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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Dawn of Reason, by James Weir
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Dawn of Reason
+       or, Mental Traits in the Lower Animals
+
+Author: James Weir
+
+Release Date: May 25, 2007 [EBook #21608]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE DAWN OF REASON ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marilynda Fraser-Cunliffe, Anne Storer and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Note: Inconsistencies in hyphenation left in as per
+original text.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+THE
+DAWN OF REASON
+
+OR
+
+MENTAL TRAITS IN THE
+LOWER ANIMALS
+
+BY
+JAMES WEIR, JR., M.D.
+
+New York
+THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
+LONDON: MACMILLAN & CO., LTD.
+1899
+
+_All rights reserved_
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+COPYRIGHT, 1899,
+BY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY.
+
+
+Norwood Press
+J. S. Cushing & Co.--Berwick & Smith
+Norwood Mass. U.S.A.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+To My Father
+
+WHO, WHILE NOT A SCIENTIST, HAS YET TAKEN
+
+AN INTELLIGENT AND APPRECIATIVE
+
+INTEREST IN MY WORK
+
+THIS BOOK IS RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+Most works on mind in the lower animals are large and ponderous volumes,
+replete with technicalities, and unfit for the general reader; therefore
+the author of this book has endeavored to present the evidences of mental
+action, in creatures lower than man, in a clear, simple, and brief form.
+He has avoided all technicalities, and has used the utmost brevity
+consistent with clearness and accuracy. He also believes that metaphysics
+has no place in a discussion of psychology, and has carefully refrained
+from using this once powerful weapon of psychologists.
+
+Many of the data used by the authors of more pretentious works are
+second-hand or hearsay; the author of this treatise, however, has no
+confidence in the accuracy of such material, therefore he has not made
+use of any such data. His material has been thoroughly sifted, and the
+reader may depend upon the absolute truth of the evidence here
+presented.
+
+The author does not claim infallibility; some of his conclusions may be
+erroneous; he _believes_, however, that future investigation will
+prove the verity of every proposition that is advanced in this book. These
+propositions have been formulated only after a twenty-years study of
+biology in all of its phases.
+
+Some of the data used in this volume have appeared in _Appleton's Popular
+Science Monthly_, _Lippincott's Magazine_, _Worthington's Magazine_, _New
+York Medical Record_, _Recreation_, _Atlantic Monthly_, _American
+Naturalist_, _Scientific American_, _Home Magazine_, _Popular Science
+News_, _Denver Medical Times_, and _North American Review_; therefore the
+author tenders his thanks to the publishers of these magazines for their
+kindness in allowing him to use their property in getting out this work.
+
+"WAVELAND," OWENSBORO, KY.,
+January 9, 1899.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+CONSCIOUS AND UNCONSCIOUS MIND
+
+                                                                       PAGE
+Definition of mind--The correlation of physiology, morphology, and
+  psychology--The presence of nerve-elements in _monera_--Conscious
+  and unconscious mind--Unconscious ("vegetative") mind in the
+  jelly-fish--Anatomy, physiology, and psychology of the jelly-fish
+  --The origin of conscious mind.                                         1
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+THE SENSES IN THE LOWER ANIMALS
+
+The sense of touch--The senses of taste and smell--Actinophryans having
+  taste--The sense of sight--Modification of sight organs by surroundings
+  --Sight in Actinophryans--Blind fish sensitive to light--Blind spiders
+  --Blind man--Primitive eyes in _Cymothoe_--In the jelly-fish, sea-urchin,
+  _Alciope_, _Myrianida_--The sight organs of the snail--Power of vision
+  in the snail--Eyes of crayfish--Compound eyes--Vision in "whirligig
+  beetle"--In _Periophthalmus_--In _Onchidium_--In _Calotis_--Organs of
+  audition--In _Lepidoptera_--_Hymenoptera_--_Orthoptera_--_Diptera_
+  --_Hemiptera_--_Dyticus marginalis_--_Corydalus_--Ears of grasshopper
+  and cricket--Of the "red-legged locust"--Of flies--Of gnats--Auditory
+  vesicles of horse-fly--Ears of butterflies--Cerambyx beetle--Long-horned
+  beetle--_Cicindelidae_--_Carabidae_.                                      7
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+CONSCIOUS DETERMINATION
+
+Definition--How conscious determination is evolved from the senses--The
+  presence of nerve-tissue in _Stentor polymorphus_--The properties of
+  nerve-tissue--Romanes' experiment with anemone--Action of stimuli on
+  nerve-tissue--Reflection--Origin of consciousness--Time element in
+  consciousness--Conscious determination in _Stentor polymorphus_--In
+  _Actinophrys_--In _Amoeba_--In _Medusa_--In a water-louse--In a garden
+  snail--In the angle-worm--In oysters--In a ground wasp.                39
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+MEMORY
+
+Discussed under four heads, viz. _Memory of Locality_ (_Surroundings_),
+  _Memory of Friends_ (_Kin_), _Memory of Strangers_ (_Other animals not
+  kin_), and _Memory of Events_ (_Education_, _Happenings_, etc.)--Memory
+  of locality in _Actinophrys_--In the snail--In the ant--In sand
+  wasps--In beetles--In reptiles--_Memory of Friends_--In ants
+  --Experiments with ants, _Lasius flavus_, _Lasius niger_, and
+  _Myrmica ruginodis_--Memory of kin in wasps and bees--Experiments
+  --_Memory of Strangers_ (_Animals other than kin_)--Recognition of
+  enemies--By bumblebees--Memory of individuals not enemies--By the
+  toad--By the spider--By ants--By snakes--By chameleons--By birds
+  --By cattle--By dogs--By monkeys--_Memory of Events_ (_Education_, etc.)
+  --In the wasp--In fleas--In the toad--In other insects.                60
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+THE EMOTIONS
+
+The higher animals--Laughter--In monkeys--In the dog--In the chimpanzee
+  --In the orang-utan--Fear, dismay, consternation, grief, fortitude,
+  joy shown by bees--Affection for the individual evinced by house wren
+  --Anger, hate, fear, revenge, in the higher animals--Forgiving
+  disposition in the monkey--Sympathy--In ants--Care of young by ants
+  --Solicitude of butterflies--Of gadfly--Of the ichneumon fly--Of the
+  mason wasp--Of the spider--Of the earwig--Anger and hate evinced by
+  ants, centipedes, tarantulas, weevils.                                 88
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+AESTHETICISM
+
+The love of music--In spiders--In quail--In dogs--Origin of love of
+  music in the dog--Dog's knowledge of the echo--Love of music in rats
+  --In mice--Singing mice--Love of music in lizards--In salamanders--In
+  snakes--In pigeons--In the barnyard cock--In the horse--Amusement and
+  pastime--In _Actinophrys_--In the snail--In _Diptera_--In ants--In
+  lady-bugs (_Coccinellae_)--AEsthetic taste in birds--The snakeskin
+  bird--Humming-bird--Bower bird--The love of personal cleanliness--In
+  birds--In insects--In the locust.                                     107
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+PARENTAL AFFECTION
+
+Origin of parental feeling--Evidence of this psychical trait in spiders
+  --In earwigs--In crayfish--In butterflies--In fish--In toads--In
+  snakes--Instance of pride in parents--In the dog--In the cat--Parental
+  affection in birds--Animals seeking the assistance of man when their
+  offspring is in danger--The evolution of parental affection.          134
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+REASON
+
+Definition of reason--Origin of instincts--Instances of intelligent
+  ratiocination--In the bee--The wasp--The ant--Mental degeneration in
+  ants occasioned by the habit of keeping slaves--The honey-making ant
+  filling an artificial trench--Other evidences of reason in the insect
+  --_Termes_--Division of labor--The king and queen--Bravery of soldier
+  ants--Overseer and laborers--Blind impulse and intelligent ideation
+  --Harvester ants--Their habits and intelligence--Their presence in
+  Arkansas believed to be unique--Animals able to count--This faculty
+  present in the mason wasps--Experiments--Certain birds able to count
+  --Also dogs and mules--Cat recognizing the lapse of time--Monkey's
+  ability in computing--Huber's experiment with glass slip and bees
+  --Kirby and Spence's comment--Summary.                                147
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+AUXILIARY SENSES
+
+The color-changing sense and "homing instinct" so-called--These
+  faculties not instincts but true senses--The chromatic function
+  --Tinctumutation--Chromatophores and their function--Various
+  theories--Experiments of Paul Bert with axolotls--Semper's
+  contention--The difference between plant coloring and animal
+  coloring--Effects of light--Experiments with newts--Lister's
+  observations--Pouchet's experiments--Sympathetic nerves--Author's
+  experiments with frogs--The sense-centre of tinctumutation--Effects
+  of atropia--Experiments with fish--With katydid--The "homing instinct"
+  a true sense--Evidences of the sense in a water-louse--Author's
+  experiments with snails--Location of sense-centre in snails--Evidences
+  of the homing sense in the limpet--In beetles--In fleas--In ants--In
+  snakes--In birds--In fish.                                            181
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+LETISIMULATION
+
+Not confined to any family, order, or species of animals--Death-feigning
+  by rhizopods--By fresh-water annelids--By the larvae of butterflies and
+  beetles--By free-swimming rotifers--By snakes--By the itch insect
+  (_Sarcoptes hominis_)--By many of the _Coleoptera_--The common "tumble
+  bug" (_Canthon Laevis_) a gifted letisimulant--The double defence of the
+  pentatomid, "stink-bug"--Reason coming to the aid of instinct--
+  Death-feigning an instinct--Feigning of death by ants--By a hound--Not
+  instinctive in the dog and cat--The origin of this instinct--Summary. 202
+
+
+CONCLUSION
+
+Instinct and reason--Specialized instincts and "intelligent accidents"
+  --Abstraction in the dog--In the elephant--The kinship of mind in man
+  and the lower animals shown by the phenomenon of dreaming--By the
+  effects of drugs--The action of alcohol on rhizopods--On jelly-fish
+  --On insects--On mammals--Animals aware of the medical qualities of
+  certain substances--Recognition of property rights--Animals as tool
+  users--Instinct and reason differentiated--Summary.                   215
+
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY                                                            225
+
+
+INDEX                                                                   227
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+DAWN OF REASON
+
+MENTAL TRAITS IN THE LOWER ANIMALS
+
+INTRODUCTION.--CONSCIOUS AND UNCONSCIOUS MIND
+
+
+Mind is a resultant of nerve, in the beginning of life, neuro-plasmic,
+action, through which and by which animal life in all its phases is
+consciously and unconsciously, directly and indirectly, maintained,
+sustained, governed, and directed.
+
+This definition of mind is widely different from the definition of those
+metaphysical scientists who directed psychological investigation and
+observation a decade ago. They held that psychology had nothing in
+common with physiology and morphology; that _psychos_ stood upon an
+independent pedestal, and was not affected by, and did not affect, any
+of the phenomena of life.
+
+In these days it is becoming an accepted fact that morphology,
+physiology, and psychology are intimately related and connected, and
+that a thorough knowledge of the one implies an equally thorough
+knowledge of the others.
+
+Morphology and physiology, until a comparatively recent time, led
+divergent paths; but, thanks to such men as Haeckel, Romanes, Huxley,
+Wolff, and many others, this erroneous method of investigation, to a
+great extent, has ceased.
+
+"The two chief divisions of biological research--Morphology and
+Physiology--have long travelled apart, taking different paths. This is
+perfectly natural, for the aims, as well as the methods, of the two
+divisions are different. Morphology, the science of forms, aims at a
+scientific understanding of organic structures, of their internal and
+external proportions of form. Physiology, the science of functions, on
+the other hand, aims at a knowledge of the functions of the organs, or,
+in other words, of the manifestations of life."[1]
+
+  [1] Haeckel, _Evolution of Man_, Vol. I. p. 20.
+
+Indeed, physiology has so diverged from its sister science, morphology,
+that it completely and entirely ignores two of the most important
+functions of evolution, heredity and adaptation. This has been clearly
+shown by Haeckel, who has done much towards bringing about a change of
+opinion in these matters.[2]
+
+  [2] _Ibid._, p. 21 _et seq._
+
+Morphology and physiology are interdependent, correlated, and connected
+one with the other; and, as I will endeavor to point out as my argument
+develops itself, psychology is, likewise, intimately associated with
+these two manifestations of life.
+
+It will be noticed that as forms take on more complexity, and as organs
+develop new and more complex functions, _psychos_ becomes less simple
+in its manifestations, and more complex in its relations to the internal
+and external operations of life.
+
+Keeping in view the definition of mind as advanced in the opening
+paragraph of this chapter, it at once becomes evident that even the very
+lowest forms of life possess mind in some degree. It is true that in the
+_monera_, or one-celled organisms, the nerve-cell is not differentiated;
+consequently, if I were to be held to a close and strict accountability,
+my definition of mind would not embrace these organisms. Yet, some small
+latitude must be allowed in all definitions of psychological phenomena,
+especially in those phenomena occurring in organisms which typify the
+very beginnings of life.
+
+I am confident that, notwithstanding the fact that the nerve-_cell_ is
+not differentiated in these primal forms, nerve-elements are,
+nevertheless, present in them, and serve to direct and control life.
+
+Mind makes itself evident in two ways--consciously and unconsciously.
+The conscious manifestations of mind are volitional, while the
+unconscious, "vegetative," reflex operations of mind are wholly
+involuntary.
+
+Although the unconscious mind plays fully as prominent a role in the
+economy of life as does the conscious mind, this treatise will not
+discuss the former, except indirectly. Yet, an outline sketch as to what
+is meant by the _unconscious_ mind will be necessary, in order that the
+reader may more fully comprehend my meaning when discussing _conscious_
+mind.
+
+A brief investigation of the anatomy, physiology, and psychology of the
+medusa, or jelly-fish, will serve to illustrate the operations of the
+unconscious mind as it is to be noticed in its reflex and "vegetative"
+phases. The higher and more evolved phases of the unconscious mind will
+not be discussed in this work, except incidentally, perhaps, as they may
+appear, from time to time, as my propositions are advanced, and the
+scheme of mental development is elaborated.
+
+The medusa (the specimen that I take for study is a very common
+fresh-water individual) has a well-developed nervous system. Its
+transparent, translucent nectocalyx, or swimming-bell, has a central
+nervous system which is localized on the margin of the bell, and which
+forms the so-called "nerve-ring" of Romanes.[3] This nerve-ring is
+separated into an upper and lower nerve-ring by the "veil," an annular
+sheet of tissue which forms the floor of the swimming-bell, or
+"umbrella," and through a central opening in which the manubrium, or
+"handle," of the umbrella passes down and hangs below the margin of the
+bell.
+
+  [3] Romanes, _Jelly-Fish_, _Star-Fish_, _and Sea-Urchins_, p. 16.
+
+The nerve-ring is well supplied with epithelial and ganglionic
+nerve-cells; their function is wholly reflex and involuntary; they
+preside over the pulsing or swimming movements of the nectocalyx. This
+pulsing is excited by stimulation, and is analogous, so far as movement
+is concerned, to the peristaltic action of the intestines. Situated on
+the margin of the bell are a number of very minute, round bodies, the
+so-called "eyes." These eyes are supplied with nerves, one of whose
+functions is volitional, as I will endeavor to show in my chapter on
+Conscious Determination.
+
+The manubrium, or handle, is also the centre of a nerve-system. Nerves
+proceed from it and are spread out on the inner surface of the bell.
+These nerves preside over digestion, and are involuntary. Certain
+ganglia in the manubrium appear to preside over volitional effort. I
+have never been able, however, to locate their exact position, nor to
+determine their precise action. They will be discussed more fully in the
+next chapter.
+
+The nervous system of the nectocalyx is exceedingly sensitive,
+responding with remarkable quickness to stimulation. When two or three
+minims of alcohol are dropped into a pint of water in which one of these
+creatures is swimming, the pulsing of the nectocalyx is notably
+increased in frequency and volume.
+
+Romanes determined that the centres governing pulsation were located in
+the nerve-ring of the swimming-bell, and that each section of the
+nectocalyx had its individual nerve-centre.[4]
+
+  [4] _Jelly-Fish_, _Star-Fish_, _and Sea-Urchins_, p. 65 _et seq._
+
+The pulsing of the nectocalyx occasions a flow of water into and out of
+the bell. This current brings both food and air (oxygen) to the animal,
+which is enabled to take these necessary life-sustainers into its system
+through the agency of vegetative nerve-action, a phase of the
+unconscious mind.
+
+The unconscious mind made its appearance in animal life many thousands
+of years before the conscious mind came into existence. The latter
+psychical manifestation had its origin in sensual perception, which, in
+turn, gave rise to mental recepts and concepts.
+
+In order fully to understand the origin of mind, it will be necessary to
+investigate the senses as they are observed in the lower animals. The
+first manifestation of conscious mind, which is, as I believe, conscious
+determination, or, volitional effort, is directly traceable to stimuli
+affecting the senses. This primal operation of conscious mind, and the
+manner in which it is developed from sensational perceptions, will now
+be discussed.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+THE SENSES IN THE LOWER ANIMALS
+
+
+I am inclined to believe that the primal, fundamental sense,--the sense
+of touch,--from which all the other senses have been evolved or
+developed, has been in existence almost as long as life.
+
+It is quite probable that it is to be found in the very lowest animal
+organisms; and, if our own senses were acute enough, it is more than
+probable that we would be able to demonstrate its presence, beyond
+peradventure, in such organisms.
+
+The senses of taste and smell, according to Graber, Lubbock, Farre, and
+many other investigators, seem to be almost as old as the sense of
+touch. My own observations teach me that certain actinophryans,[5]
+minute, microscopic animalcules, can differentiate between the starch
+spores of algae and grains of sand, thus showing that they possess taste,
+or an analogous sense.
+
+  [5] Vide the writer, _N. Y. Medical Record_, August 15, 1896.
+
+On one occasion I was examining an actinophrys (_Actinophrys
+Eichornii_), which was engaged in feeding. It would seize a rotifer
+(there were numerous _Brachioni_ in the water) with one of its
+pseudopodia, which it would then retract, until the captured Brachionus
+was safely within its abdominal cavity. On the slide there were several
+grains of sand, but these the actinophrys passed by without notice.
+
+I thought, at first, that this creature's attention was directed to its
+prey by the movements of the latter, but further investigation showed me
+that this was not the case.
+
+After carefully rinsing the slide, I placed some alga spores (some of
+which were ruptured, thus allowing the starch grains to escape) and some
+minute crystals of uric acid upon it. Whenever the actinophrys touched a
+starch grain with a pseudopod, the latter was at once retracted,
+carrying the starch grain with it into the abdominal cavity of the
+actinophryan; the uric acid crystals were always ignored.
+
+I conclude from this experiment, that the actinophrys, which is
+exceedingly low in the scale of animal life, recognizes food by taste,
+or by some sense analogous to taste.
+
+Many species of these little animals, however, are not as intelligent as
+the Eichorn actinophrys; they very frequently take in inert and useless
+substances, which, after a time, they get rid of by a process the
+reverse of that which they use in "swallowing." By the latter process
+they put _themselves_ on the outside of an object--in fact, they
+surround it; by the former, they put the _object_ outside by allowing
+it to escape through their bodies.
+
+The sense of sight makes its appearance in animals quite low in the
+scale, therefore the reader will pardon me if, while discussing this
+sense, I prove to be a bit discursive. The subject is, withal, so very
+interesting that it calls for a close and minute investigation.
+
+One of the immutable laws of nature declares that animals which are
+placed in new surroundings, not fatal to life, undergo certain changes
+and modifications in their anatomical and physiological structures to
+meet the exigencies demanded by such a modification of surroundings.
+Thus, the flounder and his congeners, the turbot, the plaice, the sole,
+etc., were, centuries and centuries ago, two-sided fishes, swimming
+upright, after the manner of the perch, the bass, and the salmon, with
+eyes arranged one on each side of the head. From upright fishes,
+swimming, probably, close to the surface of the sea, they became
+dwellers on its bottom, and, in order to hide themselves more
+effectually from their enemies or their prey, they acquired the habit of
+swimming with one side next to the ground, and of partially or wholly
+burying themselves in the mud, always, however, with one side down. They
+thus became flat fishes, losing the coloring of their under surfaces,
+and their eyes migrating across their foreheads and taking up positions
+on the upper surfaces of their heads. Again, when animals are placed
+among surroundings in which there is no need for some special organ,
+this organ degenerates, and passes wholly or partially into a
+rudimentary condition, or, entirely out of existence. These latter
+effects of changed conditions on animals are especially noticeable in
+the effect of continual darkness on the organs of sight of those
+creatures which, owing to said mutations, have been compelled to dwell
+in darkness for untold ages.
+
+The mole, far back in the past, had eyes, and gained its livelihood
+above ground in the broad light of day; but, owing to some change in its
+surroundings, it was forced to burrow beneath the surface of the earth;
+consequently its organs of sight have degenerated, and are now
+practically worthless as far as _vision_ is concerned. All moles,
+however, can tell darkness from light, consequently, are not wholly
+blind--a certain amount of _sight_ remains. This is due to the fact
+that, although the optic nerve, on examination, is invariably found to
+be atrophied or wasted, there yet remain in the shrivelled nerve-cord
+true nerve-cells; these nerve-cells transmit light impressions to the
+brain.
+
+Even if the optic nerves, and, in fact, all of the structures of the
+eye, were absent, I yet believe that the mole could differentiate
+between daylight and darkness. The sensitive tufts and filaments of
+nerve in the skin, undoubtedly, in many instances, respond to the
+stimulation of light, so that totally blind animals, animals with no
+rudimentary organs of vision whatever, and the inception of whose
+ancestors, themselves wholly blind, probably took place thousands of
+years ago, show by their actions that light is exceedingly unpleasant to
+them. Thus, I have seen actinophryans taken from the River Styx in
+Mammoth Cave (which is their natural habitat), seeking to hide
+themselves beneath a grain of sand which happened to be drawn up in the
+pipette and dropped upon the glass slide beneath the object-glass of my
+microscope.
+
+I have repeatedly seen the blind fish of Mammoth Cave seeking out the
+darkest spots in aquaria. In point of fact, I think it can be
+demonstrated that light is directly fatal to these fishes; they soon die
+when taken from the river and placed in aquaria where there is an
+abundance of light.
+
+These fish, although they have rudimentary eyes, never have the
+slightest remaining trace of nerve-cells in the wasted optic nerve (that
+is, I have never been able to discover any), thus showing that their
+appreciation of light is not derived through the agency of their eyes.
+An eyeless spider (_Anthrobia_) taken from the same cavern showed a like
+distaste for light, and yet, in this insect, there is absolutely no
+vestige of an eye or its nerves.
+
+Finally, a friend of mine, a youth of eighteen, totally blind since
+birth, can differentiate between daylight and darkness. On one occasion
+I carefully blindfolded him and led him into the well-lighted office of
+a brewery (he had never been in a brewery before), and asked him if it
+were light or dark. He answered that it was almost as light as day. I
+then conducted him into the dark beer vaults, and as soon as he passed
+the door he exclaimed, "How cold and dark it is here!" Thinking that he
+might possibly associate darkness with coldness, I asked him if this
+were the case. "No," he replied, "I _see_ the darkness and I _feel_ the
+cold; they are not the same."
+
+In these animals--and I include man--continuous darkness has modified
+sensibility (sense of touch) to such an extent that it has partially
+taken on the functions of the useless organs--the eyes; these creatures
+_see_ with their skins.
+
+I do not believe that there is a creature in existence to-day, whether
+it has eyes or not, which cannot tell the difference between night and
+day. Professor Semper says that in the Pelew Islands he found a small
+fresh-water creature, whose generic name is _Cymothoe_, in pools where
+daylight penetrated, that was absolutely blind.[6] We have fresh-water
+Cymothoe living in our own waters that are close kin to the Pelew
+islander mentioned by Semper, and which are not blind. Along the middle
+of their backs, over the edge of each segment, there is an oblong dark
+spot. This little collection of coloring-matter is covered by a
+transparent membrane, the cornea, and has a special nerve leading to the
+brain, if I may use the word. These spots are primitive eyes, the
+analogues of which are preserved by many of the true worms. I am
+inclined to believe that Semper would find primitive eyes of some form
+or other in the Cymothoe he mentions, if he were again to examine it.
+The insects, etc., which dwell in caves, and which have eyes, are new
+arrivals; they have not dwelt long enough in total darkness to have
+experienced the full effects of changed surroundings. They show,
+however, that they are beginning to feel such effects, for there is more
+or less diminution in the color-cells of the eyes and body coverings. My
+experiments on fish and frogs show, conclusively, that the
+color-producing function is directly due to light stimulation. The
+longer fish and frogs are kept in total darkness, the lower is the
+number of color-cells and the smaller is the amount of coloring-matter.
+This accounts for the fact that all animals which have dwelt in darkness
+for untold ages are absolutely colorless. Pigmented or colored fishes,
+nevertheless, having well-developed organs of vision, have been taken
+from such depths (over a mile) as to preclude the possibility of a
+single ray of daylight.[7] These fishes, however, are phosphorescent,
+and thus furnish their own light. Moreover, I am inclined to believe
+that the vast depths of the ocean, in certain localities, lie bathed in
+a continuous phosphorescent glow, so that creatures living there neither
+lose their color nor their eyes, sufficient light being present to
+prevent degeneration. Where eyeless and colorless fishes are brought up
+from great depths, there the ocean is not phosphorescent, but is in
+absolute darkness.
+
+  [6] Semper, _Animal Life_, p. 83.
+
+  [7] Hickson, _The Fauna of the Deep Sea_, p. 150 _et seq._
+
+The preceding observations indicate that the sense of sight is a very
+old sense, and that it is to be found in a primitive form (ocelli) in
+animals of exceedingly low organization. That this is true, I will now
+attempt to demonstrate.
+
+Sight is the result of the conversion of one form of motion into
+another--a conservation, as it were, of energy. Thus, waves of light
+coming from a luminous body are arrested by the pigment-cells of the
+retina in our eyes and are transmuted into another form of motion, which
+is called nerve energy (in this instance, sight). It would seem that as
+far as sight (_vision_ is not included) is concerned, eyes of very
+simple construction would amply satisfy the needs of thousands of
+creatures whose existence does not depend upon vision. This supposition
+is undoubtedly correct; there are many creatures in existence to-day
+with eyes so exceedingly simple that they can form no visual picture of
+objects--they are only able to discriminate between light and darkness.
+Primitive eyes appear in animals very low in the scale of life; probably
+the most remarkable of these early organs of sight are to be found in
+the medusa, or jelly-fish. This creature, with its bell-shaped body and
+pendent stem, bears a striking resemblance to an umbrella; noting this
+resemblance, naturalists have given the name _manubrium_, "handle," to
+the stem. Around the edge of the umbrella, and situated at regular
+intervals, are certain round, cell-like organs, which vary considerably
+in number. Some species have only eight, while others have sixty,
+eighty, and even (in OEquorea) as high as six hundred.[8] These
+so-called "marginal bodies" are the eyes of the jelly-fish. By many
+biologists these organs are considered to be ears; they contain within
+their capsules transparent bodies, which some scientists deem otoliths,
+or "hearing-stones." Experimentation and microscopical examinations,
+however, have taught me very recently to believe otherwise. In these
+marginal bodies there is always a deposit of pigment; this is,
+unquestionably, a primitive retina, while the transparent disk is,
+indubitably, a primitive lens. That these creatures can tell the
+difference between light and darkness is a fact easily demonstrated.
+Time and again have I made them follow a bright light around the wall of
+the aquarium in which they were confined. On one occasion I made some
+medusae tipsy, and their drunken gravity as they rolled and staggered
+through the water in pursuit of the light was as sorrowful as it was
+instructive; their actions in this respect were those of intoxicated
+men. After I had siphoned off the alcoholized water and replaced it with
+pure, they rapidly regained their normal status; whether or not any of
+them felt any evil effects from their involuntary debauch, I am not
+prepared to state.
+
+  [8] Lubbock, _Senses, Instincts, and Intelligence of Animals_, p. 84.
+
+The eyes of sea-urchins are rather highly developed, having corneae,
+retinae, and lenses. The lens generally lies in a mass of pigment, and,
+as Lubbock remarks, looks like a brilliant egg in a scarlet nest.[9] The
+eyes are scattered over the dorsal surface of the creature's body, and
+are commonly situated just beneath the skin; they are, however,
+sometimes elevated on pear-shaped bulbs. The eyes of starfish are
+generally quite primitive in character, as far as I have been able to
+determine, being simply pigmented spots which are supplied with nerves;
+in several species, however, I have been able to make out lenses. The
+eyes are arranged along the rays or arms, and vary in number.
+
+  [9] "In Solaster or Asteracanthion the lenses look like brilliant
+  eggs, each in its own scarlet nest."--LUBBOCK, _Senses, Instincts, and
+  Intelligence of Animals_, p. 132 _et seq._
+
+Even the stay-at-home and humble oyster has eyes (not the round, fleshy
+muscle called the "eye" by gourmands and epicures, but bright spots
+around the edge of the mantle)--primitive eyes, it is true, yet amply
+sufficient for the needs of a domestic, non-travelling, home body like
+the oyster.
+
+In most of the worms the eyes are simple ocelli--spots of pigment
+supplied with nerves. These eyes can discriminate between light and
+darkness, which is all that is required of them; but in the Alciope, a
+small sea-worm, these organs are brought to a high degree of perfection.
+This worm is exceedingly transparent, so that when observing it, it is
+difficult to make out more than its large orange eyes and the violet
+segmental organs of each ring. It looks like an animated string of
+violet disks surmounted by a pair of orange-colored eyeglasses. The eye
+of this creature is strikingly like that of a human being; it has a
+cornea, an "eye-skin," a lens, vitreous humor (posterior chamber), and
+retina.
+
+Another aquatic worm, Myrianida, is still more remarkable, not only on
+account of its eyes, but also on account of the wonderful way in which
+it reproduces its young. When seen swimming in the water it presents the
+appearance of a long, many-ringed worm, which impels itself through and
+by the aid of its hundreds of flat, oar-like legs. Closer inspection
+reveals the startling fact that this seemingly single worm is really a
+multiple worm--six or more individuals being joined together, thus
+forming a living chain. This creature reproduces itself by
+fissigemation; that is, when the young worms arrive at a certain age
+they separate from the parent worm and begin life as individuals. These
+in turn eventually become multiple worms and divide into individuals,
+and so on _ad infinitum_. The tail worm, or that section farthest from
+the head, is the oldest and is always the first to leave its comrades
+and take up a separate existence. The adverb _always_ in the above
+sentence is, strictly speaking, not exactly accurate, for on one
+occasion I saw the separation occur at the second head from the tail,
+thus producing twins. The two sections came apart, however, in a very
+few seconds after their departure from the colony. I am inclined to
+believe that this deviation from the normal was due to accident;
+probably to manipulation. This annelid is really "many in one" until the
+very moment of division; the alimentary canal, nerves, blood-vessels,
+etc., extend in unbroken continuity from the head of the parent worm to
+the tail of the last section. In every fourth (sometimes fifth) ring two
+round, dark-colored spots will be observed; these spots are ocelli, and
+some of them eventually become the eyes of young worms. These organs
+even in their embryonic state possess sight, for they have special
+nerves and pigment-cells; they can differentiate between light and
+darkness.
+
+The snail carries its eyes in telescopic watch-towers. This animal is,
+for the most part, nocturnal in its habits, and, since prominent and
+commanding view points are assigned to its organs of sight, one would
+naturally expect to find a comparatively high degree of development in
+them; and this supposition is correct. The eyes of the creature are in
+the extreme tips of its "horns," and consist of (1) a cornea, (2) a
+lens, and (3) a retina. Lubbock is rather disposed to decry the visual
+powers of the snail;[10] my conclusions, drawn from personal
+observations, are, however, directly the opposite. The position of the
+eyes at the extreme tips of the horns naturally indicates that they
+subserve a very useful purpose; otherwise they would not have attained
+such prominence and such a high degree of development. Actual
+experimentation declares that the garden snail can see a moving white
+object, such as a ball of cotton or twine, at a distance of two feet. In
+my experiments I used a pole ten feet in length, from the tip of which a
+white or dark ball was suspended by a string. The ball was made to
+describe a pendulum-like movement to and fro in front of the snail on a
+level with the tips of its horns. Time and again I have seen a snail
+draw in its horns when it perceived the white ball, to it an unknown and
+terror-inspiring object. I have likewise seen it change its line of
+march, and proceed in another direction, in order to avoid the
+mysterious white stranger dancing athwart its pathway. Dark-colored
+objects are not so readily perceived; at least, snails do not give any
+evidence of having seen them until they are brought within a foot of the
+creatures under observation. A snail will generally see a black ball at
+twelve or fourteen inches; sometimes it will not perceive the ball,
+however, until it has been brought to within six or eight inches of its
+eyestalks. During the season of courtship snails easily perceive one
+another at the distance of eighteen or twenty inches. I have often
+watched them at such times, and have been highly entertained by their
+actions. The emotional natures of snails, as far as love and affection
+are concerned, seem to be highly developed, and they show plainly by
+their actions, when courting, the tenderness they feel for each other.
+This has been noticed by many observers of high authority, notably
+Darwin, Romanes, and Wolff.[11] Mantagazza, a distinguished Italian
+scientist, in his _Physiognomy and Expression_, writes as follows: "As
+long as I live I shall never see anything equal to the loving tenderness
+of two snails, who, having in turn launched their little stone darts (as
+in prehistoric times), caress and embrace each other with a grace that
+might arouse the envy of the most refined epicurean."[12]
+
+  [10] Lubbock, _loc. cit. ante_, p. 140.
+
+  [11] Romanes, _Animal Intelligence_, p. 27.
+
+  [12] Mantagazza, _loc. cit._, p. 97.
+
+Darwin tells us that two snails, one of them an invalid, the other in
+perfect health, lived in the garden of one of his friends. Becoming
+dissatisfied with their surroundings, the healthy one went in search of
+another home. When it had found it, it returned and assisted its sick
+comrade to go thither, evincing toward it, throughout the entire
+journey, the utmost tenderness and solicitude.[13] The healthy snail
+must have used its sight, as well as its other senses, to some purpose,
+for, if my memory serves me correctly, we are told that the sick snail
+rapidly regained its health amid its new surroundings.
+
+  [13] Darwin, _Descent of Man_, pp. 262, 263.
+
+The crayfish also has its eyes at the tips of eyestalks, but the eyes of
+this creature are very different, indeed, from the eyes of the snail.
+They are what are known as compound eyes, a type common to the crayfish
+and lobster families. Viewed from above, the cornea of a crayfish is
+seen to be divided into a number of compartments or cells, and looks, in
+this respect, very much like a section of honeycomb. The microscope
+shows that in each one of these cell-like compartments there is a
+transparent cone-shaped body; this is called the crystalline cone. The
+apex of this cone is prolonged into an exceedingly small tube, that
+enters a striped spindle-like body called the striated spindle; the
+entire structure is called a visual rod. Nerve-fibrils emanating from
+the optic nerve enter the striated spindle at its lower extremity, and
+in this way nervously energize the visual rod. There is a deposit of
+pigment about the visual rod which arrests all rays of light save those
+which strike the cornea parallel to the long axis of the crystalline
+cone. We see from this that the visual picture formed by a crayfish's
+eye must be made up of many parts; it is, in fact, a mosaic of hundreds
+of little pictured sections, which, when united, form the picture as a
+whole. Each visual rod receives its impression from the ray or rays of
+light reflected from the object viewed which strike it in the line of
+its long axis; the other rays are stopped by the layer of pigment-cells.
+When the impressions of all the visual rods are added together, the sum
+will be a mosaic of the object, but such a perfect one that the junction
+of its many portions will be absolutely imperceptible.
+
+The crayfish can see quite well. It has been thought that this creature
+uses its sense of smell more than its sense of sight in the procurement
+of its food. This is undoubtedly true where the animal is surrounded by
+water that is muddy, or that is otherwise rendered opaque. The
+odoriferous particles coming from the food being carried to the creature
+by the water, it follows them until it arrives at this source.
+
+It is different, however, in clear water and on land. I have seen
+crayfish rush down stream after bits of meat thrown to them, thus showing
+that here, at least, the sense of sight directed them. Again, I have
+enticed crayfish from clear streams by slowly dragging a baited hook in
+front of them. Moreover, when high and dry on land, I have seen them
+follow with their eyes and bodies the tempting morsel as it waved to and
+fro in the air above their heads.
+
+The female crayfish carries her eggs beneath her tail, and, when they
+have hatched out, the young find this sheltering member a safe and cosey
+dwelling-place until they have grown strong enough to enter life's
+struggle. At such times, the mother crayfish is quite brave, and will do
+battle with any foe. With her eyestalks protruded to their utmost extent,
+she vigilantly watches her enemy. Her eyes follow his movements, and her
+sharp nipper is held in readiness for immediate use.
+
+Actual experimentation has taught that these animals can descry a man at
+the distance of twenty or twenty-five feet. When approaching a crayfish
+"town" for the purpose of making observations, I use the utmost caution;
+otherwise, each inhabitant will retreat into its burrow before I can
+come close enough to observe them, even with my field-glasses.
+
+The gyrinus, or "whirligig beetle," whose dwelling-place during the
+greater portion of its life is, like that of the crayfish, in ponds and
+streams, has remarkably acute vision. This insect is a true cosmopolite,
+however, and is as much at home on dry land as it is in the water. All
+seasons seem to be alike to it, just so the sun shines; for, during the
+hottest days of summer and the coldest days of winter (that is, if there
+is sunlight and no ice on the water), it may be seen on the surface of
+ponds and streams, gyrating hither and thither in a seemingly mad and
+purposeless manner.
