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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/2131-h.zip b/2131-h.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..1ff2849 --- /dev/null +++ b/2131-h.zip diff --git a/2131-h/2131-h.htm b/2131-h/2131-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..5f7b7f7 --- /dev/null +++ b/2131-h/2131-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,3505 @@ +<?xml version="1.0" encoding="us-ascii"?> + +<!DOCTYPE html + PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd" > + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" lang="en"> + <head> + <title> + An Account of Egypt, by Herodotus + </title> + <style type="text/css" xml:space="preserve"> + + body { margin:5%; background:#faebd0; text-align:justify} + P { text-indent: 1em; margin-top: .25em; margin-bottom: .25em; } + H1,H2,H3,H4,H5,H6 { text-align: center; margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%; } + hr { width: 50%; text-align: center;} + .foot { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -3em; font-size: 90%; } + blockquote {font-size: 97%; font-style: italic; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} + .mynote {background-color: #DDE; color: #000; padding: .5em; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 95%;} + .toc { margin-left: 10%; margin-bottom: .75em;} + .toc2 { margin-left: 20%;} + div.fig { display:block; margin:0 auto; text-align:center; } + div.middle { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify; } + .figleft {float: left; margin-left: 0%; margin-right: 1%;} + .figright {float: right; margin-right: 0%; margin-left: 1%;} + .pagenum {display:inline; font-size: 70%; font-style:normal; + margin: 0; padding: 0; position: absolute; right: 1%; + text-align: right;} + pre { font-style: italic; font-size: 90%; margin-left: 10%;} + +</style> + </head> + <body> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of An Account of Egypt, by Herodotus + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: An Account of Egypt + +Author: Herodotus + +Translator: G. C. Macaulay + +Release Date: February 25, 2006 [EBook #2131] +Last Updated: January 25, 2013 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AN ACCOUNT OF EGYPT *** + + + + +Produced by John Bickers; Dagny; David Widger + + + + + +</pre> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <h1> + AN ACCOUNT OF EGYPT + </h1> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <h2> + By Herodotus + </h2> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <h3> + Translated By G. C. Macaulay + </h3> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a href="#link2H_4_0001"> NOTE </a><br /> <br /> <a + href="#link2H_4_0003"> <big><b>BEING THE SECOND BOOK OF HIS HISTORIES + CALLED EUTERPE</b></big> </a> <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0001" id="link2H_4_0001"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> <br /> <br /> + </p> + <h2> + NOTE + </h2> + <p> + HERODOTUS was born at Halicarnassus, on the southwest coast of Asia Minor, + in the early part of the fifth century, B. C. Of his life we know almost + nothing, except that he spent much of it traveling, to collect the + material for his writings, and that he finally settled down at Thurii, in + southern Italy, where his great work was composed. He died in 424 B. C. + </p> + <p> + The subject of the history of Herodotus is the struggle between the Greeks + and the barbarians, which he brings down to the battle of Mycale in 479 B. + C. The work, as we have it, is divided into nine books, named after the + nine Muses, but this division is probably due to the Alexandrine + grammarians. His information he gathered mainly from oral sources, as he + traveled through Asia Minor, down into Egypt, round the Black Sea, and + into various parts of Greece and the neighboring countries. The + chronological narrative halts from time to time to give opportunity for + descriptions of the country, the people, and their customs and previous + history; and the political account is constantly varied by rare tales and + wonders. + </p> + <p> + Among these descriptions of countries the most fascinating to the modern, + as it was to the ancient, reader is his account of the marvels of the land + of Egypt. From the priests at Memphis, Heliopolis, and the Egyptian Thebes + he learned what he reports of the size of the country, the wonders of the + Nile, the ceremonies of their religion, the sacredness of their animals. + He tells also of the strange ways of the crocodile and of that marvelous + bird, the Phoenix; of dress and funerals and embalming; of the eating of + lotos and papyrus; of the pyramids and the great labyrinth; of their kings + and queens and courtesans. + </p> + <p> + Yet Herodotus is not a mere teller of strange tales. However credulous he + may appear to a modern judgment, he takes care to keep separate what he + knows by his own observation from what he has merely inferred and from + what he has been told. He is candid about acknowledging ignorance, and + when versions differ he gives both. Thus the modern scientific historian, + with other means of corroboration, can sometimes learn from Herodotus more + than Herodotus himself knew. + </p> + <p> + There is abundant evidence, too, that Herodotus had a philosophy of + history. The unity which marks his work is due not only to the strong + Greek national feeling running through it, the feeling that rises to a + height in such passages as the descriptions of the battles of Marathon, + Thermopylae, and Salamis, but also to his profound belief in Fate and in + Nemesis. To his belief in Fate is due the frequent quoting of oracles and + their fulfilment, the frequent references to things foreordained by + Providence. The working of Nemesis he finds in the disasters that befall + men and nations whose towering prosperity awakens the jealousy of the + gods. The final overthrow of the Persians, which forms his main theme, is + only one specially conspicuous example of the operation of this force from + which human life can never free itself. + </p> + <p> + But, above all, he is the father of story-tellers. "Herodotus is such + simple and delightful reading," says Jevons; "he is so unaffected and + entertaining, his story flows so naturally and with such ease that we have + a difficulty in bearing in mind that, over and above the hard writing + which goes to make easy reading there is a perpetual marvel in the work of + Herodotus. It is the first artistic work in prose that Greek literature + produced. This prose work, which for pure literary merit no subsequent + work has surpassed, than which later generations, after using the pen for + centuries, have produced no prose more easy or more readable, this was the + first of histories and of literary prose." + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0002" id="link2H_4_0002"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + AN ACCOUNT OF EGYPT + </h2> + <h3> + BY HERODOTUS + </h3> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0003" id="link2H_4_0003"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + BEING THE SECOND BOOK OF HIS HISTORIES CALLED EUTERPE + </h2> + <p> + When Cyrus had brought his life to an end, Cambyses received the royal + power in succession, being the son of Cyrus and of Cassandane the daughter + of Pharnaspes, for whose death, which came about before his own, Cyrus had + made great mourning himself and also had proclaimed to all those over whom + he bore rule that they should make mourning for her: Cambyses, I say, + being the son of this woman and of Cyrus, regarded the Ionians and + Aiolians as slaves inherited from his father; and he proceeded to march an + army against Egypt, taking with him as helpers not only other nations of + which he was ruler, but also those of the Hellenes over whom he had power + besides. + </p> + <p> + Now the Egyptians, before the time when Psammetichos became king over + them, were wont to suppose that they had come into being first of all men; + but since the time when Psammetichos having become king desired to know + what men had come into being first, they suppose that the Phrygians came + into being before themselves, but they themselves before all other men. + Now Psammetichos, when he was not able by inquiry to find out any means of + knowing who had come into being first of all men, contrived a device of + the following kind:—Taking two newborn children belonging to persons + of the common sort he gave them to a shepherd to bring up at the place + where his flocks were, with a manner of bringing up such as I shall say, + charging him namely that no man should utter any word in their presence, + and that they should be placed by themselves in a room where none might + come, and at the proper time he should bring them she-goats, and when he + had satisfied them with milk he should do for them whatever else was + needed. These things Psammetichos did and gave him this charge wishing to + hear what word the children would let break forth first after they had + ceased from wailings without sense. And accordingly it came to pass; for + after a space of two years had gone by, during which the shepherd went on + acting so, at length, when he opened the door and entered, both children + fell before him in entreaty and uttered the word <i>bekos</i>, stretching + forth their hands. At first when he heard this the shepherd kept silence; + but since this word was often repeated, as he visited them constantly and + attended to them, at last he declared the matter to his master, and at his + command he brought the children before his face. Then Psammetichos having + himself also heard it, began to inquire what nation of men named anything + <i>bekos</i>, and inquiring he found that the Phrygians had this name for + bread. In this manner and guided by an indication such as this, the + Egyptians were brought to allow that the Phrygians were a more ancient + people than themselves. That so it came to pass I heard from the priests + of that Hephaistos who dwells at Memphis; but the Hellenes relate, besides + many other idle tales, that Psammetichos cut out the tongues of certain + women and then caused the children to live with these women. + </p> + <p> + With regard then to the rearing of the children they related so much as I + have said: and I heard also other things at Memphis when I had speech with + the priests of Hephaistos. Moreover I visited both Thebes and Heliopolis + for this very cause, namely because I wished to know whether the priests + at these places would agree in their accounts with those at Memphis; for + the men of Heliopolis are said to be the most learned in records of the + Egyptians. Those of their narrations which I heard with regard to the gods + I am not earnest to relate in full, but I shall name them only because I + consider that all men are equally ignorant of these matters: and whatever + things of them I may record I shall record only because I am compelled by + the course of the story. But as to those matters which concern men, the + priests agreed with one another in saying that the Egyptians were the + first of all men on earth to find out the course of the year, having + divided the seasons into twelve parts to make up the whole; and this they + said they found out from the stars: and they reckon to this extent more + wisely than the Hellenes, as it seems to me, inasmuch as the Hellenes + throw in an intercalated month every other year, to make the seasons + right, whereas the Egyptians, reckoning the twelve months at thirty days + each, bring in also every year five days beyond number, and thus the + circle of their season is completed and comes round to the same point + whence it set out. They said moreover that the Egyptians were the first + who brought into use appellations for the twelve gods and the Hellenes + took up the use from them; and that they were the first who assigned + altars and images and temples to the gods, and who engraved figures on + stones; and with regard to the greater number of these things they showed + me by actual facts that they had happened so. They said also that the + first man who became king of Egypt was Min; and that in his time all Egypt + except the district of Thebes was a swamp, and none of the regions were + then above water which now lie below the lake of Moiris, to which lake it + is a voyage of seven days up the river from the sea: and I thought that + they said well about the land; for it is manifest in truth even to a + person who has not heard it beforehand but has only seen, at least if he + have understanding, that the Egypt to which the Hellenes come in ships is + a land which has been won by the Egyptians as an addition, and that it is + a gift of the river: moreover the regions which lie above this lake also + for a distance of three days' sail, about which they did not go on to say + anything of this kind, are nevertheless another instance of the same + thing: for the nature of the land of Egypt is as follows:—First when + you are still approaching it in a ship and are distant a day's run from + the land, if you let down a sounding-line you will bring up mud and you + will find yourself in eleven fathoms. This then so far shows that there is + a silting forward of the land. Then secondly, as to Egypt itself, the + extent of it along the sea is sixty <i>schoines</i>, according to our + definition of Egypt as extending from the Gulf of Plinthine to the + Serbonian lake, along which stretches Mount Casion; from this lake then + the sixty <i>schoines</i> are reckoned: for those of men who are poor in + land have their country measured by fathoms, those who are less poor by + furlongs, those who have much land by parasangs, and those who have land + in very great abundance by <i>schoines</i>: now the parasang is equal to + thirty furlongs, and each <i>schoine</i>, which is an Egyptian measure, is + equal to sixty furlongs. So there would be an extent of three thousand six + hundred furlongs for the coast-land of Egypt. From thence and as far as + Heliopolis inland Egypt is broad, and the land is all flat and without + springs of water and formed of mud: and the road as one goes inland from + the sea to Heliopolis is about the same in length as that which leads from + the altar of the twelve gods at Athens to Pisa and the temple of Olympian + Zeus: reckoning up you would find the difference very small by which these + roads fail of being equal in length, not more indeed than fifteen + furlongs; for the road from Athens to Pisa wants fifteen furlongs of being + fifteen hundred, while the road to Heliopolis from the sea reaches that + number completely. From Heliopolis however, as you go up, Egypt is narrow; + for on the one side a mountain-range belonging to Arabia stretches along + by the side of it, going in a direction from the North towards the midday + and the South Wind, tending upwards without a break to that which is + called the Erythraian Sea, in which range are the stone-quarries which + were used in cutting stone for the pyramids at Memphis. On this side then + the mountain ends where I have said, and then takes a turn back; and where + it is widest, as I was informed, it is a journey of two months across from + East to West; and the borders of it which turn towards the East are said + to produce frankincense. Such then is the nature of this mountain-range; + and on the side of Egypt towards Libya another range extends, rocky and + enveloped in sand: in this are the pyramids, and it runs in the same + direction as those parts of the Arabian mountains which go towards the + midday. So then, I say, from Heliopolis the land has no longer a great + extent so far as it belongs to Egypt, and for about four days' sail up the + river Egypt properly so called is narrow: and the space between the + mountain-ranges which have been mentioned is plain-land, but where it is + narrowest it did not seem to me to exceed two hundred furlongs from the + Arabian mountains to those which are called the Libyan. After this again + Egypt is broad. Such is the nature of this land: and from Heliopolis to + Thebes is a voyage up the river of nine days, and the distance of the + journey in furlongs is four thousand eight hundred and sixty, the number + of <i>schoines</i> being eighty-one. If these measures of Egypt in + furlongs be put together, the result is as follows:—I have already + before this shown that the distance along the sea amounts to three + thousand six hundred furlongs, and I will now declare what the distance is + inland from the sea to Thebes, namely six thousand one hundred and twenty + furlongs: and again the distance from Thebes to the city called + Elephantine is one thousand eight hundred furlongs. + </p> + <p> + Of this land then, concerning which I have spoken, it seemed to myself + also, according as the priests said, that the greater part had been won as + an addition by the Egyptians; for it was evident to me that the space + between the aforesaid mountain-ranges, which lie above the city of + Memphis, once was a gulf of the sea, like the regions about Ilion and + Teuthrania and Ephesos and the plain of the Maiander, if it be permitted + to compare small things with great; and small these are in comparison, for + of the rivers which heaped up the soil in those regions none is worthy to + be compared in volume with a single one of the mouths of the Nile, which + has five mouths. Moreover there are other rivers also, not in size at all + equal to the Nile, which have performed great feats; of which I can + mention the names of several, and especially the Acheloos, which flowing + through Acarnania and so issuing out into the sea has already made half of + the Echinades from islands into mainland. Now there is in the land of + Arabia, not far from Egypt, a gulf of the sea running in from that which + is called the Erythraian Sea, very long and narrow, as I am about to tell. + With respect to the length of the voyage along it, one who set out from + the innermost point to sail out through it into the open sea, would spend + forty days upon the voyage, using oars; and with respect to breadth, where + the gulf is broadest it is half a day's sail across: and there is in it an + ebb and flow of tide every day. Just such another gulf I suppose that + Egypt was, and that the one ran in towards Ethiopia from the Northern Sea, + and the other, the Arabian, of which I am about to speak, tended from the + South towards Syria, the gulfs boring in so as almost to meet at their + extreme points, and passing by one another with but a small space left + between. If then the stream of the Nile should turn aside into this + Arabian gulf, what would hinder that gulf from being filled up with silt + as the river continued to flow, at all events within a period of twenty + thousand years? indeed for my part I am of the opinion that it would be + filled up even within ten thousand years. How, then, in all the time that + has elapsed before I came into being should not a gulf be filled up even + of much greater size than this by a river so great and so active? As + regards Egypt then, I both believe those who say that things are so, and + for myself also I am strongly of opinion that they are so; because I have + observed that Egypt runs out into the sea further than the adjoining land, + and that shells are found upon the mountains of it, and an efflorescence + of salt forms upon the surface, so that even the pyramids are being eaten + away by it, and moreover that of all the mountains of Egypt, the range + which lies above Memphis is the only one which has sand: besides which I + notice that Egypt resembles neither the land of Arabia, which borders upon + it, nor Libya, nor yet Syria (for they are Syrians who dwell in the parts + of Arabia lying along the sea), but that it has soil which is black and + easily breaks up, seeing that it is in truth mud and silt brought down + from Ethiopia by the river: but the soil of Libya, we know, is reddish in + colour and rather sandy, while that of Arabia and Syria is somewhat clayey + and rocky. The priests also gave me a strong proof concerning this land as + follows, namely that in the reign of king Moiris, whenever the river + reached a height of at least eight cubits it watered Egypt below Memphis; + and not yet nine hundred years had gone by since the death of Moiris, when + I heard these things from the priests: now however, unless the river rises + to sixteen cubits, or fifteen at the least, it does not go over the land. + I think too that those Egyptians who dwell below the lake of Moiris and + especially in that region which is called the Delta, if that land + continues to grow in height according to this proportion and to increase + similarly in extent, will suffer for all remaining time, from the Nile not + overflowing their land, that same thing which they themselves said that + the Hellenes would at some time suffer: for hearing that the whole land of + the Hellenes has rain and is not watered by rivers as theirs is, they said + that the Hellenes would at some time be disappointed of a great hope and + would suffer the ills of famine. This saying means that if the god shall + not send them rain, but shall allow drought to prevail for a long time, + the Hellenes will be destroyed by hunger; for they have in fact no other + supply of water to save them except from Zeus alone. This has been rightly + said by the Egyptians with reference to the Hellenes: but now let me tell + how matters are with the Egyptians themselves in their turn. If, in + accordance with what I before said, their land below Memphis (for this is + that which is increasing) shall continue to increase in height according + to the same proportion as in the past time, assuredly those Egyptians who + dwell here will suffer famine, if their land shall not have rain nor the + river be able to go over their fields. It is certain however that now they + gather in fruit from the earth with less labour than any other men and + also with less than the other Egyptians; for they have no labour in + breaking up furrows with a plough nor in hoeing nor in any other of those + labours which other men have about a crop; but when the river has come up + of itself and watered their fields and after watering has left them again, + then each man sows his own field and turns into it swine, and when he has + trodden the seed into the ground by means of the swine, after that he + waits for the harvest, and when he has threshed the corn by means of the + swine, then he gathers it in. + </p> + <p> + If we desire to follow the opinions of the Ionians as regards Egypt, who + say that the Delta alone is Egypt, reckoning its sea-coast to be from the + watch-tower called of Perseus to the fish-curing houses of Pelusion, a + distance of forty <i>schoines</i>, and counting it to extend inland as far + as the city of Kercasoros, where the Nile divides and runs to Pelusion and + Canobos, while as for the rest of Egypt, they assign it partly to Libya + and partly to Arabia,—if, I say, we should follow this account, we + should thereby declare that in former times the Egyptians had no land to + live in; for, as we have seen, their Delta at any rate is alluvial, and + has appeared (so to speak) lately, as the Egyptians themselves say and as + my opinion is. If then at the first there was no land for them to live in, + why did they waste their labour to prove that they had come into being + before all other men? They needed not to have made trial of the children + to see what language they would first utter. However I am not of the + opinion that the Egyptians came into being at the same time as that which + is called by the Ionians the Delta, but that they existed always ever + since the human race came into being, and that as their land advanced + forwards, many of them were left in their first abodes and many came down + gradually to the lower parts. At least it is certain that in old times + Thebes had the name of Egypt, and of this the circumference measures six + thousand one hundred and twenty furlongs. + </p> + <p> + If then we judge aright of these matters, the opinion of the Ionians about + Egypt is not sound: but if the judgment of the Ionians is right, I declare + that neither the Hellenes nor the Ionians themselves know how to reckon + since they say that the whole earth is made up of three divisions, Europe, + Asia, and Libya: for they ought to count in addition to these the Delta of + Egypt, since it belongs neither to Asia nor to Libya; for at least it + cannot be the river Nile by this reckoning which divides Asia from Libya, + but the Nile is cleft at the point of this Delta so as to flow round it, + and the result is that this land would come between Asia and Libya. + </p> + <p> + We dismiss then our opinion of the Ionians, and express a judgment of our + own on this matter also, that Egypt is all that land which is inhabited by + Egyptians, just as Kilikia is that which is inhabited by Kilikians and + Assyria that which is inhabited by Assyrians, and we know of no boundary + properly speaking between Asia and Libya except the borders of Egypt. If + however we shall adopt the opinion which is commonly held by the Hellenes, + we shall suppose that the whole of Egypt, beginning from the Cataract and + the city of Elephantine, is divided into two parts and that it thus + partakes of both the names, since one side will thus belong to Libya and + the other to Asia; for the Nile from the Cataract onwards flows to the sea + cutting Egypt through in the midst; and as far as the city of Kercasoros + the Nile flows in one single stream, but from this city onwards it is + parted into three ways; and one, which is called the Pelusian mouth, turns + towards the East; the second of the ways goes towards the West, and this + is called the Canobic mouth; but that one of the ways which is straight + runs thus,—when the river in its course downwards comes to the point + of the Delta, then it cuts the Delta through the midst and so issues out + to the sea. In this we have a portion of the water of the river which is + not the smallest nor the least famous, and it is called the Sebennytic + mouth. There are also two other mouths which part off from the Sebennytic + and go to the sea, and these are called, one the Saitic, the other the + Mendesian mouth. The Bolbitinitic, and Bucolic mouths, on the other hand, + are not natural but made by digging. Moreover also the answer given by the + Oracle of Ammon bears witness in support of my opinion that Egypt is of + the extent which I declare it to be in my account; and of this answer I + heard after I had formed my own opinion about Egypt. For those of the city + of Marea and of Apis, dwelling in the parts of Egypt which border on + Libya, being of opinion themselves that they were Libyans and not + Egyptians, and also being burdened by the rules of religious service, + because they desired not to be debarred from the use of cows' flesh, sent + to Ammon saying that they had nought in common with the Egyptians, for + they dwelt outside the Delta and agreed with them in nothing; and they + said they desired that it might be lawful for them to eat everything + without distinction. The god however did not permit them to do so, but + said that that land was Egypt where the Nile came over and watered, and + that those were Egyptians who dwelling below the city of Elephantine drank + of that river. Thus was it answered to them by the Oracle about this: and + the Nile, when it is in flood, goes over not only the Delta but also of + the land which is called Libyan and of that which is called Arabian + sometimes as much as two days' journey on each side, and at times even + more than this or at times less. + </p> + <p> + As regards the nature of the river, neither from the priests nor yet from + any other man was I able to obtain any knowledge: and I was desirous + especially to learn from them about these matters, namely why the Nile + comes down increasing in volume from the summer solstice onwards for a + hundred days, and then, when it has reached the number of these days, + turns and goes back, failing in its stream, so that through the whole + winter season it continues to be low, and until the summer solstice + returns. Of none of these things was I able to receive any account from + the Egyptians, when I inquired of them what power the Nile has whereby it + is of a nature opposite to that of all other rivers. And I made inquiry, + desiring to know both this which I say and also why, unlike all other + rivers, it does not give rise to any breezes blowing from it. However some + of the Hellenes who desired to gain distinction for cleverness have given + an account of this water in three different ways: two of these I do not + think it worth while even to speak of except only to indicate their + nature; of which the one says that the Etesian Winds are the cause that + makes the river rise, by preventing the Nile from flowing out into the + sea. But often the Etesian Winds fail and yet the Nile does the same work + as it is wont to do; and moreover, if these were the cause, all the other + rivers also which flow in a direction opposed to the Etesian Winds ought + to have been affected in the same way as the Nile, and even more, in as + much as they are smaller and present to them a feebler flow of streams: + but there are many of these rivers in Syria and many also in Libya, and + they are affected in no such manner as the Nile. The second way shows more + ignorance than that which has been mentioned, and it is more marvellous to + tell; for it says that the river produces these effects because it flows + from the Ocean, and that the Ocean flows round the whole earth. The third + of the ways is much the most specious, but nevertheless it is the most + mistaken of all: for indeed this way has no more truth in it than the + rest, alleging as it does that the Nile flows from melting snow; whereas + it flows out of Libya through the midst of the Ethiopians, and so comes + out into Egypt. How then should it flow from snow, when it flows from the + hottest parts to those which are cooler? And indeed most of the facts are + such as to convince a man (one at least who is capable of reasoning about + such matters), that it is not at all likely that it flows from snow. The + first and greatest evidence is afforded by the winds, which blow hot from + these regions; the second is that the land is rainless always and without + frost, whereas after snow has fallen rain must necessarily come within + five days, so that if it snowed in those parts rain would fall there; the + third evidence is afforded by the people dwelling there, who are of a + black colour by reason of the burning heat. Moreover kites and swallows + remain there through the year and do not leave the land; and cranes flying + from the cold weather which comes on in the region of Scythia come + regularly to these parts for wintering: if then it snowed ever so little + in that land through which the Nile flows and in which it has its rise, + none of these things would take place, as necessity compels us to admit. + As for him who talked about the Ocean, he carried his tale into the region + of the unknown, and so he need not be refuted; since I for my part know of + no river Ocean existing, but I think that Homer or one of the poets who + were before him invented the name and introduced it into his verse. + </p> + <p> + If however after I have found fault with the opinions proposed, I am bound + to declare an opinion of my own about the matters which are in doubt, I + will tell what to my mind is the reason why the Nile increases in the + summer. In the winter season the Sun, being driven away from his former + path through the heaven by the stormy winds, comes to the upper parts of + Libya. If one would set forth the matter in the shortest way, all has now + been said; for whatever region this god approaches most and stands + directly above, this it may reasonably be supposed is most in want of + water, and its native streams of rivers are dried up most. However, to set + it forth at greater length, thus it is:—the Sun passing in his + course by the upper parts of Libya, does thus, that is to say, since at + all times the air in those parts is clear and the country is warm, because + there are no cold winds, in passing through it the Sun does just as he was + wont to do in the summer, when going through the midst of the heaven, that + is he draws to himself the water, and having drawn it he drives it away to + the upper parts of the country, and the winds take it up and scattering it + abroad melt it into rain; so it is natural that the winds which blow from + this region, namely the South and South-west Winds, should be much the + most rainy of all the winds. I think however that the Sun does not send + away from himself all the water of the Nile of each year, but that also he + lets some remain behind with himself. Then when the winter becomes milder, + the Sun returns back again to the midst of the heaven, and from that time + onwards he draws equally from all rivers; but in the meantime they flow in + large volume, since water of rain mingles with them in great quantity, + because their country receives rain then and is filled with torrent + streams. In summer however they are weak, since not only the showers of + rain fail them, but also they are drawn by the Sun. The Nile however, + alone of all rivers, not having rain and being drawn by the Sun, naturally + flows during this time of winter in much less than its proper volume, that + is much less than in summer; for then it is drawn equally with all the + other waters, but in winter it bears the burden alone. Thus I suppose the + Sun to be the cause of these things. He also is the cause in my opinion + that the air in these parts is dry, since he makes it so by scorching up + his path through the heaven: thus summer prevails always in the upper + parts of Libya. If however the station of the seasons had been changed, + and where now in the heaven are placed the North Wind and winter, there + was the station of the South Wind and of the midday, and where now is + placed the South Wind, there was the North, if this had been so, the Sun + being driven from the midst of the heaven by the winter and the North Wind + would go to the upper parts of Europe, just as now he comes to the upper + parts of Libya, and passing in his course throughout the whole of Europe I + suppose he would do to the Ister that which he now works upon the Nile. As + to the breeze, why none blows from the river, my opinion is that from very + hot places it is not natural that anything should blow, and that a breeze + is wont to blow from something cold. + </p> + <p> + Let these matters then be as they are and as they were at the first: but + as to the sources of the Nile, not one either of the Egyptians or of the + Libyans or of the Hellenes, who came to speech with me, professed to know + anything, except the scribe of the sacred treasury of Athene at the city + of Sais in Egypt. To me however this man seemed not to be speaking + seriously when he said that he had certain knowledge of it; and he said as + follows, namely that there were two mountains of which the tops ran up to + a sharp point, situated between the city of Syene, which is in the + district of Thebes, and Elephantine, and the names of the mountains were, + of the one Crophi and of the other Mophi. From the middle between these + mountains flowed (he said) the sources of the Nile, which were fathomless + in depth, and half of the water flowed to Egypt and towards the North + Wind, the other half to Ethiopia and the South Wind. As for the fathomless + depth of the source, he said that Psammetichos king of Egypt came to a + trial of this matter; for he had a rope twisted of many thousand fathoms + and let it down in this place, and it found no bottom. By this the scribe + (if this which he told was really as he said) gave me to understand that + there were certain strong eddies there and a backward flow, and that since + the water dashed against the mountains, therefore the sounding-line could + not come to any bottom when it was let down. From no other person was I + able to learn anything about this matter; but for the rest I learnt so + much as here follows by the most diligent inquiry; for I went myself as an + eye-witness as far as the city of Elephantine and from that point onwards + I gathered knowledge by report. From the city of Elephantine as one goes + up the river there is country which slopes steeply; so that here one must + attach ropes to the vessel on both sides, as one fastens an ox, and so + make one's way onward; and if the rope break, the vessel is gone at once, + carried away by the violence of the stream. Through this country it is a + voyage of about four days in length, and in this part the Nile is winding + like the river Maiander, and the distance amounts to twelve <i>schoines</i>, + which one must traverse in this manner. Then you will come to a level + plain, in which the Nile flows round an island named Tachompso. (Now in + the regions above the Elephantine there dwell Ethiopians at once + succeeding, who also occupy half of the island, and Egyptians the other + half.) Adjoining this island there is a great lake, round which dwell + Ethiopian nomad tribes; and when you have sailed through this you will + come to the stream of the Nile again, which flows into this lake. After + this you will disembark and make a journey by land of forty days; for in + the Nile sharp rocks stand forth out of the water, and there are many + reefs, by which it is not possible for a vessel to pass. Then after having + passed through this country in the forty days which I have said, you will + embark again in another vessel and sail for twelve days; and after this + you will come to a great city called Meroe. This city is said to be the + mother-city of all the other Ethiopians: and they who dwell in it + reverence of the gods Zeus and Dionysos alone, and these they greatly + honour; and they have an Oracle of Zeus established, and make warlike + marches whensoever the god commands them by prophesyings and to whatsoever + place he commands. Sailing from this city you will come to the "Deserters" + in another period of time equal to that in which you came from Elephantine + to the mother-city of the Ethiopians. Now the name of these "Deserters" is + <i>Asmach</i>, and this word signifies, when translated into the tongue of + the Hellenes, "those who stand on the left hand of the king." These were + two hundred and forty thousand Egyptians of the warrior class, who + revolted and went over to these Ethiopians for the following cause:—In + the reign of Psammetichos garrisons were set, one towards the Ethiopians + at the city of Elephantine, another towards the Arabians and Assyrians at + Daphnai of Pelusion, and another towards Libya at Marea: and even in my + own time the garrisons of the Persians too are ordered in the same manner + as these were in the reign of Psammetichos, for both at Elephantine and at + Daphnai the Persians have outposts. The Egyptians then of whom I speak had + served as outposts for three years and no one relieved them from their + guard; accordingly they took counsel together, and adopting a common plan + they all in a body revolted from Psammetichos and set out for Ethiopia. + Hearing this Psammetichos set forth in pursuit, and when he came up with + them he entreated them much and endeavoured to persuade them not to desert + the gods of their country and their children and wives: upon which it is + said that one of them pointed to his privy member and said that wherever + this was, there would they have both children and wives. When these came + to Ethiopia they gave themselves over to the king of the Ethiopians; and + he rewarded them as follows:—there were certain of the Ethiopians + who had come to be at variance with him; and he bade them drive these out + and dwell in their land. So since these men settled in the land of the + Ethiopians, the Ethiopians have come to be of milder manners, from having + learnt the customs of the Egyptians. + </p> + <p> + The Nile then, besides the part of its course which is in Egypt, is known + as far as a four months' journey by river and land: for that is the number + of months which are found by reckoning to be spent in going from + Elephantine to these "Deserters": and the river runs from the West and the + setting of the sun. But what comes after that point no one can clearly + say; for this land is desert by reason of the burning heat. This much + however I heard from men of Kyrene, who told me that they had been to the + Oracle of Ammon, and had come to speech with Etearchos king of the + Ammonians: and it happened that after speaking of other matters they fell + to discourse about the Nile and how no one knew the sources of it; and + Etearchos said that once there came to him men of the Nasamonians (this is + a Libyan race which dwells in the Syrtis, and also in the land to the East + of the Syrtis reaching to no great distance), and when the Nasamonians + came and were asked by him whether they were able to tell him anything + more than he knew about the desert parts of Libya, they said that there + had been among them certain sons of chief men, who were of unruly + disposition; and these when they grew up to be men had devised various + other extravagant things and also they had told off by lot five of + themselves to go to see the desert parts of Libya and to try whether they + could discover more than those who had previously explored furthest: for + in those parts of Libya which are by the Northern Sea, beginning from + Egypt and going as far as the headland of Soloeis, which is the extreme + point of Libya, Libyans (and of them many races) extend along the whole + coast, except so much as the Hellenes and Phenicians hold; but in the + upper parts, which lie above the sea-coast and above those people whose + land comes down to the sea, Libya is full of wild beasts; and in the parts + above the land of wild beasts it is full of sand, terribly waterless and + utterly desert. These young men then (said they), being sent out by their + companions well furnished with supplies of water and provisions, went + first through the inhabited country, and after they had passed through + this they came to the country of wild beasts, and after this they passed + through the desert, making their journey towards the West Wind; and having + passed through a great tract of sand in many days, they saw at last trees + growing in a level place; and having come up to them, they were beginning + to pluck the fruit which was upon the trees: but as they began to pluck + it, there came upon them small men, of less stature than men of the common + size, and these seized them and carried them away; and neither could the + Nasamonians understand anything of their speech nor could those who were + carrying them off understand anything of the speech of the Nasamonians; + and they led them (so it was said) through very great swamps, and after + passing through these they came to a city in which all the men were in + size like those who carried them off and in colour of skin black; and by + the city ran a great river, which ran from the West towards the sunrising, + and in it were seen crocodiles. Of the account given by Etearchos the + Ammonian let so much suffice as is here said, except that, as the men of + Kyrene told me, he alleged that the Nasamonians returned safe home, and + that the people to whom they had come were all wizards. Now this river + which ran by the city, Etearchos conjectured to be the Nile, and moreover + reason compels us to think so; for the Nile flows from Libya and cuts + Libya through in the midst, and as I conjecture, judging of what is not + known by that which is evident to the view, it starts at a distance from + its mouth equal to that of the Ister: for the river Ister begins from the + Keltoi and the city of Pyrene and so runs that it divides Europe in the + midst (now the Keltoi are outside the Pillars of Heracles and border upon + the Kynesians, who dwell furthest towards the sunset of all those who have + their dwelling in Europe): and the Ister ends, having its course through + the whole of Europe, by flowing into the Euxine Sea at the place where the + Milesians have their settlement of Istria. Now the Ister, since it flows + through land which is inhabited, is known by the reports of many; but of + the sources of the Nile no one can give an account, for the part of Libya + through which it flows is uninhabited and desert. About its course however + so much as it was possible to learn by the most diligent inquiry has been + told; and it runs out into Egypt. Now Egypt lies nearly opposite to the + mountain districts of Kilikia; and from thence to Sinope, which lies upon + the Euxine Sea, is a journey in the same straight line of five days for a + man without encumbrance; and Sinope lies opposite to the place where the + Ister runs out into the sea: thus I think that the Nile passes through the + whole of Libya and is of equal measure with the Ister. + </p> + <p> + Of the Nile then let so much suffice as has been said. Of Egypt however I + shall make my report at length, because it has wonders more in number than + any other land, and works too it has to show as much as any land, which + are beyond expression great: for this reason then more shall be said + concerning it. + </p> + <p> + The Egyptians in agreement with their climate, which is unlike any other, + and with the river, which shows a nature different from all other rivers, + established for themselves manners and customs in a way opposite to other + men in almost all matters: for among them the women frequent the market + and carry on trade, while the men remain at home and weave; and whereas + others weave pushing the woof upwards, the Egyptians push it downwards: + the men carry their burdens upon their heads and the women upon their + shoulders: the women make water standing up and the men crouching down: + they ease themselves in their houses and they eat without in the streets, + alleging as reason for this that it is right to do secretly the things + that are unseemly though necessary, but those which are not unseemly, in + public: no woman is a minister either of male or female divinity, but men + of all, both male and female: to support their parents the sons are in no + way compelled, if they do not desire to do so, but the daughters are + forced to do so, be they never so unwilling. The priests of the gods in + other lands wear long hair, but in Egypt they shave their heads: among + other men the custom is that in mourning those whom the matter concerns + most nearly have their hair cut short, but the Egyptians, when deaths + occur, let their hair grow long, both that on the head and that on the + chin, having before been close shaven: other men have their daily living + separated from beasts, but the Egyptians have theirs together with beasts: + other men live on wheat and on barley, but to any one of the Egyptians who + makes his living on these it is a great reproach; they make their bread of + maize, which some call spelt: they knead dough with their feet and clay + with their hands, with which also they gather up dung: and whereas other + men, except such as have learnt otherwise from the Egyptians, have their + members as nature made them, the Egyptians practice circumcision: as to + garments, the men wear two each and the women but one: and whereas others + make fast the rings and ropes of the sails outside the ship, the Egyptians + do this inside: finally in the writing of characters and reckoning with + pebbles, while the Hellenes carry the hand from the left to the right, the + Egyptians do this from the right to the left; and doing so they say that + they do it themselves rightwise and the Hellenes leftwise: and they use + two kinds of characters for writing, of which the one kind is called + sacred and the other common. + </p> + <p> + They are religious excessively beyond all other men, and with regard to + this they have customs as follows:—they drink from cups of bronze + and rinse them out every day, and not some only do this but all: they wear + garments of linen always newly washed, and this they make a special point + of practice: they circumcise themselves for the sake of cleanliness, + preferring to be clean rather than comely. The priests shave themselves + all over their body every other day, so that no lice or any other foul + thing may come to be upon them when they minister to the gods; and the + priests wear garments of linen only and sandals of papyrus, and any other + garment they may not take nor other sandals; these wash themselves in cold + water twice in a day and twice again in the night; and other religious + services they perform (one may almost say) of infinite number. They enjoy + also good things not a few, for they do not consume or spend anything of + their own substance, but there is sacred bread baked for them and they + have each great quantity of flesh of oxen and geese coming in to them each + day, and also wine of grapes is given to them; but it is not permitted to + them to taste of fish: beans moreover the Egyptians do not at all sow in + their land, and those which they grow they neither eat raw nor boil for + food; nay the priests do not endure even to look upon them, thinking this + to be an unclean kind of pulse: and there is not one priest only for each + of the gods but many, and of them one is chief-priest, and whenever a + priest dies his son is appointed to his place. + </p> + <p> + The males of the ox kind they consider to belong to Epaphos, and on + account of him they test them in the following manner:—If the priest + sees one single black hair upon the beast he counts it not clean for + sacrifice; and one of the priests who is appointed for the purpose makes + investigation of these matters, both when the beast is standing upright + and when it is lying on its back, drawing out its tongue moreover, to see + if it is clean in respect of the appointed signs, which I shall tell of in + another part of the history: he looks also at the hairs of the tail to see + if it has them growing in a natural manner; and if it be clean in respect + of all these things, he marks it with a piece of papyrus, rolling this + round the horns, and then when he has plastered sealing-earth over it he + sets upon it the seal of his signet-ring, and after that they take the + animal away. But for one who sacrifices a beast not sealed the penalty + appointed is death. In this way then the beast is tested; and their + appointed manner of sacrifice is as follows:—they lead the sealed + beast to the altar where they happen to be sacrificing, and then kindle a + fire: after that, having poured libations of wine over the altar so that + it runs down upon the victim and having called upon the god, they cut its + throat, and having cut its throat they sever the head from the body. The + body then of the beast they flay, but upon the head they make many + imprecations first, and then they who have a market and Hellenes + sojourning among them for trade, these carry it to the market-place and + sell it, while they who have no Hellenes among them cast it away into the + river: and this is the form of imprecations which they utter upon the + heads, praying that if any evil be about to befall either themselves who + are offering sacrifice or the land of Egypt in general, it may come rather + upon this head. Now as regards the heads of the beasts which are + sacrificed and the pouring over them of the wine, all the Egyptians have + the same customs equally for all their sacrifices; and by reason of this + custom none of the Egyptians eat of the head either of this or of any + other kind of animal: but the manner of disembowelling the victims and of + burning them is appointed among them differently for different sacrifices; + I shall speak however of the sacrifices to that goddess whom they regard + as the greatest of all, and to whom they celebrate the greatest feast.—When + they have flayed the bullock and made imprecation, they take out the whole + of its lower entrails but leave in the body the upper entrails and the + fat; and they sever from it the legs and the end of the loin and the + shoulders and the neck: and this done, they fill the rest of the body of + the animal with consecrated loaves and honey and raisins and figs and + frankincense and myrrh and every other kind of spices, and having filled + it with these they offer it, pouring over it great abundance of oil. They + make their sacrifice after fasting, and while the offerings are being + burnt, they all beat themselves for mourning, and when they have finished + beating themselves they set forth as a feast that which they left unburnt + of the sacrifice. The clean males then of the ox kind, both full-grown + animals and calves, are sacrificed by all the Egyptians; the females + however they may not sacrifice, but these are sacred to Isis; for the + figure of Isis is in the form of a woman with cow's horns, just as the + Hellenes present Io in pictures, and all the Egyptians without distinction + reverence cows far more than any other kind of cattle; for which reason + neither man nor woman of the Egyptian race would kiss a man who is a + Hellene on the mouth, nor will they use a knife or roasting-spits or a + caldron belonging to a Hellene, nor taste the flesh even of a clean animal + if it has been cut with the knife of a Hellene. And the cattle of this + kind which die they bury in the following manner:—the females they + cast into the river, but the males they bury, each people in the suburb of + their town, with one of the horns, or sometimes both, protruding to mark + the place; and when the bodies have rotted away and the appointed time + comes on, then to each city comes a boat from that which is called the + island of Prosopitis (this is in the Delta, and the extent of its circuit + is nine <i>schoines</i>). In this island of Prosopitis is situated, + besides many other cities, that one from which the boats come to take up + the bones of the oxen, and the name of the city is Atarbechis, and in it + there is set up a holy temple of Aphrodite. From this city many go abroad + in various directions, some to one city and others to another, and when + they have dug up the bones of the oxen they carry them off, and coming + together they bury them in one single place. In the same manner as they + bury the oxen they bury also their other cattle when they die; for about + them also they have the same law laid down, and these also they abstain + from killing. + </p> + <p> + Now all who have a temple set up to the Theban Zeus or who are of the + district of Thebes, these, I say, all sacrifice goats and abstain from + sheep: for not all the Egyptians equally reverence the same gods, except + only Isis and Osiris (who they say is Dionysos), these they all reverence + alike: but they who have a temple of Mendes or belong to the Mendesian + district, these abstain from goats and sacrifice sheep. Now the men of + Thebes and those who after their example abstain from sheep, say that this + custom was established among them for the cause which follows:—Heracles + (they say) had an earnest desire to see Zeus, and Zeus did not desire to + be seen of him; and at last when Heracles was urgent in entreaty Zeus + contrived this device, that is to say, he flayed a ram and held in front + of him the head of the ram which he had cut off, and he put on over him + the fleece and then showed himself to him. Hence the Egyptians make the + image of Zeus with the face of a ram; and the Ammonians do so also after + their example, being settlers both from the Egyptians and from the + Ethiopians, and using a language which is a medley of both tongues: and in + my opinion it is from this god that the Egyptians call Zeus <i>Amun</i>. + The Thebans then do not sacrifice rams but hold them sacred for this + reason; on one day however in the year, on the feast of Zeus, they cut up + in the same manner and flay one single ram and cover with its skin the + image of Zeus, and then they bring up to it another image of Heracles. + This done, all who are in the temple beat themselves in lamentation for + the ram, and then they bury it in a sacred tomb. + </p> + <p> + About Heracles I heard the account given that he was of the number of the + twelve gods; but of the other Heracles whom the Hellenes know I was not + able to hear in any part of Egypt: and moreover to prove that the + Egyptians did not take the name of Heracles from the Hellenes, but rather + the Hellenes from the Egyptians,—that is to say those of the + Hellenes who gave the name Heracles to the son of Amphitryon,—of + that, I say, besides many other evidences there is chiefly this, namely + that the parents of this Heracles, Amphitryon and Alcmene, were both of + Egypt by descent, and also that the Egyptians say that they do not know + the names either of Poseidon or of the Dioscuroi, nor have these been + accepted by them as gods among the other gods; whereas if they had + received from the Hellenes the name of any divinity, they would naturally + have preserved the memory of these most of all, assuming that in those + times as now some of the Hellenes were wont to make voyages and were + seafaring folk, as I suppose and as my judgment compels me to think; so + that the Egyptians would have learnt the names of these gods even more + than that of Heracles. In fact however Heracles is a very ancient Egyptian + god; and (as they say themselves) it is seventeen thousand years to the + beginning of the reign of Amasis from the time when the twelve gods, of + whom they count that Heracles is one, were begotten of the eight gods. I + moreover, desiring to know something certain of these matters so far as + might be, made a voyage also to Tyre of Phenicia, hearing that in that + place there was a holy temple of Heracles; and I saw that it was richly + furnished with many votive offerings besides, and especially there were in + it two pillars, the one of pure gold and the other of an emerald stone of + such size as to shine by night: and having come to speech with the priests + of the god, I asked them how long a time it was since their temple had + been set up: and these also I found to be at variance with the Hellenes, + for they said that at the same time when Tyre was founded, the temple of + the god also had been set up, and that it was a period of two thousand + three hundred years since their people began to dwell at Tyre. I saw also + at Tyre another temple of Heracles, with the surname Thasian; and I came + to Thasos also and there I found a temple of Heracles set up by the + Phenicians, who had sailed out to seek for Europa and had colonised + Thasos; and these things happened full five generations of men before + Heracles the son of Amphitryon was born in Hellas. So then my inquiries + show clearly that Heracles is an ancient god, and those of the Hellenes + seem to me to act most rightly who have two temples of Heracles set up, + and who sacrifice to the one as an immortal god and with the title + Olympian, and make offerings of the dead to the other as a hero. Moreover, + besides many other stories which the Hellenes tell without due + consideration, this tale is especially foolish which they tell about + Heracles, namely that when he came to Egypt, the Egyptians put on him + wreaths and led him forth in procession to sacrifice him to Zeus; and he + for some time kept quiet, but when they were beginning the sacrifice of + him at the altar, he betook himself to prowess and slew them all. I for my + part am of opinion that the Hellenes when they tell this tale are + altogether without knowledge of the nature and customs of the Egyptians; + for how should they for whom it is not lawful to sacrifice even beasts, + except swine and the males of oxen and calves (such of them as are clean) + and geese, how should these sacrifice human beings? Besides this, how is + it in nature possible that Heracles, being one person only and moreover a + man (as they assert), should slay many myriads? Having said so much of + these matters, we pray that we may have grace from both the gods and the + heroes for our speech. + </p> + <p> + Now the reason why those of the Egyptians whom I have mentioned do not + sacrifice goats, female or male, is this:—the Mendesians count Pan + to be one of the eight gods (now these eight gods they say came into being + before the twelve gods), and the painters and image-makers represent in + painting and in sculpture the figure of Pan, just as the Hellenes do, with + goat's face and legs, not supposing him to be really like this but to + resemble the other gods; the cause however why they represent him in this + form I prefer not to say. The Mendesians then reverence all goats and the + males more than the females (and the goatherds too have greater honour + than other herdsmen), but of the goats one especially is reverenced, and + when he dies there is great mourning in all the Mendesian district: and + both the goat and Pan are called in the Egyptian tongue <i>Mendes</i>. + Moreover in my lifetime there happened in that district this marvel, that + is to say a he-goat had intercourse with a woman publicly, and this was so + done that all men might have evidence of it. + </p> + <p> + The pig is accounted by the Egyptians an abominable animal; and first, if + any of them in passing by touch a pig, he goes into the river and dips + himself forthwith in the water together with his garments; and then too + swineherds, though they may be native Egyptians, unlike all others, do not + enter any of the temples in Egypt, nor is anyone willing to give his + daughter in marriage to one of them or to take a wife from among them; but + the swineherds both give in marriage to one another and take from one + another. Now to the other gods the Egyptians do not think it right to + sacrifice swine; but to the Moon and to Dionysos alone at the same time + and on the same full-moon they sacrifice swine, and then eat their flesh: + and as to the reason why, when they abominate swine at all their other + feasts, they sacrifice them at this, there is a story told by the + Egyptians; and this story I know, but it is not a seemly one for me to + tell. Now the sacrifice of the swine to the Moon is performed as follows:—when + the priest has slain the victim, he puts together the end of the tail and + the spleen and the caul, and covers them up with the whole of the fat of + the animal which is about the paunch, and then he offers them with fire; + and the rest of the flesh they eat on that day of full moon upon which + they have held sacrifice, but on any day after this they will not taste of + it: the poor however among them by reason of the scantiness of their means + shape pigs of dough and having baked them they offer these as a sacrifice. + Then for Dionysos on the eve of the festival each one kills a pig by + cutting its throat before his own doors, and after that he gives the pig + to the swineherd who sold it to him, to carry away again; and the rest of + the feast of Dionysos is celebrated by the Egyptians in the same way as by + the Hellenes in almost all things except choral dances, but instead of the + <i>phallos</i> they have invented another contrivance, namely figures of + about a cubit in height worked by strings, which women carry about the + villages, with the privy member made to move and not much less in size + than the rest of the body: and a flute goes before and they follow singing + the praises of Dionysos. As to the reason why the figure has this member + larger than is natural and moves it, though it moves no other part of the + body, about this there is a sacred story told. Now I think that Melampus + the son of Amytheon was not without knowledge of these rites of sacrifice, + but was acquainted with them: for Melampus is he who first set forth to + the Hellenes the name of Dionysos and the manner of sacrifice and the + procession of the <i>phallos</i>. Strictly speaking indeed, he when he + made it known did not take in the whole, but those wise men who came after + him made it known more at large. Melampus then is he who taught of the <i>phallos</i> + which is carried in procession for Dionysos, and from him the Hellenes + learnt to do that which they do. I say then that Melampus being a man of + ability contrived for himself an art of divination, and having learnt from + Egypt he taught the Hellenes many things, and among them those that + concern Dionysos, making changes in some few points of them: for I shall + not say that that which is done in worship of the god in Egypt came + accidentally to be the same with that which is done among the Hellenes, + for then these rites would have been in character with the Hellenic + worship and not lately brought in; nor certainly shall I say that the + Egyptians took from the Hellenes either this or any other customary + observance: matters concerning Dionysos from Cadmos the Tyrian and from + those who came with him from Phenicia to the land which we now call + Boeotia. + </p> + <p> + Moreover the naming of almost all the gods has come to Hellas from Egypt: + for that it has come from the Barbarians I find by inquiry is true, and I + am of opinion that most probably it has come from Egypt, because, except + in the case of Poseidon and the Dioscuroi (in accordance with that which I + have said before), and also of Hera and Hestia and Themis and the Charites + and Nereids, the Egyptians say themselves: but as for the gods whose names + they profess that they do not know, these I think received their naming + from the Pelasgians, except Poiseidon; but about this god the Hellenes + learnt from the Libyans, for no people except the Libyans have had the + name of Poseidon from the first and have paid honour to this god always. + Nor, it may be added, have the Egyptians any custom of worshipping heroes. + These observances then, and others besides these which I shall mention, + the Hellenes have adopted from the Egyptians; but to make, as they do the + images of Hermes with the <i>phallos</i> they have learnt not from the + Egyptians but from the Pelasgians, the custom having been received by the + Athenians first of all the Hellenes and from these by the rest; for just + at the time when the Athenians were beginning to rank among the Hellenes, + the Pelasgians became dwellers with them in their land, and from this very + cause it was that they began to be counted as Hellenes. Whosoever has been + initiated in the mysteries of the Cabeiroi, which the Samothrakians + perform having received them from the Pelasgians, that man knows the + meaning of my speech; for these very Pelasgians who became dwellers with + the Athenians used to dwell before that time in Samothrake, and from them + the Samothrakians received their mysteries. So then the Athenians were the + first of the Hellenes who made the images of Hermes with the <i>phallos</i>, + having learnt from the Pelasgians; and the Pelasgians told a sacred story + about it, which is set forth in the mysteries in Samothrake. Now the + Pelasgians formerly were wont to make all their sacrifices calling upon + the gods in prayer, as I know from that which I heard at Dodona, but they + gave no title or name to any of them, for they had not yet heard any, but + they called them gods from some such notion as this, that they had set in + order all things and so had the distribution of everything. Afterwards + when much time had elapsed, they learnt from Egypt the names of the gods, + all except Dionysos, for his name they learnt long afterwards; and after a + time the Pelasgians consulted the Oracle at Dodona about the names, for + this prophetic seat is accounted to be the most ancient of the Oracles + which are among the Hellenes, and at that time it was the only one. So + when the Pelasgians asked the Oracle at Dodona whether they should adopt + the names which had come from the Barbarians, the Oracle in reply bade + them make use of the names. From this time they sacrificed using the names + of the gods, and from the Pelasgians the Hellenes afterwards received + them: but when the several gods had their birth, or whether they all were + from the beginning, and of what form they are, they did not learn till + yesterday, as it were, or the day before: for Hesiod and Homer I suppose + were four hundred years before my time and not more, and these are they + who made a theogony for the Hellenes and gave the titles to the gods and + distributed to them honours and arts, and set forth their forms: but the + poets who are said to have been before these men were really in my opinion + after them. Of these things the first are said by the priestesses of + Dodona, and the latter things, those namely which have regard to Hesiod + and Homer, by myself. + </p> + <p> + As regards the Oracles both that among the Hellenes and that in Libya, the + Egyptians tell the following tale. The priests of the Theban Zeus told me + that two women in the service of the temple had been carried away from + Thebes by Phenicians, and that they had heard that one of them had been + sold to go into Libya and the other to the Hellenes; and these women, they + said, were they who first founded the prophetic seats among the nations + which have been named: and when I inquired whence they knew so perfectly + of this tale which they told, they said in reply that a great search had + been made by the priests after these women, and that they had not been + able to find them, but they had heard afterwards this tale about them + which they were telling. This I heard from the priests at Thebes, and what + follows is said by the prophetesses of Dodona. They say that two black + doves flew from Thebes in Egypt, and came one of them to Libya and the + other to their land. And this latter settled upon an oak-tree and spoke + with human voice, saying that it was necessary that a prophetic seat of + Zeus should be established in that place; and they supposed that that was + of the gods which was announced to them, and made one accordingly: and the + dove which went away to the Libyans, they say, bade the Libyans make an + Oracle of Ammon; and this also is of Zeus. The priestesses of Dodona told + me these things, of whom the eldest was named Promeneia, the next after + her Timarete, and the youngest Nicandra; and the other people of Dodona + who were engaged about the temple gave accounts agreeing with theirs. I + however have an opinion about the matter as follows:—If the + Phenicians did in truth carry away the consecrated women and sold one of + them into Libya and the other into Hellas, I suppose that in the country + now called Hellas, which was formerly called Pelasgia, this woman was sold + into the land of the Thesprotians; and then being a slave there she set up + a sanctuary of Zeus under a real oak-tree; as indeed it was natural that + being an attendant of the sanctuary of Zeus at Thebes, she should there, + in the place to which she had come, have a memory of him; and after this, + when she got understanding of the Hellenic tongue, she established an + Oracle, and she reported, I suppose, that her sister had been sold in + Libya by the same Phenicians by whom she herself had been sold. Moreover, + I think that the women were called doves by the people of Dodona for the + reason that they were barbarians and because it seemed to them that they + uttered voice like birds; but after a time (they say) the dove spoke with + human voice, that is when the woman began to speak so that they could + understand; but so long as she spoke a Barbarian tongue she seemed to them + to be uttering voice like a bird: for if it had been really a dove, how + could it speak with human voice? And in saying that the dove was black, + they indicate that the woman was Egyptian. The ways of delivering oracles + too at Thebes in Egypt and at Dodona closely resemble each other, as it + happens, and also the method of divination by victims has come from Egypt. + </p> + <p> + Moreover, it is true also that the Egyptians were the first of men who + made solemn assemblies and processions and approaches to the temples, and + from them the Hellenes have learnt them, and my evidence for this is that + the Egyptian celebrations of these have been held from a very ancient + time, whereas the Hellenic were introduced but lately. The Egyptians hold + their solemn assemblies not once in the year but often, especially and + with the greatest zeal and devotion at the city of Bubastis for Artemis, + and next at Busiris for Isis; for in this last-named city there is a very + great temple of Isis, and this city stands in the middle of the Delta of + Egypt; now Isis is in the tongue of the Hellenes Demeter: thirdly, they + have a solemn assembly at the city of Sais for Athene, fourthly at + Heliopolis for the Sun (Helios), fifthly at the city of Buto in honour of + Leto, and sixthly at the city of Papremis for Ares. Now, when they are + coming to the city of Bubastis they do as follows:—they sail men and + women together, and a great multitude of each sex in every boat; and some + of the women have rattles and rattle with them, while some of the men play + the flute during the whole time of the voyage, and the rest, both women + and men, sing and clap their hands; and when as they sail they come + opposite to any city on the way they bring the boat to land, and some of + the women continue to do as I have said, others cry aloud and jeer at the + women in that city, some dance, and some stand up and pull up their + garments. This they do by every city along the river-bank; and when they + come to Bubastis they hold festival celebrating great sacrifices, and more + wine of grapes is consumed upon that festival than during the whole of the + rest of the year. To this place (so say the natives) they come together + year by year even to the number of seventy myriads of men and women, + besides children. Thus it is done here; and how they celebrate the + festival in honour of Isis at the city of Busiris has been told by me + before: for, as I said, they beat themselves in mourning after the + sacrifice, all of them both men and women, very many myriads of people; + but for whom they beat themselves it is not permitted to me by religion to + say: and so many as there are of the Carians dwelling in Egypt do this + even more than the Egyptians themselves, inasmuch as they cut their + foreheads also with knives; and by this it is manifested that they are + strangers and not Egyptians. At the times when they gather together at the + city of Sais for their sacrifices, on a certain night they all kindle + lamps many in number in the open air round about the houses; now the lamps + are saucers full of salt and oil mixed, and the wick floats by itself on + the surface, and this burns during the whole night; and to the festival is + given the name <i>Lychnocaia</i> (the lighting of lamps). Moreover those + of the Egyptians who have not come to this solemn assembly observe the + night of the festival and themselves also light lamps all of them, and + thus not in Sais alone are they lighted, but over all Egypt: and as to the + reason why light and honour are allotted to this night, about this there + is a sacred story told. To Heliopolis and Buto they go year by year and do + sacrifice only: but at Papremis they do sacrifice and worship as + elsewhere, and besides that, when the sun begins to go down while some few + of the priests are occupied with the image of the god, the greater number + of them stand in the entrance of the temple with wooden clubs, and other + persons to the number of more than a thousand men with purpose to perform + a vow, these also having all of them staves of wood, stand in a body + opposite to those: and the image, which is in a small shrine of wood + covered over with gold, they take out on the day before to another sacred + building. The few then who have been left about the image, draw a wain + with four wheels, which bears the shrine and the image that is within the + shrine, and the other priests standing in the gateway try to prevent it + from entering, and the men who are under a vow come to the assistance of + the god and strike them, while the others defend themselves. Then there + comes to be a hard fight with staves, and they break one another's heads, + and I am of opinion that many even die of the wounds they receive; the + Egyptians however told me that no one died. This solemn assembly the + people of the place say that they established for the following reason:—the + mother of Ares, they say, used to dwell in this temple, and Ares, having + been brought up away from her, when he grew up came thither desiring to + visit his mother, and the attendants of his mother's temple, not having + seen him before, did