Brabant, +and all Burgundy, and some other kingdoms which he has swallowed +already in his designs, may be added to his empire? One proposes a +league with the Venetians, to be kept as long as he finds his +account in it, and that he ought to communicate counsels with them, +and give them some share of the spoil till his success makes him +need or fear them less, and then it will be easily taken out of +their hands; another proposes the hiring the Germans and the +securing the Switzers by pensions; another proposes the gaining the +Emperor by money, which is omnipotent with him; another proposes a +peace with the King of Arragon, and, in order to cement it, the +yielding up the King of Navarre's pretensions; another thinks that +the Prince of Castile is to be wrought on by the hope of an +alliance, and that some of his courtiers are to be gained to the +French faction by pensions. The hardest point of all is, what to +do with England; a treaty of peace is to be set on foot, and, if +their alliance is not to be depended on, yet it is to be made as +firm as possible, and they are to be called friends, but suspected +as enemies: therefore the Scots are to be kept in readiness to be +let loose upon England on every occasion; and some banished +nobleman is to be supported underhand (for by the League it cannot +be done avowedly) who has a pretension to the crown, by which means +that suspected prince may be kept in awe. Now when things are in +so great a fermentation, and so many gallant men are joining +counsels how to carry on the war, if so mean a man as I should +stand up and wish them to change all their counsels--to let Italy +alone and stay at home, since the kingdom of France was indeed +greater than could be well governed by one man; that therefore he +ought not to think of adding others to it; and if, after this, I +should propose to them the resolutions of the Achorians, a people +that lie on the south-east of Utopia, who long ago engaged in war +in order to add to the dominions of their prince another kingdom, +to which he had some pretensions by an ancient alliance: this they +conquered, but found that the trouble of keeping it was equal to +that by which it was gained; that the conquered people were always +either in rebellion or exposed to foreign invasions, while they +were obliged to be incessantly at war, either for or against them, +and consequently could never disband their army; that in the +meantime they were oppressed with taxes, their money went out of +the kingdom, their blood was spilt for the glory of their king +without procuring the least advantage to the people, who received +not the smallest benefit from it even in time of peace; and that, +their manners being corrupted by a long war, robbery and murders +everywhere abounded, and their laws fell into contempt; while their +king, distracted with the care of two kingdoms, was the less able +to apply his mind to the interest of either. When they saw this, +and that there would be no end to these evils, they by joint +counsels made an humble address to their king, desiring him to +choose which of the two kingdoms he had the greatest mind to keep, +since he could not hold both; for they were too great a people to +be governed by a divided king, since no man would willingly have a +groom that should be in common between him and another. Upon which +the good prince was forced to quit his new kingdom to one of his +friends (who was not long after dethroned), and to be contented +with his old one. To this I would add that after all those warlike +attempts, the vast confusions, and the consumption both of treasure +and of people that must follow them, perhaps upon some misfortune +they might be forced to throw up all at last; therefore it seemed +much more eligible that the king should improve his ancient kingdom +all he could, and make it flourish as much as possible; that he +should love his people, and be beloved of them; that he should live +among them, govern them gently and let other kingdoms alone, since +that which had fallen to his share was big enough, if not too big, +for him:- pray, how do you think would such a speech as this be +heard?" + +"I confess," said I, "I think not very well." + +"But what," said he, "if I should sort with another kind of +ministers, whose chief contrivances and consultations were by what +art the prince's treasures might be increased? where one proposes +raising the value of specie when the king's debts are large, and +lowering it when his revenues were to come in, that so he might +both pay much with a little, and in a little receive a great deal. +Another proposes a pretence of a war, that money might be raised in +order to carry it on, and that a peace be concluded as soon as that +was done; and this with such appearances of religion as might work +on the people, and make them impute it to the piety of their +prince, and to his tenderness for the lives of his subjects. A +third offers some old musty laws that have been antiquated by a +long disuse (and which, as they had been forgotten by all the +subjects, so they had also been broken by them), and proposes the +levying the penalties of these laws, that, as it would bring in a +vast treasure, so there might be a very good pretence for it, since +it would look like the executing a law and the doing of justice. A +fourth proposes the prohibiting of many things under severe +penalties, especially such as were against the interest of the +people, and then the dispensing with these prohibitions, upon great +compositions, to those who might find their advantage in breaking +them. This would serve two ends, both of them acceptable to many; +for as those whose avarice led them to transgress would be severely +fined, so the selling licences dear would look as if a prince were +tender of his people, and would not easily, or at low rates, +dispense with anything that might be against the public good. +Another proposes that the judges must be made sure, that they may +declare always in favour of the prerogative; that they must be +often sent for to court, that the king may hear them argue those +points in which he is concerned; since, how unjust soever any of +his pretensions may be, yet still some one or other of them, either +out of contradiction to others, or the pride of singularity, or to +make their court, would find out some pretence or other to give the +king a fair colour to carry the point. For if the judges but +differ in opinion, the clearest thing in the world is made by that +means disputable, and truth being once brought in question, the +king may then take advantage to expound the law for his own profit; +while the judges that stand out will be brought over, either +through fear or modesty; and they being thus gained, all of them +may be sent to the Bench to give sentence boldly as the king would +have it; for fair pretences will never be wanting when sentence is +to be given in the prince's favour. It will either be said that +equity lies of his side, or some words in the law will be found +sounding that way, or some forced sense will be put on them; and, +when all other things fail, the king's undoubted prerogative will +be pretended, as that which is above all law, and to which a +religious judge ought to have a special regard. Thus all consent +to that maxim of Crassus, that a prince cannot have treasure +enough, since he must maintain his armies out of it; that a king, +even though he would, can do nothing unjustly; that all property is +in him, not excepting the very persons of his subjects; and that no +man has any other property but that which the king, out of his +goodness, thinks fit to leave him. And they think it is the +prince's interest that there be as little of this left as may be, +as if it were his advantage that his people should have neither +riches nor liberty, since these things make them less easy and +willing to submit to a cruel and unjust government. Whereas +necessity and poverty blunts them, makes them patient, beats them +down, and breaks that height of spirit that might otherwise dispose +them to rebel. Now what if, after all these propositions were +made, I should rise up and assert that such counsels were both +unbecoming a king and mischievous to him; and that not only his +honour, but his safety, consisted more in his people's wealth than +in his own; if I should show that they choose a king for their own +sake, and not for his; that, by his care and endeavours, they may +be both easy and safe; and that, therefore, a prince ought to take +more care of his people's happiness than of his own, as a shepherd +is to take more care of his flock than of himself? It is also +certain that they are much mistaken that think the poverty of a +nation is a mean of the public safety. Who quarrel more than +beggars? who does more earnestly long for a change than he that is +uneasy in his present circumstances? and who run to create +confusions with so desperate a boldness as those who, having +nothing to lose, hope to gain by them? If a king should fall under +such contempt or envy that he could not keep his subjects in their +duty but by oppression and ill usage, and by rendering them poor +and miserable, it were certainly better for him to quit his kingdom +than to retain it by such methods as make him, while he keeps the +name of authority, lose the majesty due to it. Nor is it so +becoming the dignity of a king to reign over beggars as over rich +and happy subjects. And therefore Fabricius, a man of a noble and +exalted temper, said 'he would rather govern rich men than be rich +himself; since for one man to abound in wealth and pleasure when +all about him are mourning and groaning, is to be a gaoler and not +a king.' He is an unskilful physician that cannot cure one disease +without casting his patient into another. So he that can find no +other way for correcting the errors of his people but by taking +from them the conveniences of life, shows that he knows not what it +is to govern a free nation. He himself ought rather to shake off +his sloth, or to lay down his pride, for the contempt or hatred +that his people have for him takes its rise from the vices in +himself. Let him live upon what belongs to him without wronging +others, and accommodate his expense to his revenue. Let him punish +crimes, and, by his wise conduct, let him endeavour to prevent +them, rather than be severe when he has suffered them to be too +common. Let him not rashly revive laws that are abrogated by +disuse, especially if they have been long forgotten and never +wanted. And let him never take any penalty for the breach of them +to which a judge would not give way in a private man, but would +look on him as a crafty and unjust person for pretending to it. To +these things I would add that law among the Macarians--a people +that live not far from Utopia--by which their king, on the day on +which he began to reign, is tied by an oath, confirmed by solemn +sacrifices, never to have at once above a thousand pounds of gold +in his treasures, or so much silver as is equal to that in value. +This law, they tell us, was made by an excellent king who had more +regard to the riches of his country than to his own wealth, and +therefore provided against the heaping up of so much treasure as +might impoverish the people. He thought that moderate sum might be +sufficient for any accident, if either the king had occasion for it +against the rebels, or the kingdom against the invasion of an +enemy; but that it was not enough to encourage a prince to invade +other men's rights--a circumstance that was the chief cause of his +making that law. He also thought that it was a good provision for +that free circulation of money so necessary for the course of +commerce and exchange. And when a king must distribute all those +extraordinary accessions that increase treasure beyond the due +pitch, it makes him less disposed to oppress his subjects. Such a +king as this will be the terror of ill men, and will be beloved by +all the good. + +"If, I say, I should talk of these or such-like things to men that +had taken their bias another way, how deaf would they be to all I +could say!" "No doubt, very deaf," answered I; "and no wonder, for +one is never to offer propositions or advice that we are certain +will not be entertained. Discourses so much out of the road could +not avail anything, nor have any effect on men whose minds were +prepossessed with different sentiments. This philosophical way of +speculation is not unpleasant among friends in a free conversation; +but there is no room for it in the courts of princes, where great +affairs are carried on by authority." "That is what I was saying," +replied he, "that there is no room for philosophy in the courts of +princes." "Yes, there is," said I, "but not for this speculative +philosophy, that makes everything to be alike fitting at all times; +but there is another philosophy that is more pliable, that knows +its proper scene, accommodates itself to it, and teaches a man with +propriety and decency to act that part which has fallen to his +share. If when one of Plautus' comedies is upon the stage, and a +company of servants are acting their parts, you should come out in +the garb of a philosopher, and repeat, out of Octavia, a discourse +of Seneca's to Nero, would it not be better for you to say nothing +than by mixing things of such different natures to make an +impertinent tragi-comedy? for you spoil and corrupt the play that +is in hand when you mix with it things of an opposite nature, even +though they are much better. Therefore go through with the play +that is acting the best you can, and do not confound it because +another that is pleasanter comes into your thoughts. It is even so +in a commonwealth and in the councils of princes; if ill opinions +cannot be quite rooted out, and you cannot cure some received vice +according to your wishes, you must not, therefore, abandon the +commonwealth, for the same reasons as you should not forsake the +ship in a storm because you cannot command the winds. You are not +obliged to assault people with discourses that are out of their +road, when you see that their received notions must prevent your +making an impression upon them: you ought rather to cast about and +to manage things with all the dexterity in your power, so that, if +you are not able to make them go well, they may be as little ill as +possible; for, except all men were good, everything cannot be +right, and that is a blessing that I do not at present hope to +see." "According to your argument," answered he, "all that I could +be able to do would be to preserve myself from being mad while I +endeavoured to cure the madness of others; for, if I speak with, I +must repeat what I have said to you; and as for lying, whether a +philosopher can do it or not I cannot tell: I am sure I cannot do +it. But though these discourses may be uneasy and ungrateful to +them, I do not see why they should seem foolish or extravagant; +indeed, if I should either propose such things as Plato has +contrived in his 'Commonwealth,' or as the Utopians practise in +theirs, though they might seem better, as certainly they are, yet +they are so different from our establishment, which is founded on +property (there being no such thing among them), that I could not +expect that it would have any effect on them. But such discourses +as mine, which only call past evils to mind and give warning of +what may follow, leave nothing in them that is so absurd that they +may not be used at any time, for they can only be unpleasant to +those who are resolved to run headlong the contrary way; and if we +must let alone everything as absurd or extravagant--which, by +reason of the wicked lives of many, may seem uncouth--we must, even +among Christians, give over pressing the greatest part of those +things that Christ hath taught us, though He has commanded us not +to conceal them, but to proclaim on the housetops that which He +taught in secret. The greatest parts of His precepts are more +opposite to the lives of the men of this age than any part of my +discourse has been, but the preachers seem to have learned that +craft to which you advise me: for they, observing that the world +would not willingly suit their lives to the rules that Christ has +given, have fitted His doctrine, as if it had been a leaden rule, +to their lives, that so, some way or other, they might agree with +one another. But I see no other effect of this compliance except +it be that men become more secure in their wickedness by it; and +this is all the success that I can have in a court, for I must +always differ from the rest, and then I shall signify nothing; or, +if I agree with them, I shall then only help forward their madness. +I do not comprehend what you mean by your 'casting about,' or by +'the bending and handling things so dexterously that, if they go +not well, they may go as little ill as may be;' for in courts they +will not bear with a man's holding his peace or conniving at what +others do: a man must barefacedly approve of the worst counsels +and consent to the blackest designs, so that he would pass for a +spy, or, possibly, for a traitor, that did but coldly approve of +such wicked practices; and therefore when a man is engaged in such +a society, he will be so far from being able to mend matters by his +'casting about,' as you call it, that he will find no occasions of +doing any good--the ill company will sooner corrupt him than be the +better for him; or if, notwithstanding all their ill company, he +still remains steady and innocent, yet their follies and knavery +will be imputed to him; and, by mixing counsels with them, he must +bear his share of all the blame that belongs wholly to others. + +"It was no ill simile by which Plato set forth the unreasonableness +of a philosopher's meddling with government. 'If a man,' says he, +'were to see a great company run out every day into the rain and +take delight in being wet--if he knew that it would be to no +purpose for him to go and persuade them to return to their houses +in order to avoid the storm, and that all that could be expected by +his going to speak to them would be that he himself should be as +wet as they, it would be best for him to keep within doors, and, +since he had not influence enough to correct other people's folly, +to take care to preserve himself.' + +"Though, to speak plainly my real sentiments, I must freely own +that as long as there is any property, and while money is the +standard of all other things, I cannot think that a nation can be +governed either justly or happily: not justly, because the best +things will fall to the share of the worst men; nor happily, +because all things will be divided among a few (and even these are +not in all respects happy), the rest being left to be absolutely +miserable. Therefore, when I reflect on the wise and good +constitution of the Utopians, among whom all things are so well +governed and with so few laws, where virtue hath its due reward, +and yet there is such an equality that every man lives in plenty-- +when I compare with them so many other nations that are still +making new laws, and yet can never bring their constitution to a +right regulation; where, notwithstanding every one has his +property, yet all the laws that they can invent have not the power +either to obtain or preserve it, or even to enable men certainly to +distinguish what is their own from what is another's, of which the +many lawsuits that every day break out, and are eternally +depending, give too plain a demonstration--when, I say, I balance +all these things in my thoughts, I grow more favourable to Plato, +and do not wonder that he resolved not to make any laws for such as +would not submit to a community of all things; for so wise a man +could not but foresee that the setting all upon a level was the +only way to make a nation happy; which cannot be obtained so long +as there is property, for when every man draws to himself all that +he can compass, by one title or another, it must needs follow that, +how plentiful soever a nation may be, yet a few dividing the wealth +of it among themselves, the rest must fall into indigence. So that +there will be two sorts of people among them, who deserve that +their fortunes should be interchanged--the former useless, but +wicked and ravenous; and the latter, who by their constant industry +serve the public more than themselves, sincere and modest men--from +whence I am persuaded that till property is taken away, there can +be no equitable or just distribution of things, nor can the world +be happily governed; for as long as that is maintained, the +greatest and the far best part of mankind, will be still oppressed +with a load of cares and anxieties. I confess, without taking it +quite away, those pressures that lie on a great part of mankind may +be made lighter, but they can never be quite removed; for if laws +were made to determine at how great an extent in soil, and at how +much money, every man must stop--to limit the prince, that he might +not grow too great; and to restrain the people, that they might not +become too insolent--and that none might factiously aspire to +public employments, which ought neither to be sold nor made +burdensome by a great expense, since otherwise those that serve in +them would be tempted to reimburse themselves by cheats and +violence, and it would become necessary to find out rich men for +undergoing those employments, which ought rather to be trusted to +the wise. These laws, I say, might have such effect as good diet +and care might have on a sick man whose recovery is desperate; they +might allay and mitigate the disease, but it could never be quite +healed, nor the body politic be brought again to a good habit as +long as property remains; and it will fall out, as in a +complication of diseases, that by applying a remedy to one sore you +will provoke another, and that which removes the one ill symptom +produces others, while the strengthening one part of the body +weakens the rest." "On the contrary," answered I, "it seems to me +that men cannot live conveniently where all things are common. How +can there be any plenty where every man will excuse himself from +labour? for as the hope of gain doth not excite him, so the +confidence that he has in other men's industry may make him +slothful. If people come to be pinched with want, and yet cannot +dispose of anything as their own, what can follow upon this but +perpetual sedition and bloodshed, especially when the reverence and +authority due to magistrates falls to the ground? for I cannot +imagine how that can be kept up among those that are in all things +equal to one another." "I do not wonder," said he, "that it +appears so to you, since you have no notion, or at least no right +one, of such a constitution; but if you had been in Utopia with me, +and had seen their laws and rules, as I did, for the space of five +years, in which I lived among them, and during which time I was so +delighted with them that indeed I should never have left them if it +had not been to make the