+
+Several of these creatures will be seen at one moment floating on the
+water, still and motionless; the next moment they will be darting here
+and there over the surface of the water, their black and burnished backs
+shining in the sunlight like brilliant gems. Suddenly, it is "heels up
+and heads down," and they disappear beneath the surface, each of them
+carrying a bubble of air caught beneath the wing-tips; or, as the late
+William Hamilton Gibson expresses it, "they carry a brilliant lantern
+that goes gleaming like a silver streak down into the depths, for a
+bubble of air is caught beneath their black wing-covers, and a diamond
+of pure sunlight accompanies their course down among the weeds until
+they once more ascend to the surface."[14] This little beetle is well
+provided with eyes, for it has a large pair beneath its head, with which
+it sees all that is going on in the water below, and another pair on the
+sides of its head, with which it keeps a bright lookout above. That it
+has remarkably keen vision with the latter pair, any one who has tried
+to steal upon them unawares can testify.[15]
+
+  [14] William Hamilton Gibson, _Sharp Eyes_, p. 307.
+
+  [15] I have a distinct purpose in introducing these and other
+  queer-eyed individuals while discussing the sense of sight. I wish to
+  demonstrate through one or more of them the correlation of morphology,
+  physiology, and psychology, as formulated in the first chapter of this
+  work. This is one of the most important facts in the doctrine of
+  evolution, and upon it is based the law of progressive psychical
+  development from the simple manifestations of conscious determination
+  in the lowest organisms to the most complex operations of the mind in
+  man.
+
+The queerest of all queer-eyed animals is, probably, the Periophthalmus,
+a fish inhabiting the coasts of China, Japan, India, the Malayan
+Archipelago, and East Africa.[16]
+
+  [16] Semper, _Animal Life_, p. 374 _et seq._
+
+I use the word coasts advisedly, for this strange creature when in
+pursuit of its prey leaves the sea and comes out on the sands, thus
+existing, for the greater portion of its life, in an element which,
+according to the general nature of things, ought to be fatal to it. The
+laws of evolution have, however, eminently prepared it for its peculiar
+mode of life, for its gill-cavities have become so enlarged that when it
+abandons the sea it carries in them a great quantity of water which
+yields up the necessary supply of oxygen.
+
+Its locomotion has been provided for likewise, for continued use along
+certain lines has so developed its pectoral fins that the creature uses
+them as legs, and jumps along at a surprising rate of speed.
+
+Its eyes are very large and prominent, and possess, for a fish, the
+peculiar faculty of looking around on all sides, hence its name,
+"periophthalmus," which is derived from the Greek words, [Greek: peri],
+around, and [Greek: ophthalmos], eye. These eyes are situated on top of
+the animal's head, and present a very grotesque appearance.
+
+The favorite food of this fish is Onchidium, a naked mollusk. And, in
+the matter of eyes, this last-mentioned creature is itself worthy of
+remark. Its cephalic, or head, eyes are like those of other mollusks of
+its genus, and are not worthy of special mention, but its dorsal eyes,
+sometimes several dozen in number, are truly remarkable. These eyes,
+although they are very simple in structure, in type are the same as
+those of vertebrates, having corneae, lenses, retinae, and "blind spots."
+(In the vertebrate eye, the spot where the optic nerve pierces the
+external layer of the retina is not sensitive to light impressions;
+hence, it is called the "blind spot.")
+
+When this mollusk sees periophthalmus bounding over the sands (and that
+it does see is beyond all question), what does it do? It contracts a
+thousand or so of little bladder-like cells in the skin of its back,
+thereby discharging a hailstorm of minute concretions in the face of its
+enemy. The fish, terrified and amazed by the volley, often turns aside,
+and the mollusk is saved. Thus we see that its dorsal eyes are of great
+service to onchidium.
+
+The Greeks were, unwittingly, very near an anatomical truth when they
+ascribed to certain monsters, called cyclopes, only one eye apiece,
+which was placed in the centre of their foreheads. The cyclopean eye
+exists to-day in the brains of men in a rudimentary form, for in the
+pineal gland we find the last vestiges of that which was once a third
+eye, and which looked out into the world, if not from the centre of the
+forehead, at least from very near that point. There is alive to-day a
+little creature which would put to shame the one-eyed arrogance and
+pride of Polyphemus, and Arges, and Brontes, and Steropes, and all the
+rest of the single-eyed gentry who, in the days of myths and
+myth-makers, inhabited the "fair Sicilian Isle." The animal in question
+is a small lizard, called Calotis. Its well-developed third eye is
+situated in the top of its head, and can be easily seen through the
+modified and transparent scale which serves it as a cornea. Many other
+lacertilians have this third eye, though it is not so highly organized
+as it is in the species just mentioned. A tree lizard, which is to be
+found in the mountains of East Tennessee and Kentucky, has its third eye
+quite well developed. This little animal is called the "singing
+scorpion" by the mountaineers (by the way, all lizards are scorpions to
+these people), and is a most interesting creature. I heard its plaintive
+"peep, peep, peep," on Chilhowee Mountain a number of times before I
+became aware of the fact that a lizard was the singer. On dissection,
+the third eye will be found lying immediately beneath the skin; it has a
+lens, retina, and optic nerve.
+
+Thus we see that the sense of sight is to be found in animals very low
+in the scale of life. From a simple accumulation of pigment-cells which
+serves to arrest light rays (in simple organisms such as rotifers) to
+that complex and beautiful structure--the human eye--the organs of
+vision have been developed, step by step.
+
+We will also see in the course of this discussion that, just as these
+simple and primal organisms have given place to more complex forms, just
+so have the operations of mind become higher and more involved. We see,
+in periopthalmus, a creature exceedingly well adapted by form, function,
+and intelligence to its manner of life. We must admit, in fact, the
+correlation and interdependence of morphology, physiology, and
+psychology in the evolution of this creature from its ancestral form to
+its present status.
+
+The primitive organ of audition as it is to be observed in creatures of
+simple, comparatively speaking, organization is as simple as is the
+anatomy of the animals in which it is found. Commonly, it is a hollow
+hair, which is connected by a minute nerve-filament with the sensorium.
+Sound vibrations set the hair to vibrating, which in turn conveys the
+vibrations to the nerve-filament, and so on to the auditory centre.
+Sometimes the hair is not hollow; in this case, the root of the hair is
+intimately associated with nerve-filaments which take up vibrations.
+
+It is highly probable that the majority of the lower animals, especially
+those which are sound-producers, can hear just as we hear. It is also
+highly probable that the so-called deaf animals can hear, just as we
+hear when we have either been born deaf, or through disease have lost
+the power of hearing--by _feeling_ the sound waves.
+
+Owing to our own lack of acuteness, all of the problems involved in this
+question of audition in the lower animals will, probably, never be
+definitely settled; yet, reasoning by analogy, we can, approximately,
+solve some of them.
+
+By far the larger number of entomologists locate the auditory organs of
+insects in their antennae. I have only to mention the names of such men
+as Kirby, Spence, Burmeister, Hicks, Wolff, Newport, Oken, Strauss,
+Durkheim, and Carus, who advance this opinion, to show what a formidable
+array of talent maintains it. Yet my observations lead me to believe
+otherwise, though these authorities are in part correct. As far as
+Lepidoptera are concerned, and certain of Hemiptera, they are right--the
+antennae in these creatures are the seat of the organs of audition. But
+in Orthoptera, in most of Coleoptera, Hymenoptera, and Diptera, and in
+certain bugs (Hemiptera), they are located elsewhere. The habit that
+almost all insects have of retracting their antennae when alarmed by
+noise, or otherwise, has done much to advance and strengthen the opinion
+that these appendages are the seat of insect ears; yet I am confident
+that in nine cases out of ten the antennae are retracted through fear of
+injury to them, and not through any impression made on them by sound.
+The antennae are the most exposed and least protected of any of the
+appendages or members of the insect body; hence their retraction by
+insects when alarmed is an instinctively protective action. They shelter
+them as much as possible in order to keep them from being injured.
+Again, although the antennae of most insects are provided with numerous
+sensitive hairs, or setae, we have no right to assume that these hairs
+are auditory; no "auditory rods," otoliths, etc., are to be found
+generally in antennae, yet there are exceptional instances. Leydig found
+auditory rods in the antennae of _Dyticus marginalis_ (Furneaux[17]), the
+giant water-beetle, and I myself have observed them in _Corydalis
+cornuta_ and other neuropterous insects. I am inclined to believe that
+the entire order of Neuroptera has antennal ears, and should therefore
+in this respect be classed with Lepidoptera.
+
+  [17] Consult Furneaux, _Life in Ponds and Streams_, p. 325.
+
+In grasshoppers and crickets the ears are situated in the anterior pairs
+of legs. If the tibia of a grasshopper's anterior leg be examined, two
+(one before and one behind) shining, oval, membranous disks, surrounded
+by a marginal ridge, will be at once observed. These are the tympana or
+ear-drums of the ear of that leg. Where the trachea, or air-tube, enters
+the tibia it becomes enlarged and divides into two channels; these two
+channels unite again lower down in the shaft of the tibia. The tracheae
+of non-stridulating grylli are much smaller than those of
+sound-producing grasshoppers. The same may be said of the tibial
+air-tubes of the so-called dumb crickets. In grasshoppers and crickets
+the ear-drums lie bathed in air on both sides--the open air on the
+external side and the air of the air-tube, or trachea, on the inside.
+Lubbock calls attention to the fact that "the trachea acts like the
+Eustachian tube in our own ear; it maintains an equilibrium of pressure
+on each side of the tympanum, and enables it freely to transmit
+atmospheric vibrations."
+
+In grasshoppers the auditory nerve, after entering the tibia, divides into
+two branches, one forming the supratympanal ganglion, the other descending
+to the tympanum and forming a ganglion known as Siebold's organ. This
+last-mentioned ganglion is strikingly like the organ of Corti in our own
+ear, and undoubtedly serves a like purpose in the phenomenon of audition.
+The organ of Corti is composed of some four thousand delicate vesicles,
+graduated in size, each one of which vibrates in unison with some
+particular number of sound vibrations. The organ of Siebold in the
+grasshopper's ear begins with vesicles, of which a few of the first are
+nearly equal in size; these vesicles then regularly diminish in size to
+the end of the series. Each of these vesicles contains an auditory rod,
+and is in communication with the auditory nerve through a delicate
+nerve-fibril. I have observed that each of these nerve-fibrils swells into
+a minute ganglion immediately after leaving its particular vesicle; the
+function of these ganglia is, I take it, to strengthen and reenforce
+nerve-energy. No other observer mentions these ganglia, as far as I have
+been able to determine; they may have been absent, however, in the
+specimens studied by others, yet in the specimens studied by myself--the
+"red-legged locust" (_Melanoplus femur-rubrum_, Comstock)[18] and the
+"meadow grasshopper" (_Xiphidium_), they were always present.
+
+  [18] Consult Comstock, _Manual for the Study of Insects_, p. 110.
+
+That grasshoppers, locusts, and crickets can hear, no one who has
+observed these creatures during the mating season will for one instant
+deny; they hear readily and well, for in most of them the sense of
+hearing is remarkably acute.
+
+Immediately behind the wings of flies two curious knobbed organs are to
+be observed; these are considered to be rudimentary hinder wings by
+entomologists, and are called the halteres. Bolles Lee and others of
+the French scientists call them _balanciers_. This latter name I
+consider the correct one, for these organs unquestionably preside over
+alate equilibrium: they are true balancers. I do not propose to enter
+into any discussion as to whether these organs are rudimentary wings or
+not; suffice it to say that they appear to me to be organs fully
+developed and amply sufficient to serve the purposes for which they were
+created. Whether or not in the process of evolution there has occurred a
+change of function, is a point which will not be discussed in this
+paper. As they now exist, I deem them to be auditory organs of Diptera
+(flies, gnats, etc.).
+
+The semicircular canals are, to a great extent if not entirely, the seat
+of equilibration in man. Any derangement or disease of these canals
+interferes with equilibration; this is well shown in Meniere's disease,
+in which there is always marked disturbance of the equilibrating
+function.
+
+If the balancers of a horsefly be removed, the insect at once loses its
+equilibrium; it cannot direct its flight, but plunges headlong to the
+ground. The same can be said of _Chrysops niger_--in fact, of the entire
+family of Tabanidae, of the gall gnat (_Diplosis resinicola_, Comstock),
+and of the March flies (_Bibionidae_). These widely differing flies
+constitute the material from which I have derived my data; I will
+venture to assert, however, without fear of contradiction, that what
+has been said about the flies mentioned above is equally true of all
+flies.
+
+When the knobbed end of the balancers of the horsefly (_Tabanus
+atratus_, Comstock)[19] are examined with the microscope, the cuticle
+will be found to be set with minute hairs or setae; some of these hairs
+penetrate both cuticle and hypoderm, are hollow, and receive into their
+hollows delicate nerve-fibrils. These nerve-fibrils pass inward toward
+the centre, and enter ganglia, which in turn are in immediate connection
+with the great nerves of the balancers. There is but one nerve in the
+insect's body that is larger than the balancer nerve, and that is the
+optic nerve; hence, it is natural to infer that the balancer nerve leads
+to some special sense centre. This centre in my opinion is,
+unquestionably, the seat of the auditory function.
+
+  [19] Consult Comstock, _loc. cit. ante_, p. 455.
+
+It has been demonstrated beyond doubt that analogous hollow hairs, or
+setae, are prominent factors of audition in many animals, notably
+crustaceans, such as the lobster, the crab, and the crayfish, and many
+of the insect family; hence, it is logically correct to conclude that
+the hollow hairs on the balancers of flies are likewise auditory hairs.
+Moreover, there are grouped about the bases of these knobbed organs
+certain rows of vesicles, which contain auditory rods almost identical
+in appearance with the auditory rods of the grasshopper. Indeed, I have
+found those in the upper row of vesicles to be precisely similar in
+appearance to the rods found in Melanoplus.
+
+I have determined that in the horsefly (_Tabanus atratus_) there are six
+rows of these vesicles, and that they are graduated in size. There are
+in the knobs of the balancers minute spiracles (I do not think that
+these have been pointed out before by any other observer) through which
+air passes into the large, vesicular cells which make up the greater
+portion of the knobs; spiracles are also to be found in the shafts of
+the balancers, thus providing an abundance of air to the internal
+structures of these organs and allowing for the free transmission of
+sound vibrations.
+
+I am well aware of the fact that in considering these organs to be the
+ears of flies, I antagonize Lee and others who consider them olfactory
+in character.[20] The position I take in regard to these organs is,
+however, a tenable one, and one that cannot easily be overthrown.
+
+  [20] Bolles Lee, _Les Balanciers des Dipteres_; quoted also by
+  Lubbock, _Senses, Instincts_, etc., pp. 110, 111.
+
+The ears of Lepidoptera (butterflies) are situated in their antennae. This
+fact has been clearly demonstrated by Lubbock, Graber, Leydig, and Wolff.
+Newport has made an especially exhaustive study of the antennae of insects;
+and he, too, places the organs of audition in these appendages.[21] But in
+Coleoptera my experiments and microscopical researches compel me to
+assert that I differ somewhat from the conclusions of the above-mentioned
+authorities. These gentlemen locate the ears of beetles also in their
+antennae. Lubbock bases his conclusions on an experiment of Will--an
+experiment which, if it had been carried a little further, would have
+demonstrated the fact that the ears of beetles are not in their antennae,
+but are, on the contrary, in their maxillary palpi.
+
+  [21] Newport, _The Antennae of Insects_, Entomol. Society, Vol. II.
+
+Will put a female Cerambyx beetle into a box, which he placed on a
+table; he then put a male Cerambyx on the table, some four inches from
+the box. When he touched the female she began to chirrup, whereupon the
+male turned his antennae toward the box, "as if to determine from which
+direction the sound came, and then marched straight toward the female."
+Will concluded from this that the ears of the beetle were located in its
+antennae.[22]
+
+  [22] Will, _Das Geschmacksorgen der Insecten_, Wiss. Zool.; quoted
+  also by Lubbock, _Senses, Instincts_, etc., p. 96.
+
+Seeing that Will's experiment as described by him was incomplete, I took
+a pair of beetles belonging to the same family (genus _Prionus_), and
+determined the true location of their ears by a system of rigid
+exclusion. These beetles, when irritated, make a squeaking chirrup by
+rubbing together the prothorax and mesothorax.
+
+When I irritated the female she began to chirrup, and the male
+immediately turned toward the small paper box in which she was confined.
+I then removed the antennae of the male, and again made the female
+stridulate; the male heard her, and at once crawled toward her, although
+his antennae were entirely removed.
+
+This showed conclusively that the organs of audition were not located in
+the antennae, as Will supposed and as Lubbock advocates. I then removed
+the maxillary palpi of the male, after which the insect remained deaf to
+all sounds emanating from the female.
+
+Again, I took an unmutilated male, which at once turned and crawled
+toward the chirruping female. I then removed its labial palpi, leaving
+maxillary palpi and antennae intact; it heard the female and made toward
+her. The maxillary palpi were then removed (the antennae being left _in
+situ_), and at once the creature became deaf.
+
+If the maxillary palpi of long-horned beetles be examined, certain
+vesicular organs, each containing a microscopic hair, will be observed
+in the basal segments; these, I take it, are auditory vesicles. In some
+of the Coleoptera I have found auditory rods in the apical segments,
+though this is by no means a common occurrence. In Cicindelidae and
+Carabidae these auditory vesicles are exceedingly small, and require a
+very high-power objective in order to be clearly seen.
+
+In justice to other observers I must say, however, that I am inclined to
+believe that in all beetles the antennae in some way aid or assist
+audition, but they are adjuncts, as it were, and not absolutely
+necessary. It is a matter of easy demonstration to show that some of
+these insects hear less acutely where they are deprived of their antennae.
+I presume they are about as necessary in audition as are the external
+appendages of the human ear; this, however, is mere supposition, and has
+no scientific warrant for its verity.
+
+I have purposely said but very little about the senses of touch, taste,
+and smell in this discussion of the senses in the lower animals. These
+three senses have been so exhaustively treated by Lubbock in his
+_Senses, Instincts, and Intelligences of Animals_, that I could not hope
+to introduce any new data in regard to them. Graber, Frey, Leuckart,
+Farre, Hertwig, and a host of others have likewise investigated these
+senses most thoroughly.
+
+As to the senses of sight and hearing, the matter presented a different
+aspect. I was confident that I could add somewhat to the knowledge
+already formulated, consequently I have treated these senses at some
+length. Technicalities and the details of microscopic investigation,
+especially microscopic anatomy, have been omitted; they have no place in
+a work like this.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+CONSCIOUS DETERMINATION
+
+
+Conscious determination, or, effort induced by conscious volition, is
+the basic mental operation upon which is reared that complex psychical
+structure which is to be found in the higher animals, and especially in
+man--the highest product of evolutionary development.
+
+By conscious volition is not meant that consciousness which appertains
+to the child of two or three years, who, at that age, recognizes the
+_ego_. Ego-knowledge, while undoubtedly present in some of the higher
+animals, such as the dog, monkey, horse, cat, etc., is not a factor in
+the psychical make-up of any of the lower animals (insects, crustaceans,
+mollusks, etc.). But consciousness, so far as volition or choice is
+concerned, enters into the _psychos_ of animals exceedingly low in the
+scale of animal life.
+
+We have seen in the chapter on the senses in the lower animals, that
+animals possess one or all of the five senses--touch, taste, smell,
+sight, and hearing; we will see in a later chapter that some of them
+likewise possess certain other senses which man has lost in the process
+of evolution.
+
+Now, let us very briefly discuss the _modus operandi_ through which and
+by which conscious determination and other psychical manifestations
+arise from the physical basis--the senses.[23] I have asserted, and, as
+I believe, I have demonstrated elsewhere, the interdependence and
+correlation of physiology and psychology. Furthermore, I wish to be
+plainly understood as also asserting the physical basis and origin of
+all psychical operations whatever they may be.
+
+  [23] "Sensorial impression is at the bottom of all our ideas, all our
+  conceptions, though it may at first conceal itself in the form of a
+  binary, ternary, quaternary compound; and, on our methodically
+  pursuing the inquiry, it is easily recognizable--just as a simple
+  substance in organic chemistry may be always summoned to appear, if we
+  sit down with the resolution to disengage it from all the artificial
+  combinations which hold it imprisoned."--LUYS, _The Brain and its
+  Functions_, p. 252.
+
+Mind is always associated, according to our experience and knowledge
+(and this question must be studied objectively) with a peculiar tissue
+which is only to be found in animal organisms. This tissue is called
+nerve, and is made up of cells and, broadly speaking, prolongations of
+cells which are called nerve-fibres.
+
+Certain accumulations of nerve-cells called ganglions (ganglia) are to
+be found scattered throughout the structure of animals. Experiment and
+observation teach that these ganglia subserve a governing influence
+over nerve-action; hence, they are called nerve-centres.
+
+Nerve-tissue is found in all animals above and including Hydrozoa,
+according to Romanes;[24] I am inclined to believe, however, that it is
+present in animals even lower than Hydrozoa, for I have been able, on more
+than one occasion, to verify Professor Clark's observations in regard to
+the protozoan, _Stentor polymorphus_, which, as he asserts,[25] has a
+well-developed nervous system. Moreover, I have seen, in my opinion,
+unquestionable acts of conscious determination enacted by this little
+creature, as I will point out further along in this chapter.
+
+  [24] Romanes, _Mental Evolution in Animals_, p. 24.
+
+  [25] Clark, _Mind in Nature_, p. 64 _et seq._
+
+Nerve-tissue has the peculiar faculty of transmitting impressions made
+upon it by stimuli. When a nerve is acted on by a stimulus, the
+impression wave is transmitted along the in-going nerve to the ganglion;
+here, the stimulus is transferred to the out-going nerve, which, going
+to the muscle, causes it to contract.
+
+This form of nerve-action is called reflex action, and reflex action is,
+in the beginning, the germ from which spring volition (choice) and all
+of the higher psychical attributes.
+
+Again, it is to be observed, as animals become more highly organized,
+that nerves have the power of discriminating between stimuli, and "it is
+this power of discriminating between stimuli," as Romanes puts it,
+"_irrespective of their relative mechanical intensities_, that
+constitutes the physiological aspect of choice" (volition). It is also
+through the faculty of discrimination that the special senses, upon
+which the entire psychical structure depends, have been evolved.
+
+The fact of this power of discrimination has been so clearly and so
+beautifully demonstrated by Romanes, that I present his experiment and
+observations, as detailed by him in his magnificent work, _Mental
+Evolution in Animals_:--
+
+"I have observed that if a sea-anemone is placed in an aquarium tank,
+and allowed to fasten on one side of the tank near the surface of the
+water, and if a jet of sea-water is made to play continuously and
+forcibly upon the anemone from above, the result of course is that the
+animal becomes surrounded with a turmoil of water and air-bubbles. Yet,
+after a short time, it becomes so accustomed to this turmoil that it
+will expand its tentacles in search of food, just as it does when placed
+in calm water. If now one of the expanded tentacles is gently touched
+with a solid body, all the others close around that body, in just the
+same way as they would were they expanded in calm water. That is to say,
+the tentacles are able to discriminate between the stimulus which is
+applied by the turmoil of the water and that which is supplied by their
+contact with the solid body, and they respond to the latter stimulus
+notwithstanding that it is of incomparably less intensity than the
+former."[26]
+
+  [26] Romanes, _Mental Evolution in Animals_, pp. 48, 49.
+
+When a stimulus passes over a nerve to a ganglion, it leaves upon it an
+impression which remains for a shorter or longer time as the stimulus is
+great or small. Now, when a stimulus is again applied to the nerve, the
+impression wave follows in the footsteps, as it were, of the first
+impression wave, and the ganglion reflects or transfers it just as
+before, thus showing that nerve has another peculiar quality--that of
+_memory_.
+
+Again, when two or more reflexes are excited by the same stimulus or
+stimuli, the ganglion learns to associate one with the other, thus
+showing that it possesses another quality--that of the association of
+ideas (stimuli and reflexes).
+
+All of these operations are, in their beginnings, exceedingly simple;
+yet, as organisms increase in complexity, these simple beginnings become
+more complex and more highly developed.
+
+Heretofore, the operations described have been entirely ganglionic
+(reflex) and utterly without that which we call consciousness. Now, since
+consciousness, as I understand it, is simply a knowledge of existence, and
+since this knowledge of existence is only to be had through sensual
+perceptions, and, since sensual perceptions are excited undoubtedly by
+cooerdinated stimuli, then, "there cannot be cooerdination of many stimuli
+without some ganglion through which they are all brought into relation.
+In the process of bringing these into relation, this ganglion must be
+subject to the influence of each--must undergo many changes. And the quick
+succession of changes in a ganglion, implying as it does perpetual
+experiences of differences and likenesses, constitute the raw material of
+consciousness."[27]
+
+  [27] Spencer, _Principles of Psychology_, Vol. I. p. 435.
+
+However quick this succession of changes may be, there must be an
+interval of time between the application of the stimulus and the
+response to that stimulus, hence, the element of time enters into all
+psychical operations that are not distinctly reflex. Even in the
+reflexes there is a time element, but it is distinctly shorter than the
+time interval that enters into the make-up of a conscious psychical
+operation. This can easily be demonstrated, as has been done, time and
+again, by actual experiment.
+
+"With this gradual dawn of consciousness as revealed to subjective
+analysis, we should expect some facts of physiology, or of objective
+analysis, to correspond; and this we do find. For in our own organisms we
+know that reflex actions are not accompanied by consciousness, although
+the complexity of the nerve-muscular systems concerned in these actions
+may be very considerable. Clearly, therefore, it is not mere complexity of
+ganglionic action that determines consciousness. What, then, is the
+difference between the mode of operation of the cerebral hemispheres and
+that of the lower ganglia, which may be taken to correspond with the great
+subjective distinction between the consciousness which may attend the
+former and the no-consciousness which is invariably characteristic of the
+latter? I think that the only difference that can be pointed to is a
+difference of rate of time."[28]
+
+  [28] Romanes, _Mental Evolution in Animals_, pp. 72, 73.
+
+The gradual cultivation of the senses (evolution), during which the
+special adaptations of their motor reactions are gradually developed, is a
+necessary prerequisite to the formation and elaboration of conscious
+volition.[29] In the foregoing pages I have very briefly discussed this
+cultivation of the senses and the development of their motor reactions. I
+have likewise outlined the origin of volition from sensual perceptions; it
+now becomes necessary in this discussion of mind, in the lower animals, to
+study those organisms in which volition (choice) first makes its
+appearance in the shape of conscious determination.
+
+  [29] Maudsley, _Physiology of Mind_, p. 247.
+
+_Stentor polymorphus_ is exceedingly interesting on more than one
+account. Its queer, trumpet-like shape, with its flaring, bell-like,
+open mouth (if I may use such a term to indicate its entire cephalic
+extremity), surmounted by rows of vibratile cilia, its pulsating
+contractile vesicle, its ability to move from place to place by
+swimming, are all interesting features; but, when it is ascertained to
+be the first creature in the entire Animal Kingdom in which a true
+nervous system is to be found, then it becomes doubly interesting.
+
+This protozoan has been a favorite subject for study with microscopists,
+but Professor Clark of Harvard was the first observer to note and call
+attention to its nerve-supply. Says he in his note calling attention to
+this discovery:--
+
+"The digestive and circulatory systems are the only parts of the
+organization essential to life that are known to investigators; but
+recently I have been led to believe that I have discovered the _nervous
+system_, or at least a part of it, and that too in the very region of
+the body where there is the most activity, and therefore more likely
+than elsewhere to have this system most strongly developed. Immediately
+within the edge of the disk (_bell_) there runs all around a narrow
+faint band, which lies so close to the surface that it is difficult to
+determine precisely that it is not actually superficial. From this band
+there arise, at nearly equal distances all round, about a dozen
+excessively faint thin stripes, which converge in a general direction
+toward the mouth."[30]
+
+  [30] Clark, _Mind in Nature_, pp. 64, 65.
+
+This band Professor Clark very correctly, as I believe, assumes to be a
+part of Stentor's nervous system; for, with a medium high-power lens
+(x500) I have been able to make out ganglionic enlargements both in the
+circular band and in the stripes. These ganglia are the brain of this
+infusorian. When the animalcule is stained with eosin, the nervous
+system can very readily be made out and followed throughout all of its
+ramifications.
+
+On one occasion, while I was studying the contractile vesicle (heart) of
+one of these animalcules, I saw it evince what seemed to me to be
+unquestionable evidences of conscious determination.
+
+Just above the creature, which was resting in its tube (it builds a
+gelatinous tube into which it shrinks when alarmed or disturbed in any
+way), there was a bit of alga, from which ripened spores were being given
+off. Some of these spores were ruptured (probably by my manipulations) and
+starch grains were escaping therefrom.
+
+The Stentor, from its location below the alga, could not reach the
+starch grains without altering its position. I saw it elevate itself in
+its tube until it touched the starch grains with its cilia. With these
+it swept a grain into its mouth, and then sank down in its tube. I
+thought, at first, that this was the result of accident, but when the
+creature again elevated itself, and again captured a starch grain, I was
+compelled to admit design!
+
+By some sense, it had discovered the presence of starch, which it
+recognized to be food; it could not get at this food without making a
+change in its position, which, therefore, it immediately proceeded to
+do!
+
+Here was an act which required, so it seemed to me, correlative
+ideation, and which was doubly surprising, because occurring in an
+animal of such extremely simple organization. This observation was
+substantiated, however, by the testimony of Professor Carter, an English
+biologist, which came to my notice a week or so thereafter. This
+investigator witnessed a similar act in an animalcule belonging, it is
+true, to another family, but which is almost, if not quite, as simple in
+its organization as Stentor. He does not designate the particular
+rhizopods that he had under observation, yet from his language, we are
+able to classify them approximately. His account is so very interesting
+that I take the liberty of quoting him in full.
+
+"On one occasion, while investigating the nature of some large,
+transparent, spore-like elliptical cells (fungal?) whose protoplasm was
+rotating, while it was at the same time charged with triangular grains
+of starch, I observed some actinophorous rhizopods creeping about them,
+which had similar shaped grains of starch in their interior; and having
+determined the nature of these grains by the addition of iodine, I
+cleansed the glasses, and placed under the microscope a new portion of
+the sediment from the basin containing these cells and actinophryans for
+further examination, when I observed one of the spore-like cells had
+become ruptured, and that a portion of its protoplasm, charged with the
+triangular starch grains, was slightly protruding through the crevice.
+It then struck me that the actinophryans had obtained their starch
+grains from this source; and while looking at the ruptured cell, an
+_actinophrys_ made its appearance, and creeping round the cell, at last
+arrived at the crevice, from which it extricated one of the grains of
+starch mentioned, and then crept off to a good distance. Presently,
+however, it returned to the same cell; and although there were now no
+more starch grains protruding, the _actinophrys_ managed again to
+extract one from the interior through the crevice. All this was repeated
+several times, showing that the _actinophrys_ instinctively knew that
+those were nutritious grains, that they were contained in this cell, and
+that, although each time after incepting a grain it went away to some
+distance, it knew how to find its way back to the cell again which
+furnished this nutriment.
+
+"On another occasion I saw an _actinophrys_ station itself close to a
+ripe spore-cell of _pythium_, which was situated on a filament of
+_Spirogyra crassa_; and as the young ciliated monadic germs issued forth
+one after another from the dehiscent spore-cell, the _actinophrys_
+remained by it and caught every one of them, even to the last, when it
+retired to another part of the field, as if instinctively conscious that
+there was nothing more to be got at the old place.
+
+"But by far the greatest feat of this kind that ever presented itself to
+me was the catching of a young _acineta_ by an old sluggish _amoeba_,
+as the former left its parent; this took place as follows:
+
+"In the evening of the 2d of June, 1858, in Bombay, while looking
+through a microscope at some _Euglenae_, etc., which had been placed
+aside for examination in a watch-glass, my eye fell upon a stalked and
+triangular _acineta_ (_A. mystacina?_), around which an _amoeba_ was
+creeping and lingering, as they do when they are in quest of food. But
+knowing the antipathy that the _amoeba_, like almost every other
+infusorian, has to the tentacles of the _acineta_, I concluded that the
+_amoeba_ was not encouraging an appetite for its whiskered companion,
+when I was surprised to find that it crept up the stem of the _acineta_,
+and wound itself round its body.
+
+"This mark of affection, too much like that frequently evinced at the
+other end of the scale, even where there is mind for its control, did
+not long remain without interpretation. There was a young _acineta_,
+tender and without poisonous tentacles (for they are not developed at
+birth), just ready to make its exit from its parent, an exit which takes
+place so quickly, and is followed by such rapid bounding movements of
+the non-ciliated _acineta_, that who would venture to say, _a priori_,
+that a dull, heavy, sluggish _amoeba_ could catch such an agile little
+thing? But the _amoebae_ are as unerring and unrelaxing in their grasp
+as they are unrelenting in their cruel inceptions of the living and the
+dead, when they serve them for nutrition; and thus the _amoeba_,
+placing itself around the ovarian aperture of the _acineta_, received
+the young one, nurse-like, in its fatal lap, incepted it, descended from
+the parent, and crept off. Being unable to conceive at the time that
+this was such an act of atrocity on the part of the _amoeba_ as the
+sequel disclosed, and thinking that the young _acineta_ might yet
+escape, or pass into some other form in the body of its host, I watched
+the _amoeba_ for some time afterwards, until the tale ended by the
+young _acineta_ becoming divided into two parts, and thus in their
+respective digestive spaces ultimately becoming broken down and
+digested."[31]
+
+  [31] Carter, _Annals of Natural History_, 3d Series, 1863, pp. 45, 46;
+  quoted also by Romanes, _Animal Intelligence_, pp. 20, 21.
+
+In the discussion of conscious and unconscious mind, I called attention
+to the marginal bodies of the nectocalyx of the jelly-fish. These bodies
+in the "covered-eyed" species are protected by hoods of gelatinous
+tissue; in the naked-eyed species the hoods are absent. The marginal
+bodies in both species are practically identical as far as general
+make-up is concerned, being composed of an accumulation of
+brightly-colored pigment-cells, embedded in which are several minute
+clear crystals. Nerve-fibres connect these bodies with the sensorium
+("nerve-ring").
+
+Jelly-fish seek the light, and they can be made to follow a bright light
+from one side of the aquarium to the other by manipulating the light in
+the proper manner. Even where a slight current is set up in the water,
+they will swim against it in their efforts to reach the light.
+
+When two or more of the marginal bodies are excised, no effect seems to
+follow such excision, but as soon as the last of these bodies is cut
+out, the creature falls to the bottom of the tank without motion.
+
+When a point in the nectocalyx is irritated with a point of a needle or
+by a vegetable or mineral irritant, the tip of the manubrium will turn
+toward, and endeavor to touch, the spot irritated. It does not turn at
+once, as it would were its movements the result of reflex action; it
+moves deliberately as though actuated by volition.
+
+The above experiments and observation seem to indicate the presence of
+conscious determination in the medusa; in fact, there seems to be a
+distinct element of choice in these psychical manifestations.
+
+While engaged in watching a water-louse, I saw it swim to a hydra, tear
+off one of its buds, and then swim some distance away to a small bit of
+mud, behind which it hid until it devoured its tender morsel. Again it
+swam back to the hydra and plucked from it one of its young; again it
+swam back to the little mud heap, behind which it once more ensconced
+itself until it was through with its meal. When we remember that this
+little creature was among entirely new surroundings (for I dipped it
+from a pond in a tablespoon full of water which I had poured into a
+saucer), we will appreciate the fact that the water-louse evinced
+conscious determination and no little memory. It probably discovered the
+hydra accidentally; it then, as soon as it had secured its prey, swam
+away, seeking some spot where it could eat its food without molestation.
+But when it sought the hydra again and swam back to its sheltering mud
+heap, it showed that it remembered the route to and from its source of
+food supply and its temporary hiding-place.
+
+At the base of a large terminal ganglion in the neuro-cephalic system of
+the common garden snail, lying immediately below and between its two
+"horns," will be found, I am satisfied, the centre governing its sense
+of direction. For, when this portion of this ganglion is destroyed, the
+snail loses its ability of returning to its home when carried only a
+short distance away; otherwise, it can find its way back to its domicile
+when taken what must be to it a very great distance away, indeed.
+Beneath the stone coping of a brick wall surrounding the front of my
+lawn, and which, on the side toward my residence, is almost flush with
+the ground, many garden snails find a cool, moist, and congenial home.
+Last summer I took six of these snails, and, after marking them with a
+paint of zinc oxide and gum arabic, set them free on the lawn. In time,
+four of these marked snails returned to their home beneath the stone
+coping; two of them were probably destroyed by enemies. Again, the same
+number of snails were marked, after the base of the above-mentioned
+ganglion had been destroyed, and likewise set free. Although they lived
+and were to be observed now and then on the trees and bushes of the
+lawn, none of them ever returned to the place from which they were taken
+beneath the stone coping. I have performed this experiment repeatedly,
+always with like results.
+
+These experiments show that the snail is capable of conscious effort;
+furthermore, they indicate that this little animal is the possessor of a
+special sense which many of the higher animals have lost in the process
+of evolution. I refer to the sense of direction, or "homing instinct,"
+so-called, which will be treated at length in the chapter on Auxiliary
+Senses.
+
+Darwin has very beautifully demonstrated the senses of touch, taste, and
+smell in the angle-worm; provisionally he denies it, however, the senses
+of sight and hearing.[32] I think he is in error as to these last two
+senses.