not permit him to pass in, but kept him away; and he + brought men to help him from another city and handled roughly the + attendants of the temple, and entered to visit his mother. Hence, they + say, this exchange of blows has become the custom in honour of Ares upon + his festival. + </p> + <p> + The Egyptians were the first who made it a point of religion not to lie + with women in temples, nor to enter into temples after going away from + women without first bathing: for almost all other men except the Egyptians + and the Hellenes lie with women in temples and enter into a temple after + going away from women without bathing, since they hold that there is no + difference in this respect between men and beasts: for they say that they + see beasts and the various kinds of birds coupling together both in the + temples and in the sacred enclosures of the gods; if then this were not + pleasing to the god, the beasts would not do so. + </p> + <p> + Thus do these defend that which they do, which by me is disallowed: but + the Egyptians are excessively careful in their observances, both in other + matters which concern the sacred rites and also in those which follow:—Egypt, + though it borders upon Libya, does not very much abound in wild animals, + but such as they have are one and all accounted by them sacred, some of + them living with men and others not. But if I should say for what reasons + the sacred animals have been thus dedicated, I should fall into discourse + of matters pertaining to the gods, of which I most desire not to speak; + and what I have actually said touching slightly upon them, I said because + I was constrained by necessity. About these animals there is a custom of + this kind:—persons have been appointed of the Egyptians, both men + and women, to provide the food for each kind of beast separately, and + their office goes down from father to son; and those who dwell in the + various cities perform vows to them thus, that is, when they make a vow to + the god to whom the animal belongs, they shave the head of their children + either the whole or the half or the third part of it, and then set the + hair in the balance against silver, and whatever it weighs, this the man + gives to the person who provides for the animals, and she cuts up fish of + equal value and gives it for food to the animals. Thus food for their + support has been appointed and if any one kill any of these animals, the + penalty, if he do it with his own will, is death, and if against his will, + such penalty as the priests may appoint: but whosoever shall kill an ibis + or a hawk, whether it be with his will or against his will, must die. Of + the animals that live with men there are great numbers, and would be many + more but for the accidents which befall the cats. For when the females + have produced young they are no longer in the habit of going to the males, + and these seeking to be united with them are not able. To this end then + they contrive as follows,—they either take away by force or remove + secretly the young from the females and kill them (but after killing they + do not eat them), and the females being deprived of their young and + desiring more, therefore come to the males, for it is a creature that is + fond of its young. Moreover when a fire occurs, the cats seem to be + divinely possessed; for while the Egyptians stand at intervals and look + after the cats, not taking any care to extinguish the fire, the cats + slipping through or leaping over the men, jump into the fire; and when + this happens, great mourning comes upon the Egyptians. And in whatever + houses a cat has died by a natural death, all those who dwell in this + house shave their eyebrows only, but those in which a dog has died shave + their whole body and also their head. The cats when they are dead are + carried away to sacred buildings in the city of Bubastis, where after + being embalmed they are buried; but the dogs they bury each people in + their own city in sacred tombs; and the ichneumons are buried just in the + same way as the dogs. The shrewmice however and the hawks they carry away + to the city of Buto, and the ibises to Hermopolis; the bears (which are + not commonly seen) and the wolves, not much larger in size than foxes, + they bury on the spot where they are found lying. + </p> + <p> + Of the crocodile the nature is as follows:—during the four most + wintry months this creature eats nothing: she has four feet and is an + animal belonging to the land and the water both; for she produces and + hatches eggs on the land, and the most part of the day she remains upon + dry land, but the whole of the night in the river, for the water in truth + is warmer than the unclouded open air and the dew. Of all the mortal + creatures of which we have knowledge this grows to the greatest bulk from + the smallest beginning; for the eggs which she produces are not much + larger than those of geese and the newly-hatched young one is in + proportion to the egg, but as he grows he becomes as much as seventeen + cubits long and sometimes yet larger. He has eyes like those of a pig and + teeth large and tusky, in proportion to the size of his body; but unlike + all other beasts he grows no tongue, neither does he move his lower jaw, + but brings the upper jaw towards the lower, being in this too unlike all + other beasts. He has moreover strong claws and a scaly hide upon his back + which cannot be pierced; and he is blind in the water, but in the air he + is of a very keen sight. Since he has his living in the water he keeps his + mouth all full within of leeches; and whereas all other birds and beasts + fly from him, the trochilus is a creature which is at peace with him, + seeing that from her he receives benefit; for the crocodile having come + out of the water to the land and then having opened his mouth (this he is + wont to do generally towards the West Wind), the trochilus upon that + enters into his mouth and swallows down the leeches, and he being + benefited is pleased and does no harm to the trochilus. Now for some of + the Egyptians the crocodiles are sacred animals, and for others not so, + but they treat them on the contrary as enemies: those however who dwell + about Thebes and about the lake of Moiris hold them to be most sacred, and + each of these two peoples keeps one crocodile selected from the whole + number, which has been trained to tameness, and they put hanging ornaments + of molten stone and of gold into the ears of these and anklets round the + front feet, and they give them food appointed and victims of sacrifices + and treat them as well as possible while they live, and after they are + dead they bury them in sacred tombs, embalming them: but those who dwell + about the city of Elephantine even eat them, not holding them to be + sacred. They are called not crocodiles but <i>champsai</i>, and the + Ionians gave them the name of crocodile, comparing their form to that of + the crocodiles (lizards) which appear in their country in the stone walls. + There are many ways in use of catching them and of various kinds: I shall + describe that which to me seems the most worthy of being told. A man puts + the back of a pig upon a hook as bait, and lets it go into the middle of + the river, while he himself upon the bank of the river has a young live + pig, which he beats; and the crocodile hearing its cries makes for the + direction of the sound, and when he finds the pig's back he swallows it + down: then they pull, and when he is drawn out to land, first of all the + hunter forthwith plasters up his eyes with mud, and having done so he very + easily gets the mastery of him, but if he does not do so he has much + trouble. + </p> + <p> + The river-horse is sacred in the district of Papremis, but for the other + Egyptians he is not sacred; and this is the appearance which he presents: + he is four-footed, cloven-hoofed like an ox, flat-nosed, with a mane like + a horse and showing teeth like tusks, with a tail and voice like a horse + and in size as large as the largest ox; and his hide is so exceedingly + thick that when it has been dried shafts of javelins are made of it. There + are moreover otters in the river, which they consider to be sacred: and of + fish also they esteem that which is called the <i>lepidotos</i> to be + sacred, and also the eel; and these they say are sacred to the Nile: and + of birds the fox-goose. + </p> + <p> + There is also another sacred bird called the phoenix which I did not + myself see except in painting, for in truth he comes to them very rarely, + at intervals, as the people of Heliopolis say, of five hundred years; and + these say that he comes regularly when his father dies; and if he be like + the painting he is of this size and nature, that is to say, some of his + feathers are of gold colour and others red, and in outline and size he is + as nearly as possible like an eagle. This bird they say (but I cannot + believe the story) contrives as follows:—setting forth from Arabia + he conveys his father, they say, to the temple of the Sun (Helios) + plastered up in myrrh, and buries him in the temple of the Sun; and he + conveys him thus:—he forms first an egg of myrrh as large as he is + able to carry, and then he makes trial of carrying it, and when he has + made trial sufficiently, then he hollows out the egg and places his father + within it and plasters over with other myrrh that part of the egg where he + hollowed it out to put his father in, and when his father is laid in it, + it proves (they say) to be of the same weight as it was; and after he has + plastered it up, he conveys the whole to Egypt to the temple of the Sun. + Thus they say that this bird does. + </p> + <p> + There are also about Thebes sacred serpents, not at all harmful to men, + which are small in size and have two horns growing from the top of the + head: these they bury when they die in the temple of Zeus, for to this god + they say that they are sacred. There is a region moreover in Arabia, + situated nearly over against the city of Buto, to which place I came to + inquire about the winged serpents: and when I came thither I saw bones of + serpents and spines in quantity so great that it is impossible to make + report of the number, and there were heaps of spines, some heaps large and + others less large and others smaller still than these, and these heaps + were many in number. This region in which the spines are scattered upon + the ground is of the nature of an entrance from a narrow mountain pass to + a great plain, which plain adjoins the plain in Egypt; and the story goes + that at the beginning of spring winged serpents from Arabia fly towards + Egypt, and the birds called ibises meet them at the entrance to this + country and do not suffer the serpents to go by but kill them. On account + of this deed it is (say the Arabians) that the ibis has come to be greatly + honoured by the Egyptians, and the Egyptians also agree that it is for + this reason that they honour these birds. The outward form of the ibis is + this:—it is a deep black all over, and has legs like those of a + crane and a very curved beak, and in size it is about equal to a rail: + this is the appearance of the black kind which fight with the serpents, + but of those which most crowd round men's feet (for there are two several + kinds of ibises) the head is bare and also the whole of the throat, and it + is white in feathering except the head and neck and the extremities of the + wings and the rump (in all these parts of which I have spoken it is a deep + black), while in legs and in the form of the head it resembles the other. + As for the serpent its form is like that of the watersnake; and it has + wings not feathered but most nearly resembling the wings of the bat. Let + so much suffice as has been said now concerning sacred animals. + </p> + <p> + Of the Egyptians themselves, those who dwell in the part of Egypt which is + sown for crops practise memory more than any other men and are the most + learned in history by far of all those of whom I have had experience: and + their manner of life is as follows:—For three successive days in + each month they purge, hunting after health with emetics and clysters, and + they think that all the diseases which exist are produced in men by the + food on which they live: for the Egyptians are from other causes also the + most healthy of all men next after the Libyans (in my opinion on account + of the seasons, because the seasons do not change, for by the changes of + things generally, and especially of the seasons, diseases are most apt to + be produced in men), and as to their diet, it is as follows:—they + eat bread, making loaves of maize, which they call <i>kyllestis</i>, and + they use habitually a wine made out of barley, for vines they have not in + their land. Of their fish some they dry in the sun and then eat them + without cooking, others they eat cured in brine. Of birds they eat quails + and ducks and small birds without cooking, after first curing them; and + everything else which they have belonging to the class of birds or fishes, + except such as have been set apart by them as sacred, they eat roasted or + boiled. In the entertainments of the rich among them, when they have + finished eating, a man bears round a wooden figure of a dead body in a + coffin, made as like the reality as may be both by painting and carving, + and measuring about a cubit or two cubits each way; and this he shows to + each of those who are drinking together, saying: "When thou lookest upon + this, drink and be merry, for thou shalt be such as this when thou art + dead." Thus they do at their carousals. The customs which they practise + are derived from their fathers and they do not acquire others in addition; + but besides other customary things among them which are worthy of mention, + they have one song, that of Linos, the same who is sung of both in + Phenicia and in Cyprus and elsewhere, having however a name different + according to the various nations. This song agrees exactly with that which + the Hellenes sing calling on the name of Linos, so that besides many other + things about which I wonder among those matters which concern Egypt, I + wonder especially about this, namely whence they got the song of Linos. It + is evident however that they have sung this song from immemorial time, and + in the Egyptian tongue Linos is called Maneros. The Egyptians told me that + he was the only son of him who first became king of Egypt, and that he + died before his time and was honoured with these lamentations by the + Egyptians, and that this was their first and only song. In another respect + the Egyptians are in agreement with some of the Hellenes, namely with the + Lacedemonians, but not with the rest, that is to say, the younger of them + when they meet the elder give way and move out of the path, and when their + elders approach, they rise out of their seat. In this which follows + however they are not in agreement with any of the Hellenes,—instead + of addressing one another in the roads they do reverence, lowering their + hand down to their knee. They wear tunics of linen about their legs with + fringes, which they call <i>calasiris</i>; above these they have garments + of white wool thrown over: woolen garments however are not taken into the + temples, nor are they buried with them, for this is not permitted by + religion. In these points they are in agreement with the observances + called Orphic and Bacchic (which are really Egyptian), and also with those + of the Pythagoreans, for one who takes part in these mysteries is also + forbidden by religious rule to be buried in woolen garments; and about + this there is a sacred story told. + </p> + <p> + Besides these things the Egyptians have found out also to what god each + month and each day belongs, and what fortunes a man will meet with who is + born on any particular day, and how he will die, and what kind of a man he + will be: and these inventions were taken up by those of the Hellenes who + occupied themselves about poesy. Portents too have been found out by them + more than by all other men besides; for when a portent has happened, they + observe and write down the event which comes of it, and if ever afterwards + anything resembling this happens, they believe that the event which comes + of it will be similar. Their divination is ordered thus:—the art is + assigned not to any man but to certain of the gods, for there are in their + land Oracles of Heracles, of Apollo, of Athene, of Artemis, or Ares, and + of Zeus, and moreover that which they hold most in honour of all, namely + the Oracle of Leto which is in the city of Buto. The manner of divination + however is not established among them according to the same fashion + everywhere, but is different in different places. The art of medicine + among them is distributed thus:—each physician is a physician of one + disease and of no more; and the whole country is full of physicians, for + some profess themselves to be physicians of the eyes, others of the head, + others of the teeth, others of the affections of the stomach, and others + of the more obscure ailments. + </p> + <p> + Their fashions of mourning and of burial are these:—Whenever any + household has lost a man who is of any regard amongst them, the whole + number of women of that house forthwith plaster over their heads or even + their faces with mud. Then leaving the corpse within the house they go + themselves to and fro about the city and beat themselves, with their + garments bound up by a girdle and their breasts exposed, and with them go + all the women who are related to the dead man, and on the other side the + men beat themselves, they too having their garments bound up by a girdle; + and when they have done this, they then convey the body to the embalming. + In this occupation certain persons employ themselves regularly and inherit + this as a craft. These, whenever a corpse is conveyed to them, show to + those who brought it wooden models of corpses made like reality by + painting, and the best of the ways of embalming they say is that of him + whose name I think it impiety to mention when speaking of a matter of such + a kind; the second which they show is less good than this and also less + expensive; and the third is the least expensive of all. Having told them + about this, they inquire of them in which way they desire the corpse of + their friend to be prepared. Then they after they have agreed for a + certain price depart out of the way, and the others being left behind in + the buildings embalm according to the best of these ways thus:—First + with the crooked iron tool they draw out the brain through the nostrils, + extracting it partly thus and partly by pouring in drugs; and after this + with a sharp stone of Ethiopia they make a cut along the side and take out + the whole contents of the belly, and when they have cleared out the cavity + and cleansed it with palm-wine they cleanse it again with spices pounded + up: then they fill the belly with pure myrrh pounded up and with cassia + and other spices except frankincense, and sew it together again. Having so + done they keep it for embalming covered up in natron for seventy days, but + for a longer time than this it is not permitted to embalm it; and when the + seventy days are past, they wash the corpse and roll its whole body up in + fine linen cut into bands, smearing these beneath with gum, which the + Egyptians use generally instead of glue. Then the kinsfolk receive it from + them and have a wooden figure made in the shape of a man, and when they + have had this made they enclose the corpse, and having shut it up within, + they store it then in a sepulchral chamber, setting it to stand upright + against the wall. Thus they deal with the corpses which are prepared in + the most costly way; but for those who desire the middle way and wish to + avoid great cost they prepare the corpse as follows:—having filled + their syringes with the oil which is got from cedar-wood, with this they + forthwith fill the belly of the corpse, and this they do without having + either cut it open or taken out the bowels, but they inject the oil by the + breech, and having stopped the drench from returning back they keep it + then the appointed number of days for embalming, and on the last of the + days they let the cedar oil come out from the belly, which they before put + in; and it has such power that it brings out with it the bowels and + interior organs of the body dissolved; and the natron dissolves the flesh, + so that there is left of the corpse only the skin and the bones. When they + have done this they give back the corpse at once in that condition without + working upon it any more. The third kind of embalming, by which are + prepared the bodies of those who have less means, is as follows:—they + cleanse out the belly with a purge and then keep the body for embalming + during the seventy days, and at once after that they give it back to the + bringers to carry away. The wives of men of rank when they die are not + given at once to be embalmed, nor such women as are very beautiful or of + greater regard than others, but on the third or fourth day after their + death (and not before) they are delivered to the embalmers. They do so + about this matter in order that the embalmers may not abuse their women, + for they say that one of them was taken once doing so to the corpse of a + woman lately dead, and his fellow-craftsman gave information. Whenever any + one, either of the Egyptians themselves or of strangers, is found to have + been carried off by a crocodile or brought to his death by the river + itself, the people of any city by which he may have been cast up on land + must embalm him and lay him out in the fairest way they can and bury him + in a sacred burial-place, nor may any of his relations or friends besides + touch him, but the priests of the Nile themselves handle the corpse and + bury it as that of one who was something more than man. + </p> + <p> + Hellenic usages they will by no means follow, and to speak generally they + follow those of no other men whatever. This rule is observed by most of + the Egyptians; but there is a large city named Chemmis in the Theban + district near Neapolis, and in this city there is a temple of Perseus the + son of Danae which is of a square shape, and round it grow date-palms: the + gateway of the temple is built of stone and of very great size, and at the + entrance of it stand two great statues of stone. Within this enclosure is + a temple-house and in it stands an image of Perseus. These people of + Chemmis say that Perseus is wont often to appear in their land and often + within the temple, and that a sandal which has been worn by him is found + sometimes, being in length two cubits, and whenever this appears all Egypt + prospers. This they say, and they do in honour of Perseus after Hellenic + fashion thus,—they hold an athletic contest, which includes the + whole list of games, and they offer in prizes cattle and cloaks and skins: + and when I inquired why to them alone Perseus was wont to appear, and + wherefore they were separated from all the other Egyptians in that they + held an athletic contest, they said that Perseus had been born of their + city, for Danaos and Lynkeus were men of Chemmis and had sailed to Hellas, + and from them they traced a descent and came down to Perseus: and they + told me that he had come to Egypt for the reason which the Hellenes also + say, namely to bring from Libya the Gorgon's head, and had then visited + them also and recognised all his kinsfolk, and they said that he had well + learnt the name of Chemmis before he came to Egypt, since he had heard it + from his mother, and that they celebrated an athletic contest for him by + his own command. + </p> + <p> + All these are customs practised by the Egyptians who dwell above the fens: + and those who are settled in the fenland have the same customs for the + most part as the other Egyptians, both in other matters and also in that + they live each with one wife only, as do the Hellenes; but for economy in + respect of food they have invented these things besides:—when the + river has become full and the plains have been flooded, there grow in the + water great numbers of lilies, which the Egyptians call <i>lotos</i>; + these they cut with a sickle and dry in the sun, and then they pound that + which grows in the middle of the lotos and which is like the head of a + poppy, and they make of it loaves baked with fire. The root also of this + lotos is edible and has a rather sweet taste: it is round in shape and + about the size of an apple. There are other lilies too, in flower + resembling roses, which also grow in the river, and from them the fruit is + produced in a separate vessel springing from the root by the side of the + plant itself, and very nearly resembles a wasp's comb: in this there grow + edible seeds in great numbers of the size of an olive-stone, and they are + eaten either fresh or dried. Besides this they pull up from the fens the + papyrus which grows every year, and the upper parts of it they cut off and + turn to other uses, but that which is left below for about a cubit in + length they eat or sell: and those who desire to have the papyrus at its + very best bake it in an oven heated red-hot, and then eat it. Some too of + these people live on fish alone, which they dry in the sun after having + caught them and taken out the entrails, and then when they are dry, they + use them for food. + </p> + <p> + Fish which swim in shoals are not much produced in the rivers, but are + bred in the lakes, and they do as follows:—When there comes upon + them the desire to breed, they swim out in shoals towards the sea; and the + males lead the way shedding forth their milt as they go, while the + females, coming after and swallowing it up, from it become impregnated: + and when they have become full of young in the sea they swim up back + again, each shoal to its own haunts. The same however no longer lead the + way as before, but the lead comes now to the females, and they leading the + way in shoals do just as the males did, that is to say they shed forth + their eggs by a few grains at a time, and the males coming after swallow + them up. Now these grains are fish, and from the grains which survive and + are not swallowed, the fish grow which afterwards are bred up. Now those + of the fish which are caught as they swim out towards the sea are found to + be rubbed on the left side of the head, but those which are caught as they + swim up again are rubbed on the right side. This happens to them because + as they swim down to the sea they keep close to the land on the left side + of the river, and again as they swim up they keep to the same side, + approaching and touching the bank as much as they can, for fear doubtless + of straying from their course by reason of the stream. When the Nile + begins to swell, the hollow places of the land and the depressions by the + side of the river first begin to fill, as the water soaks through from the + river, and so soon as they become full of water, at once they are all + filled with little fishes; and whence these are in all likelihood + produced, I think that I perceive. In the preceding year, when the Nile + goes down, the fish first lay eggs in the mud and then retire with the + last of the retreating waters; and when the time comes round again, and + the water once more comes over the land, from these eggs forthwith are + produced the fishes of which I speak. + </p> + <p> + Thus it is as regards the fish. And for anointing those of the Egyptians + who dwell in the fens use oil from the castor-berry, which oil the + Egyptians call <i>kiki</i>, and thus they do:—they sow along the + banks of the rivers and pools these plants, which in a wild form grow of + themselves in the land of the Hellenes; these are sown in Egypt and + produce berries in great quantity but of an evil smell; and when they have + gathered these some cut them up and press the oil from them, others again + roast them first and then boil them down and collect that which runs away + from them. The oil is fat and not less suitable for burning than + olive-oil, but it gives forth a disagreeable smell. Against the gnats, + which are very abundant, they have contrived as follows:—those who + dwell above the fen-land are helped by the towers, to which they ascend + when they go to rest; for the gnats by reason of the winds are not able to + fly up high: but those who dwell in the fenland have contrived another way + instead of the towers, and this it is:—every man of them has got a + casting net, with which by day he catches fish, but in the night he uses + it for this purpose, that is to say he puts the casting-net round about + the bed in which he sleeps, and then creeps in under it and goes to sleep: + and the gnats, if he sleeps rolled up in a garment or a linen sheet, bite + through these, but through the net they do not even attempt to bite. + </p> + <p> + Their boats with which they carry cargoes are made of the thorny acacia, + of which the form is very like that of the Kyrenian lotos, and that which + exudes from it is gum. From this tree they cut pieces of wood about two + cubits in length and arrange them like bricks, fastening the boat together + by running a great number of long bolts through the two-cubits pieces; and + when they have thus fastened the boat together, they lay cross-pieces over + the top, using no ribs for the sides; and within they caulk the seams with + papyrus. They make one steering-oar for it, which is passed through the + bottom of the boat; and they have a mast of acacia and sails of papyrus. + These boats cannot sail up the river unless there be a very fresh wind + blowing, but are towed from the shore: down-stream however they travel as + follows:—they have a door-shaped crate made of tamarisk wood and + reed mats sewn together, and also a stone of about two talents weight + bored with a hole; and of these the boatman lets the crate float on in + front of the boat, fastened with a rope, and the stone drags behind by + another rope. The crate then, as the force of the stream presses upon it, + goes on swiftly and draws on the <i>baris</i> (for so these boats are + called), while the stone dragging after it behind and sunk deep in the + water keeps its course straight. These boats they have in great numbers + and some of them carry many thousands of talents' burden. + </p> + <p> + When the Nile comes over the land, the cities alone are seen rising above + the water, resembling more nearly than anything else the islands in the + Egean Sea; for the rest of Egypt becomes a sea and the cities alone rise + above water. Accordingly, whenever this happens, they pass by water not + now by the channels of the river but over the midst of the plain: for + example, as one sails up from Naucratis to Memphis the passage is then + close by the pyramids, whereas the usual passage is not the same even + here, but goes by the point of the Delta and the city of Kercasoros; while + if you sail over the plain to Naucratis from the sea and from Canobos, you + will go by Anthylla and the city called after Archander. Of these Anthylla + is a city of note and is especially assigned to the wife of him who reigns + over Egypt, to supply her with sandals, (this is the case since the time + when Egypt came to be under the Persians): the other city seems to me to + have its name from Archander the son-in-law of Danaos, who was the son of + Phthios, the son of Achaios; for it is called the City of Archander. There + might indeed by another Archander, but in any case the name is not + Egyptian. + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + Hitherto my own observation and judgment and inquiry are the vouchers for + that which I have said; but from this point onwards I am about to tell the + history of Egypt according to that which I have heard, to which will be + added also something of that which I have myself seen. + </p> + <p> + Of Min, who first became king of Egypt, the priests said that on the one + hand he banked off the site of Memphis from the river: for the whole + stream of the river used to flow along by the sandy mountain-range on the + side of Libya, but Min formed by embankments that bend of the river which + lies to the South about a hundred furlongs above Memphis, and thus he + dried up the old stream and conducted the river so that it flowed in the + middle between the mountains: and even now this bend of the Nile is by the + Persians kept under very careful watch, that it may flow in the channel to + which it is confined, and the bank is repaired every year; for if the + river should break through and overflow in this direction, Memphis would + be in danger of being overwhelmed by flood. When this Min, who first + became king, had made into dry land the part which was dammed off, on the + one hand, I say, he founded in it that city which is now called Memphis; + for Memphis too is in the narrow part of Egypt; and outside the city he + dug round it on the North and West a lake communicating with the river, + for the side towards the East is barred by the Nile itself. Then secondly + he established in the city the temple of Hephaistos a great work and most + worthy of mention. After this man the priests enumerated to me from a + papyrus roll the names of other kings, three hundred and thirty in number; + and in all these generations of men eighteen were Ethiopians, one was a + woman, a native Egyptian, and the rest were men and of Egyptian race: and + the name of the woman who reigned was the same as that of the Babylonian + queen, namely Nitocris. Of her they said that desiring to take vengeance + for her brother, whom the Egyptians had slain when he was their king and + then, after having slain him, had given his kingdom to her,—desiring, + I say, to take vengeance for him, she destroyed by craft many of the + Egyptians. For she caused to be constructed a very large chamber under + ground, and making as though she would handsel it but in her mind devising + other things, she invited those of the Egyptians whom she knew to have had + most part in the murder, and gave a great banquet. Then while they were + feasting, she let in the river upon them by a secret conduit of large + size. Of her they told no more than this, except that, when this had been + accomplished, she threw herself into a room full of embers, in order that + she might escape vengeance. As for the other kings, they could tell me of + no great works which had been produced by them, and they said that they + had no renown except only the last of them, Moiris: he (they said) + produced as a memorial of himself the gateway of the temple of Hephaistos + which is turned towards the North Wind, and dug a lake, about which I + shall set forth afterwards how many furlongs of circuit it has, and in it + built pyramids of the size which I shall mention at the same time when I + speak of the lake itself. He, they said, produced these works, but of the + rest none produced any. + </p> + <p> + Therefore passing these by I will make mention of the king who came after + these, whose name is Sesostris. He (the priests said) first of all set out + with ships of war from the Arabian gulf and subdued those who dwelt by the + shores of the Erythraian Sea, until as he sailed he came to a sea which + could no further be navigated by reason of shoals: then secondly, after he + had returned to Egypt, according to the report of the priests he took a + great army and marched over the continent, subduing every nation which + stood in his way: and those of them whom he found valiant and fighting + desperately for their freedom, in their lands he set up pillars which told + by inscriptions his own name and the name of his country, and how he had + subdued them by his power; but as to those of whose cities he obtained + possession without fighting or with ease, on their pillars he inscribed + words after the same tenor as he did for the nations which had shown + themselves courageous, and in addition he drew upon them the hidden parts + of a woman, desiring to signify by this that the people were cowards and + effeminate. Thus doing he traversed the continent, until at last he passed + over to Europe from Asia and subdued the Scythians and also the Thracians. + These, I am of opinion, were the furthest people to which the Egyptian + army came, for in their country the pillars are found to have been set up, + but in the land beyond this they are no longer found. From this point he + turned and began to go back; and when he came to the river Phasis, what + happened then I cannot say for certain, whether the king Sesostris himself + divided off a certain portion of his army and left the men there as + settlers in the land, or whether some of his soldiers were wearied by his + distant marches and remained by the river Phasis. For the people of + Colchis are evidently Egyptian, and this I perceived for myself before I + heard it from others. So when I had come to consider the matter I asked + them both; and the Colchians had remembrance of the Egyptians more than + the Egyptians of the Colchians; but the Egyptians said they believed that + the Colchians were a portion of the army of Sesostris. That this was so I + conjectured myself not only because they are dark-skinned and have curly + hair (this of itself amounts to nothing, for there are other races which + are so), but also still more because the Colchians, Egyptians, and + Ethiopians alone of all the races of men have practised circumcision from + the first. The Phenicians and the Syrians who dwell in Palestine confess + themselves that they have learnt it from the Egyptians, and the Syrians + about the river Thermodon and the river Parthenios, and the Macronians, + who are their neighbors, say that they have learnt it lately from the + Colchians. These are the only races of men who practise circumcision, and + these evidently practise it in the same manner as the Egyptians. Of the + Egyptians themselves however and the Ethiopians, I am not able to say + which learnt from the other, for undoubtedly it is a most ancient custom; + but that the other nations learnt it by intercourse with the Egyptians, + this among others is to me a strong proof, namely that those of the + Phenicians who have intercourse with Hellas cease to follow the example of + the Egyptians in this matter, and do not circumcise their children. Now + let me tell another thing about the Colchians to show how they resemble + the Egyptians:—they alone work flax in the same fashion as the + Egyptians, and the two nations are like one another in their whole manner + of living and also in their language: now the linen of Colchis is called + by the Hellenes Sardonic, whereas that from Egypt is called Egyptian. The + pillars which Sesostris king of Egypt set up in the various countries are + for the most part no longer to be seen extant; but in Syria Palestine I + myself saw them existing with the inscription upon them which I have + mentioned and the emblem. Moreover in Ionia there are two figures of this + man carved upon rocks, one on the road by which one goes from the land of + Ephesos to Phocaia, and the other on the road from Sardis to Smyrna. In + each place there is a figure of a man cut in the rock, of four cubits and + a span in height, holding in his right hand a spear and in his left a bow + and arrows, and the other equipment which he has is similar to this, for + it is both Egyptian and Ethiopian: and from the one shoulder to the other + across the breast runs an inscription carved in sacred Egyptian + characters, saying thus, "This land with my shoulders I won for myself." + But who he is and from whence, he does not declare in these places, though + in other places he had declared this. Some of those who have seen these + carvings conjecture that the figure is that of Memnon, but herein they are + very far from the truth. + </p> + <p> + As this Egyptian Sesostris was returning and bringing back many men of the + nations whose lands he had subdued, when he came (said the priests) to + Daphnai in the district of Pelusion on his journey home, his brother to + whom Sesostris had entrusted the charge of Egypt invited him and with him + his sons to a feast; and then he piled the house round with brushwood and + set it on fire: and Sesostris when he discovered this forthwith took + counsel with his wife, for he was bringing with him (they said) his wife + also; and she counselled him to lay out upon the pyre two of his sons, + which were six in number, and so to make a bridge over the burning mass, + and that they passing over their bodies should thus escape. This, they + said, Sesostris did, and two of his sons were burnt to death in this + manner, but the rest got away safe with their father. Then Sesostris, + having returned to Egypt and having taken vengeance on his brother + employed the multitude which he had brought in of those whose lands he + had subdued, as follows:—these who were they drew the stones which in + the reign of this king were brought to the temple of Hephaistos, being of + very good size; and also these were compelled to dig all the channels + which now are in Egypt; and thus (having no such purpose) they caused + Egypt, which before was all fit for riding and driving, to be no longer + fit for this from thenceforth: for from that time forward Egypt, though it + is plain land, has become all unfit for riding and driving, and the cause + has been these channels, which are many and run in all directions. But the + reason why the king cut up the land was this, namely because those of the + Egyptians who had their cities not on the river but in the middle of the + country, being in want of water when the river went down from them, found + their drink brackish because they had it from wells. For this reason Egypt + was cut up: and they said that this king distributed the land to all the + Egyptians, giving an equal square portion to each man, and from this he + made his revenue, having appointed them to pay a certain rent every year: + and if the river should take away anything from any man's portion, he + would come to the king and declare that which had happened, and the king + used to send men to examine and to find out by measurement how much less + the piece of land had become, in order that for the future the man might + pay less, in proportion to the rent appointed: and I think that thus the + art of geometry was found out and afterwards came into Hellas also. For as + touching the sun-dial and the gnomon and the twelve divisions of the day, + they were learnt by the Hellenes from the Babylonians. He moreover alone + of all the Egyptian kings had rule over Ethiopia; and he left as memorials + of himself in front of the temple of Hephaistos two stone statues of + thirty cubits each, representing himself and his wife, and others of + twenty cubits each representing his four sons: and long afterwards the + priest of Hephaistos refused to permit Dareios the Persian to set up a + statue of himself in front of them, saying that deeds had not been done by + him equal to those which were done by Sesostris the Egyptian; for + Sesostris had subdued other nations besides, not fewer than he, and also + the Scythians; but Dareios had not been able to conquer the Scythians: + wherefore it was not just that he should set up a statue in front of those + which Sesostris had dedicated, if he did not surpass him in his deeds. + Which speech, they say, Dareios took in good part. + </p> + <p> + Now after Sesostris had brought his life to an end, his son Pheros, they + told me, received in succession the kingdom, and he made no warlike + expedition, and moreover it chanced to him to become blind by reason of + the following accident:—when the river had come down in flood rising + to a height of eighteen cubits, higher than ever before that time, and had + gone over the fields, a wind fell upon it and the river became agitated by + waves: and this king (they say) moved by presumptuous folly took a spear + and cast it into the midst of the eddies of the stream; and immediately + upon this he had a disease of the eyes and was by it made blind. For ten + years then he was blind, and in the eleventh year there came to him an + oracle from the city of Buto saying that the time of his punishment had + expired, and that he should see again if he washed his eyes with the water + of a woman who had accompanied with her own husband only and had not had + knowledge of other men: and first he made trial of his own wife, and then, + as he continued blind, he went on to try all the women in turn; and when + he had at least regained his sight he gathered together all the women of + whom he had made trial, excepting her by whose means he had regained his + sight, to one city which now is named Erythrabolos, and having gathered + them to this he consumed them all by fire, as well as the city itself; but + as for her by whose means he had regained his sight, he had her himself to + wife. Then after he had escaped the malady of his eyes he dedicated + offerings at each one of the temples which were of renown, and especially + (to mention only that which is most worthy of mention) he dedicated at the + temple of the Sun works which are worth seeing, namely two obelisks of + stone, each of a single block, measuring in length a hundred cubits each + one and in breadth eight cubits. + </p> + <p> + After him, they said, there succeeded to the throne a man of Memphis, + whose name in the tongue of the Hellenes was Proteus; for whom there is + now a sacred enclosure at Memphis, very fair and well ordered, lying on + that side of the temple of Hephaistos which faces the North Wind. Round + about this enclosure dwell Phenicians of Tyre, and this whole region is + called the Camp of the Tyrians. Within the enclosure of Proteus there is a + temple called the temple of the "foreign Aphrodite," which temple I + conjecture to be one of Helen the daughter of Tyndareus, not only because + I have heard the tale how Helen dwelt with Proteus, but also especially + because it is called by the name of the "foreign Aphrodite," for the other + temples of Aphrodite which there are have none of them the addition of the + word "foreign" to the name. + </p> + <p> + And the priests told me, when I inquired, that the things concerning Helen + happened thus:—Alexander having carried off Helen was sailing away + from Sparta to his own land, and when he had come to the Egean Sea + contrary winds drove him from his course to the Sea of Egypt; and after + that, since the blasts did not cease to blow, he came to Egypt itself, and + in Egypt to that which is now named the Canobic mouth of the Nile and to + Taricheiai. Now there was upon the shore, as still there is now, a temple + of Heracles, in which if any man's slave take refuge and have the sacred + marks set upon him, giving himself over to the god, it is not lawful to + lay hands upon him; but this custom has continued still unchanged from the + beginning down to my own time. Accordingly the attendants of Alexander, + having heard of the custom which existed about the temple, ran away from + him, and sitting down as suppliants of the god, accused Alexander, because + they desired to do him hurt, telling the whole tale how things were about + Helen and about the wrong done to Menalaos; and this accusation they made + not only to the priests but also to the warden of this river-mouth, whose + name was Thonis. Thonis then having heard their tale sent forthwith a + message to Proteus at Memphis, which said as follows: "There hath come a + stranger, a Teucrian by race, who hath done in Hellas an unholy deed; for + he hath deceived the wife of his own host, and is come hither bringing + with him this woman herself and very much wealth, having been carried out + of his way by winds to thy land. Shall we then allow him to sail out + unharmed, or shall we first take away from him that which he brought with + him?" In reply to this Proteus sent back a messenger who said thus: "Seize + this man, whosoever he may be, who has done impiety to his own host, and + bring him away into my presence that I may know what he will find to say." + Hearing this, Thonis seized Alexander and detained his ships, and after + that he brought the man himself up to Memphis and with him Helen and the + wealth he had, and also in addition to them the suppliants. So when all + had been conveyed up thither, Proteus began to ask Alexander who he was + and from whence he was voyaging; and he both recounted to him his descent + and told him the name of his native land, and moreover related of his + voyage, from whence he was sailing. After this Proteus asked him whence he + had taken Helen; and when Alexander went astray in his account and did not + speak the truth, those who had become suppliants convicted him of + falsehood, relating in full the whole tale of the wrong done. At length + Proteus declared to them this sentence, saying, "Were it not that I count + it a matter of great moment not to slay any of those strangers who being + driven from their course by winds have come to my land hitherto, I should + have taken vengeance on thee on behalf of the man of Hellas, seeing that + thou, most base of men, having received from him hospitality, didst work + against him a most impious deed. For thou didst go in to the wife of thine + own host; and even this was not enough for thee, but thou didst stir her + up with desire and hast gone away with her like a thief. Moreover not even + this by itself was enough for thee, but thou art come hither with plunder + taken from the house of thy host. Now therefore depart, seeing that I have + counted it of great moment not to be a slayer of strangers. This woman + indeed and the wealth which thou hast I will not allow thee to carry away, + but I shall keep them safe for the Hellene who was thy host, until he come + himself and desire to carry them off to his home; to thyself however and + thy fellow-voyagers I proclaim that ye depart from your anchoring within + three days and go from my land to some other; and if not, that ye will be + dealt with as enemies." + </p> + <p> + This the priests said was the manner of Helen's coming to Proteus; and I + suppose that Homer also had heard this story, but since it was not so + suitable to the composition of his poem as the other which he followed, he + dismissed it finally, making it clear at the same time that he was + acquainted with that story also: and according to the manner in which he + described the wanderings of Alexander in the Iliad (nor did he elsewhere + retract that which he had said) of his course, wandering to various lands, + and that he came among other places to Sidon in Phenicia. Of this the poet + has made mention in the "prowess of Diomede," and the verses run thus: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "There she had robes many-coloured, the works of women of Sidon, + Those whom her son himself the god-like of form Alexander + Carried from Sidon, what time the broad sea-path he sailed over + Bringing back Helene home, of a noble father begotten." +</pre> + <p> + And in the Odyssey also he has made mention of it in these verses: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "Such had the daughter of Zeus, such drugs of exquisite cunning, + Good, which to her the wife of Thon, Polydamna, had given, + Dwelling in Egypt, the land where the bountiful meadow produces + Drugs more than all lands else, many good being mixed, many evil." +</pre> + <p> + And thus too Menelaos says to Telemachos: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "Still the gods stayed me in Egypt, to come back hither desiring, + Stayed me from voyaging home, since sacrifice due I performed not." +</pre> + <p> + In these lines he makes it clear that he knew of the wanderings of + Alexander to Egypt, for Syria borders upon Egypt and the Phenicians, of + whom is Sidon, dwell in Syria. By these lines and by this passage it is + also most clearly shown that the "Cyprian Epic" was not written by Homer + but by some other man: for in this it is said that on the third day after + leaving Sparta Alexander came to Ilion bringing with him Helen, having had + a "gently-blowing wind and a smooth sea," whereas in the Iliad it says + that he wandered from his course when he brought her. + </p> + <p> + Let us now leave Homer and the "Cyprian Epic"; but this I will say, namely + that I asked the priests whether it is but an idle tale which the Hellenes + tell of that which they say happened about Ilion; and they answered me + thus, saying that they had their knowledge by inquiries from Menelaos + himself. After the rape of Helen there came indeed, they said, to the + Teucrian land a large army of Hellenes to help Menelaos; and when the army + had come out of the ships to land and had pitched its camp there, they + sent messengers to Ilion, with whom went also Menelaos himself; and when + these entered within the wall they demanded back Helen and the wealth + which Alexander had stolen from Menelaos and had taken away; and moreover + they demanded satisfaction for the wrongs done: and the Teucrians told the + same tale then and afterwards, both with oath and without oath, namely + that in deed and in truth they had not Helen nor the wealth for which + demand was made, but that both were in Egypt; and that they could not + justly be compelled to give satisfaction for that which Proteus the king + of Egypt had. The Hellenes however thought that they were being mocked by + them and besieged the city, until at last they took it; and when they had + taken the wall and did not find Helen, but heard the same tale as before, + then they believed the former tale and sent Menelaos himself to Proteus. + And Menelaos having come to Egypt and having sailed up to Memphis, told + the truth of these matters, and not only found great entertainment, but + also received Helen unhurt, and all his own wealth besides. Then, however, + after he had been thus dealt with, Menelaos showed himself ungrateful to + the Egyptians; for when he set forth to sail away, contrary winds detained + him, and as this condition of things lasted long, he devised an impious + deed; for he took two children of natives and made sacrifice of them. + After this, when it was known that he had done so, he became abhorred, and + being pursued he escaped and got away in his ships to Libya; but whither + he went besides after this, the Egyptians were not able to tell. Of these + things they said that they found out part by inquiries, and the rest, + namely that which happened in their own land, they related from sure and + certain knowledge. + </p> + <p> + Thus the priests of the Egyptians told me; and I myself also agree with + the story which was told of Helen, adding this consideration, namely that + if Helen had been in Ilion she would have been given up to the Hellenes, + whether Alexander consented or no; for Priam assuredly was not so mad, nor + yet the others of his house, that they were desirous to run risk of ruin + for themselves and their children and their city, in order that Alexander + might have Helen as his wife: and even supposing that during the first + part of the time they had been so inclined, yet when many others of the + Trojans besides were losing their lives as often as they fought with the + Hellenes, and of the sons of Priam himself always two or three or even + more were slain when a battle took place (if one may trust at all to the + Epic poets),—when, I say, things were coming thus to pass, I + consider that even if Priam himself had had Helen as his wife, he would + have given her back to the Achaians, if at least by so doing he might be + freed from the evils which oppressed him. Nor even was the kingdom coming + to Alexander next, so that when Priam was old the government was in his + hands; but Hector, who was both older and more of a man than he, would + certainly have received it after the death of Priam; and him it behoved + not to allow his brother to go on with his wrong-doing, considering that + great evils were coming to pass on his account both to himself privately + and in general to the other Trojans. In truth however they lacked the + power to give Helen back; and the Hellenes did not believe them, though + they spoke the truth; because, as I declare my opinion, the divine power + was purposing to cause them utterly to perish, and so make it evident to + men that for great wrongs great also are the chastisements which come from + the gods. And thus have I delivered my opinion concerning these matters. + </p> + <p> + After Proteus, they told me, Rhampsinitos received in succession the + kingdom, who left as a memorial of himself that gateway to the temple of + Hephaistos which is turned towards the West, and in front of the gateway + he set up two statues, in height five-and-twenty cubits, of which the one + which stands on the North side is called by the Egyptians Summer and the + one on the South side Winter; and to that one which they call Summer they + do reverence and make offerings, while to the other which is called Winter + they do the opposite of these things. This king, they said, got great + wealth of silver, which none of the kings born after him could surpass or + even come near to; and wishing to store his wealth in safety he caused to + be built a chamber of stone, one of the walls whereof was towards the + outside of his palace: and the builder of this, having a design against + it, contrived as follows, that is, he disposed one of the stones in such a + manner that it could be taken out easily from the wall either by two men + or even by one. So when the chamber was finished, the king stored his + money in it, and after some time the builder, being near the end of his + life, called to him his sons (for he had two) and to them he related how + he had contrived in building the treasury of the king, and all in + forethought for them, that they might have ample means of living. And when + he had clearly set forth to them everything concerning the taking out of + the stone, he gave them the measurements, saying that if they paid heed to + this matter they would be stewards of the king's treasury. So he ended his + life, and his sons made no long delay in setting to work, but went to the + palace by night, and having found the stone in the wall of the chamber + they dealt with it easily and carried forth for themselves great quantity + of the wealth within. And the king happening to open the chamber, he + marvelled when he saw the vessels falling short of the full amount, and he + did not know on whom he should lay the blame, since the seals were + unbroken and the chamber had been close shut; but when upon his opening + the chamber a second and a third time the money was each time seen to be + diminished, for the thieves did not slacken in their assaults upon it, he + did as follows:—having ordered traps to be made he set these round + about the vessels in which the money was; and when the thieves had come as + at former times and one of them had entered, then so soon as he came near + to one of the vessels he was straightway caught in the trap: and when he + perceived in what evil case he was, straightway calling his brother he + showed him what the matter was, and bade him enter as quickly as possible + and cut off his head, for fear lest being seen and known he might bring + about the destruction of his brother also. And to the other it seemed that + he spoke well, and he was persuaded and did so; and fitting the stone into + its place he departed home bearing with him the head of his brother. Now + when it became day, the king entered into the chamber and was very greatly + amazed, seeing the body of the thief held in the trap without his head, + and the chamber unbroken, with no way to come in by or go out: and being + at a loss he hung up the dead body of the thief upon the wall and set + guards there, with charge if they saw any one weeping or bewailing himself + to seize him and bring him before the king. And when the dead body had + been hung up, the mother was greatly grieved, and speaking with the son + who survived she enjoined him, in whatever way he could, to contrive means + by which he might take down and bring home the body of his brother; and if + he should neglect to do this, she earnestly threatened that she would go + and give information to the king that he had the money. So as the mother + dealt hardly with the surviving son, and he though saying many things to + her did not persuade her, he contrived for his purpose a device as + follows:—Providing himself with asses he filled some skins with wine + and laid them upon the asses, and after that he drove them along: and when + he came opposite to those who were guarding the corpse hung up, he drew + towards him two or three of the necks of the skins and loosened the cords + with which they were tied. Then when the wine was running out, he began to + beat his head and cry out loudly, as if he did not know to which of the + asses he should first turn; and when the guards saw the wine flowing out + in streams, they ran together to the road with drinking vessels in their + hands and collected the wine that was poured out, counting it so much + gain; and he abused them all violently, making as if he were angry, but + when the guards tried to appease him, after a time he feigned to be + pacified and to abate his anger, and at length he drove his asses out of + the road and began to set their loads right. Then more talk arose among + them, and one or two of them made jests at him and brought him to laugh + with them; and in the end he made them a present of one of the skins in + addition to what they had. Upon that they lay down there without more ado, + being minded to drink, and they took him into their company and invited + him to remain with them and join them in their drinking: so he (as may be + supposed) was persuaded and stayed. Then as they in their drinking bade + him welcome in a friendly manner, he made a present to them also of + another of the skins; and so at length having drunk liberally the guards + became completely intoxicated; and being overcome by sleep they went to + bed on the spot where they had been drinking. He then, as it was now far + on in the night, first took down the body of his brother, and then in + mockery shaved the right cheeks of all the guards; and after that he put + the dead body upon the asses and drove them away home, having accomplished + that which was enjoined him by his mother. Upon this the king, when it was + reported to him that the dead body of the thief had been stolen away, + displayed great anger; and desiring by all means that it should be found + out who it might be who devised these things, did this (so at least they + said, but I do not believe the account),—he caused his own daughter + to sit in the stews, and enjoined her to receive all equally, and before + having commerce with any one to compel him to tell her what was the most + cunning and what the most unholy deed which had been done by him in all + his life-time; and whosoever should relate that which had happened about + the thief, him she must seize and not let him go out. Then as she was + doing that which was enjoined by her father, the thief, hearing for what + purpose this was done and having a desire to get the better of the king in + resource, did thus:—from the body of one lately dead he cut off the + arm at the shoulder and went with it under his mantle: and having gone in + to the daughter of the king, and being asked that which the others also + were asked, he related that he had done the most unholy deed when he cut + off the head of his brother, who had been caught in a trap in the king's + treasure-chamber, and the most cunning deed in that he made drunk the + guards and took down the dead body of his brother hanging up; and she when + she heard it tried to take hold of him, but the thief held out to her in + the darkness the arm of the corpse, which she grasped and held, thinking + that she was holding the arm of the man himself; but the thief left it in + her hands and departed, escaping through the door. Now when this also was + reported to the king, he was at first amazed at the ready invention and + daring of the fellow, and then afterwards he sent round to all the cities + and made proclamation granting a free pardon to the thief, and also + promising a great reward if he would come into his presence. The thief + accordingly trusting to the proclamation came to the king, and + Rhampsinitos greatly marvelled at him, and gave him this daughter of his + to wife, counting him to be the most knowing of all men; for as the + Egyptians were distinguished from all other men, so was he from the other + Egyptians. + </p> + <p> + After these things they said this king went down alive to that place which + by the Hellenes is called Hades, and there played at dice with Demeter, + and in some throws he overcame her and in others he was overcome by her; + and he came back again having as a gift from her a handkerchief of gold: + and they told me that because of the going down of Rhampsinitos the + Egyptians after he came back celebrated a feast, which I know of my own + knowledge also that they still observe even to my time; but whether it is + for this cause that they keep the feast or for some other, I am not able + to say. However, the priests weave a robe completely on the very day of + the feast, and forthwith they bind up the eyes of one of them with a + fillet, and having led him with the robe to the way by which one goes to + the temple of Demeter, they depart back again themselves. This priest, + they say, with his eyes bound up is led by two wolves to the temple of + Demeter, which is distant from the city twenty furlongs, and then + afterwards the wolves lead him back again from the temple to the same + spot. Now as to the tales told by the Egyptians, any man may accept them + to whom such things appear credible; as for me, it is to be understood + throughout the whole of the history that I write by hearsay that which is + reported by the people in each place. The Egyptians say that Demeter and + Dionysos are rulers of the world below; and the Egyptians are also the + first who reported the doctrine that the soul of man is immortal, and that + when the body dies, the soul enters into another creature which chances + then to be coming to the birth, and when it has gone the round of all the + creatures of land and sea and of the air, it enters again into a human + body as it comes to the birth; and that it makes this round in a period of + three thousand years. This doctrine certain Hellenes adopted, some earlier + and some later, as if it were of their own invention, and of these men I + know the names but I abstain from recording them. + </p> + <p> + Down to the time when Rhampsinitos was king, they told me there was in + Egypt nothing but orderly rule, and Egypt prospered greatly; but after him + Cheops became king over them and brought them to every kind of evil: for + he shut up all the temples, and having first kept them from sacrifices + there, he then bade all the Egyptians work for him. So some were appointed + to draw stones from the stone-quarries in the Arabian mountains to the + Nile, and others he ordered to receive the stones after they had been + carried over the river in boats, and to draw them to those which are + called the Libyan mountains; and they worked by a hundred thousand men at + a time, for each three months continually. Of this oppression there passed + ten years while the causeway was made by which they drew the stones, which + causeway they built, and it is a work not much less, as it appears to me, + than the pyramid; for the length of it is five furlongs and the breadth + ten fathoms and the height, where it is highest, eight fathoms, and it is + made of stone smoothed and with figures carved upon it. For this they + said, the ten years were spent, and for the underground he caused to be + made as sepulchral chambers for himself in an island, having conducted + thither a channel from the Nile. For the making of the pyramid itself + there passed a period of twenty years; and the pyramid is square, each + side measuring eight hundred feet, and the height of it is the same. It is + built of stone smoothed and fitted together in the most perfect manner, + not one of the stones being less than thirty feet in length. This pyramid + was made after the manner of steps which some called "rows" and others + "bases": and when they had first made it thus, they raised the remaining + stones with machines made of short pieces of timber, raising them first + from the ground to the first stage of the steps, and when the stone got up + to this it was placed upon another machine standing on the first stage, + and so from this it was drawn to the second upon another machine; for as + many as were the courses of the steps, so many machines there were also, + or perhaps they transferred one and the same machine, made so as easily to + be carried, to each stage successively, in order that they might take up + the stones; for let it be told in both ways, according as it is reported. + However that may be the highest parts of it were finished first, and + afterwards they proceeded to finish that which came next to them, and + lastly they finished the parts of it near the ground and the lowest + ranges. On the pyramid it is declared in Egyptian writing how much was + spent on radishes and onions and leeks for the workmen, and if I rightly + remember that which the interpreter said in reading to me this + inscription, a sum of one thousand six hundred talents of silver was + spent; and if this is so, how much besides is likely to have been expended + upon the iron with which they worked, and upon bread and clothing for the + workmen, seeing that they were building the works for the time which has + been mentioned and were occupied for no small time besides, as I suppose, + in the cutting and bringing of the stones and in working at the excavation + under the ground? Cheops moreover came, they said, to such a pitch of + wickedness, that being in want of money he caused his own daughter to sit + in the stews, and ordered her to obtain from those who came a certain + amount of money (how much it was they did not tell me): and she not only + obtained the sum appointed by her father, but also she formed a design for + herself privately to leave behind her a memorial, and she requested each + man who came in to give her one stone upon her building: and of these + stones, they told me, the pyramid was built which stands in front of the + great pyramid in the middle of the three, each side being one hundred and + fifty feet in length. + </p> + <p> + This Cheops, the Egyptians said, reigned fifty years; and after he was + dead his brother Chephren succeeded to the kingdom. This king followed the + same manner of dealing as the other, both in all the rest and also in that + he made a pyramid, not indeed attaining to the measurements of that which + was built by the former (this I know, having myself also measured it), and + moreover there are no underground chambers beneath nor does a channel come + from the Nile flowing to this one as to the other, in which the water + coming through a conduit built for it flows round an island within, where + they say that Cheops himself is laid: but for a basement he built the + first course of Ethiopian stone of divers colours; and this pyramid he + made forty feet lower than the other as regards size, building it close to + the great pyramid. These stand both upon the same hill, which is about a + hundred feet high. And Chephren they said reigned fifty and six years. + Here then they reckon one hundred and six years, during which they say + that there was nothing but evil for the Egyptians, and the temples were + kept closed and not opened during all that time. These kings the Egyptians + by reason of their hatred of them are not very willing to name; nay, they + even call the pyramids after the name of Philitis the shepherd, who at + that time pastured flocks in those regions. After him, they said, + Mykerinos became king over Egypt, who was the son of Cheops; and to him + his father's deeds were displeasing, and he both opened the temples and + gave liberty to the people, who were ground down to the last extremity of + evil, to return to their own business and to their sacrifices: also he + gave decisions of their causes juster than those of all the other kings + besides. In regard to this then they commend this king more than all the + other kings who had arisen in Egypt before him; for he not only gave good + decisions, but also when a man complained of the decision, he gave him + recompense from his own goods and thus satisfied his desire. But while + Mykerinos was acting mercifully to his subjects and practising this + conduct which has been said, calamities befell him, of which the first was + this, namely that his daughter died, the only child whom he had in his + house: and being above measure grieved by that which had befallen him, and + desiring to bury his daughter in a manner more remarkable than others, he + made a cow of wood, which he covered over with gold, and then within it he + buried this daughter who as I said, had died. This cow was not covered up + in the ground, but it might be seen even down to my own time in the city + of Sais, placed within the royal palace in a chamber which was greatly + adorned; and they offer incense of all kinds before it every day, and each + night a lamp burns beside it all through the night. Near this cow in + another chamber stand images of the concubines of Mykerinos, as the + priests at Sais told me; for there are in fact colossal wooden statues, in + number about twenty, made with naked bodies; but who they are I am not + able to say, except only that which is reported. Some however tell about + this cow and the colossal statues the following tale, namely that + Mykerinos was enamoured of his own daughter and afterwards ravished her; + and upon this they say that the girl strangled herself for grief, and he + buried her in this cow; and her mother cut off the hands of the maids who + had betrayed the daughter to her father; wherefore now the images of them + have suffered that which the maids suffered in their life. In thus saying + they speak idly, as it seems to me, especially in what they say about the + hands of the statues; for as to this, even we ourselves saw that their + hands had dropped off from lapse of time, and they were to be seen still + lying at their feet even down to my time. The cow is covered up with a + crimson robe, except only the head and the neck, which are seen, overlaid + with gold very thickly; and between the horns there is the disc of the sun + figured in gold. The cow is not standing up but kneeling, and in size is + equal to a large living cow. Every year it is carried forth from the + chamber, at those times, I say, the Egyptians beat themselves for that god + whom I will not name upon occasion of such a matter; at these times, I + say, they also carry forth the cow to the light of day, for they say that + she asked of her father Mykerinos, when she was dying, that she might look + upon the sun once in the year. + </p> + <p> + After the misfortune of his daughter it happened, they said, secondly to + this king as follows:—An oracle came to him from the city of Buto, + saying that he was destined to live but six years more, in the seventh + year to end his life: and he being indignant at it sent to the Oracle a + reproach against the god, making complaint in reply that whereas his + father and uncle, who had shut up the temples and had not only not + remembered the gods, but also had been destroyers of men, had lived for a + long time, he himself, who practised piety, was destined to end his life + so soon: and from the Oracle came a second message, which said that it was + for this very cause that he was bringing his life to a swift close; for he + had not done that which it was appointed for him to do, since it was + destined that Egypt should suffer evils for a hundred and fifty years, and + the two kings who had arisen before him had perceived this, but he had + not. Mykerinos having heard this, and considering that this sentence had + passed upon him beyond recall, procured many lamps, and whenever night + came on he lighted these and began to drink and take his pleasure, ceasing + neither by day nor by night; and he went about to the fen-country and to + the woods and wherever he heard there were the most suitable places of + enjoyment. This he devised (having a mind to prove that the Oracle spoke + falsely) in order that he might have twelve years of life instead of six, + the nights being turned into days. + </p> + <p> + This king also left behind him a