discovery of that new world to the +Europeans, you would then confess that you had never seen a people +so well constituted as they." "You will not easily persuade me," +said Peter, "that any nation in that new world is better governed +than those among us; for as our understandings are not worse than +theirs, so our government (if I mistake not) being more ancient, a +long practice has helped us to find out many conveniences of life, +and some happy chances have discovered other things to us which no +man's understanding could ever have invented." "As for the +antiquity either of their government or of ours," said he, "you +cannot pass a true judgment of it unless you had read their +histories; for, if they are to be believed, they had towns among +them before these parts were so much as inhabited; and as for those +discoveries that have been either hit on by chance or made by +ingenious men, these might have happened there as well as here. I +do not deny but we are more ingenious than they are, but they +exceed us much in industry and application. They knew little +concerning us before our arrival among them. They call us all by a +general name of 'The nations that lie beyond the equinoctial line;' +for their chronicle mentions a shipwreck that was made on their +coast twelve hundred years ago, and that some Romans and Egyptians +that were in the ship, getting safe ashore, spent the rest of their +days amongst them; and such was their ingenuity that from this +single opportunity they drew the advantage of learning from those +unlooked-for guests, and acquired all the useful arts that were +then among the Romans, and which were known to these shipwrecked +men; and by the hints that they gave them they themselves found out +even some of those arts which they could not fully explain, so +happily did they improve that accident of having some of our people +cast upon their shore. But if such an accident has at any time +brought any from thence into Europe, we have been so far from +improving it that we do not so much as remember it, as, in +aftertimes perhaps, it will be forgot by our people that I was ever +there; for though they, from one such accident, made themselves +masters of all the good inventions that were among us, yet I +believe it would be long before we should learn or put in practice +any of the good institutions that are among them. And this is the +true cause of their being better governed and living happier than +we, though we come not short of them in point of understanding or +outward advantages." Upon this I said to him, "I earnestly beg you +would describe that island very particularly to us; be not too +short, but set out in order all things relating to their soil, +their rivers, their towns, their people, their manners, +constitution, laws, and, in a word, all that you imagine we desire +to know; and you may well imagine that we desire to know everything +concerning them of which we are hitherto ignorant." "I will do it +very willingly," said he, "for I have digested the whole matter +carefully, but it will take up some time." "Let us go, then," said +I, "first and dine, and then we shall have leisure enough." He +consented; we went in and dined, and after dinner came back and sat +down in the same place. I ordered my servants to take care that +none might come and interrupt us, and both Peter and I desired +Raphael to be as good as his word. When he saw that we were very +intent upon it he paused a little to recollect himself, and began +in this manner:- + +"The island of Utopia is in the middle two hundred miles broad, and +holds almost at the same breadth over a great part of it, but it +grows narrower towards both ends. Its figure is not unlike a +crescent. Between its horns the sea comes in eleven miles broad, +and spreads itself into a great bay, which is environed with land +to the compass of about five hundred miles, and is well secured +from winds. In this bay there is no great current; the whole coast +is, as it were, one continued harbour, which gives all that live in +the island great convenience for mutual commerce. But the entry +into the bay, occasioned by rocks on the one hand and shallows on +the other, is very dangerous. In the middle of it there is one +single rock which appears above water, and may, therefore, easily +be avoided; and on the top of it there is a tower, in which a +garrison is kept; the other rocks lie under water, and are very +dangerous. The channel is known only to the natives; so that if +any stranger should enter into the bay without one of their pilots +he would run great danger of shipwreck. For even they themselves +could not pass it safe if some marks that are on the coast did not +direct their way; and if these should be but a little shifted, any +fleet that might come against them, how great soever it were, would +be certainly lost. On the other side of the island there are +likewise many harbours; and the coast is so fortified, both by +nature and art, that a small number of men can hinder the descent +of a great army. But they report (and there remains good marks of +it to make it credible) that this was no island at first, but a +part of the continent. Utopus, that conquered it (whose name it +still carries, for Abraxa was its first name), brought the rude and +uncivilised inhabitants into such a good government, and to that +measure of politeness, that they now far excel all the rest of +mankind. Having soon subdued them, he designed to separate them +from the continent, and to bring the sea quite round them. To +accomplish this he ordered a deep channel to be dug, fifteen miles +long; and that the natives might not think he treated them like +slaves, he not only forced the inhabitants, but also his own +soldiers, to labour in carrying it on. As he set a vast number of +men to work, he, beyond all men's expectations, brought it to a +speedy conclusion. And his neighbours, who at first laughed at the +folly of the undertaking, no sooner saw it brought to perfection +than they were struck with admiration and terror. + +"There are fifty-four cities in the island, all large and well +built, the manners, customs, and laws of which are the same, and +they are all contrived as near in the same manner as the ground on +which they stand will allow. The nearest lie at least twenty-four +miles' distance from one another, and the most remote are not so +far distant but that a man can go on foot in one day from it to +that which lies next it. Every city sends three of their wisest +senators once a year to Amaurot, to consult about their common +concerns; for that is the chief town of the island, being situated +near the centre of it, so that it is the most convenient place for +their assemblies. The jurisdiction of every city extends at least +twenty miles, and, where the towns lie wider, they have much more +ground. No town desires to enlarge its bounds, for the people +consider themselves rather as tenants than landlords. They have +built, over all the country, farmhouses for husbandmen, which are +well contrived, and furnished with all things necessary for country +labour. Inhabitants are sent, by turns, from the cities to dwell +in them; no country family has fewer than forty men and women in +it, besides two slaves. There is a master and a mistress set over +every family, and over thirty families there is a magistrate. +Every year twenty of this family come back to the town after they +have stayed two years in the country, and in their room there are +other twenty sent from the town, that they may learn country work +from those that have been already one year in the country, as they +must teach those that come to them the next from the town. By this +means such as dwell in those country farms are never ignorant of +agriculture, and so commit no errors which might otherwise be fatal +and bring them under a scarcity of corn. But though there is every +year such a shifting of the husbandmen to prevent any man being +forced against his will to follow that hard course of life too +long, yet many among them take such pleasure in it that they desire +leave to continue in it many years. These husbandmen till the +ground, breed cattle, hew wood, and convey it to the towns either +by land or water, as is most convenient. They breed an infinite +multitude of chickens in a very curious manner; for the hens do not +sit and hatch them, but a vast number of eggs are laid in a gentle +and equal heat in order to be hatched, and they are no sooner out +of the shell, and able to stir about, but they seem to consider +those that feed them as their mothers, and follow them as other +chickens do the hen that hatched them. They breed very few horses, +but those they have are full of mettle, and are kept only for +exercising their youth in the art of sitting and riding them; for +they do not put them to any work, either of ploughing or carriage, +in which they employ oxen. For though their horses are stronger, +yet they find oxen can hold out longer; and as they are not subject +to so many diseases, so they are kept upon a less charge and with +less trouble. And even when they are so worn out that they are no +more fit for labour, they are good meat at last. They sow no corn +but that which is to be their bread; for they drink either wine, +cider or perry, and often water, sometimes boiled with honey or +liquorice, with which they abound; and though they know exactly how +much corn will serve every town and all that tract of country which +belongs to it, yet they sow much more and breed more cattle than +are necessary for their consumption, and they give that overplus of +which they make no use to their neighbours. When they want +anything in the country which it does not produce, they fetch that +from the town, without carrying anything in exchange for it. And +the magistrates of the town take care to see it given them; for +they meet generally in the town once a month, upon a festival day. +When the time of harvest comes, the magistrates in the country send +to those in the towns and let them know how many hands they will +need for reaping the harvest; and the number they call for being +sent to them, they commonly despatch it all in one day. + + +OF THEIR TOWNS, PARTICULARLY OF AMAUROT + + +"He that knows one of their towns knows them all--they are so like +one another, except where the situation makes some difference. I +shall therefore describe one of them, and none is so proper as +Amaurot; for as none is more eminent (all the rest yielding in +precedence to this, because it is the seat of their supreme +council), so there was none of them better known to me, I having +lived five years all together in it. + +"It lies upon the side of a hill, or, rather, a rising ground. Its +figure is almost square, for from the one side of it, which shoots +up almost to the top of the hill, it runs down, in a descent for +two miles, to the river Anider; but it is a little broader the +other way that runs along by the bank of that river. The Anider +rises about eighty miles above Amaurot, in a small spring at first. +But other brooks falling into it, of which two are more +considerable than the rest, as it runs by Amaurot it is grown half +a mile broad; but, it still grows larger and larger, till, after +sixty miles' course below it, it is lost in the ocean. Between the +town and the sea, and for some miles above the town, it ebbs and +flows every six hours with a strong current. The tide comes up +about thirty miles so full that there is nothing but salt water in +the river, the fresh water being driven back with its force; and +above that, for some miles, the water is brackish; but a little +higher, as it runs by the town, it is quite fresh; and when the +tide ebbs, it continues fresh all along to the sea. There is a +bridge cast over the river, not of timber, but of fair stone, +consisting of many stately arches; it lies at that part of the town +which is farthest from the sea, so that the ships, without any +hindrance, lie all along the side of the town. There is, likewise, +another river that runs by it, which, though it is not great, yet +it runs pleasantly, for it rises out of the same hill on which the +town stands, and so runs down through it and falls into the Anider. +The inhabitants have fortified the fountain-head of this river, +which springs a little without the towns; that so, if they should +happen to be besieged, the enemy might not be able to stop or +divert the course of the water, nor poison it; from thence it is +carried, in earthen pipes, to the lower streets. And for those +places of the town to which the water of that small river cannot be +conveyed, they have great cisterns for receiving the rain-water, +which supplies the want of the other. The town is compassed with a +high and thick wall, in which there are many towers and forts; +there is also a broad and deep dry ditch, set thick with thorns, +cast round three sides of the town, and the river is instead of a +ditch on the fourth side. The streets are very convenient for all +carriage, and are well sheltered from the winds. Their buildings +are good, and are so uniform that a whole side of a street looks +like one house. The streets are twenty feet broad; there lie +gardens behind all their houses. These are large, but enclosed +with buildings, that on all hands face the streets, so that every +house has both a door to the street and a back door to the garden. +Their doors have all two leaves, which, as they are easily opened, +so they shut of their own accord; and, there being no property +among them, every man may freely enter into any house whatsoever. +At every ten years' end they shift their houses by lots. They +cultivate their gardens with great care, so that they have both +vines, fruits, herbs, and flowers in them; and all is so well +ordered and so finely kept that I never saw gardens anywhere that +were both so fruitful and so beautiful as theirs. And this humour +of ordering their gardens so well is not only kept up by the +pleasure they find in it, but also by an emulation between the +inhabitants of the several streets, who vie with each other. And +there is, indeed, nothing belonging to the whole town that is both +more useful and more pleasant. So that he who founded the town +seems to have taken care of nothing more than of their gardens; for +they say the whole scheme of the town was designed at first by +Utopus, but he left all that belonged to the ornament and +improvement of it to be added by those that should come after him, +that being too much for one man to bring to perfection. Their +records, that contain the history of their town and State, are +preserved with an exact care, and run backwards seventeen hundred +and sixty years. From these it appears that their houses were at +first low and mean, like cottages, made of any sort of timber, and +were built with mud walls and thatched with straw. But now their +houses are three storeys high, the fronts of them are faced either +with stone, plastering, or brick, and between the facings of their +walls they throw in their rubbish. Their roofs are flat, and on +them they lay a sort of plaster, which costs very little, and yet +is so tempered that it is not apt to take fire, and yet resists the +weather more than lead. They have great quantities of glass among +them, with which they glaze their windows; they use also in their +windows a thin linen cloth, that is so oiled or gummed that it both +keeps out the wind and gives free admission to the light. + + +OF THEIR MAGISTRATES + + +"Thirty families choose every year a magistrate, who was anciently +called the Syphogrant, but is now called the Philarch; and over +every ten Syphogrants, with the families subject to them, there is +another magistrate, who was anciently called the Tranibore, but of +late the Archphilarch. All the Syphogrants, who are in number two +hundred, choose the Prince out of a list of four who are named by +the people of the four divisions of the city; but they take an +oath, before they proceed to an election, that they will choose him +whom they think most fit for the office: they give him their +voices secretly, so that it is not known for whom every one gives +his suffrage. The Prince is for life, unless he is removed upon +suspicion of some design to enslave the people. The Tranibors are +new chosen every year, but yet they are, for the most part, +continued; all their other magistrates are only annual. The +Tranibors meet every third day, and oftener if necessary, and +consult with the Prince either concerning the affairs of the State +in general, or such private differences as may arise sometimes +among the people, though that falls out but seldom. There are +always two Syphogrants called into the council chamber, and these +are changed every day. It is a fundamental rule of their +government, that no conclusion can be made in anything that relates +to the public till it has been first debated three several days in +their council. It is death for any to meet and consult concerning +the State, unless it be either in their ordinary council, or in the +assembly of the whole body of the people. + +"These things have been so provided among them that the Prince and +the Tranibors may not conspire together to change the government +and enslave the people; and therefore when anything of great +importance is set on foot, it is sent to the Syphogrants, who, +after they have communicated it to the families that belong to +their divisions, and have considered it among themselves, make +report to the senate; and, upon great occasions, the matter is +referred to the council of the whole island. One rule observed in +their council is, never to debate a thing on the same day in which +it is first proposed; for that is always referred to the next +meeting, that so men may not rashly and in the heat of discourse +engage themselves too soon, which might bias them so much that, +instead of consulting the good of the public, they might rather +study to support their first opinions, and by a perverse and +preposterous sort of shame hazard their country rather than +endanger their own reputation, or venture the being suspected to +have wanted foresight in the expedients that they at first +proposed; and therefore, to prevent this, they take care that they +may rather be deliberate than sudden in their motions. + + +OF THEIR TRADES, AND MANNER OF LIFE + + +"Agriculture is that which is so universally understood among them +that no person, either man or woman, is ignorant of it; they are +instructed in it from their childhood, partly by what they learn at +school, and partly by practice, they being led out often into the +fields about the town, where they not only see others at work but +are likewise exercised in it themselves. Besides agriculture, +which is so common to them all, every man has some peculiar trade +to which he applies himself; such as the manufacture of wool or +flax, masonry, smith's work, or carpenter's work; for there is no +sort of trade that is in great esteem among them. Throughout the +island they wear the same sort of clothes, without any other +distinction except what is necessary to distinguish the two sexes +and the married and unmarried. The fashion never alters, and as it +is neither disagreeable nor uneasy, so it is suited to the climate, +and calculated both for their summers and winters. Every family +makes their own clothes; but all among them, women as well as men, +learn one or other of the trades formerly mentioned. Women, for +the most part, deal in wool and flax, which suit best with their +weakness, leaving the ruder trades to the men. The same trade +generally passes down from father to son, inclinations often +following descent: but if any man's genius lies another way he is, +by adoption, translated into a family that deals in the trade to +which he is inclined; and when that is to be done, care is taken, +not only by his father, but by the magistrate, that he may be put +to a discreet and good man: and if, after a person has learned one +trade, he desires to acquire another, that is also allowed, and is +managed in the same manner as the former. When he has learned +both, he follows that which he likes best, unless the public has +more occasion for the other. + +The chief, and almost the only, business of the Syphogrants is to +take care that no man may live idle, but that every one may follow +his trade diligently; yet they do not wear themselves out with +perpetual toil from morning to night, as if they were beasts of +burden, which as it is indeed a heavy slavery, so it is everywhere +the common course of life amongst all mechanics except the +Utopians: but they, dividing the day and night into twenty-four +hours, appoint six of these for work, three of which are before +dinner and three after; they then sup, and at eight o'clock, +counting from noon, go to bed and sleep eight hours: the rest of +their time, besides that taken up in work, eating, and sleeping, is +left to every man's discretion; yet they are not to abuse that +interval to luxury and idleness, but must employ it in some proper +exercise, according to their various inclinations, which is, for +the most part, reading. It is ordinary to have public lectures +every morning before daybreak, at which none are obliged to appear +but those who are marked out for literature; yet a great many, both +men and women, of all ranks, go to hear lectures of one sort or +other, according to their inclinations: but if others that are not +made for contemplation, choose rather to employ themselves at that +time in their trades, as many of them do, they are not hindered, +but are rather commended, as men that take care to serve their +country. After supper they spend an hour in some diversion, in +summer in their gardens, and in winter in the halls where they eat, +where they entertain each other either with music or discourse. +They do not so much as know dice, or any such foolish and +mischievous games. They have, however, two sorts of games not +unlike our chess; the one is between several numbers, in which one +number, as it were, consumes another; the other resembles a battle +between the virtues and the vices, in which the enmity in the vices +among themselves, and their agreement against virtue, is not +unpleasantly represented; together with the special opposition +between the particular virtues and vices; as also the methods by +which vice either openly assaults or secretly undermines virtue; +and virtue, on the other hand, resists it. But the time appointed +for labour is to be narrowly examined, otherwise you may imagine +that since there are only six hours appointed for work, they may +fall under a scarcity of necessary provisions: but it is so far +from being true that this time is not sufficient for supplying them +with plenty of all things, either necessary or convenient, that it +is rather too much; and this you will easily apprehend if you +consider how great a part of all other nations is quite idle. +First, women generally do little, who are the half of mankind; and +if some few women are diligent, their husbands are