+
+  [32] Darwin, _Formation of Vegetable Mould_.
+
+Angle-worms are nocturnal in their habits, hence, we should expect, from
+the very nature of things, to find them able to differentiate between
+light and darkness. And experiments show, very conclusively, that they
+are very sensitive to light. My vermicularium is made of glass,
+consequently, when one of its inmates happens to be next to the glass
+sides, which very frequently occurs, it is easy to experiment on it with
+pencils of strong light. If a ray of light is directed upon an
+angle-worm, it at once begins to show discomfort, and, in a very few
+moments, it will crawl away from the source of annoyance, and hide in
+some tunnel deep in the earth of the vermicularium. Again, when the
+worms are out of their tunnels at night, a strong light shining on them
+will at once cause them to seek their holes.
+
+If the back of an earthworm be examined with a high-power lens (x500),
+small points of pigment will be seen here and there in its dorsal
+integument; these, I believe, are primitive eyes (ocelli). I think that
+the worm is enabled to tell the difference between light and darkness
+through the agency of these minute dark spots, which serve to arrest the
+rays of light, thus conveying a stimulus to nerve-fibrils, which, in
+turn, carry it to the sensorium.
+
+Any country schoolboy will tell you that worms can hear. He points to
+his simple experiment (pounding on the earth with a club) in proof of
+his assertion. For, as soon as he begins to pound the ground in a
+favorable neighborhood, the worms will come to the surface "to see what
+makes the noise." Darwin assumes that the worms feel the vibrations,
+which are disagreeable to them, and come to the surface in order to
+escape them. I do not deny the possibility or the probability of this
+assumption; I do deny, however, that it proves that worms are deaf.
+
+If the third anal segment (abdominal aspect) of a worm be examined, two
+round, disk-like organs incorporated in the integument will be found;
+these organs are supplied with special nerves which lead to the central
+nerve-cord. Experiments lead me to believe that these are organs of
+audition.
+
+When I tap the earth of my vermicularium with a pencil, the unmutilated
+worms will come to the surface; but, when the organs described above are
+removed, the worms so mutilated will not respond to the tapping, but
+will remain in their tunnel. The worms are not appreciably impaired by
+such mutilation; on the contrary, they seem to thrive as well as those
+to which the knife has not been applied.
+
+In creatures which possess, in all probability, the senses of touch,
+taste, smell, sight, and hearing, we would naturally expect to find some
+evidences of conscious determination; and we do.
+
+Certain leaves are the favorite food of earth-worms, while certain other
+leaves are eaten by them, but not with avidity. When these two kinds of
+leaves are given to worms, they will carefully select the favorite food
+and will ignore the other, thus unmistakably evincing conscious choice.
+Their avoidance of light is probably the result of conscious
+determination, and not reflex, as some observers maintain.
+
+Oysters taken from a bank never uncovered by the sea, open their shells,
+lose the water within, and soon die; but oysters kept in a reservoir and
+occasionally uncovered learn to keep their shells closed, and live much
+longer when taken out of the water. This is an act of intelligence due
+directly to experience without even the factor of heredity.[33] It is an
+instance of almost immediate adaptation to surrounding circumstances.
+
+  [33] Dicquemase, _Journal de Physique_, Vol. XXVIII. p. 244; quoted
+  also by Darwin, MS.; by Bingley, _Animal Biography_, Vol. III. p. 454;
+  and by Romanes, _Animal Intelligence_, p. 25.
+
+A gentleman fixed a land-snail, with the mouth of the shell upward, in a
+chink of a rock. The animal protruded its foot to the utmost extent,
+and, attaching it above, tried to pull the shell vertically in a
+straight line. Then it stretched its body to the right side, pulled, and
+failed to move the shell. It then stretched its foot to the left side,
+pulled with all of its strength, and released the shell. There were
+intervals of rest between these several attempts, during which the snail
+remained quiescent.[34] Thus we see that it exerted force in three
+directions, never twice in the same direction, which fact shows
+conscious determination and no slight degree of intelligence.
+
+  [34] Consult Romanes, _Animal Intelligence_, p. 26.
+
+A ground wasp once built a nest beneath the brick pavement in front of
+my door. The entrance of the nest was situated in the little sulcus, or
+ditch, between two bricks. While the wasp was absent, I stopped the
+entrance with a pellet of paper, and, when the little housekeeper
+returned, she was nonplussed for a moment or two, when she discovered
+that her doorway had been closed. The wasp, after examining the pellet
+of paper, seized it with her jaws and tried to pull it away; but, since
+she stood on the brick and pulled backwards (toward herself), the edge
+of the brick interposed, and she could not dislodge the obstacle.
+Finally, she got down into the little gully between the two bricks, and
+pulled the pellet away from the opening of the nest without any further
+trouble. Three times I performed the experiment, the wasp going through
+like performances each time. At the fourth time, however, she went at
+once into the little space between the bricks, and then removed the wad
+of paper without difficulty. I stopped the hole five or six times after
+this, but she had learned a lesson; she always got into the sulcus
+between the bricks before attempting to remove the paper. She had
+discovered the fact that she could not remove it when she stood upon the
+surfaces of the bricks, owing to the interposition of their sides, and
+that she could drag it away if she got down into the little ditch and
+pulled the paper in a direction where nothing opposed. In this instance
+there was not only conscious determination, but also a distinct
+exhibition of memory. It took the wasp some time to learn that she had
+to pull in a certain direction before she could remove the pellet of
+paper; but when she had once learned this fact, she remembered it. And
+this brings us to another quality of mind--memory--which will be
+discussed in the next chapter.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+MEMORY
+
+
+In discussing memory as it is to be observed in the lower animals, I
+think it best to divide the subject into four parts; viz., _Memory of
+Locality_ (_Surroundings_), _Memory of Friends_ (_Kindred_), _Memory of
+Strangers_ (_Other Animals not Kin_), and _Memory of Events_
+(_Education_, _Happenings_, _etc._).
+
+_Memory of Locality._--There can be no doubt but that the rhizopods
+observed by Carter displayed memory of locality. He distinctly asserts
+that he saw the actinophrys, after it had incepted a starch grain,
+"crawl away to a good distance" and then return to the spore-cell from
+which it was taking the grains of starch. The creature must have
+remembered the route to and from the spore-cell. The same must be said
+of the water-louse observed by myself, which not only came back to the
+source of its food-supply, but also returned to a certain lurking-spot
+at which it hid itself each time until it had eaten the hydra buds. It
+must be remembered that a journey of one inch, to these minute little
+creatures, is, comparatively speaking, an immense distance. Each grain
+of sand, each particle of decayed vegetable matter, etc., is, to these
+microscopic animalcules, a gigantic boulder, a mighty muck heap. These
+obstacles in the path undoubtedly serve as landmarks to the wandering
+myriads of microscopic animalcules.
+
+It can be demonstrated that the snail has memory of locality. This
+creature is essentially a homing animal, as I will show in the chapter
+on Auxiliary Senses, consequently we would naturally expect to find it
+possessing memory of locality. An interesting observation by Mr.
+Lonsdale, an English observer, which has been often quoted, clearly
+proves that this creature does possess this psychical function. Mr.
+Lonsdale placed two snails in a small and badly kept garden. One of them
+was weak and poorly nourished, the other strong and well. The strong one
+disappeared and was traced by its slimy track over a wall into a
+neighboring garden where there was plenty of food. Mr. Lonsdale thought
+that it had deserted its mate, but it subsequently appeared and
+conducted its comrade over the wall into the bountiful food-supply of
+the neighboring garden. It seemed to coax and assist its feeble
+companion when it lingered on the way.[35]
+
+  [35] Darwin, _Descent of Man_, pp. 262, 263.
+
+Marked bees and ants invariably return to places where they have found
+food-supplies, thus showing the possession of a memory of locality and
+route. It is very interesting to watch a marked ant during her journey
+back to her nest, after she has been carried away and placed among
+unfamiliar scenes and surroundings. At first, owing to her fright, she
+will dash away helter-skelter; but soon recovering, she will head in the
+direction of home, and moderate her pace until she creeps along at a
+very cautious and circumspect gait, indeed. Every now and then she will
+climb a tall grass-blade or weed and take observations. After a while
+she sees certain landmarks, and her speed becomes faster; soon the
+surrounding country becomes familiar, and she ceases to climb blades of
+grass, etc., now she is in the midst of well-known scenes, and at last
+she fairly races into her nest.
+
+In this instance the ant is led at first by her sense of direction
+alone; as soon, however, as she comes to country which she has hunted
+over, and with which she is familiar, memory comes into play and the
+sense of direction ceases to act, or, if it acts at all, it acts
+unconsciously.
+
+Sand-wasps build their nests in the ground, and, when leaving their
+tunnels in search of food for the prospective grubs, always circle about
+them and observe the lay of the land before taking their departure.
+Numerous sand-wasps build in the interstices between the bricks of a
+pavement in front of my house. When one leaves her tunnel she will fly
+about the orifice for several seconds (taking observations) before she
+finally flies away. When she returns, she hovers about the orifice, or,
+rather, in its neighborhood, until she is quite certain that it is the
+entrance to her home, when she will dart in with such rapidity that the
+eye can scarcely follow her movements.
+
+On one occasion, I covered the pavement surrounding the entrance with
+newspapers, leaving, however, about three inches on all sides of the
+orifice uncovered. When the wasp returned she seemed to be completely at
+a loss what to do. She hovered about for at least an hour, and then flew
+away.
+
+Thinking that this experiment was too great a tax on the wasp's
+intelligence, I tried the following, which seemed to me to be nearer a
+natural happening than the former experiment. I believe that, in
+studying mind in the lower animals, one's experiments should be as near
+nature as they can possibly be.
+
+As soon as the wasp had left her tunnel, I covered the surface of the
+bricks and the interstices between them, for several feet around the
+orifice of the tunnel, with sand. This might have happened, naturally,
+through the agency of the wind.
+
+When the wasp returned, it was perfectly apparent that she did not
+recognize her domicile. She flew here and there and round about, but she
+would not alight. Finally, I swept the sand away, when she at once flew
+to her nest and entered.
+
+In my opinion, these experiments prove very clearly the presence of
+memory of locality in these insects. The sense of direction, which a
+vast majority of the lower animals possess in some degree, is, however,
+of material assistance to their memory; this special sense will be fully
+discussed in another chapter.
+
+Most of the beetles are homing animals; that is, they have certain spots
+to which they will return after excursions in search of food.
+Heretofore, observers have held to the opinion that beetles made their
+homes wherever they happened to be; but close study of marked
+individuals, especially of _Carabidae_ and _Cicindelidae_ has taught me
+otherwise. Some of the long-horned beetles appear to be rovers, but
+these are always males, and their roving habits are due to sexual
+promptings. The females are, however, to a great extent, homing animals,
+and do not wander far after they have once established a home. Being
+creatures which recognize certain surroundings as home, they must,
+necessarily, have some memory of locality. This proposition is new,
+being formulated and advanced by myself alone, therefore I expect that
+it will be negatived by many investigators. All that I ask, however, is
+that _marked_ specimens of the different genera be closely watched; I am
+confident that if this plan be followed, the truthfulness of this
+proposition will soon be universally acknowledged.
+
+Reptiles and certain fishes are homing animals, and this habit is
+especially noticeable in the land or box terrapin. One of these animals
+had its home for many years in my lawn, and I have often satisfied
+myself in regard to its knowledge of locality. I have frequently taken
+it several hundred yards (its usual "using-place" is circumscribed at
+about one hundred yards) away from its home and set it free.
+
+At first, led by its sense of direction, it would turn towards home and
+slowly crawl in that direction. It would not feed _en route_, but seemed
+intent only on arriving at its home as quickly as possible. Finally,
+when it arrived among familiar surroundings, it would begin to feed, but
+would still make its way homeward. It clearly and unmistakably indicated
+by its actions that it had a memory of locality.
+
+This treatise on mind in the lower animals is, mainly, a study of
+psychical manifestations as they are to be observed in insects;
+therefore, the higher animals will only be studied incidentally. Suffice
+it to say that, among the higher animals, evidences of memory of
+locality are very abundant, and are so patent that they do not need
+discussion.
+
+_Memory of Friends_ (_Kindred_).--This phase of mind in ants has been
+closely studied and graphically described by Sir John Lubbock. Most of
+his experiments and observations have been verified by myself, therefore
+the reader will pardon me if I quote freely from his valuable work,
+_Ants, Bees, and Wasps_.
+
+The observations of Huber, Ford, Lubbock, and other observers declare
+that ants can remember and recognize their kindred after having been
+separated from them for several months. "Huber mentions that some ants
+which he had kept in captivity having accidentally escaped, met and
+recognized their former companions, fell to mutual caresses with their
+antennae, took them up by their mandibles, and led them to their own
+nests; they came presently in a crowd to seek the fugitives under and
+about the artificial ant-hill, and even ventured to reach the
+bell-glass, where they effected a complete desertion by carrying away
+successively all the ants they found there. In a few days, the ruche was
+depopulated. These ants had remained four months without any
+communication."[36]
+
+  [36] Huber, p. 172; quoted by Lubbock, _Ants, Bees, and Wasps_, p.
+  120; also by Kirby and Spence, _Introduction to Entomology_, Vol. III.
+  p. 66; also by Newport, _Trans. Ent. Soc._, London, Vol. II. p. 239.
+
+On one occasion, I took ten _Lasius niger_ and confined them in a
+specially constructed formicary so that they could not possibly leave
+the nest. I supplied these colonists with a gravid queen, so they very
+quickly became satisfied with their new home. Four months thereafter, I
+put three of these ants, previously marked with a paint of zinc oxide
+and gum arabic, into their former nest. They were at once recognized by
+their kindred, which began to caress them with their antennae and to
+remove the paint from their bodies. In the course of a half hour, the
+paint had all been removed, and I lost sight of them among the other
+ants.
+
+A month after the performance of this experiment, I took three marked
+ants from the parent nest and placed them in the new nest. They were at
+once recognized by the colonists, which received them, as it were, with
+open arms and began to cleanse their bodies by removing the paint. In
+both of these experiments the recognition appeared to be instantaneous;
+there was no hesitancy whatever.
+
+On the other hand, when performing like experiments with _Lasius
+flavus_, it took the ants (on two occasions) some little time to
+recognize their kindred; when the marked ants were put into the nest
+they were at once seized by the other ants, which pulled them about the
+nest for some time. They were finally recognized, however, and the paint
+removed from their bodies by the busy little tongues of their kindred.
+
+This would seem to indicate that _Lasius niger_ had a better memory than
+_Lasius flavus_; whether the failure of the latter to recognize their
+friends at once was due, however, to faulty memory or not, is a
+psychical problem that will, probably, never be solved.
+
+Lubbock's experiments with _Myrmica ruginodis_ clearly demonstrate that
+these ants can recognize their kin. Says he:--
+
+"On August 20, 1875, I divided a colony of _Myrmica ruginodis_ so that
+one half were in one nest, A, and the other half in another, B, and were
+kept entirely apart.
+
+"On October 3, I put into nest B a stranger and an old companion from
+nest A. They were marked with a spot of color. One of them immediately
+flew at the stranger; of the friend they took no notice.
+
+"October 18.--At 10 A.M. I put in a stranger and a friend from nest A.
+In the evening the former was killed, the latter was quite at home.
+
+"October 19.--I put one in a small bottle with a friend from nest A.
+They did not show any enmity. I then put in a stranger, and one of them
+immediately began to fight with her."[37]
+
+  [37] Lubbock, _Ants, Bees, and Wasps_, p. 121 _et seq._
+
+These experiments show that _Myrmica ruginodis_ recognize their kin at
+sight, and that they are able to remember and recognize one another
+after long separations.
+
+Lubbock states that _Lasius flavus_ accept others of the same species as
+their friends, no matter how great a distance lies between the nests.
+His experiments were made with ants taken from contiguous nests as well
+as those located some distance apart, and, in one instance, with ants
+taken from a nest in another part of the country. He states that, in
+the last-mentioned experiment, "in one or two cases they seemed to be
+attacked, though so feebly that I could not feel sure about it; but in
+no case were the ants killed."[38]
+
+  [38] Lubbock, _loc. cit. ante_, p. 124.
+
+My experiments and observations with this ant are directly the reverse.
+As long as the individuals experimented with belonged to contiguous
+nests, and were, probably, derived from the same root-stock, there was
+no fighting; but, in the case of ants taken from opposite sides of the
+house, which, probably, sprang from two different sources, there was,
+invariably, much fighting, in which not a few of the combatants lost
+their lives. Whether or not the American species of _Lasius flavus_ are
+naturally more pugnacious than the English species, I know not; if they
+are, then this fact will account for the difference in behavior of the
+two species to a certain extent, though not entirely.
+
+Others of the social Hymenoptera--for instance, bees and wasps--remember
+kindred. On one occasion, I clipped the wings of a wasp, and, after she
+had learned that she could no longer fly, placed her on a strange nest.
+She was at once attacked, and was soon stung to death. I kept a wasp
+confined in a glass for three weeks, carefully feeding her meanwhile,
+and then placed her on the nest from which she had been taken. She was
+at once recognized by the other wasps, which caressed her with their
+antennae, and licked her with their tongues.
+
+Bees, though they seem able to recognize kindred, and to remember them
+also for some time, do not show these faculties of the mind as plainly
+as do wasps and ants. This is probably due to the fact that bees are a
+later development, socially speaking, and are not as psychically mature
+as the other social insects.
+
+In the higher animals the memory of kindred, especially in monkeys, is
+quite well developed, and is so well known that it does not need
+demonstration.
+
+_Memory of Strangers_ (_Animals other than Kin_).--The recognition of
+enemies can be noticed in animals quite low in the scale of life, and,
+although this psychical phase is almost universally instinctive, it
+carries with it certain elements of consciousness. As we ascend the
+scale, however, we discover that certain animals are capable of
+remembering other animals after a hostile encounter with them; thus, a
+pet squirrel remembered the turtle which had bitten him after two years
+had elapsed, and a white mouse showed, very plainly, that he had not
+forgotten the pet crow from whose clutches he had been rescued, even
+after three years had passed by. I might enumerate quite a number of
+instances like these, but think it hardly necessary; any one who has
+paid any attention to natural history has seen evidences of this phase
+of memory in animals. I will, however, give one more illustration of
+this form of memory, which, in my opinion, is quite remarkable. In my
+front yard, last summer, there dwelt a large colony of bumblebees. One
+day, in a moment of idleness, I tossed a tennis ball, with which I was
+teaching a young dog to retrieve, into the nest. The dog dashed after
+it, scratching up the ground and barking loudly; immediately the bees
+sallied forth, pounced upon the dog and stung him severely. During the
+entire summer this dog could never come near the nest without being
+stung; his companions, two in number, trotted to and fro on the path
+near which the nest was located without being noticed in the slightest
+degree by the bees. The disturber, and, to them, would-be ravisher and
+destroyer of their home, however, was always assailed and put to flight.
+He eventually learned to give that portion of the yard a wide berth, and
+could not be coaxed into coming within thirty yards of the home of his
+savage little foes.
+
+Instances of memory of individuals, incited by friendship or regard,
+between animals of different species is quite rare among the lower
+animals (insects, reptiles, etc.), yet, I have fortunately been able to
+note this phase of memory as occurring in several animals, comparatively
+speaking, low in the scale of intellectual development. I have every
+reason for believing that even the toad remembers individuals, at
+least, it remembers the sound of some particular voice or whistle. It
+most certainly remembers localities and places, and that, too, when
+unaided by its sense of direction which it possesses in a high degree. A
+toad which I had under observation, and which I was in the habit of
+feeding, would come at my call or whistle, and this it learned to do
+after only two weeks of teaching. It would do this even in the middle of
+a hot summer day (toads feed at dusk and during the night), showing,
+thereby, that it remembered that this call meant food.
+
+I have strong reasons for believing that certain spiders possess this
+phase of memory; at least, a certain lycosid once evinced such
+unmistakable evidences of a recognition of my individual person, that
+more than one observer became convinced that she knew me from other
+people. At the time these observations were made, I was confined to the
+house by sickness.
+
+In my room and dwelling beneath my table was a large black spider, one
+of the most beautiful of her species. When I first made her acquaintance
+she was very timid, and would run to her den if I made the slightest
+motion. As time passed, however, she grew bolder and would come to the
+edge of the table which was close beside my bed, and regard me intently
+with her beady black eyes. Finally she became so tame that she would
+take flies and insects from my fingers. She learned to know me so well
+that she could easily tell the difference when others came into the
+room. When I would leave the room for a short outing, on my return I
+would find her waiting for me on the top of the table. When others
+entered the room, she would hide herself in her den, and remain there,
+very frequently, until they took their departure.
+
+It has been known for quite a while that in the nests of ants there are
+always to be found other insects, which appear to dwell in perfect
+harmony with the real builders and owners of the domiciles. Some of
+these creatures (the aphides, for instance) are brought into the nests
+by the ants themselves, which use them as we do cows, milking from their
+bodies a clear, sweet fluid, which they greedily lap up with their
+tongues. But there are other animals in the teeming formicary which seem
+to subserve no useful purpose other than that of ministering to the
+ants' love of pets or playmates. One notable little alien in certain ant
+communities is a minute claviger beetle (so called from its peculiar
+claviger, or club-shaped antennae), which seems to be a well-beloved
+friend and companion, and which is always treated with great
+kindness.[39] These little beetles sometimes leave the nest, and may be
+observed sunning themselves at the entrance. The busy workers are never
+so busy but that they can spend a fraction of a second for the purpose
+of caressing their diminutive playmates. On one occasion, a swarm was
+about to take place in one of my formicaries. The young princes and
+princesses had emerged and had congregated about the entrance; they
+seemed loath to take wing and fly away on their honeymoon jaunt out into
+the unknown world. The workers were gently urging them to depart,
+sometimes even nipping them slightly with their mandibles. Several
+little clavigers could be seen running here and there and everywhere
+through the crowd of anxious workers and timid young males and females.
+They irresistibly reminded me of a lot of little dogs in a crowd of men
+around some centre of excitement or attraction. I have seen dogs, on
+more than one occasion, act in just such a manner. The ants,
+notwithstanding their evident worry and excitement, seemed to notice
+their little pets, and to give them, every now and then, an encouraging
+pat, as it were, on their backs or heads.
+
+  [39] Consult Lubbock, _Ants, Bees, and Wasps_, pp. 75, 76.
+
+The clavigers are not the only pets in a formicary; several other
+species of beetles and one bug also live in ants' nests, and seem to
+occupy places in the affection of the masters of the home akin to those
+which dogs, cats, and other pets occupy in our own affections.
+
+It has been asserted, most frequently by superficial observers, however,
+that the reptilian _psychos_ is exceedingly low; this is a popular error,
+for many reptiles give evidence, on occasions, of a, comparatively
+speaking, high degree of intelligence. Especially is this true in regard
+to their memory of individuals.
+
+I kept for some time in my room, some years ago, a male black snake
+(_Bascanion constrictor_). Whenever this creature became hungry, he
+would follow me about the room like a dog or a cat. He would wind his
+way up my legs and body, until his head was on a level with my own; he
+would then bow repeatedly, darting out his tongue with inconceivable
+rapidity.
+
+He would never attempt to crawl up the legs of a visitor (some visitors
+knew "Blacky" quite well and were not at all afraid of him), thus
+showing that he knew me personally.
+
+Again, a friend sent me two Floridian chameleons, which dwelt in my
+desk, and which, in course of time, became very tame. My desk is a
+combination bookcase and writing-table, and these creatures passed most
+of their time among the books, changing color so perfectly, especially
+when alarmed, that it took a very sharp eye indeed to descry them when
+they were quiescent. When I sat at my desk writing they would jump down
+on my head or shoulders and explore my entire body, running here and
+there and everywhere about me, sometimes tickling me with their sharp
+little claws until I, too, was forced into making a tour of discovery,
+in order to bring them once more to the light. But let a stranger enter
+the room, and, presto! they were gone in the twinkling of an eye. I
+left home on one occasion and was gone for two months. When I came to my
+room and sat down at my desk, I looked about for my little pets, and
+could not see them. I had come to the conclusion that they had either
+died or escaped from the room, when suddenly I saw a tiny little head
+peep out from between two books and as suddenly disappear. I pulled out
+a writing-pad and went to work, keeping a watch, however, for my shy
+little friends. They gradually became bolder and bolder, until all at
+once they seemed to recognize me, first one and then the other leaping
+to my shoulders. In a few moments they were making their usual tour over
+my person. In this instance these lizards remembered me after an absence
+of at least two months; it took them about two hours fully to recall my
+personality, yet they did it in the end.
+
+Birds remember individuals, and testify their love or hatred for such
+individuals in actions that are unmistakable. Thus, an eagle in Central
+Park, for some--to me--unknown reason, took a great dislike to myself,
+and, whenever I approached its cage, would erect its crest and regard me
+in the most belligerent manner. On several occasions it even left its
+perch and flew to the bars in its desire to attack me. A large, handsome
+gobbler belonging to my mother has shown the house boy that it is war to
+the death between them. This turkey never fails to attack the boy
+whenever opportunity offers; no other person is ever molested by him.
+
+A lady writes me as follows: "Last week my brother" (a lad of twelve)
+"killed a snake which was just in the act of robbing a song-sparrow's
+nest. Ever since then, the male sparrow has shown gratitude to George in
+a truly wonderful manner. When he goes into the garden the sparrow will
+fly to him, sometimes alighting on his head, at other times on his
+shoulder, all the while pouring out a tumultuous song of praise and
+gratitude. It will accompany him about the garden, never leaving him
+until he reaches the garden gate. George, as you know, is a quiet boy,
+who loves animals, and this may account, in a degree, for the sparrow's
+extraordinary actions."
+
+I am perfectly convinced that the nesting birds on my place know me, and
+that they remember me from one nesting-time to another. I have
+repeatedly approached my face to within a foot of setting birds without
+alarming them. On one occasion I even placed my hand on a brooding
+cardinal, which merely fluttered from beneath it without showing further
+alarm; yet no wild bird has ever evinced toward myself any special
+degree of friendship. When I was a lad I remember that a certain
+decrepit old drake would follow me like a dog, and appeared to enjoy
+himself in my society. I could not appreciate his friendship then, and
+greatly fear that I was, at times, rather cruel to the old fellow.
+
+One of the queerest friendships that ever came under my observation was
+that which existed between a bantam cock and a pekin drake. The cock was
+the most diminutive specimen of his kind that I ever saw, being hardly
+larger than a quail, while the drake was almost as large as a full-grown
+female goose. These two birds, so widely dissimilar as to genus and
+species, were always together. If "One Lung" (the cock) took it into his
+head to go into the garden and flew over the fence, "Chung" (the drake)
+would solemnly waddle to a certain hole in the fence well known to
+himself, and, by dint of much pushing with his strong, yellow feet,
+would squeeze himself through, and rejoin his companion with many a
+guttural quack and flirt of his tail. If "Chung" desired to take a bath,
+he would make for the brook, where "One Lung" would soon join him,
+always remaining, however, on the bank, where he would strut about and
+crow continuously. On one occasion, a chicken-hawk attacked the cock,
+which, though it defended itself valiantly, was in great danger of being
+destroyed. The drake soon became aware of what was happening, and hurled
+himself, with many a squawking quack, like a white avalanche against the
+hawk, and, with one quick blow of his horny, flat bill, laid this pirate
+of the air dead at his feet! He then examined the cock, with low-voiced
+exclamations issuing from his throat all the while. Then, finding him
+uninjured, he flapped his wings and quacked loud and long, as if in
+thankfulness. As for "One Lung," he pecked the dead hawk several times,
+then hopped up on its body and crowed as loud as he could, as if to say,
+"Look-what-I-have-do-o-o-ne!"
+
+"One Lung" was taken to a neighboring farm for breeding purposes by his
+owner, and "Chung" moped and appeared utterly inconsolable during his
+absence. When the bantam was finally brought home, the drake recognized
+him "afar off" and came hurrying to meet him with flapping wings and
+much vociferation. He caressed him with his bill, and appeared to make a
+close examination of his person. These birds have always passed the
+night close together, the bantam roosting among the branches of a low
+bush, while his faithful companion squatted on the ground at its root.
+
+Several years ago I knew a hen which was devotedly attached to an old
+white horse. When the horse was confined to the stable, the hen was
+always to be found in his stall, either in the manger, on the floor, or
+perched upon his back. This last position was a favorite one, and it was
+only abandoned when the hen was in search of food. When the horse was
+out on pasture, the hen went with him and stayed close beside him until
+nightfall, when she always returned and roosted on one of the stall
+partitions.
+
+Many cow owners of my town are in the habit of turning out their cows in
+the morning, allowing them to roam about in the search of grass during
+the day. As there are many large open commons in the immediate
+neighborhood of town, the cows easily find an abundance of food. In my
+early morning walks I repeatedly noticed a large red cow which was
+always accompanied by a small black dog. When the cows came back into
+town in the evening, many of them passed my house, and among the number
+was the red cow and the dog in attendance. I became very much interested
+in the cow and dog, and, one evening, followed the former to her home. I
+asked her owner if he had trained the dog to follow the cow, whereupon
+he disclaimed all knowledge of any dog, declaring that he had not
+allowed a dog on his premises for many years. The next morning I was at
+his cow-house before the animal was turned out. When this occurred I
+followed her. A few blocks from her home, she was met by the dog, which
+bounded about her and showed his delight by wagging his tail. When she
+returned home in the evening he accompanied her until he arrived at his
+own home (the place where he met her in the morning), when he left her
+and crawled through a hole in the fence. His owner declared that his dog
+had been leaving home early in the morning and returning in the evening
+during the entire spring and summer (it was then September), and that he
+had often wondered where he stayed during the day. This queer friendship
+continued until November, when some miscreant put an end to it by
+shooting the dog. Neither the favored cow nor any of her companions
+(there were, sometimes, at least a hundred cows on the commons grazing
+together) appeared to pay the slightest attention to the dog or to
+notice him in any way. The dog kept close to his friend, the red cow,
+during the day, sometimes sitting gravely on his haunches and watching
+her eat, at other times frisking about her, as though asking for a romp.
+When she started to return home he followed close at her heels.
+
+Another of my dog acquaintances struck up a friendship with a hog, and
+seemed to be highly pleased when he was allowed to play with his porcine
+friend. What is more wonderful, the hog appeared to be just as fond of
+his dog friend, and always greeted him with a series of delighted
+grunts. If permitted, they would play together for hours at a time. The
+dog was the bitter enemy of other hogs, and would worry them at every
+opportunity.[40]
+
+  [40] These animals sometimes did not meet for months, yet they never
+  forgot each other, and their friendship continued for several years.
+
+I have had many friends among the lower animals, but have always gained
+and retained their good-will through their appetite. Some of these
+creatures will be considered queer pets, for instance, grasshoppers,
+spiders, and crickets, yet they were very interesting and often showed
+much intelligence. The lower animals, with the single exception of the
+dog (I do not include the cat, for I doubt her friendship), rarely
+accept man as a companion and friend spontaneously. Their appetites or
+the exigencies of their surroundings very frequently occasion them to
+act in a friendly manner towards man, simply in order to induce him to
+befriend them. It is the rarest thing in the world for them to
+experience disinterested friendship for him. As I have said elsewhere in
+this paper, a few instances of disinterested and spontaneous affection
+of animals, other than dogs, for human beings are, however, on record,
+and I am happy in being able to record another.
+
+In 1882 there was received at the Fair Grounds in St. Louis, Missouri, a
+consignment of South American monkeys. Among the lot were several large
+individuals of a species then unknown to me, and which remain unknown to
+me to this day. When I entered the monkey house I went at once to the
+cage of the newcomers. One of the creatures, after examining me very
+carefully, uttered a peculiar cry, and then leaped to the bars and began
+jabbering at a great rate. I told the keeper that I believed that the
+monkey wished to make friends with me; that the tones of its voice were
+decidedly pacific. He laughed at the idea, and declared that this same
+animal had bitten him severely when he was removing it from the box in
+which it had been shipped to the cage in which it was then confined. I
+said nothing more, but, going behind the rail, inserted my hand between
+the bars of the cage. The monkey immediately seized it with its paws,
+kissed it, and then licked it with its tongue. It then drew its head
+down beside it, murmuring all the while in low tones. It showed great
+pleasure when I scratched its head and body, and, in fact, seemed to
+regard me with the greatest affection. When the keeper, in his
+astonishment, drew near, the monkey bounded toward him, chattering and
+showing every indication of great anger. This animal never forgot me,
+but always recognized me the very moment I entered the monkey house.
+
+In the same house there was a large dog-faced ape (chacma) named "Joe,"
+whose friend and companion was a little white and black kitten. "Joe"
+called no living thing, except the cat, his friend; he had many
+acquaintances, but only one friend. He would tolerate me, and even
+invented a name for me, so the keeper declared, yet his friendship never
+got beyond tolerance. But he loved the cat, and the cat seemed to love
+him--that is, as much as a cat could love. He could not bear to have her
+taken from his cage; whenever this was done he would rage up and down
+his den, coughing, growling, and yelling like a mad creature. When she
+was restored to him he would seize her by the nape of the neck and carry
+her to the back of his cage, from which coign of vantage he would growl
+forth maledictions on the heads of his tormentors.
+
+In order to test this monkey's memory, the cat was removed from the
+cage, and another cat was substituted. "Joe" at first appeared to be
+afraid of the new cat, and retired to the rear of his den. He would
+avoid the cat, whenever she approached him, by moving about the cage.
+Finally, he became very angry, and seizing poor puss, he broke her back
+and then pulled her head from her body! This was done so quickly that
+the tragedy was over before we could make a move to prevent it.
+
+At the end of three months his pet was returned to him. The kitten had
+grown considerably during this interval, yet "Joe" recognized her at
+once, and welcomed her with many extravagant acts denoting joy and
+satisfaction.
+
+All of the higher animals, such as the dog, horse, cat, ox, elephant,
+monkey, etc., possess this phase of memory.
+
+_Memory of Events_ (_Education_, _Happenings_, _etc._).--The memory of
+events and their sequences is a faculty of the mind that is to be
+noticed in animals very low in the scale of life. In fact, psychical
+development is based almost wholly upon this mental attribute. The vast
+majority of what are now entirely instinctive habits were, in the
+beginning, the results of sensual perceptions formulated and remembered
+(consciously and unconsciously), which gave rise to conscious ideation;
+this conscious ideation, in turn, became instinct.
+
+This part of my subject is treated at length in the chapter on Reason,
+therefore I will only introduce here certain evidence of this phase of
+memory as it is to be observed in the lower animals, especially in
+insects. A wasp of the variety commonly called "mud-dauber" last summer
+built her nest on the ceiling of my room in one corner. The windows of
+this room remained open night and day during the hot summer months, so
+her nest was easy of access. One day, while the wasp was busy about her
+home, I closed all the windows and awaited developments. At length she
+flew toward a window, against which she landed with a thump which for a
+moment or two completely dazed her. The wasp soon discovered that she
+was barred from the outer world by some transparent, translucent
+substance; she then proceeded on a voyage of discovery, flying around
+the room and searching here and there and everywhere for an exit. She
+finally found a small hole in a window casing which communicated with
+the outside; through this she made her escape from the room. Upon
+opening the window I saw her examining the passage through which she had
+come, going through it repeatedly. She finally flew away, but shortly
+returned with a pellet of mud. Notwithstanding the fact that all the
+windows were then open, the wasp went at once to the hole in the casing,
+through which she made her way into the room and thence to her nest on
+the ceiling. She never again, so far as I was able to ascertain, made
+an exit or an entrance through the windows, but always made use of the
+hole in the casing. This little creature undoubtedly gave unmistakable
+evidences of ratiocination; she found that a transparent barrier had
+been placed in her way--a barrier so translucent and transparent that
+she could not see it until she actually felt it. She therefore concluded
+that she would never again risk injury by flying through the windows.
+What is most remarkable about this instance is that this insect derived
+her knowledge from a single experience, and at once profited thereby.
+The wasp remembered the event--her experience with the window glass--and
+avoided a like occurrence by going through the hole in the casing. Her
+experience was a bit of education.
+
+There are many people alive to-day, probably, who saw the trained fleas
+which were on exhibition in the large cities of the United States some
+thirty or forty years ago. These little creatures had been taught to
+perform military evolutions, to dance, to draw miniature carts, to feign
+death, etc., at the command or signal of their owner and trainer. The
+mere fact that they possessed memory enough to learn, retain, and
+remember their lessons is not proof positive of reason, but the fact of
+their having restrained their natural tendency and desire to escape,
+when they could so easily gratify such a desire or tendency, is a potent
+factor in an argument for their possession of the ratiocinative
+faculty. Their teacher explained that he "brought them to reason" by
+keeping them at first in a glass vessel, where they jumped and bumped
+their heads to no purpose against the transparent walls of their prison.
+Thus their vaulting ambition was held in check, and they learned to
+reason from cause and effect.
+
+It is a well-known fact that many of the higher animals can be taught to
+do many things entirely foreign to their natures. This is brought about
+entirely through the faculty of remembering events. I am confident that
+many of the lower animals, insects, crustaceans, reptiles, are likewise
+the possessors of this faculty, and are capable of being taught. I,
+myself, have succeeded in teaching a toad to hop over a stick at the
+word of command. Again, I taught two chameleons to take certain
+positions and to retain them at feeding time. These little creatures
+remembered their lesson, and at my whistle would "line up" on the
+particular book that I had designated as their dining-table. We have
+seen that fleas are capable of being highly educated, hence it is
+reasonable to presume that other insects, specially and generically akin
+to the flea, likewise possess the faculty of remembering events. Of
+course, this faculty is necessarily more highly developed in some
+animals than in others; it differs in degree of development, not in
+kind.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+THE EMOTIONS
+
+
+Careful observation and investigation lead me to believe that, in many
+of the higher animals, all the fundamental emotions, such as love, hate,
+fear, anger, jealousy, etc., are present. Books on natural history
+fairly teem with data in support of this proposition. Such authorities
+as Romanes,[41] Darwin,[42] Semper[43] and Hartman[44] give instance
+after instance in support of the dictum that the emotional nature of
+many of the higher animals is highly developed.