pyramid, much smaller than that of his + father, of a square shape and measuring on each side three hundred feet + lacking twenty, built moreover of Ethiopian stone up to half the height. + This pyramid some of the Hellenes say was built by the courtesan Rhodopis, + not therein speaking rightly: and besides this it is evident to me that + they who speak thus do not even know who Rhodopis was, for otherwise they + would not have attributed to her the building of a pyramid like this, on + which have been spent (so to speak) innumerable thousands of talents: + moreover they do not know that Rhodopis flourished in the reign of Amasis, + and not in this king's reign; for Rhodopis lived very many years later + than the kings who left behind them these pyramids. By descent she was of + Thrace, and she was a slave of Iadmon the son of Hephaistopolis a Samian, + and a fellow-slave of Esop the maker of fables; for he too was once the + slave of Iadmon, as was proved especially by this fact, namely that when + the people of Delphi repeatedly made proclamation in accordance with an + oracle, to find some one who would take up the blood-money for the death + of Esop, no one else appeared, but at length the grandson of Iadmon, + called Iadmon also, took it up; and thus it is showed that Esop too was + the slave of Iadmon. As for Rhodopis, she came to Egypt brought by Xanthes + the Samian, and having come thither to exercise her calling she was + redeemed from slavery for a great sum by a man of Mytilene, Charaxos son + of Scamandronymos and brother of Sappho the lyric poet. Thus was Rhodopis + set free, and she remained in Egypt and by her beauty won so much liking + that she made great gain of money for one like Rhodopis, though not enough + to suffice for the cost of such a pyramid as this. In truth there is no + need to ascribe to her very great riches, considering that the tithe of + her wealth may still be seen even to this time by any one who desires it: + for Rhodopis wished to leave behind her a memorial of herself in Hellas, + namely to cause a thing to be made such as happens not to have been + thought of or dedicated in a temple by any besides, and to dedicate this + at Delphi as a memorial of herself. Accordingly with the tithe of her + wealth she caused to be made spits of iron of size large enough to pierce + a whole ox, and many in number, going as far therein as her tithe allowed + her, and she sent them to Delphi: these are even at the present time lying + there, heaped all together behind the altar which the Chians dedicated, + and just opposite to the cell of the temple. Now at Naucratis, as it + happens, the courtesans are rather apt to win credit; for this woman + first, about whom the story to which I refer is told, became so famous + that all the Hellenes without exception came to know the name of Rhodopis, + and then after her one whose name was Archidiche became a subject of song + all over Hellas, though she was less talked of than the other. As for + Charaxos, when after redeeming Rhodopis he returned back to Mytilene, + Sappho in an ode violently abused him. Of Rhodopis then I shall say no + more. + </p> + <p> + After Mykerinos the priests said Asychis became king of Egypt, and he made + for Hephaistos the temple gateway which is towards the sunrising, by far + the most beautiful and the largest of the gateways; for while they all + have figures carved upon them and innumerable ornaments of building + besides, this has them very much more than the rest. In this king's reign + they told me that, as the circulation of money was very slow, a law was + made for the Egyptians that a man might have that money lent to him which + he needed, by offering as security the dead body of his father; and there + was added moreover to this law another, namely that he who lent the money + should have a claim also to the whole of the sepulchral chamber belonging + to him who received it, and that the man who offered that security should + be subject to this penalty, if he refused to pay back the debt, namely + that neither the man himself should be allowed to have burial, when he + died, either in that family burial-place or in any other, nor should he be + allowed to bury any of his kinsmen whom he lost by death. This king + desiring to surpass the kings of Egypt who had arisen before him left as a + memorial of himself a pyramid which he made of bricks and on it there is + an inscription carved in stone and saying thus: "Despise not me in + comparison with the pyramids of stone, seeing that I excel them as much as + Zeus excels the other gods; for with a pole they struck into the lake, and + whatever of the mud attached itself to the pole, this they gathered up and + made bricks, and in such manner they finished me." + </p> + <p> + Such were the deeds which this king performed: and after him reigned a + blind man of the city of Anysis, whose name was Anysis. In his reign the + Ethiopians and Sabacos the king of the Ethiopians marched upon Egypt with + a great host of men; so this blind man departed, flying to the + fen-country, and the Ethiopian was king over Egypt for fifty years, during + which he performed deeds as follows:—whenever any man of the + Egyptians committed any transgression, he would never put him to death, + but he gave sentence upon each man according to the greatness of the + wrong-doing, appointing them to work at throwing up an embankment before + that city from whence each man came of those who committed wrong. Thus the + cities were made higher still than before; for they were embanked first by + those who dug the channels in the reign of Sesostris, and then secondly in + the reign of the Ethiopian, and thus they were made very high: and while + other cities in Egypt also stood high, I think in the town at Bubastis + especially the earth was piled up. In this city there is a temple very + well worthy of mention, for though there are other temples which are + larger and build with more cost, none more than this is a pleasure to the + eyes. Now Bubastis in the Hellenic tongue is Artemis, and her temple is + ordered thus:—Except the entrance it is completely surrounded by + water; for channels come in from the Nile, not joining one another, but + each extending as far as the entrance of the temple, one flowing round on + the one side and the other on the other side, each a hundred feet broad + and shaded over with trees; and the gateway has a height of ten fathoms, + and it is adorned with figures six cubits high, very noteworthy. This + temple is in the middle of the city and is looked down upon from all sides + as one goes round, for since the city has been banked up to a height, + while the temple has not been moved from the place where it was at the + first built, it is possible to look down into it: and round it runs a + stone wall with figures carved upon it, while within it there is a grove + of very large trees planted round a large temple-house, within which is + the image of the goddess: and the breadth and length of the temple is a + furlong every way. Opposite the entrance there is a road paved with stone + for about three furlongs, which leads through the market-place towards the + East, with a breadth of about four hundred feet; and on this side and on + that grow trees of height reaching to heaven: and the road leads to the + temple of Hermes. This temple then is thus ordered. + </p> + <p> + The final deliverance from the Ethiopian came about (they said) as + follows:—he fled away because he had seen in his sleep a vision, in + which it seemed to him that a man came and stood by him and counselled him + to gather together all the priests in Egypt and cut them asunder in the + midst. Having seen this dream, he said that it seemed to him that the gods + were foreshowing him this to furnish an occasion against him, in order + that he might do an impious deed with respect to religion, and so receive + some evil either from the gods or from men: he would not however do so, + but in truth (he said) the time had expired, during which it had been + prophesied to him that he should rule Egypt before he departed thence. For + when he was in Ethiopia the Oracles which the Ethiopians consult had told + him that it was fated for him to rule Egypt fifty years: since then this + time was now expiring, and the vision of the dream also disturbed him, + Sabacos departed out of Egypt of his own free will. + </p> + <p> + Then when the Ethiopian had gone away out of Egypt, the blind man came + back from the fen-country and began to rule again, having lived there + during fifty years upon an island which he had made by heaping up ashes + and earth: for whenever any of the Egyptians visited him bringing food, + according as it had been appointed to them severally to do without the + knowledge of the Ethiopian, he bade them bring also some ashes for their + gift. This island none was able to find before Amyrtaios; that is, for + more than seven hundred years the kings who arose before Amyrtaios were + not able to find it. Now the name of this island is Elbo, and its size is + ten furlongs each way. + </p> + <p> + After him there came to the throne the priest of Hephaistos, whose name + was Sethos. This man, they said, neglected and held in no regard the + warrior class of the Egyptians, considering that he would have no need of + them; and besides other slights which he put upon them, he also took from + them the yokes of corn-land which had been given to them as a special gift + in the reigns of the former kings, twelve yokes to each man. After this, + Sanacharib king of the Arabians and of the Assyrians marched a great host + against Egypt. Then the warriors of the Egyptians refused to come to the + rescue, and the priest, being driven into a strait, entered into the + sanctuary of the temple and bewailed to the image of the god the danger + which was impending over him; and as he was thus lamenting, sleep came + upon him, and it seemed to him in his vision that the god came and stood + by him and encouraged him, saying that he should suffer no evil if he went + forth to meet the army of the Arabians; for he would himself send him + helpers. Trusting in these things seen in sleep, he took with him, they + said, those of the Egyptians who were willing to follow him, and encamped + in Pelusion, for by this way the invasion came: and not one of the warrior + class followed him, but shop-keepers and artisans and men of the market. + Then after they came, there swarmed by night upon their enemies mice of + the fields, and ate up their quivers and their bows, and moreover the + handles of their shields, so that on the next day they fled, and being + without defence of arms great numbers fell. And at the present time this + king stands in the temple of Hephaistos in stone, holding upon his hand a + mouse, and by letters inscribed he says these words: "Let him who looks + upon me learn to fear the gods." + </p> + <p> + So far in the story the Egyptians and the priests were they who made the + report, declaring that from the first king down to this priest of + Hephaistos who reigned last, there had been three hundred and forty-one + generations of men, and that in them there had been the same number of + chief-priests and of kings: but three hundred generations of men are equal + to ten thousand years, for a hundred years is three generations of men; + and in the one-and-forty generations which remain, those I mean which were + added to the three hundred, there are one thousand three hundred and forty + years. Thus in the period of eleven thousand three hundred and forty years + they said that there had arisen no god in human form; nor even before that + time or afterwards among the remaining kings who arise in Egypt, did they + report that anything of that kind had come to pass. In this time they said + that the sun had moved four times from his accustomed place of rising, and + where he now sets he had thence twice had his rising, and in the place + from whence he now rises he had twice had his setting; and in the meantime + nothing in Egypt had been changed from its usual state, neither that which + comes from the earth nor that which comes to them from the river nor that + which concerns diseases or deaths. And formerly when Hecataios the + historian was in Thebes, and had traced his descent and connected his + family with a god in the sixteenth generation before, the priests of Zeus + did for him much the same as they did for me (though I had not traced my + descent). They led me into the sanctuary of the temple, which is of great + size, and they counted up the number, showing colossal wooden statues in + number the same as they said; for each chief-priest there sets up in his + lifetime an image of himself: accordingly the priests, counting and + showing me these, declared to me that each one of them was a son + succeeding his own father, and they went up through the series of images + from the image of the one who had died last, until they had declared this + of the whole number. And when Hecataios had traced his descent and + connected his family with a god in the sixteenth generation, they traced a + descent in opposition to his, besides their numbering, not accepting it + from him that a man had been born from a god; and they traced their + counter-descent thus, saying that each one of the statues had been <i>piromis</i> + son of <i>piromis</i>, until they had declared this of the whole three + hundred and forty-five statues, each one being surnamed <i>piromis</i>; + and neither with a god nor a hero did they connect their descent. Now <i>piromis</i> + means in the tongue of Hellas "honourable and good man." From their + declaration then it followed, that they of whom the images were had been + of form like this, and far removed from being gods: but in the time before + these men they said that gods were the rulers in Egypt, not mingling with + men, and that of these always one had power at a time; and the last of + them who was king over Egypt was Oros the son of Osiris, whom the Hellenes + call Apollo: he was king over Egypt last, having deposed Typhon. Now + Osiris in the tongue of Hellas is Dionysos. + </p> + <p> + Among the Hellenes Heracles and Dionysos and Pan are accounted the + lastest-born of the gods; but with the Egyptians Pan is a very ancient + god, and he is one of those which are called eight gods, while Heracles is + of the second rank, who are called the twelve gods, and Dionysos is of the + third rank, namely of those who were born of the twelve gods. Now as to + Heracles I have shown already how many years old he is according to the + Egyptians themselves, reckoning down to the reign of Amasis, and Pan is + said to have existed for yet more years than these, and Dionysos for the + smallest number of years as compared with the others; and even for this + last they reckon down to the reign of Amasis fifteen thousand years. This + the Egyptians say that they know for a certainty, since they always kept a + reckoning and wrote down the years as they came. Now the Dionysos who is + said to have been born of Semele the daughter of Cadmos, was born about + sixteen hundred years before my time, and Heracles who was the son of + Alcmene, about nine hundred years, and that Pan who was born of Penelope, + for of her and of Hermes Pan is said by the Hellenes to have been born, + came into being later than the wars of Troy, about eight hundred years + before my time. Of these two accounts every man may adopt that one which + he shall find the more credible when he hears it. I however, for my part, + have already declared my opinion about them. For if these also, like + Heracles the son of Amphitryon, had appeared before all men's eyes and had + lived their lives to old age in Hellas, I mean Dionysos the son of Semele + and Pan the son of Penelope, then one would have said that these also had + been born mere men, having the names of those gods who had come into being + long before: but as it is, with regard to Dionysos the Hellenes say that + as soon as he was born Zeus sewed him up in his thigh and carried him to + Nysa, which is above Egypt in the land of Ethiopia; and as to Pan, they + cannot say whither he went after he was born. Hence it has become clear to + me that the Hellenes learnt the names of these gods later than those of + the other gods, and trace their descent as if their birth occurred at the + time when they first learnt their names. + </p> + <p> + Thus far then the history is told by the Egyptians themselves; but I will + now recount that which other nations also tell, and the Egyptians in + agreement with the others, of that which happened in this land: and there + will be added to this also something of that which I have myself seen. + </p> + <p> + Being set free after the reign of the priest of Hephaistos, the Egyptians, + since they could not live any time without a king, set up over them twelve + kings, having divided all Egypt into twelve parts. These made + intermarriages with one another and reigned, making agreement that they + would not put down one another by force, nor seek to get an advantage over + one another, but would live in perfect friendship: and the reason why they + made these agreements, guarding them very strongly from violation, was + this, namely that an oracle had been given to them at first when they + began to exercise their rule, that he of them who should pour a libation + with a bronze cup in the temple of Hephaistos, should be king of all Egypt + (for they used to assemble together in all the temples). Moreover they + resolved to join all together and leave a memorial of themselves; and + having so resolved they caused to be made a labyrinth, situated a little + above the lake of Moiris and nearly opposite to that which is called the + City of Crocodiles. This I saw myself, and I found it greater than words + can say. For if one should put together and reckon up all the buildings + and all the great works produced by Hellenes, they would prove to be + inferior in labour and expense to this labyrinth, though it is true that + both the temple at Ephesos and that at Samos are works worthy of note. The + pyramids also were greater than words can say, and each one of them is + equal to many works of the Hellenes, great as they may be; but the + labyrinth surpasses even the pyramids. It has twelve courts covered in, + with gates facing one another, six upon the North side and six upon the + South, joining on one to another, and the same wall surrounds them all + outside; and there are in it two kinds of chambers, the one kind below the + ground and the other above upon these, three thousand in number, of each + kind fifteen hundred. The upper set of chambers we ourselves saw, going + through them, and we tell of them having looked upon them with our own + eyes; but the chambers under ground we heard about only; for the Egyptians + who had charge of them were not willing on any account to show them, + saying that here were the sepulchres of the kings who had first built this + labyrinth and of the sacred crocodiles. Accordingly we speak of the + chambers below by what we received from hearsay, while those above we saw + ourselves and found them to be works of more than human greatness. For the + passages through the chambers, and the goings this way and that way + through the courts, which were admirably adorned, afforded endless matter + for marvel, as we went through from a court to the chambers beyond it, and + from the chambers to colonnades, and from the colonnades to other rooms, + and then from the chambers again to other courts. Over the whole of these + is a roof made of stone like the walls; and the walls are covered with + figures carved upon them, each court being surrounded with pillars of + white stone fitted together most perfectly; and at the end of the + labyrinth, by the corner of it, there is a pyramid of forty fathoms, upon + which large figures are carved, and to this there is a way made under + ground. + </p> + <p> + Such is this labyrinth: but a cause for marvel even greater than this is + afforded by the lake, which is called the lake of Moiris, along the side + of which this labyrinth is built. The measure of its circuit is three + thousand six hundred furlongs (being sixty <i>schoines</i>), and this is + the same number of furlongs as the extent of Egypt itself along the sea. + The lake lies extended lengthwise from North to South, and in depth where + it is deepest it is fifty fathoms. That this lake is artificial and formed + by digging is self-evident, for about in the middle of the lake stand two + pyramids, each rising above the water to a height of fifty fathoms, the + part which is built below the water being of just the same height; and + upon each is placed a colossal statue of stone sitting upon a chair. Thus + the pyramids are a hundred fathoms high; and these hundred fathoms are + equal to a furlong of six hundred feet, the fathom being measured as six + feet or four cubits, the feet being four palms each, and the cubits six. + The water in the lake does not come from the place where it is, for the + country there is very deficient in water, but it has been brought thither + from the Nile by a canal; and for six months the water flows into the + lake, and for six months out into the Nile again; and whenever it flows + out, then for the six months it brings into the royal treasury a talent of + silver a day from the fish which are caught, and twenty pounds when the + water comes in. The natives of the place moreover said that this lake had + an outlet under ground to the Syrtis which is in Libya, turning towards + the interior of the continent upon the Western side and running along by + the mountain which is above Memphis. Now since I did not see anywhere + existing the earth dug out of this excavation (for that was a matter which + drew my attention), I asked those who dwelt nearest to the lake where the + earth was which had been dug out. These told me to what place it had been + carried away; and I readily believed them, for I knew by report that a + similar thing had been done at Nineveh, the city of the Assyrians. There + certain thieves formed a design once to carry away the wealth of + Sardanapallos son of Ninos, the king, which wealth was very great and was + kept in treasure-houses under the earth. Accordingly they began from their + own dwelling, and making estimate of their direction they dug under ground + towards the king's palace; and the earth which was brought out of the + excavation they used to carry away, when night came on, to the river + Tigris which flows by the city of Nineveh, until at last they accomplished + that which they desired. Similarly, as I heard, the digging of the lake in + Egypt was effected, except that it was done not by night but during the + day; for as they dug the Egyptians carried to the Nile the earth which was + dug out; and the river, when it received it, would naturally bear it away + and disperse it. Thus is this lake said to have been dug out. + </p> + <p> + Now the twelve kings continued to rule justly, but in course of time it + happened thus:—After sacrifice in the temple of Hephaistos they were + about to make libation on the last day of the feast, and the chief-priest, + in bringing out for them the golden cups with which they had been wont to + pour libations, missed his reckoning and brought eleven only for the + twelve kings. Then that one of them who was standing last in order, namely + Psammetichos, since he had no cup took off from his head his helmet, which + was of bronze, and having held it out to receive the wine he proceeded to + make libation: likewise all the other kings were wont to wear helmets and + they happened to have them then. Now Psammetichos held out his helmet with + no treacherous meaning; but they taking note of that which had been done + by Psammetichos and of the oracle, namely how it had been declared to them + that whosoever of them should make libation with a bronze cup should be + sole king of Egypt, recollecting, I say, the saying of the Oracle, they + did not indeed deem it right to slay Psammetichos, since they found by + examination that he had not done it with any forethought, but they + determined to strip him of almost all his power and to drive him away into + the fen-country, and that from the fen-country he should not hold any + dealings with the rest of Egypt. This Psammetichos had formerly been a + fugitive from the Ethiopian Sabacos who had killed his father Necos, from + him, I say, he had then been a fugitive in Syria; and when the Ethiopian + had departed in consequence of the vision of the dream, the Egyptians who + were of the district of Sais brought him back to his own country. Then + afterwards, when he was king, it was his fate to be a fugitive a second + time on account of the helmet, being driven by the eleven kings into the + fen-country. So then holding that he had been grievously wronged by them, + he thought how he might take vengeance on those who had driven him out: + and when he had sent to the Oracle of Leto in the city of Buto, where the + Egyptians have their most truthful Oracle, there was given to him the + reply that vengeance would come when men of bronze appeared from the sea. + And he was strongly disposed not to believe that bronze men would come to + help him; but after no long time had passed, certain Ionians and Carians + who had sailed forth for plunder were compelled to come to shore in Egypt, + and they having landed and being clad in bronze armour, came to the + fen-land and brought a report to Psammetichos that bronze men had come + from the sea and were plundering the plain. So he, perceiving that the + saying of the Oracle was coming to pass, dealt in a friendly manner with + the Ionians and Carians, and with large promises he persuaded them to take + his part. Then when he had persuaded them, with the help of those + Egyptians who favoured his cause and of these foreign mercenaries he + overthrew the kings. Having thus got power over all Egypt, Psammetichos + made for Hephaistos that gateway of the temple at Memphis which is turned + towards the South Wind; and he built a court for Apis, in which Apis is + kept when he appears, opposite to the gateway of the temple, surrounded + all with pillars and covered with figures; and instead of columns there + stand to support the roof of the court colossal statues twelve cubits + high. Now Apis is in the tongue of the Hellenes Epaphos. To the Ionians + and to the Carians who had helped him Psammetichos granted portions of + land to dwell in, opposite to one another with the river Nile between, and + these were called "Encampments"; these portions of land he gave them, and + he paid them besides all that he had promised: moreover he placed with + them Egyptian boys to have them taught the Hellenic tongue; and from + these, who learnt the language thoroughly, are descended the present class + of interpreters in Egypt. Now the Ionians and Carians occupied these + portions of land for a long time, and they are towards the sea a little + below the city of Bubastis, on that which is called the Pelusian mouth of + the Nile. These men king Amasis afterwards removed from thence and + established them at Memphis, making them into a guard for himself against + the Egyptians: and they being settled in Egypt, we who are Hellenes know + by intercourse with them the certainty of all that which happened in Egypt + beginning from king Psammetichos and afterwards; for these were the first + men of foreign tongue who settled in Egypt: and in the land from which + they were removed there still remained down to my time the sheds where + their ships were drawn up and the ruins of their houses. + </p> + <p> + Thus then Psammetichos obtained Egypt: and of the Oracle which is in Egypt + I have made mention often before this, and now I give an account of it, + seeing that it is worthy to be described. This Oracle which is in Egypt is + sacred to Leto, and it is established in a great city near that mouth of + the Nile which is called Sebennytic, as one sails up the river from the + sea; and the name of this city where the Oracle is found is Buto, as I + have said before in mentioning it. In this Buto there is a temple of + Apollo and Artemis; and the temple-house of Leto, in which the Oracle is, + is both great in itself and has a gateway of the height of ten fathoms: + but that which caused me most to marvel of the things to be seen there, I + will now tell. There is in this sacred enclosure a house of Leto made of + one single stone upon the top, the cornice measuring four cubits. This + house then of all the things that were to be seen by me in that temple is + the most marvellous, and among those which come next is the island called + Chemmis. This is situated in a deep and broad lake by the side of the + temple at Buto, and it is said by the Egyptians that this island is a + floating island. I myself did not see it either floating about or moved + from its place, and I feel surprise at hearing of it, wondering if it be + indeed a floating island. In this island of which I speak there is a great + temple-house of Apollo, and three several altars are set up within, and + there are planted in the island many palm-trees and other trees, both + bearing fruit and not bearing fruit. And the Egyptians, when they say that + it is floating, add this story, namely that in this island which formerly + was not floating, Leto, being one of the eight gods who came into + existence first, and dwelling in the city of Buto where she has this + Oracle, received Apollo from Isis as a charge and preserved him, + concealing him in the island which is said now to be a floating island, at + that time when Typhon came after him seeking everywhere and desiring to + find the son of Osiris. Now they say that Apollo and Artemis are children + of Dionysos and of Isis, and that Leto became their nurse and preserver; + and in the Egyptian tongue Apollo is Oros, Demeter is Isis, and Artemis is + Bubastis. From this story and from no other AEschylus the son of Euphorion + took this which I shall say, wherein he differs from all the preceding + poets; he represented namely that Artemis was the daughter of Demeter. For + this reason then, they say, it became a floating island. + </p> + <p> + Such is the story which they tell; but as for Psammetichos, he was king + over Egypt for four-and-fifty years, of which for thirty years save one he + was sitting before Azotos, a great city of Syria, besieging it, until at + last he took it: and this Azotos of all cities about which we have + knowledge held out for the longest time under a siege. + </p> + <p> + The son of Psammetichos was Necos, and he became king of Egypt. This man + was the first who attempted the channel leading to the Erythraian Sea, + which Dareios the Persian afterwards completed: the length of this is a + voyage of four days, and in breadth it was so dug that two triremes could + go side by side driven by oars; and the water is brought into it from the + Nile. The channel is conducted a little above the city of Bubastis by + Patumos the Arabian city, and runs into the Erythraian Sea: and it is dug + first along those parts of the plain of Egypt which lie towards Arabia, + just above which run the mountains which extend opposite Memphis, where + are the stone-quarries,—along the base of these mountains the + channel is conducted from West to East for a great way; and after that it + is directed towards a break in the hills and tends from these mountains + towards the noon-day and the South Wind to the Arabian gulf. Now in the + place where the journey is least and shortest from the Northern to the + Southern Sea (which is also called Erythraian), that is from Mount Casion, + which is the boundary between Egypt and Syria, the distance is exactly a + thousand furlongs to the Arabian gulf; but the channel is much longer, + since it is more winding; and in the reign of Necos there perished while + digging it twelve myriads of the Egyptians. Now Necos ceased in the midst + of his digging, because the utterance of an Oracle impeded him, which was + to the effect that he was working for the Barbarian: and the Egyptians + call all men Barbarians who do not agree with them in speech. Thus having + ceased from the work of the channel, Necos betook himself to raging wars, + and triremes were built by him, some for the Northern Sea and others in + the Arabian gulf for the Erythraian Sea; and of these the sheds are still + to be seen. These ships he used when he needed them; and also on land + Necos engaged battle at Magdolos with the Syrians, and conquered them; and + after this he took Cadytis, which is a great city of Syria: and the dress + which he wore when he made these conquests he dedicated to Apollo, sending + it to Branchidai of the Milesians. After this, having reigned in all + sixteen years, he brought his life to an end, and handed on the kingdom to + Psammis his son. + </p> + <p> + While this Psammis was king of Egypt, there came to him men sent by the + Eleians, who boasted that they ordered the contest at Olympia in the most + just and honourable manner possible and thought that not even the + Egyptians, the wisest of men, could find out anything besides, to be added + to their rules. Now when the Eleians came to Egypt and said that for which + they had come, then this king called together those of the Egyptians who + were reputed the wisest, and when the Egyptians had come together they + heard the Eleians tell of all that which it was their part to do in regard + to the contest; and when they had related everything, they said that they + had come to learn in addition anything which the Egyptians might be able + to find out besides, which was juster than this. They then having + consulted together asked the Eleians whether their own citizens took part + in the contest; and they said that it was permitted to any one who desired + it, to take part in the contest: upon which the Egyptians said that in so + ordering the games they had wholly missed the mark of justice; for it + could not be but that they would take part with the man of their own + State, if he was contending, and so act unfairly to the stranger: but if + they really desired, as they said, to order the games justly, and if this + was the cause for which they had come to Egypt, they advised them to order + the contest so as to be for strangers alone to contend in, and that no + Eleian should be permitted to contend. Such was the suggestion made by the + Egyptians to the Eleians. + </p> + <p> + When Psammis had been king of Egypt for only six years and had made an + expedition to Ethiopia and immediately afterwards had ended his life, + Apries the son of Psammis received the kingdom in succession. This man + came to be the most prosperous of all the kings up to that time except + only his forefather Psammetichos; and he reigned five-and-twenty years, + during which he led an army against Sidon and fought a sea-fight with the + king of Tyre. Since however it was fated that evil should come upon him it + came by occasion of a matter which I shall relate at greater length in the + Libyan history, and at present but shortly. Apries having sent a great + expedition against the Kyrenians, met with correspondingly great disaster; + and the Egyptians considering him to blame for this revolted from him, + supposing that Apries had with forethought sent them out to evident + calamity, in order (as they said) that there might be a slaughter of them, + and he might the more securely rule over the other Egyptians. Being + indignant at this, both these men who had returned from the expedition and + also the friends of those who had perished made revolt openly. Hearing + this Apries sent to them Amasis, to cause them to cease by persuasion; and + when he had come and was seeking to restrain the Egyptians, as he was + speaking and telling them not to do so, one of the Egyptians stood up + behind him and put a helmet upon his head, saying as he did so that he put + it on to crown him king. And to him this that was done was in some degree + not unwelcome, as he proved by his behaviour; for as soon as the revolted + Egyptians had set him up as king, he prepared to march against Apries: and + Apries hearing this sent to Amasis one of the Egyptians who were about his + own person, a man of reputation, whose name was Patarbemis, enjoining him + to bring Amasis alive into his presence. When this Patarbemis came and + summoned Amasis, the latter, who happened to be sitting on horseback, + lifted up his leg and behaved in an unseemly manner, bidding him take that + back to Apries. Nevertheless, they say, Patarbemis made demand of him that + he should go to the king, seeing that the king had sent to summon him; and + he answered him that he had for some time past been preparing to do so, + and that Apries would have no occasion to find fault with him, for he + would both come himself and bring others with him. Then Patarbemis both + perceiving his intention from that which he said, and also seeing his + preparations, departed in haste, desiring to make known as quickly as + possible to the king the things which were being done: and when he came + back to Apries not bringing Amasis, the king paying no regard to that + which he said, but being moved by violent anger, ordered his ears and his + nose to be cut off. And the rest of the Egyptians who still remained on + his side, when they saw the man of most repute among them thus suffering + shameful outrage, waited no longer but joined the others in revolt, and + delivered themselves over to Amasis. Then Apries having heard this also, + armed his foreign mercenaries and marched against the Egyptians: now he + had about him Carian and Ionian mercenaries to the number of thirty + thousand; and his royal palace was in the city of Sais, of great size and + worthy to be seen. So Apries and his army were going against the + Egyptians, and Amasis and those with him were going against the + mercenaries; and both sides came to the city of Momemphis and were about + to make trial of one another in fight. + </p> + <p> + Now of the Egyptians there are seven classes, and of these one class is + called that of the priests, and another that of the warriors, while the + others are the cowherds, swineherds, shopkeepers, interpreters, and + boatmen. This is the number of the classes of the Egyptians, and their + names are given them from the occupations which they follow. Of them the + warriors are called Calasirians and Hermotybians, and they are of the + following districts,—for all Egypt is divided into districts. The + districts of the Hermotybians are those of Busiris, Sais, Chemmis, + Papremis, the island called Prosopitis, and the half of Natho,—of + these districts are the Hermotybians, who reached when most numerous the + number of sixteen myriads. Of these not one has been learnt anything of + handicraft, but they are given up to war entirely. Again the districts of + the Calasirians are those of Thebes, Bubastis, Aphthis, Tanis, Mendes, + Sebennytos, Athribis, Pharbaithos, Thmuis, Onuphis, Anytis, Myecphoris,—this + last is on an island opposite to the city of Bubastis. These are the + districts of the Calasirians; and they reached, when most numerous, to the + number of five-and-twenty myriads of men; nor is it lawful for these, any + more than for the others, to practise any craft; but they practise that + which has to do with war only, handing down the tradition from father to + son. Now whether the Hellenes have learnt this also from the Egyptians, I + am not able to say for certain, since I see that the Thracians also and + Scythians and Persians and Lydians and almost all the Barbarians esteem + those of their citizens who learn the arts, and the descendants of them, + as less honourable than the rest; while those who have got free from all + practice of manual arts are accounted noble, and especially those who are + devoted to war: however that may be, the Hellenes have all learnt this, + and especially the Lacedemonians; but the Corinthians least of all cast + slight upon those who practise handicraft. + </p> + <p> + The following privilege was specially granted to this class and to none + others of the Egyptians except the priests, that is to say, each man had + twelve yokes of land specially granted to him free from imposts: now the + yoke of land measures a hundred Egyptian cubits every way, and the + Egyptian cubit is, as it happens, equal to that of Samos. This, I say, was + a special privilege granted to all, and they also had certain advantages + in turn and not the same men twice; that is to say, a thousand of the + Calasirians and a thousand of the Hermotybians acted as body-guard to the + king during each year; and these had besides their yokes of land an + allowance given them for each day of five pounds weight of bread to each + man, and two pounds of beef, and four half-pints of wine. This was the + allowance given to those who were serving as the king's body-guard for the + time being. + </p> + <p> + So when Apries leading his foreign mercenaries, and Amasis at the head of + the whole body of the Egyptians, in their approach to one another had come + to the city of Momemphis, they engaged in battle: and although the foreign + troops fought well, yet being much inferior in number they were worsted by + reason of this. But Apries is said to have supposed that not even a god + would be able to cause him to cease from his rule, so firmly did he think + that it was established. In that battle then, I say, he was worsted, and + being taken alive was brought away to the city of Sais, to that which had + formerly been his own dwelling but from thenceforth was the palace of + Amasis. There for some time he was kept in the palace, and Amasis dealt + well with him but at last, since the Egyptians blamed him, saying that he + acted not rightly in keeping alive him who was the greatest foe both to + themselves and to him, therefore he delivered Apries over to the + Egyptians; and they strangled him, and after that buried him in the + burial-place of his fathers: this is in the temple of Athene, close to the + sanctuary, on the left hand as you enter. Now the men of Sais buried all + those of this district who had been kings, within the temple; for the tomb + of Amasis also, though it is further from the sanctuary than that of + Apries and his forefathers, yet this too is within the court of the + temple, and it consists of a colonnade of stone of great size, with + pillars carved to imitate date-palms, and otherwise sumptuously adorned; + and within the colonnade are double doors, and inside the doors a + sepulchral chamber. Also at Sais there is the burial-place of him whom I + account it not pious to name in connexion with such a matter, which is in + the temple of Athene behind the house of the goddess, stretching along the + whole wall of it; and in the sacred enclosure stand great obelisks of + stone, and near them is a lake adorned with an edging of stone and fairly + made in a circle, being in size, as it seemed to me, equal to that which + is called the "Round Pool" in Delos. On this lake they perform by night + the show of his sufferings, and this the Egyptians call Mysteries. Of + these things I know more fully in detail how they take place, but I shall + leave this unspoken; and of the mystic rites of Demeter, which the + Hellenes call <i>thesmophoria</i>, of these also, although I know, I shall + leave unspoken all except so much as piety permits me to tell. The + daughters of Danaos were they who brought this rite out of Egypt and + taught it to the women of the Pelasgians; then afterwards when all the + inhabitants of Peloponnese were driven out by the Dorians, the rite was + lost, and only those who were left behind of the Peloponnesians and not + driven out, that is to say the Arcadians, preserved it. + </p> + <p> + Apries having thus been overthrown, Amasis became king, being of the + district of Sais, and the name of the city whence he was is Siuph. Now at + the first the Egyptians despised Amasis and held him in no great regard, + because he had been a man of the people and was of no distinguished + family; but afterwards Amasis won them over to himself by wisdom and not + wilfulness. Among innumerable other things of price which he had, there + was a foot-basin of gold in which both Amasis himself and all his guests + were wont always to wash their feet. This he broke up, and of it he caused + to be made the image of a god, and set it up in the city, where it was + most convenient; and the Egyptians went continually to visit the image and + did great reverence to it. Then Amasis, having learnt that which was done + by the men of the city, called together the Egyptians and made known to + them the matter, saying that the image had been produced from the + foot-basin, into which formerly the Egyptians used to vomit and make + water, and in which they washed their feet, whereas now they did to it + great reverence; and just so, he continued, had he himself now fared, as + the foot-basin; for though formerly he was a man of the people, yet now he + was their king, and he bade them accordingly honour him and have regard + for him. In such manner he won the Egyptians to himself, so that they + consented to be his subjects; and his ordering of affairs was this:—In + the early morning, and until the time of the filling of the market he did + with a good will the business which was brought before him; but after this + he passed the time in drinking and in jesting at his boon-companions, and + was frivolous and playful. And his friends being troubled at it admonished + him in some such words as these: "O king, thou dost not rightly govern + thyself in thus letting thyself descend to behaviour so trifling; for thou + oughtest rather to have been sitting throughout the day stately upon a + stately throne and administering thy business; and so the Egyptians would + have been assured that they were ruled by a great man, and thou wouldest + have had a better report: but as it is, thou art acting by no means in a + kingly fashion." And he answered them thus: "They who have bows stretch + them at such time as they wish to use them, and when they have finished + using them they loose them again; for if they were stretched tight always + they would break, so that the men would not be able to use them when they + needed them. So also is the state of man: if he should always be in + earnest and not relax himself for sport at the due time, he would either + go mad or be struck with stupor before he was aware; and knowing this + well, I distribute a portion of the time to each of the two ways of + living." Thus he replied to his friends. It is said however that Amasis, + even when he was in a private station, was a lover of drinking and of + jesting, and not at all seriously disposed; and whenever his means of + livelihood failed him through his drinking and luxurious living, he would + go about and steal; and they from whom he stole would charge him with + having their property, and when he denied it would bring him before the + judgment of an Oracle, whenever there was one in their place; and many + times he was convicted by the Oracles and many times he was absolved: and + then when finally he became king he did as follows:—as many of the + gods as had absolved him and pronounced him not to be a thief, to their + temples he paid no regard, nor gave anything for the further adornment of + them, nor even visited them to offer sacrifice, considering them to be + worth nothing and to possess lying Oracles; but as many as had convicted + him of being a thief, to these he paid very great regard, considering them + to be truly gods, and to present Oracles which did not lie. First in Sais + he built and completed for Athene a temple-gateway which is a great + marvel, and he far surpassed herein all who had done the like before, both + in regard to height and greatness, so large are the stones and of such + quality. Then secondly he dedicated great colossal statues and man-headed + sphinxes very large, and for restoration he caused to be brought from the + stone-quarries which are opposite Memphis, others of very great size from + the city of Elephantine, distant a voyage of not less than twenty days + from Sais: and of them all I marvel most at this, namely a monolith + chamber which he brought from the city of Elephantine; and they were three + years engaged in bringing this, and two thousand men were appointed to + convey it, who all were of the class of boatmen. Of this house the length + outside is one-and-twenty cubits, the breadth is fourteen cubits, and the + height eight. These are the measures of the monolith house outside; but + the length inside is eighteen cubits and five-sixths of a cubit, the + breadth twelve cubits, and the height five cubits. This lies by the side + of the entrance to the temple; for within the temple they did not draw it, + because, as it is said, while the house was being drawn along, the chief + artificer of it groaned aloud, seeing that much time had been spent and he + was wearied by the work; and Amasis took it to heart as a warning and did + not allow them to draw it further onwards. Some say on the other hand that + a man was killed by it, of those who were heaving it with levers, and that + it was not drawn in for that reason. Amasis also dedicated in all the + other temples which were of repute, works which are worth seeing for their + size, and among them also at Memphis the colossal statue which lies on its + back in front of the temple of Hephaistos, whose length is + five-and-seventy feet; and on the same base made of the same stone are set + two colossal statues, each of twenty feet in length, one on this side and + the other on that side of the large statue. There is also another of stone + of the same size in Sais, lying in the same manner as that at Memphis. + Moreover Amasis was he who built and finished for Isis her temple at + Memphis, which is of great size and very worthy to be seen. + </p> + <p> + In the reign of Amasis it is said that Egypt became more prosperous than + at any other time before, both in regard to that which comes to the land + from the river and in regard to that which comes from the land to its + inhabitants, and that at this time the inhabited towns in it numbered in + all twenty thousand. It was Amasis too who established the law that every + year each one of the Egyptians should declare to the ruler of his + district, from what source he got his livelihood, and if any man did not + do this or did not make declaration of an honest way of living, he should + be punished with death. Now Solon the Athenian received from Egypt this + law and had it enacted for the Athenians, and they have continued to + observe it, since it is a law with which none can find fault. + </p> + <p> + Moreover Amasis became a lover of the Hellenes; and besides other proofs + of friendship which he gave to several among them, he also granted the + city of Naucratis for those of them who came to Egypt to dwell in; and to + those who did not desire to stay, but who made voyages thither, he granted + portions of land to set up altars and make sacred enclosures for their + gods. Their greatest enclosure and that one which has most name and is + most frequented is called the Hellenion, and this was established by the + following cities in common:—of the Ionians Chios, Teos, Phocaia, + Clazomenai, of the Dorians Rhodes, Cnidos, Halicarnassos, Phaselis, and of + the Aiolians Mytilene alone. To these belongs this enclosure and these are + the cities which appoint superintendents of the port; and all other cities + which claim a share in it, are making a claim without any right. Besides + this the Eginetans established on their own account a sacred enclosure + dedicated to Zeus, the Samians one to Hera, and the Milesians one to + Apollo. Now in old times Naucratis alone was an open trading-place, and no + other place in Egypt: and if any one came to any other of the Nile mouths, + he was compelled to swear that he came not thither of his own free will, + and when he had thus sworn his innocence he had to sail with his ship to + the Canobic mouth, or if it were not possible to sail by reason of + contrary winds, then he had to carry his cargo round the head of the Delta + in boats to Naucratis: thus highly was Naucratis privileged. Moreover when + the Amphictyons had let out the contract for building the temple which now + exists at Delphi, agreeing to pay a sum of three hundred talents (for the + temple which formerly stood there had been burnt down of itself), it fell + to the share of the people of Delphi to provide the fourth part of the + payment; and accordingly the Delphians went about to various cities and + collected contributions. And when they did this they got from Egypt as + much as from any place, for Amasis gave them a thousand talents' weight of + alum, while the Hellenes who dwelt in Egypt gave them twenty pounds of + silver. + </p> + <p> + Also with the people of Kyrene Amasis made an agreement for friendship and + alliance; and he resolved too to marry a wife from thence, whether because + he desired to have a wife of Hellenic race, or, apart from that, on + account of friendship for the people of Kyrene: however that may be, he + married, some say the daughter of Battos, others of Arkesilaos, and others + of Critobulos, a man of repute among the citizens; and her name was + Ladike. Now whenever Amasis lay with her he found himself unable to have + intercourse, but with his other wives he associated as he was wont; and as + this happened repeatedly, Amasis said to his wife, whose name was Ladike: + "Woman, thou hast given me drugs, and thou shall surely perish more + miserably than any other." Then Ladike, when by her denials Amasis was not + at all appeased in his anger against her, made a vow in her soul to + Aphrodite, that if Amasis on that night had intercourse with her (seeing + that this was the remedy for her danger), she would send an image to be + dedicated to her at Kyrene; and after the vow immediately Amasis had + intercourse, and from thenceforth whenever Amasis came in to her he had + intercourse with her; and after this he became very greatly attached to + her. And Ladike paid the vow that she had made to the goddess; for she had + an image made and sent it to Kyrene, and it is still preserved even to my + own time, standing with its face turned away from the city of the + Kyrenians. This Ladike Cambyses, having conquered Egypt and heard from her + who she was, sent back unharmed to Kyrene. + </p> + <p> + Amasis also dedicated offerings in Hellas, first at Kyrene an image of + Athene covered over with gold and a figure of himself made like by + painting; then in the temple of Athene at Lindos two images of stone and a + corslet of linen worthy to be seen; and also at Samos two wooden figures + of himself dedicated to Hera, which were standing even to my own time in + the great temple, behind the doors. Now at Samos he dedicated offerings + because of the guest-friendship between himself and Polycrates the son of + Aiakes; at Lindos for no guest-friendship but because the temple of Athene + at Lindos is said to have been founded by the daughters of Danaos, who had + touched land there at the time when they were fleeing from the sons of + Aigyptos. These offerings were dedicated by Amasis; and he was the first + of men who conquered Cyprus and subdued it so that it paid him tribute. + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of An Account of Egypt, by Herodotus + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AN ACCOUNT OF EGYPT *** + +***** This file should be named 2131-h.htm or 2131-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/2/1/3/2131/ + +Produced by John Bickers; Dagny; David Widger + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: An Account of Egypt + +Author: Herodotus + +Translator: G. C. Macaulay + +Release Date: February 25, 2006 [EBook #2131] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AN ACCOUNT OF EGYPT *** + + + + +Produced by John Bickers; Dagny; David Widger + + + + + +AN ACCOUNT OF EGYPT + +By Herodotus + + +Translated By G. C. Macaulay + + + + +NOTE + +HERODOTUS was born at Halicarnassus, on the southwest coast of Asia +Minor, in the early part of the fifth century, B. C. Of his life we know +almost nothing, except that he spent much of it traveling, to collect +the material for his writings, and that he finally settled down at +Thurii, in southern Italy, where his great work was composed. He died in +424 B. C. + +The subject of the history of Herodotus is the struggle between the +Greeks and the barbarians, which he brings down to the battle of Mycale +in 479 B. C. The work, as we have it, is divided into nine books, +named after the nine Muses, but this division is probably due to the +Alexandrine grammarians. His information he gathered mainly from oral +sources, as he traveled through Asia Minor, down into Egypt, round +the Black Sea, and into various parts of Greece and the neighboring +countries. The chronological narrative halts from time to time to give +opportunity for descriptions of the country, the people, and their +customs and previous history; and the political account is constantly +varied by rare tales and wonders. + +Among these descriptions of countries the most fascinating to the +modern, as it was to the ancient, reader is his account of the marvels +of the land of Egypt. From the priests at Memphis, Heliopolis, and the +Egyptian Thebes he learned what he reports of the size of the country, +the wonders of the Nile, the ceremonies of their religion, the +sacredness of their animals. He tells also of the strange ways of the +crocodile and of that marvelous bird, the Phoenix; of dress and funerals +and embalming; of the eating of lotos and papyrus; of the pyramids and +the great labyrinth; of their kings and queens and courtesans. + +Yet Herodotus is not a mere teller of strange tales. However credulous +he may appear to a modern judgment, he takes care to keep separate what +he knows by his own observation from what he has merely inferred and +from what he has been told. He is candid about acknowledging ignorance, +and when versions differ he gives both. Thus the modern scientific +historian, with other means of corroboration, can sometimes learn from +Herodotus more than Herodotus himself knew. + +There is abundant evidence, too, that Herodotus had a philosophy of +history. The unity which marks his work is due not only to the strong +Greek national feeling running through it, the feeling that rises to a +height in such passages as the descriptions of the battles of Marathon, +Thermopylae, and Salamis, but also to his profound belief in Fate and +in Nemesis. To his belief in Fate is due the frequent quoting of oracles +and their fulfilment, the frequent references to things foreordained by +Providence. The working of Nemesis he finds in the disasters that befall +men and nations whose towering prosperity awakens the jealousy of the +gods. The final overthrow of the Persians, which forms his main theme, +is only one specially conspicuous example of the operation of this force +from which human life can never free itself. + +But, above all, he is the father of story-tellers. "Herodotus is such +simple and delightful reading," says Jevons; "he is so unaffected and +entertaining, his story flows so naturally and with such ease that +we have a difficulty in bearing in mind that, over and above the hard +writing which goes to make easy reading there is a perpetual marvel in +the work of Herodotus. It is the first artistic work in prose that Greek +literature produced. This prose work, which for pure literary merit no +subsequent work has surpassed, than which later generations, after +using the pen for centuries, have produced no prose more easy or more +readable, this was the first of histories and of literary prose." + + + + + +AN ACCOUNT OF EGYPT + +BY HERODOTUS + + + + +BEING THE SECOND BOOK OF HIS HISTORIES CALLED EUTERPE + + +When Cyrus had brought his life to an end, Cambyses received the royal +power in succession, being the son of Cyrus and of Cassandane the +daughter of Pharnaspes, for whose death, which came about before his +own, Cyrus had made great mourning himself and also had proclaimed to +all those over whom he bore rule that they should make mourning for her: +Cambyses, I say, being the son of this woman and of Cyrus, regarded +the Ionians and Aiolians as slaves inherited from his father; and he +proceeded to march an army against Egypt, taking with him as helpers not +only other nations of which he was ruler, but also those of the Hellenes +over whom he had power besides. + + +Now the Egyptians, before the time when Psammetichos became king over +them, were wont to suppose that they had come into being first of all +men; but since the time when Psammetichos having become king desired to +know what men had come into being first, they suppose that the Phrygians +came into being before themselves, but they themselves before all other +men. Now Psammetichos, when he was not able by inquiry to find out any +means of knowing who had come into being first of all men, contrived a +device of the following kind:--Taking two newborn children belonging to +persons of the common sort he gave them to a shepherd to bring up at +the place where his flocks were, with a manner of bringing up such as +I shall say, charging him namely that no man should utter any word in +their presence, and that they should be placed by themselves in a room +where none might come, and at the proper time he should bring them +she-goats, and when he had satisfied them with milk he should do for +them whatever else was needed. These things Psammetichos did and gave +him this charge wishing to hear what word the children would let break +forth first after they had ceased from wailings without sense. And +accordingly it came to pass; for after a space of two years had gone by, +during which the shepherd went on acting so, at length, when he opened +the door and entered, both children fell before him in entreaty and +uttered the word _bekos_, stretching forth their hands. At first when +he heard this the shepherd kept silence; but since this word was often +repeated, as he visited them constantly and attended to them, at last +he declared the matter to his master, and at his command he brought the +children before his face. Then Psammetichos having himself also heard +it, began to inquire what nation of men named anything _bekos_, and +inquiring he found that the Phrygians had this name for bread. In this +manner and guided by an indication such as this, the Egyptians were +brought to allow that the Phrygians were a more ancient people than +themselves. That so it came to pass I heard from the priests of that +Hephaistos who dwells at Memphis; but the Hellenes relate, besides many +other idle tales, that Psammetichos cut out the tongues of certain women +and then caused the children to live with these women. + +With regard then to the rearing of the children they related so much as +I have said: and I heard also other things at Memphis when I had speech +with the priests of Hephaistos. Moreover I visited both Thebes and +Heliopolis for this very cause, namely because I wished to know whether +the priests at these places would agree in their accounts with those at +Memphis; for the men of Heliopolis are said to be the most learned in +records of the Egyptians. Those of their narrations which I heard with +regard to the gods I am not earnest to relate in full, but I shall name +them only because I consider that all men are equally ignorant of these +matters: and whatever things of them I may record I shall record only +because I am compelled by the course of the story. But as to those +matters which concern men, the priests agreed with one another in saying +that the Egyptians were the first of all men on earth to find out the +course of the year, having divided the seasons into twelve parts to make +up the whole; and this they said they found out from the stars: and they +reckon to this extent more wisely than the Hellenes, as it seems to +me, inasmuch as the Hellenes throw in an intercalated month every other +year, to make the seasons right, whereas the Egyptians, reckoning the +twelve months at thirty days each, bring in also every year five days +beyond number, and thus the circle of their season is completed and +comes round to the same point whence it set out. They said moreover that +the Egyptians were the first who brought into use appellations for the +twelve gods and the Hellenes took up the use from them; and that they +were the first who assigned altars and images and temples to the gods, +and who engraved figures on stones; and with regard to the greater +number of these things they showed me by actual facts that they had +happened so. They said also that the first man who became king of Egypt +was Min; and that in his time all Egypt except the district of Thebes +was a swamp, and none of the regions were then above water which now lie +below the lake of Moiris, to which lake it is a voyage of seven days +up the river from the sea: and I thought that they said well about the +land; for it is manifest in truth even to a person who has not heard it +beforehand but has only seen, at least if he have understanding, that +the Egypt to which the Hellenes come in ships is a land which has been +won by the Egyptians as an addition, and that it is a gift of the river: +moreover the regions which lie above this lake also for a distance of +three days' sail, about which they did not go on to say anything of +this kind, are nevertheless another instance of the same thing: for the +nature of the land of Egypt is as follows:--First when you are still +approaching it in a ship and are distant a day's run from the land, if +you let down a sounding-line you will bring up mud and you will find +yourself in eleven fathoms. This then so far shows that there is a +silting forward of the land. Then secondly, as to Egypt itself, the +extent of it along the sea is sixty _schoines_, according to our +definition of Egypt as extending from the Gulf of Plinthine to the +Serbonian lake, along which stretches Mount Casion; from this lake then +the sixty _schoines_ are reckoned: for those of men who are poor in +land have their country measured by fathoms, those who are less poor by +furlongs, those who have much land by parasangs, and those who have +land in very great abundance by _schoines_: now the parasang is equal +to thirty furlongs, and each _schoine_, which is an Egyptian measure, is +equal to sixty furlongs. So there would be an extent of three thousand +six hundred furlongs for the coast-land of Egypt. From thence and as +far as Heliopolis inland Egypt is broad, and the land is all flat and +without springs of water and formed of mud: and the road as one goes +inland from the sea to Heliopolis is about the same in length as that +which leads from the altar of the twelve gods at Athens to Pisa and the +temple of Olympian Zeus: reckoning up you would find the difference +very small by which these roads fail of being equal in length, not more +indeed than fifteen furlongs; for the road from Athens to Pisa wants +fifteen furlongs of being fifteen hundred, while the road to Heliopolis +from the sea reaches that number completely. From Heliopolis however, +as you go up, Egypt is narrow; for on the one side a mountain-range +belonging to Arabia stretches along by the side of it, going in a +direction from the North towards the midday and the South Wind, tending +upwards without a break to that which is called the Erythraian Sea, in +which range are the stone-quarries which were used in cutting stone for +the pyramids at Memphis. On this side then the mountain ends where I +have said, and then takes a turn back; and where it is widest, as I was +informed, it is a journey of two months across from East to West; +and the borders of it which turn towards the East are said to produce +frankincense. Such then is the nature of this mountain-range; and on the +side of Egypt towards Libya another range extends, rocky and enveloped +in sand: in this are the pyramids, and it runs in the same direction +as those parts of the Arabian mountains which go towards the midday. So +then, I say, from Heliopolis the land has no longer a great extent so +far as it belongs to Egypt, and for about four days' sail up the +river Egypt properly so called is narrow: and the space between the +mountain-ranges which have been mentioned is plain-land, but where it is +narrowest it did not seem to me to exceed two hundred furlongs from the +Arabian mountains to those which are called the Libyan. After this again +Egypt is broad. Such is the nature of this land: and from Heliopolis to +Thebes is a voyage up the river of nine days, and the distance of the +journey in furlongs is four thousand eight hundred and sixty, the number +of _schoines_ being eighty-one. If these measures of Egypt in furlongs +be put together, the result is as follows:--I have already before this +shown that the distance along the sea amounts to three thousand six +hundred furlongs, and I will now declare what the distance is inland +from the sea to Thebes, namely six thousand one hundred and twenty +furlongs: and again the distance from Thebes to the city called +Elephantine is one thousand eight hundred furlongs. + +Of this land then, concerning which I have spoken, it seemed to myself +also, according as the priests said, that the greater part had been won +as an addition by the Egyptians; for it was evident to me that the +space between the aforesaid mountain-ranges, which lie above the city +of Memphis, once was a gulf of the sea, like the regions about Ilion and +Teuthrania and Ephesos and the plain of the Maiander, if it be permitted +to compare small things with great; and small these are in comparison, +for of the rivers which heaped up the soil in those regions none is +worthy to be compared in volume with a single one of the mouths of the +Nile, which has five mouths. Moreover there are other rivers also, not +in size at all equal to the Nile, which have performed great feats; of +which I can mention the names of several, and especially the Acheloos, +which flowing through Acarnania and so issuing out into the sea has +already made half of the Echinades from islands into mainland. Now there +is in the land of Arabia, not far from Egypt, a gulf of the sea running +in from that which is called the Erythraian Sea, very long and narrow, +as I am about to tell. With respect to the length of the voyage along +it, one who set out from the innermost point to sail out through it into +the open sea, would spend forty days upon the voyage, using oars; and +with respect to breadth, where the gulf is broadest it is half a day's +sail across: and there is in it an ebb and flow of tide every day. Just +such another gulf I suppose that Egypt was, and that the one ran in +towards Ethiopia from the Northern Sea, and the other, the Arabian, +of which I am about to speak, tended from the South towards Syria, +the gulfs boring in so as almost to meet at their extreme points, and +passing by one another with but a small space left between. If then the +stream of the Nile should turn aside into this Arabian gulf, what would +hinder that gulf from being filled up with silt as the river continued +to flow, at all events within a period of twenty thousand years? indeed +for my part I am of the opinion that it would be filled up even within +ten thousand years. How, then, in all the time that has elapsed before I +came into being should not a gulf be filled up even of much greater size +than this by a river so great and so active? As regards Egypt then, I +both believe those who say that things are so, and for myself also I am +strongly of opinion that they are so; because I have observed that Egypt +runs out into the sea further than the adjoining land, and that shells +are found upon the mountains of it, and an efflorescence of salt forms +upon the surface, so that even the pyramids are being eaten away by it, +and moreover that of all the mountains of Egypt, the range which lies +above Memphis is the only one which has sand: besides which I notice +that Egypt resembles neither the land of Arabia, which borders upon it, +nor Libya, nor yet Syria (for they are Syrians who dwell in the parts +of Arabia lying along the sea), but that it has soil which is black and +easily breaks up, seeing that it is in truth mud and silt brought down +from Ethiopia by the river: but the soil of Libya, we know, is reddish +in colour and rather sandy, while that of Arabia and Syria is somewhat +clayey and rocky. The priests also gave me a strong proof concerning +this land as follows, namely that in the reign of king Moiris, whenever +the river reached a height of at least eight cubits it watered Egypt +below Memphis; and not yet nine hundred years had gone by since the +death of Moiris, when I heard these things from the priests: now +however, unless the river rises to sixteen cubits, or fifteen at the +least, it does not go over the land. I think too that those Egyptians +who dwell below the lake of Moiris and especially in that region which +is called the Delta, if that land continues to grow in height according +to this proportion and to increase similarly in extent, will suffer for +all remaining time, from the Nile not overflowing their land, that same +thing which they themselves said that the Hellenes would at some time +suffer: for hearing that the whole land of the Hellenes has rain and is +not watered by rivers as theirs is, they said that the Hellenes would at +some time be disappointed of a great hope and would suffer the ills of +famine. This saying means that if the god shall not send them rain, but +shall allow drought to prevail for a long time, the Hellenes will be +destroyed by hunger; for they have in fact no other supply of water +to save them except from Zeus alone. This has been rightly said by +the Egyptians with reference to the Hellenes: but now let me tell +how matters are with the Egyptians themselves in their turn. If, in +accordance with what I before said, their land below Memphis (for +this is that which is increasing) shall continue to increase in height +according to the same proportion as in the past time, assuredly those +Egyptians who dwell here will suffer famine, if their land shall not +have rain nor the river be able to go over their fields. It is certain +however that now they gather in fruit from the earth with less labour +than any other men and also with less than the other Egyptians; for they +have no labour in breaking up furrows with a plough nor in hoeing nor in +any other of those labours which other men have about a crop; but when +the river has come up of itself and watered their fields and after +watering has left them again, then each man sows his own field and turns +into it swine, and when he has trodden the seed into the ground by +means of the swine, after that he waits for the harvest, and when he has +threshed the corn by means of the swine, then he gathers it in. + +If we desire to follow the opinions of the Ionians as regards Egypt, who +say that the Delta alone is Egypt, reckoning its sea-coast to be from +the watch-tower called of Perseus to the fish-curing houses of Pelusion, +a distance of forty _schoines_, and counting it to extend inland as far +as the city of Kercasoros, where the Nile divides and runs to Pelusion +and Canobos, while as for the rest of Egypt, they assign it partly to +Libya and partly to Arabia,--if, I say, we should follow this account, +we should thereby declare that in former times the Egyptians had no land +to live in; for, as we have seen, their Delta at any rate is alluvial, +and has appeared (so to speak) lately, as the Egyptians themselves say +and as my opinion is. If then at the first there was no land for them +to live in, why did they waste their labour to prove that they had come +into being before all other men? They needed not to have made trial of +the children to see what language they would first utter. However I am +not of the opinion that the Egyptians came into being at the same time +as that which is called by the Ionians the Delta, but that they existed +always ever since the human race came into being, and that as their land +advanced forwards, many of them were left in their first abodes and many +came down gradually to the lower parts. At least it is certain that in +old times Thebes had the name of Egypt, and of this the circumference +measures six thousand one hundred and twenty furlongs. + +If then we judge aright of these matters, the opinion of the Ionians +about Egypt is not sound: but if the judgment of the Ionians is right, I +declare that neither the Hellenes nor the Ionians themselves know how +to reckon since they say that the whole