idle: then +consider the great company of idle priests, and of those that are +called religious men; add to these all rich men, chiefly those that +have estates in land, who are called noblemen and gentlemen, +together with their families, made up of idle persons, that are +kept more for show than use; add to these all those strong and +lusty beggars that go about pretending some disease in excuse for +their begging; and upon the whole account you will find that the +number of those by whose labours mankind is supplied is much less +than you perhaps imagined: then consider how few of those that +work are employed in labours that are of real service, for we, who +measure all things by money, give rise to many trades that are both +vain and superfluous, and serve only to support riot and luxury: +for if those who work were employed only in such things as the +conveniences of life require, there would be such an abundance of +them that the prices of them would so sink that tradesmen could not +be maintained by their gains; if all those who labour about useless +things were set to more profitable employments, and if all they +that languish out their lives in sloth and idleness (every one of +whom consumes as much as any two of the men that are at work) were +forced to labour, you may easily imagine that a small proportion of +time would serve for doing all that is either necessary, +profitable, or pleasant to mankind, especially while pleasure is +kept within its due bounds: this appears very plainly in Utopia; +for there, in a great city, and in all the territory that lies +round it, you can scarce find five hundred, either men or women, by +their age and strength capable of labour, that are not engaged in +it. Even the Syphogrants, though excused by the law, yet do not +excuse themselves, but work, that by their examples they may excite +the industry of the rest of the people; the like exemption is +allowed to those who, being recommended to the people by the +priests, are, by the secret suffrages of the Syphogrants, +privileged from labour, that they may apply themselves wholly to +study; and if any of these fall short of those hopes that they +seemed at first to give, they are obliged to return to work; and +sometimes a mechanic that so employs his leisure hours as to make a +considerable advancement in learning is eased from being a +tradesman and ranked among their learned men. Out of these they +choose their ambassadors, their priests, their Tranibors, and the +Prince himself, anciently called their Barzenes, but is called of +late their Ademus. + +"And thus from the great numbers among them that are neither +suffered to be idle nor to be employed in any fruitless labour, you +may easily make the estimate how much may be done in those few +hours in which they are obliged to labour. But, besides all that +has been already said, it is to be considered that the needful arts +among them are managed with less labour than anywhere else. The +building or the repairing of houses among us employ many hands, +because often a thriftless heir suffers a house that his father +built to fall into decay, so that his successor must, at a great +cost, repair that which he might have kept up with a small charge; +it frequently happens that the same house which one person built at +a vast expense is neglected by another, who thinks he has a more +delicate sense of the beauties of architecture, and he, suffering +it to fall to ruin, builds another at no less charge. But among +the Utopians all things are so regulated that men very seldom build +upon a new piece of ground, and are not only very quick in +repairing their houses, but show their foresight in preventing +their decay, so that their buildings are preserved very long with +but very little labour, and thus the builders, to whom that care +belongs, are often without employment, except the hewing of timber +and the squaring of stones, that the materials may be in readiness +for raising a building very suddenly when there is any occasion for +it. As to their clothes, observe how little work is spent in them; +while they are at labour they are clothed with leather and skins, +cut carelessly about them, which will last seven years, and when +they appear in public they put on an upper garment which hides the +other; and these are all of one colour, and that is the natural +colour of the wool. As they need less woollen cloth than is used +anywhere else, so that which they make use of is much less costly; +they use linen cloth more, but that is prepared with less labour, +and they value cloth only by the whiteness of the linen or the +cleanness of the wool, without much regard to the fineness of the +thread. While in other places four or five upper garments of +woollen cloth of different colours, and as many vests of silk, will +scarce serve one man, and while those that are nicer think ten too +few, every man there is content with one, which very often serves +him two years; nor is there anything that can tempt a man to desire +more, for if he had them he would neither be the, warmer nor would +he make one jot the better appearance for it. And thus, since they +are all employed in some useful labour, and since they content +themselves with fewer things, it falls out that there is a great +abundance of all things among them; so that it frequently happens +that, for want of other work, vast numbers are sent out to mend the +highways; but when no public undertaking is to be performed, the +hours of working are lessened. The magistrates never engage the +people in unnecessary labour, since the chief end of the +constitution is to regulate labour by the necessities of the +public, and to allow the people as much time as is necessary for +the improvement of their minds, in which they think the happiness +of life consists. + + +OF THEIR TRAFFIC + + +"But it is now time to explain to you the mutual intercourse of +this people, their commerce, and the rules by which all things are +distributed among them. + +"As their cities are composed of families, so their families are +made up of those that are nearly related to one another. Their +women, when they grow up, are married out, but all the males, both +children and grandchildren, live still in the same house, in great +obedience to their common parent, unless age has weakened his +understanding, and in that case he that is next to him in age comes +in his room; but lest any city should become either too great, or +by any accident be dispeopled, provision is made that none of their +cities may contain above six thousand families, besides those of +the country around it. No family may have less than ten and more +than sixteen persons in it, but there can be no determined number +for the children under age; this rule is easily observed by +removing some of the children of a more fruitful couple to any +other family that does not abound so much in them. By the same +rule they supply cities that do not increase so fast from others +that breed faster; and if there is any increase over the whole +island, then they draw out a number of their citizens out of the +several towns and send them over to the neighbouring continent, +where, if they find that the inhabitants have more soil than they +can well cultivate, they fix a colony, taking the inhabitants into +their society if they are willing to live with them; and where they +do that of their own accord, they quickly enter into their method +of life and conform to their rules, and this proves a happiness to +both nations; for, according to their constitution, such care is +taken of the soil that it becomes fruitful enough for both, though +it might be otherwise too narrow and barren for any one of them. +But if the natives refuse to conform themselves to their laws they +drive them out of those bounds which they mark out for themselves, +and use force if they resist, for they account it a very just cause +of war for a nation to hinder others from possessing a part of that +soil of which they make no use, but which is suffered to lie idle +and uncultivated, since every man has, by the law of nature, a +right to such a waste portion of the earth as is necessary for his +subsistence. If an accident has so lessened the number of the +inhabitants of any of their towns that it cannot be made up from +the other towns of the island without diminishing them too much +(which is said to have fallen out but twice since they were first a +people, when great numbers were carried off by the plague), the +loss is then supplied by recalling as many as are wanted from their +colonies, for they will abandon these rather than suffer the towns +in the island to sink too low. + +"But to return to their manner of living in society: the oldest +man of every family, as has been already said, is its governor; +wives serve their husbands, and children their parents, and always +the younger serves the elder. Every city is divided into four +equal parts, and in the middle of each there is a market-place. +What is brought thither, and manufactured by the several families, +is carried from thence to houses appointed for that purpose, in +which all things of a sort are laid by themselves; and thither +every father goes, and takes whatsoever he or his family stand in +need of, without either paying for it or leaving anything in +exchange. There is no reason for giving a denial to any person, +since there is such plenty of everything among them; and there is +no danger of a man's asking for more than he needs; they have no +inducements to do this, since they are sure they shall always be +supplied: it is the fear of want that makes any of the whole race +of animals either greedy or ravenous; but, besides fear, there is +in man a pride that makes him fancy it a particular glory to excel +others in pomp and excess; but by the laws of the Utopians, there +is no room for this. Near these markets there are others for all +sorts of provisions, where there are not only herbs, fruits, and +bread, but also fish, fowl, and cattle. There are also, without +their towns, places appointed near some running water for killing +their beasts and for washing away their filth, which is done by +their slaves; for they suffer none of their citizens to kill their +cattle, because they think that pity and good-nature, which are +among the best of those affections that are born with us, are much +impaired by the butchering of animals; nor do they suffer anything +that is foul or unclean to be brought within their towns, lest the +air should be infected by ill-smells, which might prejudice their +health. In every street there are great halls, that lie at an +equal distance from each other, distinguished by particular names. +The Syphogrants dwell in those that are set over thirty families, +fifteen lying on one side of it, and as many on the other. In +these halls they all meet and have their repasts; the stewards of +every one of them come to the market-place at an appointed hour, +and according to the number of those that belong to the hall they +carry home provisions. But they take more care of their sick than +of any others; these are lodged and provided for in public +hospitals. They have belonging to every town four hospitals, that +are built without their walls, and are so large that they may pass +for little towns; by this means, if they had ever such a number of +sick persons, they could lodge them conveniently, and at such a +distance that such of them as are sick of infectious diseases may +be kept so far from the rest that there can be no danger of +contagion. The hospitals are furnished and stored with all things +that are convenient for the ease and recovery of the sick; and +those that are put in them are looked after with such tender and +watchful care, and are so constantly attended by their skilful +physicians, that as none is sent to them against their will, so +there is scarce one in a whole town that, if he should fall ill, +would not choose rather to go thither than lie sick at home. + +"After the steward of the hospitals has taken for the sick +whatsoever the physician prescribes, then the best things that are +left in the market are distributed equally among the halls in +proportion to their numbers; only, in the first place, they serve +the Prince, the Chief Priest, the Tranibors, the Ambassadors, and +strangers, if there are any, which, indeed, falls out but seldom, +and for whom there are houses, well furnished, particularly +appointed for their reception when they come among them. At the +hours of dinner and supper the whole Syphogranty being called +together by sound of trumpet, they meet and eat together, except +only such as are in the hospitals or lie sick at home. Yet, after +the halls are served, no man is hindered to carry provisions home +from the marketplace, for they know that none does that but for +some good reason; for though any that will may eat at home, yet +none does it willingly, since it is both ridiculous and foolish for +any to give themselves the trouble to make ready an ill dinner at +home when there is a much more plentiful one made ready for him so +near hand. All the uneasy and sordid services about these halls +are performed by their slaves; but the dressing and cooking their +meat, and the ordering their tables, belong only to the women, all +those of every family taking it by turns. They sit at three or +more tables, according to their number; the men sit towards the +wall, and the women sit on the other side, that if any of them +should be taken suddenly ill, which is no uncommon case amongst +women with child, she may, without disturbing the rest, rise and go +to the nurses' room (who are there with the sucking children), +where there is always clean water at hand and cradles, in which +they may lay the young children if there is occasion for it, and a +fire, that they may shift and dress them before it. Every child is +nursed by its own mother if death or sickness does not intervene; +and in that case the Syphogrants' wives find out a nurse quickly, +which is no hard matter, for any one that can do it offers herself +cheerfully; for as they are much inclined to that piece of mercy, +so the child whom they nurse considers the nurse as its mother. +All the children under five years old sit among the nurses; the +rest of the younger sort of both sexes, till they are fit for +marriage, either serve those that sit at table, or, if they are not +strong enough for that, stand by them in great silence and eat what +is given them; nor have they any other formality of dining. In the +middle of the first table, which stands across the upper end of the +hall, sit the Syphogrant and his wife, for that is the chief and +most conspicuous place; next to him sit two of the most ancient, +for there go always four to a mess. If there is a temple within +the Syphogranty, the Priest and his wife sit with the Syphogrant +above all the rest; next them there is a mixture of old and young, +who are so placed that as the young are set near others, so they +are mixed with the more ancient; which, they say, was appointed on +this account: that the gravity of the old people, and the +reverence that is due to them, might restrain the younger from all +indecent words and gestures. Dishes are not served up to the whole +table at first, but the best are first set before the old, whose +seats are distinguished from the young, and, after them, all the +rest are served alike. The old men distribute to the younger any +curious meats that happen to be set before them, if there is not +such an abundance of them that the whole company may be served +alike. + +"Thus old men are honoured with a particular respect, yet all the +rest fare as well as they. Both dinner and supper are begun with +some lecture of morality that is read to them; but it is so short +that it is not tedious nor uneasy to them to hear it. From hence +the old men take occasion to entertain those about them with some +useful and pleasant enlargements; but they do not engross the whole +discourse so to themselves during their meals that the younger may +not put in for a share; on the contrary, they engage them to talk, +that so they may, in that free way of conversation, find out the +force of every one's spirit and observe his temper. They despatch +their dinners quickly, but sit long at supper, because they go to +work after the one, and are to sleep after the other, during which +they think the stomach carries on the concoction more vigorously. +They never sup without music, and there is always fruit served up +after meat; while they are at table some burn perfumes and sprinkle +about fragrant ointments and sweet waters--in short, they want +nothing that may cheer up their spirits; they give themselves a +large allowance that way, and indulge themselves in all such +pleasures as are attended with no inconvenience. Thus do those +that are in the towns live together; but in the country, where they +live at a great distance, every one eats at home, and no family +wants any necessary sort of provision, for it is from them that +provisions are sent unto those that live in the towns. + + +OF THE TRAVELLING OF THE UTOPIANS + + +If any man has a mind to visit his friends that live in some other +town, or desires to travel and see the rest of the country, he +obtains leave very easily from the Syphogrant and Tranibors, when +there is no particular occasion for him at home. Such as travel +carry with them a passport from the Prince, which both certifies +the licence that is granted for travelling, and limits the time of +their return. They are furnished with a waggon and a slave, who +drives the oxen and looks after them; but, unless there are women +in the company, the waggon is sent back at the end of the journey +as a needless encumbrance. While they are on the road they carry +no provisions with them, yet they want for nothing, but are +everywhere treated as if they were at home. If they stay in any +place longer than a night, every one follows his proper occupation, +and is very well used by those of his own trade; but if any man +goes out of the city to which he belongs without leave, and is +found rambling without a passport, he is severely treated, he is +punished as a fugitive, and sent home disgracefully; and, if he +falls again into the like fault, is condemned to slavery. If any +man has a mind to travel only over the precinct of his own city, he +may freely do it, with his father's permission and his wife's +consent; but when he comes into any of the country houses, if he +expects to be entertained by them, he must labour with them and +conform to their rules; and if he does this, he may freely go over +the whole precinct, being then as useful to the city to which he +belongs as if he were still within it. Thus you see that there are +no idle persons among them, nor pretences of excusing any from +labour. There are no taverns, no alehouses, nor stews among them, +nor any other occasions of corrupting each other, of getting into +corners, or forming themselves into parties; all men live in full +view, so that all are obliged both to perform their ordinary task +and to employ themselves well in their spare hours; and it is +certain that a people thus ordered must live in great abundance of +all things, and these being equally distributed among them, no man +can want or be obliged to beg. + +"In their great council at Amaurot, to which there are three sent +from every town once a year, they examine what towns abound in +provisions and what are under any scarcity, that so the one may be +furnished from the other; and this is done freely, without any sort +of exchange; for, according to their plenty or scarcity, they +supply or are supplied from one another, so that indeed the whole +island is, as it were, one family. When they have thus taken care +of their whole country, and laid up stores for two years (which +they do to prevent the ill consequences of an unfavourable season), +they order an exportation of the overplus, both of corn, honey, +wool, flax, wood, wax, tallow, leather, and cattle, which they send +out, commonly in great quantities, to other nations. They order a +seventh part of all these goods to be freely given to the poor of +the countries to which they send them, and sell the rest at +moderate rates; and by this exchange they not only bring back those +few things that they need at home (for, indeed, they scarce need +anything but iron), but likewise a great deal of gold and silver; +and by their driving this trade so long, it is not to be imagined +how vast a treasure they have got among them, so that now they do +not much care whether they sell off their merchandise for money in +hand or upon trust. A great part of their treasure is now in +bonds; but in all their contracts no private man stands bound, but +the writing runs in the name of the town; and the towns that owe +them money raise it from those private hands that owe it to them, +lay it up in their public chamber, or enjoy the profit of it till +the Utopians call for it; and they choose rather to let the +greatest part of it lie in their hands, who make advantage by it, +than to call for it themselves; but if they see that any of their +other neighbours stand more in need of it, then they call it in and +lend it to them. Whenever they are engaged in war, which is the +only occasion in which their treasure can be usefully employed, +they make use of it themselves; in great extremities or sudden +accidents they employ it in hiring foreign troops, whom they more +willingly expose to danger than their own people; they give them +great pay, knowing well that this will work even on their enemies; +that it will engage them either to betray their own side, or, at +least, to desert it; and that it is the best means of raising +mutual jealousies among them. For this end they have an incredible +treasure; but they do not keep it as a treasure, but in such a +manner as I am almost afraid to tell, lest you think it so +extravagant as to be hardly credible. This I have the more reason +to apprehend because, if I had not seen it myself, I could not have +been easily persuaded to have believed it upon any man's report. + +"It is certain that all things appear incredible to us in +proportion as they differ from known customs; but one who can judge +aright will not wonder to find that, since their constitution +differs so much from ours, their value of gold and silver should be +measured by a very different standard; for since they have no use +for money among themselves, but keep it as a provision against +events which seldom happen, and between which there are generally +long intervening intervals, they value it no farther than it +deserves--that is, in proportion to its use. So that it is plain +they must prefer iron either to gold or silver, for men can no more +live without iron than without fire or water; but Nature has marked +out no use for the other metals so essential as not easily to be +dispensed with. The folly of men has enhanced the value of gold +and silver because of their scarcity; whereas, on the contrary, it +is their opinion that