+
+  [41] Romanes, _Animal Intelligence_.
+
+  [42] Darwin, _Descent of Man_.
+
+  [43] Semper, _Animal Life_.
+
+  [44] Hartmann, _Anthropoid Apes_.
+
+Man has been called the Laughing Animal, because, so it has been
+claimed, he alone of all animals expresses emotion through the agency of
+the smile or through laughter.
+
+This is a grave mistake, for both the dog and the monkey, in certain
+instances, have been known to express pleasure through the agency of the
+smile. And, in the case of certain monkeys, the action of the facial
+muscles was accompanied by cachinnatory sounds.
+
+"Tom," a capuchin monkey of the St. Louis, Missouri, zooelogical garden
+(Fair Grounds), was quite a noted "laugher," and his facial expressions
+as well as the sounds he uttered were so evidently laughter, pure and
+simple, that the most casual observer was able to recognize them as
+such.
+
+"Stranger," a half-bred spaniel belonging to my kennel, invariably
+expressed pleasure with smiles. The action of the facial muscles, as
+well as the facial expression engendered by this action, was widely
+different from like phenomena when the dog showed his teeth in
+anger.[45]
+
+  [45] Compare Darwin, _Expression of the Emotions_, p. 120.
+
+Young chimpanzees chuckle and smile when one they love returns to them
+after an absence of some little time. Their eyes sparkle and grow
+bright, while very evident and easily recognized smiles flit over their
+countenances.[46]
+
+  [46] Martin, _Natural History of Mammalia_, Vol. I. pp. 383, 410;
+  quoted also by Darwin, _loc. cit. ante_.
+
+Young orang-utans likewise chuckle and grin when tickled, and, as
+Wallace observes, give expression to unmistakable smiles. "Dr.
+Duchenne--and I cannot quote a better authority--informs me that he kept
+a tame monkey in his house for a year; and when he gave it, during
+meal-times, some choice delicacy, he observed that the corners of its
+mouth were slightly raised; thus an expression of satisfaction,
+partaking of the nature of an incipient smile, and resembling that often
+seen on the face of man, could be plainly perceived in this animal."[47]
+
+  [47] Darwin, _loc. cit. ante_, p. 133.
+
+A dog belonging to Mr. Henry Barklay, of Paducah, Kentucky, not only
+smiles when pleased, but also gives utterance to an unmistakable
+chuckle. When I first saw and heard this manifestation of delight, I
+thought that the animal had been taught the accomplishment; his master
+assured me, however, that such was not the case, that both the smile and
+the chuckle were natural and inborn traits of the dog.
+
+I think it hardly necessary to give more data on this point; suffice it
+to say that it is a fact beyond dispute that certain monkeys and dogs
+are "laughing animals," and that man is _not_ the only animal that
+expresses emotion through the agency of the smile and laughter!
+
+On one occasion during very hot weather, one of the combs in my
+bee-house became loosened at the top through melting of the wax. The
+weight on the comb dragged it down, and suddenly it broke from its
+supports and sagged over against a neighboring comb. It was perfectly
+apparent to me that if something were not done at once, the comb would
+continue to sag until it broke away from all its connections, and would
+then be precipitated to the floor of the hive. The bees likewise
+recognized this impending calamity, and clearly showed that they did by
+the noise and tumult which arose among them as soon as they discovered
+the precarious situation of the endangered comb.[48]
+
+  [48] Compare Huber, Vol. II. p. 280.
+
+The loud buzzing which they immediately set up clearly indicated their
+dismay and consternation. It seemed to me very much like the noisy
+vociferation of conflicting counsels, which would undoubtedly arise
+among the people in some orderly town were they suddenly threatened by
+some unforeseen and unheard-of catastrophe.
+
+The tumult among the bees continued for four or five minutes, when,
+suddenly, order was evolved out of chaos, and they set to work to
+prevent the fall of the comb, showing almost, if not altogether, as much
+intelligence as human beings would evince under like circumstances.
+
+They shored up the endangered comb by building a thick pillar of wax
+between it and a neighboring comb, thus effectually fixing it so that it
+could sag no further. When this had been done, they re-affixed the top
+of the comb to the ceiling of the hive by a broad, thick bar of wax; the
+pillar used in propping up the comb was afterwards removed and the wax
+used elsewhere.
+
+In this instance, these little creatures at first clearly evinced the
+emotions of fear, dismay, consternation, and grief; afterwards, they
+just as clearly showed fortitude and joy; for, after the supporting
+pillar had been built, I saw the queen, surrounded by a crowd of
+courtier-bees, on the comb near it, and am fully convinced that she had
+been brought out by her rejoicing subjects to view the results of their
+brave struggle against an utterly unforeseen but now happily averted
+calamity.
+
+On another occasion I witnessed the terrible grief of a community of
+bees at the death of their queen, which was seized with illness (a
+sudden and overwhelming diarrhoea, to which bees, at times, are very
+subject) while making a progression through her domains, and fell to the
+floor of the hive and died before she could be conveyed back to the
+royal cell. I was, therefore, able to see the conduct of the bees during
+her illness and after her death.
+
+When she fell to the floor, the bees seemed to know at once that
+something out of the ordinary had happened. The sick queen was
+immediately surrounded by a dense circle of her subjects, those next to
+her licking her with their tongues and endeavoring to raise her to her
+feet.
+
+When she died they were a little slow in recognizing the fact, but when
+they did realize that she was dead those nearest the dead sovereign set
+up a loud buzzing. This was transmitted from circle to circle, from bee
+to bee, until the entire hive was in an uproar. The bees rushed to and
+fro bewailing their loss, and seemingly crazed by grief. All work was
+immediately suspended, and even the young were abandoned and left, for
+the time being, to shift for themselves. Those bees which returned to
+the hive laden with honey did not put it into the cells but retained it
+in their honey-bags. In fact, the entire social economy of the hive was
+disrupted and disarranged, and this confusion lasted for hours. After
+about twenty-four hours of mourning for the dead queen the bees
+recovered their equanimity, and began the work of rearing another queen
+from a worker larva.
+
+In another chapter of this book (vid. Memory) I have related an
+instance of complex ideation in a bird. I have reference to the sparrow
+whose young was saved from a snake, and which remembered the lad who
+destroyed its enemy. This bird undoubtedly showed gratitude. Another
+correspondent writes: "Knowing your love for, and your interest in, all
+animals, I think my experience with two house wrens this summer will
+entertain you. These birds selected for their home an old boot, which
+they discovered on a bench in an outhouse. Here they built their nest,
+and, in the course of time, had the great pleasure of welcoming into the
+world two interesting 'wrenlets.'
+
+"One day, while feeding my pigeons, I noticed that the old wrens were
+greatly disturbed by something or other. They kept flying about me,
+uttering sharp, complaining cries; they would now and then fly to the
+outhouse, and then back to me. At last it occurred to me that some
+accident might have befallen the young wrens, so I proceeded to
+investigate, and soon discovered the trouble.
+
+"Some one, in rummaging about the room, had overturned the boot, which
+had fallen in such manner that the top pressed against the wall, thus
+effectually barring the way to the nest. I righted the boot, thereby
+restoring the children to their parents, much to the delight of all
+parties concerned. Ever since this episode the male wren has shown his
+gratitude in an unmistakable manner. He has followed me into the house
+on several occasions; he has learned where I sit when engaged in sewing,
+and pays me short visits, flying though the window several times a day,
+and, wonderful to relate, after the young had learned to fly, he brought
+them around to my window and evidently gave them to understand that I
+was their saviour!"
+
+The higher animals, such as the horse, the ox, the dog, the monkey,
+etc., show the emotions of anger, hate, fear, love, and grief so plainly
+that "he who runs may read." That these animals possess these emotions
+is a fact which hardly needs demonstration. They likewise have very
+retentive memories, sometimes treasuring up an injury for days, months,
+and years, until an opportunity arrives for them to "get even," thus
+showing that they are revengeful.
+
+Thus, a dog of my acquaintance had been severely thrashed last winter
+by a larger dog. He bided his time, and, this summer, after his
+antagonist had been handicapped by having that atrocious invention, a
+muzzle, affixed to his head, he fell upon him, "tooth and toe-nail," and
+would have killed him had he not been prevented.
+
+Again, some years ago my attention was called to a large mandril by the
+keeper of the monkey house in the St. Louis Zooelogical Garden, who
+remarked that "That monkey will do me up some day. I had to thrash him
+several days ago, and ever since then he has had it in for me."
+
+Not ten minutes after the conversation, while I was in another part of
+the building, I heard a yell from the keeper, and, on rushing to see
+what had happened, found that the man's thumb had been almost severed
+from his hand by the powerful teeth of the mandril. The keeper had been
+explaining something to some visitors, standing with his back to the
+animal, and with his hand resting on one of the bars of the cage. The
+brute saw his opportunity, and, in the twinkling of an eye, seized it
+and inflicted a severe injury to the individual whom he regarded as his
+enemy.
+
+During another visit to the above-mentioned monkey house, I accidentally
+inflicted an injury to a capuchin monkey, "Tom" by name, who was a great
+friend of mine and who had been taken from his cage and given to me by
+the keeper. After playing with him for a time, I had placed him on the
+floor and had resumed my conversation with the keeper. Suddenly, "Tom"
+gave a loud squall and jumped into my lap, wringing one of his hands and
+moaning piteously.
+
+He held up his hand towards me, calling my attention to it with many a
+grimace and cry; he even felt it with his other hand, carefully
+separating the fingers and gently stroking them. On examination I
+discovered that the tips of two fingers were bruised and abraded; the
+little fellow had evidently had them caught in some way beneath the heel
+of my shoe. He quietly and patiently submitted while we dressed his
+wounded digits, but removed the bandages just as soon as he was returned
+to his cage, evidently having more faith in the curative qualities of
+his own saliva than in the medicaments of man.
+
+In this instance, the monkey clearly indicated that he had been hurt; he
+pointed out the portion of his body where the injury was situated, and
+then allowed his friend to "doctor" the injury, although he did not
+evince an abiding faith in that friend's skill. In contradistinction to
+the mandril which evinced revenge, the capuchin showed that he was of a
+forgiving disposition, for, no sooner was he hurt, than he sought
+consolation from the very person who inflicted the injury.
+
+An English observer, Captain Johnson, writes as follows, when speaking
+of a monkey which he had shot: "He instantly ran down to the lowest
+branch of a tree, as if he were going to fly at me, stopped suddenly,
+and coolly put his paw to the part wounded, and held it out, covered
+with blood, for me to see. I was so much hurt at the time that it has
+left an impression never to be effaced, and I have never since fired a
+gun at any of the tribe."[49]
+
+  [49] Romanes, _Animal Intelligence_, p. 475.
+
+Another observer, Sir William Hoste, records a similar case. One of his
+officers saw a monkey running along some rocks, holding her young one in
+her arms. He fired, and the animal fell. When he arrived at the place
+where she was lying, she clasped her young one closer, and pointed with
+her fingers to the hole in her breast made by the bullet. "Dipping her
+finger in the blood and holding it up, she seemed to reproach him with
+having been the cause of her pain, and also that of her young one, to
+which she frequently pointed."[50]
+
+  [50] Romanes, _op. cit._, p. 476.
+
+These observations would seem to indicate that monkeys are capable of
+feeling and of expressing sorrow and reproach. "So intense is the grief
+of female monkeys for the loss of their young, that it invariably caused
+the death of certain kinds kept under confinement by Brehm in North
+America."[51]
+
+  [51] Darwin, _Descent of Man_, p. 70.
+
+By the observant and analytical mind, the various psychical phenomena
+evinced by the lower animals are not regarded as being either wonderful
+or extraordinary. Man is a conceited, arrogant individual, and his
+place in nature has done much toward fostering and enlarging this
+self-conceit and arrogance. Even in the time of Moses this
+self-glorification was _en evidence_. The genesis of the world, as
+related by this famous historiographer, geographer, naturalist,
+theologian, and lawgiver, plainly shows this. At the present time,
+science declares, emphatically, that man is but a mammal, whose brain
+has undergone exceptional evolutionary development. He is but the
+younger kinsman of other mammals whose evolutionary development has
+sought other channels; these, in turn, are but younger kin of yet older
+animals, and so on backwards, to the beginning of life in bathybian
+protoplasm. The resistless forces of evolution have placed him where he
+is, and no amount of self-adulation can hide the scientific fact that he
+is _not_ a special creation. All the creatures of the living world are
+kin, and that force which animated the first moneron, and which we call
+life, has been transmitted from creature to creature until the present
+day, absolutely unchanged. There is no reason for believing that life
+will ever be entirely extinguished, until conditions arise which will
+render the presence of this force impossible.
+
+When we recognize the fact that intelligent ratiocination is but the
+product and the result of the psychical action of a certain substance
+called brain matter, and not the product and the result of the action of
+an essence or force unconnected with, or outside of, brain; and,
+furthermore, when we know that these lower animals have receptive
+ganglia analogous to those possessed by man, analogical deductions force
+us to the conclusion that these animals should possess mental emotions
+and functions similar to those of man.
+
+The microscope shows that these animals have notochords, nervous
+systems, and ganglia, or brains. With a one-sixteenth objective, and an
+achromatic light condenser, I have been able to differentiate the gray
+matter in the brain of an ant, and even, on two occasions, to bring out
+the cells and filaments of the cortex. Here in the brain of an ant, is
+an anatomical and physiological similarity to the brain of man:
+therefore, it is reasonable to expect evidences of mental operations in
+the ant akin to those of man.
+
+That we do find these evidences in abundance can no longer be denied.
+Sir John Lubbock chloroformed some _Lasius niger_ belonging to his
+formicary. The other ants brought their anaesthetized comrades out of the
+nest and carried them away; they thought that they were dead. He made
+some other specimens of the same species intoxicated, and the ants
+carefully bore their helpless companions back into the nest. The care
+evinced in helping their intoxicated friends to reach the safe shelter
+of their nest undoubtedly indicates a sense of sympathy toward the
+afflicted individuals.
+
+Ants frequently display sympathy for mutilated companions. Whether or
+not this feeling is ethical or material is not and can not be
+determined; the fact remains, however, that sympathy is evinced. I
+myself have observed it on many occasions. I removed the anterior pair
+of legs from a specimen of _Lasius flavus_, and placed her near the
+entrance to her nest. In a short time a companion came to her
+assistance, and, lifting her with her mandibles, carried her into the
+nest. A specimen of _F. fusca_, destitute of antennae, was attacked and
+severely injured by an ant of another species. An ant of her own species
+soon came by. "She examined," says Lubbock, whom I quote, "the poor
+sufferer carefully, then picked her up tenderly and carried her into the
+nest. It would have been difficult for any one who witnessed the scene
+to have denied to this ant the possession of human feelings."[52]
+
+  [52] Lubbock, _Ants, Bees, and Wasps_, p. 107.
+
+Not only do they display sympathy toward mutilated and helpless friends,
+but also toward healthy individuals who may accidentally get into
+trouble and need assistance. Belt, while watching a column of _Eciton
+hamata_, placed a stone upon one of them to secure her. The next ant in
+line, as soon as she discovered the condition of her friend, ran
+hurriedly backward and communicated the intelligence to the others.
+"They rushed to the rescue; some bit at the stone and tried to move it,
+others seized the prisoner by the legs and tugged with such force that I
+thought the legs would be pulled off; but they persevered until they got
+the captive free. I next covered one up with a piece of clay, leaving
+only the ends of its antennae projecting. It was soon discovered by its
+fellows, which set to work immediately, and by biting off pieces of the
+clay soon liberated it."
+
+At another time he found a few of the same ants passing along at
+intervals. He buried one beneath a lump of clay, leaving only the head
+protruding. A companion soon discovered her and tried to release her.
+Finding this to be impossible, she hurried away. Belt thought that she
+had abandoned the unfortunate prisoner, but she had only gone for
+assistance, and soon returned accompanied by a dozen companions, which
+made directly for the imprisoned ant and soon set her free. "I do not
+see how," says Belt in conclusion, "this action could be instinctive. It
+was sympathetic help, such as man only among the higher mammalia shows.
+The excitement and ardor with which they carried on their unflagging
+exertions for the rescue of their comrade could not have been greater if
+they had been human beings."[53] I have buried _Lasius flavus_ beneath
+sand, and in every instance, sooner or later, they have been dug out by
+their companions.
+
+  [53] Belt, _The Naturalist in Nicaragua_, p. 26; quoted also by
+  Romanes, _Animal Intelligence_, p. 48.
+
+Rev. Mr. White has noticed the same sympathetic help among _F.
+sanguinea_.[54] Lubbock noticed in one of his nests of _F. fusca_, Jan.
+23, 1881, an ant lying on her back and unable to move. She was unable
+even to feed herself. Several times he uncovered the part of the nest
+where she was. The other ants at once carried her to the covered part.
+"On March 4," says he, "the ants were all out of the nest, probably for
+fresh air, and had collected together in a corner of the box; they had
+not, however, forgotten her, but had carried her with them. I took off
+the glass lid of the box, and after a while they returned as usual to
+the nest, taking her in again. On March 5th she was still alive, but on
+the 15th, notwithstanding all their care, she was dead."[55]
+
+  [54] White, _Leisure Hour_, p. 390, 1880.
+
+  [55] Lubbock, _loc. cit. ante_, p. 107 _et seq._
+
+Dr. Stimson Lambert of Owensboro, Kentucky, a careful and accurate
+observer, informs me that he has frequently observed the large red ants
+(_F. rufa_) helping their mutilated or crippled companions.
+
+Ants exhibit another emotion that shows the high development of their
+psychical or emotional nature. In the tender watchfulness and care of
+their young they are surpassed by no living creature. As soon as the
+young ant bursts its pupa case, it is carefully assisted into the world
+by its foster-mothers. These foster-mothers clean it with their tongues,
+gently going over the entire surface of its body, and then feed it. The
+young ant is conducted by them throughout the whole nest, and shown all
+the devious passageways and corridors. When it makes its first visit
+into the outside world, it is always accompanied by several chaperons.
+This parental love, if I may use the expression, is even extended to the
+unhatched eggs. If an ants' nest is disturbed by a stroke of a spade or
+hoe, the little inhabitants will at once begin to remove eggs, pupae, and
+young to a place of safety.
+
+This parental love is even evinced by insects who never see their
+offspring. The butterfly uses the utmost care in selecting a suitable
+leaf on which to deposit her eggs. She selects one that will be
+nourishing food for the larvae when hatched out, and, after carefully
+observing whether it is preoccupied by the eggs of some other butterfly
+(in which case she abandons it), she proceeds to deposit her eggs.
+"Having fulfilled this duty, from which no obstacle short of absolute
+impossibility, no danger however threatening, can divert her, the
+affectionate mother dies."[56]
+
+  [56] Kirby and Spence, _Entomology_, p. 228.
+
+The gadfly uses a like forethought in selecting a place for her eggs.
+The larvae of the gadfly (_OEstrus equi_) are developed in the stomach
+of the horse, so the provident mother attaches the eggs to the hairs of
+the foreleg between the knee and the shoulder, a place the horse is
+almost certain to lick with his tongue and, in this manner, convey the
+eggs to his stomach, where they are hatched out. The breeding place of
+certain of the ichneumons is the body of a caterpillar. The ichneumon
+may be seen busily searching the bushes for her victim. When she finds
+it, she inserts her ovipositor into its body and lays her egg. If some
+other ichneumon has preceded her, she recognizes the fact at once, and
+will not deposit her egg, but will go in search of another grub. When
+the egg is hatched, the larva feeds on the body of its host, carefully
+avoiding the vital organs. The caterpillar retains just enough vitality
+to assume the pupa state, and then dies. The chrysalis discloses, not a
+butterfly, but an ichneumon.
+
+The mason wasp (_Epipone spinipes_) builds its cells and lays its eggs,
+one in each cell. It then hunts and procures spiders, which it deposits
+in the cells and then seals the openings. These spiders are not killed
+outright, but are partially paralyzed by the sting of the wasp. The
+insect thus secures for her young a supply of fresh food. This wasp not
+only knows the difference between the eggs that will produce female
+young, but she also makes this knowledge useful. She always supplies the
+females with more spiders than she does the males. The females are
+larger and require more food, hence the discrimination. All of this care
+and forethought is expended on young which the mother will never see.
+Human love cannot give greater evidences of complete unselfishness.
+
+I once removed a ball of eggs from the web of a spider. The mother clung
+tenaciously to her treasure, and, when I tried to remove her with a pair
+of forceps, she bit fiercely at the steel blades of the instrument. In
+her great love for her offspring she lost all sense of fear. Time and
+again I removed her several inches from the eggs; she would run about in
+a distracted way, for all the world like a mother who had lost her baby,
+until she found the ball of eggs. She would then seize it and attempt to
+remove it to a place of safety. The naturalist, Bonnet, put a spider and
+her bag of eggs in the pit of an ant-lion. The myrmeleon seized the
+egg-bag and tore it away from the spider. Bonnet forced the spider out
+of the pit, but she returned and chose to be dragged in and buried alive
+rather than leave her eggs.[57]
+
+  [57] Bonnet, _OEuvres_; quoted also by Romanes, _Animal Intelligence_,
+  p. 205.
+
+Earwigs lay their eggs, and then incubate them after the manner of the
+hen. When the young are hatched out, the proud mother leads forth the
+brood and shows unmistakable pride and affection in her children. On one
+occasion, when a storm was coming up, I saw an earwig marshal her troop
+of young ones, and lead them to a place of safety beneath the bark of a
+tree.
+
+M. Geer scattered the eggs of an earwig over the bottom of a box: "The
+earwig carried them, however, one by one, into a certain part of the
+box, and then remained constantly sitting upon the heap without ever
+quitting it for a moment until the eggs were hatched."[58] This, I take
+it, is at least an instance of love of offspring, even if it is not a
+higher emotion. From the earwig's habit of watching over her young I am
+inclined to believe that this insect possesses true mother-love.
+
+  [58] Romanes, _loc. cit. ante_, p. 229; quoted also by Bingley, _loc.
+  cit._, Vol. III. pp. 150, 151.
+
+Many of the lower animals give unmistakable evidences of the possession
+by them of the emotions of anger and fear. Ants, centipedes, tarantulas,
+weevils, etc., as well as many of the crustacea will give battle on the
+slightest provocation, clearly showing by their actions that anger and
+hate are their incentives. When alarmed, their actions indicate very
+plainly that the emotion of fear has seized them.
+
+In the next chapter I hope to show that many of the lower animals
+possess one or more of the finer emotions, which I have thought best to
+group under the head of AEstheticism.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+AESTHETICISM
+
+
+"The man that hath not music in himself, nor is not moved with concord
+of sweet sounds, is fit for treasons, stratagems, and spoils." The above
+quotation is the thought of one of the most acute, profound, and
+accurate psychologists that ever lived. That which he observed to be
+true among men, strangely enough, a long and systematic course of
+observation leads me to believe to be equally true among the lower
+animals; for wherever it can be observed that animals evince an
+appreciation for musical sounds, or show discrimination in their
+perception of harmonious tonal vibrations, such animals, with a single
+exception--the spider--will be found to be of kind disposition, and not
+given to "treasons, stratagems, and spoils" other than those required by
+their struggle for existence. So true is this rule, that the single
+exception--the spider--proves the verity of the deduction or conclusion.
+For, like many men, the spider's love for the beautiful, not only in
+music but in decorative effects as well, is intimately associated with
+murder-lust; it kills for the love of killing. Many examples of the
+association of great cruelty and profound love for the beautiful in
+nature and the arts might be given; it is necessary for my purpose,
+however, to give but two--Nero and Catherine de' Medici.
+
+That spiders appreciate musical sounds, and that they can differentiate
+between those sounds that are pleasing and those that are disagreeable
+to them, I have not a scintilla of doubt. The following facts bearing on
+this point came under my own observation or were told me by people in
+whose veracity I believe implicitly, or are vouched for by scientists of
+world-wide fame.
+
+During one entire summer until late in autumn, a large, black hunting
+spider (_Lycosa_) dwelt in my piano. When I played _andante_ movements
+softly, she would come out on the music rack and seem to listen
+intently. Her palpi would vibrate with almost inconceivable rapidity,
+while every now and then she would lift her anterior pair of legs and
+wave them to and fro, and up and down. Just as soon, however, as I
+commenced a march or galop, she would take to her heels and flee away to
+her den somewhere in the interior of the piano, where she would sulk
+until I enticed her forth with _Traeumerei_ or Handel's _Largo_.
+
+On one occasion, while standing beside an organist who was improvising
+on the swell organ with _viol d'amour_ stop drawn, a spider let herself
+down from the ceiling of the church and hung suspended immediately above
+his hands. He coupled on to great organ and commenced one of Guilmant's
+resonant _bravura_ marches; immediately the spider turned and rapidly
+climbed her silken thread to her web high up among the timbers of the
+ceiling. The organist informed me that he had noticed, time and again,
+that spiders were affected by music. Several days afterwards I went to
+the church for the special purpose of experiment; I seated myself at the
+organ and commenced to improvise on the swell organ with _flute_, _viol
+d'amour_, and _tremulant_ stops out. In a few moments the spider let
+herself down from the ceiling and hung suspended before my eyes. So
+close was she that I could see her palpi vibrating rapidly and
+continuously. I suddenly dropped to great organ and burst into a loud,
+quick galop; the spider at once turned and ascended towards the ceiling
+with the utmost rapidity. Again and again I enticed her from her home in
+the ceiling, or sent her scurrying back, by playing slow _piano_ or
+quick _forte_ compositions. She clearly and conclusively indicated that
+loud, quick music was disagreeable to her. Professor C. Reclain of
+Leipsic, once, during a concert, saw a spider descend from one of the
+chandeliers and hang suspended above the orchestra during a violin solo;
+as soon, however, as the full orchestra joined in, it quickly ascended
+to its web.[59] This fact of musical discrimination in a creature so
+low in the scale of animal life is truly wonderful; it indicates that
+these lowly creatures have arrived at a degree of aestheticism that is
+very high indeed.
+
+  [59] Reclain, _Body and Mind_, p. 275; quoted by Romanes, _Animal
+  Intelligence_, pp. 205, 206; compare Rabigot, Simonius, and Von
+  Hartmann.
+
+Spiders are decorative artists of no little ability. I saw one which
+spun a web, beautifully adorned it with a broad, silken pathway, and
+then used it as a pleasure resort; I also saw a spider which
+intentionally beautified its web by affixing to it hundreds of minute
+flakes of logwood dye;[60] thus we see that the aestheticism of spiders
+is not confined to the love of music, but extends to other fields. In
+passing, I may state that once, while confined to my room for a long
+time by sickness, I became intimately acquainted with a wolf-spider
+which seemed to take an aesthetic delight in her toilet. This lycosid
+became so very tame that she would crawl upon my finger and allow
+herself to be brought close to my eyes, so that I could observe her deft
+and skilful movements while beautifying her person. She learned to know
+me personally, rapidly running away and hiding herself when visitors
+entered my chamber, but never showing fear when I alone was in the room.
+This spider also showed an appreciation for certain musical sounds (the
+instrument used was the paper and comb mouth-organ of childhood); low,
+soft music would always entice her from her den beneath the table-lid,
+while loud, quick sounds seemed to frighten and disgust her.
+
+  [60] Mr. Willard Bates, a druggist of Owensboro, Kentucky, in whose
+  store this instance of decorative aestheticism occurred, called my
+  attention to the insect, which was busily engaged in beautifying her
+  web.
+
+Among animal music-lovers this chapter does not embrace those natural
+musicians, the crickets, grasshoppers, locusts, frogs, and birds, whose
+love-songs form such a large part of the aesthetic in nature; yet the
+instance I am about to relate cannot be omitted, for it clearly
+indicates a love for musical sounds other than those produced by the
+creature itself or its mates.
+
+A gentleman,[61] formerly living in the country, but now an
+attorney-at-law and residing in the town in which I live, told me that,
+on one occasion, he succeeded in raising two quails from eggs placed
+beneath a brooding barnyard fowl. These birds grew to maturity, and,
+what is rare indeed, became so exceedingly tame that they ran about the
+house and yard with the utmost freedom, showing not the slightest fear,
+and, seemingly, taking the greatest pleasure in the caresses bestowed
+upon them by the children of the household. This gentleman comes of a
+musical family, and, on pleasant summer nights, he and his sisters and
+brothers were in the habit of going to the stiles some distance away
+from the house and there singing and playing on the guitar and violin
+for several hours. The quails roosted on a dresser in the kitchen, but,
+as soon as the music began, they left their roost and flew to the stiles
+no matter how late in the night it might be, and there they would stay,
+perched on the shoulders of the musicians, until the concert was over;
+they would then go back to roost. They seemed to be passionately fond of
+the singing voice, and would seek out a singer wherever he or she might
+be, whenever they heard the sound of singing. In _timbre_ the human
+female voice is more nearly akin to that of the quail than to that of
+any other animal. When a lad, "before my voice changed," I could call up
+these birds at will by giving their various calls; I did not whistle the
+songs; I _sang_ them. The peculiar quality of the female voice referred
+to above may be considered by some to have been the cause that
+influenced these birds; yet my informant distinctly states that _the
+voice of an adult male equally attracted them_.
+
+  [61] Martin Yewell, Esq., Owensboro, Kentucky.
+
+The opening movement of Chopin's _Marche Funebre_ affects me very
+disagreeably. The music is, to me, absolutely repugnant. The beautiful
+melody in the second movement is, however, to me exceedingly agreeable
+and affords me intense pleasure and gratification. The lower animals are
+likewise agreeably or disagreeably affected by certain musical sounds.
+Close observation has taught me the fact that certain musical keys are
+more agreeable to dogs than others. If a composition in a certain key,
+the fundamental note of which is agreeable to a dog, be played, he will
+either listen quietly and intently to the sounds, or will, sometimes,
+utter low and not unmusical howls in accord or "in tune" with the
+fundamental note. If the music be in a key not pleasing to him, he will
+either show absolute indifference, or will express his dissatisfaction
+with discordant yelps not in accord with the fundamental note of the
+key.
+
+The bell of a certain church in my town sounds G. A collie, which lives
+next door to the church, when the bell is rung, never fails to express his
+delight in the sound. He listens intently while the bell is ringing,
+occasionally giving utterance to low howls, the notes being either B-flat,
+E-flat, or some other note in accord with G. This dog visits a house next
+door to another church, the bell of which sounds F. He never shows the
+slightest interest when this bell is rung. When I play compositions in
+F-sharp, an English fox-terrier of mine will lie on the floor and listen
+for an hour at a time. If I change to the key of E-flat, B-flat, or G, he
+will soon leave the room.
+
+A question naturally obtrudes itself here in the matter of the dog which
+barks in accord with the church-bell. Does he do this knowingly
+(consciously), or is it simply an accident? I believe the former, and
+consider it the result of an acquired psychical habitude.
+
+That the dog is conscious (self-conscious) that his voice is in accord
+with the bell, I will not venture to assert, for, knowledge on this
+point, I take it, is beyond the power of man to acquire. I mean by the
+word, "knowingly," when I say that the dog knowingly pitches his voice
+in accord with the bell, not that he has any knowledge whatever of
+harmony, such as an educated musician possesses, or such even as the
+inherited experiences of a thousand years of music-loving ancestors
+would naturally impress upon the mind of a civilized European of to-day,
+but that he has an acquired imitative faculty (a faculty possessed by
+some of the negroes of Central Africa as well as by many other savage
+races), of attuning his voice to sounds which are pleasing to his ears.
+In support of this proposition I instance the fact of the dog's acquired
+habit of barking, which has been developed since his domestication. In
+his wild state the dog _never_ barks.
+
+Man himself has done much toward arousing and cultivating the imitative
+faculty in the dog (which, in the beginning, impelled this highly
+developed animal to _answer_ his master, thus originating the first
+vocables--barking--in the canine language), by conversing with him. In
+all probability, it is only an "anatomical barrier and a psychical
+accident" at best, which prevent the dog from addressing his master
+through the agency of speech itself!
+
+The dog's voice is exceedingly pleasing to himself, and, most
+frequently, when "baying the moon," he is listening to his own singing,
+_not_ (as is generally supposed) as it pours forth from his throat, but
+in a more pleasing manner, as it is breathed back to his listening ears
+from the airy lips of Echo!
+
+That dogs have discovered that pleasing phenomenon, the echo, I do not
+question for a single instant. If a dog which is in the habit of "baying
+the moon" be watched, it will be observed that he invariably selects the
+same spot or spots for his nocturnal concerts. If you happen to be
+standing in the neighborhood, you will also notice that there is always
+an echo, more or less distinct, of his barking; and, if you will observe
+closely, you will see that the dog listens for this echo, and that he
+will not resume his song until it (the echo) has entirely ceased. That
+this is the true explanation of "baying the moon" (where there is not
+another dog in the distance whose clamorous barkings have aroused a like
+performance on the part of the animal under observation), the following
+instance, coming under my own observation, would seem to indicate.
+
+I had frequently noticed that a spaniel crept under a honeysuckle bush
+in my front yard whenever he gave one of his serenades. Time and again I
+tried to hear the echo, but in vain, and an almost verified fact seemed
+in danger of total annihilation. Finally, it occurred to me to
+dispossess the dog and take his place beneath the bush. I called him out
+and succeeded with much difficulty in getting beneath the bush, from
+whence I, imitating his voice, sent several howling barks. My theory was
+no longer merely theory, but was, instead, a verified fact, for, sharp,
+clear, and distinct, the echoes of my voice came back from some
+buildings an eighth of a mile away! Some peculiar acoustic environment
+made it impossible to get the echo at any place, as far as I could
+discover, other than beneath the bush.[62]
+
+  [62] These observations are original, and, while I am fully convinced
+  of their truth, I would yet like to have them substantiated by other
+  observers. This habit indicates a high degree of aesthetic feeling in
+  the dog.
+
+It is highly probable that the susceptibility of rats and mice to the
+influence of musical sounds has been known for ages. The legend of the
+Pied Piper of Hamelin is by no means recent, nor is it confined to
+European peoples alone; in one form or another it exists among Asiatic,
+Indian, and Indo-Malayan races. In all the legends, the rats or mice are
+drawn together by sounds emanating from some kind of musical instrument.
+
+A celebrated violinist told me that, at one period of his life, he lived
+in a house that fairly swarmed with rats. He noticed that these
+creatures were peculiarly susceptible to minor chords, or to
+compositions played in minors, and that quick, lively music would bring
+them forth from their lurking-places in great numbers. A few abrupt,
+dissonant discords would, invariably, send them scurrying to their
+holes.
+
+Another violinist informs me that several mice living in his room are
+influenced by the music of his violin; when he plays an _andante_
+movement very softly, they appear to listen intently and to enjoy the
+music; but when he plays an _allegro_ in quick time and loud, they
+quickly run away. The organist of the First Presbyterian Church of
+Owensboro, Kentucky,[63] tells me that when he lived in Cuba, New York,
+a mouse dwelt beneath a bookcase in his room, and that he often
+performed the following experiment: Seating himself at the piano, he
+would begin improvising softly. In a few moments the mouse would come
+from beneath the bookcase, approach the centre of the room, and,
+standing on its hind feet, would listen intently to the music. A loud
+chord on the piano would send it scampering away to its home. He would
+then resume his _pianissimo_ improvisation, and the mouse would soon
+return to its former station near the centre of the room, only to vanish
+again as soon as the loud chords were struck.
+
+  [63] Professor L. J. Quigley.
+
+A violinist of Louisville, Kentucky, Mr. Karl Benedik, told me, on one
+occasion, that he had repeatedly noticed that several mice, which lived
+in his room, were influenced by the music of his violin. When he played
+an _andante_ movement _pianissimo_, they would appear to listen with
+pleasure; but when he played an _allegro_ in quick _tempo_ and _forte_,
+they immediately ran away.
+
+Mice not only enjoy the music of others, but sometimes make music
+themselves. My father enjoyed nightly concerts or serenades, for a long
+time, from some "singing mice" in his library. I was fortunate enough to
+hear this novel concert on one occasion. The mice, two in number, came
+out from beneath the casing of the fireplace. They took places on the
+hearth, several feet distant from one another, and first one, and then
+the other, sang. Their songs were low and musical, not unlike the song
+of the canary, though there were no cadenzas or _fioritura_ passages.
+They seemed to use six notes, these notes being repeated in melodious
+sequences. I noticed, several times, a run of four notes in ascending
+scale. On another occasion, in my bedroom, I heard a mouse sing his
+pleasing little song over and over again.
+
+Miss Ada Sterling, editor of _Fashions_, writes me as follows:--
+
+"... Anent your paper ... I have had some curious experiences of a
+similar nature; one was in an uncarpeted room, the house being deserted
+at that time. I stood still, planning certain things and humming softly
+to myself. Presently, a shadowy something caught my eye, and I
+discovered a little mouse, very young evidently, then another and
+another, until four were near. I did not attribute their tameness to
+music, and in surprise turned to see if there were others about.
+Instantly they scampered off, my action having frightened them.