earth is made up of three +divisions, Europe, Asia, and Libya: for they ought to count in addition +to these the Delta of Egypt, since it belongs neither to Asia nor to +Libya; for at least it cannot be the river Nile by this reckoning which +divides Asia from Libya, but the Nile is cleft at the point of this +Delta so as to flow round it, and the result is that this land would +come between Asia and Libya. + +We dismiss then our opinion of the Ionians, and express a judgment +of our own on this matter also, that Egypt is all that land which is +inhabited by Egyptians, just as Kilikia is that which is inhabited by +Kilikians and Assyria that which is inhabited by Assyrians, and we +know of no boundary properly speaking between Asia and Libya except +the borders of Egypt. If however we shall adopt the opinion which is +commonly held by the Hellenes, we shall suppose that the whole of Egypt, +beginning from the Cataract and the city of Elephantine, is divided into +two parts and that it thus partakes of both the names, since one side +will thus belong to Libya and the other to Asia; for the Nile from the +Cataract onwards flows to the sea cutting Egypt through in the midst; +and as far as the city of Kercasoros the Nile flows in one single +stream, but from this city onwards it is parted into three ways; and +one, which is called the Pelusian mouth, turns towards the East; the +second of the ways goes towards the West, and this is called the Canobic +mouth; but that one of the ways which is straight runs thus,--when the +river in its course downwards comes to the point of the Delta, then it +cuts the Delta through the midst and so issues out to the sea. In this +we have a portion of the water of the river which is not the smallest +nor the least famous, and it is called the Sebennytic mouth. There are +also two other mouths which part off from the Sebennytic and go to +the sea, and these are called, one the Saitic, the other the Mendesian +mouth. The Bolbitinitic, and Bucolic mouths, on the other hand, are +not natural but made by digging. Moreover also the answer given by the +Oracle of Ammon bears witness in support of my opinion that Egypt is of +the extent which I declare it to be in my account; and of this answer +I heard after I had formed my own opinion about Egypt. For those of the +city of Marea and of Apis, dwelling in the parts of Egypt which border +on Libya, being of opinion themselves that they were Libyans and not +Egyptians, and also being burdened by the rules of religious service, +because they desired not to be debarred from the use of cows' flesh, +sent to Ammon saying that they had nought in common with the Egyptians, +for they dwelt outside the Delta and agreed with them in nothing; +and they said they desired that it might be lawful for them to eat +everything without distinction. The god however did not permit them to +do so, but said that that land was Egypt where the Nile came over and +watered, and that those were Egyptians who dwelling below the city of +Elephantine drank of that river. Thus was it answered to them by the +Oracle about this: and the Nile, when it is in flood, goes over not only +the Delta but also of the land which is called Libyan and of that which +is called Arabian sometimes as much as two days' journey on each side, +and at times even more than this or at times less. + +As regards the nature of the river, neither from the priests nor +yet from any other man was I able to obtain any knowledge: and I was +desirous especially to learn from them about these matters, namely +why the Nile comes down increasing in volume from the summer solstice +onwards for a hundred days, and then, when it has reached the number of +these days, turns and goes back, failing in its stream, so that through +the whole winter season it continues to be low, and until the summer +solstice returns. Of none of these things was I able to receive any +account from the Egyptians, when I inquired of them what power the Nile +has whereby it is of a nature opposite to that of all other rivers. And +I made inquiry, desiring to know both this which I say and also why, +unlike all other rivers, it does not give rise to any breezes blowing +from it. However some of the Hellenes who desired to gain distinction +for cleverness have given an account of this water in three different +ways: two of these I do not think it worth while even to speak of except +only to indicate their nature; of which the one says that the Etesian +Winds are the cause that makes the river rise, by preventing the Nile +from flowing out into the sea. But often the Etesian Winds fail and yet +the Nile does the same work as it is wont to do; and moreover, if these +were the cause, all the other rivers also which flow in a direction +opposed to the Etesian Winds ought to have been affected in the same way +as the Nile, and even more, in as much as they are smaller and present +to them a feebler flow of streams: but there are many of these rivers in +Syria and many also in Libya, and they are affected in no such manner as +the Nile. The second way shows more ignorance than that which has been +mentioned, and it is more marvellous to tell; for it says that the river +produces these effects because it flows from the Ocean, and that the +Ocean flows round the whole earth. The third of the ways is much the +most specious, but nevertheless it is the most mistaken of all: for +indeed this way has no more truth in it than the rest, alleging as it +does that the Nile flows from melting snow; whereas it flows out of +Libya through the midst of the Ethiopians, and so comes out into Egypt. +How then should it flow from snow, when it flows from the hottest parts +to those which are cooler? And indeed most of the facts are such as +to convince a man (one at least who is capable of reasoning about such +matters), that it is not at all likely that it flows from snow. The +first and greatest evidence is afforded by the winds, which blow hot +from these regions; the second is that the land is rainless always and +without frost, whereas after snow has fallen rain must necessarily come +within five days, so that if it snowed in those parts rain would fall +there; the third evidence is afforded by the people dwelling there, who +are of a black colour by reason of the burning heat. Moreover kites and +swallows remain there through the year and do not leave the land; and +cranes flying from the cold weather which comes on in the region of +Scythia come regularly to these parts for wintering: if then it snowed +ever so little in that land through which the Nile flows and in which +it has its rise, none of these things would take place, as necessity +compels us to admit. As for him who talked about the Ocean, he carried +his tale into the region of the unknown, and so he need not be refuted; +since I for my part know of no river Ocean existing, but I think that +Homer or one of the poets who were before him invented the name and +introduced it into his verse. + +If however after I have found fault with the opinions proposed, I am +bound to declare an opinion of my own about the matters which are in +doubt, I will tell what to my mind is the reason why the Nile increases +in the summer. In the winter season the Sun, being driven away from his +former path through the heaven by the stormy winds, comes to the upper +parts of Libya. If one would set forth the matter in the shortest way, +all has now been said; for whatever region this god approaches most and +stands directly above, this it may reasonably be supposed is most in +want of water, and its native streams of rivers are dried up most. +However, to set it forth at greater length, thus it is:--the Sun passing +in his course by the upper parts of Libya, does thus, that is to say, +since at all times the air in those parts is clear and the country is +warm, because there are no cold winds, in passing through it the Sun +does just as he was wont to do in the summer, when going through the +midst of the heaven, that is he draws to himself the water, and having +drawn it he drives it away to the upper parts of the country, and the +winds take it up and scattering it abroad melt it into rain; so it is +natural that the winds which blow from this region, namely the South +and South-west Winds, should be much the most rainy of all the winds. I +think however that the Sun does not send away from himself all the water +of the Nile of each year, but that also he lets some remain behind with +himself. Then when the winter becomes milder, the Sun returns back again +to the midst of the heaven, and from that time onwards he draws equally +from all rivers; but in the meantime they flow in large volume, since +water of rain mingles with them in great quantity, because their country +receives rain then and is filled with torrent streams. In summer however +they are weak, since not only the showers of rain fail them, but also +they are drawn by the Sun. The Nile however, alone of all rivers, not +having rain and being drawn by the Sun, naturally flows during this time +of winter in much less than its proper volume, that is much less than in +summer; for then it is drawn equally with all the other waters, but in +winter it bears the burden alone. Thus I suppose the Sun to be the cause +of these things. He also is the cause in my opinion that the air in +these parts is dry, since he makes it so by scorching up his path +through the heaven: thus summer prevails always in the upper parts of +Libya. If however the station of the seasons had been changed, and where +now in the heaven are placed the North Wind and winter, there was the +station of the South Wind and of the midday, and where now is placed +the South Wind, there was the North, if this had been so, the Sun being +driven from the midst of the heaven by the winter and the North Wind +would go to the upper parts of Europe, just as now he comes to the upper +parts of Libya, and passing in his course throughout the whole of Europe +I suppose he would do to the Ister that which he now works upon the +Nile. As to the breeze, why none blows from the river, my opinion is +that from very hot places it is not natural that anything should blow, +and that a breeze is wont to blow from something cold. + +Let these matters then be as they are and as they were at the first: but +as to the sources of the Nile, not one either of the Egyptians or of +the Libyans or of the Hellenes, who came to speech with me, professed to +know anything, except the scribe of the sacred treasury of Athene at the +city of Sais in Egypt. To me however this man seemed not to be speaking +seriously when he said that he had certain knowledge of it; and he said +as follows, namely that there were two mountains of which the tops ran +up to a sharp point, situated between the city of Syene, which is in +the district of Thebes, and Elephantine, and the names of the mountains +were, of the one Crophi and of the other Mophi. From the middle between +these mountains flowed (he said) the sources of the Nile, which were +fathomless in depth, and half of the water flowed to Egypt and towards +the North Wind, the other half to Ethiopia and the South Wind. As for +the fathomless depth of the source, he said that Psammetichos king of +Egypt came to a trial of this matter; for he had a rope twisted of many +thousand fathoms and let it down in this place, and it found no bottom. +By this the scribe (if this which he told was really as he said) gave me +to understand that there were certain strong eddies there and a backward +flow, and that since the water dashed against the mountains, therefore +the sounding-line could not come to any bottom when it was let down. +From no other person was I able to learn anything about this matter; +but for the rest I learnt so much as here follows by the most diligent +inquiry; for I went myself as an eye-witness as far as the city of +Elephantine and from that point onwards I gathered knowledge by report. +From the city of Elephantine as one goes up the river there is country +which slopes steeply; so that here one must attach ropes to the vessel +on both sides, as one fastens an ox, and so make one's way onward; +and if the rope break, the vessel is gone at once, carried away by the +violence of the stream. Through this country it is a voyage of about +four days in length, and in this part the Nile is winding like the river +Maiander, and the distance amounts to twelve _schoines_, which one must +traverse in this manner. Then you will come to a level plain, in which +the Nile flows round an island named Tachompso. (Now in the regions +above the Elephantine there dwell Ethiopians at once succeeding, who +also occupy half of the island, and Egyptians the other half.) Adjoining +this island there is a great lake, round which dwell Ethiopian nomad +tribes; and when you have sailed through this you will come to the +stream of the Nile again, which flows into this lake. After this you +will disembark and make a journey by land of forty days; for in the Nile +sharp rocks stand forth out of the water, and there are many reefs, by +which it is not possible for a vessel to pass. Then after having passed +through this country in the forty days which I have said, you will +embark again in another vessel and sail for twelve days; and after this +you will come to a great city called Meroe. This city is said to be +the mother-city of all the other Ethiopians: and they who dwell in it +reverence of the gods Zeus and Dionysos alone, and these they greatly +honour; and they have an Oracle of Zeus established, and make warlike +marches whensoever the god commands them by prophesyings and to +whatsoever place he commands. Sailing from this city you will come to +the "Deserters" in another period of time equal to that in which you +came from Elephantine to the mother-city of the Ethiopians. Now the +name of these "Deserters" is _Asmach_, and this word signifies, when +translated into the tongue of the Hellenes, "those who stand on the left +hand of the king." These were two hundred and forty thousand Egyptians +of the warrior class, who revolted and went over to these Ethiopians for +the following cause:--In the reign of Psammetichos garrisons were set, +one towards the Ethiopians at the city of Elephantine, another towards +the Arabians and Assyrians at Daphnai of Pelusion, and another towards +Libya at Marea: and even in my own time the garrisons of the Persians +too are ordered in the same manner as these were in the reign of +Psammetichos, for both at Elephantine and at Daphnai the Persians have +outposts. The Egyptians then of whom I speak had served as outposts for +three years and no one relieved them from their guard; accordingly they +took counsel together, and adopting a common plan they all in a body +revolted from Psammetichos and set out for Ethiopia. Hearing this +Psammetichos set forth in pursuit, and when he came up with them he +entreated them much and endeavoured to persuade them not to desert the +gods of their country and their children and wives: upon which it is +said that one of them pointed to his privy member and said that wherever +this was, there would they have both children and wives. When these came +to Ethiopia they gave themselves over to the king of the Ethiopians; and +he rewarded them as follows:--there were certain of the Ethiopians who +had come to be at variance with him; and he bade them drive these out +and dwell in their land. So since these men settled in the land of +the Ethiopians, the Ethiopians have come to be of milder manners, from +having learnt the customs of the Egyptians. + +The Nile then, besides the part of its course which is in Egypt, is +known as far as a four months' journey by river and land: for that is +the number of months which are found by reckoning to be spent in going +from Elephantine to these "Deserters": and the river runs from the West +and the setting of the sun. But what comes after that point no one can +clearly say; for this land is desert by reason of the burning heat. This +much however I heard from men of Kyrene, who told me that they had been +to the Oracle of Ammon, and had come to speech with Etearchos king of +the Ammonians: and it happened that after speaking of other matters they +fell to discourse about the Nile and how no one knew the sources of it; +and Etearchos said that once there came to him men of the Nasamonians +(this is a Libyan race which dwells in the Syrtis, and also in the land +to the East of the Syrtis reaching to no great distance), and when the +Nasamonians came and were asked by him whether they were able to tell +him anything more than he knew about the desert parts of Libya, they +said that there had been among them certain sons of chief men, who were +of unruly disposition; and these when they grew up to be men had devised +various other extravagant things and also they had told off by lot five +of themselves to go to see the desert parts of Libya and to try +whether they could discover more than those who had previously explored +furthest: for in those parts of Libya which are by the Northern Sea, +beginning from Egypt and going as far as the headland of Soloeis, which +is the extreme point of Libya, Libyans (and of them many races) extend +along the whole coast, except so much as the Hellenes and Phenicians +hold; but in the upper parts, which lie above the sea-coast and above +those people whose land comes down to the sea, Libya is full of wild +beasts; and in the parts above the land of wild beasts it is full of +sand, terribly waterless and utterly desert. These young men then (said +they), being sent out by their companions well furnished with supplies +of water and provisions, went first through the inhabited country, and +after they had passed through this they came to the country of wild +beasts, and after this they passed through the desert, making their +journey towards the West Wind; and having passed through a great tract +of sand in many days, they saw at last trees growing in a level place; +and having come up to them, they were beginning to pluck the fruit which +was upon the trees: but as they began to pluck it, there came upon them +small men, of less stature than men of the common size, and these seized +them and carried them away; and neither could the Nasamonians understand +anything of their speech nor could those who were carrying them off +understand anything of the speech of the Nasamonians; and they led them +(so it was said) through very great swamps, and after passing through +these they came to a city in which all the men were in size like those +who carried them off and in colour of skin black; and by the city ran +a great river, which ran from the West towards the sunrising, and in it +were seen crocodiles. Of the account given by Etearchos the Ammonian let +so much suffice as is here said, except that, as the men of Kyrene told +me, he alleged that the Nasamonians returned safe home, and that the +people to whom they had come were all wizards. Now this river which ran +by the city, Etearchos conjectured to be the Nile, and moreover reason +compels us to think so; for the Nile flows from Libya and cuts Libya +through in the midst, and as I conjecture, judging of what is not known +by that which is evident to the view, it starts at a distance from its +mouth equal to that of the Ister: for the river Ister begins from the +Keltoi and the city of Pyrene and so runs that it divides Europe in the +midst (now the Keltoi are outside the Pillars of Heracles and border +upon the Kynesians, who dwell furthest towards the sunset of all those +who have their dwelling in Europe): and the Ister ends, having its +course through the whole of Europe, by flowing into the Euxine Sea at +the place where the Milesians have their settlement of Istria. Now the +Ister, since it flows through land which is inhabited, is known by +the reports of many; but of the sources of the Nile no one can give an +account, for the part of Libya through which it flows is uninhabited and +desert. About its course however so much as it was possible to learn by +the most diligent inquiry has been told; and it runs out into Egypt. +Now Egypt lies nearly opposite to the mountain districts of Kilikia; and +from thence to Sinope, which lies upon the Euxine Sea, is a journey in +the same straight line of five days for a man without encumbrance; and +Sinope lies opposite to the place where the Ister runs out into the sea: +thus I think that the Nile passes through the whole of Libya and is of +equal measure with the Ister. + + + +Of the Nile then let so much suffice as has been said. Of Egypt however +I shall make my report at length, because it has wonders more in number +than any other land, and works too it has to show as much as any land, +which are beyond expression great: for this reason then more shall be +said concerning it. + +The Egyptians in agreement with their climate, which is unlike any +other, and with the river, which shows a nature different from all other +rivers, established for themselves manners and customs in a way opposite +to other men in almost all matters: for among them the women frequent +the market and carry on trade, while the men remain at home and weave; +and whereas others weave pushing the woof upwards, the Egyptians push +it downwards: the men carry their burdens upon their heads and the +women upon their shoulders: the women make water standing up and the +men crouching down: they ease themselves in their houses and they eat +without in the streets, alleging as reason for this that it is right +to do secretly the things that are unseemly though necessary, but those +which are not unseemly, in public: no woman is a minister either of male +or female divinity, but men of all, both male and female: to support +their parents the sons are in no way compelled, if they do not desire +to do so, but the daughters are forced to do so, be they never so +unwilling. The priests of the gods in other lands wear long hair, but +in Egypt they shave their heads: among other men the custom is that in +mourning those whom the matter concerns most nearly have their hair cut +short, but the Egyptians, when deaths occur, let their hair grow long, +both that on the head and that on the chin, having before been close +shaven: other men have their daily living separated from beasts, but the +Egyptians have theirs together with beasts: other men live on wheat and +on barley, but to any one of the Egyptians who makes his living on these +it is a great reproach; they make their bread of maize, which some call +spelt: they knead dough with their feet and clay with their hands, with +which also they gather up dung: and whereas other men, except such as +have learnt otherwise from the Egyptians, have their members as nature +made them, the Egyptians practice circumcision: as to garments, the men +wear two each and the women but one: and whereas others make fast the +rings and ropes of the sails outside the ship, the Egyptians do this +inside: finally in the writing of characters and reckoning with pebbles, +while the Hellenes carry the hand from the left to the right, the +Egyptians do this from the right to the left; and doing so they say that +they do it themselves rightwise and the Hellenes leftwise: and they use +two kinds of characters for writing, of which the one kind is called +sacred and the other common. + +They are religious excessively beyond all other men, and with regard to +this they have customs as follows:--they drink from cups of bronze and +rinse them out every day, and not some only do this but all: they wear +garments of linen always newly washed, and this they make a special +point of practice: they circumcise themselves for the sake of +cleanliness, preferring to be clean rather than comely. The priests +shave themselves all over their body every other day, so that no lice or +any other foul thing may come to be upon them when they minister to +the gods; and the priests wear garments of linen only and sandals of +papyrus, and any other garment they may not take nor other sandals; +these wash themselves in cold water twice in a day and twice again in +the night; and other religious services they perform (one may almost +say) of infinite number. They enjoy also good things not a few, for they +do not consume or spend anything of their own substance, but there is +sacred bread baked for them and they have each great quantity of flesh +of oxen and geese coming in to them each day, and also wine of grapes is +given to them; but it is not permitted to them to taste of fish: beans +moreover the Egyptians do not at all sow in their land, and those which +they grow they neither eat raw nor boil for food; nay the priests do not +endure even to look upon them, thinking this to be an unclean kind of +pulse: and there is not one priest only for each of the gods but many, +and of them one is chief-priest, and whenever a priest dies his son is +appointed to his place. + +The males of the ox kind they consider to belong to Epaphos, and on +account of him they test them in the following manner:--If the priest +sees one single black hair upon the beast he counts it not clean for +sacrifice; and one of the priests who is appointed for the purpose makes +investigation of these matters, both when the beast is standing upright +and when it is lying on its back, drawing out its tongue moreover, to +see if it is clean in respect of the appointed signs, which I shall tell +of in another part of the history: he looks also at the hairs of the +tail to see if it has them growing in a natural manner; and if it +be clean in respect of all these things, he marks it with a piece of +papyrus, rolling this round the horns, and then when he has plastered +sealing-earth over it he sets upon it the seal of his signet-ring, and +after that they take the animal away. But for one who sacrifices a beast +not sealed the penalty appointed is death. In this way then the beast +is tested; and their appointed manner of sacrifice is as follows:--they +lead the sealed beast to the altar where they happen to be sacrificing, +and then kindle a fire: after that, having poured libations of wine over +the altar so that it runs down upon the victim and having called upon +the god, they cut its throat, and having cut its throat they sever the +head from the body. The body then of the beast they flay, but upon the +head they make many imprecations first, and then they who have a market +and Hellenes sojourning among them for trade, these carry it to the +market-place and sell it, while they who have no Hellenes among them +cast it away into the river: and this is the form of imprecations which +they utter upon the heads, praying that if any evil be about to befall +either themselves who are offering sacrifice or the land of Egypt in +general, it may come rather upon this head. Now as regards the heads of +the beasts which are sacrificed and the pouring over them of the +wine, all the Egyptians have the same customs equally for all their +sacrifices; and by reason of this custom none of the Egyptians eat of +the head either of this or of any other kind of animal: but the manner +of disembowelling the victims and of burning them is appointed among +them differently for different sacrifices; I shall speak however of the +sacrifices to that goddess whom they regard as the greatest of all, and +to whom they celebrate the greatest feast.--When they have flayed the +bullock and made imprecation, they take out the whole of its lower +entrails but leave in the body the upper entrails and the fat; and they +sever from it the legs and the end of the loin and the shoulders and the +neck: and this done, they fill the rest of the body of the animal with +consecrated loaves and honey and raisins and figs and frankincense and +myrrh and every other kind of spices, and having filled it with these +they offer it, pouring over it great abundance of oil. They make their +sacrifice after fasting, and while the offerings are being burnt, they +all beat themselves for mourning, and when they have finished beating +themselves they set forth as a feast that which they left unburnt of the +sacrifice. The clean males then of the ox kind, both full-grown animals +and calves, are sacrificed by all the Egyptians; the females however +they may not sacrifice, but these are sacred to Isis; for the figure of +Isis is in the form of a woman with cow's horns, just as the Hellenes +present Io in pictures, and all the Egyptians without distinction +reverence cows far more than any other kind of cattle; for which reason +neither man nor woman of the Egyptian race would kiss a man who is a +Hellene on the mouth, nor will they use a knife or roasting-spits or +a caldron belonging to a Hellene, nor taste the flesh even of a clean +animal if it has been cut with the knife of a Hellene. And the cattle of +this kind which die they bury in the following manner:--the females they +cast into the river, but the males they bury, each people in the suburb +of their town, with one of the horns, or sometimes both, protruding to +mark the place; and when the bodies have rotted away and the appointed +time comes on, then to each city comes a boat from that which is called +the island of Prosopitis (this is in the Delta, and the extent of its +circuit is nine _schoines_). In this island of Prosopitis is situated, +besides many other cities, that one from which the boats come to take up +the bones of the oxen, and the name of the city is Atarbechis, and in +it there is set up a holy temple of Aphrodite. From this city many go +abroad in various directions, some to one city and others to another, +and when they have dug up the bones of the oxen they carry them off, and +coming together they bury them in one single place. In the same manner +as they bury the oxen they bury also their other cattle when they die; +for about them also they have the same law laid down, and these also +they abstain from killing. + +Now all who have a temple set up to the Theban Zeus or who are of the +district of Thebes, these, I say, all sacrifice goats and abstain from +sheep: for not all the Egyptians equally reverence the same gods, +except only Isis and Osiris (who they say is Dionysos), these they all +reverence alike: but they who have a temple of Mendes or belong to the +Mendesian district, these abstain from goats and sacrifice sheep. Now +the men of Thebes and those who after their example abstain from sheep, +say that this custom was established among them for the cause which +follows:--Heracles (they say) had an earnest desire to see Zeus, and +Zeus did not desire to be seen of him; and at last when Heracles was +urgent in entreaty Zeus contrived this device, that is to say, he flayed +a ram and held in front of him the head of the ram which he had cut off, +and he put on over him the fleece and then showed himself to him. Hence +the Egyptians make the image of Zeus with the face of a ram; and the +Ammonians do so also after their example, being settlers both from +the Egyptians and from the Ethiopians, and using a language which is a +medley of both tongues: and in my opinion it is from this god that the +Egyptians call Zeus _Amun_. The Thebans then do not sacrifice rams but +hold them sacred for this reason; on one day however in the year, on the +feast of Zeus, they cut up in the same manner and flay one single ram +and cover with its skin the image of Zeus, and then they bring up to +it another image of Heracles. This done, all who are in the temple beat +themselves in lamentation for the ram, and then they bury it in a sacred +tomb. + +About Heracles I heard the account given that he was of the number of +the twelve gods; but of the other Heracles whom the Hellenes know I was +not able to hear in any part of Egypt: and moreover to prove that the +Egyptians did not take the name of Heracles from the Hellenes, but +rather the Hellenes from the Egyptians,--that is to say those of the +Hellenes who gave the name Heracles to the son of Amphitryon,--of that, +I say, besides many other evidences there is chiefly this, namely that +the parents of this Heracles, Amphitryon and Alcmene, were both of Egypt +by descent, and also that the Egyptians say that they do not know +the names either of Poseidon or of the Dioscuroi, nor have these been +accepted by them as gods among the other gods; whereas if they had +received from the Hellenes the name of any divinity, they would +naturally have preserved the memory of these most of all, assuming that +in those times as now some of the Hellenes were wont to make voyages +and were seafaring folk, as I suppose and as my judgment compels me to +think; so that the Egyptians would have learnt the names of these gods +even more than that of Heracles. In fact however Heracles is a very +ancient Egyptian god; and (as they say themselves) it is seventeen +thousand years to the beginning of the reign of Amasis from the time +when the twelve gods, of whom they count that Heracles is one, were +begotten of the eight gods. I moreover, desiring to know something +certain of these matters so far as might be, made a voyage also to +Tyre of Phenicia, hearing that in that place there was a holy temple +of Heracles; and I saw that it was richly furnished with many votive +offerings besides, and especially there were in it two pillars, the one +of pure gold and the other of an emerald stone of such size as to shine +by night: and having come to speech with the priests of the god, I asked +them how long a time it was since their temple had been set up: and +these also I found to be at variance with the Hellenes, for they said +that at the same time when Tyre was founded, the temple of the god also +had been set up, and that it was a period of two thousand three hundred +years since their people began to dwell at Tyre. I saw also at Tyre +another temple of Heracles, with the surname Thasian; and I came +to Thasos also and there I found a temple of Heracles set up by the +Phenicians, who had sailed out to seek for Europa and had colonised +Thasos; and these things happened full five generations of men before +Heracles the son of Amphitryon was born in Hellas. So then my inquiries +show clearly that Heracles is an ancient god, and those of the Hellenes +seem to me to act most rightly who have two temples of Heracles set +up, and who sacrifice to the one as an immortal god and with the +title Olympian, and make offerings of the dead to the other as a hero. +Moreover, besides many other stories which the Hellenes tell without +due consideration, this tale is especially foolish which they tell about +Heracles, namely that when he came to Egypt, the Egyptians put on him +wreaths and led him forth in procession to sacrifice him to Zeus; and he +for some time kept quiet, but when they were beginning the sacrifice of +him at the altar, he betook himself to prowess and slew them all. I for +my part am of opinion that the Hellenes when they tell this tale are +altogether without knowledge of the nature and customs of the Egyptians; +for how should they for whom it is not lawful to sacrifice even beasts, +except swine and the males of oxen and calves (such of them as are +clean) and geese, how should these sacrifice human beings? Besides this, +how is it in nature possible that Heracles, being one person only and +moreover a man (as they assert), should slay many myriads? Having said +so much of these matters, we pray that we may have grace from both the +gods and the heroes for our speech. + +Now the reason why those of the Egyptians whom I have mentioned do not +sacrifice goats, female or male, is this:--the Mendesians count Pan to +be one of the eight gods (now these eight gods they say came into being +before the twelve gods), and the painters and image-makers represent in +painting and in sculpture the figure of Pan, just as the Hellenes do, +with goat's face and legs, not supposing him to be really like this but +to resemble the other gods; the cause however why they represent him in +this form I prefer not to say. The Mendesians then reverence all goats +and the males more than the females (and the goatherds too have +greater honour than other herdsmen), but of the goats one especially +is reverenced, and when he dies there is great mourning in all the +Mendesian district: and both the goat and Pan are called in the Egyptian +tongue _Mendes_. Moreover in my lifetime there happened in that district +this marvel, that is to say a he-goat had intercourse with a woman +publicly, and this was so done that all men might have evidence of it. + +The pig is accounted by the Egyptians an abominable animal; and first, +if any of them in passing by touch a pig, he goes into the river and +dips himself forthwith in the water together with his garments; and then +too swineherds, though they may be native Egyptians, unlike all others, +do not enter any of the temples in Egypt, nor is anyone willing to give +his daughter in marriage to one of them or to take a wife from among +them; but the swineherds both give in marriage to one another and take +from one another. Now to the other gods the Egyptians do not think it +right to sacrifice swine; but to the Moon and to Dionysos alone at the +same time and on the same full-moon they sacrifice swine, and then eat +their flesh: and as to the reason why, when they abominate swine at all +their other feasts, they sacrifice them at this, there is a story told +by the Egyptians; and this story I know, but it is not a seemly one for +me to tell. Now the sacrifice of the swine to the Moon is performed as +follows:--when the priest has slain the victim, he puts together the +end of the tail and the spleen and the caul, and covers them up with the +whole of the fat of the animal which is about the paunch, and then he +offers them with fire; and the rest of the flesh they eat on that day of +full moon upon which they have held sacrifice, but on any day after this +they will not taste of it: the poor however among them by reason of the +scantiness of their means shape pigs of dough and having baked them they +offer these as a sacrifice. Then for Dionysos on the eve of the festival +each one kills a pig by cutting its throat before his own doors, and +after that he gives the pig to the swineherd who sold it to him, to +carry away again; and the rest of the feast of Dionysos is celebrated +by the Egyptians in the same way as by the Hellenes in almost all things +except choral dances, but instead of the _phallos_ they have invented +another contrivance, namely figures of about a cubit in height worked +by strings, which women carry about the villages, with the privy member +made to move and not much less in size than the rest of the body: and a +flute goes before and they follow singing the praises of Dionysos. As +to the reason why the figure has this member larger than is natural and +moves it, though it moves no other part of the body, about this there is +a sacred story told. Now I think that Melampus the son of Amytheon was +not without knowledge of these rites of sacrifice, but was acquainted +with them: for Melampus is he who first set forth to the Hellenes the +name of Dionysos and the manner of sacrifice and the procession of the +_phallos_. Strictly speaking indeed, he when he made it known did not +take in the whole, but those wise men who came after him made it known +more at large. Melampus then is he who taught of the _phallos_ which is +carried in procession for Dionysos, and from him the Hellenes learnt to +do that which they do. I say then that Melampus being a man of ability +contrived for himself an art of divination, and having learnt from Egypt +he taught the Hellenes many things, and among them those that concern +Dionysos, making changes in some few points of them: for I shall not say +that that which is done in worship of the god in Egypt came accidentally +to be the same with that which is done among the Hellenes, for then +these rites would have been in character with the Hellenic worship and +not lately brought in; nor certainly shall I say that the Egyptians took +from the Hellenes either this or any other customary observance: matters +concerning Dionysos from Cadmos the Tyrian and from those who came with +him from Phenicia to the land which we now call Boeotia. + +Moreover the naming of almost all the gods has come to Hellas from +Egypt: for that it has come from the Barbarians I find by inquiry is +true, and I am of opinion that most probably it has come from Egypt, +because, except in the case of Poseidon and the Dioscuroi (in accordance +with that which I have said before), and also of Hera and Hestia and +Themis and the Charites and Nereids, the Egyptians say themselves: but +as for the gods whose names they profess that they do not know, these I +think received their naming from the Pelasgians, except Poiseidon; +but about this god the Hellenes learnt from the Libyans, for no people +except the Libyans have had the name of Poseidon from the first and have +paid honour to this god always. Nor, it may be added, have the Egyptians +any custom of worshipping heroes. These observances then, and others +besides these which I shall mention, the Hellenes have adopted from +the Egyptians; but to make, as they do the images of Hermes with +the _phallos_ they have learnt not from the Egyptians but from the +Pelasgians, the custom having been received by the Athenians first of +all the Hellenes and from these by the rest; for just at the time when +the Athenians were beginning to rank among the Hellenes, the Pelasgians +became dwellers with them in their land, and from this very cause it was +that they began to be counted as Hellenes. Whosoever has been initiated +in the mysteries of the Cabeiroi, which the Samothrakians perform having +received them from the Pelasgians, that man knows the meaning of my +speech; for these very Pelasgians who became dwellers with the Athenians +used to dwell before that time in Samothrake, and from them the +Samothrakians received their mysteries. So then the Athenians were the +first of the Hellenes who made the images of Hermes with the _phallos_, +having learnt from the Pelasgians; and the Pelasgians told a sacred +story about it, which is set forth in the mysteries in Samothrake. Now +the Pelasgians formerly were wont to make all their sacrifices calling +upon the gods in prayer, as I know from that which I heard at Dodona, +but they gave no title or name to any of them, for they had not yet +heard any, but they called them gods from some such notion as this, +that they had set in order all things and so had the distribution of +everything. Afterwards when much time had elapsed, they learnt from +Egypt the names of the gods, all except Dionysos, for his name they +learnt long afterwards; and after a time the Pelasgians consulted the +Oracle at Dodona about the names, for this prophetic seat is accounted +to be the most ancient of the Oracles which are among the Hellenes, +and at that time it was the only one. So when the Pelasgians asked the +Oracle at Dodona whether they should adopt the names which had come from +the Barbarians, the Oracle in reply bade them make use of the names. +From this time they sacrificed using the names of the gods, and from the +Pelasgians the Hellenes afterwards received them: but when the several +gods had their birth, or whether they all were from the beginning, and +of what form they are, they did not learn till yesterday, as it were, or +the day before: for Hesiod and Homer I suppose were four hundred years +before my time and not more, and these are they who made a theogony for +the Hellenes and gave the titles to the gods and distributed to them +honours and arts, and set forth their forms: but the poets who are said +to have been before these men were really in my opinion after them. Of +these things the first are said by the priestesses of Dodona, and the +latter things, those namely which have regard to Hesiod and Homer, by +myself. + +As regards the Oracles both that among the Hellenes and that in Libya, +the Egyptians tell the following tale. The priests of the Theban Zeus +told me that two women in the service of the temple had been carried +away from Thebes by Phenicians, and that they had heard that one of them +had been sold to go into Libya and the other to the Hellenes; and these +women, they said, were they who first founded the prophetic seats among +the nations which have been named: and when I inquired whence they knew +so perfectly of this tale which they told, they said in reply that a +great search had been made by the priests after these women, and that +they had not been able to find them, but they had heard afterwards this +tale about them which they were telling. This I heard from the priests +at Thebes, and what follows is said by the prophetesses of Dodona. They +say that two black doves flew from Thebes in Egypt, and came one of them +to Libya and the other to their land. And this latter settled upon an +oak-tree and spoke with human voice, saying that it was necessary that +a prophetic seat of Zeus should be established in that place; and they +supposed that that was of the gods which was announced to them, and made +one accordingly: and the dove which went away to the Libyans, they say, +bade the Libyans make an Oracle of Ammon; and this also is of Zeus. The +priestesses of Dodona told me these things, of whom the eldest was named +Promeneia, the next after her Timarete, and the youngest Nicandra; +and the other people of Dodona who were engaged about the temple gave +accounts agreeing with theirs. I however have an opinion about the +matter as follows:--If the Phenicians did in truth carry away the +consecrated women and sold one of them into Libya and the other into +Hellas, I suppose that in the country now called Hellas, which was +formerly called Pelasgia, this woman was sold into the land of the +Thesprotians; and then being a slave there she set up a sanctuary of +Zeus under a real oak-tree; as indeed it was natural that being an +attendant of the sanctuary of Zeus at Thebes, she should there, in the +place to which she had come, have a memory of him; and after this, when +she got understanding of the Hellenic tongue, she established an Oracle, +and she reported, I suppose, that her sister had been sold in Libya by +the same Phenicians by whom she herself had been sold. Moreover, I think +that the women were called doves by the people of Dodona for the reason +that they were barbarians and because it seemed to them that they +uttered voice like birds; but after a time (they say) the dove spoke +with human voice, that is when the woman began to speak so that they +could understand; but so long as she spoke a Barbarian tongue she seemed +to them to be uttering voice like a bird: for if it had been really a +dove, how could it speak with human voice? And in saying that the +dove was black, they indicate that the woman was Egyptian. The ways of +delivering oracles too at Thebes in Egypt and at Dodona closely resemble +each other, as it happens, and also the method of divination by victims +has come from Egypt. + +Moreover, it is true also that the Egyptians were the first of men who +made solemn assemblies and processions and approaches to the temples, +and from them the Hellenes have learnt them, and my evidence for this +is that the Egyptian celebrations of these have been held from a very +ancient time, whereas the Hellenic were introduced but lately. The +Egyptians hold their solemn assemblies not once in the year but often, +especially and with the greatest zeal and devotion at the city of +Bubastis for Artemis, and next at Busiris for Isis; for in this +last-named city there is a very great temple of Isis, and this city +stands in the middle of the Delta of Egypt; now Isis is in the tongue of +the Hellenes Demeter: thirdly, they have a solemn assembly at the city +of Sais for Athene, fourthly at Heliopolis for the Sun (Helios), fifthly +at the city of Buto in honour of Leto, and sixthly at the city of +Papremis for Ares. Now, when they are coming to the city of Bubastis +they do as follows:--they sail men and women together, and a great +multitude of each sex in every boat; and some of the women have rattles +and rattle with them, while some of the men play the flute during the +whole time of the voyage, and the rest, both women and men, sing and +clap their hands; and when as they sail they come opposite to any city +on the way they bring the boat to land, and some of the women continue +to do as I have said, others cry aloud and jeer at the women in that +city, some dance, and some stand up and pull up their garments. This +they do by every city along the river-bank; and when they come to +Bubastis they hold festival celebrating great sacrifices, and more wine +of grapes is consumed upon that festival than during the whole of the +rest of the year. To this place (so say the natives) they come together +year by year even to the number of seventy myriads of men and women, +besides children. Thus it is done here; and how they celebrate the +festival in honour of Isis at the city of Busiris has been told by +me before: for, as I said, they beat themselves in mourning after the +sacrifice, all of them both men and women, very many myriads of people; +but for whom they beat themselves it is not permitted to me by religion +to say: and so many as there are of the Carians dwelling in Egypt do +this even more than the Egyptians themselves, inasmuch as they cut their +foreheads also with knives; and by this it is manifested that they are +strangers and not Egyptians. At the times when they gather together +at the city of Sais for their sacrifices, on a certain night they all +kindle lamps many in number in the open air round about the houses; now +the lamps are saucers full of salt and oil mixed, and the wick floats by +itself on the surface, and this burns during the whole night; and to +the festival is given the name _Lychnocaia_ (the lighting of lamps). +Moreover those of the Egyptians who have not come to this solemn +assembly observe the night of the festival and themselves also light +lamps all of them, and thus not in Sais alone are they lighted, but over +all Egypt: and as to the reason why light and honour are allotted to +this night, about this there is a sacred story told. To Heliopolis and +Buto they go year by year and do sacrifice only: but at Papremis they +do sacrifice and worship as elsewhere, and besides that, when the sun +begins to go down while some few of the priests are occupied with the +image of the god, the greater number of them stand in the entrance of +the temple with wooden clubs, and other persons to the number of more +than a thousand men with purpose to perform a vow, these also having +all of them staves of wood, stand in a body opposite to those: and the +image, which is in a small shrine of wood covered over with gold, they +take out on the day before to another sacred building. The few then +who have been left about the image, draw a wain with four wheels, which +bears the shrine and the image that is within the shrine, and the other +priests standing in the gateway try to prevent it from entering, and +the men who are under a vow come to the assistance of the god and strike +them, while the others defend themselves. Then there comes to be a +hard fight with staves, and they break one another's heads, and I am +of opinion that many even die of the wounds they receive; the Egyptians +however told me that no one died. This solemn assembly the people of the +place say that they established for the following reason:--the mother +of Ares, they say, used to dwell in this temple, and Ares, having been +brought up away from her, when he grew up came thither desiring to visit +his mother, and the attendants of his mother's temple, not having seen +him before, did not permit him to pass in, but kept him away; and +he brought men to help him from another city and handled roughly the +attendants of the temple, and entered to visit his mother. Hence, they +say, this exchange of blows has become the custom in honour of Ares upon +his festival. + +The Egyptians were the first who made it a point of religion not to lie +with women in temples, nor to enter into temples after going away +from women without first bathing: for almost all other men except the +Egyptians and the Hellenes lie with women in temples and enter into a +temple after going away from women without bathing, since they hold that +there is no difference in this respect between men and beasts: for +they say that they see beasts and the various kinds of birds coupling +together both in the temples and in the sacred enclosures of the gods; +if then this were not pleasing to the god, the beasts would not do so. + +Thus do these defend that which they do, which by me is disallowed: +but the Egyptians are excessively careful in their observances, both +in other matters which concern the sacred rites and also in those which +follow:--Egypt, though it borders upon Libya, does not very much abound +in wild animals, but such as they have are one and all accounted by them +sacred, some of them living with men and others not. But if I should say +for what reasons the sacred animals have been thus dedicated, I should +fall into discourse of matters pertaining to the gods, of which I most +desire not to speak; and what I have actually said touching slightly +upon them, I said because I was constrained by necessity. About these +animals there is a custom of this kind:--persons have been appointed of +the Egyptians, both men and women, to provide the food for each kind +of beast separately, and their office goes down from father to son; and +those who dwell in the various cities perform vows to them thus, that +is, when they make a vow to the god to whom the animal belongs, they +shave the head of their children either the whole or the half or the +third part of it, and then set the hair in the balance against silver, +and whatever it weighs, this the man gives to the person who provides +for the animals, and she cuts up fish of equal value and gives it for +food to the animals. Thus food for their support has been appointed and +if any one kill any of these animals, the penalty, if he do it with his +own will, is death, and if against his will, such penalty as the priests +may appoint: but whosoever shall kill an ibis or a hawk, whether it be +with his will or against his will, must die. Of the animals that live +with men there are great numbers, and would be many more but for the +accidents which befall the cats. For when the females have produced +young they are no longer in the habit of going to the males, and these +seeking to be united with them are not able. To this end then they +contrive as follows,--they either take away by force or remove secretly +the young from the females and kill them (but after killing they do not +eat them), and the females being deprived of their young and desiring +more, therefore come to the males, for it is a creature that is fond +of its young. Moreover when a fire occurs, the cats seem to be divinely +possessed; for while the Egyptians stand at intervals and look after +the cats, not taking any care to extinguish the fire, the cats slipping +through or leaping over the men, jump into the fire; and when this +happens, great mourning comes upon the Egyptians. And in whatever houses +a cat has died by a natural death, all those who dwell in this house +shave their eyebrows only, but those in which a dog has died shave their +whole body and also their head. The cats when they are dead are carried +away to sacred buildings in the city of Bubastis, where after being +embalmed they are buried; but the dogs they bury each people in their +own city in sacred tombs; and the ichneumons are buried just in the same +way as the dogs. The shrewmice however and the hawks they carry away to +the city of Buto, and the ibises to Hermopolis; the bears (which are not +commonly seen) and the wolves, not much larger in size than foxes, they +bury on the spot where they are found lying. + +Of the crocodile the nature is as follows:--during the four most wintry +months this creature eats nothing: she has four feet and is an animal +belonging to the land and the water both; for she produces and hatches +eggs on the land, and the most part of the day she remains upon dry +land, but the whole of the night in the river, for the water in truth +is warmer than the unclouded open air and the dew. Of all the mortal +creatures of which we have knowledge this grows to the greatest bulk +from the smallest beginning; for the eggs which she produces are not +much larger than those of geese and the newly-hatched young one is in +proportion to the egg, but as he grows he becomes as much as seventeen +cubits long and sometimes yet larger. He has eyes like those of a pig +and teeth large and tusky, in proportion to the size of his body; but +unlike all other beasts he grows no tongue, neither does he move his +lower jaw, but brings the upper jaw towards the lower, being in this too +unlike all other beasts. He has moreover strong claws and a scaly hide +upon his back which cannot be pierced; and he is blind in the water, but +in the air he is of a very keen sight. Since he has his living in the +water he keeps his mouth all full within of leeches; and whereas all +other birds and beasts fly from him, the trochilus is a creature which +is at peace with him, seeing that from her he receives benefit; for +the crocodile having come out of the water to the land and then having +opened his mouth (this he is wont to do generally towards the West +Wind), the trochilus upon that enters into his mouth and swallows down +the leeches, and he being benefited is pleased and does no harm to +the trochilus. Now for some of the Egyptians the crocodiles are sacred +animals, and for others not so, but they treat them on the contrary +as enemies: those however who dwell about Thebes and about the lake of +Moiris hold them to be most sacred, and each of these two peoples keeps +one crocodile selected from the whole number, which has been trained +to tameness, and they put hanging ornaments of molten stone and of gold +into the ears of these and anklets round the front feet, and they give +them food appointed and victims of sacrifices and treat them as well +as possible while they live, and after they are dead they bury them +in sacred tombs, embalming them: but those who dwell about the city +of Elephantine even eat them, not holding them to be sacred. They are +called not crocodiles but _champsai_, and the Ionians gave them the name +of crocodile, comparing their form to that of the crocodiles (lizards) +which appear in their country in the stone walls. There are many ways in +use of catching them and of various kinds: I shall describe that which +to me seems the most worthy of being told. A man puts the back of a pig +upon a hook as bait, and lets it go into the middle of the river, while +he himself upon the bank of the river has a young live pig, which he +beats; and the crocodile hearing its cries makes for the direction of +the sound, and when he finds the pig's back he swallows it down: then +they pull, and when he is drawn out to land, first of all the hunter +forthwith plasters up his eyes with mud, and having done so he very +easily gets the mastery of him, but if he does not do so he has much +trouble. + +The river-horse is sacred in the district of Papremis, but for the +other Egyptians he is not sacred; and this is the appearance which he +presents: he is four-footed, cloven-hoofed like an ox, flat-nosed, with +a mane like a horse and showing teeth like tusks, with a tail and voice +like a horse and in size as large as the largest ox; and his hide is +so exceedingly thick that when it has been dried shafts of javelins are +made of it. There are moreover otters in the river, which they consider +to be sacred: and of fish also they esteem that which is called the +_lepidotos_ to be sacred, and also the eel; and these they say are +sacred to the Nile: and of birds the fox-goose. + +There is also another sacred bird called the phoenix which I did not +myself see except in painting, for in truth he comes to them very +rarely, at intervals, as the people of Heliopolis say, of five hundred +years; and these say that he comes regularly when his father dies; and +if he be like the painting he is of this size and nature, that is to +say, some of his feathers are of gold colour and others red, and in +outline and size he is as nearly as possible like an eagle. This bird +they say (but I cannot believe the story) contrives as follows:--setting +forth from Arabia he conveys his father, they say, to the temple of the +Sun (Helios) plastered up in myrrh, and buries him in the temple of the +Sun; and he conveys him thus:--he forms first an egg of myrrh as large +as he is able to carry, and then he makes trial of carrying it, and when +he has made trial sufficiently, then he hollows out the egg and places +his father within it and plasters over with other myrrh that part of the +egg where he hollowed it out to put his father in, and when his father +is laid in it, it proves (they say) to be of the same weight as it was; +and after he has plastered it up, he conveys the whole to Egypt to the +temple of the Sun. Thus they say that this bird does. + +There are also about Thebes sacred serpents, not at all harmful to men, +which are small in size and have two horns growing from the top of the +head: these they bury when they die in the temple of Zeus, for to this +god they say that they are sacred. There is a region moreover in Arabia, +situated nearly over against the city of Buto, to which place I came to +inquire about the winged serpents: and when I came thither I saw bones +of serpents and spines in quantity so great that it is impossible to +make report of the number, and there were heaps of spines, some heaps +large and others less large and others smaller still than these, and +these heaps were many in number. This region in which the spines are +scattered upon the ground is of the nature of an entrance from a narrow +mountain pass to a great plain, which plain adjoins the plain in Egypt; +and the story goes that at the beginning of spring winged serpents from +Arabia fly towards Egypt, and the birds called ibises meet them at the +entrance to this country and do not suffer the serpents to go by but +kill them. On account of this deed it is (say the Arabians) that the +ibis has come to be greatly honoured by the Egyptians, and the Egyptians +also agree that it is for this reason that they honour these birds. The +outward form of the ibis is this:--it is a deep black all over, and has +legs like those of a crane and a very curved beak, and in size it is +about equal to a rail: this is the appearance of the black kind which +fight with the serpents, but of those which most crowd round men's feet +(for there are two several kinds of ibises) the head is bare and also +the whole of the throat, and it is white in feathering except the head +and neck and the extremities of the wings and the rump (in all these +parts of which I have spoken it is a deep black), while in legs and in +the form of the head it resembles the other. As for the serpent its form +is like that of the watersnake; and it has wings not feathered but most +nearly resembling the wings of the bat. Let so much suffice as has been +said now concerning sacred animals. + + + +Of the Egyptians themselves, those who dwell in the part of Egypt which +is sown for crops practise memory more than any other men and are +the most learned in history by far of all those of whom I have +had experience: and their manner of life is as follows:--For three +successive days in each month they purge, hunting after health with +emetics and clysters, and they think that all the diseases which exist +are produced in men by the food on which they live: for the Egyptians +are from other causes also the most healthy of all men next after the +Libyans (in my opinion on account of the seasons, because the seasons +do not change, for by the changes of things generally, and especially +of the seasons, diseases are most apt to be produced in men), and as to +their diet, it is as follows:--they eat bread, making loaves of maize, +which they call _kyllestis_, and they use habitually a wine made out of +barley, for vines they have not in their land. Of their fish some they +dry in the sun and then eat them without cooking, others they eat cured +in brine. Of birds they eat quails and ducks and small birds without +cooking, after first curing them; and everything else which they have +belonging to the class of birds or fishes, except such as have been +set apart by them as sacred, they eat roasted or boiled. In the +entertainments of the rich among them, when they have finished eating, a +man bears round a wooden figure of a dead body in a coffin, made as like +the reality as may be both by painting and carving, and measuring about +a cubit or two cubits each way; and this he shows to each of those who +are drinking together, saying: "When thou lookest upon this, drink and +be merry, for thou shalt be such as this when thou art dead." Thus they +do at their carousals. The customs which they practise are derived from +their fathers and they do not acquire others in addition; but besides +other customary things among them which are worthy of mention, they have +one song, that of Linos, the same who is sung of both in Phenicia and in +Cyprus and elsewhere, having however a name different according to the +various nations. This song agrees exactly with that which the Hellenes +sing calling on the name of Linos, so that besides many other things +about which I wonder among those matters which concern Egypt, I wonder +especially about this, namely whence they got the song of Linos. It is +evident however that they have sung this song from immemorial time, and +in the Egyptian tongue Linos is called Maneros. The Egyptians told me +that he was the only son of him who first became king of Egypt, and that +he died before his time and was honoured with these lamentations by +the Egyptians, and that this was their first and only song. In another +respect the Egyptians are in agreement with some of the Hellenes, namely +with the Lacedemonians, but not with the rest, that is to say, the +younger of them when they meet the elder give way and move out of the +path, and when their elders approach, they rise out of their seat. In +this which follows however they are not in agreement with any of the +Hellenes,--instead of addressing one another in the roads they do +reverence, lowering their hand down to their knee. They wear tunics of +linen about their legs with fringes, which they call _calasiris_; above +these they have garments of white wool thrown over: woolen garments +however are not taken into the temples, nor are they buried with them, +for this is not permitted by religion. In these points they are in +agreement with the observances called Orphic and Bacchic (which are +really Egyptian), and also with those of the Pythagoreans, for one who +takes part in these mysteries is also forbidden by religious rule to be +buried in woolen garments; and about this there is a sacred story told. + +Besides these things the Egyptians have found out also to what god each +month and each day belongs, and what fortunes a man will meet with who +is born on any particular day, and how he will die, and what kind of +a man he will be: and these inventions were taken up by those of the +Hellenes who occupied themselves about poesy. Portents too have been +found out by them more than by all other men besides; for when a portent +has happened, they observe and write down the event which comes of it, +and if ever afterwards anything resembling this happens, they believe +that the event which comes of it will be similar. Their divination is +ordered thus:--the art is assigned not to any man but to certain of the +gods, for there are in their land Oracles of Heracles, of Apollo, of +Athene, of Artemis, or Ares, and of Zeus, and moreover that which they +hold most in honour of all, namely the Oracle of Leto which is in the +city of Buto. The manner of divination however is not established among +them according to the same fashion everywhere, but is different +in different places. The art of medicine among them is distributed +thus:--each physician is a physician of one disease and of no more; and +the whole country is full of physicians, for some profess themselves +to be physicians of the eyes, others of the head, others of the teeth, +others of the affections of the stomach, and others of the more obscure +ailments. + +Their fashions of mourning and of burial are these:--Whenever any +household has lost a man who is of any regard amongst them, the whole +number of women of that house forthwith plaster over their heads or even +their faces with mud. Then leaving the corpse within the house they go +themselves to and fro about the city and beat themselves, with their +garments bound up by a girdle and their breasts exposed, and with them +go all the women who are related to the dead man, and on the other side +the men beat themselves, they too having their garments bound up by a +girdle; and when they have done this, they then convey the body to +the embalming. In this occupation certain persons employ themselves +regularly and inherit this as a craft. These, whenever a corpse is +conveyed to them, show to those who brought it wooden models of corpses +made like reality by painting, and the best of the ways of embalming +they say is that of him whose name I think it impiety to mention when +speaking of a matter of such a kind; the second which they show is +less good than this and also less expensive; and the third is the least +expensive of all. Having told them about this, they inquire of them in +which way they desire the corpse of their friend to be prepared. Then +they after they have agreed for a certain price depart out of the way, +and the others being left behind in the buildings embalm according to +the best of these ways thus:--First with the crooked iron tool they draw +out the brain through the nostrils, extracting it partly thus and partly +by pouring in drugs; and after this with a sharp stone of Ethiopia they +make a cut along the side and take out the whole contents of the belly, +and when they have cleared out the cavity and cleansed it with palm-wine +they cleanse it again with spices pounded up: then they fill the belly +with pure myrrh pounded up and with cassia and other spices except +frankincense, and sew it together again. Having so done they keep it for +embalming covered up in natron for seventy days, but for a longer time +than this it is not permitted to embalm it; and when the seventy days +are past, they wash the corpse and roll its whole body up in fine linen +cut into bands, smearing these beneath with gum, which the Egyptians use +generally instead of glue. Then the kinsfolk receive it from them and +have a wooden figure made in the shape of a man, and when they have had +this made they enclose the corpse, and having shut it up within, they +store it then in a sepulchral chamber, setting it to stand upright +against the wall. Thus they deal with the corpses which are prepared in +the most costly way; but for those who desire the middle way and wish +to avoid great cost they prepare the corpse as follows:--having filled +their syringes with the oil which is got from cedar-wood, with this they +forthwith fill the belly of the corpse, and this they do without having +either cut it open or taken out the bowels, but they inject the oil by +the breech, and having stopped the drench from returning back they keep +it then the appointed number of days for embalming, and on the last +of the days they let the cedar oil come out from the belly, which they +before put in; and it has such power that it brings out with it the +bowels and interior organs of the body dissolved; and the natron +dissolves the flesh, so that there is left of the corpse only the skin +and the bones. When they have done this they give back the corpse at +once in that condition without working upon it any more. The third kind +of embalming, by which are prepared the bodies of those who have less +means, is as follows:--they cleanse out the belly with a purge and then +keep the body for embalming during the seventy days, and at once after +that they give it back to the bringers to carry away. The wives of men +of rank when they die are not given at once to be embalmed, nor such +women as are very beautiful or of greater regard than others, but on +the third or fourth day after their death (and not before) they are +delivered to the embalmers. They do so about this matter in order that +the embalmers may not abuse their women, for they say that one of them +was taken once doing so to the corpse of a woman lately dead, and his +fellow-craftsman gave information. Whenever any one, either of the +Egyptians themselves or of strangers, is found to have been carried off +by a crocodile or brought to his death by the river itself, the people +of any city by which he may have been cast up on land must embalm him +and lay him out in the fairest way they can and bury him in a sacred +burial-place, nor may any of his relations or friends besides touch him, +but the priests of the Nile themselves handle the corpse and bury it as +that of one who was something more than man. + +Hellenic usages they will by no means follow, and to speak generally +they follow those of no other men whatever. This rule is observed by +most of the Egyptians; but there is a large city named Chemmis in the +Theban district near Neapolis, and in this city there is a temple of +Perseus the son of Danae which is of a square shape, and round it grow +date-palms: the gateway of the temple is built of stone and of very +great size, and at the entrance of it stand two great statues of stone. +Within this enclosure is a temple-house and in it stands an image of +Perseus. These people of Chemmis say that Perseus is wont often to +appear in their land and often within the temple, and that a sandal +which has been worn by him is found sometimes, being in length two +cubits, and whenever this appears all Egypt prospers. This they say, and +they do in honour of Perseus after Hellenic fashion thus,--they hold an +athletic contest, which includes the whole list of games, and they offer +in prizes cattle and cloaks and skins: and when I inquired why to them +alone Perseus was wont to appear, and wherefore they were separated from +all the other Egyptians in that they held an athletic contest, they said +that Perseus had been born of their city, for Danaos and Lynkeus were +men of Chemmis and had sailed to Hellas, and from them they traced a +descent and came down to Perseus: and they told me that he had come to +Egypt for the reason which the Hellenes also say, namely to bring from +Libya the Gorgon's head, and had then visited them also and recognised +all his kinsfolk, and they said that he had well learnt the name of +Chemmis before he came to Egypt, since he had heard it from his mother, +and that they celebrated an athletic contest for him by his own command. + +All these are customs practised by the Egyptians who dwell above the +fens: and those who are settled in the fenland have the same customs for +the most part as the other Egyptians, both in other matters and also +in that they live each with one wife only, as do the Hellenes; but +for economy in respect of food they have invented these things +besides:--when the river has become full and the plains have been +flooded, there grow in the water great numbers of lilies, which the +Egyptians call _lotos_; these they cut with a sickle and dry in the +sun, and then they pound that which grows in the middle of the lotos and +which is like the head of a poppy, and they make of it loaves baked +with fire. The root also of this lotos is edible and has a rather sweet +taste: it is round in shape and about the size of an apple. There are +other lilies too, in flower resembling roses, which also grow in +the river, and from them the fruit is produced in a separate vessel +springing from the root by the side of the plant itself, and very +nearly resembles a wasp's comb: in this there grow edible seeds in great +numbers of the size of an olive-stone, and they are eaten either fresh +or dried. Besides this they pull up from the fens the papyrus which +grows every year, and the upper parts of it they cut off and turn to +other uses, but that which is left below for about a cubit in length +they eat or sell: and those who desire to have the papyrus at its very +best bake it in an oven heated red-hot, and then eat it. Some too of +these people live on fish alone, which they dry in the sun after having +caught them and taken out the entrails, and then when they are dry, they +use them for food. + +Fish which swim in shoals are not much produced in the rivers, but are +bred in the lakes, and they do as follows:--When there comes upon them +the desire to