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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Eurhythmics of Jaques-Dalcroze, by 
+Emile Jaques-Dalcroze
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Eurhythmics of Jaques-Dalcroze
+
+Author: Emile Jaques-Dalcroze
+
+Contributor: M. E. Sadler
+
+Release Date: June 1, 2007 [EBook #21653]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE EURHYTHMICS OF JAQUES-DALCROZE ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by David Newman, V. L. Simpson and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+    Transcriber's Note:
+    A Short Greek phrase has been transliterated and delimited
+    with '{}'.
+
+    Short musical phrases are marked as {Music}.
+    ============================================================
+
+
+
+
+    [Illustration: Emile Jaques-Dalcroze.]
+
+
+                 THE EURHYTHMICS
+               OF JAQUES-DALCROZE
+
+                 Introduction by
+    Professor M. E. Sadler, LL.D. (Columbia)
+   Vice-Chancellor of the University of Leeds
+
+                     BOSTON
+            SMALL MAYNARD AND COMPANY
+                      1915
+
+            Printed in Great Britain
+
+
+
+
+    {_Pas gar ho bios tou anthropou eurythmias te kai
+    euarmostias deitai._}
+
+"Rhythmische Gymnastik" is the name by which the Dalcroze method is
+known in Germany, but whether or not the German words are adequate,
+their literal translation into English certainly gives too narrow an
+idea of the scope of the system to any one unacquainted with it.
+Rhythmical "gymnastics," in the natural meaning of the word, is a part
+of the Dalcroze training, and a not unimportant part, but it is only one
+application of a much wider principle; and accordingly, where the term
+occurs in the following pages, it must be understood simply as denoting
+a particular mode of physical drill. But for the principle itself and
+the total method embodying it, another name is needed, and the term
+"Eurhythmics" has been here coined for the purpose. The originality of
+the Dalcroze method, the fact that it is a discovery, gives it a right
+to a name of its own: it is because it is in a sense also the
+rediscovery of an old secret that a name has been chosen of such plain
+reference and derivation. Plato, in the words quoted above, has said
+that the whole of a man's life stands in need of a right rhythm: and it
+is natural to see some kinship between this Platonic attitude and the
+claim of Dalcroze that his discovery is not a mere refinement of
+dancing, nor an improved method of music-teaching, but a principle that
+must have effect upon every part of life.
+
+JOHN W. HARVEY.
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+  NOTE: John W. Harvey                                               5
+
+  THE EDUCATIONAL SIGNIFICANCE OF
+    HELLERAU: Prof. M. E. Sadler                                    11
+
+  RHYTHM AS A FACTOR IN EDUCATION:} Emile Jaques-Dalcroze           15
+  FROM LECTURES AND ADDRESSES:    } Translated by P. & E. Ingham    26
+
+  THE METHOD: GROWTH AND PRACTICE: Percy B. Ingham                  31
+
+  LESSONS AT HELLERAU: Ethel Ingham                                 48
+
+  LIFE AT HELLERAU: Ethel Ingham                                    55
+
+  THE VALUE OF EURHYTHMICS TO ART: M. T. H. Sadler.                 60
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+  Emile Jaques-Dalcroze                                 _Frontispiece_
+
+  The College: from the East                          _Facing page_ 15
+
+  The College: Front                                                26
+
+  The College: General View from the South-East                     31
+
+  Beating 4/4                }
+  Movements for the Semibreve}
+                                           _Between pages_ 36 _and_ 37
+
+  Beating 5/4 in Canon without Expression}
+  Beating 5/4 in Canon with Expression   }
+                                               "      "        44 " 45
+
+  The Air Bath              }
+  The College: Entrance Hall}
+                                               "      "        48 " 49
+
+  The College: Classrooms}
+  The College: Interiors }
+                                               "      "        52 " 53
+
+  The Hostel: Interiors                    _Facing page_            55
+
+  The Hostel: General View                 _page_                   57
+
+  Dresden from Hellerau                    _Facing page_            59
+
+  A Plastic Exercise                          "     "               60
+
+  A Plastic Exercise                          "     "               64
+
+
+
+
+THE EDUCATIONAL SIGNIFICANCE OF HELLERAU
+
+
+At Hellerau two things make an ineffaceable impression upon the
+mind--the exquisite beauty of movement, of gesture and of grouping seen
+in the exercises; and the nearness of a great force, fundamental to the
+arts and expressing itself in the rhythm to which they attain.
+Jaques-Dalcroze has re-opened a door which has long been closed. He has
+rediscovered one of the secrets of Greek education.
+
+A hundred years ago Wilhelm von Humboldt endeavoured to make Greek
+ideals the paramount influence in the higher schools of Germany. He and
+a group of friends had long felt indignant at the utilitarianism and
+shallowness of the work of the schools. In Greek literature, Greek
+philosophy and Greek art would be found a means of kindling new life in
+education and of giving it the power of building up strong and
+independent personalities. When there came to Humboldt the unexpected
+opportunity of reforming the secondary schools of Prussia, he so
+remodelled the course of study as to secure for Greek thought and
+letters a place which, if not central and determinative, would at least
+bring the élite of the younger generation in some measure under their
+influence. But his administrative orders failed to impart to the schools
+the spirit of ancient Greece. To Humboldt and his friends Greek studies
+had been an inspiration because, apart from their intellectual
+significance and literary form, those studies had been the channel of an
+artistic impulse and had been entered into as art. But this artistic
+power was not felt by the greater number of those who undertook, in
+obedience to the new regulations, the duty of teaching Greek in the
+schools. What was left in Greek studies after this failure of artistic
+insight was often no more than another form of purely intellectual
+discipline. A new subject had been added to the curriculum, but new life
+had not been brought into the schools. The very name, Gymnasium, which
+denoted their Hellenic purpose, seemed ironical. They were not Greek in
+spirit and they ignored the training of the body. Thus what Wilhelm von
+Humboldt had chiefly aimed at accomplishing, he failed to do. It was not
+the power of Greek art that he brought into the schools but, in most
+cases, merely the philological study of a second dead language. The
+cause of his failure was that he had not discovered the educational
+method which could effectually secure his purpose. He had assumed that,
+in order to introduce the Greek spirit into education, it was sufficient
+to insist upon the linguistic and literary study of Greek.
+
+In time, attempts were made to remedy what was defective in Humboldt's
+plan by insisting upon physical exercises as an obligatory part of
+education in the higher schools. But the physical exercises thus
+introduced, though salutary in themselves, were divorced from the
+artistic influences of the Greek gymnastic. Humboldt's chief aim had
+been forgotten. His system of organization had rooted itself, but his
+educational ideal, to which he attached far greater importance than to
+administrative regulation, was ignored.
+
+In later years, though such Neo-Hellenism as Humboldt's had long gone
+out of fashion, the weakness of the higher schools on the side of
+artistic training was recognized. But a corrective for this was sought
+in instruction about art, not (except so far as a little teaching of
+drawing went) in the practice of an art. An attempt was made to
+cultivate aesthetic appreciation by lessons which imparted knowledge but
+did not attempt to train the power of artistic production--an aim which
+was regarded as unrealizable, except in vocal music, and of course
+through literary composition, in a secondary school. Thus Humboldt's
+original purpose has been almost wholly unachieved. The schools,
+admirably organized on the intellectual side and, within certain limits,
+increasingly efficient in their physical training, are, as a rule,
+lacking in the influence of art, as indeed in most cases are the
+corresponding schools in other countries. The spring of artistic
+training has not been touched. The divorce between intellectual
+discipline and artistic influence (except indeed so far as the latter is
+operative through the study of literature, through a little drawing, and
+through vocal music) is complete. This defect is felt even more keenly
+in Germany than in England, because in the German schools the
+intellectual pressure is more severe, and the schools do less for the
+cultivation of those interests which lie outside the limits of regular
+class-room work.
+
+Wilhelm von Humboldt gave little direct attention to the work of the
+elementary schools. His chief concern was with higher education. But in
+the elementary schools also, except in so far as they gave much care to
+vocal music, the course of training failed to make use of the educative
+power of art. A conviction that there is an error has led in Germany, as
+in England and America, to an increased attention to drawing and to
+attempts to interest children in good pictures. But there is still
+(except in the case of vocal music and a little drawing) an unbridged
+gap between the intellectual and the artistic work of the schools.
+
+Jaques-Dalcroze's experience suggests the possibility of a much closer
+combination of these two elements, both in elementary and in secondary
+education. His teaching requires from the pupils a sustained and careful
+attention, is in short a severe (though not exhausting) intellectual
+exercise; while at the same time it trains the sense of form and rhythm,
+the capacity to analyse musical structure, and the power of expressing
+rhythm through harmonious movement. It is thus a synthesis of
+educational influence, artistic and intellectual. Its educational value
+for young children, its applicability to their needs, the pleasure which
+they take in the exercises, have been conclusively proved. And in the
+possibility of this widely extended use of the method lies perhaps the
+chief, though far indeed from the only, educational significance of what
+is now being done at Hellerau.
+
+M. E. SADLER.
+
+    [Illustration: The College.]
+
+
+
+
+RHYTHM AS A FACTOR IN EDUCATION
+
+FROM THE FRENCH OF E. JAQUES-DALCROZE[1]
+
+    [1] First published in _Le Rhythme_ (Bâle) of December, 1909.
+
+
+It is barely a hundred years since music ceased to be an aristocratic
+art cultivated by a few privileged individuals and became instead a
+subject of instruction for almost everybody without regard to talent or
+exceptional ability. Schools of Music, formerly frequented only by born
+musicians, gifted from birth with unusual powers of perception for sound
+and rhythm, to-day receive all who are fond of music, however little
+Nature may have endowed them with the necessary capacity for musical
+expression and realization. The number of solo players, both pianists
+and violinists, is constantly increasing, instrumental technique is
+being developed to an extraordinary degree, but everywhere, too, the
+question is being asked whether the quality of instrumental players is
+equal to their quantity, and whether the acquirement of extraordinary
+technique is likely to help musical progress when this technique is not
+joined to musical powers, if not of the first rank, at least normal.
+
+Of ten certificated pianists of to-day, at the most one, if indeed one,
+is capable of recognizing one key from another, of improvising four bars
+with character or so as to give pleasure to the listener, of giving
+expression to a composition without the help of the more or less
+numerous annotations with which present day composers have to burden
+their work, of experiencing any feeling whatever when they listen to, or
+perform, the composition of another. The solo players of older days were
+without exception complete musicians, able to improvise and compose,
+artists driven irresistibly towards art by a noble thirst for aesthetic
+expression, whereas most young people who devote themselves nowadays to
+solo playing have the gifts neither of hearing nor of expression, are
+content to imitate the composer's expression without the power of
+feeling it, and have no other sensibility than that of the fingers, no
+other motor faculty than an automatism painfully acquired. Solo playing
+of the present day has specialized in a finger technique which takes no
+account of the faculty of mental expression. It is no longer a means, it
+has become an end.
+
+As a rule, writing is only taught to children who have reached a
+thinking age, and we do not think of initiating them into the art of
+elocution until they have got something to say, until their powers of
+comprehension, analysis and feeling begin to show themselves. All modern
+educationalists are agreed that the first step in a child's education
+should be to teach him to know himself, to accustom him to life and to
+awaken in him sensations, feelings and emotions, before giving him the
+power of describing them. Likewise, in modern methods of teaching to
+draw, the pupil is taught to see objects before painting them. In music,
+unfortunately, the same rule does not hold. Young people are taught to
+play the compositions of Bach, Mozart, Beethoven, Chopin and Liszt,
+before their minds and ears can grasp these works, before they have
+developed the faculty of being moved by them.
+
+There are two physical agents by means of which we appreciate music.
+These two agents are the ear as regards sound, and the whole nervous
+system as regards rhythm. Experience has shown me that the training of
+these two agents cannot easily be carried out simultaneously. A child
+finds it difficult to appreciate at the same time a succession of notes
+forming a melody and the rhythm which animates them.
+
+Before teaching the relation which exists between sound and movement, it
+is wise to undertake the independent study of each of these two
+elements. Tone is evidently secondary, since it has not its origin and
+model in ourselves, whereas movement is instinctive in man and therefore
+primary. Therefore I begin the study of music by careful and
+experimental teaching of movement. This is based in earliest childhood
+on the automatic exercise of marching, for marching is the natural model
+of time measure.
+
+By means of various accentuations with the foot, I teach the different
+time measures. Pauses (of varying lengths) in the marching teach the
+children to distinguish durations of sound; movements to time with the
+arms and the head preserve order in the succession of the time measures
+and analyse the bars and pauses.
+
+All this, no doubt, seems very simple, and so I thought when beginning
+my experiments. Unfortunately, the latter have shown me that it is not
+so simple as it seems, but on the contrary very complicated. And this
+because most children have no instinct for time, for time values, for
+accentuation, for physical balance; because the motor faculties are not
+the same in all individuals, and because a number of obstacles impede
+the exact and rapid physical realization of mental conceptions. One
+child is always behind the beat when marching, another always ahead;
+another takes unequal steps, another on the contrary lacks balance. All
+these faults, if not corrected in the first years, will reappear later
+in the musical technique of the individual.
+
+Unsteady time when singing or playing, confusion in playing, inability
+to follow when accompanying, accentuating too roughly or with lack of
+precision, all these faults have their origin in the child's muscular
+and nervous control, in lack of co-ordination between the mind which
+conceives, the brain which orders, the nerve which transmits and the
+muscle which executes. And still more, the power of phrasing and shading
+music with feeling depends equally upon the training of the
+nerve-centres, upon the co-ordination of the muscular system, upon rapid
+communication between brain and limbs--in a word, upon the health of the
+whole organism; and it is by trying to discover the individual cause of
+each musical defect, and to find a means of correcting it, that I have
+gradually built up my method of eurhythmics.
+
+This method is entirely based upon experiments many times repeated, and
+not one of the exercises has been adopted until it has been applied
+under different forms and under different conditions and its usefulness
+definitely proved. Many people have a completely false idea of my
+system, and consider it is a simple variant on the methods of physical
+training at present in fashion, whose inventors have undoubtedly
+rendered great service to humanity.
+
+I cannot help smiling when I read in certain papers, over names which
+carry weight, articles in which my method is compared to other gymnastic
+systems. The fact is, my book is simply a register of the different
+exercises which I have invented, and says nothing of my ideas in
+general, for it is written for those who have learnt to interpret my
+meaning under my personal tuition at Geneva and Hellerau.
+
+Quite naturally, half the critics who have done me the honour of
+discussing the book, have only glanced through it and looked at the
+photographs. Not one of them has undergone the special training upon
+which I lay stress and without which I deny absolutely that any one has
+the right to pass a definite judgment on my meaning; for one does not
+learn to ride by reading a book on horsemanship, and eurhythmics are
+above all a matter of personal experience.
+
+The object of the method is, in the first instance, to create by the
+help of rhythm a rapid and regular current of communication between
+brain and body; and what differentiates my physical exercises from those
+of present-day methods of muscular development is that each of them is
+conceived in the form which can most quickly establish in the brain the
+image of the movement studied.
+
+It is a question of eliminating in every muscular movement, by the help
+of will, the untimely intervention of muscles useless for the movement
+in question, and thus developing attention, consciousness and
+will-power. Next must be created an automatic technique for all those
+muscular movements which do not need the help of the consciousness, so
+that the latter may be reserved for those forms of expression which are
+purely intelligent. Thanks to the co-ordination of the nerve-centres, to
+the formation and development of the greatest possible number of motor
+habits, my method assures the freest possible play to subconscious
+expression. The creation in the organism of a rapid and easy means of
+communication between thought and its means of expression by movements
+allows the personality free play, giving it character, strength and life
+to an extraordinary degree.
+
+Neurasthenia is often nothing else than intellectual confusion produced
+by the inability of the nervous system to obtain from the muscular
+system regular obedience to the order from the brain. Training the nerve
+centres, establishing order in the organism, is the only remedy for
+intellectual perversion produced by lack of will power and by the
+incomplete subjection of body to mind. Unable to obtain physical
+realization of its ideas, the brain amuses itself in forming images
+without hope of realizing them, drops the real for the unreal, and
+substitutes vain and vague speculation for the free and healthy union of
+mind and body.
+
+The first result of a thorough rhythmic training is that the pupil sees
+clearly in himself what he really is, and obtains from his powers all
+the advantage possible. This result seems to me one which should attract
+the attention of all educationalists and assure to education by and for
+rhythm an important place in general culture.
+
+But, as an artist, I wish to add, that the second result of this
+education ought to be to put the completely developed faculties of the
+individual at the service of art and to give the latter the most subtle
+and complete of interpreters--the human body. For the body can become a
+marvellous instrument of beauty and harmony when it vibrates in tune
+with artistic imagination and collaborates with creative thought. It is
+not enough that, thanks to special exercises, students of music should
+have corrected their faults and be no longer in danger of spoiling their
+musical interpretations by their lack of physical skill and harmonious
+movements; it is necessary in addition that the music which lives within
+them--artists will understand me--should obtain free and complete
+development, and that the rhythms which inspire their personality should
+enter into intimate communion with those which animate the works to be
+interpreted.
+
+The education of the nervous system must be of such a nature that the
+suggested rhythms of a work of art induce in the individual analogous
+vibrations, produce a powerful reaction in him and change naturally into
+rhythms of expression. In simpler language, the body must become capable
+of responding to artistic rhythms and of realizing them quite naturally
+without fear of exaggeration.
+
+This faculty of emotion, indispensable to the artist, was formerly
+natural to almost all beginners in music, for hardly any but
+pre-destined artists devoted themselves to the art; but, if this is no
+longer the case, it is possible at least to awaken dulled faculties, to
+develop and co-ordinate them, and it is the duty of every musical
+educationalist to deter from instrumental technique every individual who
+is still without musical feeling.