+
+"When I finally arrived at the conclusion that music had attracted them,
+I sat down and began to hum, this time with an open sound instead of a
+closed tone, and in a second the little creatures were out again,
+standing perfectly still, as if the sound gave them delight. Gradually I
+swelled the tone, and yet they were undisturbed until I became too bold
+and gave a clear, sharp, full sound, and this at once frightened them.
+
+"_I experimented in this way for more than a month, never missing my
+audience once_, and by this time the little creatures, grown so fat and
+bold as to cause serious damage, were ruthlessly caught and killed.
+
+"I heard Kate Field, about four years ago, when, as the guest of Mr.
+Stedman, she told several interesting stories, relate an experience of
+her own, wherein, one night early in her life, she had leaned against
+the walls of the Campanile, gray and phantom-like in the moonlight, and,
+singing softly to herself, was surprised at discovering several little
+lizards lying about on the stones, their heads held alertly in the air
+as if entranced by the sound of her voice. She, too, experimented with
+the varying sounds, and from time to time, and evidently looked back
+upon the experiment as one of rare interest to herself."
+
+Tree lizards will listen completely entranced to the music of a good
+whistler, and will allow themselves to be captured while thus
+inthralled. Some lizards are fairly good musicians themselves, notably
+the tree lizards of the East Tennessee mountains. I have repeatedly
+heard them singing on the slopes of Chilhowie and adjacent peaks.
+
+Burroughs writes very entertainingly of a singing lizard, or, rather,
+salamander: "... Approach never so cautiously the spot from which the
+sound proceeds and it instantly ceases, and you may watch for an hour
+without hearing it again. 'Is it a frog,' I said--'the small tree-frog,
+the piper of the marshes--repeating his spring note but little changed
+amid the trees?' Doubtless it is, but I must see him in the very act. So
+I watched and waited, but to no purpose, till one day, while bee-hunting
+in the woods, I heard the sound proceeding from the leaves at my feet.
+Keeping entirely quiet, the little musician presently emerged, and
+lifting himself up on a small stick, his throat palpitated, and the
+plaintive note again came forth. 'The queerest frog that ever I saw,'
+said a youth who accompanied me and whom I had enlisted to help solve
+the mystery. No, it was no frog or toad at all, but the small red
+salamander commonly called lizard."[64]
+
+  [64] Gibson, _Sharp Eyes_, pp. 105, 106; quotation.
+
+The sound of the piccolo is very pleasing to these little creatures, and
+I have frequently collected about me as many as ten or a dozen by
+sounding this instrument in the still depths of a wood which I knew
+these salamanders frequented.
+
+Certain snakes are very susceptible to the charm of harmonious tonal
+vibration; witness the performance of the Hindu snake charmer, who,
+while handling that deadly poisonous creature, the cobra-de-capello,
+plays continuously on flageolets, fifes, or other musical
+instruments.[65] I, myself, have often held tree lizards completely
+entranced until grasped in my hand, by whistling shrilly and
+continuously.
+
+  [65] It has been claimed by some that the cobra is not influenced by
+  the music, but by movements of the Hindu performer, who dances,
+  salaams, etc., continually while giving exhibitions. Very recently,
+  however, Momsen has proven the contrary by actual experiment.
+
+I remember, on one occasion, when I was quite young, that a large black
+snake crawled through a ventilating hole in the wall of the "quarters"
+or row of brick cottages occupied by the negroes, and took shelter
+beneath the floor. It was seen by myself and some of my dusky playmates,
+who immediately carried the tidings to the negro gardener. He called one
+of the hands from the field, and, after placing him with a loaded
+shotgun at one side of the hole in the wall, took his station just
+behind him and commenced to play on his fiddle. In a few moments the
+snake came out, and was killed by the discharge of the gun in the hands
+of the other negro. I have been informed, time and again, by negroes
+that they could charm snakes from their holes with music, but the
+instance related above is the only one of the snake being led to its
+death by the bewitching power of musical sounds that has ever come under
+my immediate personal observation.
+
+Before dismissing the subject of the influence of music on animals, I
+wish to call attention to the fact that Romanes declares that pigeons
+and parrots evince an aesthetic enjoyment of musical sounds.
+
+"Moreover," writes he, "the pleasure which birds manifest in musical
+sounds is not always restricted to the sounds which they themselves
+produce."
+
+Bingley quotes John Lockman, the celebrated composer, who declares that
+he once saw a pigeon which could distinguish a particular air. Lockman
+was visiting a Mr. Lee in Cheshire, whose daughter was a fine pianist,
+"and whenever she played the air of _Speri si_ from Handel's opera of
+'Admetus,' a pigeon would descend from an adjacent dovecot to the window
+of the room where she sat, 'and listen to the air apparently with the
+most pleasing emotions,' always returning to the dovecot immediately the
+air was finished. But it was only this one air that would induce the
+bird to behave in this way."[66]
+
+  [66] Romanes, _Animal Intelligence_, p. 282; quoted by Bingley,
+  _Animal Biography_, Vol. II. p. 220.
+
+A correspondent writes me that he has a cock which is passionately fond
+of the sound of the violin. This bird always flies to the window of the
+music-room as soon as he hears the sound of the violin, where he will
+quietly remain perched as long as the music continues. As soon as the
+music ceases, he flies down from the window.
+
+Horses very frequently show an appreciation for musical sounds,
+especially when they are produced by a band of brasses.
+
+Amusement and pastime are, unquestionably, aesthetic psychical
+characteristics, hence, when we see evidences of these mental
+operations, we must acknowledge the presence of aestheticism in the
+animals in which they are to be noticed.
+
+I propose to show that animals low in the scale of life--animals so low
+and so minute that it takes a very high-power lens to make them visible,
+have their pastimes and amusements. Also, that many insects and even the
+slothful snail are not so busily engaged in the struggle for existence
+that they cannot spare a few moments for play. In our researches in this
+field of animal intelligence we must not attribute the peculiar actions
+of the males in many species of animals when courting the females, to
+simple pastime, for they are the outward manifestations of sexual
+desire, and are not examples of psychical amusement. I have seen, in
+actinophorous rhizopods, certain actions, unconnected with sexual desire
+or the gratification of appetite, which lead me to believe that these
+minute microscopic organisms have their pastimes and moments of simple
+amusement. On several occasions while observing these creatures, I have
+seen them chasing one another around and around their miniature sea.
+They seemed to be engaged in a game of tag. This actinophrys is not very
+agile, but when excited by its play, it seems to be an entirely
+different creature, so lively does it become. These actions were not
+those of strife, for first one and then another would act the pursuer
+and the pursued. There were, generally, four or five actinophryans in
+the game.
+
+One of the rotifers frequently acts as if engaged in play. On several
+occasions I have observed them perform a kind of dance, a _pas seul_,
+for each rotifer would be alone by itself. Their motions were up and
+down as if exercising with an invisible skipping-rope. They would keep
+up this play for several minutes and then resume feeding or quietly
+remain at rest. This rotifer goes through another performance which I
+also believe to be simply a pastime. Its tail is armed with a double
+hook or forceps. It attaches itself to a piece of alga or other
+substance by this forceps, and then moves its body up and down in the
+water for several minutes at a time.
+
+The snail (_H. pomatia_) likewise has its moments of relaxation and
+amusement. The following instance of play may be considered to be
+gallantry by some, but I do not believe that I am mistaken, however,
+when I consider it an example of animal pastime. Two snails approached
+each other, and, when immediately opposite, began slowly to wave their
+heads from side to side. They then bowed several times in courtly
+salutation. This performance they kept up for quite a while and then
+moved away in different directions. At no time did they come in contact,
+and careful observation failed to reveal any excitement in the
+genitalia. I have witnessed the embraces of snails, and the performance
+described above does not resemble, in the slightest degree, the
+manoeuvres executed at such times by mating individuals.
+
+Swarms of Diptera may be seen on any bright day dancing in the sunlight.
+Naturalists have heretofore considered this swarming to be a mating of
+the two sexes. This is not the case, however, in many instances. On
+numerous occasions, and at different seasons of the year, I have
+captured dozens of these insects in my net and have examined them
+microscopically. I found them all to be unimpregnated females; I have
+never yet discovered a male among them. In some of the Diptera the males
+emerge from the pupa state after the females; I therefore believe that
+the females await the presence of the males, and, while waiting, pass
+the time away in aerial gambols.
+
+Forel, Lubbock, Kirby, Spence, and other naturalists have declared that
+ants, on certain occasions, indulge in pastimes and amusements. Huber
+says that he saw a colony of _pratensis_, one fine day, "assembled on
+the surface of their nest, and behaving in a way that he could only
+explain as simulating festival sports or other games."[67] On the 27th
+of September last, the males and females of a colony of _Lasius flavus_
+emerged from their nest; I saw these young kings and queens congregate
+about the entrance of the nest and engage in playful antics until driven
+away by the workers. The workers would nip their legs with their
+mandibles until the royal offspring were forced to fly in order to
+escape being bitten. The inciting cause of these movements may have been
+sexual in character, but I hardly think so.
+
+  [67] Buechner, _Geistesleben der Thiere_, p. 163; quoted also by
+  Romanes, _loc. cit. ante_, pp. 87, 88.
+
+On the 19th of July, 1894, I saw several _Lasius niger_ come out of
+their nest accompanied by a minute beetle (_Claviger foveolatus_); the
+ants caressed and played with this little insect for some time, and then
+conducted it back into the nest.[68]
+
+  [68] On one occasion several years ago, I saw a number of young ants
+  of _L. niger_ brought out of the nest by five or six old ants, which
+  watched over the young and kept them from straying away. The young
+  ants played about the nest entrance for some time, and were then
+  conducted back into the hive by the old ants.--W.
+
+Many such little animals are kept by the ants as pets. Lubbock says of
+one of them, a species allied to _Podura_, and for which he proposes the
+name _Beckia_, "It is an active, bustling, little being, and I have kept
+hundreds, I may say thousands, in my nests. They run in and out among
+the ants, keeping their antennae in a perpetual state of vibration."[69]
+I have frequently noticed an insect belonging to the same genus as the
+above in the nests of _F. fusca_ and _F. rufescens_. They reminded me
+very much of the important-looking little dogs one sees running about in
+the crowd on election day.
+
+  [69] Lubbock, _Ants, Bees, and Wasps_, p. 74.
+
+The females of _Coccinellae_ ("lady-bugs") frequently congregate and
+indulge in performances that cannot be anything else save pastimes. A
+beech tree in my yard is called "lady-bug tree" because, year after
+year, these insects collect there and hold their curious conventions.
+They caress one another with their antennae, and gently "shoulder" one
+another from side to side. Sometimes several will get their heads
+together, and seem by their actions to be holding a confidential
+conversation.
+
+These conventions always take place after oviposition, and careful and
+repeated observation has shown me that they are not connected with
+procreation or alimentation. I have witnessed many other instances of
+true psychical amusement in the lower animals, but do not think it is
+necessary to detail them here. Suffice it to say that I believe that
+almost every living creature, at some period of its existence, has its
+moments of relaxation from the cares of life, when it enjoys the
+gratification of amusement.
+
+Some birds evince aesthetic taste, notably in the building of their
+nests, which they ornament and decorate in a manner very pleasing to the
+eye.
+
+The snakeskin bird gets its name from its habit of using the cast-off
+skins of snakes for decorative purposes. Not long ago I found a nest in
+a small wood, not far from the town in which I live, which was
+beautifully ornamented with the exuviated skin of a black snake
+(_Bascanion constrictor_). This skin must have been at least five feet
+in length, and the little artists had woven it into the walls of their
+nest in such a manner that its translucent, glittering scales contrasted
+very beautifully with the darker materials of their home.
+
+Humming-birds use bits of lichen and moss to decorate their tiny nests.
+These materials serve a twofold purpose: they not only render the nest
+beautiful, but they also serve to protect it by making it resemble the
+limb on which it is placed. It takes a very acute and discriminating
+eye, indeed, to locate a humming-bird's nest.
+
+Probably of all the lower animals, the male satin or bower bird of New
+South Wales has the decorative feeling the most developed. This bird
+builds a pleasure resort, a summer-house, or, rather, dance hall, which
+he ornaments profusely with every glittering, shining, striking object
+that he can carry to his bower in the depths of the forest. This bower
+is built of twigs, and, when completed, is an oblong, sugar-loaf-like
+structure, open at both ends. The bird decorates his dancing hall (for
+he comes here to perform love-dances during the courting season) with
+bright-colored rags, shells, pebbles, bones, etc.
+
+I once saw a pair of bower birds in captivity (they were owned by Mr.
+George Hahn of St. Louis), which constructed the dance hall from
+materials furnished by their owner.
+
+The love of personal cleanliness is, probably, the root and beginning of
+much that is aesthetic among the lower animals.
+
+When quite a small lad, one of the first lessons set down in my
+copy-book, after I had graduated in "pot-hooks and hangers," was the
+trite old saw, "Cleanliness is next to godliness." My Yankee governess,
+a tall, angular spinster, from Maine, made the meaning of this copy
+clear to my infant mind, pointing her remarks by calling attention to
+the Kentucky real estate which had found a resting-place beneath my
+finger-nails, and which seemed to decorate them with perpetual badges of
+mourning. I have never forgotten that lesson and firmly believe in its
+truth.
+
+The love of cleanliness seems to be inherent in the lower animals, with
+but few exceptions. We have all noticed the cat, the dog, the squirrel,
+the monkey, and the birds at toilet-making; and we know that they spend
+a large portion of their time in cleansing and beautifying their bodies.
+Some of them are dependent on their own ministrations, while others are
+greatly assisted by humble little servants, whose only remuneration is
+domicile, the cast-off clothing, or the garbage and refuse from their
+host's table.
+
+For instance, the common domestic fowl is greatly assisted in its toilet
+by certain little animals belonging to the family _Liothe_. These little
+creatures carefully scrape away and eat the scarf-skin, and other
+epidermal debris that would otherwise impair the health of their
+hosts.[70] Some of the fish family are entirely dependent on the
+ministrations of mutualists, as these little hygienic servitors are
+called, in matters of the toilet. Notably, the gilt catfish, which would
+undoubtedly die if deprived of its mutualist, the _Gyropeltes_. This
+remarkable little creature does not live on the body of its host, but
+swims free in the water, and only seeks him when it is hungry. The skin
+of the gilt catfish secretes a thick, glairy, mucous exudate, which, if
+left to itself, would imperil the health of the fish. The Gyropeltes,
+however, regards this exudate as delicious food and rapidly removes and
+devours it.
+
+  [70] Van Beneden, _Animal Parasites and Messmates_, pp. 71, 72.
+
+All insects devote some of their time to the toilet, and there is
+probably no one who has not, at some time or other, noticed the fly, or
+some other insect, thus engaged. The greatest lover of bodily
+cleanliness in the whole insect tribe, however, is, I believe, my pet
+locust, "Whiskers"--so named by a little niece, on account of her long,
+graceful antennae. "Whiskers" is one of the smallest of her family, and
+is a dainty, lovely, agile little creature, light olive-green in color,
+with red legs. She was reared from the egg, and has lived in my room all
+her short life. She is quite tame and recognizes me as soon as I
+approach, often hopping two feet or more in order to light on my
+coat-sleeve or outstretched hand.[71]
+
+  [71] Shortly after the above was written, this interesting little
+  creature met an untimely fate at the hands of an Irish chambermaid,
+  who was a recent importation and who did not understand that all life
+  was held sacred in my house.--W.
+
+The first thing she does, after reaching my hand, is to seek my little
+finger and try her jaws on a diamond ring. The diamond seems to puzzle
+her greatly. She sometimes spends several minutes closely examining it.
+She will stand off at a little distance and pass her antennae over every
+portion of it. Then she will come closer and make a more minute
+examination, finally essaying another bite with her powerful jaws. A
+great water drinker, she evidently thinks the stone is some strange kind
+of dewdrop, hence her persistent efforts to bite it.
+
+"Whiskers" has developed cannibalistic tastes, for the hardened skin
+around my finger-nails is a favorite _morceau_ which she digs out with
+her sharp jaws and masticates with seeming delight. She nips out a
+piece of skin, cocks her head on one side, and, looking up at me with
+her clear, emerald-tinted eyes, her masticatory apparatus working like a
+grist-mill, she seems to say, "Well! old fellow, this is good."
+
+She passes most of her time on a bit of turf, in a box on my table,
+where the sun shines bright and warm. She is fond of water, however, and
+makes frequent excursions to the water-pitcher across the room. How she
+discovered that it contained water is more than I can tell; but she did,
+and she visits it often.
+
+It is in her habits of bodily cleanliness, however, that "Whiskers"
+outshines all other insects. I have watched her at early dawn and have
+always found her at her toilet. This is her first undertaking, even
+before taking a bite to eat. She makes frequent toilets during the day,
+and it is her last occupation at night before sinking to rest on a blade
+of grass. Her method of procedure is very interesting. She commences by
+first carefully cleansing her antennae, drawing each of them through her
+mouth repeatedly. Then she treats her fore-legs to a thorough scrubbing,
+going over every portion with her tongue and jaws. With her fore-legs,
+using them as hands, she then cleans her head and shoulders, if I may
+use the latter term. Her middle legs and her long "vaulters" are then
+subjected to the same careful treatment. Her back and the posterior
+portion of her abdomen are next rubbed down, she using the last pair of
+legs for this purpose. Finally, standing erect and incurvating her
+abdomen between her legs, she cleans it and her ovipositor with her jaws
+and tongue. Her toilet is made twenty or thirty times a day. Invariably,
+after one of her excursions to the water-pitcher, as soon as she returns
+to her box this is her first occupation.
+
+Now, having seen that the lower animals possess aesthetic feeling, it is
+reasonable to suppose that some of them possess some of the acquired
+higher emotions, such, for instance, as parental affection. The evidence
+seems to indicate that some of the lower animals do evince such
+affection, as I will now endeavor to point out.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+PARENTAL AFFECTION
+
+
+It has been claimed that one of the main objections to the doctrine of
+kinship, which, undoubtedly, exists between all animals, is the wide
+difference that is to be noted between the solicitude that animals
+evince for their young, and the tender love of the human mother and
+father for their children. This difference is more apparent than real;
+for the ethical love, the refined affection of civilized human parents
+for their offspring, is but a psychical culmination of the material and
+matter-of-fact solicitude of the lower animals for the preservation of
+their kind.
+
+There is a vast difference between the psychical habitudes of a
+civilized mother and those of an Aleutian squaw or a Niam-niam
+"pot-boiler": the love of a civilized mother for her child extends
+throughout its life and even beyond the grave, while the solicitude of
+her savage sisters (I use the word in its maternal sense) for their
+offspring ceases as soon as the infant toddler is "tall enough to look
+into the pot." The latter emotion is closely akin to the maternal
+solicitude of the higher and lower animals, while the former in its
+refined ethical excellence shows that it is the result of unnumbered
+thousands of years of evolutionary growth and development.
+
+The love of kind-preservation is inherent in all animals; it ranks next
+in psychical strength to self-preservation, and, in some instances, even
+surpasses this so-called "first law of nature." For it very frequently
+happens that the mother, both brute and human (and I use the word
+_brute_ as the antithesis of the word _human_, and mean it to embrace
+all creatures other than man), will lay down her life in defence of her
+young, seemingly, utterly forgetting this "first law" in her aim to save
+her offspring from destruction. Thus the spider whose egg-bag I had
+taken away ran here and there and everywhere in search of it, seemingly
+totally oblivious of my presence. When I extended it to her, clasped
+between the blades of a small forceps, she seized it with her mandibles
+and vainly tried to take it away. When she discovered that this was
+impossible, she turned with fury on the forceps' blades and bit and tore
+at them in a perfect frenzy of despairing agony. I removed two of her
+front legs, yet, even when thus maimed and suffering, she never for an
+instant forgot her beloved bag in whose silken meshes so many of her
+young lay hidden. She continued her efforts to drag the bag away, and
+was so persistent and showed such high courage, that my calloused
+sensibilities, hardened by much biological research, were touched, and I
+gave her her treasure, which she bore away in triumph.[72]
+
+  [72] Vide Chap. IV., _The Emotions_, p. 105.
+
+I, on one occasion, severed an earwig at the injunction of the thorax
+and abdomen; the upper portion (the head and thorax) gathered together
+its brood of young and safely conducted them into a haven of safety
+beneath the bark of a tree.
+
+In crustaceans we probably find the first unmistakable evidences of
+maternal love. The female crayfish, with the under surface of her tail
+covered with impregnated eggs or newly hatched young, will fight to the
+death in their behalf. I have, time and again, reared crayfish, and have
+succeeded in taming them to such a degree that they would take food from
+my fingers; whenever the females of these crustaceans became mothers,
+however, they became timid and suspicious and would seek out the darkest
+spots in the tanks where they were kept. If I attempted to handle them
+they would nip me with their sharp mandibles at the first opportunity
+that offered; they would allow no interference with their precious
+offspring if they could possibly prevent it. This is true of the lobster
+also. This giant crustacean, with her enormous forceps-like claws,
+generally wages a winning fight with the would-be ravishers of her
+young.
+
+I once owned a monkey which was exceedingly fond of shell-fish. On one
+occasion I gave him a gravid lobster and came very near losing him
+thereby. Usually he seized the lobster or crayfish by its back and then
+broke off its forceps; he would then proceed to suck out its juices and
+extract its meat. On this occasion, however, the lobster was rendered
+bold and pugnacious by her burden of young, and managed in some way to
+close her forceps on one of the monkey's thumbs. He squalled out, and
+hammered the lobster on the bars of his cage in a vain endeavor to rid
+himself of his painful encumbrance. I finally loosened her grasp, but
+not until the flesh on the thumb had been cut to the bone. The wounded
+hand became inflamed, erysipelas set in, and the poor animal became very
+sick indeed. He eventually recovered, and ever afterward was exceedingly
+careful how he handled shell-fish. He approached them with caution,
+keeping a watchful eye on the dangerous forceps, until, by a quick and
+sudden dart of his hand, he could seize and tear them off.
+
+It is a mistaken, though quite generally accepted, conclusion that wasps
+never behold their young, hence can readily be instanced, along with the
+butterfly and some other insects, as being creatures that evince
+solicitude for offspring which they never behold. I am quite confident
+that in the tropics certain of the butterflies live to see their young,
+for, on one occasion, Dr. Filipe Miranda told me that he was absolutely
+certain that many of the _Papilioninae_ and _Euplocinae_ of the Amazon
+valley lived at least a year and a half. I have kept alive in my room
+specimens of _Heliconidae_ for six and eight months, while mud-dauber
+wasps have repeatedly wintered in my room, and have witnessed the
+outcomings of spring broods. Thus, it not infrequently happens that
+these insect mothers are gratified by a sight of their offspring, though
+sometimes they evince painstaking care and solicitude toward creatures
+which they will never see.
+
+The pond catfish, so common to the ponds and creeks of the middle and
+southern states, evinces maternal solicitude in a very marked degree. I
+have frequently seen a school of newly hatched catfish under the
+guardianship of an anxious and solicitous mother. She would swim around
+and about her frisky and unruly herd, carefully pressing forward all
+loiterers and bringing back into the school all stragglers. If a stick
+were thrown among the little fishes, she would dart toward it, and,
+seizing it in her mouth, would bear it fiercely away, and would not
+loose her hold of it until she had borne it some distance from her brood
+of young ones. Bass, white perch, and goggle-eye carefully guard their
+eggs and drive away all intruders; they likewise keep watchful eyes on
+the young for several days after they have been hatched. During such
+times these fish can be easily taken, for they will seize anything that
+comes near their nests.
+
+Baker says of the stickleback, that when the fry made their appearance
+from the eggs, "Around, across, and in every direction the male fish, as
+the guardian, continually moved." There were three other fish in the
+aquarium, two tench and a gold carp. As soon as these fish saw the fry,
+they endeavored to devour them, but were driven off by the brave little
+father, which seized their fins and struck with all his might at their
+eyes and heads.[73]
+
+  [73] Baker, _Philosophical Trans._; quoted also by Romanes, _loc. cit.
+  ante_, p. 245.
+
+"The well-known habit of the lophobranchiate fish, of incubating their
+eggs in their pouches, also displays highly elaborated parental feeling.
+M. Risso says when the young of the pipe-fish are hatched out, the
+parents show them marked attachment, and that the pouch then serves them
+as a place of shelter or retreat from danger."[74]
+
+  [74] Baker, _Philosophical Trans._; quoted also by Romanes, p. 246;
+  and Yarrell, _Brit. Fishes_, 2d ed., Vol. II. p. 436.
+
+An experimenter, whose name escapes me, on one occasion caught a number
+of recently hatched catfish and placed them in a glass jar, close to the
+water's edge. The mother fish soon discovered the presence of her young
+ones and swam to and fro in front of the jar, evidently much harassed
+and worried. She eventually came out on dry land and attempted to get
+into the jar where her young were imprisoned. Truly, a wonderful example
+or instance of mother love when self was entirely forgotten in
+solicitude for the offspring!
+
+The Surinam toad hatches her eggs and then carries her young about with
+her on her back until they are old enough to shift for themselves; the
+"horned toad" of the southwestern states and Mexico acts in a similar
+manner toward its young.
+
+I had been informed that snakes evinced parental love for their
+offspring, but never until a recent spring had I been able to verify
+this information and give it my unqualified endorsement. In March
+(1896), on one of the bright warm days of that phenomenal month, one of
+my dogs attracted my attention by his manoeuvres on my lawn. I noticed
+him walking "stiff legged" about a circumscribed spot, now and then
+darting his muzzle towards the ground. On going to him I discovered that
+he had found a lot of snakes, which, influenced by the summer-like
+weather, had abandoned their den and had crawled out and were enjoying a
+sun-bath. These snakes were knotted together in a ball or roll, but I
+quickly discovered that they were all yearlings save one--the mother. I
+resolved then and there to test the maternal affection of the mother
+snake for her young, so I killed two of them and dragged their bodies
+through the grass to the paved walk which ran within a short distance of
+the nest. The old snake and the remainder of her brood took shelter in
+the den; I then retired to a little distance and awaited developments.
+In a very short time the mother emerged from the nest, and, after
+casting about for a moment or so, struck the trail of the young ones
+which had been dragged through the grass, and followed it to the dead
+bodies lying on the pavement. Here she met her fate at the hands of my
+iceman (whom I had called to witness the great sagacity of this lowly
+creature), for he had killed her ere I could prevent him.
+
+On one occasion I saw a copperhead (_Ancistrodon contortrix_) in the
+midst of her young, and they seemed to be subservient to her beck and
+call. Before, however, I could satisfy myself positively that the old
+snake really held supervision over her brood, the gentleman with whom I
+happened to be came upon the scene, whereupon the interesting family
+disappeared beneath the undergrowth of the forest.
+
+The higher animals sometimes show, unmistakably, that the maternal love
+of offspring has taken a step upwards, and that it has become, in a
+measure, refined by the addition of an aesthetic, if not ethical,
+element. For instance, a dog acquaintance of mine, on the advent of her
+first puppies seemed to be exceedingly proud of them; she not only
+brought them, one by one, to her mistress for admiration, but she also
+brought them in to show to her master, and yet again, to myself, who
+happened to be visiting her owner at the time. She deposited them, one
+by one, at the feet of the person whose regard she solicited, and,
+after they had been admired, she returned them to the kennel. Here, in
+my opinion, was an instance of pride, which has its prototype or
+exemplar in the pride of the young human mother who thinks that her baby
+is the handsomest child that was ever born! The dog's actions cannot be
+translated or interpreted otherwise. Again (and in this instance,
+strange to relate, the proud parent was the male), a cat brought his
+offspring, one by one, from the basement to my room, two stories above,
+in order to exhibit them! He brought them, one at a time, and, after
+each had been admired, carried them back to their box in the basement.
+Loud were his purs and extravagant were the curl of his tail and the
+arch of his back! No father of the genus Homo could more plainly evince
+his pride in his baby than did this cat in his kittens. The mother cat
+came with him on his first trip; she evidently did not quite comprehend,
+at first, the intentions of her spouse. She soon found out, however,
+that he meant no harm to her young, so she allowed him to work off his
+superabundance of pride without let or hindrance.
+
+Birds will defend their young to their uttermost abilities and will
+often yield up their lives in unequal combats with the ravagers of their
+nests. Last summer I saw two jays whip in a fair fight a large cat,
+which had attempted to rob their nest. They seemed to have arranged the
+order of combat with one another before they attacked the would-be
+ravisher of their home. The male bird confined his attack to the cat's
+head, while the female went at its body with beak and talons. The
+song-sparrow which remembered the boy who killed the snake which was
+about to devour its young, and whose story I have told elsewhere,
+undoubtedly cherished and loved its young. The gratitude which could
+change the timid, wild nature of a bird in such a manner must have had
+its origin in a feeling, the depths of which can only be equalled in the
+psychical habitudes of the most refined of human beings! As we ascend
+higher in the scale of animal life, we find that new and refining
+elements are added to this love for the preservation of kind, until
+finally, in the civilized human being, it has lost its strictly material
+function and has become wholly and entirely ethical and aesthetic. Yet,
+far back in the beginning, the maternal love or parental love of the
+civilized human being was, fundamentally, based on no higher emotion
+than that engendered by an inherent love for kind-preservation.
+
+Animals very frequently turn to man when they find themselves in
+difficulties and need assistance. The following instance of maternal
+love and trust in man in a horse was related to me not long ago, by a
+farmer[75] in whose probity and truthfulness I have implicit confidence.
+The horse in question, a mare, had been placed in a field some distance
+from the house, in which there was no other stock. The animal was
+totally blind, and, being in foal, it was thought best to place her
+there in order to avoid accidental injury to the colt when it was born.
+One night this gentleman was awakened by a pounding on his front porch
+and a continuous and prolonged neighing. He hastily dressed himself,
+and, on going out, discovered this blind mare, which had jumped the low
+fence surrounding the front yard, and which was pawing the porch with
+her front feet and neighing loudly. She whinnied her delight as soon as
+she heard him, and at once jumped the fence as soon as she ascertained
+its locality. She then proceeded toward the field, stopping every now
+and then to ascertain if he were following, and, when they arrived at
+the field, the horse jumped the fence (a low, rail structure), and
+proceeded toward a deep ditch which extended across one corner of the
+lot. When she came to the ditch or gully she stopped and neighed once or
+twice. The farmer soon discovered the trouble; the colt had been born
+that night, and, in staggering about, it had accidentally fallen into
+the ditch. He got down into the gully and extricated the little
+creature, much to the delight of its loving mother, which testified her
+joy and thankfulness by many a grateful and heartfelt whinny.
+
+  [75] Mr. Hamilton Alexander, Owensboro, Kentucky.
+
+As I have indicated in the first part of the chapter, parental
+affection is an acquired emotion which has reached its acme in the
+civilized human being; yet the germs of this highly developed psychical
+manifestation are to be observed in creatures low in the scale of animal
+life. As _psychos_ develops, we observe that this emotion becomes purer
+and more refined, until, in some of the higher animals, such as the
+monkey and the dog, it can hardly be distinguished from the parental
+affection of certain savages, who leave their children to shift for
+themselves as soon as they are "tall enough to look into the pot"; or,
+until, as Reclus declares of Apache babies, "they can pluck certain
+fruit by themselves, and have caught a rat by their own unaided efforts.
+After this exploit they go and come as they list."[76]
+
+  [76] Reclus, _Primitive Folk_, p. 131.
+
+We have seen in previous chapters that the lower animals possess one or
+all of the five senses,--sight, smell, taste, hearing, and touch,--that
+they evince conscious determination; that they possess memory and
+clearly indicate that the emotions, in the majority of them at least,
+are highly developed; that they likewise give evidence of aestheticism
+both inherited and acquired; and, finally, that they show, unmistakably,
+that they have acquired, to a certain extent, that most refined of all
+acquired feeling--parental affection. Now, taking these facts into
+consideration, it would be reasonable to suppose that creatures so
+highly endowed psychically would present evidences of ratiocination.
+
+That many of the lower animals do present such evidences is a fact
+beyond dispute, as I will endeavor to show in the following chapter.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+REASON
+
+
+The simplest and truest definition of reason is, I take it, the
+intelligent correlation of ideation and action for definite purposes
+not instinctive. The casual observer and a very large majority of the
+creationists deny the presence of reason in the lower animals, and group
+all psychical manifestations that are to be observed in animals lower
+than man under the head of instinct, forgetting that almost every
+instinctive habit must have been, in the beginning, necessarily the
+result of conscious determination.
+
+Instinct is, in a certain sense, a process of ratiocination, though its
+immediate operations may not be due to reason. Instinct involves mental
+operations; if it did not, it would be simply reflex action. It is
+heredity under a special name; the father transmits his mental
+peculiarities as well as his corporeal individualities to his offspring.
+The experiences of thousands of years leave their imprint on the
+succeeding generations, until deductions and conclusions drawn from these
+experiences no longer require any special act of reason in order to bring
+about certain results. These results, which were, at first, the outcome
+of special acts of ratiocination, or accidental happenings leading to the
+good of the creature or creatures in which they occurred, finally became
+habitual and instinctive.
+
+These special acts of ratiocination are of daily, of hourly, occurrence
+in the lives of countless myriads of the lower animals, and escape our
+observation because of the obtuseness of our senses. Every now and then,
+however, the observer is able to chronicle such an act of reason, and
+thus adduce the proposition that if the creature or creatures were
+continually placed in surroundings requiring a like act of reason, that
+act would eventually become habitual and instinctive on the part of that
+creature or those creatures. I have witnessed hundreds of acts of
+intelligent ratiocination in the lower animals that were not called
+forth by experience and which had not a single faculty of heredity. For
+instance, several years ago I noticed that one of the combs in a
+beehive, owing to the extreme heat, had become melted at the top and was
+in great danger of falling to the floor. The bees had noticed this
+impending calamity long before I had, and had already set about averting
+it. They rapidly threw out a buttress or supporting pillar from the comb
+next to the one in danger, and joined it firmly to it, thus shoring it
+up and preventing its fall in a most effectual manner. When they had
+made everything strong and secure, they went to the top of the comb and
+reattached it to the ceiling of the hive. After this had been done to
+their satisfaction, they removed the shoring pillar and used the wax
+elsewhere. In this instance, there was an immediate adaptation of
+themselves to surrounding circumstances, in which they averted and
+prevented an utterly unforeseen and unheard-of catastrophe by means as
+effectual as they were intelligent. Could man do more or reason better?
+Here was an experience which had not happened to them in hundreds and
+hundreds of generations, perhaps; which, perhaps, had never happened to
+them before, and yet, when it did happen, their quick intelligence
+readily grasped the situation, and they at once set about remedying the
+evil.[77]
+
+  [77] Compare Huber, Vol. II. p. 280; see also Chap. IV. of this work.
+
+A mud-dauber wasp built a nest in my room, and used an open ventilating
+window as an entrance and exit. On one occasion this window happened to
+be closed, and the wasp, not noticing the clear glass, flew against it
+with great violence. She fell to the floor stunned, but when she had
+recovered from the effects of the blow, she flew here and there about
+the room as if looking for another exit. Finally, she discovered a small
+crevice in the casing, through which she at once crawled. She then went
+back and forth through this crack until she had become thoroughly
+familiar with the new road. She never again essayed the window, though
+it was left open the entire summer.
+
+In this instance the wasp was taught by a single experience to seek out
+a new road. This experience was wholly new to her, consequently, she
+must have used correlative ideation for definite purposes in formulating
+her method of procedure. Although ants, bees, and wasps have highly
+developed memories, and seem to be likewise in possession of that
+peculiar function of the mind called by some psychologists "unconscious
+memory," through which they are, probably, enabled to transmit
+impressions of comparatively recent experiences to their offspring, I
+hardly think that the mud-dauber was influenced in her actions by any
+such inherited instinct. Such a conclusion seems to be unwarranted by
+the facts in the case. Mud-daubers may have bumped their heads against
+windows ever since windows came into existence, but not with sufficient
+frequency to cause them to possess an instinct that taught them to avoid
+windows.
+
+Again, the ground wasp, whose hole between the bricks of a pavement I
+stopped with a wad of paper, and which learned to go down into the
+sulcus between the bricks and to pull the paper in the direction of its
+long axis in order to remove the obstruction, must have used correlative
+ideation in order to grasp the problem that was set her to solve.
+
+From certain observation I am inclined to believe that psychical traits
+which are the result of thousands of years of experience before they
+become part and parcel of the human _psychos_ may become psychic
+actualities in ants, bees, and wasps in the course of a few generations.
+The facility with which these creatures adapt themselves to new
+environments--in which their very organisms, physical and psychical, are
+changed to a certain extent--is abundant proof of the truth of this
+conclusion. All experiments with the Hymenoptera amid changed
+surroundings indicate an intelligent adaptation of themselves to such
+environment.
+
+The ant is the only animal, except man, which has slaves and domestic
+animals. Their intelligence is so highly developed that they make a
+perfect success in rearing their cattle and capturing their slaves. The
+cattle of the ants are of the order _Aphididae_. The herdsmen of these
+aphidian cattle can be seen patrolling the shrubs on which the aphides
+are grazing. On them devolves the care of the herds. They bring them out
+in the morning and carry them back at night. They gather the eggs of the
+aphides, carry them into a specially built nursery, attend them
+carefully until the young aphides are hatched out, and then carry them
+to the shrubs most liked by them for food. Some strange sense enables
+them to recognize one another--an ant of the same species, but coming
+from another nest, is immediately recognized as a stranger, and at once
+attacked. If the eggs of one ant colony are hatched out in another of
+the same species, the young ants are at once known to be strangers and
+intruders. This far transcends our intelligence. What mother could
+recognize her infant if it were born in the dark and she had never seen
+it? Again, if the larvae of ants are removed, hatched outside of the
+nest, and then returned, the ants at once recognize them as kinsmen and
+receive them into the nest.