Nature, as an indulgent parent, has freely +given us all the best things in great abundance, such as water and +earth, but has laid up and hid from us the things that are vain and +useless. + +"If these metals were laid up in any tower in the kingdom it would +raise a jealousy of the Prince and Senate, and give birth to that +foolish mistrust into which the people are apt to fall--a jealousy +of their intending to sacrifice the interest of the public to their +own private advantage. If they should work it into vessels, or any +sort of plate, they fear that the people might grow too fond of it, +and so be unwilling to let the plate be run down, if a war made it +necessary, to employ it in paying their soldiers. To prevent all +these inconveniences they have fallen upon an expedient which, as +it agrees with their other policy, so is it very different from +ours, and will scarce gain belief among us who value gold so much, +and lay it up so carefully. They eat and drink out of vessels of +earth or glass, which make an agreeable appearance, though formed +of brittle materials; while they make their chamber-pots and close- +stools of gold and silver, and that not only in their public halls +but in their private houses. Of the same metals they likewise make +chains and fetters for their slaves, to some of which, as a badge +of infamy, they hang an earring of gold, and make others wear a +chain or a coronet of the same metal; and thus they take care by +all possible means to render gold and silver of no esteem; and from +hence it is that while other nations part with their gold and +silver as unwillingly as if one tore out their bowels, those of +Utopia would look on their giving in all they possess of those +metals (when there were any use for them) but as the parting with a +trifle, or as we would esteem the loss of a penny! They find +pearls on their coasts, and diamonds and carbuncles on their rocks; +they do not look after them, but, if they find them by chance, they +polish them, and with them they adorn their children, who are +delighted with them, and glory in them during their childhood; but +when they grow to years, and see that none but children use such +baubles, they of their own accord, without being bid by their +parents, lay them aside, and would be as much ashamed to use them +afterwards as children among us, when they come to years, are of +their puppets and other toys. + +"I never saw a clearer instance of the opposite impressions that +different customs make on people than I observed in the ambassadors +of the Anemolians, who came to Amaurot when I was there. As they +came to treat of affairs of great consequence, the deputies from +several towns met together to wait for their coming. The +ambassadors of the nations that lie near Utopia, knowing their +customs, and that fine clothes are in no esteem among them, that +silk is despised, and gold is a badge of infamy, used to come very +modestly clothed; but the Anemolians, lying more remote, and having +had little commerce with them, understanding that they were +coarsely clothed, and all in the same manner, took it for granted +that they had none of those fine things among them of which they +made no use; and they, being a vainglorious rather than a wise +people, resolved to set themselves out with so much pomp that they +should look like gods, and strike the eyes of the poor Utopians +with their splendour. Thus three ambassadors made their entry with +a hundred attendants, all clad in garments of different colours, +and the greater part in silk; the ambassadors themselves, who were +of the nobility of their country, were in cloth-of-gold, and +adorned with massy chains, earrings and rings of gold; their caps +were covered with bracelets set full of pearls and other gems--in a +word, they were set out with all those things that among the +Utopians were either the badges of slavery, the marks of infamy, or +the playthings of children. It was not unpleasant to see, on the +one side, how they looked big, when they compared their rich habits +with the plain clothes of the Utopians, who were come out in great +numbers to see them make their entry; and, on the other, to observe +how much they were mistaken in the impression which they hoped this +pomp would have made on them. It appeared so ridiculous a show to +all that had never stirred out of their country, and had not seen +the customs of other nations, that though they paid some reverence +to those that were the most meanly clad, as if they had been the +ambassadors, yet when they saw the ambassadors themselves so full +of gold and chains, they looked upon them as slaves, and forbore to +treat them with reverence. You might have seen the children who +were grown big enough to despise their playthings, and who had +thrown away their jewels, call to their mothers, push them gently, +and cry out, 'See that great fool, that wears pearls and gems as if +he were yet a child!' while their mothers very innocently replied, +'Hold your peace! this, I believe, is one of the ambassadors' +fools.' Others censured the fashion of their chains, and observed, +'That they were of no use, for they were too slight to bind their +slaves, who could easily break them; and, besides, hung so loose +about them that they thought it easy to throw their away, and so +get from them." But after the ambassadors had stayed a day among +them, and saw so vast a quantity of gold in their houses (which was +as much despised by them as it was esteemed in other nations), and +beheld more gold and silver in the chains and fetters of one slave +than all their ornaments amounted to, their plumes fell, and they +were ashamed of all that glory for which they had formed valued +themselves, and accordingly laid it aside--a resolution that they +immediately took when, on their engaging in some free discourse +with the Utopians, they discovered their sense of such things and +their other customs. The Utopians wonder how any man should be so +much taken with the glaring doubtful lustre of a jewel or a stone, +that can look up to a star or to the sun himself; or how any should +value himself because his cloth is made of a finer thread; for, how +fine soever that thread may be, it was once no better than the +fleece of a sheep, and that sheep, was a sheep still, for all its +wearing it. They wonder much to hear that gold, which in itself is +so useless a thing, should be everywhere so much esteemed that even +man, for whom it was made, and by whom it has its value, should yet +be thought of less value than this metal; that a man of lead, who +has no more sense than a log of wood, and is as bad as he is +foolish, should have many wise and good men to serve him, only +because he has a great heap of that metal; and that if it should +happen that by some accident or trick of law (which, sometimes +produces as great changes as chance itself) all this wealth should +pass from the master to the meanest varlet of his whole family, he +himself would very soon become one of his servants, as if he were a +thing that belonged to his wealth, and so were bound to follow its +fortune! But they much more admire and detest the folly of those +who, when they see a rich man, though they neither owe him +anything, nor are in any sort dependent on his bounty, yet, merely +because he is rich, give him little less than divine honours, even +though they know him to be so covetous and base-minded that, +notwithstanding all his wealth, he will not part with one farthing +of it to them as long as he lives! + +"These and such like notions have that people imbibed, partly from +their education, being bred in a country whose customs and laws are +opposite to all such foolish maxims, and partly from their learning +and studies--for though there are but few in any town that are so +wholly excused from labour as to give themselves entirely up to +their studies (these being only such persons as discover from their +childhood an extraordinary capacity and disposition for letters), +yet their children and a great part of the nation, both men and +women, are taught to spend those hours in which they are not +obliged to work in reading; and this they do through the whole +progress of life. They have all their learning in their own +tongue, which is both a copious and pleasant language, and in which +a man can fully express his mind; it runs over a great tract of +many countries, but it is not equally pure in all places. They had +never so much as heard of the names of any of those philosophers +that are so famous in these parts of the world, before we went +among them; and yet they had made the same discoveries as the +Greeks, both in music, logic, arithmetic, and geometry. But as +they are almost in everything equal to the ancient philosophers, so +they far exceed our modern logicians for they have never yet fallen +upon the barbarous niceties that our youth are forced to learn in +those trifling logical schools that are among us. They are so far +from minding chimeras and fantastical images made in the mind that +none of them could comprehend what we meant when we talked to them +of a man in the abstract as common to all men in particular (so +that though we spoke of him as a thing that we could point at with +our fingers, yet none of them could perceive him) and yet distinct +from every one, as if he were some monstrous Colossus or giant; +yet, for all this ignorance of these empty notions, they knew +astronomy, and were perfectly acquainted with the motions of the +heavenly bodies; and have many instruments, well contrived and +divided, by which they very accurately compute the course and +positions of the sun, moon, and stars. But for the cheat of +divining by the stars, by their oppositions or conjunctions, it has +not so much as entered into their thoughts. They have a particular +sagacity, founded upon much observation, in judging of the weather, +by which they know when they may look for rain, wind, or other +alterations in the air; but as to the philosophy of these things, +the cause of the saltness of the sea, of its ebbing and flowing, +and of the original and nature both of the heavens and the earth, +they dispute of them partly as our ancient philosophers have done, +and partly upon some new hypothesis, in which, as they differ from +them, so they do not in all things agree among themselves. + +"As to moral philosophy, they have the same disputes among them as +we have here. They examine what are properly good, both for the +body and the mind; and whether any outward thing can be called +truly GOOD, or if that term belong only to the endowments of the +soul. They inquire, likewise, into the nature of virtue and +pleasure. But their chief dispute is concerning the happiness of a +man, and wherein it consists--whether in some one thing or in a +great many. They seem, indeed, more inclinable to that opinion +that places, if not the whole, yet the chief part, of a man's +happiness in pleasure; and, what may seem more strange, they make +use of arguments even from religion, notwithstanding its severity +and roughness, for the support of that opinion so indulgent to +pleasure; for they never dispute concerning happiness without +fetching some arguments from the principles of religion as well as +from natural reason, since without the former they reckon that all +our inquiries after happiness must be but conjectural and +defective. + +"These are their religious principles:- That the soul of man is +immortal, and that God of His goodness has designed that it should +be happy; and that He has, therefore, appointed rewards for good +and virtuous actions, and punishments for vice, to be distributed +after this life. Though these principles of religion are conveyed +down among them by tradition, they think that even reason itself +determines a man to believe and acknowledge them; and freely +confess that if these were taken away, no man would be so +insensible as not to seek after pleasure by all possible means, +lawful or unlawful, using only this caution--that a lesser pleasure +might not stand in the way of a greater, and that no pleasure ought +to be pursued that should draw a great deal of pain after it; for +they think it the maddest thing in the world to pursue virtue, that +is a sour and difficult thing, and not only to renounce the +pleasures of life, but willingly to undergo much pain and trouble, +if a man has no prospect of a reward. And what reward can there be +for one that has passed his whole life, not only without pleasure, +but in pain, if there is nothing to be expected after death? Yet +they do not place happiness in all sorts of pleasures, but only in +those that in themselves are good and honest. There is a party +among them who place happiness in bare virtue; others think that +our natures are conducted by virtue to happiness, as that which is +the chief good of man. They define virtue thus--that it is a +living according to Nature, and think that we are made by God for +that end; they believe that a man then follows the dictates of +Nature when he pursues or avoids things according to the direction +of reason. They say that the first dictate of reason is the +kindling in us a love and reverence for the Divine Majesty, to whom +we owe both all that we have and, all that we can ever hope for. +In the next place, reason directs us to keep our minds as free from +passion and as cheerful as we can, and that we should consider +ourselves as bound by the ties of good-nature and humanity to use +our utmost endeavours to help forward the happiness of all other +persons; for there never was any man such a morose and severe +pursuer of virtue, such an enemy to pleasure, that though he set +hard rules for men to undergo, much pain, many watchings, and other +rigors, yet did not at the same time advise them to do all they +could in order to relieve and ease the miserable, and who did not +represent gentleness and good-nature as amiable dispositions. And +from thence they infer that if a man ought to advance the welfare +and comfort of the rest of mankind (there being no virtue more +proper and peculiar to our nature than to ease the miseries of +others, to free from trouble and anxiety, in furnishing them with +the comforts of life, in which pleasure consists) Nature much more +vigorously leads them to do all this for himself. A life of +pleasure is either a real evil, and in that case we ought not to +assist others in their pursuit of it, but, on the contrary, to keep +them from it all we can, as from that which is most hurtful and +deadly; or if it is a good thing, so that we not only may but ought +to help others to it, why, then, ought not a man to begin with +himself? since no man can be more bound to look after the good of +another than after his own; for Nature cannot direct us to be good +and kind to others, and yet at the same time to be unmerciful and +cruel to ourselves. Thus as they define virtue to be living +according to Nature, so they imagine that Nature prompts all people +on to seek after pleasure as the end of all they do. They also +observe that in order to our supporting the pleasures of life, +Nature inclines us to enter into society; for there is no man so +much raised above the rest of mankind as to be the only favourite +of Nature, who, on the contrary, seems to have placed on a level +all those that belong to the same species. Upon this they infer +that no man ought to seek his own conveniences so eagerly as to +prejudice others; and therefore they think that not only all +agreements between private persons ought to be observed, but +likewise that all those laws ought to be kept which either a good +prince has published in due form, or to which a people that is +neither oppressed with tyranny nor circumvented by fraud has +consented, for distributing those conveniences of life which afford +us all our pleasures. + +"They think it is an evidence of true wisdom for a man to pursue +his own advantage as far as the laws allow it, they account it +piety to prefer the public good to one's private concerns, but they +think it unjust for a man to seek for pleasure by snatching another +man's pleasures from him; and, on the contrary, they think it a +sign of a gentle and good soul for a man to dispense with his own +advantage for the good of others, and that by this means a good man +finds as much pleasure one way as he parts with another; for as he +may expect the like from others when he may come to need it, so, if +that should fail him, yet the sense of a good action, and the +reflections that he makes on the love and gratitude of those whom +he has so obliged, gives the mind more pleasure than the body could +have found in that from which it had restrained itself. They are +also persuaded that God will make up the loss of those small +pleasures with a vast and endless joy, of which religion easily +convinces a good soul. + +"Thus, upon an inquiry into the whole matter, they reckon that all +our actions, and even all our virtues, terminate in pleasure, as in +our chief end and greatest happiness; and they call every motion or +state, either of body or mind, in which Nature teaches us to +delight, a pleasure. Thus they cautiously limit pleasure only to +those appetites to which Nature leads us; for they say that Nature +leads us only to those delights to which reason, as well as sense, +carries us, and by which we neither injure any other person nor +lose the possession of greater pleasures, and of such as draw no +troubles after them. But they look upon those delights which men +by a foolish, though common, mistake call pleasure, as if they +could change as easily the nature of things as the use of words, as +things that greatly obstruct their real happiness, instead of +advancing it, because they so entirely possess the minds of those +that are once captivated by them with a false notion of pleasure +that there is no room left for pleasures of a truer or purer kind. + +"There are many things that in themselves have nothing that is +truly delightful; on the contrary, they have a good deal of +bitterness in them; and yet, from our perverse appetites after +forbidden objects, are not only ranked among the pleasures, but are +made even the greatest designs, of life. Among those who pursue +these sophisticated pleasures they reckon such as I mentioned +before, who think themselves really the better for having fine +clothes; in which they think they are doubly mistaken, both in the +opinion they have of their clothes, and in that they have of +themselves. For if you consider the use of clothes, why should a +fine thread be thought better than a coarse one? And yet these +men, as if they had some real advantages beyond others, and did not +owe them wholly to their mistakes, look big, seem to fancy +themselves to be more valuable, and imagine that a respect is due +to them for the sake of a rich garment, to which they would not +have pretended if they had been more meanly clothed, and even +resent it as an affront if that respect is not paid them. It is +also a great folly to be taken with outward marks of respect, which +signify nothing; for what true or real pleasure can one man find in +another's standing bare or making legs to him? Will the bending +another man's knees give ease to yours? and will the head's being +bare cure the madness of yours? And yet it is wonderful to see how +this false notion of pleasure bewitches many who delight themselves +with the fancy of their nobility, and are pleased with this +conceit--that they are descended from ancestors who have been held +for some successions rich, and who have had great possessions; for +this is all that makes nobility at present. Yet they do not think +themselves a whit the less noble, though their immediate parents +have left none of this wealth to them, or though they themselves +have squandered it away. The Utopians have no better opinion of +those who are much taken with gems and precious stones, and who +account it a degree of happiness next to a divine one if they can +purchase one that is very extraordinary, especially if it be of +that sort of stones that is then in greatest request, for the same +sort is not at all times universally of the same value, nor will +men buy it unless it be dismounted and taken out of the gold. The +jeweller is then made to give good security, and required solemnly +to swear that the stone is true, that, by such an exact caution, a +false one might not be bought instead of a true; though, if you +were to examine it, your eye could find no difference between the +counterfeit and that which is true; so that they are all one to +you, as much as if you were blind. Or can it be thought that they +who heap up a useless mass of wealth, not for any use that it is to +bring them, but merely to please themselves with the contemplation +of it, enjoy any true pleasure in it? The delight they find is +only a false shadow of joy. Those are no better whose error is +somewhat different from the former, and who hide it out of their +fear of losing it; for what other name can fit the hiding it in the +earth, or, rather, the restoring it to it again, it being thus cut +off from being useful either to its owner or to the rest of +mankind? And yet the owner, having hid it carefully, is glad, +because he thinks he is now sure of it. If it should be stole, the +owner, though he might live perhaps ten years after the theft, of +which he knew nothing, would find no difference between his having +or losing it, for both ways it was equally useless to him. + +"Among those foolish pursuers of pleasure they reckon all that +delight in hunting, in fowling, or gaming, of whose madness they +have only heard, for they have no such things among them. But they +have asked us, 'What sort of pleasure is it that men can find in +throwing the dice?' (for if there were any pleasure in it, they +think the doing it so often should give one a surfeit of it); 'and +what pleasure can one find in hearing the barking and howling of +dogs, which seem rather odious than pleasant sounds?' Nor can they +comprehend the pleasure of seeing dogs run after a hare, more than +of seeing one dog run after another; for if the seeing them run is +that which gives the pleasure, you have the same entertainment to +the eye on both these occasions, since that is the same in both +cases. But if the pleasure lies in seeing the hare killed and torn +by the dogs, this ought rather to stir pity, that a weak, harmless, +and fearful hare should be devoured by strong, fierce, and cruel +dogs. Therefore all this business of hunting is, among the +Utopians, turned over to their butchers, and those, as has been +already said, are all slaves, and they look on hunting as one of +the basest parts of a butcher's work, for they account it both more +profitable and more decent to kill those beasts that are more +necessary and useful to mankind, whereas the killing and tearing of +so small and miserable an animal can only attract the huntsman with +a false show of pleasure, from which he can reap but small +advantage. They look on the desire of the bloodshed, even of +beasts, as a mark of