+
+The experimental study of rhythm should form a part of every
+well-organized musical education, and this study will be useful not only
+to musicians, but to music itself. It is quite certain that, if since
+Beethoven's time harmony has developed, if each generation has created
+fresh groupings of sounds, it is not the same regarding rhythmic forms,
+which remain much as they were.
+
+I shall be told that the means of expression are of no importance so
+long as the artist is able to show his meaning, that a sincere emotion
+can be clearly expressed even with old-fashioned rhythms, and that to
+try and create new rhythms is mere technical work, and to enforce such
+upon the composers of to-morrow is simply depriving them of their
+character. This is all true, and I myself have a horror of seeking new
+means of expression within the limits of hard and fast rules, for
+expression ought to be a spontaneous manifestation. But I assert that
+experiments in rhythm, and the complete study of movements simple and
+combined, ought to create a fresh mentality, that artists thus trained
+will find inevitably and spontaneously new rhythmic forms to express
+their feelings, and that in consequence their characters will be able
+to develop more completely and with greater strength. It is a fact that
+very young children taught by my method invent quite naturally physical
+rhythms such as would have occurred to very few professional musicians,
+and that my most advanced pupils find monotonous many contemporary works
+the rhythmic poverty of which shocks neither public nor critics.
+
+I will terminate this short sketch of my system by pointing out the
+intimate relations which exist between movements in time and movements
+in space, between rhythms in sound and rhythm in the body, between Music
+and Plastic Expression.
+
+Gestures and attitudes of the body complete, animate and enliven any
+rhythmic music written simply and naturally without special regard to
+tone, and, just as in painting there exist side by side a school of the
+nude and a school of landscape, so in music there may be developed, side
+by side, plastic music and music pure and simple. In the school of
+landscape painting emotion is created entirely by combinations of moving
+light and by the rhythms thus caused. In the school of the nude, which
+pictures the many shades of expression of the human body, the artist
+tries to show the human soul as expressed by physical forms, enlivened
+by the emotions of the moment, and at the same time the characteristics
+suitable to the individual and his race, such as they appear through
+momentary physical modifications.
+
+In the same way, plastic music will picture human feelings expressed by
+gesture and will model its sound forms on those of rhythms derived
+directly from expressive movements of the human body.
+
+To compose the music which the Greeks appear to have realized, and for
+which Goethe and Schiller hoped, musicians must have acquired experience
+of physical movements; this, however, is certainly not the case to-day,
+for music has become beyond all others an intellectual art. While
+awaiting this transformation, present generations can apply education by
+and for rhythm to the interpretation of plastic stage music such as
+Richard Wagner has imagined. At the present day this music is not
+interpreted at all, for dramatic singers, stage managers and conductors
+do not understand the relation existing between gesture and music, and
+the absolute ignorance regarding plastic expression which characterizes
+the lyric actors of our day is a real profanation of scenic musical art.
+Not only are singers allowed to walk and gesticulate on the stage
+without paying any attention to the time, but also no shade of
+expression, dynamic or motor, of the orchestra--crescendo, decrescendo,
+accelerando, rallentando--finds in their gestures adequate realization.
+By this I mean the kind of wholly instinctive transformation of sound
+movements into bodily movements such as my method teaches.
+
+Authors, poets, musicians and painters cannot demand from the
+interpreters of their works knowledge of the relations between movements
+in time and in space, for this knowledge can only be developed by
+special studies. No doubt a few poets and painters have an inborn
+knowledge of the rhythms of space; for instance, Hugo von Hofmannsthal,
+the stage mounter of "Electra" at the Vienna Opera, who constructed a
+huge staircase, on which, however, the actors, having little
+acquaintance with the most elementary notions of balance, moved with
+deplorable heaviness; or again, the aesthetician Adolphe Appia, whose
+remarkable work _Music and Stage Mounting_ ought to be the guide of all
+stage managers. But the majority of composers write their plastic music
+without knowing whether it is capable of being practically realized,
+without personal experience of the laws of weight, force and bodily
+movement.
+
+My hope is, that sincere artists desirous of perfection and seeking
+progress will study seriously the grave question which I raise. For my
+own part, relying on many experiments, and full of confidence in ideas
+carefully thought out, I have devoted my life to the teaching of rhythm,
+being fully satisfied that, thanks to it, man will regain his natural
+powers of expression, and at the same time his full motor faculties, and
+that art has everything to hope from new generations brought up in the
+cult of harmony, of physical and mental health, of order, beauty and
+truth.
+
+
+
+
+FROM THE LECTURES OF EMILE JAQUES-DALCROZE
+
+(LECTURE AT LEIPZIG, DECEMBER 10, 1911)
+
+
+The objection is often raised that under my system the technique of an
+instrument is acquired too late. But this objection has no foundation in
+fact. A child who begins rhythmic gymnastics as I would have it in its
+fifth or sixth year and a year later ear-training, can certainly have
+piano lessons when eight years old, and I can state from experience that
+the finger technique of the child will then develop much more quickly,
+for the musical faculties in general will have been far better
+developed, more thoroughly trained and become more part of the child's
+life owing to the preliminary training.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Lessons in rhythmic gymnastics help children in their other lessons, for
+they develop the powers of observation, of analyzing, of understanding
+and of memory, thus making them more orderly and precise.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The effect of rhythmic training on the time-table and life of a school
+is like that of a hot water heating system which spreads an equal warmth
+through all parts of a building. Teachers of other subjects will find
+that such training provides them with pupils more responsive, more
+elastic and of more character than they otherwise would be. Therefore,
+the study of rhythm, as well as education by means of rhythm, ought to
+be most closely connected with school life.
+
+    [Illustration: The College.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+(ADDRESS TO THE DRESDEN TEACHERS' ASSOCIATION, MAY 28, 1912)
+
+From many years' experience of music teaching I have gradually produced
+a method which gives a child musical experiences instead of musical
+knowledge.
+
+I expect much from education in rhythm in elementary schools, provided
+it be given regularly, completely and sufficiently. The exercises should
+be begun at the age of six, with half an hour's lesson three times a
+week, but these lessons can quite well be taken from playtime. By the
+age of twelve two lessons a week are sufficient. This training will not
+only develop the feeling for beauty and form by accustoming the eye to
+distinguish beautiful movements and lines from those that are ugly, but
+also render the children susceptible to musical impressions.
+
+There are always children who are not able to sing in time, or even to
+beat time, to walk in time, or to graduate the strength and rapidity of
+their movements. Such children are unrhythmic, and it will generally be
+noticed that these children are stiff and awkward, often also
+over-excitable. This lack of rhythm is almost like a disease. It is
+caused by the lack of balance between the mental and physical powers,
+which results from insufficient co-ordination between the mental
+picture of a movement and its performance by the body, and these nervous
+troubles are just as much the cause as the result of such lack of
+harmony. In some cases the brain gives clear and definite impulses, but
+the limbs, in themselves healthy, can do nothing because the nervous
+system is in confusion. In other cases the limbs have lost the power to
+carry out orders sent by the brain, and the undischarged nerve-impulses
+disturb the whole nervous system. In other cases again, muscles and
+nerves are healthy, but insufficient training in rhythm impedes the
+formation of lasting rhythmic images in the brain. To repeat, the causes
+of this lack of rhythm all lie in the important but insufficiently
+recognized psycho-physiological sphere of the co-ordination of brain,
+nerve-paths and muscles.
+
+The objection is sometimes made that rhythmic gymnastics cause
+nerve-strain in children. This is not the case. Several brain
+specialists have told me that they have effected satisfactory cures with
+rhythmic gymnastic exercises.
+
+Rhythm is infinite, therefore the possibilities for physical
+representations of rhythm are infinite.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+(ADDRESS TO STUDENTS, _der Rhythmus_, Vol. I, p. 41, _et seq._)
+
+I consider it unpardonable that in teaching the piano the whole
+attention should be given to the imitative faculties, and that the
+pupil should have no opportunity whatever of expressing his own musical
+impressions with the technical means which are taught him.
+
+Whether the teacher himself be a genius is of little importance,
+provided he is able to help others to develop their own talents.
+
+One can create nothing of lasting value without self-knowledge. The only
+living art is that which grows out of one's own experiences. It is just
+the same with teaching; it is quite impossible to develop others until
+one has proved one's own powers in every direction, until one has learnt
+to conquer oneself, to make oneself better, to suppress bad tendencies,
+to strengthen good ones, and, in the place of the primitive being, to
+make one more complete who, having consciously formed himself, knows his
+powers. Only in proportion as one develops oneself is one able to help
+others to develop.
+
+I consider that one does not require to be a genius in order to teach
+others, but that one certainly does require strong conviction,
+enthusiasm, persistence and joy in life. All these qualities are equally
+derived from the control and knowledge of self.
+
+We must, from youth upwards, learn that we are masters of our fate, that
+heredity is powerless if we realize that we can conquer it, that our
+future depends upon the victory which we gain over ourselves. However
+weak the individual may be, his help is required to prepare a way for a
+better future. Life and growth are one and the same, and it is our duty
+by the example of our lives to develop those who come after us. Let us
+therefore assume the responsibility which Nature puts upon us, and
+consider it our duty to regenerate ourselves; thus shall we help the
+growth of a more beautiful humanity.
+
+I like joy, for it is life. I preach joy, for it alone gives the power
+of creating useful and lasting work. Amusement, an excitement which
+stimulates the nerves instead of uplifting the spirit, is not necessary
+in the life of the artist. Of course one must often let oneself go, and
+I should be the last to defend a so-called moral discipline, or a
+pedantic rule of monastic severity. For a healthy, active person the joy
+of the daily struggle and of work performed with enthusiasm should be
+sufficient to beautify life, drive away fatigue and illuminate present
+and future. This condition of joy is brought about in us by the feeling
+of freedom and responsibility, by the clear perception of the creative
+power in us, by the balance of our natural powers, by the harmonious
+rhythm between intention and deed. It depends upon our creative
+faculties, both natural and acquired, and becomes greater as these grow.
+The power of understanding ourselves certainly gives us a sense of
+freedom, for it opens a rapid correspondence, not only between
+imagination and power of performance, between apperception and feelings,
+but also between the various kinds of feelings which dwell in us.
+
+    [Illustration: The College.]
+
+
+
+
+THE JAQUES-DALCROZE METHOD
+
+
+I. GROWTH[1]
+
+    [1] For much of the material of this chapter the writer
+    is indebted to Herr Karl Storck, of Berlin, to whose
+    book _E. Jaques-Dalcroze, seine Stellung und Aufgabe in
+    unserer Zeit_, Stuttgart, 1912, Greiner & Pfeiffer, the
+    reader is directed.
+
+
+Emile Jaques-Dalcroze was born in Vienna on July 6, 1865, of mixed
+parentage, his father being a Swiss from St. Croix in the Jura (hence
+the artist name Dalcroze), his mother of German extraction. At the age
+of eight his parents brought him to Geneva, where in due course he
+became a student at the Conservatoire of Music. His musical education
+was continued in Paris under Léo Delibes and in Vienna under Bruckner
+and Fuchs. For a short period his studies were interrupted by an
+engagement as musical director of a small theatre in Algiers--an
+opportunity which he used for study of the peculiar rhythms of Arab
+popular music, which he found unusually interesting and stimulating.
+
+Returning to Geneva, he earned, by a life of varied activities as
+teacher, writer and composer, a standing which in 1892 brought him the
+appointment of Professor of Harmony at the Geneva Conservatoire.
+
+The wider experience which the new sphere of work brought was to a
+certain extent a disappointment, for with it came clear evidence of what
+had before only been suspected, namely, that the education of future
+professional musicians was in many ways radically wrong, in that the
+training of individual faculties was made the chief object, without
+consideration of whether or no these faculties stood in any close
+relation to the inner consciousness of the student. In other words, the
+aim of the training was to form means of expression, without
+consideration of what was to be expressed, to produce a highly trained
+instrument, without thought of the art whose servant it was to be, to
+take as primary object a thing of secondary importance, indeed only of
+importance at all when consequent on something which the usual training
+entirely neglected. The students were taught to play instruments, to
+sing songs, but without any thought of such work becoming a means of
+self expression and so it was found that pupils, technically far
+advanced, after many years of study were unable to deal with the
+simplest problems in rhythm and that their sense for pitch, relative or
+absolute, was most defective; that, while able to read accurately or to
+play pieces memorized, they, had not the slightest power of giving
+musical expression to their simplest thoughts or feelings, in fact were
+like people who possess the vocabulary of a language and are able to
+read what others have written, yet are unable to put their own simple
+thoughts and impressions into words. The analogy here is the simplest
+use of everyday language; from this to the art of the essayist or poet
+is far; so in music--one who has mastered notes, chords and rhythms can
+give musical expression to simple thoughts and feelings, while to become
+a composer he must traverse a road that only natural talent can render
+easy.
+
+Jaques-Dalcroze took the view that technique should be nothing but a
+means to art, that the aim of musical education should be, not the
+production of pianists, violinists, singers, but of musically developed
+human beings, and that therefore the student should not begin by
+specializing on any instrument, but by developing his musical faculties,
+thus producing a basis for specialized study. This training could only
+be obtained by awakening the sense, natural though often latent, for the
+ultimate bases of music, namely, _tone_ and _rhythm_. As the sense for
+tone could only be developed through the ear, he now gave special
+attention to vocal work, and noticed that when the students themselves
+beat time to their singing, the work became much more real, that the
+pupils had a feeling of being physically in unison with the music,
+indeed the feeling of producing something complete and beautiful.
+Following up this hint, "Gesture Songs" were written, which, it was
+found, were performed with surprising ease.
+
+Up to this point movement had only been used as an accompaniment to
+music, not as a means of expressing it; the next step was to give the
+body a training so refined and so detailed as to make it sensitive to
+every rhythmic impulse and able to lose itself in any music. This
+co-ordination of movement and music is the essence of the
+Jaques-Dalcroze method, and differentiates it from all other methods of
+similar aim.
+
+So far only arm movements had been employed, and those merely the
+conventional ones of the conductor. The next step was to devise a series
+of arm movements, providing a means of clearly marking all tempi from
+two beats in the bar to twelve beats in the bar, including such forms as
+5/4 7/4 9/4 11/4, and a system of movements of the body and
+lower limbs to represent time values from any number of notes to the
+beat up to whole notes of twelve beats to the note. From the first the
+work aroused keen interest among the students and their parents, and the
+master was given enthusiastic help by them in all his experiments; above
+all he was loyally aided by his assistant, Fräulein Nina Gorter. The
+Conservatoire authorities, however, were not sympathetic, and it became
+necessary to form a volunteer-experimental class, which worked outside
+official hours and buildings.
+
+The first public recognition of the method was at the Music Festival in
+Solothurn in 1905, where a demonstration was given which made a
+striking impression on those present. The value of the method for the
+elementary education of musicians was immediately recognized and some
+slight idea obtained of the part it might play in general elementary
+education. It has been made clear that the method had its origin in the
+attempt to give life and reality to musical education, to give a
+foundational development on which specialized music study could be
+based, and that it had grown naturally and gradually as the result of
+observation and experiment. Now it began to be apparent that something
+still greater than the original aim had been achieved, that the system
+evolved was one which, properly used, might be of enormous value in the
+education of children. With characteristic energy Jaques-Dalcroze,
+inspired by the new idea, took up the study of psychology, in which he
+was helped by his friend, the psychologist Claparède, who early saw the
+value which the new ideas might have in educational practice. The change
+of outlook which now took place in the master's mind can best be made
+clear by a translation of his own words.[1]
+
+    [1] Address to students, Dresden, 1911 (_Der Rhythmus_,
+    vol. i, p. 33).
+
+    "It is true that I first devised my method as a
+    musician for musicians. But the further I carried my
+    experiments, the more I noticed that, while a method
+    intended to develop the sense for rhythm, and indeed
+    based on such development, is of great importance in
+    the education of a musician, its chief value lies in
+    the fact that it trains the powers of apperception and
+    of expression in the individual and renders easier the
+    externalization of natural emotions. Experience teaches
+    me that a man is not ready for the specialized study of
+    an art until his character is formed, and his powers of
+    expression developed."
+
+In 1906 was held the first training-course for teachers; how the method
+has since grown can be realized by noting that a fortnight was then
+considered a sufficient period of training, whilst now the teachers'
+course at Hellerau requires from one to three years' steady work. In the
+years 1907-9 the short teachers' courses were repeated; in the latter
+year the first diploma was granted, experience having shown the need of
+this, for already individuals in all parts of the world, after but a few
+days' training, in some cases after merely being spectators at lessons,
+were advertising themselves as teachers of the method. In 1910
+Jaques-Dalcroze was invited by the brothers Wolf and Harald Dohrn to
+come to Dresden, where, in the garden suburb of Hellerau, they have
+built him a College for Rhythmic Training, a true Palace of Rhythm.
+
+
+II. PRACTICE[1]
+
+    [1] In the preparation of this chapter free use has
+    been made of the writings of M. Jaques-Dalcroze and of
+    Dr. Wolf Dohrn, Director of the College of Music and
+    Rhythm, Hellerau, Dresden.
+
+
+The method naturally falls into three divisions--
+
+    (_a_) Rhythmic gymnastics proper.
+    (_b_) Ear training.
+    (_c_) Improvisation (practical harmony).
+
+(_a_) Is essentially the Jaques-Dalcroze method--that which is
+fundamentally new. As it is this part of the method which is likely to
+prove of great value in all systems of education, not merely as a
+preparation for the study of music, but as a means to the utmost
+development of faculty in the individual, it will be dealt with in
+detail.
+
+(_b_) Is of the greatest importance as an adjunct to rhythmic
+gymnastics, since it is through the ear that rhythm-impressions are most
+often and most easily obtained. Jaques-Dalcroze naturally uses his own
+methods of ear-training, which are extremely successful, but he does not
+lay stress on them; he does, however, emphasize the need of such
+training, whatever the method, as shall give the pupil an accurate sense
+of pitch, both absolute and relative, and a feeling for tonality. The
+more these are possessed the greater the use which can be made of
+rhythmic gymnastics.