+
+When we take into the consideration that an ant's brain has gray matter
+analogous to the gray matter found in the cortex of the human brain, we
+should not feel surprised when we find striking evidences of
+ratiocination in these little creatures. The better creatures are able
+to communicate ideation or thought, the stronger and more frequent are
+the evidences of their possession of reason. Ants can undoubtedly
+communicate; how and in what manner, it is not generally agreed.
+
+Some time ago I crushed an ant in a path usually taken by the
+inhabitants of a nest (which was situated in a hollow tree) in their
+journeys to and fro. A soldier ant came along presently, and, smelling
+the blood[78] of her murdered companion, was seized by a sudden terror
+and fled away into the nest. She soon returned, however, with thirteen
+other soldier ants, and made a careful examination of the body and its
+surroundings. Her companions also examined the corpse, and, having
+satisfied themselves that their comrade was dead, and that her murderer
+was not to be found, returned to the nest. Soon afterwards a large
+worker ant, guarded by two soldier ants, came out, and, proceeding to
+the body, picked it up, carried it down the tree and away beneath the
+grass, where I lost sight of them.
+
+  [78] In order to avoid technicalities I think it best to use synonyms
+  with which the general student is familiar. The non-technical reader
+  will know at once what is meant by the "blood" of the ant.--W.
+
+In this instance there is every evidence of complex reasoning; the
+discoverer of the murder hurried away into the nest, where she gave the
+alarm; the police of the community--the soldier ants--went immediately
+to the scene of the tragedy, made an examination, and then returned and
+gave in their report; the undertaker, in the shape of the large worker
+ant, then went out, got the body, carried it away and buried it; the two
+soldier ants followed the body to the grave in order to protect it from
+cannibal ants.
+
+It has been my good fortune to have witnessed several pitched battles
+between large bodies of ants. In a battle between some black ants and some
+yellow antagonists of another species, I saw many evidences of intelligent
+communication. The yellow ants had a commissariat and an ambulance corps;
+and I frequently saw them drop to the rear during the battle, and partake
+of refreshments or have their wounds attended to. The blacks, which
+composed the attacking army, were in light marching order, and had neither
+of these conveniences and necessary adjuncts. The yellow ants frequently
+sent back to their village for reenforcements; the ants that had been out
+on hunting expeditions when the battle was joined were notified as soon as
+they arrived at the nest, and immediately hurried off to join in the fray.
+The blacks had discovered a herd of aphides belonging to the yellows, and
+had sought to surprise the guards and steal the herd; hence the battle. I
+am glad to report that the black horde was defeated by the brave yellow
+warriors and had to decamp, leaving many of its number dead upon the field
+of battle.
+
+On another occasion I saw an army of red ants besieging a colony of
+small black ants. The object of the red ants was the theft of the pupae
+or young of the black ants. These pupae they take to their own nest and
+rear as slaves, the enslaved ants to all appearances becoming entirely
+satisfied with their condition, and working for their masters willingly
+and without demur. The besieged ants evinced a high degree of reason and
+forethought, for, as soon as the presence of the besiegers was noticed,
+strong guards were posted in all of the approaches to the nest, both
+front and rear. The red ants sent a detachment to surprise the colony
+from the rear; but they found that surprise was impossible, for they
+were met by a strong party of their gallant foes which vigorously
+opposed them. The red ants were, however, eventually victorious, and
+sacked the town, carrying away with them a large number of pupae.
+
+I cheerfully bear witness to the fact that the great myrmecologist,
+Huber, was correct in his description of his experiment with the black
+slave.[79]
+
+  [79] Huber, _The Natural History of Ants_, p. 249; quoted also by
+  Lubbock, _Ants, Bees, and Wasps_, p. 83; Romanes, _Animal
+  Intelligence_, p. 65; Kirby and Spence, _Entomology_, p. 369 _et seq._
+
+  Our species of blacks and reds differ but very little in form and
+  habits from their European kin; so the experiment may be easily
+  performed by any one at all interested in this remarkable instance of
+  "slave master, and master slave."--W.
+
+Like Huber, I put some of these red slave-owners into a glass jar in
+which I placed an abundance of food. Notwithstanding the fact that this
+food was easy of access, being in fact immediately beneath their jaws,
+they would not touch it! I then placed a black slave in the jar; she at
+once went to her masters, and, after thoroughly cleansing them with her
+tongue, gave them food. These red ants would have starved to death in
+the midst of plenty, if they had been left to themselves.
+
+This, at first glance, would seem to indicate an utter absence of reason
+in these red slave-owners. Such a conclusion, however, is by no means
+true. The facts indicate mental degeneration. So utterly subservient
+had they become to the ministration of the slaves, that they had even
+lost the faculty of feeding themselves!
+
+Here, we have an example of degeneration in the mentality of an animal
+incident to the enervating influence of slavery. Sir John Lubbock's
+remarks anent the four genera of slave-making ants are so interesting
+that I may be pardoned for quoting them entire. Says he:--
+
+"These four genera" (_Formica sanguinea_, _Polyergus_,
+_Strongylognathus_, _and Anergates_) "offer us every gradation from
+lawless violence to contemptible parasitism.
+
+"_Formica sanguinea_, which may be assumed to have comparatively
+recently taken to slave-making, has not yet been materially affected.
+
+"_Polyergus_, on the contrary, already illustrates the lowering tendency
+of slavery. They have lost their knowledge of art, their natural
+affection for their young, and even the instinct of feeding. They are,
+however, bold and powerful marauders.
+
+"In _Strongylognathus_ the enervating influence of slavery has gone
+further, and told even on the bodily strength. They are no longer able
+to capture their slaves in open warfare. Still they retain a semblance
+of authority, and, when aroused, will fight bravely, though in vain.
+
+"In _Anergates_, finally, we come to the last scene of this sad history.
+We may safely conclude that in distant times their ancestors lived, as
+so many ants do now, partly by hunting, partly on honey; that by
+degrees they became bold marauders, and gradually took to keeping
+slaves; that for a time they maintained their strength and agility,
+though losing by degrees their real independence, their arts, and many
+of their instincts; that gradually even their bodily force dwindled away
+under the enervating influence to which they had subjected themselves,
+until they sank to their present degraded condition--weak in body and
+mind, few in numbers and apparently nearly extinct, the miserable
+representatives of far superior ancestors, maintaining a precarious
+existence as contemptible parasites of their former slaves."[80]
+
+  [80] Lubbock, _Ants, Bees, and Wasps_, pp. 88, 89.
+
+This is truly a wonderful picture of mental and physical degeneration
+incident to the enervating influences of slavery. That it is a true one,
+an abundance of data most emphatically declares. The influence of
+slavery on the human race (the masters) shows very plainly that man
+himself quickly, comparatively speaking, loses his stamina when
+subjected to it.
+
+This fact is but another proof of the kinship of all animals, and the
+similarity, nay, the sameness, of mind in man and the lower animals;
+mind is the same in kind, though differing in degree.
+
+When an animal is placed amid new and unfamiliar surroundings
+necessitating the evolvement of intelligent action in order to meet the
+necessities of such environment, such an animal evinces ratiocination.
+I have seen many instances of such action on the part of ants. The
+following data concerning the natural history of the honey-making ant
+(_Myrmecocystus mexicanus_) are taken from my note-book.
+
+During the summer of 1887 I spent several weeks in New Mexico, and while
+there had the great good fortune to discover a colony of honey-making
+ants. I found these ants in a little valley debouching out of Huerfanos
+Park, a government reservation, I believe, at that time. The nest was
+situated on the sandy shore of a small creek, and was a perfect square
+of three or four feet, from which all grass, weeds, etc., had been
+carefully removed. Around three sides of this square, viz., north, east,
+and west, a column of black soldier ants continually patrolled night and
+day.
+
+Near the southeast corner of this open space the entrance to the nest
+was situated. The south side of the square was not guarded, but was left
+open for the entrance and exit of the hundreds of dark yellow workers
+which were engaged in bringing food to the village. No sooner was a
+burden put down than it was seized by black workers, which then carried
+it into the nest. At no time did I see a black worker bringing food to
+the centre of the square, nor did I ever see a yellow worker carrying
+food into the nest; the blacks and the yellows never interfered with one
+another's business.
+
+To test the reasoning powers of these ants, I partially disabled a
+centipede and threw it into the square a short distance from the patrol
+line. For a moment or two the line was broken by the warriors hurrying
+out to do battle with the squirming intruder. But only for a moment or
+two, for orders were issued by some ant in authority (so it seemed, and
+so I believe), and the line was established, though somewhat thinned by
+the absence of soldiers. The messenger was sent to headquarters and
+reenforcements were sent out, and soon the line was as strong as ever,
+though hundreds of soldiers were warring with the centipede. The latter
+was soon killed, and its body was removed piecemeal by the yellow
+workers, which carried the fragments far beyond the boundaries of the
+square.
+
+Again, with my hunting-knife I dug a deep trench across the border of
+one side of the square. The ants seemed dazed at first, but rapidly
+adapted themselves to their new surroundings. They extended their patrol
+line until it embraced the entire trench; then a countless horde of
+yellow workers went to work, and in a day's time filled up the deep
+excavation level with the surrounding surface! The patrol was then
+reestablished on the old line as though nothing had occurred to
+interrupt the ordinary routine of the colony. Before leaving the valley
+I dug up the nest and examined the peculiar individuals whose enforced
+habits give to these interesting ants the name of "honey-makers." Each
+one of these curious creatures was confined in a separate cell, the
+entrance to which was very small. Here they lived in absolute seclusion,
+being fed by the black workers with pollen, the nectar of flowers,
+tender herbs, etc.
+
+Through some wonderful chemical process this food was turned into a
+delicious honey, the flavor of which (I ate of it freely) was distinctly
+winy and aromatic.
+
+Apparently, they had no anal orifices, these passages probably having
+been obliterated. These imprisoned honey-makers were merely animated
+bags of honey, and were kept by the other ants solely for the purpose of
+furnishing a never failing supply of sweet and wholesome food.[81]
+
+  [81] Compare Romanes, _Animal Intelligence_, p. 111 _et seq._ At the
+  time when these details were written in my note-book I was
+  unacquainted with Captain Fleeson's and Mr. Edwards's observations,
+  nor had I read Romanes's work on _Animal Intelligence_. I had heard of
+  _Myrmecocystus_, of course, but knew nothing of its natural history.
+  Comparison will show that my observations differ from those of the
+  gentlemen mentioned above. I saw nothing whatever of the web described
+  by Captain Fleeson: the honey-making _solitaires_ were simply confined
+  in cells, where they rested on the bare ground; they were not perched
+  upon "a network of squares, like a spider's web." The "outside"
+  workers observed by me were not black, but very dark yellow, while the
+  "inside" workers were bright yellow in color.--W.
+
+The rapidity with which these ants set to work to fill in the trench
+made by my hunting-knife showed that they recognized, at once, the
+calamity that had befallen them, and that they used rational methods in
+remedying the evil.
+
+The fact that they have evolved the idea of setting aside certain
+members of the colony as honey-makers, and that there is a distinct
+recognition of a division, or divisions, in the labor of the inhabitants
+of the nest, evinces very high psychical development.
+
+In a colony of _Termes_, or white ants, so-called, there are five kinds of
+individuals. _First_, the workers. These do all the work of the nest,
+collecting provisions, waiting on the queen, carrying eggs to the
+nurseries, feeding the young until they are old enough to care for
+themselves, repairing and erecting buildings, etc. _Second_, the nymphs.
+These differ in nothing from the workers, except that they have
+rudimentary wings. _Third_, the neuters. These are much less in numbers
+than the workers, but exceed them greatly in bulk. They have long and very
+large heads, armed with powerful mandibles, and are the sentinels and
+soldiers of the colony. These neuters are blind. _Fourth_ and _Fifth_, the
+males and females. These are the perfect insects, capable of continuing
+the species. There is only one each in every separate society. They are
+exempted from all labor, and are the common father and mother of the
+community.
+
+Termes inhabit tropical countries, and the first establishment of new
+colonies takes place in this way: In the evening, at the end of the dry
+season, the males and females, having arrived at their perfect state,
+emerge from their nest in countless thousands. They have two pairs of
+wings, and with their aid mount immediately into the air. The next
+morning they are found covering the ground, and deprived of their wings.
+They then mate. Scarcely a single pair in many millions escape their
+enemies--birds, reptiles, beasts, fishes, insects, especially the other
+ants, and even man himself. The workers, which are continually prowling
+about their covered ways, occasionally meet one of these pairs. They
+immediately salute them, render them homage, and elect them father and
+mother of a new colony. All other pairs not so fortunate perish.
+
+As soon as they are chosen king and queen, or rather, father and mother,
+they are conducted into the nest, where the workers build around them a
+suitable cell, the entrances to which are large enough for themselves
+and the neuters or soldiers to pass through, but too small for the royal
+pair. Thus they remain in prison as long as they live. They are
+furnished with every delicacy, but are never allowed to leave their
+prison. The female soon begins to oviposit--the eggs, as fast as they
+are dropped, being carried away into the nurseries by the workers. As
+the queen increases in dimensions, they keep enlarging the cell in which
+she is confined. Her abdomen begins to extend until it is two thousand
+times the size of the rest of the body, and her bulk equals that of
+twenty thousand workers. She becomes one vast matrix of eggs. I once saw
+a queen which measured three and one quarter inches from one extremity
+of her body to the other. There is continual oviposition, the queen
+laying over eighty thousand eggs in twenty-four hours, or one egg every
+second. As these females live about two years, they will lay some sixty
+million eggs.
+
+In the royal cell there are always some soldiers on guard and workers
+administering to the royal pair. The activity and energy of these
+workers is truly wonderful. In New Mexico, where I found a family of
+insects closely resembling true _Termes_, I once had an opportunity of
+observing this extraordinary energy. I broke off a portion of their
+dome-shaped nest, and in an incredibly short time they had mended the
+breach and restored their domicile to the same condition it was before I
+had molested it. If you attack a termite building and make a slight
+breach in its walls, the laborers immediately retire into the inmost
+recesses of the nest and give place to another class of its inhabitants,
+the warriors. Several soldiers come out to reconnoitre, they then retire
+and give the alarm. Then several more come out as quickly as possible,
+followed in a few moments by a large battalion. Their anger and fury are
+excessive. If you continue to molest them, their anger leaps all bounds.
+They rush out in myriads, and, being blind, bite everything with which
+they come in contact.[82] If, however, the attack is not continued, they
+retire into the nest, with the exception of two or three which remain
+outside. The workers then appear and begin to repair the damaged wall.
+One of the soldiers remaining outside acts as overseer and superintendent
+of construction. At intervals of a minute or two it will strike the wall
+with its mandibles, making a peculiar sound. This is answered by the
+workers with a loud hiss and a marked acceleration in their movements.
+Should these ants again be disturbed, the laborers would vanish, and the
+warriors would take their places, ready and willing to fight to the death
+in defence of their community.[82]
+
+  [82] Compare Kirby and Spence, _Entomology_.
+
+While it is undoubtedly true that instinct can be highly differentiated,
+so that in its action it seemingly approaches reason, it is also equally
+true that instinct, fundamentally, is but a blind impulse. The impulse
+to fight on the part of these soldier termites is, unquestionably,
+instinctive, but the psychical habitudes which originate division and
+partition of labor, which set apart certain individuals (in no wise
+different from their fellows) as officers and overseers, which, beyond
+peradventure, are able to incite the laborers to greater effort by
+commands that are clearly understood and intelligently obeyed, surely
+such psychical characteristics cannot be embraced in the category of
+instinctive impulses--mere blind followings-out of inherited
+impressions!
+
+Instinct is the bugbear of psychology and does more to retard
+investigation than any other factor. As long as people of the creationist
+stamp wield the instinct-club, just so long will they be unable to grasp
+the idea of intelligent ratiocination in the lower animals. A company of
+men rebuilding a wall which has been overthrown by a tempest are said to
+be governed and directed by reason, while a company of ants doing
+precisely the same thing, and with just as much intelligence, are said to
+be directed by instinct![83]
+
+  [83] It is often the case that animals find themselves amid
+  surroundings in which they are required to evince original ideation
+  and fail so to do. But, is man any different? How often do we find
+  ourselves checkmated and puzzled by trivial circumstances, which, on
+  being explained, are seen to be exceedingly simple!--W.
+
+In the neighborhood of Hell's-Half-Acre, a desolate and rocky valley a
+short distance from Hot Springs, Arkansas, in 1887, I discovered several
+communities of harvester ants, and closely and carefully observed their
+habits. The first time I noticed them was early in the spring, when they
+seemed to be engaged in planting their grain. They were bringing out the
+little grass-seeds by the hundreds and thousands, and carrying them some
+distance from the nest, where they were dropped on the turf. It is
+possible that these ants were only getting rid of spoiled grain, but I
+think not, for several of the seeds secured and planted by me germinated.
+I observed them again in about a month, and the grass was growing finely
+on the plat where they had deposited the seeds. Not a single stalk of any
+other kind of grass and not a single weed were to be seen in this model
+grain-field. The ants had evidently removed every plant that might
+interfere with the growth of their grain.
+
+I saw them again in August when they were reaping the crop and storing
+the grain away in their nests. The ants would climb the grass-stems
+until they came to the seeds; these they would then seize in their
+mandibles, outer sheath and all, and, by vigorously twisting them from
+side to side, would separate them from the stalk; they would then crawl
+down and carry them into the nest. I did not notice here the roads and
+pathways so generally found leading to the nests of the Texas variety of
+the harvester. Around the nests the surface of the ground was smooth and
+bare, but there were no highways or roads leading to them.
+
+Among the workers I saw some ants whose heads and mandibles were very
+large. These ants never engaged in any of the agricultural pursuits of
+their sisters; they were the soldiers and the sentinels of the community.
+One nest migrated while I had them under observation, and I had the
+pleasure of witnessing the behavior of these fearless little warriors
+when on the march. The ants were moving nearer to their grain-fields,
+and were carrying with them their young, etc. The route, from the old
+home to the new, was patrolled on either side by soldiers. Every now
+and then I saw one of these individuals rush aside, elevate herself on
+her hind legs, shake her head, and clash her mandibles. She acted as if
+she saw some danger menacing the marching column and would ward it off.
+Others climbed little twigs or tufts of grass and scanned the surrounding
+country from these elevated and commanding positions. Others hurried up
+the laggards and stragglers, and even carried the weak and infirm.
+
+These ants winnow or husk the grain after it has been carried into the
+nest. All during the harvesting I observed workers bringing chaff from the
+nest and carrying it some distance away. It is said by Texan observers
+that the harvesters of that state bring the grain to the surface and dry
+it, if, perchance, it becomes wet. I have never observed this myself, but
+accept it as an established fact.[84]
+
+  [84] I believe that these observations on the presence of the
+  harvester ant in Arkansas are unique; at least I have been unable to
+  find any data corroborative of this fact. How did a fecundated queen
+  arrive at a spot so far from her usual habitat?--W.
+
+The faculty of computing is among the very last of the psychical habitudes
+acquired by man, and is an evidence of high ratiocinative ability. Many of
+the savage races are unable to count above three,--some not above
+five,--thus demonstrating the truthfulness of the above assertion. Yet I
+believe that it can be clearly shown that some of the lower animals and
+many of the higher animals are able to count.
+
+The mason wasps, or mud-daubers, build their compartment houses generally
+in places easily accessible to the investigator; therefore the experiments
+and observations which I am about to detail can be duplicated and verified
+without difficulty. These interesting members of the Hymenoptera, the
+_avant-couriers_ of the social insects, can be seen any bright day in
+August or September busily engaged on the margins of ponds, ditches, and
+puddles in the procurement of building materials. They will alight close
+to the water's edge, and, vibrating their wings rapidly, will run hither
+and thither over the moist clay until they arrive at a spot which, in
+their opinion, will furnish suitable mortar. Quickly biting up a pellet of
+mud, they moisten it with saliva, all the while kneading it and rolling it
+between maxillae and palpi. When it has reached the proper consistency they
+bear it away to some dry, warm place, such as the rafters of an outhouse
+or a garret, and there use it in the construction of their adobe or mud
+nests.
+
+There may be dozens of these nests in the process of construction, and
+arranged on the rafters, side by side, yet these busy little masons
+never make the mistake of confounding the houses; after securing mortar
+they invariably return, each to her own structure. This statement can be
+easily verified. While the insect is engaged in applying the mortar,
+take a camel's-hair brush and quickly paint a small spot on her
+shoulders with a mixture of zinc oxide and gum arabic; then mark the
+nest. The marked wasp will always return to the marked nest.
+
+As soon as the cells are completed, the wasp deposits an egg in each,
+and immediately begins to busy herself about the future welfare of the
+coming baby wasps. Just here these remarkable creatures show that they
+possess a mental faculty which far transcends any like act of human
+intelligence; they are able to tell which of the eggs will produce males
+and which females. Not only are they able to do this, but, seemingly
+fully aware of the fact that it takes a longer time for the female larvae
+to pupate than it does the male larvae, they provide for this emergency
+by depositing in the cells containing female eggs a larger amount of
+food. It is in the procurement and storage of this food-supply that
+these insects give unmistakable evidence of the possession by them of
+the faculty of computing.
+
+The knowing little mother is well aware of the fact that as soon as the
+egg hatches the young grub will need food, and an abundance of food at
+that; so, before closing the orifice of the cell, she packs away in it
+the favorite food of her offspring, which is spiders. She knows that in
+the close, hot cell the spiders, if dead, would soon become putrid and
+unfit for food: therefore, she does not kill them outright, but simply
+anaesthetizes them by instilling a small amount of poison through that
+sharp and efficacious hypodermic needle, her sting.[85]
+
+  [85] As a matter of fact I have kept Argiope under observation in this
+  anaesthetized condition for _thirteen weeks_.--W.
+
+Each variety of masons uses a different spider; the common blue mason is
+partial to the beautiful Argiope, which, banded as it is with gray and
+yellow, is a very conspicuous object when seen on its glistening,
+upright web.
+
+The wasp larva, as soon as it emerges from the egg-membrane, finds fresh
+and palatable food before its very nose, and at once begins to eat.
+
+In the case of the male larvae, five spiders are deposited in each cell,
+while eight are always placed in the female compartments.[86] If one or
+more spiders are removed from the cell, the mother wasp does not appear
+to notice that her food-supply has been tampered with; she completes her
+quota, five for the males and eight for the females, and then closes the
+cell, no matter if there remains in the compartment one, two, or three
+spiders. Her count calls for five or eight, as the case may be, and,
+when she has put on top of the egg the requisite number according to her
+count, her responsibility ceases.
+
+  [86] Compare Kirby and Spence, _Entomology_, pp. 231, 232, habits of
+  _Epipone spinipes_ in regard to small grubs.
+
+I have never known a mud-dauber to make a mistake in her computation,
+although I have endeavored to puzzle this little arithmetician time and
+again. If a wad of paper be placed in a cell after two or three spiders
+have been deposited, thus partially filling it, the insect knows at once
+that something is wrong, and will proceed to investigate. She will
+remove the spiders on top of the paper, will extract the wad, and will
+then proceed with her count. On the other hand, if several spiders be
+taken out when the count calls for only one or two more, the wasp does
+not appear to notice that the cell is almost empty; she finishes her
+count as if everything were correct, and then seals up the opening with
+mud.
+
+The quail lays some twelve or fifteen eggs, and seems to be aware of the
+fact that some of her eggs are missing when several have been removed
+from the nest. When one of these birds has laid six or eight eggs, if
+two or three be removed she will abandon the nest and deposit the
+remainder of her eggs elsewhere. This behavior on the part of the bird
+has been attributed to her sense of smell; she, detecting the presence
+of an enemy by the scent of his hand left behind in the nest, recognizes
+the danger, and therefore abandons the nest. But numerous experiments
+along this line teach me that smell has nothing to do with it whatever.
+I have removed eggs with a long iron ladle, the bowl of which I had
+carefully refrained from touching, and also with sticks freshly cut in
+the wood, and yet the birds would invariably abandon their nests. On the
+contrary, when all, or nearly all, the eggs have been laid, several may
+be removed either with the ladle or with the naked hand, and yet the
+bird will not abandon her nest. She seems to be able to count up to six
+or eight; beyond this latter number her faculty of computing does not
+extend. After the full laying has been deposited in the nest and the
+process of incubation has become established, a large number of the eggs
+may be removed, and yet the bird will continue to set until the
+remaining eggs have been hatched out.
+
+The faculty of computing seems to be present in other birds to some
+extent; the domesticated guinea-fowl and the turkey sometimes possess it
+in a marked degree, though in most of these fowls domestication has
+almost entirely eradicated it. The domestic barnyard hen has had her
+nest robbed for such a long period of time that she has lost the faculty
+of counting. But even this meek provider of food for mankind is able, in
+some instances, to count one: she will not lay in her nest unless a
+nest-egg be left to delude her. The nest-egg may be wholly factitious
+and made of china, marble, chalk, stone or iron painted white; the hen
+does not seem to care so long as it bears some resemblance to an egg.
+
+That the turkey-hen can count, the following instance occurring under
+my own observation would seem to indicate. The bird had a nest in my
+garden in which she had deposited three eggs. One day another turkey,
+seized with a desire of ovipositing, spied this nest and laid an egg
+therein. The original owner of the nest came along soon after the
+interloper had left her egg; she examined the nest carefully, and turned
+the eggs with her beak. Finally she thrust her beak through the shell of
+an egg and bore it far from the nest before dropping it on the ground.
+Now, as far as I could tell, the eggs were alike, but the sharper and
+more discriminating eyes of the turkey undoubtedly saw, on close
+examination, some peculiarity in color or shape in the stranger's egg,
+and therefore bore it away and destroyed it. I believe, however, that
+her attention was arrested at first by the unexpected number of eggs in
+the nest, and that she was enabled to detect the stranger's egg only
+after much inspection and comparison.
+
+Many animals have been taught to count, but none of them show that they
+fully appreciate the value of numerical rotation. Of course, in the vast
+majority of trained animals, the seeming appreciation is only a trick
+founded on the sense of smell, sight, touch, or taste.
+
+An instance recently came under my personal observation in which a dog,
+a high-bred collie, seemingly evinced an abstract idea of numbers. The
+animal in question received an injury a year or so ago through which
+she became permanently and totally blind. Recently she gave birth to a
+litter of six puppies, all of which were uniform in size and markings.
+Immediately after the birth of the puppies, the dog's owner had mother
+and young removed from the dark cellar in which they then were, and
+carried to a warm and well-ventilated room in his stables.
+
+In the darkness of the cellar one of the puppies was overlooked and left
+behind. As soon as the mother entered the box in which her young had
+been placed, she proceeded to examine them, nosing them about and
+licking them. Suddenly she appeared to become very much disturbed about
+something; she jumped out of the box and then jumped back again, nosing
+the puppies as before. Again she jumped from the box and then made her
+way toward the cellar, followed by her astonished owner, who had begun
+to have an inkling as to what disturbed her. She had counted her young
+ones, and had discovered that one had been left behind. Sure enough, the
+abandoned puppy was soon found and carried in triumph to the new home.
+
+So astonished was the gentleman[87] at this blind creature's
+intelligence that he resolved to experiment further; he removed another
+puppy and walked away with it in his arms. It was not long before the
+blind mother showed her distress so plainly, that I begged him to
+return the puppy, which, having been returned to her, she caressed for a
+moment or so, and then gave herself up to the chief function of
+maternity, suckling her young.
+
+  [87] Karl Becker, Esq., St. Louis, Mo.
+
+It is beyond reason to suppose that this dog discovered the absence of
+her young one through her sense of smell. Granted that to the maternal
+nose each puppy had an individual and particular odor (which I do not
+believe), it is hardly possible, nay, it is impossible, that the dog's
+sensorium had recognized and retained these different scents in the
+short time which had elapsed since their birth. It is much more
+reasonable to suppose that the dog knew that she had given birth to six
+young ones, and that she had counted them when they had been removed to
+their new home. Again, it is a well-known fact that a dog can retain
+only one scent at a time; hence, this fact alone would militate somewhat
+against the idea that the sense of smell was the detecting agent in this
+case. Nor could it have been the sense of touch; the mother could not
+have possibly familiarized herself with the individual form of each
+puppy in so short space of time. It is folly to suppose that each young
+one had a distinctive taste or flavor; hence the sense of taste must
+also be eliminated. Thus, by exclusion, there remains but one faculty,
+the faculty of computing, to account for the dog's actions.
+
+Several years ago there lived in Cincinnati a mule which was employed
+by a street railway company in hauling cars up a steep incline. This
+animal was hitched in front of the regular team, and unhitched as soon
+as the car arrived at the top of the hill. It made a certain number of
+trips in the forenoon (I have forgotten the number, but will say fifty
+for the sake of convenience), and a like number in the afternoon,
+resting for an hour at noon. As soon as the mule completed its fiftieth
+trip, it marched away to its stable without orders from its driver. To
+show that it was not influenced by the sound of factory whistles and
+bells, the following remarkable action on the part of this animal is
+vouched for by the superintendent of the line, who gave me these data.
+On a certain occasion, during a musical festival, this mule was
+transferred to the night shift, and the very instant it completed its
+fiftieth trip it started for the stables. It took the combined efforts
+of several men to make it return to its duty. At night there were no
+bells or whistles to inform the creature that "quitting-time" had come;
+it thought the time for rest and food had arrived as soon as it had
+completed its fifty trips.[88]
+
+  [88] These data were given to me at a certain club banquet where I had
+  no facilities for noting them down. I have endeavored to locate the
+  superintendent in question, but without success; I believe, however,
+  that he gave the facts just as they occurred.--W.
+
+My meals are always served at regular appointed hours, which never vary
+throughout the year; and, since my cook "prides herself" on her
+punctuality, they are always served on the stroke of the clock. The
+moment the bell rings, my cat, a large and very intelligent male, takes
+up a position at the door, and is generally the first to enter the
+dining room. A few moments before meal-time, Melchizedek (for he is of
+royal blood and bears a royal name) becomes uneasy, jumping from chair
+to floor or from floor to chair, and sometimes mewing gently. The moment
+the bell rings, he is all animation, and shows by his actions that he
+fully understands its meaning. He never mistakes the sound of the
+dressing-bell for that of the tea-bell, though the same bell is used.
+This cat may not be able to count, but that he notes the passage of time
+I do not for an instant doubt.
+
+Some monkeys give unmistakable evidences of the possession by them of
+the computing faculty. In 1889 I made the acquaintance of a very
+intelligent chimpanzee which could count as high as three. That this was
+not a trick suggested by sensual impulses I had ample opportunity of
+satisfying myself. The owner of the animal would leave the room, no one
+being present but myself, and when I would call for two marbles, or one
+marble, or three marbles, as the case might be, the monkey would gravely
+hand over the required number. Romanes mentions an ape that could count
+three, the material used in his experiment being straws from the
+animal's cage.
+
+The fact that monkeys can count does not appear so remarkable when it is
+agreed by the best authorities that they are capable of understanding
+human speech.[89]
+
+  [89] Romanes, _Mental Evolution in Man_, p. 369; Darwin, _Descent of
+  Man_, p. 87; Whitney, _Enc. Brit._, "Philology," Vol. XVIII. p. 769,
+  quoted by Romanes, _super_.
+
+Returning for a moment to insects, we find that bees and ants give many
+evidences of intelligent correlative ideation and action for definite
+purposes not instinctive. In regard to bees, Huber's experiment with the
+glass slip proves conclusively, in my opinion, that these creatures
+_reason_. This experiment is so interesting that it will bear recital.
+
+Huber placed a slip of glass in front of a comb that was under
+construction. The bees, as if perfectly aware of the fact that it would
+be difficult to affix the comb to the slippery surface of the glass,
+curved it at a right angle around the slip of glass and fastened it to
+the wooden wall of the hive![90]
+
+  [90] Huber, Vol. II. p. 230; quoted also by Kirby and Spence, _loc.
+  cit. ante_, p. 582.
+
+It is folly to suppose that bees have an instinctive knowledge of glass,
+hence we are forced to conclude that they were governed in this instance
+solely by reason.
+
+Furthermore, as the inner surface of the comb was concave, and the outer
+surface convex, the bees made the cells on the former much smaller, and
+those on the latter much larger, than usual!
+
+"How, as Huber asks, can we comprehend the mode in which such a crowd of
+laborers, occupied at the same time on the edge of the comb, could agree
+to give it the same curvature from one extremity to the other; or how
+could they arrange together to construct on one face cells so small,
+while on the other they imparted to them such enlarged dimensions?"[91]
+
+  [91] Kirby and Spence, _loc. cit. ante_, pp. 582, 583.
+
+Surely, no "variation of instinct," however complex, can possibly
+account for such a deviation from the normal!
+
+It is hardly necessary to give more evidence as to the presence of
+reason in the psychical organisms of the lower animals; I believe that I
+have clearly demonstrated that some of them do make use of intelligent
+ratiocination. To prove that this view, _i.e._ that the lower animals
+reason, is widely held, I need only point to the works of such men as
+Darwin, Buechner, Forel, Huber, Lubbock, Hartmann, Kirby and Spence, and
+dozens of others.[92]
+
+  [92] Darwin, _Descent of Man_; Romanes, _Animal Intelligence_, _Mental
+  Evolution in Animals_, _Mental Evolution in Man_; Lubbock, _Senses,
+  Instincts, and Intelligence of Animals_, and _Ants, Bees, and Wasps_;
+  Hartmann, _Anthropoid Apes_; Buechner, _Geistesleben der Thiere_;
+  Huber, _Natural History of Ants_, etc.
+
+We have seen that the lower animals seem to possess very near, if not
+quite, all of the _fundamental_ psychical habitudes of the highest
+animal of all--_Homo sapiens_; we will now proceed to study certain
+psychical attributes in the possession of the lower animals which man
+has lost in the process of evolution. These attributes will be embraced
+under the heading of Auxiliary Senses.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+AUXILIARY SENSES
+
+
+When we come to examine the methods by which, or through which, many of
+the lower animals protect themselves from their enemies, we soon
+discover that some of these means are very wonderful indeed. It is not
+my purpose to discuss instinctive protective habits in this chapter; I
+wish rather to call attention to two _senses_,[93] which are to be
+observed in certain of the lower animals, and which man and some of the
+higher animals have lost in the process of evolution. I refer to
+tinctumutation, the "color-changing" sense, and the sense of direction,
+or, as it is commonly and erroneously termed, the "homing instinct."
+Neither of these faculties is instinctive, but they are, on the
+contrary, true senses, just as hearing, or taste, or smell is a sense.
+Careful dissections and repeated experiments have shown me, beyond
+peradventure, that these two psychical habitudes have their centres in
+the brains (ganglia) of animals which possess them.
+
+  [93] I believe that I am the first to claim the _sensual_ importance
+  of tinctumutation and the sense of direction or the "homing sense."
+  Heretofore they have been regarded, by all authorities as far as I
+  know, as instinctive in character.--W.
+
+The chromatic function--and I use this term to designate the faculty of
+changing color according to surroundings--is possessed by a number of
+the lower animals. The chameleon is the best known of all the
+tinctumutants (_tinctus_, color, and _mutare_, to change), though many
+other animals possess this faculty in a very marked degree. In order to
+understand the manner in which these changes or modifications of color
+take place, one must know the anatomy of the skin, in which structure
+these phenomena have their origin. The frog is a tinctumutant, and a
+microscopic study of its skin will clearly demonstrate the structural
+and physiological changes that take place in the act of tinctumutation.
+The skin of a frog consists of two distinct layers. The epidermis or
+superficial layer is composed of pavement epithelium and cylindrical
+cells. The lower layer, or _cutis_, is made up of fibrous tissue,
+nerves, blood-vessels, and cavities containing glands and cell elements.
+The glands contain coloring matter, and the changes of color in the
+frog's skin are due to the distribution of these pigment-cells, and the
+power they have of shrinking or contracting under nerve irritation. The
+pigment varies in individuals and in different parts of the body. Brown,
+black, yellow, green, and red are the colors most frequently observed.
+The color-cells are technically known as _chromatophores_. If the web
+of a frog's foot be placed on the stage of a microscope and examined
+with an achromatic lens, the chromatophores can readily be made out.
+Artificial irritation will immediately occasion them to contract, or, as
+is frequently the case, when contracted, will occasion them to dilate,
+and the phenomena of tinctumutation may be observed _in facto_. Under
+irritation the orange-colored chromatophores, when shrunk, become brown,
+and the contracted yellow ones, when dilated, become greenish yellow.