a mind that is already corrupted with cruelty, +or that at least, by too frequent returns of so brutal a pleasure, +must degenerate into it. + +"Thus though the rabble of mankind look upon these, and on +innumerable other things of the same nature, as pleasures, the +Utopians, on the contrary, observing that there is nothing in them +truly pleasant, conclude that they are not to be reckoned among +pleasures; for though these things may create some tickling in the +senses (which seems to be a true notion of pleasure), yet they +imagine that this does not arise from the thing itself, but from a +depraved custom, which may so vitiate a man's taste that bitter +things may pass for sweet, as women with child think pitch or +tallow taste sweeter than honey; but as a man's sense, when +corrupted either by a disease or some ill habit., does not change +the nature of other things, so neither can it change the nature of +pleasure. + +"They reckon up several sorts of pleasures, which they call true +ones; some belong to the body, and others to the mind. The +pleasures of the mind lie in knowledge, and in that delight which +the contemplation of truth carries with it; to which they add the +joyful reflections on a well-spent life, and the assured hopes of a +future happiness. They divide the pleasures of the body into two +sorts--the one is that which gives our senses some real delight, +and is performed either by recruiting Nature and supplying those +parts which feed the internal heat of life by eating and drinking, +or when Nature is eased of any surcharge that oppresses it, when we +are relieved from sudden pain, or that which arises from satisfying +the appetite which Nature has wisely given to lead us to the +propagation of the species. There is another kind of pleasure that +arises neither from our receiving what the body requires, nor its +being relieved when overcharged, and yet, by a secret unseen +virtue, affects the senses, raises the passions, and strikes the +mind with generous impressions--this is, the pleasure that arises +from music. Another kind of bodily pleasure is that which results +from an undisturbed and vigorous constitution of body, when life +and active spirits seem to actuate every part. This lively health, +when entirely free from all mixture of pain, of itself gives an +inward pleasure, independent of all external objects of delight; +and though this pleasure does not so powerfully affect us, nor act +so strongly on the senses as some of the others, yet it may be +esteemed as the greatest of all pleasures; and almost all the +Utopians reckon it the foundation and basis of all the other joys +of life, since this alone makes the state of life easy and +desirable, and when this is wanting, a man is really capable of no +other pleasure. They look upon freedom from pain, if it does not +rise from perfect health, to be a state of stupidity rather than of +pleasure. This subject has been very narrowly canvassed among +them, and it has been debated whether a firm and entire health +could be called a pleasure or not. Some have thought that there +was no pleasure but what was 'excited' by some sensible motion in +the body. But this opinion has been long ago excluded from among +them; so that now they almost universally agree that health is the +greatest of all bodily pleasures; and that as there is a pain in +sickness which is as opposite in its nature to pleasure as sickness +itself is to health, so they hold that health is accompanied with +pleasure. And if any should say that sickness is not really pain, +but that it only carries pain along with it, they look upon that as +a fetch of subtlety that does not much alter the matter. It is all +one, in their opinion, whether it be said that health is in itself +a pleasure, or that it begets a pleasure, as fire gives heat, so it +be granted that all those whose health is entire have a true +pleasure in the enjoyment of it. And they reason thus:- 'What is +the pleasure of eating, but that a man's health, which had been +weakened, does, with the assistance of food, drive away hunger, and +so recruiting itself, recovers its former vigour? And being thus +refreshed it finds a pleasure in that conflict; and if the conflict +is pleasure, the victory must yet breed a greater pleasure, except +we fancy that it becomes stupid as soon as it has obtained that +which it pursued, and so neither knows nor rejoices in its own +welfare.' If it is said that health cannot be felt, they +absolutely deny it; for what man is in health, that does not +perceive it when he is awake? Is there any man that is so dull and +stupid as not to acknowledge that he feels a delight in health? +And what is delight but another name for pleasure? + +"But, of all pleasures, they esteem those to be most valuable that +lie in the mind, the chief of which arise out of true virtue and +the witness of a good conscience. They account health the chief +pleasure that belongs to the body; for they think that the pleasure +of eating and drinking, and all the other delights of sense, are +only so far desirable as they give or maintain health; but they are +not pleasant in themselves otherwise than as they resist those +impressions that our natural infirmities are still making upon us. +For as a wise man desires rather to avoid diseases than to take +physic, and to be freed from pain rather than to find ease by +remedies, so it is more desirable not to need this sort of pleasure +than to be obliged to indulge it. If any man imagines that there +is a real happiness in these enjoyments, he must then confess that +he would be the happiest of all men if he were to lead his life in +perpetual hunger, thirst, and itching, and, by consequence, in +perpetual eating, drinking, and scratching himself; which any one +may easily see would be not only a base, but a miserable, state of +a life. These are, indeed, the lowest of pleasures, and the least +pure, for we can never relish them but when they are mixed with the +contrary pains. The pain of hunger must give us the pleasure of +eating, and here the pain out-balances the pleasure. And as the +pain is more vehement, so it lasts much longer; for as it begins +before the pleasure, so it does not cease but with the pleasure +that extinguishes it, and both expire together. They think, +therefore, none of those pleasures are to be valued any further +than as they are necessary; yet they rejoice in them, and with due +gratitude acknowledge the tenderness of the great Author of Nature, +who has planted in us appetites, by which those things that are +necessary for our preservation are likewise made pleasant to us. +For how miserable a thing would life be if those daily diseases of +hunger and thirst were to be carried off by such bitter drugs as we +must use for those diseases that return seldomer upon us! And thus +these pleasant, as well as proper, gifts of Nature maintain the +strength and the sprightliness of our bodies. + +"They also entertain themselves with the other delights let in at +their eyes, their ears, and their nostrils as the pleasant relishes +and seasoning of life, which Nature seems to have marked out +peculiarly for man, since no other sort of animals contemplates the +figure and beauty of the universe, nor is delighted with smells any +further than as they distinguish meats by them; nor do they +apprehend the concords or discords of sound. Yet, in all pleasures +whatsoever, they take care that a lesser joy does not hinder a +greater, and that pleasure may never breed pain, which they think +always follows dishonest pleasures. But they think it madness for +a man to wear out the beauty of his face or the force of his +natural strength, to corrupt the sprightliness of his body by sloth +and laziness, or to waste it by fasting; that it is madness to +weaken the strength of his constitution and reject the other +delights of life, unless by renouncing his own satisfaction he can +either serve the public or promote the happiness of others, for +which he expects a greater recompense from God. So that they look +on such a course of life as the mark of a mind that is both cruel +to itself and ungrateful to the Author of Nature, as if we would +not be beholden to Him for His favours, and therefore rejects all +His blessings; as one who should afflict himself for the empty +shadow of virtue, or for no better end than to render himself +capable of bearing those misfortunes which possibly will never +happen. + +"This is their notion of virtue and of pleasure: they think that +no man's reason can carry him to a truer idea of them unless some +discovery from heaven should inspire him with sublimer notions. I +have not now the leisure to examine whether they think right or +wrong in this matter; nor do I judge it necessary, for I have only +undertaken to give you an account of their constitution, but not to +defend all their principles. I am sure that whatever may be said +of their notions, there is not in the whole world either a better +people or a happier government. Their bodies are vigorous and +lively; and though they are but of a middle stature, and have +neither the fruitfullest soil nor the purest air in the world; yet +they fortify themselves so well, by their temperate course of life, +against the unhealthiness of their air, and by their industry they +so cultivate their soil, that there is nowhere to be seen a greater +increase, both of corn and cattle, nor are there anywhere healthier +men and freer from diseases; for one may there see reduced to +practice not only all the art that the husbandman employs in +manuring and improving an ill soil, but whole woods plucked up by +the roots, and in other places new ones planted, where there were +none before. Their principal motive for this is the convenience of +carriage, that their timber may be either near their towns or +growing on the banks of the sea, or of some rivers, so as to be +floated to them; for it is a harder work to carry wood at any +distance over land than corn. The people are industrious, apt to +learn, as well as cheerful and pleasant, and none can endure more +labour when it is necessary; but, except in that case, they love +their ease. They are unwearied pursuers of knowledge; for when we +had given them some hints of the learning and discipline of the +Greeks, concerning whom we only instructed them (for we know that +there was nothing among the Romans, except their historians and +their poets, that they would value much), it was strange to see how +eagerly they were set on learning that language: we began to read +a little of it to them, rather in compliance with their importunity +than out of any hopes of their reaping from it any great advantage: +but, after a very short trial, we found they made such progress, +that we saw our labour was like to be more successful than we could +have expected: they learned to write their characters and to +pronounce their language so exactly, had so quick an apprehension, +they remembered it so faithfully, and became so ready and correct +in the use of it, that it would have looked like a miracle if the +greater part of those whom we taught had not been men both of +extraordinary capacity and of a fit age for instruction: they +were, for the greatest part, chosen from among their learned men by +their chief council, though some studied it of their own accord. +In three years' time they became masters of the whole language, so +that they read the best of the Greek authors very exactly. I am, +indeed, apt to think that they learned that language the more +easily from its having some relation to their own. I believe that +they were a colony of the Greeks; for though their language comes +nearer the Persian, yet they retain many names, both for their +towns and magistrates, that are of Greek derivation. I happened to +carry a great many books with me, instead of merchandise, when I +sailed my fourth voyage; for I was so far from thinking of soon +coming back, that I rather thought never to have returned at all, +and I gave them all my books, among which were many of Plato's and +some of Aristotle's works: I had also Theophrastus on Plants, +which, to my great regret, was imperfect; for having laid it +carelessly by, while we were at sea, a monkey had seized upon it, +and in many places torn out the leaves. They have no books of +grammar but Lascares, for I did not carry Theodorus with me; nor +have they any dictionaries but Hesichius and Dioscerides. They +esteem Plutarch highly, and were much taken with Lucian's wit and +with his pleasant way of writing. As for the poets, they have +Aristophanes, Homer, Euripides, and Sophocles of Aldus's edition; +and for historians, Thucydides, Herodotus, and Herodian. One of my +companions, Thricius Apinatus, happened to carry with him some of +Hippocrates's works and Galen's Microtechne, which they hold in +great estimation; for though there is no nation in the world that +needs physic so little as they do, yet there is not any that +honours it so much; they reckon the knowledge of it one of the +pleasantest and most profitable parts of philosophy, by which, as +they search into the secrets of nature, so they not only find this +study highly agreeable, but think that such inquiries are very +acceptable to the Author of nature; and imagine, that as He, like +the inventors of curious engines amongst mankind, has exposed this +great machine of the universe to the view of the only creatures +capable of contemplating it, so an exact and curious observer, who +admires His workmanship, is much more acceptable to Him than one of +the herd, who, like a beast incapable of reason, looks on this +glorious scene with the eyes of a dull and unconcerned spectator. + +"The minds of the Utopians, when fenced with a love for learning, +are very ingenious in discovering all such arts as are necessary to +carry it to perfection. Two things they owe to us, the manufacture +of paper and the art of printing; yet they are not so entirely +indebted to us for these discoveries but that a great part of the +invention was their own. We showed them some books printed by +Aldus, we explained to them the way of making paper and the mystery +of printing; but, as we had never practised these arts, we +described them in a crude and superficial manner. They seized the +hints we gave them; and though at first they could not arrive at +perfection, yet by making many essays they at last found out and +corrected all their errors and conquered every difficulty. Before +this they only wrote on parchment, on reeds, or on the barks of +trees; but now they have established the manufactures of paper and +set up printing presses, so that, if they had but a good number of +Greek authors, they would be quickly supplied with many copies of +them: at present, though they have no more than those I have +mentioned, yet, by several impressions, they have multiplied them +into many thousands. If any man was to go among them that had some +extraordinary talent, or that by much travelling had observed the +customs of many nations (which made us to be so well received), he +would receive a hearty welcome, for they are very desirous to know +the state of the whole world. Very few go among them on the +account of traffic; for what can a man carry to them but iron, or +gold, or silver? which merchants desire rather to export than +import to a strange country: and as for their exportation, they +think it better to manage that themselves than to leave it to +foreigners, for by this means, as they understand the state of the +neighbouring countries better, so they keep up the art of +navigation which cannot be maintained but by much practice. + + +OF THEIR SLAVES, AND OF THEIR MARRIAGES + + +"They do not make slaves of prisoners of war, except those that are +taken in battle, nor of the sons of their slaves, nor of those of +other nations: the slaves among them are only such as are +condemned to that state of life for the commission of some crime, +or, which is more common, such as their merchants find condemned to +die in those parts to which they trade, whom they sometimes redeem +at low rates, and in other places have them for nothing. They are +kept at perpetual labour, and are always chained, but with this +difference, that their own natives are treated much worse than +others: they are considered as more profligate than the rest, and +since they could not be restrained by the advantages of so +excellent an education, are judged worthy of harder usage. Another +sort of slaves are the poor of the neighbouring countries, who +offer of their own accord to come and serve them: they treat these +better, and use them in all other respects as well as their own +countrymen, except their imposing more labour upon them, which is +no hard task to those that have been accustomed to it; and if any +of these have a mind to go back to their own country, which, +indeed, falls out but seldom, as they do not force them to stay, so +they do not send them away empty-handed. + +"I have already told you with what care they look after their sick, +so that nothing is left undone that can contribute either to their +case or health; and for those who are taken with fixed and +incurable diseases, they use all possible ways to cherish them and +to make their lives as comfortable as possible. They visit them +often and take great pains to make their time pass off easily; but +when any is taken with a torturing and lingering pain, so that +there is no hope either of recovery or ease, the priests and +magistrates come and exhort them, that, since they are now unable +to go on with the business of life, are become a burden to +themselves and to all about them, and they have really out-lived +themselves, they should no longer nourish such a rooted distemper, +but choose rather to die since they cannot live but in much misery; +being assured that if they thus deliver themselves from torture, or +are willing that others should do it, they shall be happy after +death: since, by their acting thus, they lose none of the +pleasures, but only the troubles of life, they think they behave +not only reasonably but in a manner consistent with religion and +piety; because they follow the advice given them by their priests, +who are the expounders of the will of God. Such as are wrought on +by these persuasions either starve themselves of their own accord, +or take opium, and by that means die without pain. But no man is +forced on this way of ending his life; and if they cannot be +persuaded to it, this does not induce them to fail in their +attendance and care of them: but as they believe that a voluntary +death, when it is chosen upon such an authority, is very +honourable, so if any man takes away his own life without the +approbation of the priests and the senate, they give him none of +the honours of a decent funeral, but throw his body into a ditch. + +"Their women are not married before eighteen nor their men before +two-and-twenty, and if any of them run into forbidden embraces +before marriage they are severely punished, and the privilege of +marriage is denied them unless they can obtain a special warrant +from the Prince. Such disorders cast a great reproach upon the +master and mistress of the family in which they happen, for it is +supposed that they have failed in their duty. The reason of +punishing this so severely is, because they think that if they were +not strictly restrained from all vagrant appetites, very few would +engage in a state in which they venture the quiet of their whole +lives, by being confined to one person, and are obliged to endure +all the inconveniences with which it is accompanied. In choosing +their wives they use a method that would appear to us very absurd +and ridiculous, but it is constantly observed among them, and is +accounted perfectly consistent with wisdom. Before marriage some +grave matron presents the bride, naked, whether she is a virgin or +a widow, to the bridegroom, and after that some grave man presents +the bridegroom, naked, to the bride. We, indeed, both laughed at +this, and condemned it as very indecent. But they, on the other +hand, wondered at the folly of the men of all other nations, who, +if they are but to buy a horse of a small value, are so cautious +that they will see every part of him, and take off both his saddle +and all his other tackle, that there may be no secret ulcer hid +under any of them, and that yet in the choice of a wife, on which +depends the happiness or unhappiness of the rest of his life, a man +should venture upon trust, and only see about a handsbreadth of the +face, all the rest of the body being covered, under which may lie +hid what may be contagious as well as loathsome. All men are not +so wise as to choose a woman only for her good qualities, and even +wise men consider the body as that which adds not a little to the +mind, and it is certain there may be some such deformity covered +with clothes as may totally alienate a man from his wife, when it +is too late to part with her; if such a thing is discovered after +marriage a man has no remedy but patience; they, therefore, think +it is reasonable that there should be good provision made against +such mischievous frauds. + +"There was so much the more reason for them to make a regulation in +this matter, because they are the only people of those parts that +neither allow of polygamy nor of divorces, except in the case of +adultery or insufferable perverseness, for in these cases the +Senate dissolves the marriage and grants the injured person leave +to marry again; but the guilty are made infamous and are never +allowed the privilege of a second marriage. None are suffered to +put away their wives against their wills, from any great calamity +that may have fallen on their persons, for they look on it as the +height of cruelty and treachery to abandon either of the married +persons when they need most the tender care of their consort, and +that chiefly in the case of old age, which, as it carries many +diseases along with it, so it is a disease of itself. But it +frequently falls out that when a married couple do not well agree, +they, by mutual consent, separate, and find out other persons with +whom they hope they may live more happily; yet this is not done +without obtaining leave of the Senate, which never admits of a +divorce but upon a strict inquiry made, both by the senators and +their wives, into the grounds upon which it is desired, and even +when they are satisfied concerning the reasons of it they go on but +slowly, for they imagine that too great easiness in granting leave +for new marriages would very much shake the kindness of married +people. They punish severely those that defile the marriage bed; +if both parties are married they are divorced, and the injured +persons may marry one another, or whom they please, but the +adulterer and the adulteress are condemned to slavery, yet if +either of the injured persons cannot shake off the love of the +married person they may live with them still in that state, but +they must follow them to that labour to which the slaves are +condemned, and sometimes