+
+    [Illustration: Beating 4/4.]
+
+    [Illustration: Movements for the Semibreve.]
+
+(_c_) This is not required in the _pupil_, however valuable it may be as
+an additional means of self-expression; it is, however, absolutely
+necessary for the successful _teacher_ of rhythmic gymnastics, who must
+be able to express, on some instrument--most conveniently the
+piano--whatever rhythms, simple or compound, he may wish to use in the
+training of his pupils. This subject, therefore, naturally forms an
+important part of the normal course at the Hellerau College, since this
+course is planned to meet the needs of students preparing for the
+teaching diploma in Eurhythmics. Here, too, Jaques-Dalcroze has his own
+system, with which he obtains results often remarkable, but, as in the
+case of the ear-training, this is a detail not peculiar to the method as
+a whole.
+
+To repeat: the essentials are that the teacher have the power of free
+expression on some musical instrument, the pupil that of hearing
+correctly.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The system of exercises known as rhythmic gymnastics is based upon two
+ideas, (i) _time_ is shown by movements of the arms, (ii) _time-values_,
+i.e., note-duration, by movements of the feet and body. In the early
+stages of the training this principle is clearly observed; later it may
+be varied in many ingenious ways, for instance in what is known as
+plastic counterpoint, where the actual notes played are represented by
+movements of the arms, while the counterpoint in crotchets, quavers or
+semiquavers, is given by the feet.
+
+The system of beating time with the arms provides for all tempi from
+2/4 to 12/4 and includes 5/4 7/4 9/4.
+
+In the series of movements to represent note-values the crotchet is
+taken as the unit; this is represented by a step; higher values, from
+the minim to the whole note of twelve beats, are represented by a step
+with one foot and a movement or movements with the other foot or with
+the body, but without progression, e.g., a minim by one step and a knee
+bend, a dotted minim by a step and two movements without progression, a
+whole note of twelve beats by a step and eleven movements. Thus for
+each note in the music there is one step, one progression in space,
+while at the same time the note, if of greater length than a crotchet,
+is analysed into crotchets.
+
+Notes of shorter duration than the crotchet, i.e., quavers, triplets,
+etc., are expressed also by steps which become quicker in proportion to
+their frequency.
+
+When the movements corresponding to the notes from the crotchet to the
+whole note of twelve beats have, with all their details, become a habit,
+the pupil need only make them mentally, contenting himself with one step
+forward. This step will have the exact length of the whole note, which
+will be mentally analysed into its various elements. Although these
+elements are not individually performed by the body, their images and
+the innervations suggested by those images take the place of the
+movements.
+
+The process is similar to that of the child learning to read; at first
+it reads aloud, then to itself, still, however, moving its lips, i.e.,
+still making all the innervations necessary for the pronunciation of the
+words. Only after much practice does the process become sufficiently
+automatic for these lip and tongue innervations to be dropped. Indeed,
+many adults show traces of them when they read. To what degree our power
+to read is based upon such innervations is shown by the fact that old
+people, as their inhibitory powers become weaker, often revert to making
+these lip movements. From this we may conclude that such innervations,
+although they do not find their natural expression, still exist and
+have effect, i.e., they are necessary. The Jaques-Dalcroze method aims
+at nothing more or less than the training of rhythmic innervations.
+
+The whole training aims at developing the power of rapid physical
+reaction to mental impressions. These latter are more commonly obtained
+through the ear, chiefly from the music played; naturally, however, the
+teacher needs at times to give commands during an exercise. For this
+purpose he invariably uses the word _hopp_, a word chosen for its clear
+incisiveness.
+
+Before each exercise it is clearly stated what the word is to represent
+in that particular case, e.g., omit one beat, omit one bar, beat time
+twice as fast with the arms, etc.; often the word will be used in series
+in an exercise, each _hopp_ meaning some additional change. As the
+command generally falls on the second half of the beat preceding the one
+in which the change is to be made, very rapid mental and physical
+response is necessary, especially if the music be at all quick.
+Exercises of this class soon give the power of rapid muscular
+innervation and inhibition, and are of extraordinary value in education,
+quite apart from their purely rhythmic side.
+
+We will now consider the exercises in some detail, taking, as a matter
+of convenience, the order and grouping generally adopted at
+demonstrations of the method. In actual practice such strict grouping is
+neither possible nor necessary; the actual form which the lessons take
+will depend upon the genius of teacher and pupils, the possibilities of
+variety being infinite.
+
+    [Sidenote: =MOVEMENTS TO INDICATE VARIOUS TEMPI=]
+
+Simple music is played to which the pupils march. As they grasp the beat
+they mark it by an accented step; when this becomes easy, the
+corresponding arm movements are added, and the strong beat, at this
+stage always the first, is marked by full contraction of the arm
+muscles. Practice is given until at _hopp_ the pupil can stop suddenly,
+discontinue accenting with one or both arms or with one or both feet,
+substitute an arm-movement for a foot movement, insert an extra accent
+either with arm or foot, or do any similar thing previously agreed on.
+By repeated practice of such exercises complete automatic control of the
+limbs is obtained and the ground prepared for more advanced work. It is
+at this stage that the simple movements to indicate times and notes are
+learnt; they may be likened to the alphabet of the method, the
+elementary exercises as a whole being its accidence, the more advanced
+stages, including plastic expression, its syntax.
+
+    [Sidenote: =TRAINING IN METRE=]
+
+This group of exercises is a natural extension of those preceding.
+
+The pupil learns a series of movements which together form a rhythm,
+first practising them singly, then in groups, the signal for the change
+being always the word _hopp_. By means of such exercises the component
+movements required in the physical expression of a rhythm can be learnt,
+first individually, then in series, until the complete rhythm can be
+expressed and the use of _hopp_ be dropped, each change of movement
+becoming itself the signal for the next.
+
+Again, the pupil learns to realize[1] a rhythm played on the piano or
+indicated by the movements of another person. This is something quite
+apart from mere imitation; trained by previous exercises, the pupil
+first forms clear mental images of the movements corresponding to the
+rhythm in question and then gives physical expression to those images.
+In other words, he does not reproduce until he has understood; in fact,
+without understanding, correct reproduction of a lengthy series of such
+movements is impossible. In the same way, an individual cannot easily
+remember and repeat a succession of words which he does not understand,
+but can repeat without difficulty a long series of words of which he
+understands the sense. Indeed, the importance of many of these exercises
+becomes clearer when the way in which children are taught to read and
+write is remembered.
+
+    [1] _Realize_ is used in rhythmic gymnastics in the
+    sense _express by movements of the body_.
+
+Oral and visual images of letters and words are impressed on the child
+by reading aloud, and in this way the young brain easily masters the
+difficult work of reading and writing. The Jaques-Dalcroze method
+proceeds in exactly the same manner as regards the elements of music.
+
+When we have once realized this point, we are bound to wonder why music
+teaching has not always been based on this elementary and unfailing
+form. What would be said to teachers who tried to teach children to read
+and write without letting them spell and read aloud? But this is what
+has often been done in the teaching of music, and if children generally
+show but little pleasure and interest in their first music lessons, the
+fault does not lie with them but with our wrong method of making the
+elements clear to them.
+
+As a matter of fact we generally do not make the latter clear to them,
+and fail in the most important duty of the educator and teacher, namely,
+that of making the child really experience what he is to learn.
+
+    [Sidenote: =DEVELOPMENT OF MENTAL RESPONSE=]
+
+A rhythm in music consists of a regularly recurring series of accented
+sounds, unaccented sounds, and rests, expressed in rhythmic gymnastics
+by movements and inhibitions of movements. Individuals who are
+rhythmically uncertain generally have a muscular system which is
+irregularly responsive to mental stimuli; the response may be too rapid
+or too slow; in either case impulse or inhibition falls at the wrong
+moment, the change of movement is not made to time, and the physical
+expression of the rhythm is blurred.
+
+Although feeling for rhythm is more or less latent in us all and can be
+developed, few have it naturally perfect. The method has many exercises
+which are of use in this connexion. By means of these the pupil is
+taught how to arrest movement suddenly or slowly, to move alternately
+forwards or backwards, to spring at a given signal, to lie down or stand
+up in the exact time of a bar of music--in each case with a minimum of
+muscular effort and without for a moment losing the feeling for each
+time-unit of the music.
+
+    [Sidenote: =MENTAL HEARING. CONCENTRATION=]
+
+Physical movements repeatedly performed create corresponding images in
+the brain; the stronger the feeling for the movement, i.e., the more the
+pupil concentrates while making that movement, the clearer will be the
+corresponding mental image, and the more fully will the sense for metre
+and rhythm be developed.
+
+We might say that these movement images store up the innervations which
+bring about the actual movement. They are for the body and its movements
+what formulæ are for the mathematician.
+
+Developed out of many movements they become a complete symbol for the
+rhythm expressed by the series of movements in question. Thus the pupil
+who knows how to march in time to a given rhythm has only to close his
+eyes and recall a clear image of the corresponding movements to
+experience the rhythm as clearly as if he were expressing it by
+marching. He simply continues to perform the movements mentally. If,
+however, his movements when actually realizing the rhythm are weak or
+confused, the corresponding mental images will be vague or incorrect,
+whilst movements which are dynamically clear guarantee the accuracy of
+the corresponding mental images and nerve-impulses.
+
+In practice the exercise consists in first mastering a rhythm played,
+marching and beating time in the usual manner, then at _hopp_
+discontinuing all movement, either for a number of bars previously
+agreed upon or until the signal to resume is given by a second _hopp_.
+In this exercise the teacher ceases to play at the first _hopp_.
+
+    [Sidenote: =ANALYSIS AND DIVISION OF TIME VALUES=]
+
+The exercises of this group are designed to teach how to subdivide units
+of time into parts of varying number. At _hopp_ the crotchet must be
+divided into quavers, triplets, semiquavers, etc., as may have been
+previously arranged, or instead of _hopp_ the teacher may call _three_,
+_four_, etc., to indicate the subdivision which is to be expressed by
+the corresponding number of steps. Apart from their direct object, the
+exercises of this group are of value for the training which they give in
+poise; they might be classed equally well with the group under
+_Development of Mental Response_.
+
+Here, too, belong exercises in the realization of syncopation in which,
+as the note is represented by the usual step, it comes off the beat, the
+latter being indicated by a knee-bend which, in quick time, becomes a
+mere suggestion of movement or is omitted, e.g., {Music}
+
+These exercises in syncopation are perhaps some of the most difficult in
+the method, as they demand an extraordinary control of inhibition.
+Individuals of musical ability often find them difficult at first, and
+their easy performance may be taken as evidence of a developed feeling
+for rhythm. As a rule children find these exercises easier than do
+adults.
+
+    [Illustration: Beating 5/4 in canon without
+    expression.]
+
+    [Illustration: Beating 5/4 in canon with expression.]
+
+    [Sidenote: =REALIZATION OF TIME AND RHYTHM=]
+
+The object here is to express by rhythmic movements and without
+hesitation rhythms perceived by the ear. The exactness of such
+expression will be in proportion to the number of movements of which the
+pupil has acquired automatic control. There is not time to analyse the
+music heard; the body must _realize_ before the mind has a clear
+impression of the movement image, just as in reading, words are
+understood and pronounced without a clear mental image of them being
+formed.
+
+When the realization of a rhythm heard has become relatively easy, the
+pupil is taught to concentrate, by listening to, and forming a mental
+image of, a fresh rhythm while still performing the old one. In this
+manner he obtains facility in rendering automatic, groups of movements
+rhythmically arranged, and in keeping the mind free to take a fresh
+impression which in its turn can be rendered automatic.
+
+Here again the process is analagous to that of reading, in which, while
+we are grasping the meaning of a sentence, the eye is already dealing
+with the next, preparing it in turn for comprehension.
+
+    [Sidenote: =DEVELOPMENT OF INDEPENDENT CONTROL OF THE LIMBS=]
+
+Characteristic exercises of this group are: beating the same time with
+both arms but in canon, beating two different tempi with the arms while
+the feet march to one or other or perhaps march to yet a third time,
+e.g., the arms 3/4 and 4/4, the feet 5/4. There are, also,
+exercises in the analysis of a given time unit into various fractions
+simultaneously, e.g., in a 6/8 bar one arm may beat three to the bar,
+the other arm two, while the feet march six.
+
+    [Sidenote: =DOUBLE OR TRIPLE DEVELOPMENT OF RHYTHMS=]
+
+These exercises are a physical preparation for what is known in music as
+the development of a theme. While the composers of fugues always use a
+double or quadruple development, the method introduces an entirely fresh
+element--the triple development, exercises in which are difficult but
+extremely valuable.
+
+    [Sidenote: =PLASTIC COUNTERPOINT AND COMPOUND RHYTHMS=]
+
+In plastic counterpoint the arms realize the theme, i.e., make as many
+movements as there are notes, whilst the feet mark the counterpoint in
+crotchets, quavers, triplets or semiquavers.
+
+A compound rhythm may be realized by the arms taking one rhythm, the
+feet another; or the rhythms of a three part canon may be expressed by
+simultaneous singing, beating with the arms and marching.
+
+These exercises correspond in the sphere of physical expression to the
+technical exercises of instrumental work, for they teach the pupil to
+express simultaneously impressions of the most varying nature.
+
+    [Sidenote: =GRADATION OF MUSCULAR EFFORT. PATHETIC
+    ACCENT. PLASTIC EXPRESSION=]
+
+The exercises already dealt with have all the general purpose of
+developing feeling for rhythm by giving training in the physical
+expression of rhythms. Those in this last group aim at facility in
+making crescendos and decrescendos of innervation, in passing from one
+shade of expression to another, in co-ordinating movements, not only to
+the rhythm of the music played, but also to its feeling; they allow free
+play to individuality, to temperament, and give opportunity for that
+free self-expression for which the preceding exercises have provided
+facility.
+
+PERCY B. INGHAM.
+
+
+
+
+LESSONS AT HELLERAU
+
+
+Monsieur Jaques-Dalcroze's lessons are full of vitality and
+entertainment, combined with the serious work in hand. No slacking is
+possible. He will perhaps open a rhythmic gymnastic lesson by playing a
+vigorous theme of one or two bars in a rhythm such as the following:--
+
+{Music}
+
+which, as soon as it is grasped by the pupils, they begin to
+_realize_,[1] that is, to mark the tempo with the arms, and to move the
+feet according to the notes. A note which contains more than one
+beat--for instance, the minim in the first bar--is shown by taking
+one step forward for the first beat and by a slight bend of the knee for
+the second beat. The next two crochets are represented by one step for
+each. A step is also taken for each quaver, but twice as quickly; for
+the dotted crochet, a step and a slight spring before the last
+quaver--all this while the arms are beating a steady four. After a short
+practice of these two bars, the master will glide into yet another
+rhythm, the pupils still realizing the first one, but at the same time
+listening and mentally registering the one being played, so as to be
+ready on the instant at the word of command, which is _hopp_, to change
+to the new rhythm. We will suppose it to be as follows {Music}. This, it
+will be noticed, is in 3/4 time. The pupils become accustomed to
+dropping frequently into various times with the greatest ease. The three
+bars would then be realized consecutively, and this process will
+continue until perhaps there are six bars in all. These must all be so
+clear in the minds of the pupils, that at the word of command, one bar,
+or two bars, can be omitted on the instant, or be realized twice as
+quickly, or twice as slowly; or what is still more complicated, the arms
+can beat the time twice as slowly and the feet mark the notes twice as
+quickly. It seems incredibly difficult to do at first, but the same
+training of _thinking to time_ occurs in every lesson, in improvisation
+and solfège, as well as in the rhythmic gymnastic lessons, and so the
+invaluable habits of concentrated thinking, of quick and definite
+action, and of control of mind over body, become established.
+
+    [1] See note, page 41
+
+    [Illustration: The Air Bath.]
+
+    [Illustration: The College: Entrance Hall.]
+
+Each lesson is varied to a remarkable degree; in fact, Monsieur
+Jaques-Dalcroze seldom repeats himself. Every day he has new ideas,
+consisting of new movements, or of new uses for old ones, so that there
+is never a dull moment. It must be understood, however, that the
+alphabet and grammar of the movements remain the same, it is the
+combinations of them that are limitless. The music is, of course, always
+improvised.
+
+A word should be said on the subject of feeling two different rhythms at
+the same time. Every teacher knows the difficulty children have in
+playing three notes against four on the piano. The Hellerau children can
+with ease beat four with one arm and three with the other, or beat three
+with the arms and two or four with the feet, or _vice versa_. And this
+is not learnt in any mechanical way; the power for _feeling_ two rhythms
+simultaneously is developed. Advanced pupils can realize three rhythms
+at the same time. They will perhaps mark one with the arms, another with
+the feet, and sing yet a third.
+
+Another part of the work is to teach the pupils to express the type of
+music that is being played; this is technically known as "Plastic
+expression." The alphabet of this consists of twenty gestures with the
+arms, which can be done in many various combinations and in various
+positions, and by means of these any kind of emotion can be expressed.
+Perhaps the music will begin by being solemn and grand, becoming even
+tragic, and gradually the tones and melody will rise to cheerfulness,
+the rhythm will become more animated and the tone swell out again until
+a perfect ecstasy of joy is reached--and all the while the figures of
+the pupils are harmonising absolutely with the music, trained as they
+are to listen accurately to every note, every accent, every change of
+key and, above all, every rhythm. To the watcher such an exercise is
+effective and striking in the highest degree.
+
+Realizing syncopated passages is a fine exercise for developing
+independence of movement in the arms and feet, as the feet move in
+between the beats of the arms. Let any one try to realize a simple
+measure in syncopation. For instance, take a bar of 4/4 time {Music}.