+When all the chromatophores are dilated, a dark color will predominate;
+when they are contracted, the skin becomes lighter in color. Besides the
+pigment-cells just described, Heincke discovered another kind of
+chromatophore, which was filled with iridescent crystals. They were only
+visible, as spots of metallic lustre, when the cells were in a state of
+contraction. He observed these latter chromatophores in a fish belonging
+to _Gobius_, the classical name of which is _Gobius ruthensparri_.[94] I
+have seen this kind of color-cell in the skin of the gilt catfish, which
+belongs to a family akin to _Gobius_. The skin of this fish retains its
+vitality for some time after its removal from the body of the living
+animal, and the chromatophores will respond to artificial irritation for
+quite a while. In making my observations, however, I prefer to dissect
+up the skin and leave it attached to the body of the fish by a broad
+base. A few minims of chloroform injected hypodermatically rendered the
+animal anaesthetic, and I could then proceed at my leisure, without being
+inconvenienced by its movements. The causation of tinctumutation is now
+definitely known. The theory that light acts directly on the
+chromatophoric cells has been proved to be incorrect. Even the theory
+that light occasions pigmentation is no longer tenable. I have, time and
+again, reared tadpoles from the eggs in total darkness, yet they differ
+in no respect from those reared in full daylight. The chromatophores
+were as abundant and responded to irritation as promptly in the one as
+in the other. The distinguished Paul Bert declared that the young of the
+axolotl could not form pigment when reared in a yellow light. Professor
+Semper, on the contrary, declares Bert's axolotls to be albinos, and
+states that albinism is by no means infrequent in the axolotl; also that
+Professor Koelliker, of Wuertzburg, reared a family of white axolotls in a
+laboratory where there was an abundance of light, and that he (Semper)
+never succeeded in rearing an albino, though there was less light in his
+laboratory than in that of Koelliker, and his axolotls came from the same
+stock. Bert made the mistake of confounding albinism with the phenomenon
+of etiolation in plants; in fact, he gives the name "etiolation" to the
+albinism noticed in his axolotls.[95]
+
+  [94] Semper, _Animal Life_, p. 93.
+
+  [95] _Ibid._, p. 88 _et seq._
+
+There is a marked difference between the functions of the chlorophyll
+bodies found in plants and the chromatophores found in animals. The
+former play one of the most important roles in the drama of plant life,
+inasmuch as they subserve a vital function, while the latter act a minor
+part, because they serve only as an instrument or means of protection.
+
+Light is of great importance in its influence on chlorophyll, which is a
+microscopic, elementary body on which the vital strength of the plant
+depends, while it is not at all necessary to the chromatophores,--cell
+bodies secreting pigmentary matter for the purpose of protection. Of
+course, when animals are subjected to darkness for very long periods of
+time, the chromatophores are modified, and, sometimes, are wholly
+obliterated. They follow a well-known natural law, which declares that,
+when a function of an organ is no longer of any use to an animal, both
+organ and function become rudimentary, and finally disappear.
+
+Many animals live for generations in total darkness before losing their
+pigment. I, myself, have seen black beetles in Mammoth Cave, Kentucky,
+in the neighborhood of Gorin's Dome, which is far within the depths of
+the cave. As beetles rarely range over a hundred yards from their place
+of birth, these insects must have been born in the cave and reared in
+the dark.
+
+When speaking of light, if not otherwise specified, I mean diffused
+daylight which carries no heat rays. I believe that heat is a prominent
+factor in the production of color; the discussion of this point,
+however, does not properly belong to the subject under consideration.
+
+Some experiments on newts, made by myself several years ago, show that
+the absence of light does not influence pigmentation,--that is, through
+several generations. My animals were kept under observation from the
+extrusion of the eggs until full maturity had been reached, and great
+care was taken to make experiments as accurate and as conclusive as
+possible.
+
+Those reared in total darkness or in a red light were always
+dark-colored; those reared in a yellow light[96] were almost but not
+quite as dark; while those reared in white ironstone crocks and in
+diffused daylight were very much lighter, being pearl-gray in color.
+This apparent (for the microscope showed that it was only apparent)
+absence of color in the last-mentioned specimens was due to
+tinctumutation.
+
+  [96] Vide Dewar, "The Physiological Action of Light," _Nature_, p.
+  433, 1877; quoted also by Semper, _loc. cit. ante_, Notes, p. 423. I
+  do not think that the absence of the slight amount of color in the
+  animals reared under the yellow light was due to the "optic current"
+  of Dewar. The microscope showed that the chromatophores were just as
+  large and just as numerous, and that they contained as much pigment,
+  as those reared under the red light. The apparent absence of color was
+  due to tinctumutation.--W.
+
+In most viviparous animals the embryo is developed in almost or absolutely
+total darkness, yet when it is born it has bright colors. Kerbert has
+found in the cutis of the embryonic chick, about the fifteenth day,
+certain pigment-cells. These cells have entirely disappeared by the
+twenty-third day. It is probable that little, if any, light can reach the
+chick through the shell and membranes, yet pigment-cells develop and
+disappear again.[97]
+
+  [97] Karl Semper, _Animal Life_, p. 422.
+
+A butterfly emerges from the cocoon arrayed in all the colors of the
+rainbow; yet it was developed, while in the _pupa_ state, in total
+darkness. It is not necessary to mention further instances; we readily see
+that pigmentation in animals is not necessarily dependent on light.
+Neither is tinctumutation the result of the direct influence of light on
+the chromatophores. Light, however, if not the direct, is the indirect
+cause of this phenomenon. Lister, in 1858, showed that animals with
+imperfect eyesight were not good tinctumutants, notwithstanding the fact
+that they had the chromatophoric function. He showed, by his experiments
+on frogs, that the activity of the chromatophores depended entirely on the
+healthy condition of the eyes,--that is, so far as the phenomenon of
+tinctumutation was concerned. So long as the eyes remained intact and
+connected with the brain by the optic nerve, the light reflected from the
+surrounding objects exerted a powerful influence on the chromatophores.
+As soon as the optic nerve was severed, the chromatophores ceased to
+respond to the influence of light and color, no matter how bright and
+varied they were. The deductions drawn from these experiments are not to
+be controverted or denied. The chromatophores are influenced by light
+reflected from objects and transmitted _via_ the optic nerve to the brain;
+from this organ the impression or irritation goes to the nerve governing
+the contractile fibres of these pigment-holding glands.[98]
+
+  [98] Karl Semper, _Animal Life_, p. 95.
+
+Pouchet followed Lister, and confirmed his conclusion by experiments on
+fishes and crabs. He remarked that the plaice--a fish with a white
+under-surface and a party-colored back--had the chromatophoric function
+highly developed. Among a number of specimens which appeared pale on the
+white, sandy bottom, he met "one single dark-colored fish, in which, of
+course, the chromatophores must have been in a state of relaxation; and
+this specimen was as distinct from its companions as from the bottom of
+the aquarium. Closer investigation proved that the creature was totally
+blind,[99] and thus incapable of assuming the color of the objects
+around it, the eyes being unable to act as a medium of communication
+between them and the chromatophores of the skin."[100] Thus far Pouchet
+had only confirmed Lister's observations, although it is highly probable
+that he was unaware of Lister's experiments. But he went a step further.
+There are two ways in which cerebral impressions may be transmitted from
+the brain to the skin: one, by way of the spinal cord and the pairs of
+nerves arising from it and known as spinal nerves; the other, by two
+nerves running close to the vertebral column--the sympathetic nerves.
+
+  [99] Mr. Gordon Rett has recently called my attention to a blind
+  "angel fish" which shows, most conspicuously, a lack of
+  tinctumutation. This fish was made blind for experimental
+  purposes.--W.
+
+  [100] Karl Semper, _Animal Life_, pp. 95, 96.
+
+Pouchet cut the spinal cord close to the brain, yet the chromatophores
+still responded to light impression, showing that they did not receive
+the message through the cord and spinal nerves. He then divided the
+sympathetic nerves, and the chromatophores lost at once the power of
+contraction; he thus demonstrated that the sympathetic nerves were the
+transmitters of the optical message, and not the cord.
+
+This discovery of Pouchet is, psychologically, of great importance,
+though he failed to recognize it as such. He was satisfied with its
+anatomical and physiological significance.
+
+When we remember that the actions of the sympathetic nerves are almost,
+if not entirely, reflex in character, we at once see the psychological
+importance of this discovery. This fact makes the phenomenon of
+tinctumutation an involuntary act on the part of the animal possessing
+the chromatic function, and thus keeps inviolate the fundamental laws of
+evolution, which, were the facts otherwise, would be broken.[101]
+
+  [101] This simple fact of involuntary action renders the sensual
+  nature of the function all the more apparent.--W.
+
+By a series of experiments on frogs I have confirmed the conclusion of
+Pouchet _in toto_, and have even solved, so I believe and unhesitatingly
+assert, the puzzling problem of the physiological _modus operandi_ of
+the wonderful phenomenon of tinctumutation.
+
+For a very long time I believed that this function was a distinct sense,
+and, five years ago, I set to work in search of the sense's centre.
+After many dissections I found it (in the frog) lying immediately below
+the optic centres and closely connected with them. Nerve-fibres of the
+sympathetic can easily be traced and can be seen to penetrate this
+centre. When this centre is artificially stimulated either with the
+point of a needle or with a mild electric current, tinctumutation can be
+incited at will.
+
+Again, when this centre is destroyed (which can be done without injury
+to the optic centres), the chromatophoric function ceases--the
+phenomenon of tinctumutation is no longer observable.
+
+That the sympathetic nerves are the carriers of the messages from the
+optic nerve and the color-changing centre, can be demonstrated by other
+means than by excision of the nerve. Atropine, to a certain extent,
+paralyzes the sympathetic when given in sufficiently large doses, and
+injections of this drug beneath the skin of a frog render the division
+of the sympathetic unnecessary. The chromatophores will not respond to
+light impressions if the animal be placed thoroughly under the influence
+of atropine.
+
+A large number of the lower animals possess the chromatophoric function.
+Several years ago, I placed in a large cistern several specimens of gilt
+catfish. This is a pond fish and is quite abundant throughout the middle
+United States. It is of a beautiful golden yellow color on the belly and
+sides, shading into a lustrous greenish yellow on the back and head.
+
+Several months after these fish had been placed in the cistern, it
+became necessary to clean the latter, and the fish were taken out. They
+were of a dusky drab color when first taken out, but soon regained their
+vivid tints when placed in a white vessel containing clear water. They
+had evidently changed color in order to harmonize with the black walls
+and bottom of the cistern.
+
+Certain katydids are marked tinctumutants. I took one from the dark
+foliage of an elm and placed her on the lighter-colored leaves of a
+locust. She could be easily seen when first placed on the locust; in a
+few moments, however, she had faded to such an extent that she was
+barely noticeable.
+
+The larvae of certain moths, beetles, and butterflies also possess the
+chromatophoric function. The chromatophores in the larva of _Vanessa_
+are very numerous, and this grub is a remarkably successful
+tinctumutant; the same can be said of the larvae of certain varieties of
+_Pieris_.
+
+The power of changing color so as to resemble, in coloring, surrounding
+objects is evidently one of Nature's weapons of defence. In some animals
+it is developed in a wonderful manner. Wherever it is found it becomes
+to the animal possessing it a powerful means of defence by rendering it
+inconspicuous, and in some instances wholly unnoticeable.
+
+After nine years of careful, systematic, and painstaking investigation,
+I am prepared to affirm that, besides the senses, sight, smell, taste,
+touch, hearing, and tinctumutation, certain animals have yet another
+sense, the sense of locality, or of direction, commonly called the
+"homing instinct." This remarkable function of the mind is not an
+instinct any more than the sense of sight or smell is an instinct, but
+is, on the contrary, a true sense; for I have demonstrated by actual
+experiment that it has a centre in the brains (ganglia) of some of the
+animals possessing it, just as the other senses have their centres. And,
+since this centre has been found in certain species, and that, too, in
+creatures very low in the scale of animal life, it is reasonable to
+infer that it is present in the brains (ganglia) of all those animals
+which evince the so-called "homing instinct."
+
+In the process of civilization certain of the five senses in man become
+dull and blunted; thus, the sense of smell in the Tagals of the
+Philippine Islands is much more acute than it is in the civilized
+European, and what is true of the sense of smell is also true of the
+other senses, save that of touch, in all primitive peoples. This last
+sense seems to be much more acute in civilized man than it is in
+savages. This, for certain psychical reasons, unnecessary to detail
+here, is a necessary result of evolutionary growth and development.[102]
+
+  [102] Compare Tyler, _Anthropology_; De Quatrefages, _The Human
+  Species_; Peschel, _The Races of Man_; Lombroso, _L'Uomo Delinquente_;
+  Ellis, _The Criminal_; the writer, "Criminal Anthropology," _N. Y.
+  Medical Record_, January 13, 1894.
+
+As far as I have been able to learn, after much research in natural
+history, the anthropoid apes do not show that they possess the sense of
+direction in a marked degree; thus we see that the immediate ancestors
+of pithecoid man had already begun to lose this sense, which in man is
+entirely wanting, and the absence of which should not be a matter of
+surprise in the slightest degree, but rather a result that should be
+expected.
+
+Evidences of this sense are to be observed in animals of exceedingly low
+organization. On one occasion, while studying a water-louse, as I have
+already described elsewhere in this book, I saw the little creature swim
+to a hydra, pluck off one of its buds, then swim a short distance away
+and take shelter behind a small bit of mud, where it proceeded to devour
+its tender morsel. In a short while, much to my surprise, the louse
+again swam to the hydra, again procured a bud, and again swam back to
+its hiding-place. This occurred three times during the hour I had it
+under observation. The louse probably discovered the hydra the first
+time by accident; but when it swam back to the source of its food-supply
+the second time and then returned again to its sheltering bit of mud, it
+clearly evinced conscious memory of route and a sense of direction.
+
+The common garden-snail is a homing animal, and it will always return to
+a particular spot after it has made an excursion in search of food. In
+front of my dwelling there is a brick wall capped by a stone coping; the
+overhanging edge of this coping forms a moist, cool home in summer for
+hundreds of snails. Last summer I took six of these creatures, and,
+after marking their shells with a paint of gum arabic and zinc oxide, I
+set them free on the lawn some distance away from the wall. In course of
+time, four of them returned to their homes beneath the stone coping; the
+other two were probably killed and eaten by blackbirds, numbers of which
+I noticed during the day feeding on the sward.
+
+The centre of the sense of direction in snails is located at the base of
+the cephalic ganglion (brain); this ganglion lies immediately between
+and below the "horns" (eye-stalks), and is composed of several
+circumscribed and well-marked accumulations or corpuscles of nerve-cells
+and nerve-filaments.
+
+This sense centre can easily be destroyed without inflicting injury on
+the circumjacent sense centres. Whenever this is done, the snail loses
+its sense of direction and locality, and cannot find its way back to its
+home when it is carried thence, and deposited amid new surroundings. It
+is not killed by the mutilation, for I have seen marked snails in which
+this sense centre had been destroyed, alive and apparently in good
+health, several weeks after having undergone this operation; they found
+temporary homes wherever they chanced to be.
+
+The limpet is likewise a homing animal, and invariably returns to its
+home after journeys in search of food. Lieutenant L----, an officer in
+the British navy, once told me that he had repeatedly had specimens of
+this animal under observation for months at a time, and that they always
+had particular spots, generally depressions in rocks, which they
+regarded as homes, to which they would always return after excursions in
+search of sustenance. Romanes makes a similar statement.[103]
+
+  [103] _Animal Intelligence_, pp. 28, 29.
+
+Some beetles have their homing sense highly developed; thus, in Mammoth
+Cave, the blind beetle (_Adelops_) has its particular home, and will
+always return to it even when it is set free at a considerable distance.
+Notwithstanding the fact these insects are blind, and that darkness
+reigns in this immense cavern, they have periods of rest corresponding
+with the diurnal rest-periods of kindred species living in daylight;
+hence, it is easy to study their habits at home and abroad.
+
+I have frequently marked these beetles and then set them free some
+distance away from their domiciles; they would hide themselves at once
+beneath stones or clods of earth, but as soon as they had recovered from
+their fright they would turn towards home, and would not stop, if left
+unmolested, until they arrived at their particular and individual homing
+places. Truly a most wonderful exhibition of the homing sense!
+
+At first, these beetles are, probably, directed and governed by their
+sense of direction alone, but as soon as they arrive among familiar
+surroundings, memory comes to their aid.
+
+The agile flea is another "homesteader," and if marked, its favorite
+resting-place on a dog or cat can easily be determined. After feeding,
+it will invariably return to a certain spot in order to enjoy its nap in
+peace; for, strange as it may seem, fleas are sound sleepers, and, what
+is more, seem to require a great deal of sleep.[104]
+
+  [104] All insects have periods of rest, during which they seem to be
+  in a state of slumber. Their sleep may not be the physiological
+  slumber of mammals, yet it effects a like purpose in all
+  probability.--W.
+
+Ants are, of the entire insect world, probably the most gifted
+home-finders. Time and again have I tested them in this, sometimes
+taking them what must have been, to these little creatures, enormous
+distances from their nests before freeing them. Of course the ants
+experimented with were marked, otherwise I could not have watched them
+successfully. When an ant is taken into new surroundings and set free,
+it at first runs here and there and everywhere. As soon, however, as it
+regains its equanimity and recovers from its fright, it turns toward
+home. At first it proceeds slowly, every now and then climbing tall
+blades of grass, and from these high places viewing the surrounding
+country in search of landmarks. As soon as it arrives among scenes
+partially familiar to it, it ceases to climb grass-blades or weeds, and
+accelerates its pace. When it arrives among well-known and accustomed
+surroundings it runs along at its utmost speed, and fairly races into
+its nest.
+
+The burying beetle has a regular abode, to which it invariably returns
+after performing the offices of mortician to some defunct bird, beast,
+or reptile. This insect grave-digger, by the way, is remarkably expert
+at its business, and will bury a frog or a bird in a very short time.
+As soon as it has buried the dead animal and deposited its eggs, it
+returns to its domicile beneath some log or stone.
+
+Some snakes likewise are exceedingly domestic, and have their regular
+dens, to which they resort on occasions. The homing sense seems to be
+rather highly developed in them, for they can find their way back to
+their dens from great distances. I have had under observation for the
+past three years a garden snake, locally known as a "spreading viper";
+this snake was brought to me by a friend[105] when it was only a foot
+long, so I have known her (for it is a female) ever since her infancy.
+Owing to some antenatal accident, this reptile has a malformed head, so
+that I can readily recognize her at a distance of fifteen, twenty, or
+even thirty feet. Last year she reared her first brood of young, which I
+was fortunate enough to see with her on several occasions. Her den is on
+my lawn; and in the autumn of last year she conducted her brood to it,
+where they hibernated until spring. If I remember correctly, on the 29th
+of March she came out of her den accompanied by a dozen of her progeny,
+all but four (two pairs) of which I killed.[106] Snakes subserve a very
+useful purpose in the economy of nature, but it is well to keep them in
+limits, for, when very numerous, they become dangerous to young birds,
+especially after they have passed the second year.
+
+  [105] Silas Rosenfield, Esq., Owensboro, Kentucky.
+
+  [106] The above was written in the summer of 1897. This interesting
+  specimen was killed by a day-laborer who had been temporarily employed
+  to assist the gardener. An autopsy revealed a bony tumor of the right
+  orbital arch, which, from a little distance, looked like a horn.--W.
+
+With the exception of the anthropoid apes all mammals possess the homing
+sense in a higher or lower degree; this is true also of birds.
+Experiments with the nesting robin show conclusively that this bird can
+find its way back to its nest when carried fifty miles from its home and
+then set free among wholly unknown surroundings. The well-known exploits
+of the carrier-pigeon are so familiar that they scarcely need comment.
+On May 3, 1898, two carrier-pigeons, en route for Louisville, rested for
+a time at Owensboro, Kentucky; these birds had been set free at New
+Orleans, Louisiana. The duck and the goose sometimes have this sense
+very highly developed. I once knew a goose to travel back home after
+having been carried in a covered basket for the distance of eighteen
+miles. A drake and duck have been known to return to their home after
+being carried a distance of nine miles by railway. Instances of
+home-returning by dogs, cats, horses, etc., are of such common
+occurrence that I hardly need call attention to them; the following
+instance is so unique, however, that I will present it:--
+
+In the fall of 1861, a gentleman of Vincennes, Indiana, visited his
+father at Lebanon, Kentucky; when this gentleman started to return
+home, his father gave him a yoke of young steers, which he drove, _via_
+Louisville, Kentucky, to Vincennes.
+
+Shortly after his arrival at this last-mentioned town, the steers made
+their escape, swam the river at Owensboro, Kentucky, 160 miles below
+Louisville, Kentucky, and, in a week or so, were found one morning at
+the gate of their old home at Lebanon. Directed by their homing sense
+alone, these animals had made a journey of several hundred miles over
+a route they had never seen!
+
+Fishermen are aware that certain fish choose localities for
+lurking-places, which they will share with no other fish. The black
+bass, and brook trout, and sturgeon, and goggle-eye are familiar
+examples of fish which have this habit.
+
+On one occasion, I performed the following experiment: I took a black
+bass from its home near a sunken stump, and, after passing a short piece
+of thread through the web of its tail and knotting it, replaced it in
+the river, two miles below its lurking-place. The next day I saw it in
+its old home, clearly recognizable by the bit of thread which waved to
+and fro in the clear water as the fish gently moved its tail!
+
+In an examination of phenomena such as have been discussed in this
+chapter, ay, throughout this book, we must lay aside the dogmatic
+assertions of our superstitious ancestors, who, to paraphrase Roscoe,
+"when awed by superstition, and subdued by hereditary prejudices, could
+not only assent to the most incredible proposition, but could act in
+consequence of these convictions, with as much energy and perseverance
+as if they were the clearest deductions of reason, or the most evident
+dictates of truth."[107]
+
+  [107] Roscoe, _Life of Leo X._, p. 3.
+
+It will take the human race many, many years to unlearn, and to recover
+from the effects of the superstitious cult of the shaman, who exists,
+not only among savages, but also in the most highly civilized races of
+the world! Superstition is the antithesis of knowledge; in fact, it is
+but another name for ignorance.
+
+There is yet another exceedingly interesting psychical trait to be
+noticed in the lower animals, especially in insects; I refer to the
+instinctive habit, letisimulation (_letum_, death, and _simulare_, to
+feign). The word "instinctive" must not be used, however, when this
+stratagem is to be observed in the higher animals other than the
+opossum; for many of these animals sometimes make an occasional and a
+_rational_ use of it, as I will endeavor to show in the next chapter.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+LETISIMULATION
+
+
+The feigning of death by certain animals for the purpose of deceiving
+their enemies, and thus securing immunity, is one of the greatest of the
+many evidences of intelligent action on their part.[108] Letisimulation
+(from _letum_, death, and _simulare_, to feign) is not confined to any
+particular family, order, or species of animals, but exists in many,
+from the very lowest to the highest. The habit of feigning death has
+introduced a figure of speech in the English language, and has done much
+to magnify and perpetuate the fame of the only marsupial found outside
+of Australasia and the Malayan Archipelago. "Playing 'possum" is now a
+synonym for certain kinds of deception. Man himself has known this to be
+an efficacious stratagem on many occasions. I have only to recall the
+numerous instances related by hunters who have feigned death, and have
+then been abandoned by the animals attacking them. I have seen this
+habit in some of the lowest animals known to science. Some time ago,
+while examining the inhabitants of a drop of pond water under a
+high-power lens, I noticed several rhizopods busily feeding on the
+minute buds of an alga. These rhizopods suddenly drew in their hair-like
+cilia and sank to the bottom, to all appearances dead. I soon discovered
+the cause in the presence of a water-louse, an animal which feeds on
+these animalcules. It likewise sank to the bottom, and, after examining
+the rhizopods, swam away, evidently regarding them as dead and unfit for
+food. The rhizopods remained quiet for several seconds, and then swam to
+the alga and resumed feeding. This was not an accidental occurrence, for
+several times since I have been fortunate enough to witness the same
+wonderful performance. There were other minute animals swimming in the
+drop of water, but the rhizopods fed on unconcernedly until the shark of
+this microscopic sea appeared. They then recognized their danger at
+once, and used the only means in their power to escape. Through the
+agency of what sense did these little creatures discover the approach of
+their enemies? Is it possible that they and other like microscopic
+animals have eyes and ears so exceedingly small that lenses of the very
+highest power cannot make them visible? Or are they possessors of
+senses utterly unknown to and incapable of being appreciated by man?
+Science can neither affirm nor deny either of these suppositions. The
+fact alone remains that, through some sense, they discovered the
+presence of the enemy, and feigned death in order to escape.
+
+  [108] Instinct does not preclude intelligent ideation. In the lower
+  animals death-feigning is undoubtedly instinctive; yet the recognition
+  of danger, which sets in motion the phenomena of letisimulation, is
+  undoubtedly due, primarily, to intelligent ideation in a vast majority
+  of animals. Otherwise this earth would be a lifeless waste.--W.
+
+There is a small fresh-water annelid which practises letisimulation when
+approached by the giant water-beetle.[109] This annelid, when swimming,
+is a slender, graceful little creature, about one-eighth of an inch
+long, and as thick as a human hair; but when a water-beetle draws near,
+it stops swimming, relaxes its body, and hangs in the water like a bit
+of cotton thread. It has a twofold object in this: in the first place,
+it hopes that its enemy will think it a piece of wood fibre, bleached
+alga, or other non-edible substance; in the second place, if the beetle
+be not deceived, it will nevertheless consider it dead and unfit for
+food. I do not mean to say that this process of ratiocination really
+occurs in the annelid; its intelligence goes no farther, probably, than
+conscious determination. In the beetle, however, conscious determination
+is merged into intelligent ideation, for its actions in the premises are
+self-elective and selective.
+
+  [109] _Dyticus marginalis._ Vide Furneaux, _Life in Ponds and
+  Streams_, p. 325; foot-note for orthography.--W.
+
+Letisimulation in this animal is by no means infrequent, for I have seen
+it feign death repeatedly. Any one may observe this stratagem if he be
+provided with a glass of clear water, a dyticus, and several of these
+little worms. The annelid is able to distinguish the beetle when it is
+several inches distant, and the change from an animated worm to a
+seemingly lifeless thread is startling in its exceeding rapidity.
+
+Even an anemone, a creature of very low organization indeed, has
+acquired this habit. On one occasion, near St. John's, Newfoundland, I
+noticed a beautiful anemone in a pool of sea-water. I reached down my
+hand for it, when, presto! it shrivelled and shrunk like a flash into an
+unsightly green lump, and appeared nothing more than a moss-covered
+nodule of rock.
+
+Very many grubs make use of this habit when they imagine themselves in
+danger. For instance, the "fever worm," the larva of one of our common
+moths,--the Isabella tiger-moth,--is a noted death-feigner, and will
+"pretend dead" on the slightest provocation. Touch this grub with the
+toe of your boot, or with the tip of your finger, or with a stick, and
+it will at once curl up, to all appearances absolutely without life.
+
+A gentleman[110] recently told me that he saw the following example of
+letisimulation: One day, while sitting in his front yard, he saw a
+caterpillar crawling on the ground at his feet. The grub crawled too
+near the edge of a little pit in the sandy loam, and fell over,
+dragging with it a miniature avalanche of sand. It immediately essayed
+to climb up the north side of the pit, and had almost reached the top,
+when the treacherous soil gave way beneath its feet, and it rolled to
+the bottom. It then tried the west side, and met with a similar mishap.
+Not discouraged in the least by its failure, it then tried the east
+side, and reached the very edge, when it accidentally disturbed the
+equilibrium of a corncob poised upon the margin of the pit, dislodged
+it, and fell with it to the bottom. The caterpillar evidently thought
+the cob was an enemy, for it at once rolled itself into a ball and
+feigned death. It remained quiescent for some time, but finally "came to
+life," tried the south side with triumphant success, and went on its way
+rejoicing. This little creature evinced conscious determination and a
+certain amount of reason; for it never tried the same side of the pit in
+its endeavors to escape, but always essayed a different side from that
+where it had encountered failure.
+
+  [110] Mr. George Mattingly, Owensboro, Kentucky.
+
+Many free-swimming rotifers practise letisimulation when disturbed or
+when threatened by what they consider impending danger. If a "pitcher
+rotifer" (_Brachionus urceolaris_) be approached with a needle point, it
+will cease all motion and sink; the same is true of the "skeleton
+rotifer" (_Dinocharis pocillum_) and numerous others of this large
+family. Again, if a bit of alga on which there is a colony of "bell
+animalcules" (_Vorticellae_) be placed in a live box and then be
+examined with a moderate power, they can be seen to feign death. The
+rapidly vibrating cilia which surround the margin of the "bells" give
+rise to currents in the water which can be easily made out as they sweep
+floating particles toward the creatures' mouths and stomachs. If the
+table on which the microscope rests be rapped with the knuckles, the
+colony will disappear as if by magic. Now, what has become of it? If the
+microscope be readjusted, a group of tubercles will be observed on the
+alga; these are the vorticellae. They have simply coiled themselves upon
+their slender stems, have drawn in their cilia, and are feigning death.
+In a few seconds one, and then another, will erect its stem; finally,
+the entire colony will "come to life" and resume feeding until they are
+again frightened, when they will at once resort to letisimulation.
+
+Death-feigners are found in four divisions of animal life; viz., among
+insects, birds, mammals, and reptiles. Indeed, the most gifted
+letisimulants in the entire animal kingdom are to be observed in the
+great snake family. The so-called "black viper" of the middle United
+States is the most accomplished death-feigner that I have ever seen; its
+make-believe death struggles, in which it writhes and twists in seeming
+agony and finally turns upon its back and assumes _rigor mortis_, cannot
+be surpassed by any actor "on the boards" in point of pantomimic
+excellence.
+
+I do not know of any fish which has acquired this strategic habit, but
+the evidence is not all in, and some day, perhaps, death-feigners may be
+found even among fishes.[111]
+
+  [111] Letisimulation, apparently, is not confined to animals; we see
+  that certain plants have acquired a habit that is strikingly like
+  death-feigning. We are apt to regard the plants as being non-sentient,
+  yet there is an abundance of evidence in favor of the doctrine that
+  vegetable life is, to a certain extent, percipient. Darwin has shown
+  conclusively that plant life is as subject to the great law of
+  evolution as animal life; he has also demonstrated, in his
+  observations of insectivorous plants--the sun-dew (_Drosera
+  rotundifolia_) especially--that these plants recognize at once the
+  presence of foreign bodies when they are brought in contact with their
+  sensitive glands;[A] he has likewise shown that plants, in the
+  phenomenon known as circumnutation, evince a percipient sensitiveness
+  that is as delicate as it is remarkable.[B] Hence, we need not feel
+  surprised when we find, even in a plant, evidences of such a
+  widespread stratagem as letisimulation. The champion death-feigner of
+  the vegetable kingdom is a South American plant, _Mimosa pudica_. In
+  the United States, where in some localities it has been naturalized,
+  this plant is known as the "sensitive plant." A wild variety, _Mimosa
+  strigilosa_, is native to some of the Southern States, but is by no
+  means as sensitive as its South American congener. The last-mentioned
+  plant is truly a vegetable wonder. At one moment a bed of soft and
+  vivid green, the next a touch from a finger and, in the twinkling of
+  an eye, it has changed into an unsightly tangle of seemingly dead and
+  withered stems. In this case death-feigning seems absolutely
+  successful as far as protection is concerned; for surely no
+  grass-eating animal would touch this withered stuff, especially if
+  there were other greens in the neighborhood. Death-feigning in plants,
+  and kindred phenomena, are not due, however, to conscious
+  determination; they are, in all probability, simply the result of
+  reflex action.
+
+    [A] Darwin, _Insectivorous Plants_, Chap. V. _et seq._
+
+    [B] Darwin, _Power of Movement in Plants_, pp. 107-109.
+
+Recently, I saw this stratagem perpetrated by a creature so low in the
+scale of animal life, and living amid surroundings so free from ordinary
+dangers, that, at first, I was loath to credit the evidence of my own
+perceptive powers; and it was only after long-continued observation that
+I was finally convinced that it was really an instance of
+letisimulation.
+
+The animal in question was the itch mite (_Sarcoptes hominis_), which is
+frequently met with by physicians in practice, but which is rarely seen,
+although it is very often felt, by mankind, especially by those
+unfortunates who are forced by circumstances to dwell amid squalid and
+filthy surroundings. _Sarcoptes hominis_ is eminently a creature of
+filth, and is primarily a scavenger living on the dead and cast-off
+products of the skin. It is only when the desire for perpetuating its
+race seizes it that it burrows into the skin, thereby producing the
+intolerable itching which has given to it its very appropriate name. It
+is only the females that make tunnels in the skin; the males move freely
+over the surface of the epidermis. The females make tunnels or
+_cuniculi_ in the cuticle, in which they lay their eggs, and they can
+readily be removed from these burrows with a needle. While observing one
+of these minute _acarii_ through a pocket lens, as it crawled slowly on
+the surface of the skin, I wished to examine the under surface of its
+body. When I touched it with the point of a needle in attempting to
+turn it upon its back, it at once ceased to crawl and drew in its short,
+turtle-like legs toward its sides. It remained absolutely without motion
+for several seconds, and then slowly resumed its march. Again I touched
+it, and again it came to a halt, and took up its onward march only after
+several seconds had elapsed. Again and again I performed this experiment
+with like results; finally, the little traveller became thoroughly
+chilled, and, after a fruitless endeavor to again penetrate the skin,
+ceased all motion and died.
+
+Many of the coleoptera are good letisimulants. The common tumble-bug
+(_Canthon laevis_), which may be seen any day in August rolling its ball
+of manure, in which are its eggs, to some suitable place of interment,
+is a remarkable death-feigner. Touch it, and at once it falls over,
+apparently dead. It draws in its legs, which become stiff and rigid;
+even its antennae are motionless. You may pick it up and examine it
+closely; it will not give the slightest sign of life. Place it on the
+ground and retire a little from it, and, in a few moments, you will see
+it erect one of its antennae and then the other. Its ears are in its
+antennae, and it is listening for dangerous sounds. Move your foot or
+stamp upon the ground, and back they go, and the beetle again becomes
+seemingly moribund.
+
+This you may do several times, but the little animal, soon discovering
+that the sounds you make are not indicative of peril to it, scrambles
+to its feet and resumes the rolling of its precious ball. The habit of
+making use of this subterfuge is undoubtedly instinctive in this
+creature; but the line of action governing the use of the stratagem is
+evidently suggested by intelligent, correlated ideation.
+
+Some animals feign death after exhausting all other means of defence.
+The stink-bug (_pentatomid_) or bombardier bug (not the "bombardier
+beetle") has, on the sides of its abdomen near its middle coxae ("hip
+bone"), certain bladder-like glands which secrete an acrid,
+foul-smelling fluid;[112] it has the power of ejecting this fluid at
+will.
+
+  [112] Comstock, _The Study of Insects_, p. 145.
+
+When approached by an enemy, the stink-bug presents one side to the foe,
+crouching down on the opposite side, thus elevating its battery, and
+waits until its molester is within range; it then fires its broadside at
+the enemy. If the foe is not vanquished (as it commonly is), but still
+continues the attack, the bombardier turns and fires another broadside
+from the opposite side. If this second discharge does not prove
+efficacious (and I have rarely known it to fail), the little insect
+topples over, draws in its legs, and pretends to be dead.
+
+Many a man has acted in like manner. He has fought as long as he could;
+then, seeing the odds against him, he has feigned death, hoping that his
+antagonist would abandon him and cease his onslaughts. The stink-bug in
+this seems to be governed and directed by _reason_, though the means
+used for defence must come under the head of instinct. Many a blind,
+instinctive impulse in the lower animals is, in all probability, aided
+and abetted by intelligent ratiocination when once it has made its
+appearance.
+
+I have seen ants execute a like stratagem when overcome either by
+numbers or by stronger ants. They curl up their legs, draw down their
+antennae, and drop to the ground. They will allow themselves to be pulled
+about by their foes without the slightest resistance, showing no signs
+of life whatever. The enemy soon leaves them, whereupon the cunning
+little creatures take to their feet and hurry away.
+
+The most noted and best known letisimulant among mammals is the opossum.
+I have seen this animal look as if dead for hours at a time. It can be
+thrown down any way, and its body and limbs will remain in the position
+assigned to them by gravity. It presents a perfect picture of death. The
+hare will act in the same way on occasions. The cat has been seen to
+feign death for the purpose of enticing its prey within grasping
+distance of its paws. In the mountains of East Tennessee (Chilhowee) I
+once saw a hound which would "play dead" when attacked by a more
+powerful dog than itself. It would fall upon its back, close its eyes,
+open its mouth, and loll out its tongue. Its antagonist would appear
+nonplussed at such strange conduct, and would soon leave it alone. Its
+master[113] declared that it had not been taught the trick by man, but
+that the habit was inherited or learned from its mother, which practised
+the same deception when hard pushed.[114]
+
+  [113] Mr. George Griffiths, Griffiths' Cove, Chilhowee, Blount County,
+  Tennessee.
+
+  [114] In the case of the cat and dog the use of this stratagem is not
+  instinctive; it is the rational use of means to obtain a certain
+  desired end. The fact that the dog "inherited the act" from its mother
+  is not a proof of inherited instinct. Instincts are not formed in a
+  single generation.--W.
+
+Most animals are slain for food by other animals. There is a continual
+struggle for existence. The carnivora and insectivora, with certain
+exceptions, prefer freshly killed food. They will not touch tainted meat
+when they can procure the recently killed, blood-filled bodies of their
+prey. The exigencies of their surroundings in their struggle for
+existence, however, often compel them to eat carrion.
+
+Dogs will occasionally eat carrion, but sparingly, and apparently as a
+relish, just as we sometimes eat odoriferous and putrid cheeses, and the
+Turks, assafoetida.
+
+Carnivora and insectivora would much prefer to do their own butchery;
+hence, when they come upon their prey apparently dead, they will leave
+it alone and go in search of other quarry, unless they are very hungry.
+
+Tainted flesh is a dangerous substance to go into any stomach, unless it
+be that of a buzzard. Heredity and environment have made this bird a
+carrion-eater, hence, like the jackal, the hyena, and the alligator,
+companion scavengers, it can eat putrid flesh with impunity. Other
+flesh-eating animals avoid carrion when they can, for long years of
+experience have taught them that decaying meat contains certain
+ptomaines which render it very poisonous; hence, they let dead, or
+seemingly dead, creatures severely alone. Again, these creatures can see
+no object in mutilating an animal which, in their opinion, is already
+dead.