the repentance of the condemned, together +with the unshaken kindness of the innocent and injured person, has +prevailed so far with the Prince that he has taken off the +sentence; but those that relapse after they are once pardoned are +punished with death. + +"Their law does not determine the punishment for other crimes, but +that is left to the Senate, to temper it according to the +circumstances of the fact. Husbands have power to correct their +wives and parents to chastise their children, unless the fault is +so great that a public punishment is thought necessary for striking +terror into others. For the most part slavery is the punishment +even of the greatest crimes, for as that is no less terrible to the +criminals themselves than death, so they think the preserving them +in a state of servitude is more for the interest of the +commonwealth than killing them, since, as their labour is a greater +benefit to the public than their death could be, so the sight of +their misery is a more lasting terror to other men than that which +would be given by their death. If their slaves rebel, and will not +bear their yoke and submit to the labour that is enjoined them, +they are treated as wild beasts that cannot be kept in order, +neither by a prison nor by their chains, and are at last put to +death. But those who bear their punishment patiently, and are so +much wrought on by that pressure that lies so hard on them, that it +appears they are really more troubled for the crimes they have +committed than for the miseries they suffer, are not out of hope, +but that, at last, either the Prince will, by his prerogative, or +the people, by their intercession, restore them again to their +liberty, or, at least, very much mitigate their slavery. He that +tempts a married woman to adultery is no less severely punished +than he that commits it, for they believe that a deliberate design +to commit a crime is equal to the fact itself, since its not taking +effect does not make the person that miscarried in his attempt at +all the less guilty. + +"They take great pleasure in fools, and as it is thought a base and +unbecoming thing to use them ill, so they do not think it amiss for +people to divert themselves with their folly; and, in their +opinion, this is a great advantage to the fools themselves; for if +men were so sullen and severe as not at all to please themselves +with their ridiculous behaviour and foolish sayings, which is all +that they can do to recommend themselves to others, it could not be +expected that they would be so well provided for nor so tenderly +used as they must otherwise be. If any man should reproach another +for his being misshaped or imperfect in any part of his body, it +would not at all be thought a reflection on the person so treated, +but it would be accounted scandalous in him that had upbraided +another with what he could not help. It is thought a sign of a +sluggish and sordid mind not to preserve carefully one's natural +beauty; but it is likewise infamous among them to use paint. They +all see that no beauty recommends a wife so much to her husband as +the probity of her life and her obedience; for as some few are +caught and held only by beauty, so all are attracted by the other +excellences which charm all the world. + +"As they fright men from committing crimes by punishments, so they +invite them to the love of virtue by public honours; therefore they +erect statues to the memories of such worthy men as have deserved +well of their country, and set these in their market-places, both +to perpetuate the remembrance of their actions and to be an +incitement to their posterity to follow their example. + +"If any man aspires to any office he is sure never to compass it. +They all live easily together, for none of the magistrates are +either insolent or cruel to the people; they affect rather to be +called fathers, and, by being really so, they well deserve the +name; and the people pay them all the marks of honour the more +freely because none are exacted from them. The Prince himself has +no distinction, either of garments or of a crown; but is only +distinguished by a sheaf of corn carried before him; as the High +Priest is also known by his being preceded by a person carrying a +wax light. + +"They have but few laws, and such is their constitution that they +need not many. They very much condemn other nations whose laws, +together with the commentaries on them, swell up to so many +volumes; for they think it an unreasonable thing to oblige men to +obey a body of laws that are both of such a bulk, and so dark as +not to be read and understood by every one of the subjects. + +"They have no lawyers among them, for they consider them as a sort +of people whose profession it is to disguise matters and to wrest +the laws, and, therefore, they think it is much better that every +man should plead his own cause, and trust it to the judge, as in +other places the client trusts it to a counsellor; by this means +they both cut off many delays and find out truth more certainly; +for after the parties have laid open the merits of the cause, +without those artifices which lawyers are apt to suggest, the judge +examines the whole matter, and supports the simplicity of such +well-meaning persons, whom otherwise crafty men would be sure to +run down; and thus they avoid those evils which appear very +remarkably among all those nations that labour under a vast load of +laws. Every one of them is skilled in their law; for, as it is a +very short study, so the plainest meaning of which words are +capable is always the sense of their laws; and they argue thus: +all laws are promulgated for this end, that every man may know his +duty; and, therefore, the plainest and most obvious sense of the +words is that which ought to be put upon them, since a more refined +exposition cannot be easily comprehended, and would only serve to +make the laws become useless to the greater part of mankind, and +especially to those who need most the direction of them; for it is +all one not to make a law at all or to couch it in such terms that, +without a quick apprehension and much study, a man cannot find out +the true meaning of it, since the generality of mankind are both so +dull, and so much employed in their several trades, that they have +neither the leisure nor the capacity requisite for such an inquiry. + +"Some of their neighbours, who are masters of their own liberties +(having long ago, by the assistance of the Utopians, shaken off the +yoke of tyranny, and being much taken with those virtues which they +observe among them), have come to desire that they would send +magistrates to govern them, some changing them every year, and +others every five years; at the end of their government they bring +them back to Utopia, with great expressions of honour and esteem, +and carry away others to govern in their stead. In this they seem +to have fallen upon a very good expedient for their own happiness +and safety; for since the good or ill condition of a nation depends +so much upon their magistrates, they could not have made a better +choice than by pitching on men whom no advantages can bias; for +wealth is of no use to them, since they must so soon go back to +their own country, and they, being strangers among them, are not +engaged in any of their heats or animosities; and it is certain +that when public judicatories are swayed, either by avarice or +partial affections, there must follow a dissolution of justice, the +chief sinew of society. + +"The Utopians call those nations that come and ask magistrates from +them Neighbours; but those to whom they have been of more +particular service, Friends; and as all other nations are +perpetually either making leagues or breaking them, they never +enter into an alliance with any state. They think leagues are +useless things, and believe that if the common ties of humanity do +not knit men together, the faith of promises will have no great +effect; and they are the more confirmed in this by what they see +among the nations round about them, who are no strict observers of +leagues and treaties. We know how religiously they are observed in +Europe, more particularly where the Christian doctrine is received, +among whom they are sacred and inviolable! which is partly owing to +the justice and goodness of the princes themselves, and partly to +the reverence they pay to the popes, who, as they are the most +religious observers of their own promises, so they exhort all other +princes to perform theirs, and, when fainter methods do not +prevail, they compel them to it by the severity of the pastoral +censure, and think that it would be the most indecent thing +possible if men who are particularly distinguished by the title of +'The Faithful' should not religiously keep the faith of their +treaties. But in that new-found world, which is not more distant +from us in situation than the people are in their manners and +course of life, there is no trusting to leagues, even though they +were made with all the pomp of the most sacred ceremonies; on the +contrary, they are on this account the sooner broken, some slight +pretence being found in the words of the treaties, which are +purposely couched in such ambiguous terms that they can never be so +strictly bound but they will always find some loophole to escape +at, and thus they break both their leagues and their faith; and +this is done with such impudence, that those very men who value +themselves on having suggested these expedients to their princes +would, with a haughty scorn, declaim against such craft; or, to +speak plainer, such fraud and deceit, if they found private men +make use of it in their bargains, and would readily say that they +deserved to be hanged. + +"By this means it is that all sort of justice passes in the world +for a low-spirited and vulgar virtue, far below the dignity of +royal greatness--or at least there are set up two sorts of justice; +the one is mean and creeps on the ground, and, therefore, becomes +none but the lower part of mankind, and so must be kept in severely +by many restraints, that it may not break out beyond the bounds +that are set to it; the other is the peculiar virtue of princes, +which, as it is more majestic than that which becomes the rabble, +so takes a freer compass, and thus lawful and unlawful are only +measured by pleasure and interest. These practices of the princes +that lie about Utopia, who make so little account of their faith, +seem to be the reasons that determine them to engage in no +confederacy. Perhaps they would change their mind if they lived +among us; but yet, though treaties were more religiously observed, +they would still dislike the custom of making them, since the world +has taken up a false maxim upon it, as if there were no tie of +nature uniting one nation to another, only separated perhaps by a +mountain or a river, and that all were born in a state of +hostility, and so might lawfully do all that mischief to their +neighbours against which there is no provision made by treaties; +and that when treaties are made they do not cut off the enmity or +restrain the licence of preying upon each other, if, by the +unskilfulness of wording them, there are not effectual provisoes +made against them; they, on the other hand, judge that no man is to +be esteemed our enemy that has never injured us, and that the +partnership of human nature is instead of a league; and that +kindness and good nature unite men more effectually and with +greater strength than any agreements whatsoever, since thereby the +engagements of men's hearts become stronger than the bond and +obligation of words. + + +OF THEIR MILITARY DISCIPLINE + + +They detest war as a very brutal thing, and which, to the reproach +of human nature, is more practised by men than by any sort of +beasts. They, in opposition to the sentiments of almost all other +nations, think that there is nothing more inglorious than that +glory that is gained by war; and therefore, though they accustom +themselves daily to military exercises and the discipline of war, +in which not only their men, but their women likewise, are trained +up, that, in cases of necessity, they may not be quite useless, yet +they do not rashly engage in war, unless it be either to defend +themselves or their friends from any unjust aggressors, or, out of +good nature or in compassion, assist an oppressed nation in shaking +off the yoke of tyranny. They, indeed, help their friends not only +in defensive but also in offensive wars; but they never do that +unless they had been consulted before the breach was made, and, +being satisfied with the grounds on which they went, they had found +that all demands of reparation were rejected, so that a war was +unavoidable. This they think to be not only just when one +neighbour makes an inroad on another by public order, and carries +away the spoils, but when the merchants of one country are +oppressed in another, either under pretence of some unjust laws, or +by the perverse wresting of good ones. This they count a juster +cause of war than the other, because those injuries are done under +some colour of laws. This was the only ground of that war in which +they engaged with the Nephelogetes against the Aleopolitanes, a +little before our time; for the merchants of the former having, as +they thought, met with great injustice among the latter, which +(whether it was in itself right or wrong) drew on a terrible war, +in which many of their neighbours were engaged; and their keenness +in carrying it on being supported by their strength in maintaining +it, it not only shook some very flourishing states and very much +afflicted others, but, after a series of much mischief ended in the +entire conquest and slavery of the Aleopolitanes, who, though +before the war they were in all respects much superior to the +Nephelogetes, were yet subdued; but, though the Utopians had +assisted them in the war, yet they pretended to no share of the +spoil + +"But, though they so vigorously assist their friends in obtaining +reparation for the injuries they have received in affairs of this +nature, yet, if any such frauds were committed against themselves, +provided no violence was done to their persons, they would only, on +their being refused satisfaction, forbear trading with such a +people. This is not because they consider their neighbours more +than their own citizens; but, since their neighbours trade every +one upon his own stock, fraud is a more sensible injury to them +than it is to the Utopians, among whom the public, in such a case, +only suffers, as they expect no thing in return for the merchandise +they export but that in which they so much abound, and is of little +use to them, the loss does not much affect them. They think, +therefore, it would be too severe to revenge a loss attended with +so little inconvenience, either to their lives or their +subsistence, with the death of many persons; but if any of their +people are either killed or wounded wrongfully, whether it be done +by public authority, or only by private men, as soon as they hear +of it they send ambassadors, and demand that the guilty persons may +be delivered up to them, and if that is denied, they declare war; +but if it be complied with, the offenders are condemned either to +death or slavery. + +"They would be both troubled and ashamed of a bloody victory over +their enemies; and think it would be as foolish a purchase as to +buy the most valuable goods at too high a rate. And in no victory +do they glory so much as in that which is gained by dexterity and +good conduct without bloodshed. In such cases they appoint public +triumphs, and erect trophies to the honour of those who have +succeeded; for then do they reckon that a man acts suitably to his +nature, when he conquers his enemy in such a way as that no other +creature but a man could be capable of, and that is by the strength +of his understanding. Bears, lions, boars, wolves, and dogs, and +all other animals, employ their bodily force one against another, +in which, as many of them are superior to men, both in strength and +fierceness, so they are all subdued by his reason and +understanding. + +"The only design of the Utopians in war is to obtain that by force +which, if it had been granted them in time, would have prevented +the war; or, if that cannot be done, to take so severe a revenge on +those that have injured them that they may be terrified from doing +the like for the time to come. By these ends they measure all +their designs, and manage them so, that it is visible that the +appetite of fame or vainglory does not work so much on there as a +just care of their own security. + +"As soon as they declare war, they take care to have a great many +schedules, that are sealed with their common seal, affixed in the +most conspicuous places of their enemies' country. This is carried +secretly, and done in many places all at once. In these they +promise great rewards to such as shall kill the prince, and lesser +in proportion to such as shall kill any other persons who are those +on whom, next to the prince himself, they cast the chief balance of +the war. And they double the sum to him that, instead of killing +the person so marked out, shall take him alive, and put him in +their hands. They offer not only indemnity, but rewards, to such +of the persons themselves that are so marked, if they will act +against their countrymen. By this means those that are named in +their schedules become not only distrustful of their fellow- +citizens, but are jealous of one another, and are much distracted +by fear and danger; for it has often fallen out that many of them, +and even the prince himself, have been betrayed, by those in whom +they have trusted most; for the rewards that the Utopians offer are +so immeasurably great, that there is no sort of crime to which men +cannot be drawn by them. They consider the risk that those run who +undertake such services, and offer a recompense proportioned to the +danger--not only a vast deal of gold, but great revenues in lands, +that lie among other nations that are their friends, where they may +go and enjoy them very securely; and they observe the promises they +make of their kind most religiously. They very much approve of +this way of corrupting their enemies, though it appears to others +to be base and cruel; but they look on it as a wise course, to make +an end of what would be otherwise a long war, without so much as +hazarding one battle to decide it. They think it likewise an act +of mercy and love to mankind to prevent the great slaughter of +those that must otherwise be killed in the progress of the war, +both on their own side and on that of their enemies, by the death +of a few that are most guilty; and that in so doing they are kind +even to their enemies, and pity them no less than their own people, +as knowing that the greater part of them do not engage in the war +of their own accord, but are driven into it by the passions of +their prince. + +"If this method does not succeed with them, then they sow seeds of +contention among their enemies, and animate the prince's brother, +or some of the nobility, to aspire to the crown. If they cannot +disunite them by domestic broils, then they engage their neighbours +against them, and make them set on foot some old pretensions, which +are never wanting to princes when they have occasion for them. +These they plentifully supply with money, though but very sparingly +with any auxiliary troops; for they are so tender of their own +people that they would not willingly exchange one of them, even +with the prince of their enemies' country. + +"But as they keep their gold and silver only for such an occasion, +so, when that offers itself, they easily part with it; since it +would be no convenience to them, though they should reserve nothing +of it to themselves. For besides the wealth that they have among +them at home, they have a vast treasure abroad; many nations round +about them being deep in their debt: so that they hire soldiers +from all places for carrying on their wars; but chiefly from the +Zapolets, who live five hundred miles east of Utopia. They are a +rude, wild, and fierce nation, who delight in the woods and rocks, +among which they were born and bred up. They are hardened both +against heat, cold, and labour, and know nothing of the delicacies +of life. They do not apply themselves to agriculture, nor do they +care either for their houses or their clothes: cattle is all that +they look after; and for the greatest part they live either by +hunting or upon rapine; and are made, as it were, only for war. +They watch all opportunities of engaging in it, and very readily +embrace such as are offered them. Great numbers of them will +frequently go out, and offer themselves for a very low pay, to +serve any that will employ them: they know none of the arts of +life, but those that lead to the taking it away; they serve those +that hire them, both with much courage and great fidelity; but will +not engage to serve for any determined time, and agree upon such +terms, that the next day they may go over to the enemies of those +whom they serve if they offer them a greater encouragement; and +will, perhaps, return to them the day after that upon a higher +advance of their pay. There are few wars in which they make not a +considerable part of the armies of both sides: so it often falls +out that they who are related, and were hired in the same country, +and so have lived long and familiarly together, forgetting both +their relations and former friendship, kill one another upon no +other consideration than that of being hired to it for a little +money by princes of different interests; and such a regard have +they for money that they are easily wrought on by the difference of +one penny a day to change sides. So entirely does their avarice +influence them; and yet this money, which they value so highly, is +of little use to them; for what they purchase thus with their blood +they quickly waste on luxury, which among them is but of a poor and +miserable form. + +"This nation serves the Utopians against all people whatsoever, for +they pay higher than any other. The Utopians hold this for a +maxim, that as they seek out the best sort of men for their own use +at home, so they make use of this worst sort of men for the +consumption of war; and therefore they hire them with the offers of +vast rewards to expose themselves to all sorts of hazards, out of +which the greater part never returns to claim their promises; yet +they make them good most religiously to such as escape. This +animates them to adventure again, whenever there is occasion for +it; for the Utopians are not at all troubled how many of these +happen to be killed, and reckon it a service done to mankind if +they could be a means to deliver the world from such a lewd and +vicious sort of people, that seem to have run together, as to the +drain of human nature. Next to these, they are served in their +wars with those upon whose account they undertake them, and with +the auxiliary troops of