+The first beat of the arms and the first step will come together, the
+second beat of the arms will come half-way between the second and third
+steps, the third beat half-way between the third and fourth steps, and
+the fourth beat half-way between the fourth and fifth steps, and this
+should be done with no contraction of muscle or appearance of effort.
+
+Other exercises consist of beating various times in canon, that is, one
+arm beginning one beat later than the other; of beating different times
+with each arm, perhaps seven with one arm and three with the other; of
+marching to one rhythm and beating time to another; of simple marching
+and at the word of command taking one step backward, and then forward
+again; of marching the counterpoint of a rhythm. For instance, if the
+rhythm played be {Music} the counterpoint in crochets would be {Music},
+or if it is to be in quavers it would be {Music}. The counterpoint can
+be filled in with triplets, semiquavers, or with notes of any other
+value.
+
+Another good exercise is to take a simple rhythm and at the word of
+command realize it twice or three times as quickly or as slowly, the
+arms still beating in the first tempo. A simple example will make this
+clear. {Music} twice as quickly would become {Music}.
+
+The pupils are often asked to listen to what is played and then to
+realize it. It may be a series of four bars, each one in a different
+tempo, and all times are employed, including 5/4, 7/4, 9/3 and
+others which are somewhat exceptional. And so on _ad infinitum_.
+
+From these suggestions something of the endless variety of exercises
+that may be devised can probably now be imagined.
+
+As soon as movements become automatic they are used as units for
+building up more elaborate movements, and no time is wasted in doing
+merely mechanical exercises. In every detail of the method the brain is
+called into constant activity, and, lest any one should think that it
+would be easy for one pupil to copy another in doing the exercises, it
+should be stated that, if such a thing were attempted, it would end in
+the pupil becoming hopelessly confused, for if the mind once loses hold
+of the work in process it is very difficult to pick it up again.
+
+The solfège lessons are chiefly for ear-training and practical harmony.
+In the elementary classes it is shown how scales and chords are formed,
+and where the tones and semitones occur. The pupils soon become able
+to tell, when three consecutive notes from any scale are played, what
+degrees of the scale they are, or may be. Scales are sung always
+beginning on C for every key and always to a rhythm. Here, again, the
+pupils have to think to time, for in the second scale, which would be
+that of F, if the flat scales were being sung, they have to remember
+that they are starting on the fifth note of the scale, and that the
+interval between the third and fourth notes of the scale is a semitone;
+that the third and fourth degrees in the key of F are A and B, and
+therefore the B has to be flattened in this scale, the other notes
+remaining the same. The whole cycle of scales is sung in this manner,
+each one commencing on C, or on C flat when necessary. The pupils are
+also practised in listening to a scale played and then saying in which
+key it is, judging it by the fall of the semitones.
+
+    [Illustration: Class Rooms.]
+
+    [Illustration: The College: Interiors.]
+
+Chords are sung analytically and in chorus, with their resolutions when
+needed, and this is followed by practice in hearing and naming chords.
+
+Sight singing and transposition are by no means neglected, and there is
+practice in singing intervals, in singing a piece once or twice through
+and then from memory, or in another key, which is not so easy to do when
+the fixed _Do_ is used. And always, whatever is being done, the pupils
+have to be prepared for the word _hopp_, to make any change which has
+been previously agreed on, e.g., to sing on the instant in a key a
+semitone lower, or to sing in thought only until the next _hopp_, when
+they sing aloud again. In these exercises, as in those of the rhythmic
+gymnastics, there is no end of the variety of combination possible.
+There is also opportunity for practice in conducting, and very
+interesting it is, in a children's class, to note with what assurance a
+small girl of perhaps seven or eight will beat time for the others to
+sing one of their songs, and also to note the various renderings each
+conductor will obtain of the same piece.
+
+The improvisation on the piano is perhaps the most difficult part of the
+system to master. It may not be realized by all people that _every one
+can be taught to play original music_. There are cases in which the
+pupil is not naturally musical, and has had no previous knowledge of
+piano playing, but has learnt to improvise sufficiently well to give a
+good lesson in rhythmic gymnastics, which means no small degree of
+ability. This training is begun by making use of the simplest, i.e., the
+common, chords, and when these are known in every key, including those
+on the dominant, the pupil is expected to improvise a short piece of
+eight bars, the chief feature to be attended to being the rhythm, which
+has to be definite and played without hesitation. When perfect
+familiarity is obtained with the common chord of each key and with that
+of its dominant, another chord is learnt, that on the sub-dominant. With
+these three chords alone quite charming little pieces can be played, and
+gradually in this manner the pupil has at his command passing notes,
+appoggiaturas, cadences, and an unlimited number of chords and
+sequences. Then come the rules for modulating from one key to
+another, and equal facility in all keys is insisted on. Monsieur
+Jaques-Dalcroze's pupils learn to improvise with definite thought and
+meaning, nothing unrhythmical is ever allowed, nor any aimless
+meandering over the keyboard. For these lessons the pupils are divided
+into small groups of not more than six in each, and twice a week these
+groups are taken altogether by Monsieur Jaques-Dalcroze.
+
+All branches of the work demand perfect concentration of thought and
+attention, and such invaluable mental training cannot be too highly
+prized, for it is fundamental to success in work of any kind, whatever
+it may be.
+
+ETHEL INGHAM.
+
+    [Illustration: The Hostel: Interiors.]
+
+
+
+
+LIFE AT HELLERAU
+
+
+Surely never before has the world held better opportunities for studying
+and loving the beautiful and true. One need be but a few days in
+Hellerau in order to see some of the many advantages which a stay there
+has to offer. For young men and women searching for a profession in
+life; for those fresh from school while waiting to discover their
+natural bent; for adults who seek a change from their ordinary
+surroundings and who wish to improve in culture and in health; for
+musicians and students in art, for teachers of dancing, and for children
+of all ages, a course of study at the College in Hellerau contains
+advantages and opportunities which seem to exist in no other educational
+institution.
+
+For the convenience of young girls there is a hall of residence, which
+will accommodate about forty-six students, the head of which is a
+cultured English lady of wide experience. There are also many small
+houses on adjoining land, in which the male students and those who are
+older can live. These may, and as a rule do, come to the Hostel for
+meals.
+
+The home life in the Hostel is a cheerful one. The bedrooms are bright,
+containing just the necessary furniture, which of course includes a
+piano. There is a large and charmingly furnished room opening from the
+hall, known as the Diele, which serves as a general sitting-room for the
+students. The dining-room is equally delightful, and can be quickly
+converted into a ball-room for impromptu dances, or adapted for other
+entertainments. There is also a library; and throughout the whole house
+the same good taste is displayed. Leading from the dining-room is a
+large terrace, with steps down into an attractive garden.
+
+The day commences with the sounding of a gong at seven o'clock; the
+house is immediately alive, and some are off to the College for a
+Swedish gymnastic lesson before breakfast, others breakfast at half-past
+seven and have their lesson later. There is always a half hour of
+ordinary gymnastics to begin with. Then there will be a lesson in
+Solfège, one in Rhythmic Gymnastics, and one in Improvisation, each
+lasting for fifty minutes, with an interval of ten minutes between each
+lesson.
+
+Dinner, which is at a quarter-past one, is followed by an hour for rest;
+and at three the energetic people begin practising. The afternoons are
+usually free, except twice a week, when there are lessons in "Plastic"
+and dancing from four till six, before which tea is served, or there may
+be extra lessons in rhythmic gymnastics for small groups of pupils who
+need further help, and students may obtain the use of a room for private
+practice together. In the afternoons, too, there is time and opportunity
+for any other extra study or lessons which are not included in the
+ordinary course, such as violin, solo singing, drawing or painting. Most
+of the students soon acquire wide interests, if they do not have them
+when they first come. Free afternoons may be spent in visiting the
+galleries and shops of Dresden. Whenever there is anything especially
+good in the way of a concert, or an opera or a classical play, there is
+always a party of enthusiasts going into town for it. The opera in
+Dresden, as in other parts of Germany, fortunately begins and ends
+early. Late hours are not encouraged at the Hostel--indeed, everybody is
+glad to retire early, for the work is absorbing and demands plenty of
+energy, especially if the full teachers' course be taken, with the hope
+of a diploma at the end of two years.
+
+    [Illustration: The Hostel.]
+
+Supper is served at a quarter-past seven, and on two evenings a week
+those who wish to join the orchestral or choral societies have the
+pleasure of meeting together and practising under the direction of
+Monsieur Jaques-Dalcroze.
+
+An atmosphere of enthusiasm and good-will permeates the social life. No
+community of the kind could have a more delightful spirit of unity than
+that which pervades the Jaques-Dalcroze School. All students are keen
+and anxious to live as full a life as possible, every one will willingly
+and unselfishly take time and trouble to help others who know less than
+themselves. The College has a unity born of kindred interests, and
+every one glows with admiration and esteem for the genius at the head,
+and for his wonderful method, whilst he himself simply radiates
+good-will and enthusiasm, and works harder than any one else in the
+place. He makes a point of knowing each one of his pupils personally,
+and remarkably quick he is in summing up the various temperaments and
+characters of those with whom he comes into contact.
+
+The moral and mental tone of the College is pure and beautiful, indeed
+it could not well be otherwise, for the work in itself is an
+inspiration. A change is often observable in pupils after they have been
+but a few weeks in residence, a change which tells of more alertness of
+mind, of more animated purpose, and even of higher ideals and aims in
+life.
+
+    [Illustration: Dresden from Hellerau.]
+
+There are opportunities for the practice of many languages, for it is a
+cosmopolitan centre. Nearly all European nationalities are represented,
+but as yet the number of English people is not large. This, however,
+will not long remain so, for the Jaques-Dalcroze method needs only to be
+known in order to be as widely appreciated in Great Britain and the
+United States as it is on the Continent.
+
+The lessons are given in German, though occasionally French is used to
+make clear anything that is not quite understood in the former tongue.
+English people who do not know either of these languages need not look
+upon this as an obstacle, for one quickly arrives at understanding
+sufficiently well to gain the benefit from the lessons, and there is
+always some one in the classes who will interpret when necessary.
+
+The College itself is a fine example of the value of simplicity and
+space in architecture. Both without and within, the block of buildings
+is impressive, this effect being gained by an extreme simplicity of
+decoration. The most modern methods of heating and ventilating are
+provided, and there are large sun and air baths.
+
+Completed in the spring of this year, and with accommodation for five
+hundred students, the settlement stands on high ground about four miles
+from Dresden, in an open, bracing, healthy spot, with charming walks in
+all directions. The views are extensive; to the south lie the
+Erzgebirge, to the south-east Saxon Switzerland, and, in a dip of the
+nearer hills, Dresden.
+
+ETHEL INGHAM.
+
+
+
+
+THE VALUE OF EURHYTHMICS TO ART
+
+
+One of the most marked tendencies of modern aesthetic theory is to break
+down the barriers that convention has erected between the various arts.
+The truth is coming to be realized that the essential factor of poetry,
+painting, sculpture, architecture and music is really of the same
+quality, and that one art does not differ from another in anything but
+the method of its expression and the conditions connected with that
+method.
+
+This common basis to the arts is more easily admitted than defined, but
+one important element in it--perhaps the only element that can be given
+a name--is rhythm. Rhythm of bodily movement, the dance, is the earliest
+form of artistic expression known. It is accompanied in nearly every
+case with rude music, the object being to emphasize the beat and
+rhythmic movement with sound. The quickness with which children respond
+to simple repetition of beat, translating the rhythm of the music into
+movement, is merely recurrence of historical development.
+
+Words with the music soon follow, and from these beginnings--probably
+war-songs or religious chants--come song-poems and ultimately poetry as
+we know it to-day. The still more modern development of prose-writing,
+in the stylistic sense, is merely a step further.
+
+The development on the other side follows a somewhat similar line. The
+rhythm of the dancing figure is reproduced in rude sculpture and
+bas-relief, and then in painting.
+
+    [Illustration: A Plastic Exercise.]
+
+So we have, as it were, a scale of the arts, with music at its centre
+and prose-writing and painting at its two extremes. From end to end of
+the scale runs the unifying desire for rhythm.[1]
+
+    [1] For valuable help in these ideas I am indebted to
+    Mr. J. W. Harvey. I should like to quote verbatim one or
+    two remarks of his on the subject, taken from a recent
+    letter: "Human motion gives the convergence of time
+    (inner sense) and space (outer sense), the spirit and
+    the body. Time, which we are in our inner selves, is
+    more dissociable from us than space, which only our
+    bodies have; the one (time) can be interpreted
+    emotionally and directly by a time-sense; the other
+    (space) symbolically, by a space-sense, which is
+    sight."
+
+To speak of the rhythm of painting may seem fanciful, but I think that
+is only lack of familiarity. The expression is used here with no
+intention of metaphor. Great pictures have a very marked and real
+rhythm, of colour, of line, of feeling. The best prose-writing has
+equally a distinct rhythm.
+
+There was never an age in the history of art when rhythm played a more
+important part than it does to-day. The teaching of M. Dalcroze at
+Hellerau is a brilliant expression of the modern desire for rhythm in
+its most fundamental form--that of bodily movement. Its nature and
+origin have been described elsewhere; it is for me to try and suggest
+the possibilities of its influence on every other art, and on the whole
+of life.
+
+Let it be clearly understood from the first that the rhythmic training
+at Hellerau has an importance far deeper and more extended than is
+contained in its immediate artistic beauty, its excellence as a purely
+musical training, or its value to physical development. This is not a
+denial of its importance in these three respects. The beauty of the
+classes is amazing; the actor, as well as the designer of stage-effects,
+will come to thank M. Dalcroze for the greatest contribution to their
+art that any age can show. He has recreated the human body as a
+decorative unit. He has shown how men, women and children can group
+themselves and can be grouped in designs as lovely as any painted
+design, with the added charm of movement. He has taught individuals
+their own power of gracious motion and attitude. Musically and
+physically the results are equally wonderful. But the training is more
+than a mere musical education; it is also emphatically more than
+gymnastics.
+
+Perhaps in the stress laid on individuality may be seen most easily the
+possibilities of the system. Personal effort is looked for in every
+pupil. Just as the learner of music must have the "opportunity of
+expressing his own musical impressions with the technical means which
+are taught him,"[1] so the pupil at Hellerau must come to improvise from
+the rhythmic sense innate in him, rhythms of his own.[2]
+
+    [1] Cf. supra, p. 28.
+
+    [2] A good example of the fertility and variety of the
+    individual effort obtained at Hellerau was seen at the
+    Aufführung given on December 11, 1911. Two pupils
+    undertook to realize a Prelude of Chopin, their choice
+    falling by chance on the same Prelude. But hardly a
+    movement of the two interpretations was the same. The
+    first girl lay on the ground the whole time, her head
+    on her arm, expressing in gentle movements of head,
+    hands and feet, her idea of the music. At one point
+    near the end, with the rising passion of the music, she
+    raised herself on to her knees; then sank down again to
+    her full length.
+
+    The second performer stood upright until the very end.
+    At the most intense moment her arms were stretched
+    above her head; at the close of the music she was bowed
+    to the ground, in an attitude expressive of the utmost
+    grief. In such widely different ways did the same piece
+    of music speak to the individualities of these two
+    girls.
+
+To take a joy in the beauty of the body, to train his mind to move
+graciously and harmoniously both in itself and in relation to those
+around him, finally, to make his whole life rhythmic--such an ideal is
+not only possible but almost inevitable to the pupil at Hellerau. The
+keenness which possesses the whole College, the delight of every one in
+their work, their comradeship, their lack of self-consciousness, their
+clean sense of the beauty of natural form, promises a new and more
+harmonious race, almost a realization of Rousseau's ideal, and with it
+an era of truly rhythmic artistic production.
+
+That the soil is ready for the new seed may be shown by a moment's
+consideration of what I consider to be a parallel development in
+painting. There is in Munich a group of artists who call themselves Der
+Blaue Reiter. They are led by a Russian, Wassily Kandinsky, and a
+German, Franz Marc, and it is of Kandinsky's art that I propose to
+speak. Kandinsky is that rare combination, an artist who can express
+himself in both words and paint. His book--_Über das Geistige in der
+Kunst_[1]--is an interesting and subtle piece of aesthetic philosophy.
+His painting is a realization of the attempt to paint music. He has
+isolated the emotion caused by line and colour from the external
+association of idea. All form in the ordinary representative sense is
+eliminated. But form there is in the deeper sense, the shapes and
+rhythms of the _innerer Notwendigkeit_, and with it, haunting,
+harmonious colour. To revert to a former metaphor, painting has been
+brought into the centre of the scale. As Kandinsky says in his book:
+"Shades of colour, like shades of sound, are of a much subtler nature,
+cause much subtler vibrations of the spirit than can ever be given by
+words." It is to achieve this finer utterance, to establish a surer and
+more expressive connexion between spirit and spirit, that Kandinsky is
+striving. His pictures are visions, beautiful abstractions of colour and
+line which he has lived himself, deep down in his inmost soul. He is
+intensely individual, as are all true mystics; at the same time the
+spirit of his work is universal.
+
+    [1] _Über das Geistige in der Kunst._ Piper Verlag,
+    München, 3 Marks. See also vol. i. of _der Blaue
+    Reiter_. Piper Verlag, 10 Marks.
+
+In this, then, as in so much else, Kandinsky and Dalcroze are advancing
+side by side. They are leading the way to the truest art, and ultimately
+to the truest life of all, which is a synthesis of the collective arts
+and emotions of all nations, which is, at the same time, based on
+individuality, because it represents the inner being of each one of its
+devotees.
+
+MICHAEL T. H. SADLER.
+
+
+_Printed by_ BUTLER & TANNER, _Frome and London_.
+
+
+    [Illustration: A Plastic Exercise.]