breed, they swim out in shoals towards the sea; and the +males lead the way shedding forth their milt as they go, while the +females, coming after and swallowing it up, from it become impregnated: +and when they have become full of young in the sea they swim up back +again, each shoal to its own haunts. The same however no longer lead the +way as before, but the lead comes now to the females, and they leading +the way in shoals do just as the males did, that is to say they shed +forth their eggs by a few grains at a time, and the males coming after +swallow them up. Now these grains are fish, and from the grains which +survive and are not swallowed, the fish grow which afterwards are bred +up. Now those of the fish which are caught as they swim out towards the +sea are found to be rubbed on the left side of the head, but those which +are caught as they swim up again are rubbed on the right side. This +happens to them because as they swim down to the sea they keep close to +the land on the left side of the river, and again as they swim up they +keep to the same side, approaching and touching the bank as much as they +can, for fear doubtless of straying from their course by reason of the +stream. When the Nile begins to swell, the hollow places of the land +and the depressions by the side of the river first begin to fill, as the +water soaks through from the river, and so soon as they become full of +water, at once they are all filled with little fishes; and whence +these are in all likelihood produced, I think that I perceive. In the +preceding year, when the Nile goes down, the fish first lay eggs in the +mud and then retire with the last of the retreating waters; and when +the time comes round again, and the water once more comes over the land, +from these eggs forthwith are produced the fishes of which I speak. + +Thus it is as regards the fish. And for anointing those of the Egyptians +who dwell in the fens use oil from the castor-berry, which oil the +Egyptians call _kiki_, and thus they do:--they sow along the banks +of the rivers and pools these plants, which in a wild form grow of +themselves in the land of the Hellenes; these are sown in Egypt and +produce berries in great quantity but of an evil smell; and when they +have gathered these some cut them up and press the oil from them, others +again roast them first and then boil them down and collect that which +runs away from them. The oil is fat and not less suitable for burning +than olive-oil, but it gives forth a disagreeable smell. Against the +gnats, which are very abundant, they have contrived as follows:--those +who dwell above the fen-land are helped by the towers, to which they +ascend when they go to rest; for the gnats by reason of the winds +are not able to fly up high: but those who dwell in the fenland have +contrived another way instead of the towers, and this it is:--every man +of them has got a casting net, with which by day he catches fish, but +in the night he uses it for this purpose, that is to say he puts the +casting-net round about the bed in which he sleeps, and then creeps in +under it and goes to sleep: and the gnats, if he sleeps rolled up in a +garment or a linen sheet, bite through these, but through the net they +do not even attempt to bite. + +Their boats with which they carry cargoes are made of the thorny acacia, +of which the form is very like that of the Kyrenian lotos, and that +which exudes from it is gum. From this tree they cut pieces of wood +about two cubits in length and arrange them like bricks, fastening +the boat together by running a great number of long bolts through the +two-cubits pieces; and when they have thus fastened the boat together, +they lay cross-pieces over the top, using no ribs for the sides; and +within they caulk the seams with papyrus. They make one steering-oar for +it, which is passed through the bottom of the boat; and they have a mast +of acacia and sails of papyrus. These boats cannot sail up the river +unless there be a very fresh wind blowing, but are towed from the shore: +down-stream however they travel as follows:--they have a door-shaped +crate made of tamarisk wood and reed mats sewn together, and also a +stone of about two talents weight bored with a hole; and of these the +boatman lets the crate float on in front of the boat, fastened with a +rope, and the stone drags behind by another rope. The crate then, as the +force of the stream presses upon it, goes on swiftly and draws on the +_baris_ (for so these boats are called), while the stone dragging after +it behind and sunk deep in the water keeps its course straight. These +boats they have in great numbers and some of them carry many thousands +of talents' burden. + +When the Nile comes over the land, the cities alone are seen rising +above the water, resembling more nearly than anything else the islands +in the Egean Sea; for the rest of Egypt becomes a sea and the cities +alone rise above water. Accordingly, whenever this happens, they pass +by water not now by the channels of the river but over the midst of +the plain: for example, as one sails up from Naucratis to Memphis the +passage is then close by the pyramids, whereas the usual passage is not +the same even here, but goes by the point of the Delta and the city of +Kercasoros; while if you sail over the plain to Naucratis from the sea +and from Canobos, you will go by Anthylla and the city called after +Archander. Of these Anthylla is a city of note and is especially +assigned to the wife of him who reigns over Egypt, to supply her with +sandals, (this is the case since the time when Egypt came to be +under the Persians): the other city seems to me to have its name from +Archander the son-in-law of Danaos, who was the son of Phthios, the son +of Achaios; for it is called the City of Archander. There might indeed +by another Archander, but in any case the name is not Egyptian. + + +***** + + +Hitherto my own observation and judgment and inquiry are the vouchers +for that which I have said; but from this point onwards I am about to +tell the history of Egypt according to that which I have heard, to which +will be added also something of that which I have myself seen. + +Of Min, who first became king of Egypt, the priests said that on the +one hand he banked off the site of Memphis from the river: for the whole +stream of the river used to flow along by the sandy mountain-range on +the side of Libya, but Min formed by embankments that bend of the river +which lies to the South about a hundred furlongs above Memphis, and thus +he dried up the old stream and conducted the river so that it flowed in +the middle between the mountains: and even now this bend of the Nile is +by the Persians kept under very careful watch, that it may flow in the +channel to which it is confined, and the bank is repaired every year; +for if the river should break through and overflow in this direction, +Memphis would be in danger of being overwhelmed by flood. When this Min, +who first became king, had made into dry land the part which was dammed +off, on the one hand, I say, he founded in it that city which is now +called Memphis; for Memphis too is in the narrow part of Egypt; +and outside the city he dug round it on the North and West a lake +communicating with the river, for the side towards the East is barred by +the Nile itself. Then secondly he established in the city the temple of +Hephaistos a great work and most worthy of mention. After this man the +priests enumerated to me from a papyrus roll the names of other kings, +three hundred and thirty in number; and in all these generations of men +eighteen were Ethiopians, one was a woman, a native Egyptian, and +the rest were men and of Egyptian race: and the name of the woman who +reigned was the same as that of the Babylonian queen, namely Nitocris. +Of her they said that desiring to take vengeance for her brother, whom +the Egyptians had slain when he was their king and then, after having +slain him, had given his kingdom to her,--desiring, I say, to take +vengeance for him, she destroyed by craft many of the Egyptians. For she +caused to be constructed a very large chamber under ground, and making +as though she would handsel it but in her mind devising other things, +she invited those of the Egyptians whom she knew to have had most part +in the murder, and gave a great banquet. Then while they were feasting, +she let in the river upon them by a secret conduit of large size. Of +her they told no more than this, except that, when this had been +accomplished, she threw herself into a room full of embers, in order +that she might escape vengeance. As for the other kings, they could tell +me of no great works which had been produced by them, and they said that +they had no renown except only the last of them, Moiris: he (they +said) produced as a memorial of himself the gateway of the temple of +Hephaistos which is turned towards the North Wind, and dug a lake, about +which I shall set forth afterwards how many furlongs of circuit it has, +and in it built pyramids of the size which I shall mention at the same +time when I speak of the lake itself. He, they said, produced these +works, but of the rest none produced any. + +Therefore passing these by I will make mention of the king who came +after these, whose name is Sesostris. He (the priests said) first of all +set out with ships of war from the Arabian gulf and subdued those who +dwelt by the shores of the Erythraian Sea, until as he sailed he came +to a sea which could no further be navigated by reason of shoals: then +secondly, after he had returned to Egypt, according to the report of the +priests he took a great army and marched over the continent, subduing +every nation which stood in his way: and those of them whom he found +valiant and fighting desperately for their freedom, in their lands he +set up pillars which told by inscriptions his own name and the name of +his country, and how he had subdued them by his power; but as to those +of whose cities he obtained possession without fighting or with ease, on +their pillars he inscribed words after the same tenor as he did for the +nations which had shown themselves courageous, and in addition he drew +upon them the hidden parts of a woman, desiring to signify by this that +the people were cowards and effeminate. Thus doing he traversed the +continent, until at last he passed over to Europe from Asia and subdued +the Scythians and also the Thracians. These, I am of opinion, were the +furthest people to which the Egyptian army came, for in their country +the pillars are found to have been set up, but in the land beyond this +they are no longer found. From this point he turned and began to go +back; and when he came to the river Phasis, what happened then I cannot +say for certain, whether the king Sesostris himself divided off a +certain portion of his army and left the men there as settlers in +the land, or whether some of his soldiers were wearied by his distant +marches and remained by the river Phasis. For the people of Colchis are +evidently Egyptian, and this I perceived for myself before I heard it +from others. So when I had come to consider the matter I asked them +both; and the Colchians had remembrance of the Egyptians more than the +Egyptians of the Colchians; but the Egyptians said they believed that +the Colchians were a portion of the army of Sesostris. That this was +so I conjectured myself not only because they are dark-skinned and have +curly hair (this of itself amounts to nothing, for there are other races +which are so), but also still more because the Colchians, Egyptians, +and Ethiopians alone of all the races of men have practised circumcision +from the first. The Phenicians and the Syrians who dwell in Palestine +confess themselves that they have learnt it from the Egyptians, and +the Syrians about the river Thermodon and the river Parthenios, and the +Macronians, who are their neighbors, say that they have learnt it +lately from the Colchians. These are the only races of men who practise +circumcision, and these evidently practise it in the same manner as the +Egyptians. Of the Egyptians themselves however and the Ethiopians, I +am not able to say which learnt from the other, for undoubtedly it is a +most ancient custom; but that the other nations learnt it by intercourse +with the Egyptians, this among others is to me a strong proof, namely +that those of the Phenicians who have intercourse with Hellas cease +to follow the example of the Egyptians in this matter, and do not +circumcise their children. Now let me tell another thing about the +Colchians to show how they resemble the Egyptians:--they alone work flax +in the same fashion as the Egyptians, and the two nations are like one +another in their whole manner of living and also in their language: now +the linen of Colchis is called by the Hellenes Sardonic, whereas that +from Egypt is called Egyptian. The pillars which Sesostris king of Egypt +set up in the various countries are for the most part no longer to be +seen extant; but in Syria Palestine I myself saw them existing with the +inscription upon them which I have mentioned and the emblem. Moreover +in Ionia there are two figures of this man carved upon rocks, one on +the road by which one goes from the land of Ephesos to Phocaia, and the +other on the road from Sardis to Smyrna. In each place there is a figure +of a man cut in the rock, of four cubits and a span in height, holding +in his right hand a spear and in his left a bow and arrows, and the +other equipment which he has is similar to this, for it is both Egyptian +and Ethiopian: and from the one shoulder to the other across the breast +runs an inscription carved in sacred Egyptian characters, saying thus, +"This land with my shoulders I won for myself." But who he is and from +whence, he does not declare in these places, though in other places he +had declared this. Some of those who have seen these carvings conjecture +that the figure is that of Memnon, but herein they are very far from the +truth. + +As this Egyptian Sesostris was returning and bringing back many men of +the nations whose lands he had subdued, when he came (said the priests) +to Daphnai in the district of Pelusion on his journey home, his brother +to whom Sesostris had entrusted the charge of Egypt invited him and +with him his sons to a feast; and then he piled the house round with +brushwood and set it on fire: and Sesostris when he discovered this +forthwith took counsel with his wife, for he was bringing with him (they +said) his wife also; and she counselled him to lay out upon the pyre two +of his sons, which were six in number, and so to make a bridge over +the burning mass, and that they passing over their bodies should thus +escape. This, they said, Sesostris did, and two of his sons were burnt +to death in this manner, but the rest got away safe with their father. +Then Sesostris, having returned to Egypt and having taken vengeance on +his brother employed the multitude which he had brought in of those +whose lands he had subdued, as follows:--these were they who drew the +stones which in the reign of this king were brought to the temple of +Hephaistos, being of very good size; and also these were compelled to +dig all the channels which now are in Egypt; and thus (having no such +purpose) they caused Egypt, which before was all fit for riding and +driving, to be no longer fit for this from thenceforth: for from that +time forward Egypt, though it is plain land, has become all unfit for +riding and driving, and the cause has been these channels, which are +many and run in all directions. But the reason why the king cut up +the land was this, namely because those of the Egyptians who had their +cities not on the river but in the middle of the country, being in want +of water when the river went down from them, found their drink brackish +because they had it from wells. For this reason Egypt was cut up: and +they said that this king distributed the land to all the Egyptians, +giving an equal square portion to each man, and from this he made his +revenue, having appointed them to pay a certain rent every year: and +if the river should take away anything from any man's portion, he would +come to the king and declare that which had happened, and the king used +to send men to examine and to find out by measurement how much less the +piece of land had become, in order that for the future the man might pay +less, in proportion to the rent appointed: and I think that thus the art +of geometry was found out and afterwards came into Hellas also. For as +touching the sun-dial and the gnomon and the twelve divisions of the +day, they were learnt by the Hellenes from the Babylonians. He moreover +alone of all the Egyptian kings had rule over Ethiopia; and he left +as memorials of himself in front of the temple of Hephaistos two stone +statues of thirty cubits each, representing himself and his wife, +and others of twenty cubits each representing his four sons: and long +afterwards the priest of Hephaistos refused to permit Dareios the +Persian to set up a statue of himself in front of them, saying that +deeds had not been done by him equal to those which were done by +Sesostris the Egyptian; for Sesostris had subdued other nations besides, +not fewer than he, and also the Scythians; but Dareios had not been able +to conquer the Scythians: wherefore it was not just that he should set +up a statue in front of those which Sesostris had dedicated, if he did +not surpass him in his deeds. Which speech, they say, Dareios took in +good part. + +Now after Sesostris had brought his life to an end, his son Pheros, +they told me, received in succession the kingdom, and he made no warlike +expedition, and moreover it chanced to him to become blind by reason of +the following accident:--when the river had come down in flood rising to +a height of eighteen cubits, higher than ever before that time, and had +gone over the fields, a wind fell upon it and the river became agitated +by waves: and this king (they say) moved by presumptuous folly took +a spear and cast it into the midst of the eddies of the stream; and +immediately upon this he had a disease of the eyes and was by it made +blind. For ten years then he was blind, and in the eleventh year there +came to him an oracle from the city of Buto saying that the time of his +punishment had expired, and that he should see again if he washed his +eyes with the water of a woman who had accompanied with her own husband +only and had not had knowledge of other men: and first he made trial of +his own wife, and then, as he continued blind, he went on to try all the +women in turn; and when he had at least regained his sight he gathered +together all the women of whom he had made trial, excepting her by +whose means he had regained his sight, to one city which now is named +Erythrabolos, and having gathered them to this he consumed them all by +fire, as well as the city itself; but as for her by whose means he +had regained his sight, he had her himself to wife. Then after he had +escaped the malady of his eyes he dedicated offerings at each one of the +temples which were of renown, and especially (to mention only that which +is most worthy of mention) he dedicated at the temple of the Sun works +which are worth seeing, namely two obelisks of stone, each of a single +block, measuring in length a hundred cubits each one and in breadth +eight cubits. + +After him, they said, there succeeded to the throne a man of Memphis, +whose name in the tongue of the Hellenes was Proteus; for whom there is +now a sacred enclosure at Memphis, very fair and well ordered, lying on +that side of the temple of Hephaistos which faces the North Wind. Round +about this enclosure dwell Phenicians of Tyre, and this whole region is +called the Camp of the Tyrians. Within the enclosure of Proteus there +is a temple called the temple of the "foreign Aphrodite," which temple +I conjecture to be one of Helen the daughter of Tyndareus, not only +because I have heard the tale how Helen dwelt with Proteus, but also +especially because it is called by the name of the "foreign Aphrodite," +for the other temples of Aphrodite which there are have none of them the +addition of the word "foreign" to the name. + +And the priests told me, when I inquired, that the things concerning +Helen happened thus:--Alexander having carried off Helen was sailing +away from Sparta to his own land, and when he had come to the Egean Sea +contrary winds drove him from his course to the Sea of Egypt; and after +that, since the blasts did not cease to blow, he came to Egypt itself, +and in Egypt to that which is now named the Canobic mouth of the Nile +and to Taricheiai. Now there was upon the shore, as still there is now, +a temple of Heracles, in which if any man's slave take refuge and have +the sacred marks set upon him, giving himself over to the god, it is +not lawful to lay hands upon him; but this custom has continued still +unchanged from the beginning down to my own time. Accordingly the +attendants of Alexander, having heard of the custom which existed about +the temple, ran away from him, and sitting down as suppliants of the +god, accused Alexander, because they desired to do him hurt, telling +the whole tale how things were about Helen and about the wrong done to +Menalaos; and this accusation they made not only to the priests but also +to the warden of this river-mouth, whose name was Thonis. Thonis then +having heard their tale sent forthwith a message to Proteus at Memphis, +which said as follows: "There hath come a stranger, a Teucrian by race, +who hath done in Hellas an unholy deed; for he hath deceived the wife +of his own host, and is come hither bringing with him this woman herself +and very much wealth, having been carried out of his way by winds to thy +land. Shall we then allow him to sail out unharmed, or shall we first +take away from him that which he brought with him?" In reply to this +Proteus sent back a messenger who said thus: "Seize this man, whosoever +he may be, who has done impiety to his own host, and bring him away into +my presence that I may know what he will find to say." Hearing this, +Thonis seized Alexander and detained his ships, and after that he +brought the man himself up to Memphis and with him Helen and the wealth +he had, and also in addition to them the suppliants. So when all had +been conveyed up thither, Proteus began to ask Alexander who he was and +from whence he was voyaging; and he both recounted to him his descent +and told him the name of his native land, and moreover related of his +voyage, from whence he was sailing. After this Proteus asked him whence +he had taken Helen; and when Alexander went astray in his account and did +not speak the truth, those who had become suppliants convicted him of +falsehood, relating in full the whole tale of the wrong done. At length +Proteus declared to them this sentence, saying, "Were it not that I +count it a matter of great moment not to slay any of those strangers who +being driven from their course by winds have come to my land hitherto, +I should have taken vengeance on thee on behalf of the man of +Hellas, seeing that thou, most base of men, having received from him +hospitality, didst work against him a most impious deed. For thou didst +go in to the wife of thine own host; and even this was not enough for +thee, but thou didst stir her up with desire and hast gone away with her +like a thief. Moreover not even this by itself was enough for thee, but +thou art come hither with plunder taken from the house of thy host. Now +therefore depart, seeing that I have counted it of great moment not to +be a slayer of strangers. This woman indeed and the wealth which thou +hast I will not allow thee to carry away, but I shall keep them safe for +the Hellene who was thy host, until he come himself and desire to carry +them off to his home; to thyself however and thy fellow-voyagers I +proclaim that ye depart from your anchoring within three days and go +from my land to some other; and if not, that ye will be dealt with as +enemies." + +This the priests said was the manner of Helen's coming to Proteus; and +I suppose that Homer also had heard this story, but since it was not so +suitable to the composition of his poem as the other which he followed, +he dismissed it finally, making it clear at the same time that he was +acquainted with that story also: and according to the manner in which he +described the wanderings of Alexander in the Iliad (nor did he elsewhere +retract that which he had said) of his course, wandering to various +lands, and that he came among other places to Sidon in Phenicia. Of this +the poet has made mention in the "prowess of Diomede," and the verses +run thus: + + "There she had robes many-coloured, the works of women of Sidon, + Those whom her son himself the god-like of form Alexander + Carried from Sidon, what time the broad sea-path he sailed over + Bringing back Helene home, of a noble father begotten." + +And in the Odyssey also he has made mention of it in these verses: + + "Such had the daughter of Zeus, such drugs of exquisite cunning, + Good, which to her the wife of Thon, Polydamna, had given, + Dwelling in Egypt, the land where the bountiful meadow produces + Drugs more than all lands else, many good being mixed, many evil." + +And thus too Menelaos says to Telemachos: + + "Still the gods stayed me in Egypt, to come back hither desiring, + Stayed me from voyaging home, since sacrifice due I performed not." + +In these lines he makes it clear that he knew of the wanderings of +Alexander to Egypt, for Syria borders upon Egypt and the Phenicians, of +whom is Sidon, dwell in Syria. By these lines and by this passage it is +also most clearly shown that the "Cyprian Epic" was not written by Homer +but by some other man: for in this it is said that on the third day +after leaving Sparta Alexander came to Ilion bringing with him Helen, +having had a "gently-blowing wind and a smooth sea," whereas in the +Iliad it says that he wandered from his course when he brought her. + +Let us now leave Homer and the "Cyprian Epic"; but this I will say, +namely that I asked the priests whether it is but an idle tale which +the Hellenes tell of that which they say happened about Ilion; and they +answered me thus, saying that they had their knowledge by inquiries from +Menelaos himself. After the rape of Helen there came indeed, they said, +to the Teucrian land a large army of Hellenes to help Menelaos; and +when the army had come out of the ships to land and had pitched its +camp there, they sent messengers to Ilion, with whom went also Menelaos +himself; and when these entered within the wall they demanded back Helen +and the wealth which Alexander had stolen from Menelaos and had taken +away; and moreover they demanded satisfaction for the wrongs done: and +the Teucrians told the same tale then and afterwards, both with oath and +without oath, namely that in deed and in truth they had not Helen nor +the wealth for which demand was made, but that both were in Egypt; and +that they could not justly be compelled to give satisfaction for that +which Proteus the king of Egypt had. The Hellenes however thought that +they were being mocked by them and besieged the city, until at last they +took it; and when they had taken the wall and did not find Helen, but +heard the same tale as before, then they believed the former tale and +sent Menelaos himself to Proteus. And Menelaos having come to Egypt and +having sailed up to Memphis, told the truth of these matters, and not +only found great entertainment, but also received Helen unhurt, and +all his own wealth besides. Then, however, after he had been thus dealt +with, Menelaos showed himself ungrateful to the Egyptians; for when +he set forth to sail away, contrary winds detained him, and as this +condition of things lasted long, he devised an impious deed; for he took +two children of natives and made sacrifice of them. After this, when it +was known that he had done so, he became abhorred, and being pursued he +escaped and got away in his ships to Libya; but whither he went besides +after this, the Egyptians were not able to tell. Of these things they +said that they found out part by inquiries, and the rest, namely that +which happened in their own land, they related from sure and certain +knowledge. + +Thus the priests of the Egyptians told me; and I myself also agree with +the story which was told of Helen, adding this consideration, namely +that if Helen had been in Ilion she would have been given up to the +Hellenes, whether Alexander consented or no; for Priam assuredly was not +so mad, nor yet the others of his house, that they were desirous to run +risk of ruin for themselves and their children and their city, in order +that Alexander might have Helen as his wife: and even supposing that +during the first part of the time they had been so inclined, yet when +many others of the Trojans besides were losing their lives as often as +they fought with the Hellenes, and of the sons of Priam himself always +two or three or even more were slain when a battle took place (if one +may trust at all to the Epic poets),--when, I say, things were coming +thus to pass, I consider that even if Priam himself had had Helen as his +wife, he would have given her back to the Achaians, if at least by so +doing he might be freed from the evils which oppressed him. Nor even +was the kingdom coming to Alexander next, so that when Priam was old the +government was in his hands; but Hector, who was both older and more +of a man than he, would certainly have received it after the death of +Priam; and him it behoved not to allow his brother to go on with his +wrong-doing, considering that great evils were coming to pass on his +account both to himself privately and in general to the other Trojans. +In truth however they lacked the power to give Helen back; and the +Hellenes did not believe them, though they spoke the truth; because, +as I declare my opinion, the divine power was purposing to cause them +utterly to perish, and so make it evident to men that for great wrongs +great also are the chastisements which come from the gods. And thus have +I delivered my opinion concerning these matters. + +After Proteus, they told me, Rhampsinitos received in succession the +kingdom, who left as a memorial of himself that gateway to the temple of +Hephaistos which is turned towards the West, and in front of the gateway +he set up two statues, in height five-and-twenty cubits, of which the +one which stands on the North side is called by the Egyptians Summer and +the one on the South side Winter; and to that one which they call Summer +they do reverence and make offerings, while to the other which is called +Winter they do the opposite of these things. This king, they said, got +great wealth of silver, which none of the kings born after him could +surpass or even come near to; and wishing to store his wealth in safety +he caused to be built a chamber of stone, one of the walls whereof was +towards the outside of his palace: and the builder of this, having a +design against it, contrived as follows, that is, he disposed one of the +stones in such a manner that it could be taken out easily from the wall +either by two men or even by one. So when the chamber was finished, the +king stored his money in it, and after some time the builder, being near +the end of his life, called to him his sons (for he had two) and to them +he related how he had contrived in building the treasury of the king, +and all in forethought for them, that they might have ample means of +living. And when he had clearly set forth to them everything concerning +the taking out of the stone, he gave them the measurements, saying that +if they paid heed to this matter they would be stewards of the king's +treasury. So he ended his life, and his sons made no long delay in +setting to work, but went to the palace by night, and having found the +stone in the wall of the chamber they dealt with it easily and carried +forth for themselves great quantity of the wealth within. And the king +happening to open the chamber, he marvelled when he saw the vessels +falling short of the full amount, and he did not know on whom he should +lay the blame, since the seals were unbroken and the chamber had been +close shut; but when upon his opening the chamber a second and a third +time the money was each time seen to be diminished, for the thieves +did not slacken in their assaults upon it, he did as follows:--having +ordered traps to be made he set these round about the vessels in which +the money was; and when the thieves had come as at former times and one +of them had entered, then so soon as he came near to one of the vessels +he was straightway caught in the trap: and when he perceived in what +evil case he was, straightway calling his brother he showed him what the +matter was, and bade him enter as quickly as possible and cut off +his head, for fear lest being seen and known he might bring about the +destruction of his brother also. And to the other it seemed that he +spoke well, and he was persuaded and did so; and fitting the stone into +its place he departed home bearing with him the head of his brother. +Now when it became day, the king entered into the chamber and was very +greatly amazed, seeing the body of the thief held in the trap without +his head, and the chamber unbroken, with no way to come in by or go out: +and being at a loss he hung up the dead body of the thief upon the +wall and set guards there, with charge if they saw any one weeping or +bewailing himself to seize him and bring him before the king. And when +the dead body had been hung up, the mother was greatly grieved, and +speaking with the son who survived she enjoined him, in whatever way he +could, to contrive means by which he might take down and bring home the +body of his brother; and if he should neglect to do this, she earnestly +threatened that she would go and give information to the king that he +had the money. So as the mother dealt hardly with the surviving son, and +he though saying many things to her did not persuade her, he contrived +for his purpose a device as follows:--Providing himself with asses he +filled some skins with wine and laid them upon the asses, and after +that he drove them along: and when he came opposite to those who were +guarding the corpse hung up, he drew towards him two or three of the +necks of the skins and loosened the cords with which they were tied. +Then when the wine was running out, he began to beat his head and cry +out loudly, as if he did not know to which of the asses he should first +turn; and when the guards saw the wine flowing out in streams, they ran +together to the road with drinking vessels in their hands and collected +the wine that was poured out, counting it so much gain; and he abused +them all violently, making as if he were angry, but when the guards +tried to appease him, after a time he feigned to be pacified and to +abate his anger, and at length he drove his asses out of the road and +began to set their loads right. Then more talk arose among them, and one +or two of them made jests at him and brought him to laugh with them; +and in the end he made them a present of one of the skins in addition +to what they had. Upon that they lay down there without more ado, being +minded to drink, and they took him into their company and invited him +to remain with them and join them in their drinking: so he (as may be +supposed) was persuaded and stayed. Then as they in their drinking bade +him welcome in a friendly manner, he made a present to them also of +another of the skins; and so at length having drunk liberally the guards +became completely intoxicated; and being overcome by sleep they went to +bed on the spot where they had been drinking. He then, as it was now far +on in the night, first took down the body of his brother, and then in +mockery shaved the right cheeks of all the guards; and after that he +put the dead body upon the asses and drove them away home, having +accomplished that which was enjoined him by his mother. Upon this the +king, when it was reported to him that the dead body of the thief had +been stolen away, displayed great anger; and desiring by all means that +it should be found out who it might be who devised these things, did +this (so at least they said, but I do not believe the account),--he +caused his own daughter to sit in the stews, and enjoined her to receive +all equally, and before having commerce with any one to compel him to +tell her what was the most cunning and what the most unholy deed which +had been done by him in all his life-time; and whosoever should relate +that which had happened about the thief, him she must seize and not let +him go out. Then as she was doing that which was enjoined by her father, +the thief, hearing for what purpose this was done and having a desire to +get the better of the king in resource, did thus:--from the body of one +lately dead he cut off the arm at the shoulder and went with it under +his mantle: and having gone in to the daughter of the king, and being +asked that which the others also were asked, he related that he had done +the most unholy deed when he cut off the head of his brother, who had +been caught in a trap in the king's treasure-chamber, and the most +cunning deed in that he made drunk the guards and took down the dead +body of his brother hanging up; and she when she heard it tried to take +hold of him, but the thief held out to her in the darkness the arm of +the corpse, which she grasped and held, thinking that she was holding +the arm of the man himself; but the thief left it in her hands and +departed, escaping through the door. Now when this also was reported to +the king, he was at first amazed at the ready invention and daring of +the fellow, and then afterwards he sent round to all the cities and made +proclamation granting a free pardon to the thief, and also promising a +great reward if he would come into his presence. The thief accordingly +trusting to the proclamation came to the king, and Rhampsinitos greatly +marvelled at him, and gave him this daughter of his to wife, counting +him to be the most knowing of all men; for as the Egyptians were +distinguished from all other men, so was he from the other Egyptians. + +After these things they said this king went down alive to that place +which by the Hellenes is called Hades, and there played at dice with +Demeter, and in some throws he overcame her and in others he was +overcome by her; and he came back again having as a gift from her a +handkerchief of gold: and they told me that because of the going down of +Rhampsinitos the Egyptians after he came back celebrated a feast, which +I know of my own knowledge also that they still observe even to my time; +but whether it is for this cause that they keep the feast or for +some other, I am not able to say. However, the priests weave a robe +completely on the very day of the feast, and forthwith they bind up the +eyes of one of them with a fillet, and having led him with the robe to +the way by which one goes to the temple of Demeter, they depart back +again themselves. This priest, they say, with his eyes bound up is led +by two wolves to the temple of Demeter, which is distant from the city +twenty furlongs, and then afterwards the wolves lead him back again from +the temple to the same spot. Now as to the tales told by the Egyptians, +any man may accept them to whom such things appear credible; as for me, +it is to be understood throughout the whole of the history that I write +by hearsay that which is reported by the people in each place. The +Egyptians say that Demeter and Dionysos are rulers of the world below; +and the Egyptians are also the first who reported the doctrine that the +soul of man is immortal, and that when the body dies, the soul enters +into another creature which chances then to be coming to the birth, and +when it has gone the round of all the creatures of land and sea and of +the air, it enters again into a human body as it comes to the birth; +and that it makes this round in a period of three thousand years. This +doctrine certain Hellenes adopted, some earlier and some later, as if +it were of their own invention, and of these men I know the names but I +abstain from recording them. + +Down to the time when Rhampsinitos was king, they told me there was in +Egypt nothing but orderly rule, and Egypt prospered greatly; but after +him Cheops became king over them and brought them to every kind of +evil: for he shut up all the temples, and having first kept them from +sacrifices there, he then bade all the Egyptians work for him. So some +were appointed to draw stones from the stone-quarries in the Arabian +mountains to the Nile, and others he ordered to receive the stones after +they had been carried over the river in boats, and to draw them to those +which are called the Libyan mountains; and they worked by a hundred +thousand men at a time, for each three months continually. Of this +oppression there passed ten years while the causeway was made by which +they drew the stones, which causeway they built, and it is a work not +much less, as it appears to me, than the pyramid; for the length of it +is five furlongs and the breadth ten fathoms and the height, where it +is highest, eight fathoms, and it is made of stone smoothed and with +figures carved upon it. For this they said, the ten years were spent, +and for the underground he caused to be made as sepulchral chambers for +himself in an island, having conducted thither a channel from the Nile. +For the making of the pyramid itself there passed a period of twenty +years; and the pyramid is square, each side measuring eight hundred +feet, and the height of it is the same. It is built of stone smoothed +and fitted together in the most perfect manner, not one of the stones +being less than thirty feet in length. This pyramid was made after the +manner of steps which some called "rows" and others "bases": and when +they had first made it thus, they raised the remaining stones with +machines made of short pieces of timber, raising them first from the +ground to the first stage of the steps, and when the stone got up to +this it was placed upon another machine standing on the first stage, +and so from this it was drawn to the second upon another machine; for as +many as were the courses of the steps, so many machines there were also, +or perhaps they transferred one and the same machine, made so as easily +to be carried, to each stage successively, in order that they might +take up the stones; for let it be told in both ways, according as it +is reported. However that may be the highest parts of it were finished +first, and afterwards they proceeded to finish that which came next to +them, and lastly they finished the parts of it near the ground and the +lowest ranges. On the pyramid it is declared in Egyptian writing how +much was spent on radishes and onions and leeks for the workmen, and if +I rightly remember that which the interpreter said in reading to me this +inscription, a sum of one thousand six hundred talents of silver was +spent; and if this is so, how much besides is likely to have been +expended upon the iron with which they worked, and upon bread and +clothing for the workmen, seeing that they were building the works for +the time which has been mentioned and were occupied for no small time +besides, as I suppose, in the cutting and bringing of the stones and in +working at the excavation under the ground? Cheops moreover came, they +said, to such a pitch of wickedness, that being in want of money he +caused his own daughter to sit in the stews, and ordered her to obtain +from those who came a certain amount of money (how much it was they did +not tell me): and she not only obtained the sum appointed by her father, +but also she formed a design for herself privately to leave behind her +a memorial, and she requested each man who came in to give her one stone +upon her building: and of these stones, they told me, the pyramid was +built which stands in front of the great pyramid in the middle of the +three, each side being one hundred and fifty feet in length. + +This Cheops, the Egyptians said, reigned fifty years; and after he was +dead his brother Chephren succeeded to the kingdom. This king followed +the same manner of dealing as the other, both in all the rest and also +in that he made a pyramid, not indeed attaining to the measurements +of that which was built by the former (this I know, having myself also +measured it), and moreover there are no underground chambers beneath nor +does a channel come from the Nile flowing to this one as to the other, +in which the water coming through a conduit built for it flows round +an island within, where they say that Cheops himself is laid: but for a +basement he built the first course of Ethiopian stone of divers colours; +and this pyramid he made forty feet lower than the other as regards +size, building it close to the great pyramid. These stand both upon the +same hill, which is about a hundred feet high. And Chephren they said +reigned fifty and six years. Here then they reckon one hundred and six +years, during which they say that there was nothing but evil for the +Egyptians, and the temples were kept closed and not opened during all +that time. These kings the Egyptians by reason of their hatred of them +are not very willing to name; nay, they even call the pyramids after the +name of Philitis the shepherd, who at that time pastured flocks in those +regions. After him, they said, Mykerinos became king over Egypt, who was +the son of Cheops; and to him his father's deeds were displeasing, and +he both opened the temples and gave liberty to the people, who were +ground down to the last extremity of evil, to return to their own +business and to their sacrifices: also he gave decisions of their causes +juster than those of all the other kings besides. In regard to this then +they commend this king more than all the other kings who had arisen in +Egypt before him; for he not only gave good decisions, but also when +a man complained of the decision, he gave him recompense from his own +goods and thus satisfied his desire. But while Mykerinos was acting +mercifully to his subjects and practising this conduct which has been +said, calamities befell him, of which the first was this, namely that +his daughter died, the only child whom he had in his house: and being +above measure grieved by that which had befallen him, and desiring to +bury his daughter in a manner more remarkable than others, he made a cow +of wood, which he covered over with gold, and then within it he buried +this daughter who as I said, had died. This cow was not covered up in +the ground, but it might be seen even down to my own time in the city +of Sais, placed within the royal palace in a chamber which was greatly +adorned; and they offer incense of all kinds before it every day, and +each night a lamp burns beside it all through the night. Near this cow +in another chamber stand images of the concubines of Mykerinos, as the +priests at Sais told me; for there are in fact colossal wooden statues, +in number about twenty, made with naked bodies; but who they are I am +not able to say, except only that which is reported. Some however tell +about this cow and the colossal statues the following tale, namely that +Mykerinos was enamoured of his own daughter and afterwards ravished her; +and upon this they say that the girl strangled herself for grief, and +he buried her in this cow; and her mother cut off the hands of the maids +who had betrayed the daughter to her father; wherefore now the images of +them have suffered that which the maids suffered in their life. In thus +saying they speak idly, as it seems to me, especially in what they say +about the hands of the statues; for as to this, even we ourselves saw +that their hands had dropped off from lapse of time, and they were to be +seen still lying at their feet even down to my time. The cow is covered +up with a crimson robe, except only the head and the neck, which are +seen, overlaid with gold very thickly; and between the horns there is +the disc of the sun figured in gold. The cow is not standing up but +kneeling, and in size is equal to a large living cow. Every year it is +carried forth from the chamber, at those times, I say, the Egyptians +beat themselves for that god whom I will not name upon occasion of such +a matter; at these times, I say, they also carry forth the cow to the +light of day, for they say that she asked of her father Mykerinos, when +she was dying, that she might look upon the sun once in the year. + +After the misfortune of his daughter it happened, they said, secondly +to this king as follows:--An oracle came to him from the city of Buto, +saying that he was destined to live but six years more, in the seventh +year to end his life: and he being indignant at it sent to the Oracle +a reproach against the god, making complaint in reply that whereas +his father and uncle, who had shut up the temples and had not only not +remembered the gods, but also had been destroyers of men, had lived for +a long time, he himself, who practised piety, was destined to end his +life so soon: and from the Oracle came a second message, which said +that it was for this very cause that he was bringing his life to a swift +close; for he had not done that which it was appointed for him to do, +since it was destined that Egypt should suffer evils for a hundred and +fifty years, and the two kings who had arisen before him had perceived +this, but he had not. Mykerinos having heard this, and considering that +this sentence had passed upon him beyond recall, procured many lamps, +and whenever night came on he lighted these and began to drink and take +his pleasure, ceasing neither by day nor by night; and he went about to +the fen-country and to the woods and wherever he heard there were the +most suitable places of enjoyment. This he devised (having a mind to +prove that the Oracle spoke falsely) in order that he might have twelve +years of life instead of six, the nights being turned into days. + +This king also left behind him a pyramid, much smaller than that of his +father, of a square shape and measuring on each side three hundred feet +lacking twenty, built moreover of Ethiopian stone up to half the +height. This pyramid some of the Hellenes say was built by the courtesan +Rhodopis, not therein speaking rightly: and besides this it is evident +to me that they who speak thus do not even know who Rhodopis was, +for otherwise they would not have attributed to her the building of a +pyramid like this, on which have been spent (so to speak) innumerable +thousands of talents: moreover they do not know that Rhodopis flourished +in the reign of Amasis, and not in this king's reign; for Rhodopis +lived very many years later than the kings who left behind them these +pyramids. By descent she was of Thrace, and she was a slave of Iadmon +the son of Hephaistopolis a Samian, and a fellow-slave of Esop the +maker of fables; for he too was once the slave of Iadmon, as was +proved especially by this fact, namely that when the people of Delphi +repeatedly made proclamation in accordance with an oracle, to find some +one who would take up the blood-money for the death of Esop, no one else +appeared, but at length the grandson of Iadmon, called Iadmon also, took +it up; and thus it is showed that Esop too was the slave of Iadmon. +As for Rhodopis, she came to Egypt brought by Xanthes the Samian, +and having come thither to exercise her calling she was redeemed +from slavery for a great sum by a man of Mytilene, Charaxos son of +Scamandronymos and brother of Sappho the lyric poet. Thus was Rhodopis +set free, and she remained in Egypt and by her beauty won so much liking +that she made great gain of money for one like Rhodopis, though not +enough to suffice for the cost of such a pyramid as this. In truth there +is no need to ascribe to her very great riches, considering that the +tithe of her wealth may still be seen even to this time by any one +who desires it: for Rhodopis wished to leave behind her a memorial of +herself in Hellas, namely to cause a thing to be made such as happens +not to have been thought of or dedicated in a temple by any besides, and +to dedicate this at Delphi as a memorial of herself. Accordingly with +the tithe of her wealth she caused to be made spits of iron of size +large enough to pierce a whole ox, and many in number, going as far +therein as her tithe allowed her, and she sent them to Delphi: these +are even at the present time lying there, heaped all together behind the +altar which the Chians dedicated, and just opposite to the cell of the +temple. Now at Naucratis, as it happens, the courtesans are rather apt +to win credit; for this woman first, about whom the story to which I +refer is told, became so famous that all the Hellenes without exception +came to know the name of Rhodopis, and then after her one whose name was +Archidiche became a subject of song all over Hellas, though she was less +talked of than the other. As for Charaxos, when after redeeming Rhodopis +he returned back to Mytilene, Sappho in an ode violently abused him. Of +Rhodopis then I shall say no more. + +After Mykerinos the priests said Asychis became king of Egypt, and he +made for Hephaistos the temple gateway which is towards the sunrising, +by far the most beautiful and the largest of the gateways; for while +they all have figures carved upon them and innumerable ornaments of +building besides, this has them very much more than the rest. In this +king's reign they told me that, as the circulation of money was very +slow, a law was made for the Egyptians that a man might have that money +lent to him which he needed, by offering as security the dead body of +his father; and there was added moreover to this law another, namely +that he who lent the money should have a claim also to the whole of the +sepulchral chamber belonging to him who received it, and that the man +who offered that security should be subject to this penalty, if he +refused to pay back the debt, namely that neither the man himself +should be allowed to have burial, when he died, either in that family +burial-place or in any other, nor should he be allowed to bury any of +his kinsmen whom he lost by death. This king desiring to surpass the +kings of Egypt who had arisen before him left as a memorial of himself a +pyramid which he made of bricks and on it there is an inscription +carved in stone and saying thus: "Despise not me in comparison with the +pyramids of stone, seeing that I excel them as much as Zeus excels the +other gods; for with a pole they struck into the lake, and whatever +of the mud attached itself to the pole, this they gathered up and made +bricks, and in such manner they finished me." + +Such were the deeds which this king performed: and after him reigned a +blind man of the city of Anysis, whose name was Anysis. In his reign +the Ethiopians and Sabacos the king of the Ethiopians marched upon Egypt +with a great host of men; so this blind man departed, flying to the +fen-country, and the Ethiopian was king over Egypt for fifty years, +during which he performed deeds as follows:--whenever any man of the +Egyptians committed any transgression, he would never put him to death, +but he gave sentence upon each man according to the greatness of the +wrong-doing, appointing them to work at throwing up an embankment before +that city from whence each man came of those who committed wrong. Thus +the cities were made higher still than before; for they were embanked +first by those who dug the channels in the reign of Sesostris, and then +secondly in the reign of the Ethiopian, and thus they were made very +high: and while other cities in Egypt also stood high, I think in the +town at Bubastis especially the earth was piled up. In this city there +is a temple very well worthy of mention, for though there are other +temples which are larger and build with more cost, none more than +this is a pleasure to the eyes. Now Bubastis in the Hellenic tongue +is Artemis, and her temple is ordered thus:--Except the entrance it is +completely surrounded by water; for channels come in from the Nile, not +joining one another, but each extending as far as the entrance of the +temple, one flowing round on the one side and the other on the other +side, each a hundred feet broad and shaded over with trees; and the +gateway has a height of ten fathoms, and it is adorned with figures six +cubits high, very noteworthy. This temple is in the middle of the city +and is looked down upon from all sides as one goes round, for since the +city has been banked up to a height, while the temple has not been moved +from the place where it was at the first built, it is possible to look +down into it: and round it runs a stone wall with figures carved upon +it, while within it there is a grove of very large trees planted round +a large temple-house, within which is the image of the goddess: and the +breadth and length of the temple is a furlong every way. Opposite the +entrance there is a road paved with stone for about three furlongs, +which leads through the market-place towards the East, with a breadth +of about four hundred feet; and on this side and on that grow trees of +height reaching to heaven: and the road leads to the temple of Hermes. +This temple then is thus ordered. + +The final deliverance from the Ethiopian came about (they said) as +follows:--he fled away because he had seen in his sleep a vision, in +which it seemed to him that a man came and stood by him and counselled +him to gather together all the priests in Egypt and cut them asunder in +the midst. Having seen this dream, he said that it seemed to him that +the gods were foreshowing him this to furnish an occasion against him, +in order that he might do an impious deed with respect to religion, +and so receive some evil either from the gods or from men: he would not +however do so, but in truth (he said) the time had expired, during +which it had been prophesied to him that he should rule Egypt before +he departed thence. For when he was in Ethiopia the Oracles which the +Ethiopians consult had told him that it was fated for him to rule Egypt +fifty years: since then this time was now expiring, and the vision of +the dream also disturbed him, Sabacos departed out of Egypt of his own +free will. + +Then when the Ethiopian had gone away out of Egypt, the blind man came +back from the fen-country and began to rule again, having lived there +during fifty years upon an island which he had made by heaping up ashes +and earth: for whenever any of the Egyptians visited him bringing food, +according as it had been appointed to them severally to do without the +knowledge of the Ethiopian, he bade them bring also some ashes for their +gift. This island none was able to find before Amyrtaios; that is, for +more than seven hundred years the kings who arose before Amyrtaios were +not able to find it. Now the name of this island is Elbo, and its size +is ten furlongs each way. + +After him there came to the throne the priest of Hephaistos, whose name +was Sethos. This man, they said, neglected and held in no regard the +warrior class of the Egyptians, considering that he would have no need +of them; and besides other slights which he put upon them, he also +took from them the yokes of corn-land which had been given to them as +a special gift in the reigns of the former kings, twelve yokes to each +man. After this, Sanacharib king of the Arabians and of the Assyrians +marched a great host against Egypt. Then the warriors of the Egyptians +refused to come to the rescue, and the priest, being driven into a +strait, entered into the sanctuary of the temple and bewailed to the +image of the god the danger which was impending over him; and as he was +thus lamenting, sleep came upon him, and it seemed to him in his vision +that the god came and stood by him and encouraged him, saying that he +should suffer no evil if he went forth to meet the army of the Arabians; +for he would himself send him helpers. Trusting in these things seen +in sleep, he took with him, they said, those of the Egyptians who were +willing to follow him, and encamped in Pelusion, for by this way the +invasion came: and not one of the warrior class followed him, but +shop-keepers and artisans and men of the market. Then after they came, +there swarmed by night upon their enemies mice of the fields, and ate up +their quivers and their bows, and moreover the handles of their shields, +so that on the next day they fled, and being without defence of arms +great numbers fell. And at the present time this king stands in the +temple of Hephaistos in stone, holding upon his hand a mouse, and by +letters inscribed he says these words: "Let him who looks upon me learn +to fear the gods." + +So far in the story the Egyptians and the priests were they who made +the report, declaring that from the first king down to this priest of +Hephaistos who reigned last, there had been three hundred and forty-one +generations of men, and that in them there had been the same number of +chief-priests and of kings: but three hundred generations of men are +equal to ten thousand years, for a hundred years is three generations +of men; and in the one-and-forty generations which remain, those I mean +which were added to the three hundred, there are one thousand three +hundred and forty years. Thus in the period of eleven thousand three +hundred and forty years they said that there had arisen no god in human +form; nor even before that time or afterwards among the remaining kings +who arise in Egypt, did they report that anything of that kind had come +to pass. In this time they said that the sun had moved four times from +his accustomed place of rising, and where he now sets he had thence +twice had his rising, and in the place from whence he now rises he had +twice had his setting; and in the meantime nothing in Egypt had been +changed from its usual state, neither that which comes from the earth +nor that which comes to them from the river nor that which concerns +diseases or deaths. And formerly when Hecataios the historian was in +Thebes, and had traced his descent and connected his family with a god +in the sixteenth generation before, the priests of Zeus did for him much +the same as they did for me (though I had not traced my descent). They +led me into the sanctuary of the temple, which is of great size, and +they counted up the number, showing colossal wooden statues in number +the same as they said; for each chief-priest there sets up in his +lifetime an image of himself: accordingly the priests, counting and +showing me these, declared to me that each one of them was a son +succeeding his own father, and they went up through the series of images +from the image of the one who had died last, until they had declared +this of the whole number. And when Hecataios had traced his descent and +connected his family with a god in the sixteenth generation, they traced +a descent in opposition to his, besides their numbering, not accepting +it from him that a man had been born from a god; and they traced their +counter-descent thus, saying that each one of the statues had been +_piromis_ son of _piromis_, until they had declared this of the whole +three hundred and forty-five statues, each one being surnamed _piromis_; +and neither with a god nor a hero did they connect their descent. Now +_piromis_ means in the tongue of Hellas "honourable and good man." From +their declaration then it followed, that they of whom the images were +had been of form like this, and far removed from being gods: but in the +time before these men they said that gods were the rulers in Egypt, not +mingling with men, and that of these always one had power at a time; +and the last of them who was king over Egypt was Oros the son of Osiris, +whom the Hellenes call Apollo: he was king over Egypt last, having +deposed Typhon. Now Osiris in the tongue of Hellas is Dionysos. + +Among the Hellenes Heracles and Dionysos and Pan are accounted the +lastest-born of the gods; but with the Egyptians Pan is a very ancient +god, and he is one of those which are called eight gods, while Heracles +is of the second rank, who are called the twelve gods, and Dionysos is +of the third rank, namely of those who were born of the twelve gods. Now +as to Heracles I have shown already how many years old he is according +to the Egyptians themselves, reckoning down to the reign of Amasis, and +Pan is said to have existed for yet more years than these, and Dionysos +for the smallest number of years as compared with the others; and even +for this last they reckon down to the reign of Amasis fifteen thousand +years. This the Egyptians say that they know for a certainty, since they +always kept a reckoning and wrote down the years as they came. Now the +Dionysos who is said to have been born of Semele the daughter of Cadmos, +was born about sixteen hundred years before my time, and Heracles who +was the son of Alcmene, about nine hundred years, and that Pan who was +born of Penelope, for of her and of Hermes Pan is said by the Hellenes +to have been born, came into being later than the wars of Troy, about +eight hundred years before my time. Of these two accounts every man may +adopt that one which he shall find the more credible when he hears it. +I however, for my part, have already declared my opinion about them. For +if these also, like Heracles the son of Amphitryon, had appeared before +all men's eyes and had lived their lives to old age in Hellas, I mean +Dionysos the son of Semele and Pan the son of Penelope, then one would +have said that these also had been born mere men, having the names +of those gods who had come into being long before: but as it is, with +regard to Dionysos the Hellenes say that as soon as he was born Zeus +sewed him up in his thigh and carried him to Nysa, which is above Egypt +in the land of Ethiopia; and as to Pan, they cannot say whither he went +after he was born. Hence it has become clear to me that the Hellenes +learnt the names of these gods later than those of the other gods, and +trace their descent as if their birth occurred at the time when they +first learnt their names. + +Thus far then the history is told by the Egyptians themselves; but I +will now recount that which other nations also tell, and the Egyptians +in agreement with the others, of that which happened in this land: and +there will be added to this also something of that which I have myself +seen. + +Being set free after the reign of the priest of Hephaistos, the +Egyptians, since they could not live any time without a king, set up +over them twelve kings, having divided all Egypt into twelve parts. +These made intermarriages with one another and reigned, making agreement +that they would not put down one another by force, nor seek to get an +advantage over one another, but would live in perfect friendship: and +the reason why they made these agreements, guarding them very strongly +from violation, was this, namely that an oracle had been given to them +at first when they began to exercise their rule, that he of them who +should pour a libation with a bronze cup in the temple of Hephaistos, +should be king of all Egypt (for they used to assemble together in all +the temples). Moreover they resolved to join all together and leave a +memorial of themselves; and having so resolved they caused to be made +a labyrinth, situated a little above the lake of Moiris and nearly +opposite to that which is called the City of Crocodiles. This I saw +myself, and I found it greater than words can say. For if one should +put together and reckon up all the buildings and all the great works +produced by Hellenes, they would prove to be inferior in labour and +expense to this labyrinth, though it is true that both the temple at +Ephesos and that at Samos are works worthy of note. The pyramids also +were greater than words can say, and each one of them is equal to many +works of the Hellenes, great as they may be; but the labyrinth surpasses +even the pyramids. It has twelve courts covered in, with gates facing +one another, six upon the North side and six upon the South, joining on +one to another, and the same wall surrounds them all outside; and there +are in it two kinds of chambers, the one kind below the ground and the +other above upon these, three thousand in number, of each kind fifteen +hundred. The upper set of chambers we ourselves saw, going through them, +and we tell of them having looked upon them with our own eyes; but the +chambers under ground we heard about only; for the Egyptians who had +charge of them were not willing on any account to show them, saying that +here were the sepulchres of the kings who had first built this labyrinth +and of the sacred crocodiles. Accordingly we speak of the chambers below +by what we received from hearsay, while those above we saw ourselves and +found them to be works of more than human greatness. For the passages +through the chambers, and the goings this way and that way through +the courts, which were admirably adorned, afforded endless matter for +marvel, as we went through from a court to the chambers beyond it, and +from the chambers to colonnades, and from the colonnades to other rooms, +and then from the chambers again to other courts. Over the whole of +these is a roof made of stone like the walls; and the walls are covered +with figures carved upon them, each court being surrounded with pillars +of white stone fitted together most perfectly; and at the end of the +labyrinth, by the corner of it, there is a pyramid of forty fathoms, +upon which large figures are carved, and to this there is a way made +under ground. + +Such is this labyrinth: but a cause for marvel even greater than this is +afforded by the lake, which is called the lake of Moiris, along the side +of which this labyrinth is built. The measure of its circuit is three +thousand six hundred furlongs (being sixty _schoines_), and this is the +same number of furlongs as the extent of Egypt itself along the sea. The +lake lies extended lengthwise from North to South, and in depth where it +is deepest it is fifty fathoms. That this lake is artificial and formed +by digging is self-evident, for about in the middle of the lake stand +two pyramids, each rising above the water to a height of fifty fathoms, +the part which is built below the water being of just the same height; +and upon each is placed a colossal statue of stone sitting upon a chair. +Thus the pyramids are a hundred fathoms high; and these hundred fathoms +are equal to a furlong of six hundred feet, the fathom being measured as +six feet or four cubits, the feet being four palms each, and the cubits +six. The water in the lake does not come from the place where it is, for +the country there is very deficient in water, but it has been brought +thither from the Nile by a canal; and for six months the water flows +into the lake, and for six months out into the Nile again; and whenever +it flows out, then for the six months it brings into the royal treasury +a talent of silver a day from the fish which are caught, and twenty +pounds when the water comes in. The natives of the place moreover said +that this lake had an outlet under ground to the Syrtis which is in +Libya, turning towards the interior of the continent upon the Western +side and running along by the mountain which is above Memphis. Now since +I did not see anywhere existing the earth dug out of this excavation +(for that was a matter which drew my attention), I asked those who dwelt +nearest to the lake where the earth was which had been dug out. These +told me to what place it had been carried away; and I readily believed +them, for I knew by report that a similar thing had been done at +Nineveh, the city of the Assyrians. There certain thieves formed a +design once to carry away the wealth of Sardanapallos son of Ninos, the +king, which wealth was very great and was kept in treasure-houses under +the earth. Accordingly they began from their own dwelling, and making +estimate of their direction they dug under ground towards the king's +palace; and the earth which was brought out of the excavation they used +to carry away, when night came on, to the river Tigris which flows by +the city of Nineveh, until at last they accomplished that which they +desired. Similarly, as I heard, the digging of the lake in Egypt was +effected, except that it was done not by night but during the day; for +as they dug the Egyptians carried to the Nile the earth which was dug +out; and the river, when it received it, would naturally bear it away +and disperse it. Thus is this lake said to have been dug out. + +Now the twelve kings continued to rule justly, but in course of time it +happened thus:--After sacrifice in the temple of Hephaistos they +were about to make libation on the last day of the feast, and the +chief-priest, in bringing out for them the golden cups with which they +had been wont to pour libations, missed his reckoning and brought eleven +only for the twelve kings. Then that one of them who was standing last +in order, namely Psammetichos, since he had no cup took off from his +head his helmet, which was of bronze, and having held it out to receive +the wine he proceeded to make libation: likewise all the other kings +were wont to wear helmets and they happened to have them then. Now +Psammetichos held out his helmet with no treacherous meaning; but they +taking note of that which had been done by Psammetichos and of the +oracle, namely how it had been declared to them that whosoever of them +should make libation with a bronze cup should be sole king of Egypt, +recollecting, I say, the saying of the Oracle, they did not indeed deem +it right to slay Psammetichos, since they found by examination that he +had not done it with any forethought, but they determined to strip him +of almost all his power and to drive him away into the fen-country, and +that from the fen-country he should not hold any dealings with the +rest of Egypt. This Psammetichos had formerly been a fugitive from the +Ethiopian Sabacos who had killed his father Necos, from him, I say, he +had then been a fugitive in Syria; and when the Ethiopian had departed +in consequence of the vision of the dream, the Egyptians who were of the +district of Sais brought him back to his own country. Then afterwards, +when he was king, it was his fate to be a fugitive a second time +on account of the helmet, being driven by the eleven kings into the +fen-country. So then holding that he had been grievously wronged by +them, he thought how he might take vengeance on those who had driven +him out: and when he had sent to the Oracle of Leto in the city of Buto, +where the Egyptians have their most truthful Oracle, there was given to +him the reply that vengeance would come when men of bronze appeared from +the sea. And he was strongly disposed not to believe that bronze men +would come to help him; but after no long time had passed, certain +Ionians and Carians who had sailed forth for plunder were compelled to +come to shore in Egypt, and they having landed and being clad in bronze +armour, came to the fen-land and brought a report to Psammetichos that +bronze men had come from the sea and were plundering the plain. So he, +perceiving that the saying of the Oracle was coming to pass, dealt in a +friendly manner with the Ionians and Carians, and with large promises he +persuaded them to take his part. Then when he had persuaded them, with +the help of those Egyptians who favoured his cause and of these foreign +mercenaries he overthrew the kings. Having thus got power over all +Egypt, Psammetichos made for Hephaistos that gateway of the temple at +Memphis which is turned towards the South Wind; and he built a court for +Apis, in which Apis is kept when he appears, opposite to the gateway of +the temple, surrounded all with pillars and covered with figures; and +instead of columns there stand to support the roof of the court colossal +statues twelve cubits high. Now Apis is in the tongue of the Hellenes +Epaphos. To the Ionians and to the Carians who had helped him +Psammetichos granted portions of land to dwell in, opposite to +one another with the river Nile between, and these were called +"Encampments"; these portions of land he gave them, and he paid them +besides all that he had promised: moreover he placed with them Egyptian +boys to have them taught the Hellenic tongue; and from these, who learnt +the language thoroughly, are descended the present class of interpreters +in Egypt. Now the Ionians and Carians occupied these portions of land +for a long time, and they are towards the sea a little below the city of +Bubastis, on that which is called the Pelusian mouth of the Nile. These +men king Amasis afterwards removed from thence and established them at +Memphis, making them into a guard for himself against