their other friends, to whom they join a +few of their own people, and send some man of eminent and approved +virtue to command in chief. There are two sent with him, who, +during his command, are but private men, but the first is to +succeed him if he should happen to be either killed or taken; and, +in case of the like misfortune to him, the third comes in his +place; and thus they provide against all events, that such +accidents as may befall their generals may not endanger their +armies. When they draw out troops of their own people, they take +such out of every city as freely offer themselves, for none are +forced to go against their wills, since they think that if any man +is pressed that wants courage, he will not only act faintly, but by +his cowardice dishearten others. But if an invasion is made on +their country, they make use of such men, if they have good bodies, +though they are not brave; and either put them aboard their ships, +or place them on the walls of their towns, that being so posted, +they may find no opportunity of flying away; and thus either shame, +the heat of action, or the impossibility of flying, bears down +their cowardice; they often make a virtue of necessity, and behave +themselves well, because nothing else is left them. But as they +force no man to go into any foreign war against his will, so they +do not hinder those women who are willing to go along with their +husbands; on the contrary, they encourage and praise them, and they +stand often next their husbands in the front of the army. They +also place together those who are related, parents, and children, +kindred, and those that are mutually allied, near one another; that +those whom nature has inspired with the greatest zeal for assisting +one another may be the nearest and readiest to do it; and it is +matter of great reproach if husband or wife survive one another, or +if a child survives his parent, and therefore when they come to be +engaged in action, they continue to fight to the last man, if their +enemies stand before them: and as they use all prudent methods to +avoid the endangering their own men, and if it is possible let all +the action and danger fall upon the troops that they hire, so if it +becomes necessary for themselves to engage, they then charge with +as much courage as they avoided it before with prudence: nor is it +a fierce charge at first, but it increases by degrees; and as they +continue in action, they grow more obstinate, and press harder upon +the enemy, insomuch that they will much sooner die than give +ground; for the certainty that their children will be well looked +after when they are dead frees them from all that anxiety +concerning them which often masters men of great courage; and thus +they are animated by a noble and invincible resolution. Their +skill in military affairs increases their courage: and the wise +sentiments which, according to the laws of their country, are +instilled into them in their education, give additional vigour to +their minds: for as they do not undervalue life so as prodigally +to throw it away, they are not so indecently fond of it as to +preserve it by base and unbecoming methods. In the greatest heat +of action the bravest of their youth, who have devoted themselves +to that service, single out the general of their enemies, set on +him either openly or by ambuscade; pursue him everywhere, and when +spent and wearied out, are relieved by others, who never give over +the pursuit, either attacking him with close weapons when they can +get near him, or with those which wound at a distance, when others +get in between them. So that, unless he secures himself by flight, +they seldom fail at last to kill or to take him prisoner. When +they have obtained a victory, they kill as few as possible, and are +much more bent on taking many prisoners than on killing those that +fly before them. Nor do they ever let their men so loose in the +pursuit of their enemies as not to retain an entire body still in +order; so that if they have been forced to engage the last of their +battalions before they could gain the day, they will rather let +their enemies all escape than pursue them when their own army is in +disorder; remembering well what has often fallen out to themselves, +that when the main body of their army has been quite defeated and +broken, when their enemies, imagining the victory obtained, have +let themselves loose into an irregular pursuit, a few of them that +lay for a reserve, waiting a fit opportunity, have fallen on them +in their chase, and when straggling in disorder, and apprehensive +of no danger, but counting the day their own, have turned the whole +action, and, wresting out of their hands a victory that seemed +certain and undoubted, while the vanquished have suddenly become +victorious. + +"It is hard to tell whether they are more dexterous in laying or +avoiding ambushes. They sometimes seem to fly when it is far from +their thoughts; and when they intend to give ground, they do it so +that it is very hard to find out their design. If they see they +are ill posted, or are like to be overpowered by numbers, they then +either march off in the night with great silence, or by some +stratagem delude their enemies. If they retire in the day-time, +they do it in such order that it is no less dangerous to fall upon +them in a retreat than in a march. They fortify their camps with a +deep and large trench; and throw up the earth that is dug out of it +for a wall; nor do they employ only their slaves in this, but the +whole army works at it, except those that are then upon the guard; +so that when so many hands are at work, a great line and a strong +fortification is finished in so short a time that it is scarce +credible. Their armour is very strong for defence, and yet is not +so heavy as to make them uneasy in their marches; they can even +swim with it. All that are trained up to war practise swimming. +Both horse and foot make great use of arrows, and are very expert. +They have no swords, but fight with a pole-axe that is both sharp +and heavy, by which they thrust or strike down an enemy. They are +very good at finding out warlike machines, and disguise them so +well that the enemy does not perceive them till he feels the use of +them; so that he cannot prepare such a defence as would render them +useless; the chief consideration had in the making them is that +they may be easily carried and managed. + +"If they agree to a truce, they observe it so religiously that no +provocations will make them break it. They never lay their +enemies' country waste nor burn their corn, and even in their +marches they take all possible care that neither horse nor foot may +tread it down, for they do not know but that they may have use for +it themselves. They hurt no man whom they find disarmed, unless he +is a spy. When a town is surrendered to them, they take it into +their protection; and when they carry a place by storm they never +plunder it, but put those only to the sword that oppose the +rendering of it up, and make the rest of the garrison slaves, but +for the other inhabitants, they do them no hurt; and if any of them +had advised a surrender, they give them good rewards out of the +estates of those that they condemn, and distribute the rest among +their auxiliary troops, but they themselves take no share of the +spoil. + +"When a war is ended, they do not oblige their friends to reimburse +their expenses; but they obtain them of the conquered, either in +money, which they keep for the next occasion, or in lands, out of +which a constant revenue is to be paid them; by many increases the +revenue which they draw out from several countries on such +occasions is now risen to above 700,000 ducats a year. They send +some of their own people to receive these revenues, who have orders +to live magnificently and like princes, by which means they consume +much of it upon the place; and either bring over the rest to Utopia +or lend it to that nation in which it lies. This they most +commonly do, unless some great occasion, which falls out but very +seldom, should oblige them to call for it all. It is out of these +lands that they assign rewards to such as they encourage to +adventure on desperate attempts. If any prince that engages in war +with them is making preparations for invading their country, they +prevent him, and make his country the seat of the war; for they do +not willingly suffer any war to break in upon their island; and if +that should happen, they would only defend themselves by their own +people; but would not call for auxiliary troops to their +assistance. + + +OF THE RELIGIONS OF THE UTOPIANS + + +"There are several sorts of religions, not only in different parts +of the island, but even in every town; some worshipping the sun, +others the moon or one of the planets. Some worship such men as +have been eminent in former times for virtue or glory, not only as +ordinary deities, but as the supreme god. Yet the greater and +wiser sort of them worship none of these, but adore one eternal, +invisible, infinite, and incomprehensible Deity; as a Being that is +far above all our apprehensions, that is spread over the whole +universe, not by His bulk, but by His power and virtue; Him they +call the Father of All, and acknowledge that the beginnings, the +increase, the progress, the vicissitudes, and the end of all things +come only from Him; nor do they offer divine honours to any but to +Him alone. And, indeed, though they differ concerning other +things, yet all agree in this: that they think there is one +Supreme Being that made and governs the world, whom they call, in +the language of their country, Mithras. They differ in this: that +one thinks the god whom he worships is this Supreme Being, and +another thinks that his idol is that god; but they all agree in one +principle, that whoever is this Supreme Being, He is also that +great essence to whose glory and majesty all honours are ascribed +by the consent of all nations. + +"By degrees they fall off from the various superstitions that are +among them, and grow up to that one religion that is the best and +most in request; and there is no doubt to be made, but that all the +others had vanished long ago, if some of those who advised them to +lay aside their superstitions had not met with some unhappy +accidents, which, being considered as inflicted by heaven, made +them afraid that the god whose worship had like to have been +abandoned had interposed and revenged themselves on those who +despised their authority. + +"After they had heard from us an account of the doctrine, the +course of life, and the miracles of Christ, and of the wonderful +constancy of so many martyrs, whose blood, so willingly offered up +by them, was the chief occasion of spreading their religion over a +vast number of nations, it is not to be imagined how inclined they +were to receive it. I shall not determine whether this proceeded +from any secret inspiration of God, or whether it was because it +seemed so favourable to that community of goods, which is an +opinion so particular as well as so dear to them; since they +perceived that Christ and His followers lived by that rule, and +that it was still kept up in some communities among the sincerest +sort of Christians. From whichsoever of these motives it might be, +true it is, that many of them came over to our religion, and were +initiated into it by baptism. But as two of our number were dead, +so none of the four that survived were in priests' orders, we, +therefore, could only baptise them, so that, to our great regret, +they could not partake of the other sacraments, that can only be +administered by priests, but they are instructed concerning them +and long most vehemently for them. They have had great disputes +among themselves, whether one chosen by them to be a priest would +not be thereby qualified to do all the things that belong to that +character, even though he had no authority derived from the Pope, +and they seemed to be resolved to choose some for that employment, +but they had not done it when I left them. + +"Those among them that have not received our religion do not fright +any from it, and use none ill that goes over to it, so that all the +while I was there one man was only punished on this occasion. He +being newly baptised did, notwithstanding all that we could say to +the contrary, dispute publicly concerning the Christian religion, +with more zeal than discretion, and with so much heat, that he not +only preferred our worship to theirs, but condemned all their rites +as profane, and cried out against all that adhered to them as +impious and sacrilegious persons, that were to be damned to +everlasting burnings. Upon his having frequently preached in this +manner he was seized, and after trial he was condemned to +banishment, not for having disparaged their religion, but for his +inflaming the people to sedition; for this is one of their most +ancient laws, that no man ought to be punished for his religion. +At the first constitution of their government, Utopus having +understood that before his coming among them the old inhabitants +had been engaged in great quarrels concerning religion, by which +they were so divided among themselves, that he found it an easy +thing to conquer them, since, instead of uniting their forces +against him, every different party in religion fought by +themselves. After he had subdued them he made a law that every man +might be of what religion he pleased, and might endeavour to draw +others to it by the force of argument and by amicable and modest +ways, but without bitterness against those of other opinions; but +that he ought to use no other force but that of persuasion, and was +neither to mix with it reproaches nor violence; and such as did +otherwise were to be condemned to banishment or slavery. + +"This law was made by Utopus, not only for preserving the public +peace, which he saw suffered much by daily contentions and +irreconcilable heats, but because he thought the interest of +religion itself required it. He judged it not fit to determine +anything rashly; and seemed to doubt whether those different forms +of religion might not all come from God, who might inspire man in a +different manner, and be pleased with this variety; he therefore +thought it indecent and foolish for any man to threaten and terrify +another to make him believe what did not appear to him to be true. +And supposing that only one religion was really true, and the rest +false, he imagined that the native force of truth would at last +break forth and shine bright, if supported only by the strength of +argument, and attended to with a gentle and unprejudiced mind; +while, on the other hand, if such debates were carried on with +violence and tumults, as the most wicked are always the most +obstinate, so the best and most holy religion might be choked with +superstition, as corn is with briars and thorns; he therefore left +men wholly to their liberty, that they might be free to believe as +they should see cause; only he made a solemn and severe law against +such as should so far degenerate from the dignity of human nature, +as to think that our souls died with our bodies, or that the world +was governed by chance, without a wise overruling Providence: for +they all formerly believed that there was a state of rewards and +punishments to the good and bad after this life; and they now look +on those that think otherwise as scarce fit to be counted men, +since they degrade so noble a being as the soul, and reckon it no +better than a beast's: thus they are far from looking on such men +as fit for human society, or to be citizens of a well-ordered +commonwealth; since a man of such principles must needs, as oft as +he dares do it, despise all their laws and customs: for there is +no doubt to be made, that a man who is afraid of nothing but the +law, and apprehends nothing after death, will not scruple to break +through all the laws of his country, either by fraud or force, when +by this means he may satisfy his appetites. They never raise any +that hold these maxims, either to honours or offices, nor employ +them in any public trust, but despise them, as men of base and +sordid minds. Yet they do not punish them, because they lay this +down as a maxim, that a man cannot make himself believe anything he +pleases; nor do they drive any to dissemble their thoughts by +threatenings, so that men are not tempted to lie or disguise their +opinions; which being a sort of fraud, is abhorred by the Utopians: +they take care indeed to prevent their disputing in defence of +these opinions, especially before the common people: but they +suffer, and even encourage them to dispute concerning them in +private with their priest, and other grave men, being confident +that they will be cured of those mad opinions by having reason laid +before them. There are many among them that run far to the other +extreme, though it is neither thought an ill nor unreasonable +opinion, and therefore is not at all discouraged. They think that +the souls of beasts are immortal, though far inferior to the +dignity of the human soul, and not capable of so great a happiness. +They are almost all of them very firmly persuaded that good men +will be infinitely happy in another state: so that though they are +compassionate to all that are sick, yet they lament no man's death, +except they see him loath to part with life; for they look on this +as a very ill presage, as if the soul, conscious to itself of +guilt, and quite hopeless, was afraid to leave the body, from some +secret hints of approaching misery. They think that such a man's +appearance before God cannot be acceptable to Him, who being called +on, does not go out cheerfully, but is backward and unwilling, and +is as it were dragged to it. They are struck with horror when they +see any die in this manner, and carry them out in silence and with +sorrow, and praying God that He would be merciful to the errors of +the departed soul, they lay the body in the ground: but when any +die cheerfully, and full of hope, they do not mourn for them, but +sing hymns when they carry out their bodies, and commending their +souls very earnestly to God: their whole behaviour is then rather +grave than sad, they burn the body, and set up a pillar where the +pile was made, with an inscription to the honour of the deceased. +When they come from the funeral, they discourse of his good life, +and worthy actions, but speak of nothing oftener and with more +pleasure than of his serenity at the hour of death. They think +such respect paid to the memory of good men is both the greatest +incitement to engage others to follow their example, and the most +acceptable worship that can be offered them; for they believe that +though by the imperfection of human sight they are invisible to us, +yet they are present among us, and hear those discourses that pass +concerning themselves. They believe it inconsistent with the +happiness of departed souls not to be at liberty to be where they +will: and do not imagine them capable of the ingratitude of not +desiring to see those friends with whom they lived on earth in the +strictest bonds of love and kindness: besides, they are persuaded +that good men, after death, have these affections; and all other +good dispositions increased rather than diminished, and therefore +conclude that they are still among the living, and observe all they +say or do. From hence they engage in all their affairs with the +greater confidence of success, as trusting to their protection; +while this opinion of the presence of their ancestors is a +restraint that prevents their engaging in ill designs. + +"They despise and laugh at auguries, and the other vain and +superstitious ways of divination, so much observed among other +nations; but have great reverence for such miracles as cannot flow +from any of the powers of nature, and look on them as effects and +indications of the presence of the Supreme Being, of which they say +many instances have occurred among them; and that sometimes their +public prayers, which upon great and dangerous occasions they have +solemnly put up to God, with assured confidence of being heard, +have been answered in a miraculous manner. + +"They think the contemplating God in His works, and the adoring Him +for them, is a very acceptable piece of worship to Him. + +"There are many among them that upon a motive of religion neglect +learning, and apply themselves to no sort of study; nor do they +allow themselves any leisure time, but are perpetually employed, +believing that by the good things that a man does he secures to +himself that happiness that comes after death. Some of these visit +the sick; others mend highways, cleanse ditches, repair bridges, or +dig turf, gravel, or stone. Others fell and cleave timber, and +bring wood, corn, and other necessaries, on carts, into their +towns; nor do these only serve the public, but they serve even +private men, more than the slaves themselves do: for if there is +anywhere a rough, hard, and sordid piece of work to be done, from +which many are frightened by the labour and loathsomeness of it, if +not the despair of accomplishing it, they cheerfully, and of their +own accord, take that to their share; and by that means, as they +ease others very much, so they afflict themselves, and spend their +whole life in hard labour: and yet they do not value themselves +upon this, nor lessen other people's credit to raise their own; but +by their stooping to such servile employments they are so far from +being despised, that they are so much the more esteemed by the +whole nation. + +"Of these there are two sorts: some live unmarried and chaste, and +abstain from eating any sort of flesh; and thus weaning themselves +from all the pleasures of the present life, which they account +hurtful, they pursue, even by the hardest and painfullest methods +possible, that blessedness which they hope for hereafter; and the +nearer they approach to it, they are the more cheerful and earnest +in their endeavours after it. Another sort of them is less willing +to put themselves to much toil, and therefore prefer a married +state to a single one; and as they do not deny themselves the +pleasure of it, so they think the begetting of children is a debt +which they owe to human nature, and to their country; nor do they +avoid any pleasure that does not hinder labour; and therefore eat +flesh so much the more willingly, as they find that by this means +they are the more able to work: the Utopians look upon these as +the wiser sect, but they esteem the others as the most holy. They +would indeed laugh at any man who, from the principles of reason, +would prefer an unmarried state to a married, or a life of labour +to an easy life: but they reverence and admire such as do it from +the motives of religion. There is nothing in which they are more +cautious than in giving their opinion positively concerning any +sort of religion. The men that lead those severe lives are called +in the language of their country Brutheskas, which answers to those +we