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Eurhythmics of Jaques-Dalcroze, by 
+Emile Jaques-Dalcroze
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+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Eurhythmics of Jaques-Dalcroze, by 
+Emile Jaques-Dalcroze
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Eurhythmics of Jaques-Dalcroze
+
+Author: Emile Jaques-Dalcroze
+
+Contributor: M. E. Sadler
+
+Release Date: June 1, 2007 [EBook #21653]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE EURHYTHMICS OF JAQUES-DALCROZE ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by David Newman, V. L. Simpson and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<div><img id="frontis" class="center" src="images/frontis.jpg"
+alt="Illustration" /></div>
+
+<p class="caption">Emile Jaques-Dalcroze.</p>
+
+<div class="titlepage">
+
+<h1>THE EURHYTHMICS <span style="font-size:smaller">OF
+JAQUES-DALCROZE</span></h1>
+
+<div class="byline">
+Introduction by<br />
+Professor <span class="smcap">M. E. Sadler</span>, LL.D. (Columbia)<br />
+<span style="font-size:smaller">Vice-Chancellor of the University of Leeds</span><br />
+</div>
+
+<div class="publisher small">
+<span class="smaller">BOSTON</span><br />
+SMALL MAYNARD AND COMPANY<br />
+<span class="smaller">1915</span><br />
+<span  class="smaller">Printed in Great Britain</span>
+</div>
+</div><!-- end .titlepage -->
+
+<hr />
+
+<div class="intro">
+<blockquote class="epigram"><p><span class="pagenum">[Pg. 5]</span><a name="note"></a>
+&#928;&#945;&#962;
+&#947;&#945;&#961;
+&#8001;
+&#946;&#953;&#959;&#962;
+&#964;&#959;&#965;
+&#945;&#957;&#952;&#961;&#969;&#960;&#959;&#965;
+&#949;&#965;&#961;&#965;&#952;&#956;&#953;&#945;&#962;
+&#964;&#949;
+&#954;&#945;&#953;
+&#949;&#965;&#945;&#961;&#956;&#959;&#963;&#964;&#953;&#945;&#962;
+&#948;&#949;&#953;&#964;&#945;&#953;
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>"Rhythmische Gymnastik" is the name by which the Dalcroze method is
+known in Germany, but whether or not the German words are adequate,
+their literal translation into English certainly gives too narrow an
+idea of the scope of the system to any one unacquainted with it.
+Rhythmical "gymnastics," in the natural meaning of the word, is a part
+of the Dalcroze training, and a not unimportant part, but it is only one
+application of a much wider principle; and accordingly, where the term
+occurs in the following pages, it must be understood simply as denoting
+a particular mode of physical drill. But for the principle itself and
+the total method embodying it, another name is needed, and the term
+"Eurhythmics" has been here coined for the purpose. The originality of
+the Dalcroze method, the fact that it is a discovery, gives it a right
+to a name of its own: it is because it is in a sense also the
+rediscovery of an old secret that a name has been chosen of such plain
+reference and derivation. Plato, in the words quoted above, has said
+that the whole of a man's life stands in need of a right rhythm: and it
+is natural to see some kinship between this Platonic attitude and the
+claim of Dalcroze that his discovery is not a mere refinement of
+dancing, nor an improved method of music-teaching, but a principle that
+must have effect upon every part of life.</p>
+
+<p class="ralign"><span class="smcap">John W. Harvey.</span></p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="none">&#160;<span class="pagenum">[Pg. 6]</span></p>
+
+<p>&#160;<span class="pagenum">[Pg. 7]</span></p>
+
+<h2>CONTENTS</h2>
+<ul class="toc center">
+<li><a href="#note"><span class="smcap">Note</span>: John W. Harvey  <span class="ralign">5</span></a></li>
+<li><a href="#THE_EDUCATIONAL_SIGNIFICANCE_OF_HELLERAU">The Educational Significance of <span class="smcap">Hellerau</span>: Prof. M. E. Sadler  <span class="ralign">11</span></a></li>
+<li><a href="#RHYTHM_AS_A_FACTOR_IN_EDUCATION">Rhythm as a Factor in Education: Emile Jaques-Dalcroze  <span class="ralign">15</span></a></li>
+<li><a href="#FROM_THE_LECTURES_OF_EMILE_JAQUES-DALCROZE">From Lectures and Addresses: Translated by P. &amp; E. Ingham  <span class="ralign">26</span></a></li>
+<li><a href="#THE_JAQUES-DALCROZE_METHOD">The Method: Growth and Practice: Percy B. Ingham  <span class="ralign">31</span></a></li>
+<li><a href="#LESSONS_AT_HELLERAU">Lessons at Hellerau: Ethel Ingham  <span class="ralign">48</span></a></li>
+<li><a href="#LIFE_AT_HELLERAU">Life at Hellerau: Ethel Ingham  <span class="ralign">55</span></a></li>
+<li><a href="#THE_VALUE_OF_EURHYTHMICS_TO_ART">The Value of Eurhythmics to Art: M. T. H. Sadler.  <span class="ralign">60</span></a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<p class="none">&#160;<span class="pagenum">[Pg. 8]</span></p>
+<p>&#160;<span class="pagenum">[Pg. 9]</span></p>
+
+<h2>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</h2>
+
+<ul class="center">
+
+<li><a href="#frontis">Emile
+Jaques-Dalcroze <span class="ralign"><i>Frontispiece</i></span></a></li>
+
+<li><a href="#img02">The College: from the East <i>Facing
+page</i> <span class="ralign">15</span></a></li>
+
+<li><a href="#img03">The College: Front  <span class="ralign">26</span></a></li>
+
+<li><a href="#img04">The College: General View from the South-East  <span class="ralign">31</span></a></li>
+
+<li>
+<a href="#img05">Beating 4/4</a><br />
+<a href="#img06">Movements for the Semibreve
+<span class="ralign"><i>Between pages</i> 36 <i>and</i> 37</span></a></li>
+
+<li>
+<a href="#img07">Beating 5/4 in Canon without Expression</a><br />
+<a href="#img08">Beating 5/4 in Canon with Expression
+<span class="ralign"><i>Between pages</i> 44 <i>and</i> 45</span></a></li>
+
+<li>
+<a href="#img09">The Air Bath</a><br />
+<a href="#img10">The College: Entrance Hall
+<span class="ralign"><i>Between pages</i> 48 <i>and</i> 49</span></a></li>
+
+<li>
+<a href="#img11">The College: Classrooms</a><br />
+<a href="#img12">The College: Interiors
+<span class="ralign"><i>Between pages</i> 52 <i>and</i> 53</span></a></li>
+
+<li><a href="#img13">The Hostel: Interiors  <span class="ralign"><i>Facing page</i> 55</span></a></li>
+
+<li><a href="#img14">The Hostel: General View  <span class="ralign"><i>page</i> 57</span></a></li>
+
+<li><a href="#img15">Dresden from Hellerau  <span class="ralign"><i>Facing page</i> 59</span></a></li>
+
+<li><a href="#img16">A Plastic Exercise  <span class="ralign">60</span></a></li>
+
+<li><a href="#img17">A Plastic Exercise  <span class="ralign">64</span></a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<p class="none">&#160;<span class="pagenum">[Pg. 10]</span></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="THE_EDUCATIONAL_SIGNIFICANCE_OF_HELLERAU"
+id="THE_EDUCATIONAL_SIGNIFICANCE_OF_HELLERAU"></a>THE EDUCATIONAL
+SIGNIFICANCE OF HELLERAU</h2>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum">[Pg. 11]</span>At Hellerau two things make an
+ineffaceable impression upon the mind&mdash;the exquisite beauty of
+movement, of gesture and of grouping seen in the exercises; and the
+nearness of a great force, fundamental to the arts and expressing itself
+in the rhythm to which they attain. Jaques-Dalcroze has re-opened a door
+which has long been closed. He has rediscovered one of the secrets of
+Greek education.</p>
+
+<p>A hundred years ago Wilhelm von Humboldt endeavoured to make Greek
+ideals the paramount influence in the higher schools of Germany. He and
+a group of friends had long felt indignant at the utilitarianism and
+shallowness of the work of the schools. In Greek literature, Greek
+philosophy and Greek art would be found a means of kindling new life in
+education and of giving it the power of building up strong and
+independent personalities. When there came to Humboldt the unexpected
+opportunity of reforming the secondary schools of Prussia, he so
+remodelled the course of study as to secure for Greek thought and
+letters a place which, if not central and determinative, would at least
+bring the &eacute;lite of the younger generation in some measure under
+their influence. But his administrative orders failed to impart to the
+schools the spirit of ancient Greece. To Humboldt and his friends Greek
+studies had been an <span class="pagenum">[Pg. 12]</span>inspiration
+because, apart from their intellectual significance and literary form,
+those studies had been the channel of an artistic impulse and had been
+entered into as art. But this artistic power was not felt by the greater
+number of those who undertook, in obedience to the new regulations, the
+duty of teaching Greek in the schools. What was left in Greek studies
+after this failure of artistic insight was often no more than another
+form of purely intellectual discipline. A new subject had been added to
+the curriculum, but new life had not been brought into the schools. The
+very name, Gymnasium, which denoted their Hellenic purpose, seemed
+ironical. They were not Greek in spirit and they ignored the training of
+the body. Thus what Wilhelm von Humboldt had chiefly aimed at
+accomplishing, he failed to do. It was not the power of Greek art that
+he brought into the schools but, in most cases, merely the philological
+study of a second dead language. The cause of his failure was that he
+had not discovered the educational method which could effectually secure
+his purpose. He had assumed that, in order to introduce the Greek spirit
+into education, it was sufficient to insist upon the linguistic and
+literary study of Greek.</p>
+
+<p>In time, attempts were made to remedy what was defective in
+Humboldt's plan by insisting upon physical exercises as an obligatory
+part of education in the higher schools. But the physical exercises thus
+introduced, though salutary in themselves, were divorced from the
+artistic influences of the Greek gymnastic. Humboldt's chief aim had
+been forgotten. His system of organization had rooted itself, but his
+educational ideal, to which <span class="pagenum">[Pg. 13]</span>he
+attached far greater importance than to administrative regulation, was
+ignored.</p>
+
+<p>In later years, though such Neo-Hellenism as Humboldt's had long gone
+out of fashion, the weakness of the higher schools on the side of
+artistic training was recognized. But a corrective for this was sought
+in instruction about art, not (except so far as a little teaching of
+drawing went) in the practice of an art. An attempt was made to
+cultivate aesthetic appreciation by lessons which imparted knowledge but
+did not attempt to train the power of artistic production&mdash;an aim which
+was regarded as unrealizable, except in vocal music, and of course
+through literary composition, in a secondary school. Thus Humboldt's
+original purpose has been almost wholly unachieved. The schools,
+admirably organized on the intellectual side and, within certain limits,
+increasingly efficient in their physical training, are, as a rule,
+lacking in the influence of art, as indeed in most cases are the
+corresponding schools in other countries. The spring of artistic
+training has not been touched. The divorce between intellectual
+discipline and artistic influence (except indeed so far as the latter is
+operative through the study of literature, through a little drawing, and
+through vocal music) is complete. This defect is felt even more keenly
+in Germany than in England, because in the German schools the
+intellectual pressure is more severe, and the schools do less for the
+cultivation of those interests which lie outside the limits of regular
+class-room work.</p>
+
+<p>Wilhelm von Humboldt gave little direct attention to the work of the
+elementary schools. His chief concern <span class="pagenum">[Pg.
+14]</span>was with higher education. But in the elementary schools also,
+except in so far as they gave much care to vocal music, the course of
+training failed to make use of the educative power of art. A conviction
+that there is an error has led in Germany, as in England and America, to
+an increased attention to drawing and to attempts to interest children
+in good pictures. But there is still (except in the case of vocal music
+and a little drawing) an unbridged gap between the intellectual and the
+artistic work of the schools.</p>
+
+<p>Jaques-Dalcroze's experience suggests the possibility of a much closer
+combination of these two elements, both in elementary and in secondary
+education. His teaching requires from the pupils a sustained and careful
+attention, is in short a severe (though not exhausting) intellectual
+exercise; while at the same time it trains the sense of form and rhythm,
+the capacity to analyse musical structure, and the power of expressing
+rhythm through harmonious movement. It is thus a synthesis of
+educational influence, artistic and intellectual. Its educational value
+for young children, its applicability to their needs, the pleasure which
+they take in the exercises, have been conclusively proved. And in the
+possibility of this widely extended use of the method lies perhaps the
+chief, though far indeed from the only, educational significance of what
+is now being done at Hellerau.</p>
+
+<p class="ralign"><span class="smcap">M. E. Sadler.</span></p>
+
+<div><img id="img02" class="center" src="images/img02.jpg"
+alt="Illustration" /></div>
+
+<p class="caption">The College.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum">[Pg. 15]</span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="RHYTHM_AS_A_FACTOR_IN_EDUCATION"
+id="RHYTHM_AS_A_FACTOR_IN_EDUCATION"></a>RHYTHM AS A FACTOR IN
+EDUCATION</h2>
+
+<h3>FROM THE FRENCH OF E. JAQUES-DALCROZE<a name="FNanchor_1_1"
+id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1"
+class="fnanchor">[1]</a></h3>
+
+<blockquote><p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_1_1"
+id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a
+href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> First published
+in <i>Le Rhythme</i> (B&acirc;le) of December,
+1909.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>It is barely a hundred years since music ceased to be an aristocratic
+art cultivated by a few privileged individuals and became instead a
+subject of instruction for almost everybody without regard to talent or
+exceptional ability. Schools of Music, formerly frequented only by born
+musicians, gifted from birth with unusual powers of perception for sound
+and rhythm, to-day receive all who are fond of music, however little
+Nature may have endowed them with the necessary capacity for musical
+expression and realization. The number of solo players, both pianists
+and violinists, is constantly increasing, instrumental technique is
+being developed to an extraordinary degree, but everywhere, too, the
+question is being asked whether the quality of instrumental players is
+equal to their quantity, and whether the acquirement of extraordinary
+technique is likely to help musical progress when this technique is not
+joined to musical powers, if not of the first rank, at least normal.</p>
+
+<p>Of ten certificated pianists of to-day, at the most one, if indeed one,
+is capable of recognizing one key from another, of improvising four bars
+with character or so as to give pleasure to the listener, of giving
+<span class="pagenum">[Pg. 16]</span>expression to a composition without
+the help of the more or less numerous annotations with which present day
+composers have to burden their work, of experiencing any feeling
+whatever when they listen to, or perform, the composition of another.
+The solo players of older days were without exception complete
+musicians, able to improvise and compose, artists driven irresistibly
+towards art by a noble thirst for aesthetic expression, whereas most
+young people who devote themselves nowadays to solo playing have the
+gifts neither of hearing nor of expression, are content to imitate the
+composer's expression without the power of feeling it, and have no other
+sensibility than that of the fingers, no other motor faculty than an
+automatism painfully acquired. Solo playing of the present day has
+specialized in a finger technique which takes no account of the faculty
+of mental expression. It is no longer a means, it has become an end.</p>
+
+<p>As a rule, writing is only taught to children who have reached a
+thinking age, and we do not think of initiating them into the art of
+elocution until they have got something to say, until their powers of
+comprehension, analysis and feeling begin to show themselves. All modern
+educationalists are agreed that the first step in a child's education
+should be to teach him to know himself, to accustom him to life and to
+awaken in him sensations, feelings and emotions, before giving him the
+power of describing them. Likewise, in modern methods of teaching to
+draw, the pupil is taught to see objects before painting them. In music,
+unfortunately, the same rule does not hold. Young people are taught to
+<span class="pagenum">[Pg. 17]</span>play the compositions of Bach,
+Mozart, Beethoven, Chopin and Liszt, before their minds and ears can
+grasp these works, before they have developed the faculty of being moved
+by them.</p>
+
+<p>There are two physical agents by means of which we appreciate music.
+These two agents are the ear as regards sound, and the whole nervous
+system as regards rhythm. Experience has shown me that the training of
+these two agents cannot easily be carried out simultaneously. A child
+finds it difficult to appreciate at the same time a succession of notes
+forming a melody and the rhythm which animates them.</p>
+
+<p>Before teaching the relation which exists between sound and movement, it
+is wise to undertake the independent study of each of these two
+elements. Tone is evidently secondary, since it has not its origin and
+model in ourselves, whereas movement is instinctive in man and therefore
+primary. Therefore I begin the study of music by careful and
+experimental teaching of movement. This is based in earliest childhood
+on the automatic exercise of marching, for marching is the natural model
+of time measure.</p>
+
+<p>By means of various accentuations with the foot, I teach the different
+time measures. Pauses (of varying lengths) in the marching teach the
+children to distinguish durations of sound; movements to time with the
+arms and the head preserve order in the succession of the time measures
+and analyse the bars and pauses.</p>
+
+<p>All this, no doubt, seems very simple, and so I thought when
+beginning my experiments. Unfortunately, the latter have shown me that
+it is not so simple as it seems, <span class="pagenum">[Pg.