the Egyptians: +and they being settled in Egypt, we who are Hellenes know by intercourse +with them the certainty of all that which happened in Egypt beginning +from king Psammetichos and afterwards; for these were the first men of +foreign tongue who settled in Egypt: and in the land from which they +were removed there still remained down to my time the sheds where their +ships were drawn up and the ruins of their houses. + +Thus then Psammetichos obtained Egypt: and of the Oracle which is in +Egypt I have made mention often before this, and now I give an account +of it, seeing that it is worthy to be described. This Oracle which is in +Egypt is sacred to Leto, and it is established in a great city near that +mouth of the Nile which is called Sebennytic, as one sails up the river +from the sea; and the name of this city where the Oracle is found is +Buto, as I have said before in mentioning it. In this Buto there is a +temple of Apollo and Artemis; and the temple-house of Leto, in which the +Oracle is, is both great in itself and has a gateway of the height of +ten fathoms: but that which caused me most to marvel of the things to be +seen there, I will now tell. There is in this sacred enclosure a house +of Leto made of one single stone upon the top, the cornice measuring +four cubits. This house then of all the things that were to be seen by +me in that temple is the most marvellous, and among those which come +next is the island called Chemmis. This is situated in a deep and broad +lake by the side of the temple at Buto, and it is said by the Egyptians +that this island is a floating island. I myself did not see it either +floating about or moved from its place, and I feel surprise at hearing +of it, wondering if it be indeed a floating island. In this island of +which I speak there is a great temple-house of Apollo, and three several +altars are set up within, and there are planted in the island many +palm-trees and other trees, both bearing fruit and not bearing fruit. +And the Egyptians, when they say that it is floating, add this story, +namely that in this island which formerly was not floating, Leto, being +one of the eight gods who came into existence first, and dwelling in the +city of Buto where she has this Oracle, received Apollo from Isis as a +charge and preserved him, concealing him in the island which is said now +to be a floating island, at that time when Typhon came after him seeking +everywhere and desiring to find the son of Osiris. Now they say that +Apollo and Artemis are children of Dionysos and of Isis, and that Leto +became their nurse and preserver; and in the Egyptian tongue Apollo is +Oros, Demeter is Isis, and Artemis is Bubastis. From this story and from +no other AEschylus the son of Euphorion took this which I shall say, +wherein he differs from all the preceding poets; he represented namely +that Artemis was the daughter of Demeter. For this reason then, they +say, it became a floating island. + +Such is the story which they tell; but as for Psammetichos, he was king +over Egypt for four-and-fifty years, of which for thirty years save one +he was sitting before Azotos, a great city of Syria, besieging it, until +at last he took it: and this Azotos of all cities about which we have +knowledge held out for the longest time under a siege. + +The son of Psammetichos was Necos, and he became king of Egypt. This man +was the first who attempted the channel leading to the Erythraian Sea, +which Dareios the Persian afterwards completed: the length of this is +a voyage of four days, and in breadth it was so dug that two triremes +could go side by side driven by oars; and the water is brought into +it from the Nile. The channel is conducted a little above the city of +Bubastis by Patumos the Arabian city, and runs into the Erythraian Sea: +and it is dug first along those parts of the plain of Egypt which lie +towards Arabia, just above which run the mountains which extend +opposite Memphis, where are the stone-quarries,--along the base of these +mountains the channel is conducted from West to East for a great way; +and after that it is directed towards a break in the hills and tends +from these mountains towards the noon-day and the South Wind to the +Arabian gulf. Now in the place where the journey is least and shortest +from the Northern to the Southern Sea (which is also called Erythraian), +that is from Mount Casion, which is the boundary between Egypt and +Syria, the distance is exactly a thousand furlongs to the Arabian gulf; +but the channel is much longer, since it is more winding; and in the +reign of Necos there perished while digging it twelve myriads of the +Egyptians. Now Necos ceased in the midst of his digging, because the +utterance of an Oracle impeded him, which was to the effect that he was +working for the Barbarian: and the Egyptians call all men Barbarians who +do not agree with them in speech. Thus having ceased from the work of +the channel, Necos betook himself to raging wars, and triremes were +built by him, some for the Northern Sea and others in the Arabian gulf +for the Erythraian Sea; and of these the sheds are still to be seen. +These ships he used when he needed them; and also on land Necos engaged +battle at Magdolos with the Syrians, and conquered them; and after this +he took Cadytis, which is a great city of Syria: and the dress which he +wore when he made these conquests he dedicated to Apollo, sending it to +Branchidai of the Milesians. After this, having reigned in all sixteen +years, he brought his life to an end, and handed on the kingdom to +Psammis his son. + +While this Psammis was king of Egypt, there came to him men sent by the +Eleians, who boasted that they ordered the contest at Olympia in the +most just and honourable manner possible and thought that not even the +Egyptians, the wisest of men, could find out anything besides, to be +added to their rules. Now when the Eleians came to Egypt and said that +for which they had come, then this king called together those of the +Egyptians who were reputed the wisest, and when the Egyptians had come +together they heard the Eleians tell of all that which it was their part +to do in regard to the contest; and when they had related everything, +they said that they had come to learn in addition anything which the +Egyptians might be able to find out besides, which was juster than this. +They then having consulted together asked the Eleians whether their own +citizens took part in the contest; and they said that it was permitted +to any one who desired it, to take part in the contest: upon which the +Egyptians said that in so ordering the games they had wholly missed the +mark of justice; for it could not be but that they would take part with +the man of their own State, if he was contending, and so act unfairly +to the stranger: but if they really desired, as they said, to order +the games justly, and if this was the cause for which they had come to +Egypt, they advised them to order the contest so as to be for strangers +alone to contend in, and that no Eleian should be permitted to contend. +Such was the suggestion made by the Egyptians to the Eleians. + +When Psammis had been king of Egypt for only six years and had made an +expedition to Ethiopia and immediately afterwards had ended his life, +Apries the son of Psammis received the kingdom in succession. This man +came to be the most prosperous of all the kings up to that time except +only his forefather Psammetichos; and he reigned five-and-twenty years, +during which he led an army against Sidon and fought a sea-fight with +the king of Tyre. Since however it was fated that evil should come upon +him it came by occasion of a matter which I shall relate at greater +length in the Libyan history, and at present but shortly. Apries having +sent a great expedition against the Kyrenians, met with correspondingly +great disaster; and the Egyptians considering him to blame for this +revolted from him, supposing that Apries had with forethought sent them +out to evident calamity, in order (as they said) that there might be a +slaughter of them, and he might the more securely rule over the other +Egyptians. Being indignant at this, both these men who had returned +from the expedition and also the friends of those who had perished made +revolt openly. Hearing this Apries sent to them Amasis, to cause them +to cease by persuasion; and when he had come and was seeking to restrain +the Egyptians, as he was speaking and telling them not to do so, one of +the Egyptians stood up behind him and put a helmet upon his head, saying +as he did so that he put it on to crown him king. And to him this +that was done was in some degree not unwelcome, as he proved by his +behaviour; for as soon as the revolted Egyptians had set him up as king, +he prepared to march against Apries: and Apries hearing this sent to +Amasis one of the Egyptians who were about his own person, a man of +reputation, whose name was Patarbemis, enjoining him to bring Amasis +alive into his presence. When this Patarbemis came and summoned Amasis, +the latter, who happened to be sitting on horseback, lifted up his leg +and behaved in an unseemly manner, bidding him take that back to Apries. +Nevertheless, they say, Patarbemis made demand of him that he should +go to the king, seeing that the king had sent to summon him; and he +answered him that he had for some time past been preparing to do so, and +that Apries would have no occasion to find fault with him, for he +would both come himself and bring others with him. Then Patarbemis both +perceiving his intention from that which he said, and also seeing his +preparations, departed in haste, desiring to make known as quickly as +possible to the king the things which were being done: and when he came +back to Apries not bringing Amasis, the king paying no regard to that +which he said, but being moved by violent anger, ordered his ears and +his nose to be cut off. And the rest of the Egyptians who still remained +on his side, when they saw the man of most repute among them thus +suffering shameful outrage, waited no longer but joined the others in +revolt, and delivered themselves over to Amasis. Then Apries having +heard this also, armed his foreign mercenaries and marched against the +Egyptians: now he had about him Carian and Ionian mercenaries to the +number of thirty thousand; and his royal palace was in the city of Sais, +of great size and worthy to be seen. So Apries and his army were going +against the Egyptians, and Amasis and those with him were going against +the mercenaries; and both sides came to the city of Momemphis and were +about to make trial of one another in fight. + +Now of the Egyptians there are seven classes, and of these one class is +called that of the priests, and another that of the warriors, while +the others are the cowherds, swineherds, shopkeepers, interpreters, and +boatmen. This is the number of the classes of the Egyptians, and their +names are given them from the occupations which they follow. Of them the +warriors are called Calasirians and Hermotybians, and they are of the +following districts,--for all Egypt is divided into districts. The +districts of the Hermotybians are those of Busiris, Sais, Chemmis, +Papremis, the island called Prosopitis, and the half of Natho,--of +these districts are the Hermotybians, who reached when most numerous the +number of sixteen myriads. Of these not one has been learnt anything of +handicraft, but they are given up to war entirely. Again the districts +of the Calasirians are those of Thebes, Bubastis, Aphthis, Tanis, +Mendes, Sebennytos, Athribis, Pharbaithos, Thmuis, Onuphis, Anytis, +Myecphoris,--this last is on an island opposite to the city of Bubastis. +These are the districts of the Calasirians; and they reached, when most +numerous, to the number of five-and-twenty myriads of men; nor is it +lawful for these, any more than for the others, to practise any craft; +but they practise that which has to do with war only, handing down the +tradition from father to son. Now whether the Hellenes have learnt this +also from the Egyptians, I am not able to say for certain, since I +see that the Thracians also and Scythians and Persians and Lydians and +almost all the Barbarians esteem those of their citizens who learn the +arts, and the descendants of them, as less honourable than the rest; +while those who have got free from all practice of manual arts are +accounted noble, and especially those who are devoted to war: however +that may be, the Hellenes have all learnt this, and especially the +Lacedemonians; but the Corinthians least of all cast slight upon those +who practise handicraft. + +The following privilege was specially granted to this class and to none +others of the Egyptians except the priests, that is to say, each man had +twelve yokes of land specially granted to him free from imposts: now +the yoke of land measures a hundred Egyptian cubits every way, and the +Egyptian cubit is, as it happens, equal to that of Samos. This, I +say, was a special privilege granted to all, and they also had certain +advantages in turn and not the same men twice; that is to say, a +thousand of the Calasirians and a thousand of the Hermotybians acted +as body-guard to the king during each year; and these had besides their +yokes of land an allowance given them for each day of five pounds weight +of bread to each man, and two pounds of beef, and four half-pints of +wine. This was the allowance given to those who were serving as the +king's body-guard for the time being. + +So when Apries leading his foreign mercenaries, and Amasis at the head +of the whole body of the Egyptians, in their approach to one another had +come to the city of Momemphis, they engaged in battle: and although the +foreign troops fought well, yet being much inferior in number they were +worsted by reason of this. But Apries is said to have supposed that not +even a god would be able to cause him to cease from his rule, so firmly +did he think that it was established. In that battle then, I say, he was +worsted, and being taken alive was brought away to the city of Sais, to +that which had formerly been his own dwelling but from thenceforth was +the palace of Amasis. There for some time he was kept in the palace, and +Amasis dealt well with him but at last, since the Egyptians blamed +him, saying that he acted not rightly in keeping alive him who was +the greatest foe both to themselves and to him, therefore he delivered +Apries over to the Egyptians; and they strangled him, and after that +buried him in the burial-place of his fathers: this is in the temple of +Athene, close to the sanctuary, on the left hand as you enter. Now the +men of Sais buried all those of this district who had been kings, within +the temple; for the tomb of Amasis also, though it is further from +the sanctuary than that of Apries and his forefathers, yet this too is +within the court of the temple, and it consists of a colonnade of stone +of great size, with pillars carved to imitate date-palms, and otherwise +sumptuously adorned; and within the colonnade are double doors, and +inside the doors a sepulchral chamber. Also at Sais there is the +burial-place of him whom I account it not pious to name in connexion +with such a matter, which is in the temple of Athene behind the house +of the goddess, stretching along the whole wall of it; and in the sacred +enclosure stand great obelisks of stone, and near them is a lake adorned +with an edging of stone and fairly made in a circle, being in size, +as it seemed to me, equal to that which is called the "Round Pool" in +Delos. On this lake they perform by night the show of his sufferings, +and this the Egyptians call Mysteries. Of these things I know more fully +in detail how they take place, but I shall leave this unspoken; and of +the mystic rites of Demeter, which the Hellenes call _thesmophoria_, of +these also, although I know, I shall leave unspoken all except so much +as piety permits me to tell. The daughters of Danaos were they who +brought this rite out of Egypt and taught it to the women of the +Pelasgians; then afterwards when all the inhabitants of Peloponnese were +driven out by the Dorians, the rite was lost, and only those who were +left behind of the Peloponnesians and not driven out, that is to say the +Arcadians, preserved it. + +Apries having thus been overthrown, Amasis became king, being of the +district of Sais, and the name of the city whence he was is Siuph. Now +at the first the Egyptians despised Amasis and held him in no +great regard, because he had been a man of the people and was of no +distinguished family; but afterwards Amasis won them over to himself by +wisdom and not wilfulness. Among innumerable other things of price which +he had, there was a foot-basin of gold in which both Amasis himself and +all his guests were wont always to wash their feet. This he broke up, +and of it he caused to be made the image of a god, and set it up in the +city, where it was most convenient; and the Egyptians went continually +to visit the image and did great reverence to it. Then Amasis, having +learnt that which was done by the men of the city, called together the +Egyptians and made known to them the matter, saying that the image had +been produced from the foot-basin, into which formerly the Egyptians +used to vomit and make water, and in which they washed their feet, +whereas now they did to it great reverence; and just so, he continued, +had he himself now fared, as the foot-basin; for though formerly he +was a man of the people, yet now he was their king, and he bade them +accordingly honour him and have regard for him. In such manner he won +the Egyptians to himself, so that they consented to be his subjects; and +his ordering of affairs was this:--In the early morning, and until the +time of the filling of the market he did with a good will the business +which was brought before him; but after this he passed the time in +drinking and in jesting at his boon-companions, and was frivolous and +playful. And his friends being troubled at it admonished him in some +such words as these: "O king, thou dost not rightly govern thyself in +thus letting thyself descend to behaviour so trifling; for thou oughtest +rather to have been sitting throughout the day stately upon a stately +throne and administering thy business; and so the Egyptians would have +been assured that they were ruled by a great man, and thou wouldest +have had a better report: but as it is, thou art acting by no means in a +kingly fashion." And he answered them thus: "They who have bows stretch +them at such time as they wish to use them, and when they have finished +using them they loose them again; for if they were stretched tight +always they would break, so that the men would not be able to use them +when they needed them. So also is the state of man: if he should always +be in earnest and not relax himself for sport at the due time, he would +either go mad or be struck with stupor before he was aware; and knowing +this well, I distribute a portion of the time to each of the two ways of +living." Thus he replied to his friends. It is said however that Amasis, +even when he was in a private station, was a lover of drinking and of +jesting, and not at all seriously disposed; and whenever his means of +livelihood failed him through his drinking and luxurious living, he +would go about and steal; and they from whom he stole would charge him +with having their property, and when he denied it would bring him before +the judgment of an Oracle, whenever there was one in their place; +and many times he was convicted by the Oracles and many times he was +absolved: and then when finally he became king he did as follows:--as +many of the gods as had absolved him and pronounced him not to be a +thief, to their temples he paid no regard, nor gave anything for the +further adornment of them, nor even visited them to offer sacrifice, +considering them to be worth nothing and to possess lying Oracles; but +as many as had convicted him of being a thief, to these he paid very +great regard, considering them to be truly gods, and to present Oracles +which did not lie. First in Sais he built and completed for Athene a +temple-gateway which is a great marvel, and he far surpassed herein all +who had done the like before, both in regard to height and greatness, +so large are the stones and of such quality. Then secondly he dedicated +great colossal statues and man-headed sphinxes very large, and for +restoration he caused to be brought from the stone-quarries which +are opposite Memphis, others of very great size from the city of +Elephantine, distant a voyage of not less than twenty days from Sais: +and of them all I marvel most at this, namely a monolith chamber which +he brought from the city of Elephantine; and they were three years +engaged in bringing this, and two thousand men were appointed to convey +it, who all were of the class of boatmen. Of this house the length +outside is one-and-twenty cubits, the breadth is fourteen cubits, and +the height eight. These are the measures of the monolith house outside; +but the length inside is eighteen cubits and five-sixths of a cubit, the +breadth twelve cubits, and the height five cubits. This lies by the side +of the entrance to the temple; for within the temple they did not draw +it, because, as it is said, while the house was being drawn along, the +chief artificer of it groaned aloud, seeing that much time had been +spent and he was wearied by the work; and Amasis took it to heart as a +warning and did not allow them to draw it further onwards. Some say on +the other hand that a man was killed by it, of those who were heaving it +with levers, and that it was not drawn in for that reason. Amasis also +dedicated in all the other temples which were of repute, works which are +worth seeing for their size, and among them also at Memphis the colossal +statue which lies on its back in front of the temple of Hephaistos, +whose length is five-and-seventy feet; and on the same base made of the +same stone are set two colossal statues, each of twenty feet in length, +one on this side and the other on that side of the large statue. There +is also another of stone of the same size in Sais, lying in the same +manner as that at Memphis. Moreover Amasis was he who built and finished +for Isis her temple at Memphis, which is of great size and very worthy +to be seen. + +In the reign of Amasis it is said that Egypt became more prosperous than +at any other time before, both in regard to that which comes to the land +from the river and in regard to that which comes from the land to its +inhabitants, and that at this time the inhabited towns in it numbered +in all twenty thousand. It was Amasis too who established the law that +every year each one of the Egyptians should declare to the ruler of his +district, from what source he got his livelihood, and if any man did +not do this or did not make declaration of an honest way of living, +he should be punished with death. Now Solon the Athenian received from +Egypt this law and had it enacted for the Athenians, and they have +continued to observe it, since it is a law with which none can find +fault. + +Moreover Amasis became a lover of the Hellenes; and besides other proofs +of friendship which he gave to several among them, he also granted the +city of Naucratis for those of them who came to Egypt to dwell in; and +to those who did not desire to stay, but who made voyages thither, he +granted portions of land to set up altars and make sacred enclosures for +their gods. Their greatest enclosure and that one which has most name +and is most frequented is called the Hellenion, and this was established +by the following cities in common:--of the Ionians Chios, Teos, +Phocaia, Clazomenai, of the Dorians Rhodes, Cnidos, Halicarnassos, +Phaselis, and of the Aiolians Mytilene alone. To these belongs this +enclosure and these are the cities which appoint superintendents of the +port; and all other cities which claim a share in it, are making a claim +without any right. Besides this the Eginetans established on their own +account a sacred enclosure dedicated to Zeus, the Samians one to Hera, +and the Milesians one to Apollo. Now in old times Naucratis alone was an +open trading-place, and no other place in Egypt: and if any one came to +any other of the Nile mouths, he was compelled to swear that he came not +thither of his own free will, and when he had thus sworn his innocence +he had to sail with his ship to the Canobic mouth, or if it were not +possible to sail by reason of contrary winds, then he had to carry his +cargo round the head of the Delta in boats to Naucratis: thus highly +was Naucratis privileged. Moreover when the Amphictyons had let out the +contract for building the temple which now exists at Delphi, agreeing to +pay a sum of three hundred talents (for the temple which formerly stood +there had been burnt down of itself), it fell to the share of the people +of Delphi to provide the fourth part of the payment; and accordingly the +Delphians went about to various cities and collected contributions. And +when they did this they got from Egypt as much as from any place, for +Amasis gave them a thousand talents' weight of alum, while the Hellenes +who dwelt in Egypt gave them twenty pounds of silver. + +Also with the people of Kyrene Amasis made an agreement for friendship +and alliance; and he resolved too to marry a wife from thence, whether +because he desired to have a wife of Hellenic race, or, apart from that, +on account of friendship for the people of Kyrene: however that may be, +he married, some say the daughter of Battos, others of Arkesilaos, and +others of Critobulos, a man of repute among the citizens; and her name +was Ladike. Now whenever Amasis lay with her he found himself unable to +have intercourse, but with his other wives he associated as he was wont; +and as this happened repeatedly, Amasis said to his wife, whose name was +Ladike: "Woman, thou hast given me drugs, and thou shall surely perish +more miserably than any other." Then Ladike, when by her denials Amasis +was not at all appeased in his anger against her, made a vow in her +soul to Aphrodite, that if Amasis on that night had intercourse with +her (seeing that this was the remedy for her danger), she would send an +image to be dedicated to her at Kyrene; and after the vow immediately +Amasis had intercourse, and from thenceforth whenever Amasis came in to +her he had intercourse with her; and after this he became very greatly +attached to her. And Ladike paid the vow that she had made to the +goddess; for she had an image made and sent it to Kyrene, and it is +still preserved even to my own time, standing with its face turned away +from the city of the Kyrenians. This Ladike Cambyses, having conquered +Egypt and heard from her who she was, sent back unharmed to Kyrene. + +Amasis also dedicated offerings in Hellas, first at Kyrene an image +of Athene covered over with gold and a figure of himself made like by +painting; then in the temple of Athene at Lindos two images of stone +and a corslet of linen worthy to be seen; and also at Samos two wooden +figures of himself dedicated to Hera, which were standing even to my own +time in the great temple, behind the doors. Now at Samos he dedicated +offerings because of the guest-friendship between himself and Polycrates +the son of Aiakes; at Lindos for no guest-friendship but because the +temple of Athene at Lindos is said to have been founded by the daughters +of Danaos, who had touched land there at the time when they were fleeing +from the sons of Aigyptos. These offerings were dedicated by Amasis; and +he was the first of men who conquered Cyprus and subdued it so that it +paid him tribute. + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of An Account of Egypt, by Herodotus + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AN ACCOUNT OF EGYPT *** + +***** This file should be named 2131.txt or 2131.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/2/1/3/2131/ + +Produced by John Bickers; Dagny; David Widger + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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Macaulay + + + + +NOTE + +HERODOTUS was born at Halicarnassus, on the southwest coast of Asia +Minor, in the early part of the fifth century, B. C. Of his life we +know almost nothing, except that he spent much of it traveling, to +collect the material for his writings, and that he finally settled +down at Thurii, in southern Italy, where his great work was composed. +He died in 424 B. C. + +The subject of the history of Herodotus is the struggle between the +Greeks and the barbarians, which he brings down to the battle of +Mycale in 479 B. C. The work, as we have it, is divided into nine +books, named after the nine Muses, but this division is probably due +to the Alexandrine grammarians. His information he gathered mainly +from oral sources, as he traveled through Asia Minor, down into Egypt, +round the Black Sea, and into various parts of Greece and the +neighboring countries. The chronological narrative halts from time to +time to give opportunity for descriptions of the country, the people, +and their customs and previous history; and the political account is +constantly varied by rare tales and wonders. + +Among these descriptions of countries the most fascinating to the +modern, as it was to the ancient, reader is his account of the marvels +of the land of Egypt. From the priests at Memphis, Heliopolis, and the +Egyptian Thebes he learned what he reports of the size of the country, +the wonders of the Nile, the ceremonies of their religion, the +sacredness of their animals. He tells also of the strange ways of the +crocodile and of that marvelous bird, the Phoenix; of dress and +funerals and embalming; of the eating of lotos and papyrus; of the +pyramids and the great labyrinth; of their kings and queens and +courtesans. + +Yet Herodotus is not a mere teller of strange tales. However credulous +he may appear to a modern judgment, he takes care to keep separate +what he knows by his own observation from what he has merely inferred +and from what he has been told. He is candid about acknowledging +ignorance, and when versions differ he gives both. Thus the modern +scientific historian, with other means of corroboration, can sometimes +learn from Herodotus more than Herodotus himself knew. + +There is abundant evidence, too, that Herodotus had a philosophy of +history. The unity which marks his work is due not only to the strong +Greek national feeling running through it, the feeling that rises to a +height in such passages as the descriptions of the battles of +Marathon, Thermopylae, and Salamis, but also to his profound belief in +Fate and in Nemesis. To his belief in Fate is due the frequent quoting +of oracles and their fulfilment, the frequent references to things +foreordained by Providence. The working of Nemesis he finds in the +disasters that befall men and nations whose towering prosperity +awakens the jealousy of the gods. The final overthrow of the Persians, +which forms his main theme, is only one specially conspicuous example +of the operation of this force from which human life can never free +itself. + +But, above all, he is the father of story-tellers. "Herodotus is such +simple and delightful reading," says Jevons; "he is so unaffected and +entertaining, his story flows so naturally and with such ease that we +have a difficulty in bearing in mind that, over and above the hard +writing which goes to make easy reading there is a perpetual marvel in +the work of Herodotus. It is the first artistic work in prose that +Greek literature produced. This prose work, which for pure literary +merit no subsequent work has surpassed, than which later generations, +after using the pen for centuries, have produced no prose more easy or +more readable, this was the first of histories and of literary prose." + + + + + +AN ACCOUNT OF EGYPT + +BY HERODOTUS + +BEING THE SECOND BOOK OF HIS HISTORIES + +CALLED EUTERPE + + + +When Cyrus had brought his life to an end, Cambyses received the royal +power in succession, being the son of Cyrus and of Cassandane the +daughter of Pharnaspes, for whose death, which came about before his +own, Cyrus had made great mourning himself and also had proclaimed to +all those over whom he bore rule that they should make mourning for +her: Cambyses, I say, being the son of this woman and of Cyrus, +regarded the Ionians and Aiolians as slaves inherited from his father; +and he proceeded to march an army against Egypt, taking with him as +helpers not only other nations of which he was ruler, but also those +of the Hellenes over whom he had power besides. + + + +Now the Egyptians, before the time when Psammetichos became king over +them, were wont to suppose that they had come into being first of all +men; but since the time when Psammetichos having become king desired +to know what men had come into being first, they suppose that the +Phrygians came into being before themselves, but they themselves +before all other men. Now Psammetichos, when he was not able by +inquiry to find out any means of knowing who had come into being first +of all men, contrived a device of the following kind:--Taking two new- +born children belonging to persons of the common sort he gave them to +a shepherd to bring up at the place where his flocks were, with a +manner of bringing up such as I shall say, charging him namely that no +man should utter any word in their presence, and that they should be +placed by themselves in a room where none might come, and at the +proper time he should bring them she-goats, and when he had satisfied +them with milk he should do for them whatever else was needed. These +things Psammetichos did and gave him this charge wishing to hear what +word the children would let break forth first after they had ceased +from wailings without sense. And accordingly it came to pass; for +after a space of two years had gone by, during which the shepherd went +on acting so, at length, when he opened the door and entered, both +children fell before him in entreaty and uttered the word /bekos/, +stretching forth their hands. At first when he heard this the shepherd +kept silence; but since this word was often repeated, as he visited +them constantly and attended to them, at last he declared the matter +to his master, and at his command he brought the children before his +face. Then Psammetichos having himself also heard it, began to inquire +what nation of men named anything /bekos/, and inquiring he found that +the Phrygians had this name for bread. In this manner and guided by an +indication such as this, the Egyptians were brought to allow that the +Phrygians were a more ancient people than themselves. That so it came +to pass I heard from the priests of that Hephaistos who dwells at +Memphis; but the Hellenes relate, besides many other idle tales, that +Psammetichos cut out the tongues of certain women and then caused the +children to live with these women. + +With regard then to the rearing of the children they related so much +as I have said: and I heard also other things at Memphis when I had +speech with the priests of Hephaistos. Moreover I visited both Thebes +and Heliopolis for this very cause, namely because I wished to know +whether the priests at these places would agree in their accounts with +those at Memphis; for the men of Heliopolis are said to be the most +learned in records of the Egyptians. Those of their narrations which I +heard with regard to the gods I am not earnest to relate in full, but +I shall name them only because I consider that all men are equally +ignorant of these matters: and whatever things of them I may record I +shall record only because I am compelled by the course of the story. +But as to those matters which concern men, the priests agreed with one +another in saying that the Egyptians were the first of all men on +earth to find out the course of the year, having divided the seasons +into twelve parts to make up the whole; and this they said they found +out from the stars: and they reckon to this extent more wisely than +the Hellenes, as it seems to me, inasmuch as the Hellenes throw in an +intercalated month every other year, to make the seasons right, +whereas the Egyptians, reckoning the twelve months at thirty days +each, bring in also every year five days beyond number, and thus the +circle of their season is completed and comes round to the same point +whence it set out. They said moreover that the Egyptians were the +first who brought into use appellations for the twelve gods and the +Hellenes took up the use from them; and that they were the first who +assigned altars and images and temples to the gods, and who engraved +figures on stones; and with regard to the greater number of these +things they showed me by actual facts that they had happened so. They +said also that the first man who became king of Egypt was Min; and +that in his time all Egypt except the district of Thebes was a swamp, +and none of the regions were then above water which now lie below the +lake of Moiris, to which lake it is a voyage of seven days up the +river from the sea: and I thought that they said well about the land; +for it is manifest in truth even to a person who has not heard it +beforehand but has only seen, at least if he have understanding, that +the Egypt to which the Hellenes come in ships is a land which has been +won by the Egyptians as an addition, and that it is a gift of the +river: moreover the regions which lie above this lake also for a +distance of three days' sail, about which they did not go on to say +anything of this kind, are nevertheless another instance of the same +thing: for the nature of the land of Egypt is as follows:--First when +you are still approaching it in a ship and are distant a day's run +from the land, if you let down a sounding-line you will bring up mud +and you will find yourself in eleven fathoms. This then so far shows +that there is a silting forward of the land. Then secondly, as to +Egypt itself, the extent of it along the sea is sixty /schoines/, +according to our definition of Egypt as extending from the Gulf of +Plinthine to the Serbonian lake, along which stretches Mount Casion; +from this lake then the sixty /schoines/ are reckoned: for those of +men who are poor in land have their country measured by fathoms, those +who are less poor by furlongs, those who have much land by parasangs, +and those who have land in very great abundance by /schoines/: now the +parasang is equal to thirty furlongs, and each /schoine/, which is an +Egyptian measure, is equal to sixty furlongs. So there would be an +extent of three thousand six hundred furlongs for the coast-land of +Egypt. From thence and as far as Heliopolis inland Egypt is broad, and +the land is all flat and without springs of water and formed of mud: +and the road as one goes inland from the sea to Heliopolis is about +the same in length as that which leads from the altar of the twelve +gods at Athens to Pisa and the temple of Olympian Zeus: reckoning up +you would find the difference very small by which these roads fail of +being equal in length, not more indeed than fifteen furlongs; for the +road from Athens to Pisa wants fifteen furlongs of being fifteen +hundred, while the road to Heliopolis from the sea reaches that number +completely. From Heliopolis however, as you go up, Egypt is narrow; +for on the one side a mountain-range belonging to Arabia stretches +along by the side of it, going in a direction from the North towards +the midday and the South Wind, tending upwards without a break to that +which is called the Erythraian Sea, in which range are the stone- +quarries which were used in cutting stone for the pyramids at Memphis. +On this side then the mountain ends where I have said, and then takes +a turn back; and where it is widest, as I was informed, it is a +journey of two months across from East to West; and the borders of it +which turn towards the East are said to produce frankincense. Such +then is the nature of this mountain-range; and on the side of Egypt +towards Libya another range extends, rocky and enveloped in sand: in +this are the pyramids, and it runs in the same direction as those +parts of the Arabian mountains which go towards the midday. So then, I +say, from Heliopolis the land has no longer a great extent so far as +it belongs to Egypt, and for about four days' sail up the river Egypt +properly so called is narrow: and the space between the mountain- +ranges which have been mentioned is plain-land, but where it is +narrowest it did not seem to me to exceed two hundred furlongs from +the Arabian mountains to those which are called the Libyan. After this +again Egypt is broad. Such is the nature of this land: and from +Heliopolis to Thebes is a voyage up the river of nine days, and the +distance of the journey in furlongs is four thousand eight hundred and +sixty, the number of /schoines/ being eighty-one. If these measures of +Egypt in furlongs be put together, the result is as follows:--I have +already before this shown that the distance along the sea amounts to +three thousand six hundred furlongs, and I will now declare what the +distance is inland from the sea to Thebes, namely six thousand one +hundred and twenty furlongs: and again the distance from Thebes to the +city called Elephantine is one thousand eight hundred furlongs. + +Of this land then, concerning which I have spoken, it seemed to myself +also, according as the priests said, that the greater part had been +won as an addition by the Egyptians; for it was evident to me that the +space between the aforesaid mountain-ranges, which lie above the city +of Memphis, once was a gulf of the sea, like the regions about Ilion +and Teuthrania and Ephesos and the plain of the Maiander, if it be +permitted to compare small things with great; and small these are in +comparison, for of the rivers which heaped up the soil in those +regions none is worthy to be compared in volume with a single one of +the mouths of the Nile, which has five mouths. Moreover there are +other rivers also, not in size at all equal to the Nile, which have +performed great feats; of which I can mention the names of several, +and especially the Acheloos, which flowing through Acarnania and so +issuing out into the sea has already made half of the Echinades from +islands into mainland. Now there is in the land of Arabia, not far +from Egypt, a gulf of the sea running in from that which is called the +Erythraian Sea, very long and narrow, as I am about to tell. With +respect to the length of the voyage along it, one who set out from the +innermost point to sail out through it into the open sea, would spend +forty days upon the voyage, using oars; and with respect to breadth, +where the gulf is broadest it is half a day's sail across: and there +is in it an ebb and flow of tide every day. Just such another gulf I +suppose that Egypt was, and that the one ran in towards Ethiopia from +the Northern Sea, and the other, the Arabian, of which I am about to +speak, tended from the South towards Syria, the gulfs boring in so as +almost to meet at their extreme points, and passing by one another +with but a small space left between. If then the stream of the Nile +should turn aside into this Arabian gulf, what would hinder that gulf +from being filled up with silt as the river continued to flow, at all +events within a period of twenty thousand years? indeed for my part I +am of the opinion that it would be filled up even within ten thousand +years. How, then, in all the time that has elapsed before I came into +being should not a gulf be filled up even of much greater size than +this by a river so great and so active? As regards Egypt then, I both +believe those who say that things are so, and for myself also I am +strongly of opinion that they are so; because I have observed that +Egypt runs out into the sea further than the adjoining land, and that +shells are found upon the mountains of it, and an efflorescence of +salt forms upon the surface, so that even the pyramids are being eaten +away by it, and moreover that of all the mountains of Egypt, the range +which lies above Memphis is the only one which has sand: besides which +I notice that Egypt resembles neither the land of Arabia, which +borders upon it, nor Libya, nor yet Syria (for they are Syrians who +dwell in the parts of Arabia lying along the sea), but that it has +soil which is black and easily breaks up, seeing that it is in truth +mud and silt brought down from Ethiopia by the river: but the soil of +Libya, we know, is reddish in colour and rather sandy, while that of +Arabia and Syria is somewhat clayey and rocky. The priests also gave +me a strong proof concerning this land as follows, namely that in the +reign of king Moiris, whenever the river reached a height of at least +eight cubits it watered Egypt below Memphis; and not yet nine hundred +years had gone by since the death of Moiris, when I heard these things +from the priests: now however, unless the river rises to sixteen +cubits, or fifteen at the least, it does not go over the land. I think +too that those Egyptians who dwell below the lake of Moiris and +especially in that region which is called the Delta, if that land +continues to grow in height according to this proportion and to +increase similarly in extent, will suffer for all remaining time, from +the Nile not overflowing their land, that same thing which they +themselves said that the Hellenes would at some time suffer: for +hearing that the whole land of the Hellenes has rain and is not +watered by rivers as theirs is, they said that the Hellenes would at +some time be disappointed of a great hope and would suffer the ills of +famine. This saying means that if the god shall not send them rain, +but shall allow drought to prevail for a long time, the Hellenes will +be destroyed by hunger; for they have in fact no other supply of water +to save them except from Zeus alone. This has been rightly said by the +Egyptians with reference to the Hellenes: but now let me tell how +matters are with the Egyptians themselves in their turn. If, in +accordance with what I before said, their land below Memphis (for this +is that which is increasing) shall continue to increase in height +according to the same proportion as in the past time, assuredly those +Egyptians who dwell here will suffer famine, if their land shall not +have rain nor the river be able to go over their fields. It is certain +however that now they gather in fruit from the earth with less labour +than any other men and also with less than the other Egyptians; for +they have no labour in breaking up furrows with a plough nor in hoeing +nor in any other of those labours which other men have about a crop; +but when the river has come up of itself and watered their fields and +after watering has left them again, then each man sows his own field +and turns into it swine, and when he has trodden the seed into the +ground by means of the swine, after that he waits for the harvest, and +when he has threshed the corn by means of the swine, then he gathers +it in. + +If we desire to follow the opinions of the Ionians as regards Egypt, +who say that the Delta alone is Egypt, reckoning its sea-coast to be +from the watch-tower called of Perseus to the fish-curing houses of +Pelusion, a distance of forty /schoines/, and counting it to extend +inland as far as the city of Kercasoros, where the Nile divides and +runs to Pelusion and Canobos, while as for the rest of Egypt, they +assign it partly to Libya and partly to Arabia,--if, I say, we should +follow this account, we should thereby declare that in former times +the Egyptians had no land to live in; for, as we have seen, their +Delta at any rate is alluvial, and has appeared (so to speak) lately, +as the Egyptians themselves say and as my opinion is. If then at the +first there was no land for them to live in, why did they waste their +labour to prove that they had come into being before all other men? +They needed not to have made trial of the children to see what +language they would first utter. However I am not of the opinion that +the Egyptians came into being at the same time as that which is called +by the Ionians the Delta, but that they existed always ever since the +human race came into being, and that as their land advanced forwards, +many of them were left in their first abodes and many came down +gradually to the lower parts. At least it is certain that in old times +Thebes had the name of Egypt, and of this the circumference measures +six thousand one hundred and twenty furlongs. + +If then we judge aright of these matters, the opinion of the Ionians +about Egypt is not sound: but if the judgment of the Ionians is right, +I declare that neither the Hellenes nor the Ionians themselves know +how to reckon since they say that the whole earth is made up of three +divisions, Europe, Asia, and Libya: for they ought to count in +addition to these the Delta of Egypt, since it belongs neither to Asia +nor to Libya; for at least it cannot be the river Nile by this +reckoning which divides Asia from Libya, but the Nile is cleft at the +point of this Delta so as to flow round it, and the result is that +this land would come between Asia and Libya. + +We dismiss then our opinion of the Ionians, and express a judgment of +our own on this matter also, that Egypt is all that land which is +inhabited by Egyptians, just as Kilikia is that which is inhabited by +Kilikians and Assyria that which is inhabited by Assyrians, and we +know of no boundary properly speaking between Asia and Libya except +the borders of Egypt. If however we shall adopt the opinion which is +commonly held by the Hellenes, we shall suppose that the whole of +Egypt, beginning from the Cataract and the city of Elephantine, is +divided into two parts and that it thus partakes of both the names, +since one side will thus belong to Libya and the other to Asia; for +the Nile from the Cataract onwards flows to the sea cutting Egypt +through in the midst; and as far as the city of Kercasoros the Nile +flows in one single stream, but from this city onwards it is parted +into three ways; and one, which is called the Pelusian mouth, turns +towards the East; the second of the ways goes towards the West, and +this is called the Canobic mouth; but that one of the ways which is +straight runs thus,--when the river in its course downwards comes to +the point of the Delta, then it cuts the Delta through the midst and +so issues out to the sea. In this we have a portion of the water of +the river which is not the smallest nor the least famous, and it is +called the Sebennytic mouth. There are also two other mouths which +part off from the Sebennytic and go to the sea, and these are called, +one the Saitic, the other the Mendesian mouth. The Bolbitinitic, and +Bucolic mouths, on the other hand, are not natural but made by +digging. Moreover also the answer given by the Oracle of Ammon bears +witness in support of my opinion that Egypt is of the extent which I +declare it to be in my account; and of this answer I heard after I had +formed my own opinion about Egypt. For those of the city of Marea and +of Apis, dwelling in the parts of Egypt which border on Libya, being +of opinion themselves that they were Libyans and not Egyptians, and +also being burdened by the rules of religious service, because they +desired not to be debarred from the use of cows' flesh, sent to Ammon +saying that they had nought in common with the Egyptians, for they +dwelt outside the Delta and agreed with them in nothing; and they said +they desired that it might be lawful for them to eat everything +without distinction. The god however did not permit them to do so, but +said that that land was Egypt where the Nile came over and watered, +and that those were Egyptians who dwelling below the city of +Elephantine drank of that river. Thus was it answered to them by the +Oracle about this: and the Nile, when it is in flood, goes over not +only the Delta but also of the land which is called Libyan and of that +which is called Arabian sometimes as much as two days' journey on each +side, and at times even more than this or at times less. + +As regards the nature of the river, neither from the priests nor yet +from any other man was I able to obtain any knowledge: and I was +desirous especially to learn from them about these matters, namely why +the Nile comes down increasing in volume from the summer solstice +onwards for a hundred days, and then, when it has reached the number +of these days, turns and goes back, failing in its stream, so that +through the whole winter season it continues to be low, and until the +summer solstice returns. Of none of these things was I able to receive +any account from the Egyptians, when I inquired of them what power the +Nile has whereby it is of a nature opposite to that of all other +rivers. And I made inquiry, desiring to know both this which I say and +also why, unlike all other rivers, it does not give rise to any +breezes blowing from it. However some of the Hellenes who desired to +gain distinction for cleverness have given an account of this water in +three different ways: two of these I do not think it worth while even +to speak of except only to indicate their nature; of which the one +says that the Etesian Winds are the cause that makes the river rise, +by preventing the Nile from flowing out into the sea. But often the +Etesian Winds fail and yet the Nile does the same work as it is wont +to do; and moreover, if these were the cause, all the other rivers +also which flow in a direction opposed to the Etesian Winds ought to +have been affected in the same way as the Nile, and even more, in as +much as they are smaller and present to them a feebler flow of +streams: but there are many of these rivers in Syria and many also in +Libya, and they are affected in no such manner as the Nile. The second +way shows more ignorance than that which has been mentioned, and it is +more marvellous to tell; for it says that the river produces these +effects because it flows from the Ocean, and that the Ocean flows +round the whole earth. The third of the ways is much the most +specious, but nevertheless it is the most mistaken of all: for indeed +this way has no more truth in it than the rest, alleging as it does +that the Nile flows from melting snow; whereas it flows out of Libya +through the midst of the Ethiopians, and so comes out into Egypt. How +then should it flow from snow, when it flows from the hottest parts to +those which are cooler? And indeed most of the facts are such as to +convince a man (one at least who is capable of reasoning about such +matters), that it is not at all likely that it flows from snow. The +first and greatest evidence is afforded by the winds, which blow hot +from these regions; the second is that the land is rainless always and +without frost, whereas after snow has fallen rain must necessarily +come within five days, so that if it snowed in those parts rain would +fall there; the third evidence is afforded by the people dwelling +there, who are of a black colour by reason of the burning heat. +Moreover kites and swallows remain there through the year and do not +leave the land; and cranes flying from the cold weather which comes on +in the region of Scythia come regularly to these parts for wintering: +if then it snowed ever so little in that land through which the Nile +flows and in which it has its rise, none of these things would take +place, as necessity compels us to admit. As for him who talked about +the Ocean, he carried his tale into the region of the unknown, and so +he need not be refuted; since I for my part know of no river Ocean +existing, but I think that Homer or one of the poets who were before +him invented the name and introduced it into his verse. + +If however after I have found fault with the opinions proposed, I am +bound to declare an opinion of my own about the matters which are in +doubt, I will tell what to my mind is the reason why the Nile +increases in the summer. In the winter season the Sun, being driven +away from his former path through the heaven by the stormy winds, +comes to the upper parts of Libya. If one would set forth the matter +in the shortest way, all has now been said; for whatever region this +god approaches most and stands directly above, this it may reasonably +be supposed is most in want of water, and its native streams of rivers +are dried up most. However, to set it forth at greater length, thus it +is:--the Sun passing in his course by the upper parts of Libya, does +thus, that is to say, since at all times the air in those parts is +clear and the country is warm, because there are no cold winds, in +passing through it the Sun does just as he was wont to do in the +summer, when going through the midst of the heaven, that is he draws +to himself the water, and having drawn it he drives it away to the +upper parts of the country, and the winds take it up and scattering it +abroad melt it into rain; so it is natural that the winds which blow +from this region, namely the South and South-west Winds, should be +much the most rainy of all the winds. I think however that the Sun +does not send away from himself all the water of the Nile of each +year, but that also he lets some remain behind with himself. Then when +the winter becomes milder, the Sun returns back again to the midst of +the heaven, and from that time onwards he draws equally from all +rivers; but in the meantime they flow in large volume, since water of +rain mingles with them in great quantity, because their country +receives rain then and is filled with torrent streams. In summer +however they are weak, since not only the showers of rain fail them, +but also they are drawn by the Sun. The Nile however, alone of all +rivers, not having rain and being drawn by the Sun, naturally flows +during this time of winter in much less than its proper volume, that +is much less than in summer; for then it is drawn equally with all the +other waters, but in winter it bears the burden alone. Thus I suppose +the Sun to be the cause of these things. He also is the cause in my +opinion that the air in these parts is dry, since he makes it so by +scorching up his path through the heaven: thus summer prevails always +in the upper parts of Libya. If however the station of the seasons had +been changed, and where now in the heaven are placed the North Wind +and winter, there was the station of the South Wind and of the midday, +and where now is placed the South Wind, there was the North, if this +had been so, the Sun being driven from the midst of the heaven by the +winter and the North Wind would go to the upper parts of Europe, just +as now he comes to the upper parts of Libya, and passing in his course +throughout the whole of Europe I suppose he would do to the Ister that +which he now works upon the Nile. As to the breeze, why none blows +from the river, my opinion is that from very hot places it is not +natural that anything should blow, and that a breeze is wont to blow +from something cold. + +Let these matters then be as they are and as they were at the first: +but as to the sources of the Nile, not one either of the Egyptians or +of the Libyans or of the Hellenes, who came to speech with me, +professed to know anything, except the scribe of the sacred treasury +of Athene at the city of Sais in Egypt. To me however this man seemed +not to be speaking seriously when he said that he had certain +knowledge of it; and he said as follows, namely that there were two +mountains of which the tops ran up to a sharp point, situated between +the city of Syene, which is in the district of Thebes, and +Elephantine, and the names of the mountains were, of the one Crophi +and of the other Mophi. From the middle between these mountains flowed +(he said) the sources of the Nile, which were fathomless in depth, and +half of the water flowed to Egypt and towards the North Wind, the +other half to Ethiopia and the South Wind. As for the fathomless depth +of the source, he said that Psammetichos king of Egypt came to a trial +of this matter; for he had a rope twisted of many thousand fathoms and +let it down in this place, and it found no bottom. By this the scribe +(if this which he told was really as he said) gave me to understand +that there were certain strong eddies there and a backward flow, and +that since the water dashed against the mountains, therefore the +sounding-line could not come to any bottom when it was let down. From +no other person was I able to learn anything about this matter; but +for the rest I learnt so much as here follows by the most diligent +inquiry; for I went myself as an eye-witness as far as the city of +Elephantine and from that point onwards I gathered knowledge by +report. From the city of Elephantine as one goes up the river there is +country which slopes steeply; so that here one must attach ropes to +the vessel on both sides, as one fastens an ox, and so make one's way +onward; and if the rope break, the vessel is gone at once, carried +away by the violence of the stream. Through this country it is a +voyage of about four days in length, and in this part the Nile is +winding like the river Maiander, and the distance amounts to twelve +/schoines/, which one must traverse in this manner. Then you will come +to a level plain, in which the Nile flows round an island named +Tachompso. (Now in the regions above the Elephantine there dwell +Ethiopians at once succeeding, who also occupy half of the island, and +Egyptians the other half.) Adjoining this island there is a great +lake, round which dwell Ethiopian nomad tribes; and when you have +sailed through this you will come to the stream of the Nile again, +which flows into this lake. After this you will disembark and make a +journey by land of forty days; for in the Nile sharp rocks stand forth +out of the water, and there are many reefs, by which it is not +possible for a vessel to pass. Then after having passed through this +country in the forty days which I have said, you will embark again in +another vessel and sail for twelve days; and after this you will come +to a great city called Meroe. This city is said to be the mother-city +of all the other Ethiopians: and they who dwell in it reverence of the +gods Zeus and Dionysos alone, and these they greatly honour; and they +have an Oracle of Zeus established, and make warlike marches +whensoever the god commands them by prophesyings and to whatsoever +place he commands. Sailing from this city you will come to the +"Deserters" in another period of time equal to that in which you came +from Elephantine to the mother-city of the Ethiopians. Now the name of +these "Deserters" is /Asmach/, and this word signifies, when +translated into the tongue of the Hellenes, "those who stand on the +left hand of the king." These were two hundred and forty thousand +Egyptians of the warrior class, who revolted and went over to these +Ethiopians for the following cause:--In the reign of Psammetichos +garrisons were set, one towards the Ethiopians at the city of +Elephantine, another towards the Arabians and Assyrians at Daphnai of +Pelusion, and another towards Libya at Marea: and even in my own time +the garrisons of the Persians too are ordered in the same manner as +these were in the reign of Psammetichos, for both at Elephantine and +at Daphnai the Persians have outposts. The Egyptians then of whom I +speak had served as outposts for three years and no one relieved them +from their guard; accordingly they took counsel together, and adopting +a common plan they all in a body revolted from Psammetichos and set +out for Ethiopia. Hearing this Psammetichos set forth in pursuit, and +when he came up with them he entreated them much and endeavoured to +persuade them not to desert the gods of their country and their +children and wives: upon which it is said that one of them pointed to +his privy member and said that wherever this was, there would they +have both children and wives. When these came to Ethiopia they gave +themselves over to the king of the Ethiopians; and he rewarded them as +follows:--there were certain of the Ethiopians who had come to be at +variance with him; and he bade them drive these out and dwell in their +land. So since these men settled in the land of the Ethiopians, the +Ethiopians have come to be of milder manners, from having learnt the +customs of the Egyptians. + +The Nile then, besides the part of its course which is in Egypt, is +known as far as a four months' journey by river and land: for that is +the number of months which are found by reckoning to be spent in going +from Elephantine to these "Deserters": and the river runs from the +West and the setting of the sun. But what comes after that point no +one can clearly say; for this land is desert by reason of the burning +heat. This much however I heard from men of Kyrene, who told me that +they had been to the Oracle of Ammon, and had come to speech with +Etearchos king of the Ammonians: and it happened that after speaking +of other matters they fell to discourse about the Nile and how no one +knew the sources of it; and Etearchos said that once there came to him +men of the Nasamonians (this is a Libyan race which dwells in the +Syrtis, and also in the land to the East of the Syrtis reaching to no +great distance), and when the Nasamonians came and were asked by him +whether they were able to tell him anything more than he knew about +the desert parts of Libya, they said that there had been among them +certain sons of chief men, who were of unruly disposition; and these +when they grew up to be men had devised various other extravagant +things and also they had told off by lot five of themselves to go to +see the desert parts of Libya and to try whether they could discover +more than those who had previously explored furthest: for in those +parts of Libya which are by the Northern Sea, beginning from Egypt and +going as far as the headland of Soloeis, which is the extreme point of +Libya, Libyans (and of them many races) extend along the whole coast, +except so much as the Hellenes and Phenicians hold; but in the upper +parts, which lie above the sea-coast and above those people whose land +comes down to the sea, Libya is full of wild beasts; and in the parts +above the land of wild beasts it is full of sand, terribly waterless +and utterly desert. These young men then (said they), being sent out +by their companions well furnished with supplies of water and +provisions, went first through the inhabited country, and after they +had passed through this they came to the country of wild beasts, and +after this they passed through the desert, making their journey +towards the West Wind; and having passed through a great tract of sand +in many days, they saw at last trees growing in a level place; and +having come up to them, they were beginning to pluck the fruit which +was upon the trees: but as they began to pluck it, there came upon +them small men, of less stature than men of the common size, and these +seized them and carried them away; and neither could the Nasamonians +understand anything of their speech nor could those who were carrying +them off understand anything of the speech of the Nasamonians; and +they led them (so it was said) through very great swamps, and after +passing through these they came to a city in which all the men were in +size like those who carried them off and in colour of skin black; and +by the city ran a great river, which ran from the West towards the +sunrising, and in it were seen crocodiles. Of the account given by +Etearchos the Ammonian let so much suffice as is here said, except +that, as the men of Kyrene told me, he alleged that the Nasamonians +returned safe home, and that the people to whom they had come were all +wizards. Now this river which ran by the city, Etearchos conjectured +to be the Nile, and moreover reason compels us to think so; for the +Nile flows from Libya and cuts Libya through in the midst, and as I +conjecture, judging of what is not known by that which is evident to +the view, it starts at a distance from its mouth equal to that of the +Ister: for the river Ister begins from the Keltoi and the city of +Pyrene and so runs that it divides Europe in the midst (now the Keltoi +are outside the Pillars of Heracles and border upon the Kynesians, who +dwell furthest towards the sunset of all those who have their dwelling +in Europe): and the Ister ends, having its course through the whole of +Europe, by flowing into the Euxine Sea at the place where the +Milesians have their settlement of Istria. Now the Ister, since it +flows through land which is inhabited, is known by the reports of +many; but of the sources of the Nile no one can give an account, for +the part of Libya through which it flows is uninhabited and desert. +About its course however so much as it was possible to learn by the +most diligent inquiry has been told; and it runs out into Egypt. Now +Egypt lies nearly opposite to the mountain districts of Kilikia; and +from thence to Sinope, which lies upon the Euxine Sea, is a journey in +the same straight line of five days for a man without encumbrance; and +Sinope lies opposite to the place where the Ister runs out into the +sea: thus I think that the Nile passes through the whole of Libya and +is of equal measure with the Ister. + + + +Of the Nile then let so much suffice as has been said. Of Egypt +however I shall make my report at length, because it has wonders more +in number than any other land, and works too it has to show as much as +any land, which are beyond expression great: for this reason then more +shall be said concerning it. + +The Egyptians in agreement with their climate, which is unlike any +other, and with the river, which shows a nature different from all +other rivers, established for themselves manners and customs in a way +opposite to other men in almost all matters: for among them the women +frequent the market and carry on trade, while the men remain at home +and weave; and whereas others weave pushing the woof upwards, the +Egyptians push it downwards: the men carry their burdens upon their +heads and the women upon their shoulders: the women make water +standing up and the men crouching down: they ease themselves in their +houses and they eat without in the streets, alleging as reason for +this that it is right to do secretly the things that are unseemly +though necessary, but those which are not unseemly, in public: no +woman is a minister either of male or female divinity, but men of all, +both male and female: to support their parents the sons are in no way +compelled, if they do not desire to do so, but the daughters are +forced to do so, be they never so unwilling. The priests of the gods +in other lands wear long hair, but in Egypt they shave their heads: +among other men the custom is that in mourning those whom the matter +concerns most nearly have their hair cut short, but the Egyptians, +when deaths occur, let their hair grow long, both that on the head and +that on the chin, having before been close shaven: other men have +their daily living separated from beasts, but the Egyptians have +theirs together with beasts: other men live on wheat and on barley, +but to any one of the Egyptians who makes his living on these it is a +great reproach; they make their bread of maize, which some call spelt: +they knead dough with their feet and clay with their hands, with which +also they gather up dung: and whereas other men, except such as have +learnt otherwise from the Egyptians, have their members as nature made +them, the Egyptians practice circumcision: as to garments, the men +wear two each and the women but one: and whereas others make fast the +rings and ropes of the sails outside the ship, the Egyptians do this +inside: finally in the writing of characters and reckoning with +pebbles, while the Hellenes carry the hand from the left to the right, +the Egyptians do this from the right to the left; and doing so they +say that they do it themselves rightwise and the Hellenes leftwise: +and they use two kinds of characters for writing, of which the one +kind is called sacred and the other common. + +They are religious excessively beyond all other men, and with regard +to this they have customs as follows:--they drink from cups of bronze +and rinse them out every day, and not some only do this but all: they +wear garments of linen always newly washed, and this they make a +special point of practice: they circumcise themselves for the sake of +cleanliness, preferring to be clean rather than comely. The priests +shave themselves all over their body every other day, so that no lice +or any other foul thing may come to be upon them when they minister to +the gods; and the priests wear garments of linen only and sandals of +papyrus, and any other garment they may not take nor other sandals; +these wash themselves in cold water twice in a day and twice again in +the night; and other religious services they perform (one may almost +say) of infinite number. They enjoy also good things not a few, for +they do not consume or spend anything of their own substance, but +there is sacred bread baked for them and they have each great quantity +of flesh of oxen and geese coming in to them each day, and also wine +of grapes is given to them; but it is not permitted to them to taste +of fish: beans moreover the Egyptians do not at all sow in their land, +and those which they grow they neither eat raw nor boil for food; nay +the priests do not endure even to look upon them, thinking this to be +an unclean kind of pulse: and there is not one priest only for each of +the gods but many, and of them one is chief-priest, and whenever a +priest dies his son is appointed to his place. + +The males of the ox kind they consider to belong to Epaphos, and on +account of him they test them in the following manner:--If the priest +sees one single black hair upon the beast he counts it not clean for +sacrifice; and one of the priests who is appointed for the purpose +makes investigation of these matters, both when the beast is standing +upright and when it is lying on its back, drawing out its tongue +moreover, to see if it is clean in respect of the appointed signs, +which I shall tell of in another part of the history: he looks also at +the hairs of the tail to see if it has them growing in a natural +manner; and if it be clean in respect of all these things, he marks it +with a piece of papyrus, rolling this round the horns, and then when +he has plastered sealing-earth over it he sets upon it the seal of his +signet-ring, and after that they take the animal away. But for one who +sacrifices a beast not sealed the penalty appointed is death. In this +way then the beast is tested; and their appointed manner of sacrifice +is as follows:--they lead the sealed beast to the altar where they +happen to be sacrificing, and then kindle a fire: after that, having +poured libations of wine over the altar so that it runs down upon the +victim and having called upon the god, they cut its throat, and having +cut its throat they sever the head from the body. The body then of the +beast they flay, but upon the head they make many imprecations first, +and then they who have a market and Hellenes sojourning among them for +trade, these carry it to the market-place and sell it, while they who +have no Hellenes among them cast it away into the river: and this is +the form of imprecations which they utter upon the heads, praying that +if any evil be about to befall either themselves who are offering +sacrifice or the land of Egypt in general, it may come rather upon +this head. Now as regards the heads of the beasts which are sacrificed +and the pouring over them of the wine, all the Egyptians have the same +customs equally for all their sacrifices; and by reason of this custom +none of the Egyptians eat of the head either of this or of any other +kind of animal: but the manner of disembowelling the victims and of +burning them is appointed among them differently for different +sacrifices; I shall speak however of the sacrifices to that goddess +whom they regard as the greatest of all, and to whom they celebrate +the greatest feast.