+
+In this discussion of the means and methods of protection that are to be
+observed in the lower animals, I have brought forward only those in
+which mind-element was to be discerned. Mimicry and kindred phenomena
+hardly have a place in this treatise, for they are, undoubtedly,
+governed and directed by unconscious mind, a psychical phase which, as I
+intimated in the introductory chapter of this book, would be discussed
+only incidentally.
+
+
+
+
+CONCLUSION
+
+
+Judging wholly from the evidence, I think that it can be safely asserted
+and successfully maintained that mind in the lower animals is the same
+in kind as that of man; that, though instinct undoubtedly controls and
+directs many of the psychical and physical manifestations which are to
+be observed in the lower animals, intelligent ratiocination also
+performs an important role in the drama of their lives.[115]
+
+  [115] Kirby and Spence, _Entomology_, p. 591.
+
+The wielders of the instinct club bitterly deny that any of the lower
+animals ever show an intelligent appreciation of new surroundings, that
+they ever evince intelligent ratiocination. They close their eyes even
+to the data collected by the chiefs of their tribe, Agassiz, Kirby,
+Spence, _et al._, and go on their way shouting hosannas to omniscient,
+all-powerful Instinct! When one of the lower animals evinces unusual
+intelligence, or gives unmistakable evidences of reason, they account
+for it by saying that "it is only instinct highly specialized, or, at
+least, a so-called 'intelligent' accident."
+
+So far from being "intelligent accidents" are the ratiocinative acts of
+some of the lower animals (that is, lower than man), that I think that
+it can be demonstrated analogically that some of these acts are incited
+by one of the highest qualities of the mind--abstraction.
+
+I do not mean that abstraction which renders the civilized human being
+so immeasurably superior to all other animals, but rather that primal,
+fundamental abstraction from which the highly specialized function of
+man has been developed. The faculty of computing in animals is one
+evidence of the presence of this psychical trait in its crude and
+undeveloped state. The quality of abstraction in such ideation is not
+very high, it is true, yet it _is_ abstraction, nevertheless.
+
+Man possesses two kinds of consciousness--an active, vigilant,
+cooerdinating consciousness (the seat of which is, probably, in the
+cortical portion of the brain) and the passive, pseudo-dormant, and, to
+a certain extent, incoherent and non-cooerdinating consciousness (the
+so-called sub-liminal consciousness) whose seat is in the great ganglia
+at the base of the brain (_optic thalami_ and _corpora striata_), and in
+other ganglia situated in the spinal cord and elsewhere in the body. My
+fox terrier has a brain which, in all essential details, does not differ
+from that of man, and my observations teach me that his mind is the same
+in kind as that of man as far as memory, emotions, and reason are
+concerned; then why deny him the possession of abstraction in some
+degree? I do not mean that abstraction which enables a man to soar into
+realms of thought infinitely above any effort of ideation to be attained
+by any of the lower animals, but abstraction in its embryonic state. I
+am convinced, by actual experimentation, that this dog falls into "brown
+studies" just as man does; may he not then claim one kind of
+abstraction, if not another?
+
+The elephant, unquestionably, is able to formulate abstract ideas, the
+quality of which is very high, indeed. Jenkins wrote to Romanes as
+follows:--
+
+"What I particularly wish to observe is that there are good reasons for
+supposing that elephants possess abstract ideas; for instance, I think
+it is impossible to doubt that they acquire through their own experience
+notions of hardness and weight, and the grounds on which I am led to
+think this are as follows:--
+
+"A captured elephant after he has been taught his ordinary duty, say
+about three months after he has been taken, is taught to pick up things
+from the ground and give them to his mahout sitting on his shoulders.
+Now the first few months it is dangerous to require him to pick up
+anything but soft articles, such as clothes, because things are often
+handed up with considerable force.
+
+"After a time, longer with some elephants than others, they appear to
+take in a knowledge of the nature of the things they are required to
+lift, and the bundle of clothes will be thrown up sharply as before,
+but heavy things, such as a crowbar or a piece of iron chain, will be
+handed up in a gentle manner; a sharp knife will be picked up by its
+handle and placed on the elephant's head, so that the mahout may take it
+by the handle. I have purposely given elephants things to lift which
+they could never have seen before, and they were all handled in such a
+manner as to convince me that they recognized such qualities as
+hardness, sharpness, and weight."[116]
+
+  [116] Romanes, _Animal Intelligence_, pp. 101, 102; see also Kemp,
+  _Indications of Instinct_, pp. 120, 130.
+
+Mr. Conklin, the celebrated elephant trainer, once told me that his
+elephants not only recognized such qualities as weight, sharpness, and
+hardness, but also _volume or dimension_.
+
+The kinship of mind in man and the lower animals is indicated also by
+the phenomenon of dreaming which is to be observed in both. When the
+active consciousness is stilled by slumber, subconsciousness or
+ganglionic consciousness remains awake, and sometimes makes itself
+evident in dreams. I have repeatedly observed my terrier when under
+dream influence, and have been able to predicate the substance of his
+dreams from his actions. Like man, the dog is sometimes unable to
+differentiate between his waking and dreaming thoughts; he confounds
+the one with the other, and follows out in his waking state the ideas
+suggested by his dreams.
+
+This, with normal man, is always a momentary delusion; with the dog,
+however, it may last for some little time. Thus, I have seen my dog
+chase imaginary rats around my room after having been aroused while in
+the midst of a dream. His chagrin when he "came to himself" and saw me
+laughing was always strikingly apparent.
+
+The brains of the lower animals are susceptible to the action of drugs,
+whose effects on them are identical with the effects noticed when the
+human brain is under drug influence. Alcohol, chloroform, ether, opium,
+strychnine, arsenic, all produce characteristic symptoms when they are
+introduced into the circulatory system of the lower animals. Even the
+very lowest animalcules give this evidence as to the kinship of nerve
+and ganglionic or brain elements in man and the lower animals.
+
+I have repeatedly noticed the action of alcohol on rhizopods. When small
+and almost inappreciable doses were exhibited, the little creatures
+became lively and swam merrily through the water; but, when large doses
+were given, they soon became stupefied and finally died. I have seen
+drunken jelly-fish rolling and tacking through the alcohol-impregnated
+water for all the world like a company of drunkards.[117] They soon
+became sober, however, when they were placed in fresh water, but
+remained listless and inert for some time afterward.
+
+  [117] Compare Romanes, _Jelly-Fish, Star-Fish, and Sea-Urchins_, p. 227.
+
+Coleoptera, hymenoptera, diptera, in fact, all insects exhibit the
+characteristic effects of alcohol when under its influence. Horses,
+dogs, cats, monkeys--all mammals are affected characteristically by
+alcohol, and it not infrequently happens that they willingly become
+drunkards.[118]
+
+  [118] Lindsay, _Mind in the Lower Animals_, pp. 81-93.
+
+Animals also appear to become cognizant of the fact that certain
+substances are medicaments, and they will voluntarily search for and
+take such substances when they are ill. Bees are perfectly aware of the
+astringent qualities of the sap of certain trees, notably the dogwood
+and wild cherry, and, when afflicted with the diarrhoea, can be seen
+biting into, and sucking, the sap from the tender twigs of such trees.
+Dogs, when constipated, will search for and devour the long, lanceolate
+blades of couch-grass (_Triticum repens_); horses and mules, when they
+have "scours," eat clay; cattle with the "scratches" have been seen to
+plaster hoof and joint with mud, and then stand still until the healing
+coating dried out and became firm; and elephants have been known, time
+and again, to plug up shot holes in their bodies with moistened
+earth.[119]
+
+  [119] Romanes, Skinner, Sir R. Tennent, Bingley, Forbes, _et al._
+
+Again, the recognition of the rights of property cannot be attributed to
+instinct, neither can it fall under the head of "intelligent accidents,"
+yet many animals lower than man recognize, to a certain extent, the
+rights of property. For instance, in 1879, two very intelligent
+chimpanzees were on exhibition at Central Park. One of these animals
+claimed as her property a particular blanket, and, notwithstanding the
+fact that there were other blankets in the cage in which they were
+confined, always covered herself with this blanket. She would take it
+away from her companion whenever she wished to use it. Again, two
+turkeys on my place deposited their eggs in the same nest. The hen which
+first built and used the nest regarded the spot as her individual home;
+therefore, whenever she found the other hen's egg in the nest, she would
+break it with her beak, and then carry it some distance away. This I
+have seen her do repeatedly.
+
+Many dogs, cats, and other animals regard certain rugs, cushions, etc.,
+as their own property, and resent any interference with them. It seems
+to me that in all such instances these animals regard themselves as
+individuals; that they recognize the psychical as well as the physical
+difference between the _Ego_ and the _Tu_ as soon as they begin to
+recognize the rights of property.
+
+Those who hold that instinct governs all actions of the lower animals,
+usually claim that man is the only tool-user. This is a gross
+mistake--elephants, when walking along the road, will break branches
+from the trees and use them as fly-brushes;[120] these creatures also
+manufacture surgical instruments, and use them in getting rid of certain
+parasites;[121] monkeys use rocks and hammers to crack nuts too hard for
+their teeth; these creatures also make use of missiles to hurl at their
+foes;[122] chimpanzees make drums out of pieces of dry and resonant
+wood;[123] the orang-utan breaks branches and fruit from the trees and
+hurls them at its foes;[124] the gorilla and chimpanzee use cudgels or
+clubs as weapons of offence or defence;[125] monkeys make use of sticks
+in order to draw objects within their reach;[126] spiders suspend
+pebbles from their webs in order to preserve stability,[127] etc.
+
+  [120] Peal, _Nature_, Vol. XXI. p. 34; quoted also by Romanes.
+
+  [121] Peal, _Nature_, Vol. XXI.
+
+  [122] Romanes, _Animal Intelligence_, p. 485 _et seq._
+
+  [123] Lindsay, _Mind in the Lower Animals_, Vol. I. p. 410.
+
+  [124] Wallace, _Malayan Archipelago_, p. 41.
+
+  [125] Lindsay, _loc. cit. ante_, p. 413.
+
+  [126] Belt, _Naturalist in Nicaragua_, p. 119.
+
+  [127] Buechner, _Geistesleben der Thiere_, p. 318.
+
+I could prolong this list to a much greater length, but think it hardly
+necessary. I think that I have demonstrated that man is not the only
+tool-user.
+
+Even such dyed-in-the-wool creationists as Kirby and Spence are forced
+to admit the presence of reason in insects.
+
+"Such, then, are the exquisiteness, the number, and the extraordinary
+development of the instincts of insects. But is instinct the sole guide
+of their actions? Are they in every case the blind agent of irresistible
+impulse? These queries, I have already hinted, cannot, in my opinion,
+be replied to in the affirmative; and I now proceed to show that though
+instinct is the chief guide to insects, they are endowed also with no
+inconsiderable portion of _reason_."[128]
+
+  [128] Kirby and Spence, _Entomology_, p. 591.
+
+Studied both objectively and subjectively, insects present indisputable
+evidence of reason. Not the higher abstract reason of the human being,
+however, but reason in its primal, fundamental state.
+
+The difference between instinct and reason is not generally understood,
+and, as I believe that most readers can comprehend an illustration much
+quicker than an explanation, I will use the former in order to bring out
+this difference.
+
+The hen which sits three weeks on a china egg is influenced by blind
+impulse--instinct; while the turkey which discovers the eggs of her
+rival in her nest, and destroys them, is directed by something
+infinitely higher--by reason. The using of a common nest never occurs
+among these birds in a wild state, neither is it of so frequent
+occurrence among domesticated turkeys as to have formed an instinctive
+habit.
+
+Again, the honey-making ants which left their patrol line in order to
+slay the wounded centipede may have been, and probably were, influenced
+by instinct; another and wholly different psychical trait, however,
+impelled them to fill up the trench dug with my hunting knife. This
+accident could not have occurred, perhaps, to them in a state of nature,
+or if by any possibility it had ever occurred before, the chances are
+that such occurrences were few in number, and that they happened at long
+intervals of time, thus precluding the establishment of an instinctive
+habit. Nor do I think it possible for this action to come under the head
+of "specialized instinct," for the same reason. By the very nature of
+things there can be no such thing as an "intelligent accident"; the term
+is itself a contradiction, therefore the performance of these ants must
+be considered an act of intelligent ratiocination.
+
+In this discussion of mind in the lower animals I have endeavored to
+show that the psychical traits evinced by them indicate that their
+mental organisms, taken as a whole, are the same in kind as that of
+man.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY
+
+
+Bates. _The Naturalist on the River Amazon._
+
+Belt. _The Naturalist in Nicaragua._
+
+Buechner. _Geistesleben der Thiere._
+
+Carter. _Annals of Natural History._
+
+Clark. _Mind in Nature._
+
+Comstock. _The Study of Insects._
+
+Darwin. _The Descent of Man_; _The Origin of Species_; _Insectivorous
+Plants_; _Formation of Vegetable Mould_; _The Expression of the
+Emotions_; _Power of Movement in Plants_.
+
+Dewar. _Physiological Action of Light_, Nature, 1877.
+
+Figuier. _Reptiles and Birds._
+
+Furneaux. _Life in Streams and Ponds._
+
+Gibson. _Sharp Eyes._
+
+Haeckel. _History of Creation_; _Evolution of Man_.
+
+Hartman. _Anthropoid Apes._
+
+Hickson. _The Fauna of the Deep Sea._
+
+Huber. _The Natural History of Ants._
+
+Huxley. _The Study of Zooelogy._
+
+Kemp. _Indication of Instinct._
+
+Kirby and Spence. _Entomology._
+
+Lindsay. _Mind in the Lower Animals in Health_; _Mind in the Lower
+Animals in Disease_.
+
+Lubbock. _Origin and Metamorphoses of Insects_; _Ants, Bees, and Wasps_;
+_The Social Hymenoptera_; _The Senses, Instincts, and Intelligence of
+Animals_.
+
+Luys. _The Brain and its Functions._
+
+Mantagazza. _Physiognomy and Expression._
+
+Maudsley. _The Physiology of Mind_; _Body and Will_.
+
+Miller. _Four Handed Folk._
+
+Peschel. _The Races of Man._
+
+Pettigrew. _Animal Locomotion._
+
+Peal. _Nature_, Vol. XXI.
+
+Quatrefages. _The Human Species._
+
+Reclain. _Body and Mind._
+
+Romanes. _Animal Intelligence_; _Mental Evolution in Animals_; _Mental
+Evolution in Man_; _The Jelly-Fish, Star-Fish, and Sea-Urchin_.
+
+Roscoe. _Life of Leo the Tenth._
+
+Schmidt. _The Mammalia._
+
+Schneider. _Thierische Wille._
+
+Semper. _Animal Life._
+
+Tuke. _Influence of the Mind upon the Body._
+
+Van Beneden. _Animal Parasites and Messmates._
+
+Wallace. _Island Life_; _The Malay Archipelago_.
+
+Whitney. _Life and Growth of Language._
+
+White. _A Londoner's Walk to Edinburgh._
+
+Yarrell. _British Fishes._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+A
+
+ACINETA MYSTACINA, amoeba catches and devours an, 50.
+
+ACTINOPHRYS, power of differentiation in A. Eichornii, 7;
+  Brachionus captured by, 7;
+  uric acid crystals and sand grains in an experiment with, 9;
+  taste in, 9;
+  sight in, 11;
+  memory of locality in, 49, 52;
+  lying in wait for, and devouring the young of, a _pythium_, 49;
+  love of pastime in, 123;
+  death-feigning by, 201;
+  effect of alcohol on, 219.
+
+ADELOPS, homing sense in blind, 196;
+  author's experiments in demonstrating homing sense of blind, 196.
+
+ALBINISM, axolotl affected by, 182;
+  difference between etiolation and, 182, 184.
+
+ALCIOPE, eyes of, 17.
+
+ALGA, stentor feeding on spores of, 47.
+
+AMOEBA, young acineta caught by, 51.
+
+ANEMONE, Romanes' experiment with, 42;
+  death-feigning by, 205.
+
+ANERGATES, parasitic, 156, 157.
+
+ANGLEWORM, differentiation between light and darkness by, 54;
+  experiments with light on, 55;
+  ocelli of, 55;
+  Darwin's theory as to deafness in, 55;
+  organs of audition in, 56;
+  author's experiments with, 56;
+  conscious choice in, 56;
+  taste in, 56, 57.
+
+ANT, memory of locality in the, 62;
+  memory of friends (kindred) in the, 65;
+  Huber's observations, 66;
+  author's experiments with _Lasius niger_, 66;
+  claviger beetles recognized and petted by, 73;
+  gray matter in the brain of, 99;
+  nerve-cells and nerve-filaments in the brain cortex of, 99;
+  Lubbock's experiments (chloroform and alcohol) with, 99;
+  sympathy evinced by, 100;
+  parental care of worker ants for young, 103;
+  love of amusement in the, 125;
+  author's observations of _L. flavus_, 125, 126;
+  _Claviger foveolatus_ fondled by, 126;
+  Huber's observations of _pratensis_, 125;
+  Lubbock's observations of _Beckia_, a pet of, 126;
+  author's observations of _Podura_ in the nests of _F. fusca_ and
+    _F. rufescens_, 126;
+  evidence of reason in the, 152;
+  funeral of an, 153;
+  battle between, 153;
+  author's verification of Huber's experiment with slave, 155;
+  degeneration in, 155;
+  Lubbock's summary of degeneration in, 156;
+  homing sense in the, 197;
+  death-feigning in the, 212.
+
+ANTHROBIA, eyeless, 11.
+
+APE, cat affectionately treated by an, 83.
+
+APHIS, ants domesticate the, 73.
+
+ARGIOPE, mason wasps for food prefer the spider, 170.
+
+ATROPIA, sympathetic nerves paralyzed by, 191.
+
+AXOLOTL, color-changing in, 184;
+  Paul Bert's experiments with, 184;
+  Semper's experiments with, 184;
+  Koelliker's experiments with, 184.
+
+
+B
+
+BALANCERS, of _Tabanus atratus_, 34;
+  of _Chrysops niger_, 33;
+  of _Diplosis resinicola_, 33.
+
+BASCANION CONSTRICTOR, recognition of individuals by, 75;
+  bird decorates its nest with skin of, 127.
+
+BASS, parental affection in, 138;
+  homing sense in black, 200.
+
+BECKIA, ants domesticate and pet, 126.
+
+BIRD, memory of individuals in, 76, 77;
+  gratitude in, 77, 93;
+  homing sense in, 199.
+
+BOMBARDIER BUG, death-feigning in, 211.
+
+BRACHIONUS, actinophrys captures, 7.
+
+BRACHIONUS URCEOLARIS, death-feigning in, 206.
+
+BUMBLEBEE, revenge and anger in, 71;
+  recognition of a certain dog by, 71.
+
+BURYING BEETLE, homing sense in, 197.
+
+BUTTERFLY, suitable food for larva selected by, 103;
+  age of tropical, 137;
+  Miranda's observations, 137, 138.
+
+
+C
+
+CALOTIS, third eye of, 27.
+
+CANTHON LAEVIS, death-feigning in, 210.
+
+CAPUCHIN MONKEY, surgical operation on a, 95;
+  faith in man's ability to aid evinced by a, 96.
+
+CARABIDAE, auditory vesicles of, 37;
+  memory of locality in, 64.
+
+CAT, pride of offspring in a male, 142;
+  idea of time shown by a, 177.
+
+CATFISH, parental affection in, 138, 139.
+
+CERAMBYX, sense of hearing in, 36;
+  Will's experiment with, 36.
+
+CHACMA, cat chosen as friend by, 83;
+  author's test for memory of individuals in, 84.
+
+CHAMELEON, educated, 75;
+  recognition of individual by, 75.
+
+CHICK, pigment cells in embryonic, 186, 187.
+
+CHIMPANZEE, laughter and smiles evinced by, 89;
+  faculty of computing in, 177;
+  recognition of property rights by, 221.
+
+CHRYSOPS NIGER, balancers of, 33;
+  organs of hearing in, 33.
+
+CICINDELIDAE, auditory vesicles of, 37;
+  memory of locality in, 64.
+
+CLAVIGER FOVEOLATUS, ants make a pet of, 73.
+
+COCCINELLAE, peculiar assemblages of female, 126, 127.
+
+COCK, friendship between a drake and a, 78;
+  fondness for violin music in a, 122.
+
+CONSCIOUSNESS, definition of, 43;
+  time element in, 44;
+  the probable location of active, 216;
+  the probable location of the sub-liminal, 216.
+
+CORYDALIS, auditory rods of, 30.
+
+COW, dog the guardian and friend of a, 80.
+
+CRAB, Pouchet's experiment on the chromatophores of, 189.
+
+CRAYFISH, eyes of, 21;
+  power of vision in, 23;
+  pugnacity of, 23.
+
+CRICKET, ears of, 31.
+
+CYMOTHOE, eyes of fresh-water, 13.
+
+
+D
+
+DETERMINATION, the origin of conscious, 40.
+
+DINOCHARIS POCILLUM, death-feigning in, 206.
+
+DIPLOSIS RESINICOLA, balancers of, 33.
+
+DIPTERA, ears of, 33;
+  love of pastime in, 125.
+
+DOG, cow chosen as a friend by a, 78;
+  laughter in, 90;
+  fondness for certain musical keys in the, 112;
+  author's experiments with the, 113;
+  origin of musical discrimination in the, 114;
+  knowledge of the echo in the, 115;
+  author's observations of an echo-loving, 115;
+  parental affection in the, 141;
+  abstract idea of numbers in the, 173, 174;
+  phenomenon of dreaming in the, 218;
+  medication by sick, 220.
+
+DROSERA ROTUNDIFOLIA, insectivorous, 208.
+
+DUCK, friendship between bantam cock and, 78;
+  hawk attacked and killed by, 78;
+  sense of direction in, 199.
+
+DYTICUS MARGINALIS, auditory rods of, 30;
+  death-feigning in a fresh-water annelid when approached by, 204.
+
+
+E
+
+EAGLE, recognition of individuals by, 76.
+
+EAR, Dyticus, 30;
+  corydalis, 30;
+  grasshopper's, 31;
+  Tabanus, 34.
+
+EARWIG, method of incubation practised by, 105;
+  care of young by, 105;
+  M. Geer's experiment with, 105;
+  love of offspring in, 106;
+  author's experiments in testing parental affection in the, 136.
+
+ECITON HAMATA, ants of the same species rescue an imprisoned, 100;
+  Belt's experiments in testing the sympathy of, 101.
+
+ELEPHANT, abstract ideation in the, 217;
+  Conklin's testimony as to abstract ideation in, 218;
+  mud used to stop bullet holes by, 220;
+  a branch of a bush used as a fan by, 221.
+
+EPIPONE SPINIPES, method of supplying larva with fresh food used by, 104;
+  differentiation in the amount of food for male and female grub, 104.
+
+ETIOLATION, definition of, 184, 185.
+
+EUPLOCINAE, length of life in tropical, 137.
+
+EYE, flounder's, 9;
+  plaice's, 9;
+  sole's, 9;
+  mole's, 10;
+  fresh-water _Cymothoe's_, 13;
+  OEquorea's, 15;
+  sea-urchin's, 16;
+  oyster's, 17;
+  _Alciope's_, 17;
+  snail's, 19;
+  crayfish's, 21;
+  _Gyrinus'_, 23;
+  _Periophthalmus'_, 25;
+  _Onchidium's_, 26;
+  calotis', 27.
+
+
+F
+
+FISH, phosphorescent and pigmented, 13;
+  parental affection in, 138;
+  sense of direction in, 200.
+
+FLEA, memory in the, 86;
+  dancing and military evolutions by, 86;
+  method of educating the, 87.
+
+FLOUNDER, the origin of unilateral eyes in, 9.
+
+FORMICA FUSCA, sympathy in, 100;
+  species of _Podura_ domesticated by, 126.
+
+FORMICA RUFA, sympathy evinced by, 102.
+
+FORMICA RUFESCENS, pet beetles in the nest of, 126.
+
+FORMICA SANGUINEA, slave-making habit in, 155;
+  sympathy evinced by, 102;
+  Lubbock's observations of a sick, 102.
+
+FROG, tinctumutation in the, 182;
+  chromatophores of, 182;
+  Heincke's observations, 183;
+  location of color-changing sense in, 190.
+
+
+G
+
+GADFLY, selection of suitable spot for oviposition by, 103.
+
+GILT CATFISH, _gyropeltes_ make the toilet of, 130;
+  color-changing in, 183;
+  author's experiments on the color-changing function of, 191.
+
+GOBIUS RUTHENSPARRI, tinctumutation in, 183.
+
+GOGGLE-EYE PERCH, love of offspring in, 138;
+  homing sense in, 200.
+
+GOOSE, homing sense in the, 199.
+
+GORILLA, use of cudgel by, 222.
+
+GRASSHOPPER, ears of, 30.
+
+GYRINUS, indifference to seasons shown by, 23;
+  eyes of, 24.
+
+GYROPELTES, health of gilt catfish dependent on, 130.
+
+
+H
+
+HELICONIDAE, length of life in, 138.
+
+HELIX POMATIA, love of amusement in, 123;
+  author's observations, 124.
+
+HEMIPTERA, organs of audition in, 29.
+
+HOG, friendship between a dog and a, 81.
+
+HONEY BEE, recognition of impending calamity by, 90;
+  consternation and dismay manifested by, 90;
+  remarkable engineering feat by, 91;
+  joy evinced by, 91;
+  grief shown by, 91, 92;
+  Huber's experiment demonstrating reason in, 178.
+
+HORSE, love of offspring in the, 143;
+  seeking man's aid when in trouble, 144;
+  self-medication by, 220.
+
+HOUND, death-feigning by, 212.
+
+HUMMING-BIRD, decorative instinct in, 128.
+
+HYDRA, water-louse feeding on the buds of, 52.
+
+HYDROZOA, nerve-tissue in, 41.
+
+HYMENOPTERA, recognition of kindred in social, 69.
+
+
+I
+
+ICHNEUMON, method of ovipositing in the bodies of caterpillars used
+  by, 104.
+
+INSTINCT, definition of, 147, 148.
+
+
+J
+
+JAY, parental love in the, 142;
+  battle between cat and, 143.
+
+JELLY-FISH, anatomy, physiology, and psychology of, 4;
+  nerve-ring in nectocalyx of, 5;
+  "eyes" of, 5;
+  manubrium or "handle" of, 5;
+  sensitiveness of nervous system in, 5;
+  pulsing of nectocalyx in, 5;
+  intoxicated, 15;
+  light sought by, 15;
+  effect of the excision of the marginal bodies of, 52;
+  conscious determination in, 52;
+  effect of alcohol on, 219.
+
+
+K
+
+KATYDID, color-changing function in, 191, 192.
+
+
+L
+
+LAND TERRAPIN, memory of locality in, 65;
+  homing sense in, 65;
+  author's experiments with, 65.
+
+LASIUS FLAVUS, author's experiments with, 67;
+  slow in recognizing kin, 67;
+  ants of the same species disinter buried, 101.
+
+LASIUS NIGER, memory of kindred in, 66.
+
+LEPIDOPTERA, organs of hearing in, 35.
+
+LETISIMULATION, definition of, 202;
+  origin of, 206.
+
+LIMPET, homing sense in, 194;
+  Romanes on the homing sense in, 195.
+
+LIOTHE, fowls cleaned by, 129.
+
+LIZARD, Ada Sterling's account of Kate Field's music-loving, 119;
+  fondness for music in the tree, 119;
+  Chilhowie "singing," 120;
+  author's experiment with the piccolo on, 120.
+
+LOBSTER, love of offspring in the, 137;
+  battle between monkey and gravid, 137.
+
+LOCUST, love of cleanliness in, 130;
+  diamond mistaken for dewdrop by, 131;
+  carnivorous tastes in the, 131;
+  description of the toilet of a, 132.
+
+LYCOSA, love of music in, 108;
+  tameness of, 110.
+
+
+M
+
+MAMMOTH CAVE, eyeless spider of, 11;
+  eyeless fish of, 11;
+  homing sense in the beetles of, 196.
+
+MANDRIL, a revengeful, 95.
+
+MEDUSA, intoxicated, 15.
+
+MELANOPLUS, reenforcing auditory ganglia of, 32.
+
+MEMORY, its discussion under four heads, 60.
+
+MIMOSA PUDICA, death-feigning by, 208.
+
+MIMOSA STRIGILOSA, death-feigning by, 208.
+
+MIND, definition of, 1.
+
+MOLE, degeneration of sight organs in, 10.
+
+MONERON, non-differentiation of nerve-cells in, 3;
+  nervoid elements in, 3.
+
+MONKEY, author chosen as a friend by, 82;
+  a laughing, 89;
+  sorrow and reproach manifested by, 97;
+  faculty of computing in the, 177;
+  use of hammer by a, 222.
+
+MORPHOLOGY, its correlation with physiology, 2.
+
+MOUSE, love of music in, 116;
+  musical discrimination in, 117;
+  Quigley's observations, 117;
+  Benedick's experiments with, 117;
+  author's observations and analysis of the song of "singing," 118;
+  Ada Sterling's observations of music-loving, 118, 119.
+
+MULE, idea of time evinced by a, 175, 176.
+
+MYRIANIDA, eyes of, 17;
+  reproduction in, 18.
+
+MYRMECA RUGINODIS, memory of friends (kindred) in, 68;
+  experiments with, 68.
+
+MYRMECOCYSTUS, the honey-making, 157;
+  natural history of, 158;
+  author's experiments in testing the reasoning powers of, 158, 159;
+  division of labor in a colony of, 161.
+
+
+N
+
+NECTOCALYX, marginal bodies in jelly-fish's, 51.
+
+NERVE, transmission of impressions through, 41;
+  the power of discrimination in, 41;
+  the association of ideas (impressions) in, 43;
+  memory in, 43.
+
+NEWT, tinctumutation in, 186;
+  author's experiments with, 186.
+
+
+O
+
+OEQUOREA, eyes of, 15.
+
+OESTRUS EQUI, selection of foreleg of horse for oviposition by, 103.
+
+ONCHIDIUM, cephalic eyes of, 26;
+  dorsal eyes of, 26.
+
+OPOSSUM, letisimulation in the, 202, 212.
+
+ORANG-UTAN, laughter in the, 89;
+  use of missiles by, 222.
+
+OX, homing sense in the, 199, 200.
+
+OYSTER, eyes of, 16.
+
+
+P
+
+PAPILIONINAE, length of life in tropical, 137.
+
+PERCH, love of offspring in the white, 138.
+
+PERIOPHTHALMUS, habitat of, 25;
+  peculiar mode of life of, 25;
+  eyes of, 25;
+  food of, 26.
+
+PIGEON, love of music in the, 122;
+  Lockman's account of a music-loving, 122;
+  musical discrimination in, 122.
+
+PIPE-FISH, parental affection in the, 139;
+  Risso's observations, 139.
+
+PLAICE, the origin of unilateral eyes in the, 9;
+  absence of color-changing faculty in blind, 188;
+  Pouchet's demonstration of the color-changing function of the
+    sympathetic nerves in, 189.
+
+PODURA, _F. fusca_ and _F. rufescens_ make pets of, 126;
+  author's observations of, 126.
+
+POLYERGUS, lowering tendency of slavery shown by, 155, 156.
+
+PRIONUS, author's experiments in locating organs of hearing in, 36.
+
+
+Q
+
+QUAIL, domesticated, 111;
+  love of caresses in, 111;
+  love of instrumental music in, 111;
+  fondness for the singing voice in, 112.
+
+
+R
+
+RAT, fondness for instrumental music in, 116;
+  power of musical discrimination in, 116.
+
+REASON, definition of, 147;
+  difference between instinct and, 148.
+
+RHIZOPOD, sense of direction in, 48;
+  Carter's observations of, 49;
+  memory in, 60.
+
+ROBIN, homing sense in, 199.
+
+
+S
+
+SAND-WASP, memory of locality in, 62;
+  author's experiments with, 63.
+
+SARCOPTES HOMINIS, death-feigning in, 209.
+
+SATIN BIRD, aestheticism in the male, 128;
+  author's observations of, 128.
+
+SEA-URCHIN, eyes of, 16.
+
+SNAIL, eyes of, 19;
+  visual powers of, 19;
+  courtship of, 20;
+  location of sense of direction in, 194;
+  author's experiments with, 194;
+  author's experiments in demonstrating homing sense in the, 194.
+
+SNAKE, love of young in, 140;
+  author's experiment in testing parental affection of, 140;
+  sense of direction and "homing instinct" in, 198;
+  author's observations of "homing instinct" in, 198.
+
+SOLE, the origin of unilateral eyes in the, 9.
+
+SONG-SPARROW, memory of individuals in, 77;
+  parental affection in, 143.
+
+SPANIEL, a laughing, 89.
+
+SPIDER, memory in, 72;
+  recognition of individuals by, 73;
+  love of music in the, 108;
+  author's experiments with piano on, 108;
+  author's experiments with pipe organ on, 109;
+  Reclain's observations on the love of music in, 109;
+  decorative instinct present in, 110;
+  peculiar web spun by, 110;
+  parental affection in, 135;
+  author's experiment in testing parental love of, 135;
+  use of implement (pebble anchor) by, 222.
+
+SQUIRREL, memory in the, 70.
+
+STENTOR POLYMORPHUS, nervous system of, 46;
+  observations of and experiments with, 47;
+  conscious determination in, 47;
+  ganglia of, 47.
+
+STRONGALOGNATHUS, degeneration caused by the habit of slave-making in,
+  155, 156, 157.
+
+
+T
+
+TABANUS ATRATUS, balancers of, 33;
+  loss of equilibrium in, 33;
+  anatomy of balancers of, 34;
+  auditory hairs of, 34.
+
+TERMES, kinds of individuals in a colony of, 161;
+  number of eggs laid by queen of, 162;
+  size of gravid queen, 162;
+  New Mexican, 163;
+  soldiers and workers of, 163;
+  instincts and reasoning powers of, 164.
+
+TERRIER, love of music in, 113;
+  musical discrimination in, 113;
+  abstract ideation in, 216.
+
+TINCTUMUTATION, definition of, 182;
+  location of color-changing sense centre in, 183.
+
+TOAD, memory in the, 87;
+  a performing, 87;
+  parental affection in the Surinam, 140.
+
+TRITICUM REPENS, sick dogs medicate themselves with, 220.
+
+TURKEY, memory of individuals in the, 76;
+  recognition of property rights by the, 221.
+
+
+V
+
+VANESSA, tinctumutation in the larva of, 192.
+
+VIPER, death-feigning in the, 207.
+
+VOLITION, definition of conscious, 39;
+  physiological aspect of, 40.
+
+
+W
+
+WASP, memory in the, 62;
+  author's experiments in testing memory in the, 63, 69;
+  memory of kindred in the, 65, 69;
+  memory of locality and of events in the, 85;
+  knowledge derived from a single experience by a, 85;
+  length of life in the mud-dauber, 138;
+  evidence of reason in the mud-dauber, 149, 150;
+  psychic actualities of easy acquirement in the ant, the bee, and
+    the, 151;
+  faculty of computing in the mason, 169;
+  author's experiments in testing the computing faculty in the, 170;
+  method of preparing food for the male and female grubs used by the
+    mason, 170.
+
+WATER-LOUSE, sense of direction in the, 194.
+
+WREN, distress and grief evinced by, 93;
+  recognition of individuals by, 93;
+  gratitude shown by, 94.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ECONOMICS.
+
+BY
+EDWARD THOMAS DEVINE, Ph.D.,
+
+_General Secretary of The Charity Organization Society of the City of
+New York; Sometime Fellow in the University of Pennsylvania; and Staff
+Lecturer of the American Society for the Extension of University Teaching._
+
+               *       *       *
+
+16mo. Cloth. $1.00.
+
+               *       *       *
+
+"Long experience in the popular exposition of the principles of
+political economy has given Dr. Edward Thomas Devine peculiar
+qualifications for the preparation of a text-book upon this subject, and
+his recently published 'Economics' is an excellent book of its kind. It
+may be warmly recommended."--_Dial._
+
+"It is a lucid, and entertaining exposition of the subject."--_St. Louis
+Globe-Democrat._
+
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+
+               *       *       *
+
+THE MACMILLAN COMPANY,
+66 FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK.
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+               *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+A HISTORY OF PHILOSOPHY
+
+WITH ESPECIAL REFERENCE TO
+THE FORMATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF
+ITS PROBLEMS AND CONCEPTIONS.
+
+By DR. W. WINDELBAND,
+_Professor of Philosophy in the University of Strassburg._
+
+Authorized Translation by JAMES H. TUFTS, Ph.D.,
+_Associate Professor of Philosophy in the University of Chicago._
+
+8vo. Cloth. $4.00, net.
+
+               *       *       *
+
+"The work commends itself to every student of philosophy."--_Boston
+Transcript._
+
+"As a book of reference it will not supersede Ueberweg's History, but it
+is more readable and gives a much better view of the connection of
+philosophic thought from age to age and of the logical relation of the
+various schools and thinkers to each other. There is no other work
+available in English which presents these aspects of a subject so well,
+and both English and American students who do not read German will thank
+Professor Tufts for giving them the book in their own language."--_Critic._
+
+"No preceding history so fully occupies its field and answers its
+purpose. It should have a place in the library of every student of
+Philosophy."--_Chicago Tribune._
+
+"We believe that this is as nearly perfect a book in the form of a
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+
+               *       *       *
+
+THE MACMILLAN COMPANY,
+66 FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK.
+
+
+
+
+
+
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