+18]</span>but on the contrary very complicated. And this because most
+children have no instinct for time, for time values, for accentuation,
+for physical balance; because the motor faculties are not the same in
+all individuals, and because a number of obstacles impede the exact and
+rapid physical realization of mental conceptions. One child is always
+behind the beat when marching, another always ahead; another takes
+unequal steps, another on the contrary lacks balance. All these faults,
+if not corrected in the first years, will reappear later in the musical
+technique of the individual.</p>
+
+<p>Unsteady time when singing or playing, confusion in playing, inability
+to follow when accompanying, accentuating too roughly or with lack of
+precision, all these faults have their origin in the child's muscular
+and nervous control, in lack of co-ordination between the mind which
+conceives, the brain which orders, the nerve which transmits and the
+muscle which executes. And still more, the power of phrasing and shading
+music with feeling depends equally upon the training of the
+nerve-centres, upon the co-ordination of the muscular system, upon rapid
+communication between brain and limbs&mdash;in a word, upon the health of the
+whole organism; and it is by trying to discover the individual cause of
+each musical defect, and to find a means of correcting it, that I have
+gradually built up my method of eurhythmics.</p>
+
+<p>This method is entirely based upon experiments many times repeated,
+and not one of the exercises has been adopted until it has been applied
+under different forms and under different conditions and its usefulness
+definitely proved. Many people have a
+completely <span class="pagenum">[Pg. 19]</span>false idea of my system,
+and consider it is a simple variant on the methods of physical training
+at present in fashion, whose inventors have undoubtedly rendered great
+service to humanity.</p>
+
+<p>I cannot help smiling when I read in certain papers, over names which
+carry weight, articles in which my method is compared to other gymnastic
+systems. The fact is, my book is simply a register of the different
+exercises which I have invented, and says nothing of my ideas in
+general, for it is written for those who have learnt to interpret my
+meaning under my personal tuition at Geneva and Hellerau.</p>
+
+<p>Quite naturally, half the critics who have done me the honour of
+discussing the book, have only glanced through it and looked at the
+photographs. Not one of them has undergone the special training upon
+which I lay stress and without which I deny absolutely that any one has
+the right to pass a definite judgment on my meaning; for one does not
+learn to ride by reading a book on horsemanship, and eurhythmics are
+above all a matter of personal experience.</p>
+
+<p>The object of the method is, in the first instance, to create by the
+help of rhythm a rapid and regular current of communication between
+brain and body; and what differentiates my physical exercises from those
+of present-day methods of muscular development is that each of them is
+conceived in the form which can most quickly establish in the brain the
+image of the movement studied.</p>
+
+<p>It is a question of eliminating in every muscular movement, by the
+help of will, the untimely intervention <span class="pagenum">[Pg.
+20]</span>of muscles useless for the movement in question, and thus
+developing attention, consciousness and will-power. Next must be created
+an automatic technique for all those muscular movements which do not
+need the help of the consciousness, so that the latter may be reserved
+for those forms of expression which are purely intelligent. Thanks to
+the co-ordination of the nerve-centres, to the formation and development
+of the greatest possible number of motor habits, my method assures the
+freest possible play to subconscious expression. The creation in the
+organism of a rapid and easy means of communication between thought and
+its means of expression by movements allows the personality free play,
+giving it character, strength and life to an extraordinary degree.</p>
+
+<p>Neurasthenia is often nothing else than intellectual confusion produced
+by the inability of the nervous system to obtain from the muscular
+system regular obedience to the order from the brain. Training the nerve
+centres, establishing order in the organism, is the only remedy for
+intellectual perversion produced by lack of will power and by the
+incomplete subjection of body to mind. Unable to obtain physical
+realization of its ideas, the brain amuses itself in forming images
+without hope of realizing them, drops the real for the unreal, and
+substitutes vain and vague speculation for the free and healthy union of
+mind and body.</p>
+
+<p>The first result of a thorough rhythmic training is that the pupil
+sees clearly in himself what he really is, and obtains from his powers
+all the advantage possible. This result seems to me one which should
+attract the attention of all educationalists and assure to
+education <span class="pagenum">[Pg. 21]</span>by and for rhythm an
+important place in general culture.</p>
+
+<p>But, as an artist, I wish to add, that the second result of this
+education ought to be to put the completely developed faculties of the
+individual at the service of art and to give the latter the most subtle
+and complete of interpreters&mdash;the human body. For the body can become a
+marvellous instrument of beauty and harmony when it vibrates in tune
+with artistic imagination and collaborates with creative thought. It is
+not enough that, thanks to special exercises, students of music should
+have corrected their faults and be no longer in danger of spoiling their
+musical interpretations by their lack of physical skill and harmonious
+movements; it is necessary in addition that the music which lives within
+them&mdash;artists will understand me&mdash;should obtain free and complete
+development, and that the rhythms which inspire their personality should
+enter into intimate communion with those which animate the works to be
+interpreted.</p>
+
+<p>The education of the nervous system must be of such a nature that the
+suggested rhythms of a work of art induce in the individual analogous
+vibrations, produce a powerful reaction in him and change naturally into
+rhythms of expression. In simpler language, the body must become capable
+of responding to artistic rhythms and of realizing them quite naturally
+without fear of exaggeration.</p>
+
+<p>This faculty of emotion, indispensable to the artist, was formerly
+natural to almost all beginners in music, for hardly any but
+pre-destined artists devoted them<span class="pagenum">[Pg.
+22]</span>selves to the art; but, if this is no longer the case, it is
+possible at least to awaken dulled faculties, to develop and co-ordinate
+them, and it is the duty of every musical educationalist to deter from
+instrumental technique every individual who is still without musical
+feeling.</p>
+
+<p>The experimental study of rhythm should form a part of every
+well-organized musical education, and this study will be useful not only
+to musicians, but to music itself. It is quite certain that, if since
+Beethoven's time harmony has developed, if each generation has created
+fresh groupings of sounds, it is not the same regarding rhythmic forms,
+which remain much as they were.</p>
+
+<p>I shall be told that the means of expression are of no importance so
+long as the artist is able to show his meaning, that a sincere emotion
+can be clearly expressed even with old-fashioned rhythms, and that to
+try and create new rhythms is mere technical work, and to enforce such
+upon the composers of to-morrow is simply depriving them of their
+character. This is all true, and I myself have a horror of seeking new
+means of expression within the limits of hard and fast rules, for
+expression ought to be a spontaneous manifestation. But I assert that
+experiments in rhythm, and the complete study of movements simple and
+combined, ought to create a fresh mentality, that artists thus trained
+will find inevitably and spontaneously new rhythmic forms to express
+their feelings, and that in consequence their characters will be able to
+develop more completely and with greater strength. It is a fact that
+very young children taught by my method invent quite
+naturally <span class="pagenum">[Pg. 23]</span>physical rhythms such as
+would have occurred to very few professional musicians, and that my most
+advanced pupils find monotonous many contemporary works the rhythmic
+poverty of which shocks neither public nor critics.</p>
+
+<p>I will terminate this short sketch of my system by pointing out the
+intimate relations which exist between movements in time and movements
+in space, between rhythms in sound and rhythm in the body, between Music
+and Plastic Expression.</p>
+
+<p>Gestures and attitudes of the body complete, animate and enliven any
+rhythmic music written simply and naturally without special regard to
+tone, and, just as in painting there exist side by side a school of the
+nude and a school of landscape, so in music there may be developed, side
+by side, plastic music and music pure and simple. In the school of
+landscape painting emotion is created entirely by combinations of moving
+light and by the rhythms thus caused. In the school of the nude, which
+pictures the many shades of expression of the human body, the artist
+tries to show the human soul as expressed by physical forms, enlivened
+by the emotions of the moment, and at the same time the characteristics
+suitable to the individual and his race, such as they appear through
+momentary physical modifications.</p>
+
+<p>In the same way, plastic music will picture human feelings expressed by
+gesture and will model its sound forms on those of rhythms derived
+directly from expressive movements of the human body.</p>
+
+<p>To compose the music which the Greeks appear to have realized, and
+for which Goethe and Schiller hoped, <span class="pagenum">[Pg.
+24]</span>musicians must have acquired experience of physical movements;
+this, however, is certainly not the case to-day, for music has become
+beyond all others an intellectual art. While awaiting this
+transformation, present generations can apply education by and for
+rhythm to the interpretation of plastic stage music such as Richard
+Wagner has imagined. At the present day this music is not interpreted at
+all, for dramatic singers, stage managers and conductors do not
+understand the relation existing between gesture and music, and the
+absolute ignorance regarding plastic expression which characterizes the
+lyric actors of our day is a real profanation of scenic musical art. Not
+only are singers allowed to walk and gesticulate on the stage without
+paying any attention to the time, but also no shade of expression,
+dynamic or motor, of the orchestra&mdash;crescendo, decrescendo,
+accelerando, rallentando&mdash;finds in their gestures adequate
+realization. By this I mean the kind of wholly instinctive
+transformation of sound movements into bodily movements such as my
+method teaches.</p>
+
+<p>Authors, poets, musicians and painters cannot demand from the
+interpreters of their works knowledge of the relations between movements
+in time and in space, for this knowledge can only be developed by
+special studies. No doubt a few poets and painters have an inborn
+knowledge of the rhythms of space; for instance, Hugo von Hofmannsthal,
+the stage mounter of "Electra" at the Vienna Opera, who constructed a
+huge staircase, on which, however, the actors, having little
+acquaintance with the most elementary notions of balance, moved with
+deplorable heavi<span class="pagenum">[Pg. 25]</span>ness; or again, the
+aesthetician Adolphe Appia, whose remarkable work <i>Music and Stage
+Mounting</i> ought to be the guide of all stage managers. But the
+majority of composers write their plastic music without knowing whether
+it is capable of being practically realized, without personal experience
+of the laws of weight, force and bodily movement.</p>
+
+<p>My hope is, that sincere artists desirous of perfection and seeking
+progress will study seriously the grave question which I raise. For my
+own part, relying on many experiments, and full of confidence in ideas
+carefully thought out, I have devoted my life to the teaching of rhythm,
+being fully satisfied that, thanks to it, man will regain his natural
+powers of expression, and at the same time his full motor faculties, and
+that art has everything to hope from new generations brought up in the
+cult of harmony, of physical and mental health, of order, beauty and
+truth.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="FROM_THE_LECTURES_OF_EMILE_JAQUES-DALCROZE"
+id="FROM_THE_LECTURES_OF_EMILE_JAQUES-DALCROZE"></a>FROM THE LECTURES OF
+EMILE JAQUES-DALCROZE</h2>
+
+<p class="subtitle"><span class="pagenum">[Pg. 26]</span>(<span class="smcap">Lecture at Leipzig, December 10, 1911</span>)</p>
+
+<p>The objection is often raised that under my system the technique of an
+instrument is acquired too late. But this objection has no foundation in
+fact. A child who begins rhythmic gymnastics as I would have it in its
+fifth or sixth year and a year later ear-training, can certainly have
+piano lessons when eight years old, and I can state from experience that
+the finger technique of the child will then develop much more quickly,
+for the musical faculties in general will have been far better
+developed, more thoroughly trained and become more part of the child's
+life owing to the preliminary training.</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<p>Lessons in rhythmic gymnastics help children in their other lessons,
+for they develop the powers of observation, of analyzing, of
+understanding and of memory, thus making them more orderly and
+precise.</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<p>The effect of rhythmic training on the time-table and life of a
+school is like that of a hot water heating system which spreads an equal
+warmth through all parts of a building. Teachers of other subjects will
+find that such training provides them with pupils more
+re<span class="pagenum">[Pg. 27]</span>sponsive, more elastic and of
+more character than they otherwise would be. Therefore, the study of
+rhythm, as well as education by means of rhythm, ought to be most
+closely connected with school life.</p>
+
+<div><img id="img03" class="center" src="images/img03.jpg"
+alt="Illustration" /></div>
+<p class="caption">The College.</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<p class="subtitle">(<span class="smcap">Address to the Dresden
+Teachers' Association, May 28, 1912</span>)</p>
+
+<p>From many years' experience of music teaching I have gradually produced
+a method which gives a child musical experiences instead of musical
+knowledge.</p>
+
+<p>I expect much from education in rhythm in elementary schools, provided
+it be given regularly, completely and sufficiently. The exercises should
+be begun at the age of six, with half an hour's lesson three times a
+week, but these lessons can quite well be taken from playtime. By the
+age of twelve two lessons a week are sufficient. This training will not
+only develop the feeling for beauty and form by accustoming the eye to
+distinguish beautiful movements and lines from those that are ugly, but
+also render the children susceptible to musical impressions.</p>
+
+<p>There are always children who are not able to sing in time, or even
+to beat time, to walk in time, or to graduate the strength and rapidity
+of their movements. Such children are unrhythmic, and it will generally
+be noticed that these children are stiff and awkward, often also
+over-excitable. This lack of rhythm is almost like a disease. It is
+caused by the lack of balance between the mental and physical powers,
+which <span class="pagenum">[Pg. 28]</span>results from insufficient
+co-ordination between the mental picture of a movement and its
+performance by the body, and these nervous troubles are just as much the
+cause as the result of such lack of harmony. In some cases the brain
+gives clear and definite impulses, but the limbs, in themselves healthy,
+can do nothing because the nervous system is in confusion. In other
+cases the limbs have lost the power to carry out orders sent by the
+brain, and the undischarged nerve-impulses disturb the whole nervous
+system. In other cases again, muscles and nerves are healthy, but
+insufficient training in rhythm impedes the formation of lasting
+rhythmic images in the brain. To repeat, the causes of this lack of
+rhythm all lie in the important but insufficiently recognized
+psycho-physiological sphere of the co-ordination of brain, nerve-paths
+and muscles.</p>
+
+<p>The objection is sometimes made that rhythmic gymnastics cause
+nerve-strain in children. This is not the case. Several brain
+specialists have told me that they have effected satisfactory cures with
+rhythmic gymnastic exercises.</p>
+
+<p>Rhythm is infinite, therefore the possibilities for physical
+representations of rhythm are infinite.</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<p class="subtitle">(<span class="smcap">Address to
+Students</span>, <i>der Rhythmus</i>, Vol. I, p. 41, <i>et seq.</i>)</p>
+
+<p>I consider it unpardonable that in teaching the piano the whole
+attention should be given to the imitative <span class="pagenum">[Pg.
+29]</span>faculties, and that the pupil should have no opportunity
+whatever of expressing his own musical impressions with the technical
+means which are taught him.</p>
+
+<p>Whether the teacher himself be a genius is of little importance,
+provided he is able to help others to develop their own talents.</p>
+
+<p>One can create nothing of lasting value without self-knowledge. The only
+living art is that which grows out of one's own experiences. It is just
+the same with teaching; it is quite impossible to develop others until
+one has proved one's own powers in every direction, until one has learnt
+to conquer oneself, to make oneself better, to suppress bad tendencies,
+to strengthen good ones, and, in the place of the primitive being, to
+make one more complete who, having consciously formed himself, knows his
+powers. Only in proportion as one develops oneself is one able to help
+others to develop.</p>
+
+<p>I consider that one does not require to be a genius in order to teach
+others, but that one certainly does require strong conviction,
+enthusiasm, persistence and joy in life. All these qualities are equally
+derived from the control and knowledge of self.</p>
+
+<p>We must, from youth upwards, learn that we are masters of our fate,
+that heredity is powerless if we realize that we can conquer it, that
+our future depends upon the victory which we gain over ourselves.
+However weak the individual may be, his help is required to
+pre<span class="pagenum">[Pg. 30]</span>pare a way for a better future.
+Life and growth are one and the same, and it is our duty by the example
+of our lives to develop those who come after us. Let us therefore assume
+the responsibility which Nature puts upon us, and consider it our duty
+to regenerate ourselves; thus shall we help the growth of a more
+beautiful humanity.</p>
+
+<p>I like joy, for it is life. I preach joy, for it alone gives the power
+of creating useful and lasting work. Amusement, an excitement which
+stimulates the nerves instead of uplifting the spirit, is not necessary
+in the life of the artist. Of course one must often let oneself go, and
+I should be the last to defend a so-called moral discipline, or a
+pedantic rule of monastic severity. For a healthy, active person the joy
+of the daily struggle and of work performed with enthusiasm should be
+sufficient to beautify life, drive away fatigue and illuminate present
+and future. This condition of joy is brought about in us by the feeling
+of freedom and responsibility, by the clear perception of the creative
+power in us, by the balance of our natural powers, by the harmonious
+rhythm between intention and deed. It depends upon our creative
+faculties, both natural and acquired, and becomes greater as these grow.