call Religious Orders. + +"Their priests are men of eminent piety, and therefore they are but +few, for there are only thirteen in every town, one for every +temple; but when they go to war, seven of these go out with their +forces, and seven others are chosen to supply their room in their +absence; but these enter again upon their employments when they +return; and those who served in their absence, attend upon the high +priest, till vacancies fall by death; for there is one set over the +rest. They are chosen by the people as the other magistrates are, +by suffrages given in secret, for preventing of factions: and when +they are chosen, they are consecrated by the college of priests. +The care of all sacred things, the worship of God, and an +inspection into the manners of the people, are committed to them. +It is a reproach to a man to be sent for by any of them, or for +them to speak to him in secret, for that always gives some +suspicion: all that is incumbent on them is only to exhort and +admonish the people; for the power of correcting and punishing ill +men belongs wholly to the Prince, and to the other magistrates: +the severest thing that the priest does is the excluding those that +are desperately wicked from joining in their worship: there is not +any sort of punishment more dreaded by them than this, for as it +loads them with infamy, so it fills them with secret horrors, such +is their reverence to their religion; nor will their bodies be long +exempted from their share of trouble; for if they do not very +quickly satisfy the priests of the truth of their repentance, they +are seized on by the Senate, and punished for their impiety. The +education of youth belongs to the priests, yet they do not take so +much care of instructing them in letters, as in forming their minds +and manners aright; they use all possible methods to infuse, very +early, into the tender and flexible minds of children, such +opinions as are both good in themselves and will be useful to their +country, for when deep impressions of these things are made at that +age, they follow men through the whole course of their lives, and +conduce much to preserve the peace of the government, which suffers +by nothing more than by vices that rise out of ill opinions. The +wives of their priests are the most extraordinary women of the +whole country; sometimes the women themselves are made priests, +though that falls out but seldom, nor are any but ancient widows +chosen into that order. + +"None of the magistrates have greater honour paid them than is paid +the priests; and if they should happen to commit any crime, they +would not be questioned for it; their punishment is left to God, +and to their own consciences; for they do not think it lawful to +lay hands on any man, how wicked soever he is, that has been in a +peculiar manner dedicated to God; nor do they find any great +inconvenience in this, both because they have so few priests, and +because these are chosen with much caution, so that it must be a +very unusual thing to find one who, merely out of regard to his +virtue, and for his being esteemed a singularly good man, was +raised up to so great a dignity, degenerate into corruption and +vice; and if such a thing should fall out, for man is a changeable +creature, yet, there being few priests, and these having no +authority but what rises out of the respect that is paid them, +nothing of great consequence to the public can proceed from the +indemnity that the priests enjoy. + +"They have, indeed, very few of them, lest greater numbers sharing +in the same honour might make the dignity of that order, which they +esteem so highly, to sink in its reputation; they also think it +difficult to find out many of such an exalted pitch of goodness as +to be equal to that dignity, which demands the exercise of more +than ordinary virtues. Nor are the priests in greater veneration +among them than they are among their neighbouring nations, as you +may imagine by that which I think gives occasion for it. + +"When the Utopians engage in battle, the priests who accompany them +to the war, apparelled in their sacred vestments, kneel down during +the action (in a place not far from the field), and, lifting up +their hands to heaven, pray, first for peace, and then for victory +to their own side, and particularly that it may be gained without +the effusion of much blood on either side; and when the victory +turns to their side, they run in among their own men to restrain +their fury; and if any of their enemies see them or call to them, +they are preserved by that means; and such as can come so near them +as to touch their garments have not only their lives, but their +fortunes secured to them; it is upon this account that all the +nations round about consider them so much, and treat them with such +reverence, that they have been often no less able to preserve their +own people from the fury of their enemies than to save their +enemies from their rage; for it has sometimes fallen out, that when +their armies have been in disorder and forced to fly, so that their +enemies were running upon the slaughter and spoil, the priests by +interposing have separated them from one another, and stopped the +effusion of more blood; so that, by their mediation, a peace has +been concluded on very reasonable terms; nor is there any nation +about them so fierce, cruel, or barbarous, as not to look upon +their persons as sacred and inviolable. + +"The first and the last day of the month, and of the year, is a +festival; they measure their months by the course of the moon, and +their years by the course of the sun: the first days are called in +their language the Cynemernes, and the last the Trapemernes, which +answers in our language, to the festival that begins or ends the +season. + +"They have magnificent temples, that are not only nobly built, but +extremely spacious, which is the more necessary as they have so few +of them; they are a little dark within, which proceeds not from any +error in the architecture, but is done with design; for their +priests think that too much light dissipates the thoughts, and that +a more moderate degree of it both recollects the mind and raises +devotion. Though there are many different forms of religion among +them, yet all these, how various soever, agree in the main point, +which is the worshipping the Divine Essence; and, therefore, there +is nothing to be seen or heard in their temples in which the +several persuasions among them may not agree; for every sect +performs those rites that are peculiar to it in their private +houses, nor is there anything in the public worship that +contradicts the particular ways of those different sects. There +are no images for God in their temples, so that every one may +represent Him to his thoughts according to the way of his religion; +nor do they call this one God by any other name but that of +Mithras, which is the common name by which they all express the +Divine Essence, whatsoever otherwise they think it to be; nor are +there any prayers among them but such as every one of them may use +without prejudice to his own opinion. + +"They meet in their temples on the evening of the festival that +concludes a season, and not having yet broke their fast, they thank +God for their good success during that year or month which is then +at an end; and the next day, being that which begins the new +season, they meet early in their temples, to pray for the happy +progress of all their affairs during that period upon which they +then enter. In the festival which concludes the period, before +they go to the temple, both wives and children fall on their knees +before their husbands or parents and confess everything in which +they have either erred or failed in their duty, and beg pardon for +it. Thus all little discontents in families are removed, that they +may offer up their devotions with a pure and serene mind; for they +hold it a great impiety to enter upon them with disturbed thoughts, +or with a consciousness of their bearing hatred or anger in their +hearts to any person whatsoever; and think that they should become +liable to severe punishments if they presumed to offer sacrifices +without cleansing their hearts, and reconciling all their +differences. In the temples the two sexes are separated, the men +go to the right hand, and the women to the left; and the males and +females all place themselves before the head and master or mistress +of the family to which they belong, so that those who have the +government of them at home may see their deportment in public. And +they intermingle them so, that the younger and the older may be set +by one another; for if the younger sort were all set together, they +would, perhaps, trifle away that time too much in which they ought +to beget in themselves that religious dread of the Supreme Being +which is the greatest and almost the only incitement to virtue. + +"They offer up no living creature in sacrifice, nor do they think +it suitable to the Divine Being, from whose bounty it is that these +creatures have derived their lives, to take pleasure in their +deaths, or the offering up their blood. They burn incense and +other sweet odours, and have a great number of wax lights during +their worship, not out of any imagination that such oblations can +add anything to the divine nature (which even prayers cannot do), +but as it is a harmless and pure way of worshipping God; so they +think those sweet savours and lights, together with some other +ceremonies, by a secret and unaccountable virtue, elevate men's +souls, and inflame them with greater energy and cheerfulness during +the divine worship. + +"All the people appear in the temples in white garments; but the +priest's vestments are parti-coloured, and both the work and +colours are wonderful. They are made of no rich materials, for +they are neither embroidered nor set with precious stones; but are +composed of the plumes of several birds, laid together with so much +art, and so neatly, that the true value of them is far beyond the +costliest materials. They say, that in the ordering and placing +those plumes some dark mysteries are represented, which pass down +among their priests in a secret tradition concerning them; and that +they are as hieroglyphics, putting them in mind of the blessing +that they have received from God, and of their duties, both to Him +and to their neighbours. As soon as the priest appears in those +ornaments, they all fall prostrate on the ground, with so much +reverence and so deep a silence, that such as look on cannot but be +struck with it, as if it were the effect of the appearance of a +deity. After they have been for some time in this posture, they +all stand up, upon a sign given by the priest, and sing hymns to +the honour of God, some musical instruments playing all the while. +These are quite of another form than those used among us; but, as +many of them are much sweeter than ours, so others are made use of +by us. Yet in one thing they very much exceed us: all their +music, both vocal and instrumental, is adapted to imitate and +express the passions, and is so happily suited to every occasion, +that, whether the subject of the hymn be cheerful, or formed to +soothe or trouble the mind, or to express grief or remorse, the +music takes the impression of whatever is represented, affects and +kindles the passions, and works the sentiments deep into the hearts +of the hearers. When this is done, both priests and people offer +up very solemn prayers to God in a set form of words; and these are +so composed, that whatsoever is pronounced by the whole assembly +may be likewise applied by every man in particular to his own +condition. In these they acknowledge God to be the author and +governor of the world, and the fountain of all the good they +receive, and therefore offer up to him their thanksgiving; and, in +particular, bless him for His goodness in ordering it so, that they +are born under the happiest government in the world, and are of a +religion which they hope is the truest of all others; but, if they +are mistaken, and if there is either a better government, or a +religion more acceptable to God, they implore His goodness to let +them know it, vowing that they resolve to follow him whithersoever +he leads them; but if their government is the best, and their +religion the truest, then they pray that He may fortify them in it, +and bring all the world both to the same rules of life, and to the +same opinions concerning Himself, unless, according to the +unsearchableness of His mind, He is pleased with a variety of +religions. Then they pray that God may give them an easy passage +at last to Himself, not presuming to set limits to Him, how early +or late it should be; but, if it may be wished for without +derogating from His supreme authority, they desire to be quickly +delivered, and to be taken to Himself, though by the most terrible +kind of death, rather than to be detained long from seeing Him by +the most prosperous course of life. When this prayer is ended, +they all fall down again upon the ground; and, after a little +while, they rise up, go home to dinner, and spend the rest of the +day in diversion or military exercises. + +"Thus have I described to you, as particularly as I could, the +Constitution of that commonwealth, which I do not only think the +best in the world, but indeed the only commonwealth that truly +deserves that name. In all other places it is visible that, while +people talk of a commonwealth, every man only seeks his own wealth; +but there, where no man has any property, all men zealously pursue +the good of the public, and, indeed, it is no wonder to see men act +so differently, for in other commonwealths every man knows that, +unless he provides for himself, how flourishing soever the +commonwealth may be, he must die of hunger, so that he sees the +necessity of preferring his own concerns to the public; but in +Utopia, where every man has a right to everything, they all know +that if care is taken to keep the public stores full no private man +can want anything; for among them there is no unequal distribution, +so that no man is poor, none in necessity, and though no man has +anything, yet they are all rich; for what can make a man so rich as +to lead a serene and cheerful life, free from anxieties; neither +apprehending want himself, nor vexed with the endless complaints of +his wife? He is not afraid of the misery of his children, nor is +he contriving how to raise a portion for his daughters; but is +secure in this, that both he and his wife, his children and grand- +children, to as many generations as he can fancy, will all live +both plentifully and happily; since, among them, there is no less +care taken of those who were once engaged in labour, but grow +afterwards unable to follow it, than there is, elsewhere, of these +that continue still employed. I would gladly hear any man compare +the justice that is among them with that of all other nations; +among whom, may I perish, if I see anything that looks either like +justice or equity; for what justice is there in this: that a +nobleman, a goldsmith, a banker, or any other man, that either does +nothing at all, or, at best, is employed in things that are of no +use to the public, should live in great luxury and splendour upon +what is so ill acquired, and a mean man, a carter, a smith, or a +ploughman, that works harder even than the beasts themselves, and +is employed in labours so necessary, that no commonwealth could +hold out a year without them, can only earn so poor a livelihood +and must lead so miserable a life, that the condition of the beasts +is much better than theirs? For as the beasts do not work so +constantly, so they feed almost as well, and with more pleasure, +and have no anxiety about what is to come, whilst these men are +depressed by a barren and fruitless employment, and tormented with +the apprehensions of want in their old age; since that which they +get by their daily labour does but maintain them at present, and is +consumed as fast as it comes in, there is no overplus left to lay +up for old age. + +"Is not that government both unjust and ungrateful, that is so +prodigal of its favours to those that are called gentlemen, or +goldsmiths, or such others who are idle, or live either by flattery +or by contriving the arts of vain pleasure, and, on the other hand, +takes no care of those of a meaner sort, such as ploughmen, +colliers, and smiths, without whom it could not subsist? But after +the public has reaped all the advantage of their service, and they +come to be oppressed with age, sickness, and want, all their +labours and the good they have done is forgotten, and all the +recompense given them is that they are left to die in great misery. +The richer sort are often endeavouring to bring the hire of +labourers lower, not only by their fraudulent practices, but by the +laws which they procure to be made to that effect, so that though +it is a thing most unjust in itself to give such small rewards to +those who deserve so well of the public, yet they have given those +hardships the name and colour of justice, by procuring laws to be +made for regulating them. + +"Therefore I must say that, as I hope for mercy, I can have no +other notion of all the other governments that I see or know, than +that they are a conspiracy of the rich, who, on pretence of +managing the public, only pursue their private ends, and devise all +the ways and arts they can find out; first, that they may, without +danger, preserve all that they have so ill-acquired, and then, that +they may engage the poor to toil and labour for them at as low +rates as possible, and oppress them as much as they please; and if +they can but prevail to get these contrivances established by the +show of public authority, which is considered as the representative +of the whole people, then they are accounted laws; yet these wicked +men, after they have, by a most insatiable covetousness, divided +that among themselves with which all the rest might have been well +supplied, are far from that happiness that is enjoyed among the +Utopians; for the use as well as the desire of money being +extinguished, much anxiety and great occasions of mischief is cut +off with it, and who does not see that the frauds, thefts, +robberies, quarrels, tumults, contentions, seditions, murders, +treacheries, and witchcrafts, which are, indeed, rather punished +than restrained by the seventies of law, would all fall off, if +money were not any more valued by the world? Men's fears, +solicitudes, cares, labours, and watchings would all perish in the +same moment with the value of money; even poverty itself, for the +relief of which money seems most necessary, would fall. But, in +order to the apprehending this aright, take one instance:- + +"Consider any year, that has been so unfruitful that many thousands +have died of hunger; and yet if, at the end of that year, a survey +was made of the granaries of all the rich men that have hoarded up +the corn, it would be found that there was enough among them to +have prevented all that consumption of men that perished in misery; +and that, if it had been distributed among them, none would have +felt the terrible effects of that scarcity: so easy a thing would +it be to supply all the necessities of life, if that blessed thing +called money, which is pretended to be invented for procuring them +was not really the only thing that obstructed their being procured! + +"I do not doubt but rich men are sensible of this, and that they +well know how much a greater happiness it is to want nothing +necessary, than to abound in many superfluities; and to be rescued +out of so much misery, than to abound with so much wealth: and I +cannot think but the sense of every man's interest, added to the +authority of Christ's commands, who, as He was infinitely wise, +knew what was best, and was not less good in discovering it to us, +would have drawn all the world over to the laws of the Utopians, if +pride, that plague of human nature, that source of so much misery, +did not hinder it; for this vice does not measure happiness so much +by its own conveniences, as by the miseries of others; and would +not be satisfied with being thought a goddess, if none were left +that were miserable, over whom she might insult. Pride thinks its +own happiness shines the brighter, by comparing it with the +misfortunes of other persons; that by displaying its own wealth +they may feel their poverty the more sensibly. This is that +infernal serpent that creeps into the breasts of mortals, and +possesses them too much to be easily drawn out; and, therefore, I +am glad that the Utopians have fallen upon this form of government, +in which I wish that all the world could be so wise as to imitate +them; for they have, indeed, laid down such a scheme and foundation +of policy, that as men live happily under it, so it is like to be +of great continuance; for they having rooted out of the minds of +their people all the seeds, both of ambition and faction, there is +no danger of any commotions at home; which alone has been the ruin +of many states that seemed otherwise to be well secured; but as +long as they live in peace at home, and are governed by such good +laws, the envy of all their neighbouring princes, who have often, +though in vain, attempted their ruin, will never be able to put +their state into any commotion or disorder." + +When Raphael had thus made an end of speaking, though many things +occurred to me, both concerning the manners and laws of that +people, that seemed very absurd, as well in their way of making +war, as in their notions of religion and divine matters--together +with several other particulars, but chiefly what seemed the +foundation of all the rest, their living in common, without the use +of money, by which all nobility, magnificence, splendour, and +majesty, which, according to the common opinion, are the true +ornaments of a nation, would be quite taken away--yet since I +perceived that Raphael was weary, and was not sure whether he could +easily bear contradiction, remembering that he had taken notice of +some, who seemed to think they were bound in honour to support the +credit of their own wisdom, by finding out something to censure in +all other men's inventions, besides their own, I only commended +their Constitution, and the account he had given of it in general; +and so, taking him by the hand, carried him to supper, and told him +I would find out some other time for examining this subject more +particularly, and for discoursing more copiously upon it. And, +indeed, I shall be glad to embrace an opportunity of doing it. In +the meanwhile, though it must be confessed that he is both a very +learned man and a person who has obtained a great knowledge of the +world, I cannot perfectly agree to everything he has related. +However, there are many things in the commonwealth of Utopia that I +rather wish, than hope, to see followed in our governments. + + + + + +End of The Project Gutenberg Etext of Utopia, by Thomas More + |