--When they have flayed the bullock and made +imprecation, they take out the whole of its lower entrails but leave +in the body the upper entrails and the fat; and they sever from it the +legs and the end of the loin and the shoulders and the neck: and this +done, they fill the rest of the body of the animal with consecrated +loaves and honey and raisins and figs and frankincense and myrrh and +every other kind of spices, and having filled it with these they offer +it, pouring over it great abundance of oil. They make their sacrifice +after fasting, and while the offerings are being burnt, they all beat +themselves for mourning, and when they have finished beating +themselves they set forth as a feast that which they left unburnt of +the sacrifice. The clean males then of the ox kind, both full-grown +animals and calves, are sacrificed by all the Egyptians; the females +however they may not sacrifice, but these are sacred to Isis; for the +figure of Isis is in the form of a woman with cow's horns, just as the +Hellenes present Io in pictures, and all the Egyptians without +distinction reverence cows far more than any other kind of cattle; for +which reason neither man nor woman of the Egyptian race would kiss a +man who is a Hellene on the mouth, nor will they use a knife or +roasting-spits or a caldron belonging to a Hellene, nor taste the +flesh even of a clean animal if it has been cut with the knife of a +Hellene. And the cattle of this kind which die they bury in the +following manner:--the females they cast into the river, but the males +they bury, each people in the suburb of their town, with one of the +horns, or sometimes both, protruding to mark the place; and when the +bodies have rotted away and the appointed time comes on, then to each +city comes a boat from that which is called the island of Prosopitis +(this is in the Delta, and the extent of its circuit is nine +/schoines/). In this island of Prosopitis is situated, besides many +other cities, that one from which the boats come to take up the bones +of the oxen, and the name of the city is Atarbechis, and in it there +is set up a holy temple of Aphrodite. From this city many go abroad in +various directions, some to one city and others to another, and when +they have dug up the bones of the oxen they carry them off, and coming +together they bury them in one single place. In the same manner as +they bury the oxen they bury also their other cattle when they die; +for about them also they have the same law laid down, and these also +they abstain from killing. + +Now all who have a temple set up to the Theban Zeus or who are of the +district of Thebes, these, I say, all sacrifice goats and abstain from +sheep: for not all the Egyptians equally reverence the same gods, +except only Isis and Osiris (who they say is Dionysos), these they all +reverence alike: but they who have a temple of Mendes or belong to the +Mendesian district, these abstain from goats and sacrifice sheep. Now +the men of Thebes and those who after their example abstain from +sheep, say that this custom was established among them for the cause +which follows:--Heracles (they say) had an earnest desire to see Zeus, +and Zeus did not desire to be seen of him; and at last when Heracles +was urgent in entreaty Zeus contrived this device, that is to say, he +flayed a ram and held in front of him the head of the ram which he had +cut off, and he put on over him the fleece and then showed himself to +him. Hence the Egyptians make the image of Zeus with the face of a +ram; and the Ammonians do so also after their example, being settlers +both from the Egyptians and from the Ethiopians, and using a language +which is a medley of both tongues: and in my opinion it is from this +god that the Egyptians call Zeus /Amun/. The Thebans then do not +sacrifice rams but hold them sacred for this reason; on one day +however in the year, on the feast of Zeus, they cut up in the same +manner and flay one single ram and cover with its skin the image of +Zeus, and then they bring up to it another image of Heracles. This +done, all who are in the temple beat themselves in lamentation for the +ram, and then they bury it in a sacred tomb. + +About Heracles I heard the account given that he was of the number of +the twelve gods; but of the other Heracles whom the Hellenes know I +was not able to hear in any part of Egypt: and moreover to prove that +the Egyptians did not take the name of Heracles from the Hellenes, but +rather the Hellenes from the Egyptians,--that is to say those of the +Hellenes who gave the name Heracles to the son of Amphitryon,--of +that, I say, besides many other evidences there is chiefly this, +namely that the parents of this Heracles, Amphitryon and Alcmene, were +both of Egypt by descent, and also that the Egyptians say that they do +not know the names either of Poseidon or of the Dioscuroi, nor have +these been accepted by them as gods among the other gods; whereas if +they had received from the Hellenes the name of any divinity, they +would naturally have preserved the memory of these most of all, +assuming that in those times as now some of the Hellenes were wont to +make voyages and were seafaring folk, as I suppose and as my judgment +compels me to think; so that the Egyptians would have learnt the names +of these gods even more than that of Heracles. In fact however +Heracles is a very ancient Egyptian god; and (as they say themselves) +it is seventeen thousand years to the beginning of the reign of Amasis +from the time when the twelve gods, of whom they count that Heracles +is one, were begotten of the eight gods. I moreover, desiring to know +something certain of these matters so far as might be, made a voyage +also to Tyre of Phenicia, hearing that in that place there was a holy +temple of Heracles; and I saw that it was richly furnished with many +votive offerings besides, and especially there were in it two pillars, +the one of pure gold and the other of an emerald stone of such size as +to shine by night: and having come to speech with the priests of the +god, I asked them how long a time it was since their temple had been +set up: and these also I found to be at variance with the Hellenes, +for they said that at the same time when Tyre was founded, the temple +of the god also had been set up, and that it was a period of two +thousand three hundred years since their people began to dwell at +Tyre. I saw also at Tyre another temple of Heracles, with the surname +Thasian; and I came to Thasos also and there I found a temple of +Heracles set up by the Phenicians, who had sailed out to seek for +Europa and had colonised Thasos; and these things happened full five +generations of men before Heracles the son of Amphitryon was born in +Hellas. So then my inquiries show clearly that Heracles is an ancient +god, and those of the Hellenes seem to me to act most rightly who have +two temples of Heracles set up, and who sacrifice to the one as an +immortal god and with the title Olympian, and make offerings of the +dead to the other as a hero. Moreover, besides many other stories +which the Hellenes tell without due consideration, this tale is +especially foolish which they tell about Heracles, namely that when he +came to Egypt, the Egyptians put on him wreaths and led him forth in +procession to sacrifice him to Zeus; and he for some time kept quiet, +but when they were beginning the sacrifice of him at the altar, he +betook himself to prowess and slew them all. I for my part am of +opinion that the Hellenes when they tell this tale are altogether +without knowledge of the nature and customs of the Egyptians; for how +should they for whom it is not lawful to sacrifice even beasts, except +swine and the males of oxen and calves (such of them as are clean) and +geese, how should these sacrifice human beings? Besides this, how is +it in nature possible that Heracles, being one person only and +moreover a man (as they assert), should slay many myriads? Having said +so much of these matters, we pray that we may have grace from both the +gods and the heroes for our speech. + +Now the reason why those of the Egyptians whom I have mentioned do not +sacrifice goats, female or male, is this:--the Mendesians count Pan to +be one of the eight gods (now these eight gods they say came into +being before the twelve gods), and the painters and image-makers +represent in painting and in sculpture the figure of Pan, just as the +Hellenes do, with goat's face and legs, not supposing him to be really +like this but to resemble the other gods; the cause however why they +represent him in this form I prefer not to say. The Mendesians then +reverence all goats and the males more than the females (and the +goatherds too have greater honour than other herdsmen), but of the +goats one especially is reverenced, and when he dies there is great +mourning in all the Mendesian district: and both the goat and Pan are +called in the Egyptian tongue /Mendes/. Moreover in my lifetime there +happened in that district this marvel, that is to say a he-goat had +intercourse with a woman publicly, and this was so done that all men +might have evidence of it. + +The pig is accounted by the Egyptians an abominable animal; and first, +if any of them in passing by touch a pig, he goes into the river and +dips himself forthwith in the water together with his garments; and +then too swineherds, though they may be native Egyptians, unlike all +others, do not enter any of the temples in Egypt, nor is anyone +willing to give his daughter in marriage to one of them or to take a +wife from among them; but the swineherds both give in marriage to one +another and take from one another. Now to the other gods the Egyptians +do not think it right to sacrifice swine; but to the Moon and to +Dionysos alone at the same time and on the same full-moon they +sacrifice swine, and then eat their flesh: and as to the reason why, +when they abominate swine at all their other feasts, they sacrifice +them at this, there is a story told by the Egyptians; and this story I +know, but it is not a seemly one for me to tell. Now the sacrifice of +the swine to the Moon is performed as follows:--when the priest has +slain the victim, he puts together the end of the tail and the spleen +and the caul, and covers them up with the whole of the fat of the +animal which is about the paunch, and then he offers them with fire; +and the rest of the flesh they eat on that day of full moon upon which +they have held sacrifice, but on any day after this they will not +taste of it: the poor however among them by reason of the scantiness +of their means shape pigs of dough and having baked them they offer +these as a sacrifice. Then for Dionysos on the eve of the festival +each one kills a pig by cutting its throat before his own doors, and +after that he gives the pig to the swineherd who sold it to him, to +carry away again; and the rest of the feast of Dionysos is celebrated +by the Egyptians in the same way as by the Hellenes in almost all +things except choral dances, but instead of the /phallos/ they have +invented another contrivance, namely figures of about a cubit in +height worked by strings, which women carry about the villages, with +the privy member made to move and not much less in size than the rest +of the body: and a flute goes before and they follow singing the +praises of Dionysos. As to the reason why the figure has this member +larger than is natural and moves it, though it moves no other part of +the body, about this there is a sacred story told. Now I think that +Melampus the son of Amytheon was not without knowledge of these rites +of sacrifice, but was acquainted with them: for Melampus is he who +first set forth to the Hellenes the name of Dionysos and the manner of +sacrifice and the procession of the /phallos/. Strictly speaking +indeed, he when he made it known did not take in the whole, but those +wise men who came after him made it known more at large. Melampus then +is he who taught of the /phallos/ which is carried in procession for +Dionysos, and from him the Hellenes learnt to do that which they do. I +say then that Melampus being a man of ability contrived for himself an +art of divination, and having learnt from Egypt he taught the Hellenes +many things, and among them those that concern Dionysos, making +changes in some few points of them: for I shall not say that that +which is done in worship of the god in Egypt came accidentally to be +the same with that which is done among the Hellenes, for then these +rites would have been in character with the Hellenic worship and not +lately brought in; nor certainly shall I say that the Egyptians took +from the Hellenes either this or any other customary observance: +matters concerning Dionysos from Cadmos the Tyrian and from those who +came with him from Phenicia to the land which we now call Boeotia. + +Moreover the naming of almost all the gods has come to Hellas from +Egypt: for that it has come from the Barbarians I find by inquiry is +true, and I am of opinion that most probably it has come from Egypt, +because, except in the case of Poseidon and the Dioscuroi (in +accordance with that which I have said before), and also of Hera and +Hestia and Themis and the Charites and Nereids, the Egyptians say +themselves: but as for the gods whose names they profess that they do +not know, these I think received their naming from the Pelasgians, +except Poiseidon; but about this god the Hellenes learnt from the +Libyans, for no people except the Libyans have had the name of +Poseidon from the first and have paid honour to this god always. Nor, +it may be added, have the Egyptians any custom of worshipping heroes. +These observances then, and others besides these which I shall +mention, the Hellenes have adopted from the Egyptians; but to make, as +they do the images of Hermes with the /phallos/ they have learnt not +from the Egyptians but from the Pelasgians, the custom having been +received by the Athenians first of all the Hellenes and from these by +the rest; for just at the time when the Athenians were beginning to +rank among the Hellenes, the Pelasgians became dwellers with them in +their land, and from this very cause it was that they began to be +counted as Hellenes. Whosoever has been initiated in the mysteries of +the Cabeiroi, which the Samothrakians perform having received them +from the Pelasgians, that man knows the meaning of my speech; for +these very Pelasgians who became dwellers with the Athenians used to +dwell before that time in Samothrake, and from them the Samothrakians +received their mysteries. So then the Athenians were the first of the +Hellenes who made the images of Hermes with the /phallos/, having +learnt from the Pelasgians; and the Pelasgians told a sacred story +about it, which is set forth in the mysteries in Samothrake. Now the +Pelasgians formerly were wont to make all their sacrifices calling +upon the gods in prayer, as I know from that which I heard at Dodona, +but they gave no title or name to any of them, for they had not yet +heard any, but they called them gods from some such notion as this, +that they had set in order all things and so had the distribution of +everything. Afterwards when much time had elapsed, they learnt from +Egypt the names of the gods, all except Dionysos, for his name they +learnt long afterwards; and after a time the Pelasgians consulted the +Oracle at Dodona about the names, for this prophetic seat is accounted +to be the most ancient of the Oracles which are among the Hellenes, +and at that time it was the only one. So when the Pelasgians asked the +Oracle at Dodona whether they should adopt the names which had come +from the Barbarians, the Oracle in reply bade them make use of the +names. From this time they sacrificed using the names of the gods, and +from the Pelasgians the Hellenes afterwards received them: but when +the several gods had their birth, or whether they all were from the +beginning, and of what form they are, they did not learn till +yesterday, as it were, or the day before: for Hesiod and Homer I +suppose were four hundred years before my time and not more, and these +are they who made a theogony for the Hellenes and gave the titles to +the gods and distributed to them honours and arts, and set forth their +forms: but the poets who are said to have been before these men were +really in my opinion after them. Of these things the first are said by +the priestesses of Dodona, and the latter things, those namely which +have regard to Hesiod and Homer, by myself. + +As regards the Oracles both that among the Hellenes and that in Libya, +the Egyptians tell the following tale. The priests of the Theban Zeus +told me that two women in the service of the temple had been carried +away from Thebes by Phenicians, and that they had heard that one of +them had been sold to go into Libya and the other to the Hellenes; and +these women, they said, were they who first founded the prophetic +seats among the nations which have been named: and when I inquired +whence they knew so perfectly of this tale which they told, they said +in reply that a great search had been made by the priests after these +women, and that they had not been able to find them, but they had +heard afterwards this tale about them which they were telling. This I +heard from the priests at Thebes, and what follows is said by the +prophetesses of Dodona. They say that two black doves flew from Thebes +in Egypt, and came one of them to Libya and the other to their land. +And this latter settled upon an oak-tree and spoke with human voice, +saying that it was necessary that a prophetic seat of Zeus should be +established in that place; and they supposed that that was of the gods +which was announced to them, and made one accordingly: and the dove +which went away to the Libyans, they say, bade the Libyans make an +Oracle of Ammon; and this also is of Zeus. The priestesses of Dodona +told me these things, of whom the eldest was named Promeneia, the next +after her Timarete, and the youngest Nicandra; and the other people of +Dodona who were engaged about the temple gave accounts agreeing with +theirs. I however have an opinion about the matter as follows:--If the +Phenicians did in truth carry away the consecrated women and sold one +of them into Libya and the other into Hellas, I suppose that in the +country now called Hellas, which was formerly called Pelasgia, this +woman was sold into the land of the Thesprotians; and then being a +slave there she set up a sanctuary of Zeus under a real oak-tree; as +indeed it was natural that being an attendant of the sanctuary of Zeus +at Thebes, she should there, in the place to which she had come, have +a memory of him; and after this, when she got understanding of the +Hellenic tongue, she established an Oracle, and she reported, I +suppose, that her sister had been sold in Libya by the same Phenicians +by whom she herself had been sold. Moreover, I think that the women +were called doves by the people of Dodona for the reason that they +were barbarians and because it seemed to them that they uttered voice +like birds; but after a time (they say) the dove spoke with human +voice, that is when the woman began to speak so that they could +understand; but so long as she spoke a Barbarian tongue she seemed to +them to be uttering voice like a bird: for if it had been really a +dove, how could it speak with human voice? And in saying that the dove +was black, they indicate that the woman was Egyptian. The ways of +delivering oracles too at Thebes in Egypt and at Dodona closely +resemble each other, as it happens, and also the method of divination +by victims has come from Egypt. + +Moreover, it is true also that the Egyptians were the first of men who +made solemn assemblies and processions and approaches to the temples, +and from them the Hellenes have learnt them, and my evidence for this +is that the Egyptian celebrations of these have been held from a very +ancient time, whereas the Hellenic were introduced but lately. The +Egyptians hold their solemn assemblies not once in the year but often, +especially and with the greatest zeal and devotion at the city of +Bubastis for Artemis, and next at Busiris for Isis; for in this last- +named city there is a very great temple of Isis, and this city stands +in the middle of the Delta of Egypt; now Isis is in the tongue of the +Hellenes Demeter: thirdly, they have a solemn assembly at the city of +Sais for Athene, fourthly at Heliopolis for the Sun (Helios), fifthly +at the city of Buto in honour of Leto, and sixthly at the city of +Papremis for Ares. Now, when they are coming to the city of Bubastis +they do as follows:--they sail men and women together, and a great +multitude of each sex in every boat; and some of the women have +rattles and rattle with them, while some of the men play the flute +during the whole time of the voyage, and the rest, both women and men, +sing and clap their hands; and when as they sail they come opposite to +any city on the way they bring the boat to land, and some of the women +continue to do as I have said, others cry aloud and jeer at the women +in that city, some dance, and some stand up and pull up their +garments. This they do by every city along the river-bank; and when +they come to Bubastis they hold festival celebrating great sacrifices, +and more wine of grapes is consumed upon that festival than during the +whole of the rest of the year. To this place (so say the natives) they +come together year by year even to the number of seventy myriads of +men and women, besides children. Thus it is done here; and how they +celebrate the festival in honour of Isis at the city of Busiris has +been told by me before: for, as I said, they beat themselves in +mourning after the sacrifice, all of them both men and women, very +many myriads of people; but for whom they beat themselves it is not +permitted to me by religion to say: and so many as there are of the +Carians dwelling in Egypt do this even more than the Egyptians +themselves, inasmuch as they cut their foreheads also with knives; and +by this it is manifested that they are strangers and not Egyptians. At +the times when they gather together at the city of Sais for their +sacrifices, on a certain night they all kindle lamps many in number in +the open air round about the houses; now the lamps are saucers full of +salt and oil mixed, and the wick floats by itself on the surface, and +this burns during the whole night; and to the festival is given the +name /Lychnocaia/ (the lighting of lamps). Moreover those of the +Egyptians who have not come to this solemn assembly observe the night +of the festival and themselves also light lamps all of them, and thus +not in Sais alone are they lighted, but over all Egypt: and as to the +reason why light and honour are allotted to this night, about this +there is a sacred story told. To Heliopolis and Buto they go year by +year and do sacrifice only: but at Papremis they do sacrifice and +worship as elsewhere, and besides that, when the sun begins to go down +while some few of the priests are occupied with the image of the god, +the greater number of them stand in the entrance of the temple with +wooden clubs, and other persons to the number of more than a thousand +men with purpose to perform a vow, these also having all of them +staves of wood, stand in a body opposite to those: and the image, +which is in a small shrine of wood covered over with gold, they take +out on the day before to another sacred building. The few then who +have been left about the image, draw a wain with four wheels, which +bears the shrine and the image that is within the shrine, and the +other priests standing in the gateway try to prevent it from entering, +and the men who are under a vow come to the assistance of the god and +strike them, while the others defend themselves. Then there comes to +be a hard fight with staves, and they break one another's heads, and I +am of opinion that many even die of the wounds they receive; the +Egyptians however told me that no one died. This solemn assembly the +people of the place say that they established for the following +reason:--the mother of Ares, they say, used to dwell in this temple, +and Ares, having been brought up away from her, when he grew up came +thither desiring to visit his mother, and the attendants of his +mother's temple, not having seen him before, did not permit him to +pass in, but kept him away; and he brought men to help him from +another city and handled roughly the attendants of the temple, and +entered to visit his mother. Hence, they say, this exchange of blows +has become the custom in honour of Ares upon his festival. + +The Egyptians were the first who made it a point of religion not to +lie with women in temples, nor to enter into temples after going away +from women without first bathing: for almost all other men except the +Egyptians and the Hellenes lie with women in temples and enter into a +temple after going away from women without bathing, since they hold +that there is no difference in this respect between men and beasts: +for they say that they see beasts and the various kinds of birds +coupling together both in the temples and in the sacred enclosures of +the gods; if then this were not pleasing to the god, the beasts would +not do so. + +Thus do these defend that which they do, which by me is disallowed: +but the Egyptians are excessively careful in their observances, both +in other matters which concern the sacred rites and also in those +which follow:--Egypt, though it borders upon Libya, does not very much +abound in wild animals, but such as they have are one and all +accounted by them sacred, some of them living with men and others not. +But if I should say for what reasons the sacred animals have been thus +dedicated, I should fall into discourse of matters pertaining to the +gods, of which I most desire not to speak; and what I have actually +said touching slightly upon them, I said because I was constrained by +necessity. About these animals there is a custom of this kind:-- +persons have been appointed of the Egyptians, both men and women, to +provide the food for each kind of beast separately, and their office +goes down from father to son; and those who dwell in the various +cities perform vows to them thus, that is, when they make a vow to the +god to whom the animal belongs, they shave the head of their children +either the whole or the half or the third part of it, and then set the +hair in the balance against silver, and whatever it weighs, this the +man gives to the person who provides for the animals, and she cuts up +fish of equal value and gives it for food to the animals. Thus food +for their support has been appointed and if any one kill any of these +animals, the penalty, if he do it with his own will, is death, and if +against his will, such penalty as the priests may appoint: but +whosoever shall kill an ibis or a hawk, whether it be with his will or +against his will, must die. Of the animals that live with men there +are great numbers, and would be many more but for the accidents which +befall the cats. For when the females have produced young they are no +longer in the habit of going to the males, and these seeking to be +united with them are not able. To this end then they contrive as +follows,--they either take away by force or remove secretly the young +from the females and kill them (but after killing they do not eat +them), and the females being deprived of their young and desiring +more, therefore come to the males, for it is a creature that is fond +of its young. Moreover when a fire occurs, the cats seem to be +divinely possessed; for while the Egyptians stand at intervals and +look after the cats, not taking any care to extinguish the fire, the +cats slipping through or leaping over the men, jump into the fire; and +when this happens, great mourning comes upon the Egyptians. And in +whatever houses a cat has died by a natural death, all those who dwell +in this house shave their eyebrows only, but those in which a dog has +died shave their whole body and also their head. The cats when they +are dead are carried away to sacred buildings in the city of Bubastis, +where after being embalmed they are buried; but the dogs they bury +each people in their own city in sacred tombs; and the ichneumons are +buried just in the same way as the dogs. The shrewmice however and the +hawks they carry away to the city of Buto, and the ibises to +Hermopolis; the bears (which are not commonly seen) and the wolves, +not much larger in size than foxes, they bury on the spot where they +are found lying. + +Of the crocodile the nature is as follows:--during the four most +wintry months this creature eats nothing: she has four feet and is an +animal belonging to the land and the water both; for she produces and +hatches eggs on the land, and the most part of the day she remains +upon dry land, but the whole of the night in the river, for the water +in truth is warmer than the unclouded open air and the dew. Of all the +mortal creatures of which we have knowledge this grows to the greatest +bulk from the smallest beginning; for the eggs which she produces are +not much larger than those of geese and the newly-hatched young one is +in proportion to the egg, but as he grows he becomes as much as +seventeen cubits long and sometimes yet larger. He has eyes like those +of a pig and teeth large and tusky, in proportion to the size of his +body; but unlike all other beasts he grows no tongue, neither does he +move his lower jaw, but brings the upper jaw towards the lower, being +in this too unlike all other beasts. He has moreover strong claws and +a scaly hide upon his back which cannot be pierced; and he is blind in +the water, but in the air he is of a very keen sight. Since he has his +living in the water he keeps his mouth all full within of leeches; and +whereas all other birds and beasts fly from him, the trochilus is a +creature which is at peace with him, seeing that from her he receives +benefit; for the crocodile having come out of the water to the land +and then having opened his mouth (this he is wont to do generally +towards the West Wind), the trochilus upon that enters into his mouth +and swallows down the leeches, and he being benefited is pleased and +does no harm to the trochilus. Now for some of the Egyptians the +crocodiles are sacred animals, and for others not so, but they treat +them on the contrary as enemies: those however who dwell about Thebes +and about the lake of Moiris hold them to be most sacred, and each of +these two peoples keeps one crocodile selected from the whole number, +which has been trained to tameness, and they put hanging ornaments of +molten stone and of gold into the ears of these and anklets round the +front feet, and they give them food appointed and victims of +sacrifices and treat them as well as possible while they live, and +after they are dead they bury them in sacred tombs, embalming them: +but those who dwell about the city of Elephantine even eat them, not +holding them to be sacred. They are called not crocodiles but +/champsai/, and the Ionians gave them the name of crocodile, comparing +their form to that of the crocodiles (lizards) which appear in their +country in the stone walls. There are many ways in use of catching +them and of various kinds: I shall describe that which to me seems the +most worthy of being told. A man puts the back of a pig upon a hook as +bait, and lets it go into the middle of the river, while he himself +upon the bank of the river has a young live pig, which he beats; and +the crocodile hearing its cries makes for the direction of the sound, +and when he finds the pig's back he swallows it down: then they pull, +and when he is drawn out to land, first of all the hunter forthwith +plasters up his eyes with mud, and having done so he very easily gets +the mastery of him, but if he does not do so he has much trouble. + +The river-horse is sacred in the district of Papremis, but for the +other Egyptians he is not sacred; and this is the appearance which he +presents: he is four-footed, cloven-hoofed like an ox, flat-nosed, +with a mane like a horse and showing teeth like tusks, with a tail and +voice like a horse and in size as large as the largest ox; and his +hide is so exceedingly thick that when it has been dried shafts of +javelins are made of it. There are moreover otters in the river, which +they consider to be sacred: and of fish also they esteem that which is +called the /lepidotos/ to be sacred, and also the eel; and these they +say are sacred to the Nile: and of birds the fox-goose. + +There is also another sacred bird called the phoenix which I did not +myself see except in painting, for in truth he comes to them very +rarely, at intervals, as the people of Heliopolis say, of five hundred +years; and these say that he comes regularly when his father dies; and +if he be like the painting he is of this size and nature, that is to +say, some of his feathers are of gold colour and others red, and in +outline and size he is as nearly as possible like an eagle. This bird +they say (but I cannot believe the story) contrives as follows:-- +setting forth from Arabia he conveys his father, they say, to the +temple of the Sun (Helios) plastered up in myrrh, and buries him in +the temple of the Sun; and he conveys him thus:--he forms first an egg +of myrrh as large as he is able to carry, and then he makes trial of +carrying it, and when he has made trial sufficiently, then he hollows +out the egg and places his father within it and plasters over with +other myrrh that part of the egg where he hollowed it out to put his +father in, and when his father is laid in it, it proves (they say) to +be of the same weight as it was; and after he has plastered it up, he +conveys the whole to Egypt to the temple of the Sun. Thus they say +that this bird does. + +There are also about Thebes sacred serpents, not at all harmful to +men, which are small in size and have two horns growing from the top +of the head: these they bury when they die in the temple of Zeus, for +to this god they say that they are sacred. There is a region moreover +in Arabia, situated nearly over against the city of Buto, to which +place I came to inquire about the winged serpents: and when I came +thither I saw bones of serpents and spines in quantity so great that +it is impossible to make report of the number, and there were heaps of +spines, some heaps large and others less large and others smaller +still than these, and these heaps were many in number. This region in +which the spines are scattered upon the ground is of the nature of an +entrance from a narrow mountain pass to a great plain, which plain +adjoins the plain in Egypt; and the story goes that at the beginning +of spring winged serpents from Arabia fly towards Egypt, and the birds +called ibises meet them at the entrance to this country and do not +suffer the serpents to go by but kill them. On account of this deed it +is (say the Arabians) that the ibis has come to be greatly honoured by +the Egyptians, and the Egyptians also agree that it is for this reason +that they honour these birds. The outward form of the ibis is this:-- +it is a deep black all over, and has legs like those of a crane and a +very curved beak, and in size it is about equal to a rail: this is the +appearance of the black kind which fight with the serpents, but of +those which most crowd round men's feet (for there are two several +kinds of ibises) the head is bare and also the whole of the throat, +and it is white in feathering except the head and neck and the +extremities of the wings and the rump (in all these parts of which I +have spoken it is a deep black), while in legs and in the form of the +head it resembles the other. As for the serpent its form is like that +of the watersnake; and it has wings not feathered but most nearly +resembling the wings of the bat. Let so much suffice as has been said +now concerning sacred animals. + + + +Of the Egyptians themselves, those who dwell in the part of Egypt +which is sown for crops practise memory more than any other men and +are the most learned in history by far of all those of whom I have had +experience: and their manner of life is as follows:--For three +successive days in each month they purge, hunting after health with +emetics and clysters, and they think that all the diseases which exist +are produced in men by the food on which they live: for the Egyptians +are from other causes also the most healthy of all men next after the +Libyans (in my opinion on account of the seasons, because the seasons +do not change, for by the changes of things generally, and especially +of the seasons, diseases are most apt to be produced in men), and as +to their diet, it is as follows:--they eat bread, making loaves of +maize, which they call /kyllestis/, and they use habitually a wine +made out of barley, for vines they have not in their land. Of their +fish some they dry in the sun and then eat them without cooking, +others they eat cured in brine. Of birds they eat quails and ducks and +small birds without cooking, after first curing them; and everything +else which they have belonging to the class of birds or fishes, except +such as have been set apart by them as sacred, they eat roasted or +boiled. In the entertainments of the rich among them, when they have +finished eating, a man bears round a wooden figure of a dead body in a +coffin, made as like the reality as may be both by painting and +carving, and measuring about a cubit or two cubits each way; and this +he shows to each of those who are drinking together, saying: "When +thou lookest upon this, drink and be merry, for thou shalt be such as +this when thou art dead." Thus they do at their carousals. The customs +which they practise are derived from their fathers and they do not +acquire others in addition; but besides other customary things among +them which are worthy of mention, they have one song, that of Linos, +the same who is sung of both in Phenicia and in Cyprus and elsewhere, +having however a name different according to the various nations. This +song agrees exactly with that which the Hellenes sing calling on the +name of Linos, so that besides many other things about which I wonder +among those matters which concern Egypt, I wonder especially about +this, namely whence they got the song of Linos. It is evident however +that they have sung this song from immemorial time, and in the +Egyptian tongue Linos is called Maneros. The Egyptians told me that he +was the only son of him who first became king of Egypt, and that he +died before his time and was honoured with these lamentations by the +Egyptians, and that this was their first and only song. In another +respect the Egyptians are in agreement with some of the Hellenes, +namely with the Lacedemonians, but not with the rest, that is to say, +the younger of them when they meet the elder give way and move out of +the path, and when their elders approach, they rise out of their seat. +In this which follows however they are not in agreement with any of +the Hellenes,--instead of addressing one another in the roads they do +reverence, lowering their hand down to their knee. They wear tunics of +linen about their legs with fringes, which they call /calasiris/; +above these they have garments of white wool thrown over: woolen +garments however are not taken into the temples, nor are they buried +with them, for this is not permitted by religion. In these points they +are in agreement with the observances called Orphic and Bacchic (which +are really Egyptian), and also with those of the Pythagoreans, for one +who takes part in these mysteries is also forbidden by religious rule +to be buried in woolen garments; and about this there is a sacred +story told. + +Besides these things the Egyptians have found out also to what god +each month and each day belongs, and what fortunes a man will meet +with who is born on any particular day, and how he will die, and what +kind of a man he will be: and these inventions were taken up by those +of the Hellenes who occupied themselves about poesy. Portents too have +been found out by them more than by all other men besides; for when a +portent has happened, they observe and write down the event which +comes of it, and if ever afterwards anything resembling this happens, +they believe that the event which comes of it will be similar. Their +divination is ordered thus:--the art is assigned not to any man but to +certain of the gods, for there are in their land Oracles of Heracles, +of Apollo, of Athene, of Artemis, or Ares, and of Zeus, and moreover +that which they hold most in honour of all, namely the Oracle of Leto +which is in the city of Buto. The manner of divination however is not +established among them according to the same fashion everywhere, but +is different in different places. The art of medicine among them is +distributed thus:--each physician is a physician of one disease and of +no more; and the whole country is full of physicians, for some profess +themselves to be physicians of the eyes, others of the head, others of +the teeth, others of the affections of the stomach, and others of the +more obscure ailments. + +Their fashions of mourning and of burial are these:--Whenever any +household has lost a man who is of any regard amongst them, the whole +number of women of that house forthwith plaster over their heads or +even their faces with mud. Then leaving the corpse within the house +they go themselves to and fro about the city and beat themselves, with +their garments bound up by a girdle and their breasts exposed, and +with them go all the women who are related to the dead man, and on the +other side the men beat themselves, they too having their garments +bound up by a girdle; and when they have done this, they then convey +the body to the embalming. In this occupation certain persons employ +themselves regularly and inherit this as a craft. These, whenever a +corpse is conveyed to them, show to those who brought it wooden models +of corpses made like reality by painting, and the best of the ways of +embalming they say is that of him whose name I think it impiety to +mention when speaking of a matter of such a kind; the second which +they show is less good than this and also less expensive; and the +third is the least expensive of all. Having told them about this, they +inquire of them in which way they desire the corpse of their friend to +be prepared. Then they after they have agreed for a certain price +depart out of the way, and the others being left behind in the +buildings embalm according to the best of these ways thus:--First with +the crooked iron tool they draw out the brain through the nostrils, +extracting it partly thus and partly by pouring in drugs; and after +this with a sharp stone of Ethiopia they make a cut along the side and +take out the whole contents of the belly, and when they have cleared +out the cavity and cleansed it with palm-wine they cleanse it again +with spices pounded up: then they fill the belly with pure myrrh +pounded up and with cassia and other spices except frankincense, and +sew it together again. Having so done they keep it for embalming +covered up in natron for seventy days, but for a longer time than this +it is not permitted to embalm it; and when the seventy days are past, +they wash the corpse and roll its whole body up in fine linen cut into +bands, smearing these beneath with gum, which the Egyptians use +generally instead of glue. Then the kinsfolk receive it from them and +have a wooden figure made in the shape of a man, and when they have +had this made they enclose the corpse, and having shut it up within, +they store it then in a sepulchral chamber, setting it to stand +upright against the wall. Thus they deal with the corpses which are +prepared in the most costly way; but for those who desire the middle +way and wish to avoid great cost they prepare the corpse as follows:-- +having filled their syringes with the oil which is got from cedar- +wood, with this they forthwith fill the belly of the corpse, and this +they do without having either cut it open or taken out the bowels, but +they inject the oil by the breech, and having stopped the drench from +returning back they keep it then the appointed number of days for +embalming, and on the last of the days they let the cedar oil come out +from the belly, which they before put in; and it has such power that +it brings out with it the bowels and interior organs of the body +dissolved; and the natron dissolves the flesh, so that there is left +of the corpse only the skin and the bones. When they have done this +they give back the corpse at once in that condition without working +upon it any more. The third kind of embalming, by which are prepared +the bodies of those who have less means, is as follows:--they cleanse +out the belly with a purge and then keep the body for embalming during +the seventy days, and at once after that they give it back to the +bringers to carry away. The wives of men of rank when they die are not +given at once to be embalmed, nor such women as are very beautiful or +of greater regard than others, but on the third or fourth day after +their death (and not before) they are delivered to the embalmers. They +do so about this matter in order that the embalmers may not abuse +their women, for they say that one of them was taken once doing so to +the corpse of a woman lately dead, and his fellow-craftsman gave +information. Whenever any one, either of the Egyptians themselves or +of strangers, is found to have been carried off by a crocodile or +brought to his death by the river itself, the people of any city by +which he may have been cast up on land must embalm him and lay him out +in the fairest way they can and bury him in a sacred burial-place, nor +may any of his relations or friends besides touch him, but the priests +of the Nile themselves handle the corpse and bury it as that of one +who was something more than man. + +Hellenic usages they will by no means follow, and to speak generally +they follow those of no other men whatever. This rule is observed by +most of the Egyptians; but there is a large city named Chemmis in the +Theban district near Neapolis, and in this city there is a temple of +Perseus the son of Danae which is of a square shape, and round it grow +date-palms: the gateway of the temple is built of stone and of very +great size, and at the entrance of it stand two great statues of +stone. Within this enclosure is a temple-house and in it stands an +image of Perseus. These people of Chemmis say that Perseus is wont +often to appear in their land and often within the temple, and that a +sandal which has been worn by him is found sometimes, being in length +two cubits, and whenever this appears all Egypt prospers. This they +say, and they do in honour of Perseus after Hellenic fashion thus,-- +they hold an athletic contest, which includes the whole list of games, +and they offer in prizes cattle and cloaks and skins: and when I +inquired why to them alone Perseus was wont to appear, and wherefore +they were separated from all the other Egyptians in that they held an +athletic contest, they said that Perseus had been born of their city, +for Danaos and Lynkeus were men of Chemmis and had sailed to Hellas, +and from them they traced a descent and came down to Perseus: and they +told me that he had come to Egypt for the reason which the Hellenes +also say, namely to bring from Libya the Gorgon's head, and had then +visited them also and recognised all his kinsfolk, and they said that +he had well learnt the name of Chemmis before he came to Egypt, since +he had heard it from his mother, and that they celebrated an athletic +contest for him by his own command. + +All these are customs practised by the Egyptians who dwell above the +fens: and those who are settled in the fenland have the same customs +for the most part as the other Egyptians, both in other matters and +also in that they live each with one wife only, as do the Hellenes; +but for economy in respect of food they have invented these things +besides:--when the river has become full and the plains have been +flooded, there grow in the water great numbers of lilies, which the +Egyptians call /lotos/; these they cut with a sickle and dry in the +sun, and then they pound that which grows in the middle of the lotos +and which is like the head of a poppy, and they make of it loaves +baked with fire. The root also of this lotos is edible and has a +rather sweet taste: it is round in shape and about the size of an +apple. There are other lilies too, in flower resembling roses, which +also grow in the river, and from them the fruit is produced in a +separate vessel springing from the root by the side of the plant +itself, and very nearly resembles a wasp's comb: in this there grow +edible seeds in great numbers of the size of an olive-stone, and they +are eaten either fresh or dried. Besides this they pull up from the +fens the papyrus which grows every year, and the upper parts of it +they cut off and turn to other uses, but that which is left below for +about a cubit in length they eat or sell: and those who desire to have +the papyrus at its very best bake it in an oven heated red-hot, and +then eat it. Some too of these people live on fish alone, which they +dry in the sun after having caught them and taken out the entrails, +and then when they are dry, they use them for food. + +Fish which swim in shoals are not much produced in the rivers, but are +bred in the lakes, and they do as follows:--When there comes upon them +the desire to breed, they swim out in shoals towards the sea; and the +males lead the way shedding forth their milt as they go, while the +females, coming after and swallowing it up, from it become +impregnated: and when they have become full of young in the sea they +swim up back again, each shoal to its own haunts. The same however no +longer lead the way as before, but the lead comes now to the females, +and they leading the way in shoals do just as the males did, that is +to say they shed forth their eggs by a few grains at a time, and the +males coming after swallow them up. Now these grains are fish, and +from the grains which survive and are not swallowed, the fish grow +which afterwards are bred up. Now those of the fish which are caught +as they swim out towards the sea are found to be rubbed on the left +side of the head, but those which are caught as they swim up again are +rubbed on the right side. This happens to them because as they swim +down to the sea they keep close to the land on the left side of the +river, and again as they swim up they keep to the same side, +approaching and touching the bank as much as they can, for fear +doubtless of straying from their course by reason of the stream. When +the Nile begins to swell, the hollow places of the land and the +depressions by the side of the river first begin to fill, as the water +soaks through from the river, and so soon as they become full of +water, at once they are all filled with little fishes; and whence +these are in all likelihood produced, I think that I perceive. In the +preceding year, when the Nile goes down, the fish first lay eggs in +the mud and then retire with the last of the retreating waters; and +when the time comes round again, and the water once more comes over +the land, from these eggs forthwith are produced the fishes of which I +speak. + +Thus it is as regards the fish. And for anointing those of the +Egyptians who dwell in the fens use oil from the castor-berry, which +oil the Egyptians call /kiki/, and thus they do:--they sow along the +banks of the rivers and pools these plants, which in a wild form grow +of themselves in the land of the Hellenes; these are sown in Egypt and +produce berries in great quantity but of an evil smell; and when they +have gathered these some cut them up and press the oil from them, +others again roast them first and then boil them down and collect that +which runs away from them. The oil is fat and not less suitable for +burning than olive-oil, but it gives forth a disagreeable smell. +Against the gnats, which are very abundant, they have contrived as +follows:--those who dwell above the fen-land are helped by the towers, +to which they ascend when they go to rest; for the gnats by reason of +the winds are not able to fly up high: but those who dwell in the fen- +land have contrived another way instead of the towers, and this it is: +--every man of them has got a casting net, with which by day he +catches fish, but in the night he uses it for this purpose, that is to +say he puts the casting-net round about the bed in which he sleeps, +and then creeps in under it and goes to sleep: and the gnats, if he +sleeps rolled up in a garment or a linen sheet, bite through these, +but through the net they do not even attempt to bite. + +Their boats with which they carry cargoes are made of the thorny +acacia, of which the form is very like that of the Kyrenian lotos, and +that which exudes from it is gum. From this tree they cut pieces of +wood about two cubits in length and arrange them like bricks, +fastening the boat together by running a great number of long bolts +through the two-cubits pieces; and when they have thus fastened the +boat together, they lay cross-pieces over the top, using no ribs for +the sides; and within they caulk the seams with papyrus. They make one +steering-oar for it, which is passed through the bottom of the boat; +and they have a mast of acacia and sails of papyrus. These boats +cannot sail up the river unless there be a very fresh wind blowing, +but are towed from the shore: down-stream however they travel as +follows:--they have a door-shaped crate made of tamarisk wood and reed +mats sewn together, and also a stone of about two talents weight bored +with a hole; and of these the boatman lets the crate float on in front +of the boat, fastened with a rope, and the stone drags behind by +another rope. The crate then, as the force of the stream presses upon +it, goes on swiftly and draws on the /baris/ (for so these boats are +called), while the stone dragging after it behind and sunk deep in the +water keeps its course straight. These boats they have in great +numbers and some of them carry many thousands of talents' burden. + +When the Nile comes over the land, the cities alone are seen rising +above the water, resembling more nearly than anything else the islands +in the Egean Sea; for the rest of Egypt becomes a sea and the cities +alone rise above water. Accordingly, whenever this happens, they pass +by water not now by the channels of the river but over the midst of +the plain: for example, as one sails up from Naucratis to Memphis the +passage is then close by the pyramids, whereas the usual passage is +not the same even here, but goes by the point of the Delta and the +city of Kercasoros; while if you sail over the plain to Naucratis from +the sea and from Canobos, you will go by Anthylla and the city called +after Archander. Of these Anthylla is a city of note and is especially +assigned to the wife of him who reigns over Egypt, to supply her with +sandals, (this is the case since the time when Egypt came to be under +the Persians): the other city seems to me to have its name from +Archander the son-in-law of Danaos, who was the son of Phthios, the +son of Achaios; for it is called the City of Archander. There might +indeed by another Archander, but in any case the name is not Egyptian. + + + +Hitherto my own observation and judgment and inquiry are the vouchers +for that which I have said; but from this point onwards I am about to +tell the history of Egypt according to that which I have heard, to +which will be added also something of that which I have myself seen. + +Of Min, who first became king of Egypt, the priests said that on the +one hand he banked off the site of Memphis from the river: for the +whole stream of the river used to flow along by the sandy mountain- +range on the side of Libya, but Min formed by embankments that bend of +the river which lies to the South about a hundred furlongs above +Memphis, and thus he dried up the old stream and conducted the river +so that it flowed in the middle between the mountains: and even now +this bend of the Nile is by the Persians kept under very careful +watch, that it may flow in the channel to which it is confined, and +the bank is repaired every year; for if the river should break through +and overflow in this direction, Memphis would be in danger of being +overwhelmed by flood. When this Min, who first became king, had made +into dry land the part which was dammed off, on the one hand, I say, +he founded in it that city which is now called Memphis; for Memphis +too is in the narrow part of Egypt; and outside the city he dug round +it on the North and West a lake communicating with the river, for the +side towards the East is barred by the Nile itself. Then secondly he +established in the city the temple of Hephaistos a great work and most +worthy of mention. After this man the priests enumerated to me from a +papyrus roll the names of other kings, three hundred and thirty in +number; and in all these generations of men eighteen were Ethiopians, +one was a woman, a native Egyptian, and the rest were men and of +Egyptian race: and the name of the woman who reigned was the same as +that of the Babylonian queen, namely Nitocris. Of her they said that +desiring to take vengeance for her brother, whom the Egyptians had +slain when he was their king and then, after having slain him, had +given his kingdom to her,--desiring, I say, to take vengeance for him, +she destroyed by craft many of the Egyptians. For she caused to be +constructed a very large chamber under ground, and making as though +she would handsel it but in her mind devising other things, she +invited those of the Egyptians whom she knew to have had most part in +the murder, and gave a great banquet. Then while they were feasting, +she let in the river upon them by a secret conduit of large size. Of +her they told no more than this, except that, when this had been +accomplished, she threw herself into a room full of embers, in order +that she might escape vengeance. As for the other kings, they could +tell me of no great works which had been produced by them, and they +said that they had no renown except only the last of them, Moiris: he +(they said) produced as a memorial of himself the gateway of the +temple of Hephaistos which is turned towards the North Wind, and dug a +lake, about which I shall set forth afterwards how many furlongs of +circuit it has, and in it built pyramids of the size which I shall +mention at the same time when I speak of the lake itself. He, they +said, produced these works, but of the rest none produced any. + +Therefore passing these by I will make mention of the king who came +after these, whose name is Sesostris. He (the priests said) first of +all set out with ships of war from the Arabian gulf and subdued those +who dwelt by the shores of the Erythraian Sea, until as he sailed he +came to a sea which could no further be navigated by reason of shoals: +then secondly, after he had returned to Egypt, according to the report +of the priests he took a great army and marched over the continent, +subduing every nation which stood in his way: and those of them whom +he found valiant and fighting desperately for their freedom, in their +lands he set up pillars which told by inscriptions his own name and +the name of his country, and how he had subdued them by his power; but +as to those of whose cities he obtained possession without fighting or +with ease, on their pillars he inscribed words after the same tenor as +he did for the nations which had shown themselves courageous, and in +addition he drew upon them the hidden parts of a woman, desiring to +signify by this that the people were cowards and effeminate. Thus +doing he traversed the continent, until at last he passed over to +Europe from Asia and subdued the Scythians and also the Thracians. +These, I am of opinion, were the furthest people to which the Egyptian +army came, for in their country the pillars are found to have been set +up, but in the land beyond this they are no longer found. From this +point he turned and began to go back; and when he came to the river +Phasis, what happened then I cannot say for certain, whether the king +Sesostris himself divided off a certain portion of his army and left +the men there as settlers in the land, or whether some of his soldiers +were wearied by his distant marches and remained by the river Phasis. +For the people of Colchis are evidently Egyptian, and this I perceived +for myself before I heard it from others. So when I had come to +consider the matter I asked them both; and the Colchians had +remembrance of the Egyptians more than the Egyptians of the Colchians; +but the Egyptians said they believed that the Colchians were a portion +of the army of Sesostris. That this was so I conjectured myself not +only because they are dark-skinned and have curly hair (this of itself +amounts to nothing, for there are other races which are so), but also +still more because the Colchians, Egyptians, and Ethiopians alone of +all the races of men have practised circumcision from the first. The +Phenicians and the Syrians who dwell in Palestine confess themselves +that they have learnt it from the Egyptians, and the Syrians about the +river Thermodon and the river Parthenios, and the Macronians, who are +their neighbors, say that they have learnt it lately from the +Colchians. These are the only races of men who practise circumcision, +and these evidently practise it in the same manner as the Egyptians. +Of the Egyptians themselves however and the Ethiopians, I am not able +to say which learnt from the other, for undoubtedly it is a most +ancient custom; but that the other nations learnt it by intercourse +with the Egyptians, this among others is to me a strong proof, namely +that those of the Phenicians who have intercourse with Hellas cease to +follow the example of the Egyptians in this matter, and do not +circumcise their children. Now let me tell another thing about the +Colchians to show how they resemble the Egyptians:--they alone work +flax in the same fashion as the Egyptians, and the two nations are +like one another in their whole manner of living and also in their +language: now the linen of Colchis is called by the Hellenes Sardonic, +whereas that from Egypt is called Egyptian. The pillars which +Sesostris king of Egypt set up in the various countries are for the +most part no longer to be seen extant; but in Syria Palestine I myself +saw them existing with the inscription upon them which I have +mentioned and the emblem. Moreover in Ionia there are two figures of +this man carved upon rocks, one on the road by which one goes from the +land of Ephesos to Phocaia, and the other on the road from Sardis to +Smyrna. In each place there is a figure of a man cut in the rock, of +four cubits and a span in height, holding in his right hand a spear +and in his left a bow and arrows, and the other equipment which he has +is similar to this, for it is both Egyptian and Ethiopian: and from +the one shoulder to the other across the breast runs an inscription +carved in sacred Egyptian characters, saying thus, "This land with my +shoulders I won for myself." But who he is and from whence, he does +not declare in these places, though in other places he had declared +this. Some of those who have seen these carvings conjecture that the +figure is that of Memnon, but herein they are very far from the truth. + +As this Egyptian Sesostris was returning and bringing back many men of +the nations whose lands he had subdued, when he came (said the +priests) to Daphnai in the district of Pelusion on his journey home, +his brother to whom Sesostris had entrusted the charge of Egypt +invited him and with him his sons to a feast; and then he piled the +house round with brushwood and set it on fire: and Sesostris when he +discovered this forthwith took counsel with his wife, for he was +bringing with him (they said) his wife also; and she counselled him to +lay out upon the pyre two of his sons, which were six in number, and +so to make a bridge over the burning mass, and that they passing over +their bodies should thus escape. This, they said, Sesostris did, and +two of his sons were burnt to death in this manner, but the rest got +away safe with their father. Then Sesostris, having returned to Egypt +and having taken vengeance on his brother employed the multitude which +he had brought in of those who whose lands he had subdued, as follows: +--these were they drew the stones which in the reign of this king were +brought to the temple of Hephaistos, being of very good size; and also +these were compelled to dig all the channels which now are in Egypt; +and thus (having no such purpose) they caused Egypt, which before was +all fit for riding and driving, to be no longer fit for this from +thenceforth: for from that time forward Egypt, though it is plain +land, has become all unfit for riding and driving, and the cause has +been these channels, which are many and run in all directions. But the +reason why the king cut up the land was this, namely because those of +the Egyptians who had their cities not on the river but in the middle +of the country, being in want of water when the river went down from +them, found their drink brackish because they had it from wells. For +this reason Egypt was cut up: and they said that this king distributed +the land to all the Egyptians, giving an equal square portion to each +man, and from this he made his revenue, having appointed them to pay a +certain rent every year: and if the river should take away anything +from any man's portion, he would come to the king and declare that +which had happened, and the king used to send men to examine and to +find out by measurement how much less the piece of land had become, in +order that for the future the man might pay less, in proportion to the +rent appointed: and I think that thus the art of geometry was found +out and afterwards came into Hellas also. For as touching the sun-dial +and the gnomon and the twelve divisions of the day, they were learnt +by the Hellenes from the Babylonians. He moreover alone of all the +Egyptian kings had rule over Ethiopia; and he left as memorials of +himself in front of the temple of Hephaistos two stone statues of +thirty cubits each, representing himself and his wife, and others of +twenty cubits each representing his four sons: and long afterwards the +priest of Hephaistos refused to permit Dareios the Persian to set up a +statue of himself in front of them, saying that deeds had not been +done by him equal to those which were done by Sesostris the Egyptian; +for Sesostris had subdued other nations besides, not fewer than he, +and also the Scythians; but Dareios had not been able to conquer the +Scythians: wherefore it was not just that he should set up a statue in +front of those which Sesostris had dedicated, if he did not surpass +him in his deeds. Which speech, they say, Dareios took in good part. + +Now after Sesostris had brought his life to an end, his son Pheros, +they told me, received in succession the kingdom, and he made no +warlike expedition, and moreover it chanced to him to become blind by +reason of the following accident:--when the river had come down in +flood rising to a height of eighteen cubits, higher than ever before +that time, and had gone over the fields, a wind fell upon it and the +river became agitated by waves: and this king (they say) moved by +presumptuous folly took a spear and cast it into the midst of the +eddies of the stream; and immediately upon this he had a disease of +the eyes and was by it made blind. For ten years then he was blind, +and in the eleventh year there came to him an oracle from the city of +Buto saying that the time of his punishment had expired, and that he +should see again if he washed his eyes with the water of a woman who +had accompanied with her own husband only and had not had knowledge of +other men: and first he made trial of his own wife, and then, as he +continued blind, he went on to try all the women in turn; and when he +had at least regained his sight he gathered together all the women of +whom he had made trial, excepting her by whose means he had regained +his sight, to one city which now is named Erythrabolos, and having +gathered them to this he consumed them all by fire, as well as the +city itself; but as for her by whose means he had regained his sight, +he had her himself to wife. Then after he had escaped the malady of +his eyes he dedicated offerings at each one of the temples which were +of renown, and especially (to mention only that which is most worthy +of mention) he dedicated at the temple of the Sun works which are +worth seeing, namely two obelisks of stone, each of a single block, +measuring in length a hundred cubits each one and in breadth eight +cubits. + +After him, they said, there succeeded to the throne a man of Memphis, +whose name in the tongue of the Hellenes was Proteus; for whom there +is now a sacred enclosure at Memphis, very fair and well ordered, +lying on that side of the temple of Hephaistos which faces the North +Wind. Round about this enclosure dwell Phenicians of Tyre, and this +whole region is called the Camp of the Tyrians. Within the enclosure +of Proteus there is a temple called the temple of the "foreign +Aphrodite," which temple I conjecture to be one of Helen the daughter +of Tyndareus, not only because I have heard the tale how Helen dwelt +with Proteus, but also especially because it is called by the name of +the "foreign Aphrodite," for the other temples of Aphrodite which +there are have none of them the addition of the word "foreign" to the +name. + +And the priests told me, when I inquired, that the things concerning +Helen happened thus:--Alexander having carried off Helen was sailing +away from Sparta to his own land, and when he had come to the Egean +Sea contrary winds drove him from his course to the Sea of Egypt; and +after that, since the blasts did not cease to blow, he came to Egypt +itself, and in Egypt to that which is now named the Canobic mouth of +the Nile and to Taricheiai. Now there was upon the shore, as still +there is now, a temple of Heracles, in which if any man's slave take +refuge and have the sacred marks set upon him, giving himself over to +the god, it is not lawful to lay hands upon him; but this custom has +continued still unchanged from the beginning down to my own time. +Accordingly the attendants of Alexander, having heard of the custom +which existed about the temple, ran away from him, and sitting down as +suppliants of the god, accused Alexander, because they desired to do +him hurt, telling the whole tale how things were about Helen and about +the wrong done to Menalaos; and this accusation they made not only to +the priests but also to the warden of this river-mouth, whose name was +Thonis. Thonis then having heard their tale sent forthwith a message +to Proteus at Memphis, which said as follows: "There hath come a +stranger, a Teucrian by race, who hath done in Hellas an unholy deed; +for he hath deceived the wife of his own host, and is come hither +bringing with him this woman herself and very much wealth, having been +carried out of his way by winds to thy land. Shall we then allow him +to sail out unharmed, or shall we first take away from him that which +he brought with him?" In reply to this Proteus sent back a messenger +who said thus: "Seize this man, whosoever he may be, who has done +impiety to his own host, and bring him away into my presence that I +may know what he will find to say." Hearing this, Thonis seized +Alexander and detained his ships, and after that he brought the man +himself up to Memphis and with him Helen and the wealth he had, and +also in addition to them the suppliants. So when all had been conveyed +up thither, Proteus began to ask Alexander who he was and from whence +he was voyaging; and he both recounted to him his descent and told him +the name of his native land, and moreover related of his voyage, from +whence he was sailing. After this Proteus asked him whence he had +taken Helen; and when Alexander went astray n his account and did not +speak the truth, those who had become suppliants convicted him of +falsehood, relating in full the whole tale of the wrong done. At +length Proteus declared to them this sentence, saying, "Were it not +that I count it a matter of great moment not to slay any of those +strangers who being driven from their course by winds have come to my +land hitherto, I should have taken vengeance on thee on behalf of the +man of Hellas, seeing that thou, most base of men, having received +from him hospitality, didst work against him a most impious deed. For +thou didst go in to the wife of thine own host; and even this was not +enough for thee, but thou didst stir her up with desire and hast gone +away with her like a thief. Moreover not even this by itself was +enough for thee, but thou art come hither with plunder taken from the +house of thy host. Now therefore depart, seeing that I have counted it +of great moment not to be a slayer of strangers. This woman indeed and +the wealth which thou hast I will not allow thee to carry away, but I +shall keep them safe for the Hellene who was thy host, until he come +himself and desire to carry them off to his home; to thyself however +and thy fellow-voyagers I proclaim that ye depart from your anchoring +within three days and go from my land to some other; and if not, that +ye will be dealt with as enemies." + +This the priests said was the manner of Helen's coming to Proteus; and +I suppose that Homer also had heard this story, but since it was not +so suitable to the composition of his poem as the other which he +followed, he dismissed it finally, making it clear at the same time +that he was acquainted with that story also: and according to the +manner in which he described the wanderings of Alexander in the Iliad +(nor did he elsewhere retract that which he had said) of his course, +wandering to various lands, and that he came among other places to +Sidon in Phenicia. Of this the poet has made mention in the "prowess +of Diomede," and the verses run thus: + + "There she had robes many-coloured, the works of women of Sidon, + Those whom her son himself the god-like of form Alexander + Carried from Sidon, what time the broad sea-path he sailed over + Bringing back Helene home, of a noble father begotten." + +And in the Odyssey also he has made mention of it in these verses: + + "Such had the daughter of Zeus, such drugs of exquisite cunning, + Good, which to her the wife of Thon, Polydamna, had given, + Dwelling in Egypt, the land where the bountiful meadow produces + Drugs more than all lands else, many good being mixed, many evil." + +And thus too Menelaos says to Telemachos: + + "Still the gods stayed me in Egypt, to come back hither desiring, + Stayed me from voyaging home, since sacrifice due I performed not." + +In these lines he makes it clear that he knew of the wanderings of +Alexander to Egypt, for Syria borders upon Egypt and the Phenicians, +of whom is Sidon, dwell in Syria. By these lines and by this passage +it is also most clearly shown that the "Cyprian Epic" was not written +by Homer but by some other man: for in this it is said that on the +third day after leaving Sparta Alexander came to Ilion bringing with +him Helen, having had a "gently-blowing wind and a smooth sea," +whereas in the Iliad it says that he wandered from his course when he +brought her. + +Let us now leave Homer and the "Cyprian Epic"; but this I will say, +namely that I asked the priests whether it is but an idle tale which +the Hellenes tell of that which they say happened about Ilion; and +they answered me thus, saying that they had their knowledge by +inquiries from Menelaos himself. After the rape of Helen there came +indeed, they said, to the Teucrian land a large army of Hellenes to +help Menelaos; and when the army had come out of the ships to land and +had pitched its camp there, they sent messengers to Ilion, with whom +went also Menelaos himself; and when these entered within the wall +they demanded back Helen and the wealth which Alexander had stolen +from Menelaos and had taken away; and moreover they demanded +satisfaction for the wrongs done: and the Teucrians told the same tale +then and afterwards, both with oath and without oath, namely that in +deed and in truth they had not Helen nor the wealth for which demand +was made, but that both were in Egypt; and that they could not justly +be compelled to give satisfaction for that which Proteus the king of +Egypt had. The Hellenes however thought that they were being mocked by +them and besieged the city, until at last they took it; and when they +had taken the wall and did not find Helen, but heard the same tale as +before, then they believed the former tale and sent Menelaos himself +to Proteus. And Menelaos having come to Egypt and having sailed up to +Memphis, told the truth of these matters, and not only found great +entertainment, but also received Helen unhurt, and all his own wealth +besides. Then, however, after he had been thus dealt with, Menelaos +showed himself ungrateful to the Egyptians; for when he set forth to +sail away, contrary winds detained him, and as this condition of +things lasted long, he devised an impious deed; for he took two +children of natives and made sacrifice of them. After this, when it +was known that he had done so, he became