+The power of understanding ourselves certainly gives us a sense of
+freedom, for it opens a rapid correspondence, not only between
+imagination and power of performance, between apperception and feelings,
+but also between the various kinds of feelings which dwell in us.</p>
+
+<div><img id="img04" class="center" src="images/img04.jpg"
+alt="Illustration" /></div>
+<p class="caption">The College.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="THE_JAQUES-DALCROZE_METHOD"
+id="THE_JAQUES-DALCROZE_METHOD"></a>THE JAQUES-DALCROZE METHOD</h2>
+
+<h3 class="subtitle">I. GROWTH<a name="FNanchor_1_2"
+id="FNanchor_1_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_2"
+class="fnanchor">[1]</a></h3>
+
+<blockquote><p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_1_2"
+id="Footnote_1_2"></a><a
+href="#FNanchor_1_2"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> For much of the
+material of this chapter the writer is indebted to Herr Karl Storck, of
+Berlin, to whose book <i>E. Jaques-Dalcroze, seine Stellung und Aufgabe
+in unserer Zeit</i>, Stuttgart, 1912, Greiner &amp; Pfeiffer, the reader
+is directed.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum">[Pg. 31]</span>Emile Jaques-Dalcroze was born
+in Vienna on July 6, 1865, of mixed parentage, his father being a Swiss
+from St. Croix in the Jura (hence the artist name Dalcroze), his mother
+of German extraction. At the age of eight his parents brought him to
+Geneva, where in due course he became a student at the Conservatoire of
+Music. His musical education was continued in Paris under L&eacute;o
+Delibes and in Vienna under Bruckner and Fuchs. For a short period his
+studies were interrupted by an engagement as musical director of a small
+theatre in Algiers&mdash;an opportunity which he used for study of the
+peculiar rhythms of Arab popular music, which he found unusually
+interesting and stimulating.</p>
+
+<p>Returning to Geneva, he earned, by a life of varied activities as
+teacher, writer and composer, a standing which in 1892 brought him the
+appointment of Professor of Harmony at the Geneva Conservatoire.</p>
+
+<p>The wider experience which the new sphere of work brought was to a
+certain extent a disappointment, for
+<span class="pagenum">[Pg. 32]</span>with it came clear evidence of what
+had before only been suspected, namely, that the education of future
+professional musicians was in many ways radically wrong, in that the
+training of individual faculties was made the chief object, without
+consideration of whether or no these faculties stood in any close
+relation to the inner consciousness of the student. In other words, the
+aim of the training was to form means of expression, without
+consideration of what was to be expressed, to produce a highly trained
+instrument, without thought of the art whose servant it was to be, to
+take as primary object a thing of secondary importance, indeed only of
+importance at all when consequent on something which the usual training
+entirely neglected. The students were taught to play instruments, to
+sing songs, but without any thought of such work becoming a means of
+self expression and so it was found that pupils, technically far
+advanced, after many years of study were unable to deal with the
+simplest problems in rhythm and that their sense for pitch, relative or
+absolute, was most defective; that, while able to read accurately or to
+play pieces memorized, they, had not the slightest power of giving
+musical expression to their simplest thoughts or feelings, in fact were
+like people who possess the vocabulary of a language and are able to
+read what others have written, yet are unable to put their own simple
+thoughts and impressions into words. The analogy here is the simplest
+use of everyday language; from this to the art of the essayist or poet
+is far; so in music&mdash;one who has mastered notes, chords and rhythms
+can give musical expression to simple thoughts
+and <span class="pagenum">[Pg. 33]</span>feelings, while to become a
+composer he must traverse a road that only natural talent can render
+easy.</p>
+
+<p>Jaques-Dalcroze took the view that technique should be nothing but a
+means to art, that the aim of musical education should be, not the
+production of pianists, violinists, singers, but of musically developed
+human beings, and that therefore the student should not begin by
+specializing on any instrument, but by developing his musical faculties,
+thus producing a basis for specialized study. This training could only
+be obtained by awakening the sense, natural though often latent, for the
+ultimate bases of music, namely, <i>tone</i> and <i>rhythm</i>. As the sense for
+tone could only be developed through the ear, he now gave special
+attention to vocal work, and noticed that when the students themselves
+beat time to their singing, the work became much more real, that the
+pupils had a feeling of being physically in unison with the music,
+indeed the feeling of producing something complete and beautiful.
+Following up this hint, "Gesture Songs" were written, which, it was
+found, were performed with surprising ease.</p>
+
+<p>Up to this point movement had only been used as an accompaniment to
+music, not as a means of expressing it; the next step was to give the
+body a training so refined and so detailed as to make it sensitive to
+every rhythmic impulse and able to lose itself in any music. This
+co-ordination of movement and music is the essence of the
+Jaques-Dalcroze method, and differentiates it from all other methods of
+similar aim.</p>
+
+<p>So far only arm movements had been employed, and those merely the
+conventional ones of the conductor. <span class="pagenum">[Pg.
+34]</span>The next step was to devise a series of arm movements,
+providing a means of clearly marking all tempi from two beats in the bar
+to twelve beats in the bar, including such forms as 5/4 7/4 9/4
+11/4, and a system of movements of the body and lower limbs to
+represent time values from any number of notes to the beat up to whole
+notes of twelve beats to the note. From the first the work aroused keen
+interest among the students and their parents, and the master was given
+enthusiastic help by them in all his experiments; above all he was
+loyally aided by his assistant, Fr&auml;ulein Nina Gorter. The
+Conservatoire authorities, however, were not sympathetic, and it became
+necessary to form a volunteer-experimental class, which worked outside
+official hours and buildings.</p>
+
+<p>The first public recognition of the method was at the Music Festival
+in Solothurn in 1905, where a demonstration was given which made a
+striking impression on those present. The value of the method for the
+elementary education of musicians was immediately recognized and some
+slight idea obtained of the part it might play in general elementary
+education. It has been made clear that the method had its origin in the
+attempt to give life and reality to musical education, to give a
+foundational development on which specialized music study could be
+based, and that it had grown naturally and gradually as the result of
+observation and experiment. Now it began to be apparent that something
+still greater than the original aim had been achieved, that the system
+evolved was one which, pro<span class="pagenum">[Pg. 35]</span>perly
+used, might be of enormous value in the education of children. With
+characteristic energy Jaques-Dalcroze, inspired by the new idea, took up
+the study of psychology, in which he was helped by his friend, the
+psychologist Clapar&egrave;de, who early saw the value which the new
+ideas might have in educational practice. The change of outlook which
+now took place in the master's mind can best be made clear by a
+translation of his own words.<a name="FNanchor_1_3"
+id="FNanchor_1_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_3"
+class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p>
+
+<blockquote><p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_1_3"
+id="Footnote_1_3"></a><a
+href="#FNanchor_1_3"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> Address to
+students, Dresden, 1911 (<i>Der Rhythmus</i>, vol. i, p.
+33).</p></blockquote>
+
+<blockquote><p>"It is true that I first devised my method as a musician for musicians.
+But the further I carried my experiments, the more I noticed that, while
+a method intended to develop the sense for rhythm, and indeed based on
+such development, is of great importance in the education of a musician,
+its chief value lies in the fact that it trains the powers of
+apperception and of expression in the individual and renders easier the
+externalization of natural emotions. Experience teaches me that a man is
+not ready for the specialized study of an art until his character is
+formed, and his powers of expression developed."</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>In 1906 was held the first training-course for teachers; how the method
+has since grown can be realized by noting that a fortnight was then
+considered a sufficient period of training, whilst now the teachers'
+course at Hellerau requires from one to three years' steady work. In the
+years 1907-9 the short teachers' courses were repeated; in the latter
+year the first diploma was granted, experience having shown the need of
+this, for
+<span class="pagenum">[Pg. 36]</span>already individuals in all parts of
+the world, after but a few days' training, in some cases after merely
+being spectators at lessons, were advertising themselves as teachers of
+the method. In 1910 Jaques-Dalcroze was invited by the brothers Wolf and
+Harald Dohrn to come to Dresden, where, in the garden suburb of
+Hellerau, they have built him a College for Rhythmic Training, a true
+Palace of Rhythm.</p>
+
+
+<h3>II. PRACTICE<a name="FNanchor_1_4"
+id="FNanchor_1_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_4"
+class="fnanchor">[1]</a></h3>
+
+<blockquote><p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_1_4"
+id="Footnote_1_4"></a><a
+href="#FNanchor_1_4"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> In the
+preparation of this chapter free use has been made of the writings of M.
+Jaques-Dalcroze and of Dr. Wolf Dohrn, Director of the College of Music
+and Rhythm, Hellerau, Dresden.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>The method naturally falls into three divisions&mdash;</p>
+
+<ul class="center">
+<li>(<i>a</i>) Rhythmic gymnastics proper.</li>
+<li>(<i>b</i>) Ear training.</li>
+<li>(<i>c</i>) Improvisation (practical harmony).</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>(<i>a</i>) Is essentially the Jaques-Dalcroze method&mdash;that which is
+fundamentally new. As it is this part of the method which is likely to
+prove of great value in all systems of education, not merely as a
+preparation for the study of music, but as a means to the utmost
+development of faculty in the individual, it will be dealt with in
+detail.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>b</i>) Is of the greatest importance as an adjunct to rhythmic
+gymnastics, since it is through the ear that rhythm-impressions are most
+often and most easily obtained. Jaques-Dalcroze naturally uses his own
+methods of ear-training, which are extremely successful, but he does not
+lay stress on them; he does, how<span class="pagenum">[Pg.
+37]</span>ever, emphasize the need of such training, whatever the
+method, as shall give the pupil an accurate sense of pitch, both
+absolute and relative, and a feeling for tonality. The more these are
+possessed the greater the use which can be made of rhythmic
+gymnastics.</p>
+
+<div><img id="img05" class="center" src="images/img05.jpg" alt="Illustration" /></div>
+<p class="caption">Beating 4/4.</p>
+
+<div><img id="img06" class="center" src="images/img06.jpg" alt="Illustration" /></div>
+<p class="caption"> Movements for the Semibreve.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>c</i>) This is not required in the <i>pupil</i>, however valuable it may be as
+an additional means of self-expression; it is, however, absolutely
+necessary for the successful <i>teacher</i> of rhythmic gymnastics, who must
+be able to express, on some instrument&mdash;most conveniently the
+piano&mdash;whatever rhythms, simple or compound, he may wish to use in the
+training of his pupils. This subject, therefore, naturally forms an
+important part of the normal course at the Hellerau College, since this
+course is planned to meet the needs of students preparing for the
+teaching diploma in Eurhythmics. Here, too, Jaques-Dalcroze has his own
+system, with which he obtains results often remarkable, but, as in the
+case of the ear-training, this is a detail not peculiar to the method as
+a whole.</p>
+
+<p>To repeat: the essentials are that the teacher have the power of free
+expression on some musical instrument, the pupil that of hearing
+correctly.</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<p>The system of exercises known as rhythmic gymnastics is based upon
+two ideas, (i) <i>time</i> is shown by movements of the arms,
+(ii) <i>time-values</i>, i.e., note-duration, by movements of the feet
+and body. In the early stages of the training this principle is clearly
+observed; later it may be varied in many ingenious
+ways, <span class="pagenum">[Pg. 38]</span>for instance in what is known
+as plastic counterpoint, where the actual notes played are represented
+by movements of the arms, while the counterpoint in crotchets, quavers
+or semiquavers, is given by the feet.</p>
+
+<p>The system of beating time with the arms provides for all tempi from
+2/4 to 12/4 and includes 5/4 7/4 9/4.</p>
+
+<p>In the series of movements to represent note-values the crotchet is
+taken as the unit; this is represented by a step; higher values, from
+the minim to the whole note of twelve beats, are represented by a step
+with one foot and a movement or movements with the other foot or with
+the body, but without progression, e.g., a minim by one step and a knee
+bend, a dotted minim by a step and two movements without progression, a
+whole note of twelve beats by a step and eleven movements. Thus for each
+note in the music there is one step, one progression in space, while at
+the same time the note, if of greater length than a crotchet, is
+analysed into crotchets.</p>
+
+<p>Notes of shorter duration than the crotchet, i.e., quavers, triplets,
+etc., are expressed also by steps which become quicker in proportion to
+their frequency.</p>
+
+<p>When the movements corresponding to the notes from the crotchet to the
+whole note of twelve beats have, with all their details, become a habit,
+the pupil need only make them mentally, contenting himself with one step
+forward. This step will have the exact length of the whole note, which
+will be mentally analysed into its various elements. Although these
+elements are not individually performed by the body, their images and
+<span class="pagenum">[Pg. 39]</span>the innervations suggested by those
+images take the place of the movements.</p>
+
+<p>The process is similar to that of the child learning to read; at first
+it reads aloud, then to itself, still, however, moving its lips, i.e.,
+still making all the innervations necessary for the pronunciation of
+the words. Only after much practice does the process become sufficiently
+automatic for these lip and tongue innervations to be dropped. Indeed,
+many adults show traces of them when they read. To what degree our power
+to read is based upon such innervations is shown by the fact that old
+people, as their inhibitory powers become weaker, often revert to making
+these lip movements. From this we may conclude that such innervations,
+although they do not find their natural expression, still exist and have
+effect, i.e., they are necessary. The Jaques-Dalcroze method aims at
+nothing more or less than the training of rhythmic innervations.</p>
+
+<p>The whole training aims at developing the power of rapid physical
+reaction to mental impressions. These latter are more commonly obtained
+through the ear, chiefly from the music played; naturally, however, the
+teacher needs at times to give commands during an exercise. For this
+purpose he invariably uses the word <i>hopp</i>, a word chosen for its clear
+incisiveness.</p>
+
+<p>Before each exercise it is clearly stated what the word is to
+represent in that particular case, e.g., omit one beat, omit one bar,
+beat time twice as fast with the arms, etc.; often the word will be used
+in series in an exercise, each <i>hopp</i> meaning some additional
+change. As the command generally falls on the second half
+of <span class="pagenum">[Pg. 40]</span>the beat preceding the one in
+which the change is to be made, very rapid mental and physical response
+is necessary, especially if the music be at all quick. Exercises of this
+class soon give the power of rapid muscular innervation and inhibition,
+and are of extraordinary value in education, quite apart from their
+purely rhythmic side.</p>
+
+<p>We will now consider the exercises in some detail, taking, as a matter
+of convenience, the order and grouping generally adopted at
+demonstrations of the method. In actual practice such strict grouping is
+neither possible nor necessary; the actual form which the lessons take
+will depend upon the genius of teacher and pupils, the possibilities of
+variety being infinite.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">MOVEMENTS TO INDICATE VARIOUS TEMPI</div>
+
+<p>Simple music is played to which the pupils march. As they grasp the
+beat they mark it by an accented step; when this becomes easy, the
+corresponding arm movements are added, and the strong beat, at this
+stage always the first, is marked by full contraction of the arm
+muscles. Practice is given until at <i>hopp</i> the pupil can stop
+suddenly, discontinue accenting with one or both arms or with one or
+both feet, substitute an arm-movement for a foot movement, insert an
+extra accent either with arm or foot, or do any similar thing previously
+agreed on. By repeated practice of such exercises complete automatic
+control of the limbs is obtained and the ground prepared for more
+advanced work. It is at this stage that the simple movements to indicate
+times and notes are learnt; they may be <span class="pagenum">[Pg.
+41]</span>likened to the alphabet of the method, the elementary
+exercises as a whole being its accidence, the more advanced stages,
+including plastic expression, its syntax.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">TRAINING IN METRE</div>
+
+<p>This group of exercises is a natural extension of those preceding.</p>
+
+<p>The pupil learns a series of movements which together form a rhythm,
+first practising them singly, then in groups, the signal for the change
+being always the word <i>hopp</i>. By means of such exercises the component
+movements required in the physical expression of a rhythm can be learnt,
+first individually, then in series, until the complete rhythm can be
+expressed and the use of <i>hopp</i> be dropped, each change of movement
+becoming itself the signal for the next.</p>
+
+<p>Again, the pupil learns to realize<a name="FNanchor_1_5"
+id="FNanchor_1_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_5" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> a
+rhythm played on the piano or indicated by the movements of another
+person. This is something quite apart from mere imitation; trained by
+previous exercises, the pupil first forms clear mental images of the
+movements corresponding to the rhythm in question and then gives
+physical expression to those images. In other words, he does not
+reproduce until he has understood; in fact, without understanding,
+correct reproduction of a lengthy series of such movements is
+impossible. In the same way, an individual cannot easily remember and
+repeat a succession of words which he does not understand, but can
+repeat without difficulty a long series of words of which he understands
+the sense. Indeed, the importance of many of these exercises becomes
+clearer when the way <span class="pagenum">[Pg. 42]</span>in which
+children are taught to read and write is remembered.</p>
+
+<blockquote><p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_1_5"
+id="Footnote_1_5"></a><a
+href="#FNanchor_1_5"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> <i>Realize</i>
+is used in rhythmic gymnastics in the sense <i>express by movements of
+the body</i>.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>Oral and visual images of letters and words are impressed on the child
+by reading aloud, and in this way the young brain easily masters the
+difficult work of reading and writing. The Jaques-Dalcroze method
+proceeds in exactly the same manner as regards the elements of music.</p>
+
+<p>When we have once realized this point, we are bound to wonder why music
+teaching has not always been based on this elementary and unfailing
+form. What would be said to teachers who tried to teach children to read
+and write without letting them spell and read aloud? But this is what
+has often been done in the teaching of music, and if children generally
+show but little pleasure and interest in their first music lessons, the
+fault does not lie with them but with our wrong method of making the
+elements clear to them.</p>
+
+<p>As a matter of fact we generally do not make the latter clear to them,
+and fail in the most important duty of the educator and teacher, namely,
+that of making the child really experience what he is to learn.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">DEVELOPMENT OF MENTAL RESPONSE</div>
+
+<p>A rhythm in music consists of a regularly recurring series of
+accented sounds, unaccented sounds, and rests, expressed in rhythmic
+gymnastics by movements and inhibitions of movements. Individuals who
+are rhythmically uncertain generally have a muscular system which is
+irregularly responsive to mental stimuli; the response may be too rapid
+or too slow; in either case impulse or inhibition falls at the wrong
+mo<span class="pagenum">[Pg. 43]</span>ment, the change of movement is
+not made to time, and the physical expression of the rhythm is
+blurred.</p>
+
+<p>Although feeling for rhythm is more or less latent in us all and can be
+developed, few have it naturally perfect. The method has many exercises
+which are of use in this connexion. By means of these the pupil is
+taught how to arrest movement suddenly or slowly, to move alternately
+forwards or backwards, to spring at a given signal, to lie down or
+stand up in the exact time of a bar of music&mdash;in each case with a
+minimum of muscular effort and without for a moment losing the feeling
+for each time-unit of the music.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">MENTAL HEARING. CONCENTRATION</div>
+
+<p>Physical movements repeatedly performed create corresponding images in
+the brain; the stronger the feeling for the movement, i.e., the more the
+pupil concentrates while making that movement, the clearer will be the
+corresponding mental image, and the more fully will the sense for metre
+and rhythm be developed.</p>
+
+<p>We might say that these movement images store up the innervations which
+bring about the actual movement. They are for the body and its movements
+what formul&aelig; are for the mathematician.</p>
+
+<p>Developed out of many movements they become a complete symbol for the
+rhythm expressed by the series of movements in question. Thus the pupil
+who knows how to march in time to a given rhythm has only to close his
+eyes and recall a clear image of the corresponding movements to
+experience the rhythm as clearly as if he were expressing it by
+marching. He simply continues to perform the movements mentally. If,
+ho<span class="pagenum">[Pg. 44]</span>wever, his movements when
+actually realizing the rhythm are weak or confused, the corresponding
+mental images will be vague or incorrect, whilst movements which are
+dynamically clear guarantee the accuracy of the corresponding mental
+images and nerve-impulses.</p>
+
+<p>In practice the exercise consists in first mastering a rhythm played,
+marching and beating time in the usual manner, then at <i>hopp</i>
+discontinuing all movement, either for a number of bars previously
+agreed upon or until the signal to resume is given by a second <i>hopp</i>.