abhorred, and being pursued +he escaped and got away in his ships to Libya; but whither he went +besides after this, the Egyptians were not able to tell. Of these +things they said that they found out part by inquiries, and the rest, +namely that which happened in their own land, they related from sure +and certain knowledge. + +Thus the priests of the Egyptians told me; and I myself also agree +with the story which was told of Helen, adding this consideration, +namely that if Helen had been in Ilion she would have been given up to +the Hellenes, whether Alexander consented or no; for Priam assuredly +was not so mad, nor yet the others of his house, that they were +desirous to run risk of ruin for themselves and their children and +their city, in order that Alexander might have Helen as his wife: and +even supposing that during the first part of the time they had been so +inclined, yet when many others of the Trojans besides were losing +their lives as often as they fought with the Hellenes, and of the sons +of Priam himself always two or three or even more were slain when a +battle took place (if one may trust at all to the Epic poets),--when, +I say, things were coming thus to pass, I consider that even if Priam +himself had had Helen as his wife, he would have given her back to the +Achaians, if at least by so doing he might be freed from the evils +which oppressed him. Nor even was the kingdom coming to Alexander +next, so that when Priam was old the government was in his hands; but +Hector, who was both older and more of a man than he, would certainly +have received it after the death of Priam; and him it behoved not to +allow his brother to go on with his wrong-doing, considering that +great evils were coming to pass on his account both to himself +privately and in general to the other Trojans. In truth however they +lacked the power to give Helen back; and the Hellenes did not believe +them, though they spoke the truth; because, as I declare my opinion, +the divine power was purposing to cause them utterly to perish, and so +make it evident to men that for great wrongs great also are the +chastisements which come from the gods. And thus have I delivered my +opinion concerning these matters. + +After Proteus, they told me, Rhampsinitos received in succession the +kingdom, who left as a memorial of himself that gateway to the temple +of Hephaistos which is turned towards the West, and in front of the +gateway he set up two statues, in height five-and-twenty cubits, of +which the one which stands on the North side is called by the +Egyptians Summer and the one on the South side Winter; and to that one +which they call Summer they do reverence and make offerings, while to +the other which is called Winter they do the opposite of these things. +This king, they said, got great wealth of silver, which none of the +kings born after him could surpass or even come near to; and wishing +to store his wealth in safety he caused to be built a chamber of +stone, one of the walls whereof was towards the outside of his palace: +and the builder of this, having a design against it, contrived as +follows, that is, he disposed one of the stones in such a manner that +it could be taken out easily from the wall either by two men or even +by one. So when the chamber was finished, the king stored his money in +it, and after some time the builder, being near the end of his life, +called to him his sons (for he had two) and to them he related how he +had contrived in building the treasury of the king, and all in +forethought for them, that they might have ample means of living. And +when he had clearly set forth to them everything concerning the taking +out of the stone, he gave them the measurements, saying that if they +paid heed to this matter they would be stewards of the king's +treasury. So he ended his life, and his sons made no long delay in +setting to work, but went to the palace by night, and having found the +stone in the wall of the chamber they dealt with it easily and carried +forth for themselves great quantity of the wealth within. And the king +happening to open the chamber, he marvelled when he saw the vessels +falling short of the full amount, and he did not know on whom he +should lay the blame, since the seals were unbroken and the chamber +had been close shut; but when upon his opening the chamber a second +and a third time the money was each time seen to be diminished, for +the thieves did not slacken in their assaults upon it, he did as +follows:--having ordered traps to be made he set these round about the +vessels in which the money was; and when the thieves had come as at +former times and one of them had entered, then so soon as he came near +to one of the vessels he was straightway caught in the trap: and when +he perceived in what evil case he was, straightway calling his brother +he showed him what the matter was, and bade him enter as quickly as +possible and cut off his head, for fear lest being seen and known he +might bring about the destruction of his brother also. And to the +other it seemed that he spoke well, and he was persuaded and did so; +and fitting the stone into its place he departed home bearing with him +the head of his brother. Now when it became day, the king entered into +the chamber and was very greatly amazed, seeing the body of the thief +held in the trap without his head, and the chamber unbroken, with no +way to come in by or go out: and being at a loss he hung up the dead +body of the thief upon the wall and set guards there, with charge if +they saw any one weeping or bewailing himself to seize him and bring +him before the king. And when the dead body had been hung up, the +mother was greatly grieved, and speaking with the son who survived she +enjoined him, in whatever way he could, to contrive means by which he +might take down and bring home the body of his brother; and if he +should neglect to do this, she earnestly threatened that she would go +and give information to the king that he had the money. So as the +mother dealt hardly with the surviving son, and he though saying many +things to her did not persuade her, he contrived for his purpose a +device as follows:--Providing himself with asses he filled some skins +with wine and laid them upon the asses, and after that he drove them +along: and when he came opposite to those who were guarding the corpse +hung up, he drew towards him two or three of the necks of the skins +and loosened the cords with which they were tied. Then when the wine +was running out, he began to beat his head and cry out loudly, as if +he did not know to which of the asses he should first turn; and when +the guards saw the wine flowing out in streams, they ran together to +the road with drinking vessels in their hands and collected the wine +that was poured out, counting it so much gain; and he abused them all +violently, making as if he were angry, but when the guards tried to +appease him, after a time he feigned to be pacified and to abate his +anger, and at length he drove his asses out of the road and began to +set their loads right. Then more talk arose among them, and one or two +of them made jests at him and brought him to laugh with them; and in +the end he made them a present of one of the skins in addition to what +they had. Upon that they lay down there without more ado, being minded +to drink, and they took him into their company and invited him to +remain with them and join them in their drinking: so he (as may be +supposed) was persuaded and stayed. Then as they in their drinking +bade him welcome in a friendly manner, he made a present to them also +of another of the skins; and so at length having drunk liberally the +guards became completely intoxicated; and being overcome by sleep they +went to bed on the spot where they had been drinking. He then, as it +was now far on in the night, first took down the body of his brother, +and then in mockery shaved the right cheeks of all the guards; and +after that he put the dead body upon the asses and drove them away +home, having accomplished that which was enjoined him by his mother. +Upon this the king, when it was reported to him that the dead body of +the thief had been stolen away, displayed great anger; and desiring by +all means that it should be found out who it might be who devised +these things, did this (so at least they said, but I do not believe +the account),--he caused his own daughter to sit in the stews, and +enjoined her to receive all equally, and before having commerce with +any one to compel him to tell her what was the most cunning and what +the most unholy deed which had been done by him in all his life-time; +and whosoever should relate that which had happened about the thief, +him she must seize and not let him go out. Then as she was doing that +which was enjoined by her father, the thief, hearing for what purpose +this was done and having a desire to get the better of the king in +resource, did thus:--from the body of one lately dead he cut off the +arm at the shoulder and went with it under his mantle: and having gone +in to the daughter of the king, and being asked that which the others +also were asked, he related that he had done the most unholy deed when +he cut off the head of his brother, who had been caught in a trap in +the king's treasure-chamber, and the most cunning deed in that he made +drunk the guards and took down the dead body of his brother hanging +up; and she when she heard it tried to take hold of him, but the thief +held out to her in the darkness the arm of the corpse, which she +grasped and held, thinking that she was holding the arm of the man +himself; but the thief left it in her hands and departed, escaping +through the door. Now when this also was reported to the king, he was +at first amazed at the ready invention and daring of the fellow, and +then afterwards he sent round to all the cities and made proclamation +granting a free pardon to the thief, and also promising a great reward +if he would come into his presence. The thief accordingly trusting to +the proclamation came to the king, and Rhampsinitos greatly marvelled +at him, and gave him this daughter of his to wife, counting him to be +the most knowing of all men; for as the Egyptians were distinguished +from all other men, so was he from the other Egyptians. + +After these things they said this king went down alive to that place +which by the Hellenes is called Hades, and there played at dice with +Demeter, and in some throws he overcame her and in others he was +overcome by her; and he came back again having as a gift from her a +handkerchief of gold: and they told me that because of the going down +of Rhampsinitos the Egyptians after he came back celebrated a feast, +which I know of my own knowledge also that they still observe even to +my time; but whether it is for this cause that they keep the feast or +for some other, I am not able to say. However, the priests weave a +robe completely on the very day of the feast, and forthwith they bind +up the eyes of one of them with a fillet, and having led him with the +robe to the way by which one goes to the temple of Demeter, they +depart back again themselves. This priest, they say, with his eyes +bound up is led by two wolves to the temple of Demeter, which is +distant from the city twenty furlongs, and then afterwards the wolves +lead him back again from the temple to the same spot. Now as to the +tales told by the Egyptians, any man may accept them to whom such +things appear credible; as for me, it is to be understood throughout +the whole of the history that I write by hearsay that which is +reported by the people in each place. The Egyptians say that Demeter +and Dionysos are rulers of the world below; and the Egyptians are also +the first who reported the doctrine that the soul of man is immortal, +and that when the body dies, the soul enters into another creature +which chances then to be coming to the birth, and when it has gone the +round of all the creatures of land and sea and of the air, it enters +again into a human body as it comes to the birth; and that it makes +this round in a period of three thousand years. This doctrine certain +Hellenes adopted, some earlier and some later, as if it were of their +own invention, and of these men I know the names but I abstain from +recording them. + +Down to the time when Rhampsinitos was king, they told me there was in +Egypt nothing but orderly rule, and Egypt prospered greatly; but after +him Cheops became king over them and brought them to every kind of +evil: for he shut up all the temples, and having first kept them from +sacrifices there, he then bade all the Egyptians work for him. So some +were appointed to draw stones from the stone-quarries in the Arabian +mountains to the Nile, and others he ordered to receive the stones +after they had been carried over the river in boats, and to draw them +to those which are called the Libyan mountains; and they worked by a +hundred thousand men at a time, for each three months continually. Of +this oppression there passed ten years while the causeway was made by +which they drew the stones, which causeway they built, and it is a +work not much less, as it appears to me, than the pyramid; for the +length of it is five furlongs and the breadth ten fathoms and the +height, where it is highest, eight fathoms, and it is made of stone +smoothed and with figures carved upon it. For this they said, the ten +years were spent, and for the underground he caused to be made as +sepulchral chambers for himself in an island, having conducted thither +a channel from the Nile. For the making of the pyramid itself there +passed a period of twenty years; and the pyramid is square, each side +measuring eight hundred feet, and the height of it is the same. It is +built of stone smoothed and fitted together in the most perfect +manner, not one of the stones being less than thirty feet in length. +This pyramid was made after the manner of steps which some called +"rows" and others "bases": and when they had first made it thus, they +raised the remaining stones with machines made of short pieces of +timber, raising them first from the ground to the first stage of the +steps, and when the stone got up to this it was placed upon another +machine standing on the first stage, and so from this it was drawn to +the second upon another machine; for as many as were the courses of +the steps, so many machines there were also, or perhaps they +transferred one and the same machine, made so as easily to be carried, +to each stage successively, in order that they might take up the +stones; for let it be told in both ways, according as it is reported. +However that may be the highest parts of it were finished first, and +afterwards they proceeded to finish that which came next to them, and +lastly they finished the parts of it near the ground and the lowest +ranges. On the pyramid it is declared in Egyptian writing how much was +spent on radishes and onions and leeks for the workmen, and if I +rightly remember that which the interpreter said in reading to me this +inscription, a sum of one thousand six hundred talents of silver was +spent; and if this is so, how much besides is likely to have been +expended upon the iron with which they worked, and upon bread and +clothing for the workmen, seeing that they were building the works for +the time which has been mentioned and were occupied for no small time +besides, as I suppose, in the cutting and bringing of the stones and +in working at the excavation under the ground? Cheops moreover came, +they said, to such a pitch of wickedness, that being in want of money +he caused his own daughter to sit in the stews, and ordered her to +obtain from those who came a certain amount of money (how much it was +they did not tell me): and she not only obtained the sum appointed by +her father, but also she formed a design for herself privately to +leave behind her a memorial, and she requested each man who came in to +give her one stone upon her building: and of these stones, they told +me, the pyramid was built which stands in front of the great pyramid +in the middle of the three, each side being one hundred and fifty feet +in length. + +This Cheops, the Egyptians said, reigned fifty years; and after he was +dead his brother Chephren succeeded to the kingdom. This king followed +the same manner of dealing as the other, both in all the rest and also +in that he made a pyramid, not indeed attaining to the measurements of +that which was built by the former (this I know, having myself also +measured it), and moreover there are no underground chambers beneath +nor does a channel come from the Nile flowing to this one as to the +other, in which the water coming through a conduit built for it flows +round an island within, where they say that Cheops himself is laid: +but for a basement he built the first course of Ethiopian stone of +divers colours; and this pyramid he made forty feet lower than the +other as regards size, building it close to the great pyramid. These +stand both upon the same hill, which is about a hundred feet high. And +Chephren they said reigned fifty and six years. Here then they reckon +one hundred and six years, during which they say that there was +nothing but evil for the Egyptians, and the temples were kept closed +and not opened during all that time. These kings the Egyptians by +reason of their hatred of them are not very willing to name; nay, they +even call the pyramids after the name of Philitis the shepherd, who at +that time pastured flocks in those regions. After him, they said, +Mykerinos became king over Egypt, who was the son of Cheops; and to +him his father's deeds were displeasing, and he both opened the +temples and gave liberty to the people, who were ground down to the +last extremity of evil, to return to their own business and to their +sacrifices: also he gave decisions of their causes juster than those +of all the other kings besides. In regard to this then they commend +this king more than all the other kings who had arisen in Egypt before +him; for he not only gave good decisions, but also when a man +complained of the decision, he gave him recompense from his own goods +and thus satisfied his desire. But while Mykerinos was acting +mercifully to his subjects and practising this conduct which has been +said, calamities befell him, of which the first was this, namely that +his daughter died, the only child whom he had in his house: and being +above measure grieved by that which had befallen him, and desiring to +bury his daughter in a manner more remarkable than others, he made a +cow of wood, which he covered over with gold, and then within it he +buried this daughter who as I said, had died. This cow was not covered +up in the ground, but it might be seen even down to my own time in the +city of Sais, placed within the royal palace in a chamber which was +greatly adorned; and they offer incense of all kinds before it every +day, and each night a lamp burns beside it all through the night. Near +this cow in another chamber stand images of the concubines of +Mykerinos, as the priests at Sais told me; for there are in fact +colossal wooden statues, in number about twenty, made with naked +bodies; but who they are I am not able to say, except only that which +is reported. Some however tell about this cow and the colossal statues +the following tale, namely that Mykerinos was enamoured of his own +daughter and afterwards ravished her; and upon this they say that the +girl strangled herself for grief, and he buried her in this cow; and +her mother cut off the hands of the maids who had betrayed the +daughter to her father; wherefore now the images of them have suffered +that which the maids suffered in their life. In thus saying they speak +idly, as it seems to me, especially in what they say about the hands +of the statues; for as to this, even we ourselves saw that their hands +had dropped off from lapse of time, and they were to be seen still +lying at their feet even down to my time. The cow is covered up with a +crimson robe, except only the head and the neck, which are seen, +overlaid with gold very thickly; and between the horns there is the +disc of the sun figured in gold. The cow is not standing up but +kneeling, and in size is equal to a large living cow. Every year it is +carried forth from the chamber, at those times, I say, the Egyptians +beat themselves for that god whom I will not name upon occasion of +such a matter; at these times, I say, they also carry forth the cow to +the light of day, for they say that she asked of her father Mykerinos, +when she was dying, that she might look upon the sun once in the year. + +After the misfortune of his daughter it happened, they said, secondly +to this king as follows:--An oracle came to him from the city of Buto, +saying that he was destined to live but six years more, in the seventh +year to end his life: and he being indignant at it sent to the Oracle +a reproach against the god, making complaint in reply that whereas his +father and uncle, who had shut up the temples and had not only not +remembered the gods, but also had been destroyers of men, had lived +for a long time, he himself, who practised piety, was destined to end +his life so soon: and from the Oracle came a second message, which +said that it was for this very cause that he was bringing his life to +a swift close; for he had not done that which it was appointed for him +to do, since it was destined that Egypt should suffer evils for a +hundred and fifty years, and the two kings who had arisen before him +had perceived this, but he had not. Mykerinos having heard this, and +considering that this sentence had passed upon him beyond recall, +procured many lamps, and whenever night came on he lighted these and +began to drink and take his pleasure, ceasing neither by day nor by +night; and he went about to the fen-country and to the woods and +wherever he heard there were the most suitable places of enjoyment. +This he devised (having a mind to prove that the Oracle spoke falsely) +in order that he might have twelve years of life instead of six, the +nights being turned into days. + +This king also left behind him a pyramid, much smaller than that of +his father, of a square shape and measuring on each side three hundred +feet lacking twenty, built moreover of Ethiopian stone up to half the +height. This pyramid some of the Hellenes say was built by the +courtesan Rhodopis, not therein speaking rightly: and besides this it +is evident to me that they who speak thus do not even know who +Rhodopis was, for otherwise they would not have attributed to her the +building of a pyramid like this, on which have been spent (so to +speak) innumerable thousands of talents: moreover they do not know +that Rhodopis flourished in the reign of Amasis, and not in this +king's reign; for Rhodopis lived very many years later than the kings +who left behind them these pyramids. By descent she was of Thrace, and +she was a slave of Iadmon the son of Hephaistopolis a Samian, and a +fellow-slave of Esop the maker of fables; for he too was once the +slave of Iadmon, as was proved especially by this fact, namely that +when the people of Delphi repeatedly made proclamation in accordance +with an oracle, to find some one who would take up the blood-money for +the death of Esop, no one else appeared, but at length the grandson of +Iadmon, called Iadmon also, took it up; and thus it is showed that +Esop too was the slave of Iadmon. As for Rhodopis, she came to Egypt +brought by Xanthes the Samian, and having come thither to exercise her +calling she was redeemed from slavery for a great sum by a man of +Mytilene, Charaxos son of Scamandronymos and brother of Sappho the +lyric poet. Thus was Rhodopis set free, and she remained in Egypt and +by her beauty won so much liking that she made great gain of money for +one like Rhodopis, though not enough to suffice for the cost of such a +pyramid as this. In truth there is no need to ascribe to her very +great riches, considering that the tithe of her wealth may still be +seen even to this time by any one who desires it: for Rhodopis wished +to leave behind her a memorial of herself in Hellas, namely to cause a +thing to be made such as happens not to have been thought of or +dedicated in a temple by any besides, and to dedicate this at Delphi +as a memorial of herself. Accordingly with the tithe of her wealth she +caused to be made spits of iron of size large enough to pierce a whole +ox, and many in number, going as far therein as her tithe allowed her, +and she sent them to Delphi: these are even at the present time lying +there, heaped all together behind the altar which the Chians +dedicated, and just opposite to the cell of the temple. Now at +Naucratis, as it happens, the courtesans are rather apt to win credit; +for this woman first, about whom the story to which I refer is told, +became so famous that all the Hellenes without exception came to know +the name of Rhodopis, and then after her one whose name was Archidiche +became a subject of song all over Hellas, though she was less talked +of than the other. As for Charaxos, when after redeeming Rhodopis he +returned back to Mytilene, Sappho in an ode violently abused him. Of +Rhodopis then I shall say no more. + +After Mykerinos the priests said Asychis became king of Egypt, and he +made for Hephaistos the temple gateway which is towards the sunrising, +by far the most beautiful and the largest of the gateways; for while +they all have figures carved upon them and innumerable ornaments of +building besides, this has them very much more than the rest. In this +king's reign they told me that, as the circulation of money was very +slow, a law was made for the Egyptians that a man might have that +money lent to him which he needed, by offering as security the dead +body of his father; and there was added moreover to this law another, +namely that he who lent the money should have a claim also to the +whole of the sepulchral chamber belonging to him who received it, and +that the man who offered that security should be subject to this +penalty, if he refused to pay back the debt, namely that neither the +man himself should be allowed to have burial, when he died, either in +that family burial-place or in any other, nor should he be allowed to +bury any of his kinsmen whom he lost by death. This king desiring to +surpass the kings of Egypt who had arisen before him left as a +memorial of himself a pyramid which he made of bricks and on it there +is an inscription carved in stone and saying thus: "Despise not me in +comparison with the pyramids of stone, seeing that I excel them as +much as Zeus excels the other gods; for with a pole they struck into +the lake, and whatever of the mud attached itself to the pole, this +they gathered up and made bricks, and in such manner they finished +me." + +Such were the deeds which this king performed: and after him reigned a +blind man of the city of Anysis, whose name was Anysis. In his reign +the Ethiopians and Sabacos the king of the Ethiopians marched upon +Egypt with a great host of men; so this blind man departed, flying to +the fen-country, and the Ethiopian was king over Egypt for fifty +years, during which he performed deeds as follows:--whenever any man +of the Egyptians committed any transgression, he would never put him +to death, but he gave sentence upon each man according to the +greatness of the wrong-doing, appointing them to work at throwing up +an embankment before that city from whence each man came of those who +committed wrong. Thus the cities were made higher still than before; +for they were embanked first by those who dug the channels in the +reign of Sesostris, and then secondly in the reign of the Ethiopian, +and thus they were made very high: and while other cities in Egypt +also stood high, I think in the town at Bubastis especially the earth +was piled up. In this city there is a temple very well worthy of +mention, for though there are other temples which are larger and build +with more cost, none more than this is a pleasure to the eyes. Now +Bubastis in the Hellenic tongue is Artemis, and her temple is ordered +thus:--Except the entrance it is completely surrounded by water; for +channels come in from the Nile, not joining one another, but each +extending as far as the entrance of the temple, one flowing round on +the one side and the other on the other side, each a hundred feet +broad and shaded over with trees; and the gateway has a height of ten +fathoms, and it is adorned with figures six cubits high, very +noteworthy. This temple is in the middle of the city and is looked +down upon from all sides as one goes round, for since the city has +been banked up to a height, while the temple has not been moved from +the place where it was at the first built, it is possible to look down +into it: and round it runs a stone wall with figures carved upon it, +while within it there is a grove of very large trees planted round a +large temple-house, within which is the image of the goddess: and the +breadth and length of the temple is a furlong every way. Opposite the +entrance there is a road paved with stone for about three furlongs, +which leads through the market-place towards the East, with a breadth +of about four hundred feet; and on this side and on that grow trees of +height reaching to heaven: and the road leads to the temple of Hermes. +This temple then is thus ordered. + +The final deliverance from the Ethiopian came about (they said) as +follows:--he fled away because he had seen in his sleep a vision, in +which it seemed to him that a man came and stood by him and counselled +him to gather together all the priests in Egypt and cut them asunder +in the midst. Having seen this dream, he said that it seemed to him +that the gods were foreshowing him this to furnish an occasion against +him, in order that he might do an impious deed with respect to +religion, and so receive some evil either from the gods or from men: +he would not however do so, but in truth (he said) the time had +expired, during which it had been prophesied to him that he should +rule Egypt before he departed thence. For when he was in Ethiopia the +Oracles which the Ethiopians consult had told him that it was fated +for him to rule Egypt fifty years: since then this time was now +expiring, and the vision of the dream also disturbed him, Sabacos +departed out of Egypt of his own free will. + +Then when the Ethiopian had gone away out of Egypt, the blind man came +back from the fen-country and began to rule again, having lived there +during fifty years upon an island which he had made by heaping up +ashes and earth: for whenever any of the Egyptians visited him +bringing food, according as it had been appointed to them severally to +do without the knowledge of the Ethiopian, he bade them bring also +some ashes for their gift. This island none was able to find before +Amyrtaios; that is, for more than seven hundred years the kings who +arose before Amyrtaios were not able to find it. Now the name of this +island is Elbo, and its size is ten furlongs each way. + +After him there came to the throne the priest of Hephaistos, whose +name was Sethos. This man, they said, neglected and held in no regard +the warrior class of the Egyptians, considering that he would have no +need of them; and besides other slights which he put upon them, he +also took from them the yokes of corn-land which had been given to +them as a special gift in the reigns of the former kings, twelve yokes +to each man. After this, Sanacharib king of the Arabians and of the +Assyrians marched a great host against Egypt. Then the warriors of the +Egyptians refused to come to the rescue, and the priest, being driven +into a strait, entered into the sanctuary of the temple and bewailed +to the image of the god the danger which was impending over him; and +as he was thus lamenting, sleep came upon him, and it seemed to him in +his vision that the god came and stood by him and encouraged him, +saying that he should suffer no evil if he went forth to meet the army +of the Arabians; for he would himself send him helpers. Trusting in +these things seen in sleep, he took with him, they said, those of the +Egyptians who were willing to follow him, and encamped in Pelusion, +for by this way the invasion came: and not one of the warrior class +followed him, but shop-keepers and artisans and men of the market. +Then after they came, there swarmed by night upon their enemies mice +of the fields, and ate up their quivers and their bows, and moreover +the handles of their shields, so that on the next day they fled, and +being without defence of arms great numbers fell. And at the present +time this king stands in the temple of Hephaistos in stone, holding +upon his hand a mouse, and by letters inscribed he says these words: +"Let him who looks upon me learn to fear the gods." + +So far in the story the Egyptians and the priests were they who made +the report, declaring that from the first king down to this priest of +Hephaistos who reigned last, there had been three hundred and forty- +one generations of men, and that in them there had been the same +number of chief-priests and of kings: but three hundred generations of +men are equal to ten thousand years, for a hundred years is three +generations of men; and in the one-and-forty generations which remain, +those I mean which were added to the three hundred, there are one +thousand three hundred and forty years. Thus in the period of eleven +thousand three hundred and forty years they said that there had arisen +no god in human form; nor even before that time or afterwards among +the remaining kings who arise in Egypt, did they report that anything +of that kind had come to pass. In this time they said that the sun had +moved four times from his accustomed place of rising, and where he now +sets he had thence twice had his rising, and in the place from whence +he now rises he had twice had his setting; and in the meantime nothing +in Egypt had been changed from its usual state, neither that which +comes from the earth nor that which comes to them from the river nor +that which concerns diseases or deaths. And formerly when Hecataios +the historian was in Thebes, and had traced his descent and connected +his family with a god in the sixteenth generation before, the priests +of Zeus did for him much the same as they did for me (though I had not +traced my descent). They led me into the sanctuary of the temple, +which is of great size, and they counted up the number, showing +colossal wooden statues in number the same as they said; for each +chief-priest there sets up in his lifetime an image of himself: +accordingly the priests, counting and showing me these, declared to me +that each one of them was a son succeeding his own father, and they +went up through the series of images from the image of the one who had +died last, until they had declared this of the whole number. And when +Hecataios had traced his descent and connected his family with a god +in the sixteenth generation, they traced a descent in opposition to +his, besides their numbering, not accepting it from him that a man had +been born from a god; and they traced their counter-descent thus, +saying that each one of the statues had been /piromis/ son of +/piromis/, until they had declared this of the whole three hundred and +forty-five statues, each one being surnamed /piromis/; and neither +with a god nor a hero did they connect their descent. Now /piromis/ +means in the tongue of Hellas "honourable and good man." From their +declaration then it followed, that they of whom the images were had +been of form like this, and far removed from being gods: but in the +time before these men they said that gods were the rulers in Egypt, +not mingling with men, and that of these always one had power at a +time; and the last of them who was king over Egypt was Oros the son of +Osiris, whom the Hellenes call Apollo: he was king over Egypt last, +having deposed Typhon. Now Osiris in the tongue of Hellas is Dionysos. + +Among the Hellenes Heracles and Dionysos and Pan are accounted the +lastest-born of the gods; but with the Egyptians Pan is a very ancient +god, and he is one of those which are called eight gods, while +Heracles is of the second rank, who are called the twelve gods, and +Dionysos is of the third rank, namely of those who were born of the +twelve gods. Now as to Heracles I have shown already how many years +old he is according to the Egyptians themselves, reckoning down to the +reign of Amasis, and Pan is said to have existed for yet more years +than these, and Dionysos for the smallest number of years as compared +with the others; and even for this last they reckon down to the reign +of Amasis fifteen thousand years. This the Egyptians say that they +know for a certainty, since they always kept a reckoning and wrote +down the years as they came. Now the Dionysos who is said to have been +born of Semele the daughter of Cadmos, was born about sixteen hundred +years before my time, and Heracles who was the son of Alcmene, about +nine hundred years, and that Pan who was born of Penelope, for of her +and of Hermes Pan is said by the Hellenes to have been born, came into +being later than the wars of Troy, about eight hundred years before my +time. Of these two accounts every man may adopt that one which he +shall find the more credible when he hears it. I however, for my part, +have already declared my opinion about them. For if these also, like +Heracles the son of Amphitryon, had appeared before all men's eyes and +had lived their lives to old age in Hellas, I mean Dionysos the son of +Semele and Pan the son of Penelope, then one would have said that +these also had been born mere men, having the names of those gods who +had come into being long before: but as it is, with regard to Dionysos +the Hellenes say that as soon as he was born Zeus sewed him up in his +thigh and carried him to Nysa, which is above Egypt in the land of +Ethiopia; and as to Pan, they cannot say whither he went after he was +born. Hence it has become clear to me that the Hellenes learnt the +names of these gods later than those of the other gods, and trace +their descent as if their birth occurred at the time when they first +learnt their names. + +Thus far then the history is told by the Egyptians themselves; but I +will now recount that which other nations also tell, and the Egyptians +in agreement with the others, of that which happened in this land: and +there will be added to this also something of that which I have myself +seen. + +Being set free after the reign of the priest of Hephaistos, the +Egyptians, since they could not live any time without a king, set up +over them twelve kings, having divided all Egypt into twelve parts. +These made intermarriages with one another and reigned, making +agreement that they would not put down one another by force, nor seek +to get an advantage over one another, but would live in perfect +friendship: and the reason why they made these agreements, guarding +them very strongly from violation, was this, namely that an oracle had +been given to them at first when they began to exercise their rule, +that he of them who should pour a libation with a bronze cup in the +temple of Hephaistos, should be king of all Egypt (for they used to +assemble together in all the temples). Moreover they resolved to join +all together and leave a memorial of themselves; and having so +resolved they caused to be made a labyrinth, situated a little above +the lake of Moiris and nearly opposite to that which is called the +City of Crocodiles. This I saw myself, and I found it greater than +words can say. For if one should put together and reckon up all the +buildings and all the great works produced by Hellenes, they would +prove to be inferior in labour and expense to this labyrinth, though +it is true that both the temple at Ephesos and that at Samos are works +worthy of note. The pyramids also were greater than words can say, and +each one of them is equal to many works of the Hellenes, great as they +may be; but the labyrinth surpasses even the pyramids. It has twelve +courts covered in, with gates facing one another, six upon the North +side and six upon the South, joining on one to another, and the same +wall surrounds them all outside; and there are in it two kinds of +chambers, the one kind below the ground and the other above upon +these, three thousand in number, of each kind fifteen hundred. The +upper set of chambers we ourselves saw, going through them, and we +tell of them having looked upon them with our own eyes; but the +chambers under ground we heard about only; for the Egyptians who had +charge of them were not willing on any account to show them, saying +that here were the sepulchres of the kings who had first built this +labyrinth and of the sacred crocodiles. Accordingly we speak of the +chambers below by what we received from hearsay, while those above we +saw ourselves and found them to be works of more than human greatness. +For the passages through the chambers, and the goings this way and +that way through the courts, which were admirably adorned, afforded +endless matter for marvel, as we went through from a court to the +chambers beyond it, and from the chambers to colonnades, and from the +colonnades to other rooms, and then from the chambers again to other +courts. Over the whole of these is a roof made of stone like the +walls; and the walls are covered with figures carved upon them, each +court being surrounded with pillars of white stone fitted together +most perfectly; and at the end of the labyrinth, by the corner of it, +there is a pyramid of forty fathoms, upon which large figures are +carved, and to this there is a way made under ground. + +Such is this labyrinth: but a cause for marvel even greater than this +is afforded by the lake, which is called the lake of Moiris, along the +side of which this labyrinth is built. The measure of its circuit is +three thousand six hundred furlongs (being sixty /schoines/), and this +is the same number of furlongs as the extent of Egypt itself along the +sea. The lake lies extended lengthwise from North to South, and in +depth where it is deepest it is fifty fathoms. That this lake is +artificial and formed by digging is self-evident, for about in the +middle of the lake stand two pyramids, each rising above the water to +a height of fifty fathoms, the part which is built below the water +being of just the same height; and upon each is placed a colossal +statue of stone sitting upon a chair. Thus the pyramids are a hundred +fathoms high; and these hundred fathoms are equal to a furlong of six +hundred feet, the fathom being measured as six feet or four cubits, +the feet being four palms each, and the cubits six. The water in the +lake does not come from the place where it is, for the country there +is very deficient in water, but it has been brought thither from the +Nile by a canal; and for six months the water flows into the lake, and +for six months out into the Nile again; and whenever it flows out, +then for the six months it brings into the royal treasury a talent of +silver a day from the fish which are caught, and twenty pounds when +the water comes in. The natives of the place moreover said that this +lake had an outlet under ground to the Syrtis which is in Libya, +turning towards the interior of the continent upon the Western side +and running along by the mountain which is above Memphis. Now since I +did not see anywhere existing the earth dug out of this excavation +(for that was a matter which drew my attention), I asked those who +dwelt nearest to the lake where the earth was which had been dug out. +These told me to what place it had been carried away; and I readily +believed them, for I knew by report that a similar thing had been done +at Nineveh, the city of the Assyrians. There certain thieves formed a +design once to carry away the wealth of Sardanapallos son of Ninos, +the king, which wealth was very great and was kept in treasure-houses +under the earth. Accordingly they began from their own dwelling, and +making estimate of their direction they dug under ground towards the +king's palace; and the earth which was brought out of the excavation +they used to carry away, when night came on, to the river Tigris which +flows by the city of Nineveh, until at last they accomplished that +which they desired. Similarly, as I heard, the digging of the lake in +Egypt was effected, except that it was done not by night but during +the day; for as they dug the Egyptians carried to the Nile the earth +which was dug out; and the river, when it received it, would naturally +bear it away and disperse it. Thus is this lake said to have been dug +out. + +Now the twelve kings continued to rule justly, but in course of time +it happened thus:--After sacrifice in the temple of Hephaistos they +were about to make libation on the last day of the feast, and the +chief-priest, in bringing out for them the golden cups with which they +had been wont to pour libations, missed his reckoning and brought +eleven only for the twelve kings. Then that one of them who was +standing last in order, namely Psammetichos, since he had no cup took +off from his head his helmet, which was of bronze, and having held it +out to receive the wine he proceeded to make libation: likewise all +the other kings were wont to wear helmets and they happened to have +them then. Now Psammetichos held out his helmet with no treacherous +meaning; but they taking note of that which had been done by +Psammetichos and of the oracle, namely how it had been declared to +them that whosoever of them should make libation with a bronze cup +should be sole king of Egypt, recollecting, I say, the saying of the +Oracle, they did not indeed deem it right to slay Psammetichos, since +they found by examination that he had not done it with any +forethought, but they determined to strip him of almost all his power +and to drive him away into the fen-country, and that from the fen- +country he should not hold any dealings with the rest of Egypt. This +Psammetichos had formerly been a fugitive from the Ethiopian Sabacos +who had killed his father Necos, from him, I say, he had then been a +fugitive in Syria; and when the Ethiopian had departed in consequence +of the vision of the dream, the Egyptians who were of the district of +Sais brought him back to his own country. Then afterwards, when he was +king, it was his fate to be a fugitive a second time on account of the +helmet, being driven by the eleven kings into the fen-country. So then +holding that he had been grievously wronged by them, he thought how he +might take vengeance on those who had driven him out: and when he had +sent to the Oracle of Leto in the city of Buto, where the Egyptians +have their most truthful Oracle, there was given to him the reply that +vengeance would come when men of bronze appeared from the sea. And he +was strongly disposed not to believe that bronze men would come to +help him; but after no long time had passed, certain Ionians and +Carians who had sailed forth for plunder were compelled to come to +shore in Egypt, and they having landed and being clad in bronze +armour, came to the fen-land and brought a report to Psammetichos that +bronze men had come from the sea and were plundering the plain. So he, +perceiving that the saying of the Oracle was coming to pass, dealt in +a friendly manner with the Ionians and Carians, and with large +promises he persuaded them to take his part. Then when he had +persuaded them, with the help of those Egyptians who favoured his +cause and of these foreign mercenaries he overthrew the kings. Having +thus got power over all Egypt, Psammetichos made for Hephaistos that +gateway of the temple at Memphis which is turned towards the South +Wind; and he built a court for Apis, in which Apis is kept when he +appears, opposite to the gateway of the temple, surrounded all with +pillars and covered with figures; and instead of columns there stand +to support the roof of the court colossal statues twelve cubits high. +Now Apis is in the tongue of the Hellenes Epaphos. To the Ionians and +to the Carians who had helped him Psammetichos granted portions of +land to dwell in, opposite to one another with the river Nile between, +and these were called "Encampments"; these portions of land he gave +them, and he paid them besides all that he had promised: moreover he +placed with them Egyptian boys to have them taught the Hellenic +tongue; and from these, who learnt the language thoroughly, are +descended the present class of interpreters in Egypt. Now the Ionians +and Carians occupied these portions of land for a long time, and they +are towards the sea a little below the city of Bubastis, on that which +is called the Pelusian mouth of the Nile. These men king Amasis +afterwards removed from thence and established them at Memphis, making +them into a guard for himself against the Egyptians: and they being +settled in Egypt, we who are Hellenes know by intercourse with them +the certainty of all that which happened in Egypt beginning from king +Psammetichos and afterwards; for these were the first men of foreign +tongue who settled in Egypt: and in the land from which they were +removed there still remained down to my time the sheds where their +ships were drawn up and the ruins of their houses. + +Thus then Psammetichos obtained Egypt: and of the Oracle which is in +Egypt I have made mention often before this, and now I give an account +of it, seeing that it is worthy to be described. This Oracle which is +in Egypt is sacred to Leto, and it is established in a great city near +that mouth of the Nile which is called Sebennytic, as one sails up the +river from the sea; and the name of this city where the Oracle is +found is Buto, as I have said before in mentioning it. In this Buto +there is a temple of Apollo and Artemis; and the temple-house of Leto, +in which the Oracle is, is both great in itself and has a gateway of +the height of ten fathoms: but that which caused me most to marvel of +the things to be seen there, I will now tell. There is in this sacred +enclosure a house of Leto made of one single stone upon the top, the +cornice measuring four cubits. This house then of all the things that +were to be seen by me in that temple is the most marvellous, and among +those which come next is the island called Chemmis. This is situated +in a deep and broad lake by the side of the temple at Buto, and it is +said by the Egyptians that this island is a floating island. I myself +did not see it either floating about or moved from its place, and I +feel surprise at hearing of it, wondering if it be indeed a floating +island. In this island of which I speak there is a great temple-house +of Apollo, and three several altars are set up within, and there are +planted in the island many palm-trees and other trees, both bearing +fruit and not bearing fruit. And the Egyptians, when they say that it +is floating, add this story, namely that in this island which formerly +was not floating, Leto, being one of the eight gods who came into +existence first, and dwelling in the city of Buto where she has this +Oracle, received Apollo from Isis as a charge and preserved him, +concealing him in the island which is said now to be a floating +island, at that time when Typhon came after him seeking everywhere and +desiring to find the son of Osiris. Now they say that Apollo and +Artemis are children of Dionysos and of Isis, and that Leto became +their nurse and preserver; and in the Egyptian tongue Apollo is Oros, +Demeter is Isis, and Artemis is Bubastis. From this story and from no +other AEschylus the son of Euphorion took this which I shall say, +wherein he differs from all the preceding poets; he represented namely +that Artemis was the daughter of Demeter. For this reason then, they +say, it became a floating island. + +Such is the story which they tell; but as for Psammetichos, he was +king over Egypt for four-and-fifty years, of which for thirty years +save one he was sitting before Azotos, a great city of Syria, +besieging it, until at last he took it: and this Azotos of all cities +about which we have knowledge held out for the longest time under a +siege. + +The son of Psammetichos was Necos, and he became king of Egypt. This +man was the first who attempted the channel leading to the Erythraian +Sea, which Dareios the Persian afterwards completed: the length of +this is a voyage of four days, and in breadth it was so dug that two +triremes could go side by side driven by oars; and the water is +brought into it from the Nile. The channel is conducted a little above +the city of Bubastis by Patumos the Arabian city, and runs into the +Erythraian Sea: and it is dug first along those parts of the plain of +Egypt which lie towards Arabia, just above which run the mountains +which extend opposite Memphis, where are the stone-quarries,--along +the base of these mountains the channel is conducted from West to East +for a great way; and after that it is directed towards a break in the +hills and tends from these mountains towards the noon-day and the +South Wind to the Arabian gulf. Now in the place where the journey is +least and shortest from the Northern to the Southern Sea (which is +also called Erythraian), that is from Mount Casion, which is the +boundary between Egypt and Syria, the distance is exactly a thousand +furlongs to the Arabian gulf; but the channel is much longer, since it +is more winding; and in the reign of Necos there perished while +digging it twelve myriads of the Egyptians. Now Necos ceased in the +midst of his digging, because the utterance of an Oracle impeded him, +which was to the effect that he was working for the Barbarian: and the +Egyptians call all men Barbarians who do not agree with them in +speech. Thus having ceased from the work of the channel, Necos betook +himself to raging wars, and triremes were built by him, some for the +Northern Sea and others in the Arabian gulf for the Erythraian Sea; +and of these the sheds are still to be seen. These ships he used when +he needed them; and also on land Necos engaged battle at Magdolos with +the Syrians, and conquered them; and after this he took Cadytis, which +is a great city of Syria: and the dress which he wore when he made +these conquests he dedicated to Apollo, sending it to Branchidai of +the Milesians. After this, having reigned in all sixteen years, he +brought his life to an end, and handed on the kingdom to Psammis his +son. + +While this Psammis was king of Egypt, there came to him men sent by +the Eleians, who boasted that they ordered the contest at Olympia in +the most just and honourable manner possible and thought that not even +the Egyptians, the wisest of men, could find out anything besides, to +be added to their rules. Now when the Eleians came to Egypt and said +that for which they had come, then this king called together those of +the Egyptians who were reputed the wisest, and when the Egyptians had +come together they heard the Eleians tell of all that which it was +their part to do in regard to the contest; and when they had related +everything, they said that they had come to learn in addition anything +which the Egyptians might be able to find out besides, which was +juster than this. They then having consulted together asked the +Eleians whether their own citizens took part in the contest; and they +said that it was permitted to any one who desired it, to take part in +the contest: upon which the Egyptians said that in so ordering the +games they had wholly missed the mark of justice; for it could not be +but that they would take part with the man of their own State, if he +was contending, and so act unfairly to the stranger: but if they +really desired, as they said, to order the games justly, and if this +was the cause for which they had come to Egypt, they advised them to +order the contest so as to be for strangers alone to contend in, and +that no Eleian should be permitted to contend. Such was the suggestion +made by the Egyptians to the Eleians. + +When Psammis had been king of Egypt for only six years and had made an +expedition to Ethiopia and immediately afterwards had ended his life, +Apries the son of Psammis received the kingdom in succession. This man +came to be the most prosperous of all the kings up to that time except +only his forefather Psammetichos; and he reigned five-and-twenty +years, during which he led an army against Sidon and fought a sea- +fight with the king of Tyre. Since however it was fated that evil +should come upon him it came by occasion of a matter which I shall +relate at greater length in the Libyan history, and at present but +shortly. Apries having sent a great expedition against the Kyrenians, +met with correspondingly great disaster; and the Egyptians considering +him to blame for this revolted from him, supposing that Apries had +with forethought sent them out to evident calamity, in order (as they +said) that there might be a slaughter of them, and he might the more +securely rule over the other Egyptians. Being indignant at this, both +these men who had returned from the expedition and also the friends of +those who had perished made revolt openly. Hearing this Apries sent to +them Amasis, to cause them to cease by persuasion; and when he had +come and was seeking to restrain the Egyptians, as he was speaking and +telling them not to do so, one of the Egyptians stood up behind him +and put a helmet upon his head, saying as he did so that he put it on +to crown him king. And to him this that was done was in some degree +not unwelcome, as he proved by his behaviour; for as soon as the +revolted Egyptians had set him up as king, he prepared to march +against Apries: and Apries hearing this sent to Amasis one of the +Egyptians who were about his own person, a man of reputation, whose +name was Patarbemis, enjoining him to bring Amasis alive into his +presence. When this Patarbemis came and summoned Amasis, the latter, +who happened to be sitting on horseback, lifted up his leg and behaved +in an unseemly manner, bidding him take that back to Apries. +Nevertheless, they say, Patarbemis made demand of him that he should +go to the king, seeing that the king had sent to summon him; and he +answered him that he had for some time past been preparing to do so, +and that Apries would have no occasion to find fault with him, for he +would both come himself and bring others with him. Then Patarbemis +both perceiving his intention from that which he said, and also seeing +his preparations, departed in haste, desiring to make known as quickly +as possible to the king the things which were being done: and when he +came back to Apries not bringing Amasis, the king paying no regard to +that which he said, but being moved by violent anger, ordered his ears +and his nose to be cut off. And the rest of the Egyptians who still +remained on his side, when they saw the man of most repute among them +thus suffering shameful outrage, waited no longer but joined the +others in revolt, and delivered themselves over to Amasis. Then Apries +having heard this also, armed his foreign mercenaries and marched +against the Egyptians: now he had about him Carian and Ionian +mercenaries to the number of thirty thousand; and his royal palace was +in the city of Sais, of great size and worthy to be seen. So Apries +and his army were going against the Egyptians, and Amasis and those +with him were going against the mercenaries; and both sides came to +the city of Momemphis and were about to make trial of one another in +fight. + +Now of the Egyptians there are seven classes, and of these one class +is called that of the priests, and another that of the warriors, while +the others are the cowherds, swineherds, shopkeepers, interpreters, +and boatmen. This is the number of the classes of the Egyptians, and +their names are given them from the occupations which they follow. Of +them the warriors are called Calasirians and Hermotybians, and they +are of the following districts,--for all Egypt is divided into +districts. The districts of the Hermotybians are those of Busiris, +Sais, Chemmis, Papremis, the island called Prosopitis, and the half of +Natho,--of these districts are the Hermotybians, who reached when most +numerous the number of sixteen myriads. Of these not one has been +learnt anything of handicraft, but they are given up to war entirely. +Again the districts of the Calasirians are those of Thebes, Bubastis, +Aphthis, Tanis, Mendes, Sebennytos, Athribis, Pharbaithos, Thmuis, +Onuphis, Anytis, Myecphoris,--this last is on an island opposite to +the city of Bubastis. These are the districts of the Calasirians; and +they reached, when most numerous, to the number of five-and-twenty +myriads of men; nor is it lawful for these, any more than for the +others, to practise any craft; but they practise that which has to do +with war only, handing down the tradition from father to son. Now +whether the Hellenes have learnt this also from the Egyptians, I am +not able to say for certain, since I see that the Thracians also and +Scythians and Persians and Lydians and almost all the Barbarians +esteem those of their citizens who learn the arts, and the descendants +of them, as less honourable than the rest; while those who have got +free from all practice of manual arts are accounted noble, and +especially those who are devoted to war: however that may be, the +Hellenes have all learnt this, and especially the Lacedemonians; but +the Corinthians least of all cast slight upon those who practise +handicraft. + +The following privilege was specially granted to this class and to +none others of the Egyptians except the priests, that is to say, each +man had twelve yokes of land specially granted to him free from +imposts: now the yoke of land measures a hundred Egyptian cubits every +way, and the Egyptian cubit is, as it happens, equal to that of Samos. +This, I say, was a special privilege granted to all, and they also had +certain advantages in turn and not the same men twice; that is to say, +a thousand of the Calasirians and a thousand of the Hermotybians acted +as body-guard to the king during each year; and these had besides +their yokes of land an allowance given them for each day of five +pounds weight of bread to each man, and two pounds of beef, and four +half-pints of wine. This was the allowance given to those who were +serving as the king's body-guard for the time being. + +So when Apries leading his foreign mercenaries, and Amasis at the head +of the whole body of the Egyptians, in their approach to one another +had come to the city of Momemphis, they engaged in battle: and +although the foreign troops fought well, yet being much inferior in +number they were worsted by reason of this. But Apries is said to have +supposed that not even a god would be able to cause him to cease from +his rule, so firmly did he think that it was established. In that +battle then, I say, he was worsted, and being taken alive was brought +away to the city of Sais, to that which had formerly been his own +dwelling but from thenceforth was the palace of Amasis. There for some +time he was kept in the palace, and Amasis dealt well with him but at +last, since the Egyptians blamed him, saying that he acted not rightly +in keeping alive him who was the greatest foe both to themselves and +to him, therefore he delivered Apries over to the Egyptians; and they +strangled him, and after that buried him in the burial-place of his +fathers: this is in the temple of Athene, close to the sanctuary, on +the left hand as you enter. Now the men of Sais buried all those of +this district who had been kings, within the temple; for the tomb of +Amasis also, though it is further from the sanctuary than that of +Apries and his forefathers, yet this too is within the court of the +temple, and it consists of a colonnade of stone of great size, with +pillars carved to imitate date-palms, and otherwise sumptuously +adorned; and within the colonnade are double doors, and inside the +doors a sepulchral chamber. Also at Sais there is the burial-place of +him whom I account it not pious to name in connexion with such a +matter, which is in the temple of Athene behind the house of the +goddess, stretching along the whole wall of it; and in the sacred +enclosure stand great obelisks of stone, and near them is a lake +adorned with an edging of stone and fairly made in a circle, being in +size, as it seemed to me, equal to that which is called the "Round +Pool" in Delos. On this lake they perform by night the show of his +sufferings, and this the Egyptians call Mysteries. Of these things I +know more fully in detail how they take place, but I shall leave this +unspoken; and of the mystic rites of Demeter, which the Hellenes call +/thesmophoria/, of these also, although I know, I shall leave unspoken +all except so much as piety permits me to tell. The daughters of +Danaos were they who brought this rite out of Egypt and taught it to +the women of the Pelasgians; then afterwards when all the inhabitants +of Peloponnese were driven out by the Dorians, the rite was lost, and +only those who were left behind of the Peloponnesians and not driven +out, that is to say the Arcadians, preserved it. + +Apries having thus been overthrown, Amasis became king, being of the +district of Sais, and the name of the city whence he was is Siuph. Now +at the first the Egyptians despised Amasis and held him in no great +regard, because he had been a man of the people and was of no +distinguished family; but afterwards Amasis won them over to himself +by wisdom and not wilfulness. Among innumerable other things of price +which he had, there was a foot-basin of gold in which both Amasis +himself and all his guests were wont always to wash their feet. This +he broke up, and of it he caused to be made the image of a god, and +set it up in the city, where it was most convenient; and the Egyptians +went continually to visit the image and did great reverence to it. +Then Amasis, having learnt that which was done by the men of the city, +called together the Egyptians and made known to them the matter, +saying that the image had been produced from the foot-basin, into +which formerly the Egyptians used to vomit and make water, and in +which they washed their feet, whereas now they did to it great +reverence; and just so, he continued, had he himself now fared, as the +foot-basin; for though formerly he was a man of the people, yet now he +was their king, and he bade them accordingly honour him and have +regard for him. In such manner he won the Egyptians to himself, so +that they consented to be his subjects; and his ordering of affairs +was this:--In the early morning, and until the time of the filling of +the market he did with a good will the business which was brought +before him; but after this he passed the time in drinking and in +jesting at his boon-companions, and was frivolous and playful. And his +friends being troubled at it admonished him in some such words as +these: "O king, thou dost not rightly govern thyself in thus letting +thyself descend to behaviour so trifling; for thou oughtest rather to +have been sitting throughout the day stately upon a stately throne and +administering thy business; and so the Egyptians would have been +assured that they were ruled by a great man, and thou wouldest have +had a better report: but as it is, thou art acting by no means in a +kingly fashion." And he answered them thus: "They who have bows +stretch them at such time as they wish to use them, and when they have +finished using them they loose them again; for if they were stretched +tight always they would break, so that the men would not be able to +use them when they needed them. So also is the state of man: if he +should always be in earnest and not relax himself for sport at the due +time, he would either go mad or be struck with stupor before he was +aware; and knowing this well, I distribute a portion of the time to +each of the two ways of living." Thus he replied to his friends. It is +said however that Amasis, even when he was in a private station, was a +lover of drinking and of jesting, and not at all seriously disposed; +and whenever his means of livelihood failed him through his drinking +and luxurious living, he would go about and steal; and they from whom +he stole would charge him with having their property, and when he +denied it would bring him before the judgment of an Oracle, whenever +there was one in their place; and many times he was convicted by the +Oracles and many times he was absolved: and then when finally he +became king he did as follows:--as many of the gods as had absolved +him and pronounced him not to be a thief, to their temples he paid no +regard, nor gave anything for the further adornment of them, nor even +visited them to offer sacrifice, considering them to be worth nothing +and to possess lying Oracles; but as many as had convicted him of +being a thief, to these he paid very great regard, considering them to +be truly gods, and to present Oracles which did not lie. First in Sais +he built and completed for Athene a temple-gateway which is a great +marvel, and he far surpassed herein all who had done the like before, +both in regard to height and greatness, so large are the stones and of +such quality. Then secondly he dedicated great colossal statues and +man-headed sphinxes very large, and for restoration he caused to be +brought from the stone-quarries which are opposite Memphis, others of +very great size from the city of Elephantine, distant a voyage of not +less than twenty days from Sais: and of them all I marvel most at +this, namely a monolith chamber which he brought from the city of +Elephantine; and they were three years engaged in bringing this, and +two thousand men were appointed to convey it, who all were of the +class of boatmen. Of this house the length outside is one-and-twenty +cubits, the breadth is fourteen cubits, and the height eight. These +are the measures of the monolith house outside; but the length inside +is eighteen cubits and five-sixths of a cubit, the breadth twelve +cubits, and the height five cubits. This lies by the side of the +entrance to the temple; for within the temple they did not draw it, +because, as it is said, while the house was being drawn along, the +chief artificer of it groaned aloud, seeing that much time had been +spent and he was wearied by the work; and Amasis took it to heart as a +warning and did not allow them to draw it further onwards. Some say on +the other hand that a man was killed by it, of those who were heaving +it with levers, and that it was not drawn in for that reason. Amasis +also dedicated in all the other temples which were of repute, works +which are worth seeing for their size, and among them also at Memphis +the colossal statue which lies on its back in front of the temple of +Hephaistos, whose length is five-and-seventy feet; and on the same +base made of the same stone are set two colossal statues, each of +twenty feet in length, one on this side and the other on that side of +the large statue. There is also another of stone of the same size in +Sais, lying in the same manner as that at Memphis. Moreover Amasis was +he who built and finished for Isis her temple at Memphis, which is of +great size and very worthy to be seen. + +In the reign of Amasis it is said that Egypt became more prosperous +than at any other time before, both in regard to that which comes to +the land from the river and in regard to that which comes from the +land to its inhabitants, and that at this time the inhabited towns in +it numbered in all twenty thousand. It was Amasis too who established +the law that every year each one of the Egyptians should declare to +the ruler of his district, from what source he got his livelihood, and +if any man did not do this or did not make declaration of an honest +way of living, he should be punished with death. Now Solon the +Athenian received from Egypt this law and had it enacted for the +Athenians, and they have continued to observe it, since it is a law +with which none can find fault. + +Moreover Amasis became a lover of the Hellenes; and besides other +proofs of friendship which he gave to several among them, he also +granted the city of Naucratis for those of them who came to Egypt to +dwell in; and to those who did not desire to stay, but who made +voyages thither, he granted portions of land to set up altars and make +sacred enclosures for their gods. Their greatest enclosure and that +one which has most name and is most frequented is called the +Hellenion, and this was established by the following cities in common: +--of the Ionians Chios, Teos, Phocaia, Clazomenai, of the Dorians +Rhodes, Cnidos, Halicarnassos, Phaselis, and of the Aiolians Mytilene +alone. To these belongs this enclosure and these are the cities which +appoint superintendents of the port; and all other cities which claim +a share in it, are making a claim without any right. Besides this the +Eginetans established on their own account a sacred enclosure +dedicated to Zeus, the Samians one to Hera, and the Milesians one to +Apollo. Now in old times Naucratis alone was an open trading-place, +and no other place in Egypt: and if any one came to any other of the +Nile mouths, he was compelled to swear that he came not thither of his +own free will, and when he had thus sworn his innocence he had to sail +with his ship to the Canobic mouth, or if it were not possible to sail +by reason of contrary winds, then he had to carry his cargo round the +head of the Delta in boats to Naucratis: thus highly was Naucratis +privileged. Moreover when the Amphictyons had let out the contract for +building the temple which now exists at Delphi, agreeing to pay a sum +of three hundred talents (for the temple which formerly stood there +had been burnt down of itself), it fell to the share of the people of +Delphi to provide the fourth part of the payment; and accordingly the +Delphians went about to various cities and collected contributions. +And when they did this they got from Egypt as much as from any place, +for Amasis gave them a thousand talents' weight of alum, while the +Hellenes who dwelt in Egypt gave them twenty pounds of silver. + +Also with the people of Kyrene Amasis made an agreement for friendship +and alliance; and he resolved too to marry a wife from thence, whether +because he desired to have a wife of Hellenic race, or, apart from +that, on account of friendship for the people of Kyrene: however that +may be, he married, some say the daughter of Battos, others of +Arkesilaos, and others of Critobulos, a man of repute among the +citizens; and her name was Ladike. Now whenever Amasis lay with her he +found himself unable to have intercourse, but with his other wives he +associated as he was wont; and as this happened repeatedly, Amasis +said to his wife, whose name was Ladike: "Woman, thou hast given me +drugs, and thou shall surely perish more miserably than any other." +Then Ladike, when by her denials Amasis was not at all appeased in his +anger against her, made a vow in her soul to Aphrodite, that if Amasis +on that night had intercourse with her (seeing that this was the +remedy for her danger), she would send an image to be dedicated to her +at Kyrene; and after the vow immediately Amasis had intercourse, and +from thenceforth whenever Amasis came in to her he had intercourse +with her; and after this he became very greatly attached to her. And +Ladike paid the vow that she had made to the goddess; for she had an +image made and sent it to Kyrene, and it is still preserved even to my +own time, standing with its face turned away from the city of the +Kyrenians. This Ladike Cambyses, having conquered Egypt and heard from +her who she was, sent back unharmed to Kyrene. + +Amasis also dedicated offerings in Hellas, first at Kyrene an image of +Athene covered over with gold and a figure of himself made like by +painting; then in the temple of Athene at Lindos two images of stone +and a corslet of linen worthy to be seen; and also at Samos two wooden +figures of himself dedicated to Hera, which were standing even to my +own time in the great temple, behind the doors. Now at Samos he +dedicated offerings because of the guest-friendship between himself +and Polycrates the son of Aiakes; at Lindos for no guest-friendship +but because the temple of Athene at Lindos is said to have been +founded by the daughters of Danaos, who had touched land there at the +time when they were fleeing from the sons of Aigyptos. These offerings +were dedicated by Amasis; and he was the first of men who conquered +Cyprus and subdued it so that it paid him tribute. + + + + + +End of The Project Gutenberg Etext of An Account of Egypt, by Herodotus + diff --git a/old/agypt10.zip b/old/agypt10.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..b82715f --- /dev/null +++ b/old/agypt10.zip |