+In this exercise the teacher ceases to play at the first <i>hopp</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">ANALYSIS AND DIVISION OF TIME VALUES</div>
+
+<p>The exercises of this group are designed to teach how to subdivide units
+of time into parts of varying number. At <i>hopp</i> the crotchet must be
+divided into quavers, triplets, semiquavers, etc., as may have been
+previously arranged, or instead of <i>hopp</i> the teacher may call <i>three</i>,
+<i>four</i>, etc., to indicate the subdivision which is to be expressed by
+the corresponding number of steps. Apart from their direct object, the
+exercises of this group are of value for the training which they give in
+poise; they might be classed equally well with the group under
+<i>Development of Mental Response</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Here, too, belong exercises in the realization of syncopation in
+which, as the note is represented by the usual step, it comes off the
+beat, the latter being indicated by a knee-bend which, in quick time,
+becomes a mere suggestion of movement or is omitted, e.g.,
+<img src="images/045.png" alt="Music Staff"
+style="vertical-align:text-bottom;" /></p>
+
+<p>These exercises in syncopation are perhaps some of the most difficult
+in the method, as they demand an <span class="pagenum">[Pg.
+45]</span>extraordinary control of inhibition. Individuals of musical
+ability often find them difficult at first, and their easy performance
+may be taken as evidence of a developed feeling for rhythm. As a rule
+children find these exercises easier than do adults.</p>
+
+<div><img id="img07" class="center" src="images/img07.jpg" alt="Illustration" /></div>
+<p class="caption">Beating 5/4 in canon without expression.</p>
+
+<div><img id="img08" class="center" src="images/img08.jpg" alt="Illustration" /></div>
+<p class="caption">Beating 5/4 in canon with expression.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">REALIZATION OF TIME AND RHYTHM</div>
+
+<p>The object here is to express by rhythmic movements and without
+hesitation rhythms perceived by the ear. The exactness of such
+expression will be in proportion to the number of movements of which the
+pupil has acquired automatic control. There is not time to analyse the
+music heard; the body must <i>realize</i> before the mind has a clear
+impression of the movement image, just as in reading, words are
+understood and pronounced without a clear mental image of them being
+formed.</p>
+
+<p>When the realization of a rhythm heard has become relatively easy, the
+pupil is taught to concentrate, by listening to, and forming a mental
+image of, a fresh rhythm while still performing the old one. In this
+manner he obtains facility in rendering automatic, groups of movements
+rhythmically arranged, and in keeping the mind free to take a fresh
+impression which in its turn can be rendered automatic.</p>
+
+<p>Here again the process is analagous to that of reading, in which, while
+we are grasping the meaning of a sentence, the eye is already dealing
+with the next, preparing it in turn for comprehension.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">DEVELOPMENT OF INDEPENDENT CONTROL OF THE LIMBS</div>
+
+<p>Characteristic exercises of this group are: beating the same time
+with both arms but in canon, beating two different tempi with the arms
+while the feet march to one or <span class="pagenum">[Pg.
+46]</span>other or perhaps march to yet a third time, e.g., the arms
+3/4 and 4/4, the feet 5/4. There are, also, exercises in the
+analysis of a given time unit into various fractions simultaneously,
+e.g., in a 6/8 bar one arm may beat three to the bar, the other arm
+two, while the feet march six.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">DOUBLE OR TRIPLE DEVELOPMENT OF RHYTHMS</div>
+
+<p>These exercises are a physical preparation for what is known in music as
+the development of a theme. While the composers of fugues always use a
+double or quadruple development, the method introduces an entirely fresh
+element&mdash;the triple development, exercises in which are difficult but
+extremely valuable.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">PLASTIC COUNTERPOINT AND COMPOUND RHYTHMS</div>
+
+<p>In plastic counterpoint the arms realize the theme, i.e., make as many
+movements as there are notes, whilst the feet mark the counterpoint in
+crotchets, quavers, triplets or semiquavers.</p>
+
+<p>A compound rhythm may be realized by the arms taking one rhythm, the
+feet another; or the rhythms of a three part canon may be expressed by
+simultaneous singing, beating with the arms and marching.</p>
+
+<p>These exercises correspond in the sphere of physical expression to the
+technical exercises of instrumental work, for they teach the pupil to
+express simultaneously impressions of the most varying nature.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">GRADATION OF MUSCULAR EFFORT. PATHETIC ACCENT.
+PLASTIC EXPRESSION</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum">[Pg. 47]</span>The exercises already dealt with
+have all the general purpose of developing feeling for rhythm by giving
+training in the physical expression of rhythms. Those in this last group
+aim at facility in making crescendos and decrescendos of innervation, in
+passing from one shade of expression to another, in co-ordinating
+movements, not only to the rhythm of the music played, but also to its
+feeling; they allow free play to individuality, to temperament, and give
+opportunity for that free self-expression for which the preceding
+exercises have provided facility.</p>
+
+<p class="ralign"><span class="smcap">Percy B. Ingham.</span></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="LESSONS_AT_HELLERAU" id="LESSONS_AT_HELLERAU"></a>LESSONS AT HELLERAU</h2>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum">[Pg. 48]</span>Monsieur Jaques-Dalcroze's
+lessons are full of vitality and entertainment, combined with the
+serious work in hand. No slacking is possible. He will perhaps open a
+rhythmic gymnastic lesson by playing a vigorous theme of one or two bars
+in a rhythm such as the following:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><img src="images/051.png" alt="Musica Rhythm" /></p>
+
+<p>which, as soon as it is grasped by the pupils, they begin to
+<i>realize</i>,<a name="FNanchor_1_6"
+id="FNanchor_1_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_6" class="fnanchor">[1]</a>
+that is, to mark the tempo with the arms, and to move the feet according
+to the notes. A note which contains more than one beat&mdash;for
+instance, the minim in the first bar&mdash;is shown by taking one step
+forward for the first beat and by a slight bend of the knee for the
+second beat. The next two crochets are represented by one step for each.
+A step is also taken for each quaver, but twice as quickly; for the
+dotted crochet, a step and a slight spring before the last
+quaver&mdash;all this while the arms are beating a steady four. After a
+short practice of these two bars, the master will glide into yet another
+rhythm, the pupils still realizing the first one, but at the same time
+listening and mentally registering the one being played, so as to be
+ready on the instant at the word of command, which is <i>hopp</i>, to
+change to the new rhythm. We will suppose it to be as follows
+<img src="images/051b.png" alt="Music Rhythm" />.
+This, it will be noticed, is in 3/4 <span class="pagenum">[Pg.
+49]</span>time. The pupils become accustomed to dropping frequently into
+various times with the greatest ease. The three bars would then be
+realized consecutively, and this process will continue until perhaps
+there are six bars in all. These must all be so clear in the minds of
+the pupils, that at the word of command, one bar, or two bars, can be
+omitted on the instant, or be realized twice as quickly, or twice as
+slowly; or what is still more complicated, the arms can beat the time
+twice as slowly and the feet mark the notes twice as quickly. It seems
+incredibly difficult to do at first, but the same training of
+<i>thinking to time</i> occurs in every lesson, in improvisation and solf&egrave;ge,
+as well as in the rhythmic gymnastic lessons, and so the invaluable
+habits of concentrated thinking, of quick and definite action, and of
+control of mind over body, become established.</p>
+
+<blockquote><p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_1_6"
+id="Footnote_1_6"></a><a
+href="#FNanchor_1_6"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> See note, page
+41</p></blockquote>
+
+<div><img id="img09" class="center" src="images/img09.jpg" alt="Illustration" /></div>
+<p class="caption">The Air Bath.</p>
+
+<div><img id="img10" class="center" src="images/img10.jpg" alt="Illustration" /></div>
+<p class="caption">The College: Entrance Hall.</p>
+
+<p>Each lesson is varied to a remarkable degree; in fact, Monsieur
+Jaques-Dalcroze seldom repeats himself. Every day he has new ideas,
+consisting of new movements, or of new uses for old ones, so that there
+is never a dull moment. It must be understood, however, that the
+alphabet and grammar of the movements remain the same, it is the
+combinations of them that are limitless. The music is, of course, always
+improvised.</p>
+
+<p>A word should be said on the subject of feeling two different rhythms
+at the same time. Every teacher knows the difficulty children have in
+playing three notes against four on the piano. The Hellerau children can
+with ease beat four with one arm and three with the other, or beat three
+with the arms and two or four with the feet, or <i>vice versa</i>. And
+this is not learnt in <span class="pagenum">[Pg. 50]</span>any
+mechanical way; the power for <i>feeling</i> two rhythms simultaneously
+is developed. Advanced pupils can realize three rhythms at the same
+time. They will perhaps mark one with the arms, another with the feet,
+and sing yet a third.</p>
+
+<p>Another part of the work is to teach the pupils to express the type of
+music that is being played; this is technically known as "Plastic
+expression." The alphabet of this consists of twenty gestures with the
+arms, which can be done in many various combinations and in various
+positions, and by means of these any kind of emotion can be expressed.
+Perhaps the music will begin by being solemn and grand, becoming even
+tragic, and gradually the tones and melody will rise to cheerfulness,
+the rhythm will become more animated and the tone swell out again until
+a perfect ecstasy of joy is reached&mdash;and all the while the figures of
+the pupils are harmonising absolutely with the music, trained as they
+are to listen accurately to every note, every accent, every change of
+key and, above all, every rhythm. To the watcher such an exercise is
+effective and striking in the highest degree.</p>
+
+<p>Realizing syncopated passages is a fine exercise for developing
+independence of movement in the arms and feet, as the feet move in
+between the beats of the arms. Let any one try to realize a simple
+measure in syncopation. For instance, take a bar of 4/4 time
+<img src="images/055.png" alt="Music Rhythm" />.
+The first beat of the arms and the first step will come together, the
+second beat of the arms will come half-way between the second and third
+steps, the third beat <span class="pagenum">[Pg. 51]</span>half-way
+between the third and fourth steps, and the fourth beat half-way between
+the fourth and fifth steps, and this should be done with no contraction
+of muscle or appearance of effort.</p>
+
+<p>Other exercises consist of beating various times in canon, that is,
+one arm beginning one beat later than the other; of beating different
+times with each arm, perhaps seven with one arm and three with the
+other; of marching to one rhythm and beating time to another; of simple
+marching and at the word of command taking one step backward, and then
+forward again; of marching the counterpoint of a rhythm. For instance,
+if the rhythm played be <img src="images/056a.png" alt="Music Rhythm" />
+the counterpoint in crochets would be <img src="images/056b.png"
+alt="Music Rhythm" />, or if it is to be in quavers it would be
+<img src="images/056c.png" alt="Music Rhythm" />. The counterpoint can
+be filled in with triplets, semiquavers, or with notes of any other
+value.</p>
+
+<p>Another good exercise is to take a simple rhythm and at the word of
+command realize it twice or three times as quickly or as slowly, the
+arms still beating in the first tempo. A simple example will make this
+clear. <img src="images/056d.png" alt="Music Rhythm" /> twice as quickly
+would become <img src="images/056e.png" alt="Music Rhythm" />.</p>
+
+<p>The pupils are often asked to listen to what is played and then to
+realize it. It may be a series of four bars, each one in a different
+tempo, and all times are employed, including 5/4, 7/4, 9/3 and
+others which are somewhat exceptional. And so on <i>ad infinitum</i>.</p>
+
+<p>From these suggestions something of the
+endless <span class="pagenum">[Pg. 52]</span>variety of exercises that
+may be devised can probably now be imagined.</p>
+
+<p>As soon as movements become automatic they are used as units for
+building up more elaborate movements, and no time is wasted in doing
+merely mechanical exercises. In every detail of the method the brain is
+called into constant activity, and, lest any one should think that it
+would be easy for one pupil to copy another in doing the exercises, it
+should be stated that, if such a thing were attempted, it would end in
+the pupil becoming hopelessly confused, for if the mind once loses hold
+of the work in process it is very difficult to pick it up again.</p>
+
+<p>The solf&egrave;ge lessons are chiefly for ear-training and practical
+harmony. In the elementary classes it is shown how scales and chords are
+formed, and where the tones and semitones occur. The pupils soon become
+able to tell, when three consecutive notes from any scale are played,
+what degrees of the scale they are, or may be. Scales are sung always
+beginning on C for every key and always to a rhythm. Here, again, the
+pupils have to think to time, for in the second scale, which would be
+that of F, if the flat scales were being sung, they have to remember
+that they are starting on the fifth note of the scale, and that the
+interval between the third and fourth notes of the scale is a semitone;
+that the third and fourth degrees in the key of F are A and B, and
+therefore the B has to be flattened in this scale, the other notes
+remaining the same. The whole cycle of scales is sung in this manner,
+each one commencing on C, or on C flat when necessary. The pupils are
+also practised in listening to a scale played and
+then <span class="pagenum">[Pg. 53]</span>saying in which key it is,
+judging it by the fall of the semitones.</p>
+
+<div><img id="img11" class="center" src="images/img11.jpg" alt="Illustration" /></div>
+<p class="caption">Class Rooms.</p>
+
+<div><img id="img12" class="center" src="images/img12.jpg" alt="Illustration" /></div>
+<p class="caption">The College: Interiors.</p>
+
+<p>Chords are sung analytically and in chorus, with their resolutions when
+needed, and this is followed by practice in hearing and naming chords.</p>
+
+<p>Sight singing and transposition are by no means neglected, and there is
+practice in singing intervals, in singing a piece once or twice through
+and then from memory, or in another key, which is not so easy to do when
+the fixed <i>Do</i> is used. And always, whatever is being done, the pupils
+have to be prepared for the word <i>hopp</i>, to make any change which has
+been previously agreed on, e.g., to sing on the instant in a key a
+semitone lower, or to sing in thought only until the next <i>hopp</i>, when
+they sing aloud again. In these exercises, as in those of the rhythmic
+gymnastics, there is no end of the variety of combination possible.
+There is also opportunity for practice in conducting, and very
+interesting it is, in a children's class, to note with what assurance a
+small girl of perhaps seven or eight will beat time for the others to
+sing one of their songs, and also to note the various renderings each
+conductor will obtain of the same piece.</p>
+
+<p>The improvisation on the piano is perhaps the most difficult part of
+the system to master. It may not be realized by all people that <i>every
+one can be taught to play original music</i>. There are cases in which
+the pupil is not naturally musical, and has had no previous knowledge of
+piano playing, but has learnt to improvise sufficiently well to give a
+good lesson in rhythmic gymnastics, which means no small degree of
+ability. This <span class="pagenum">[Pg. 54]</span>training is begun by
+making use of the simplest, i.e., the common, chords, and when these are
+known in every key, including those on the dominant, the pupil is
+expected to improvise a short piece of eight bars, the chief feature to
+be attended to being the rhythm, which has to be definite and played
+without hesitation. When perfect familiarity is obtained with the common
+chord of each key and with that of its dominant, another chord is
+learnt, that on the sub-dominant. With these three chords alone quite
+charming little pieces can be played, and gradually in this manner the
+pupil has at his command passing notes, appoggiaturas, cadences, and an
+unlimited number of chords and sequences. Then come the rules for
+modulating from one key to another, and equal facility in all keys is
+insisted on. Monsieur Jaques-Dalcroze's pupils learn to improvise with
+definite thought and meaning, nothing unrhythmical is ever allowed, nor
+any aimless meandering over the keyboard. For these lessons the pupils
+are divided into small groups of not more than six in each, and twice a
+week these groups are taken altogether by Monsieur Jaques-Dalcroze.</p>
+
+<p>All branches of the work demand perfect concentration of thought and
+attention, and such invaluable mental training cannot be too highly
+prized, for it is fundamental to success in work of any kind, whatever
+it may be.</p>
+
+<p class="ralign"><span class="smcap">Ethel Ingham.</span></p>
+
+<div><img id="img13" class="center" src="images/img13.jpg" alt="Illustration" /></div>
+<p class="caption">The Hostel: Interiors.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum">[Pg. 55]</span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="LIFE_AT_HELLERAU" id="LIFE_AT_HELLERAU"></a>LIFE AT HELLERAU</h2>
+
+<p>Surely never before has the world held better opportunities for studying
+and loving the beautiful and true. One need be but a few days in
+Hellerau in order to see some of the many advantages which a stay there
+has to offer. For young men and women searching for a profession in
+life; for those fresh from school while waiting to discover their
+natural bent; for adults who seek a change from their ordinary
+surroundings and who wish to improve in culture and in health; for
+musicians and students in art, for teachers of dancing, and for children
+of all ages, a course of study at the College in Hellerau contains
+advantages and opportunities which seem to exist in no other educational
+institution.</p>
+
+<p>For the convenience of young girls there is a hall of residence, which
+will accommodate about forty-six students, the head of which is a
+cultured English lady of wide experience. There are also many small
+houses on adjoining land, in which the male students and those who are
+older can live. These may, and as a rule do, come to the Hostel for
+meals.</p>
+
+<p>The home life in the Hostel is a cheerful one. The bedrooms are
+bright, containing just the necessary furniture, which of course
+includes a piano. There is a large and charmingly furnished room opening
+from the hall, known as the Diele, which serves as a general
+sitting-room for the students. The dining-room is equally delightful,
+and can be quickly converted into a ball-room for impromptu dances, or
+adapted for other entertainments. <span class="pagenum">[Pg.
+56]</span>There is also a library; and throughout the whole house the
+same good taste is displayed. Leading from the dining-room is a large
+terrace, with steps down into an attractive garden.</p>
+
+<p>The day commences with the sounding of a gong at seven o'clock; the
+house is immediately alive, and some are off to the College for a
+Swedish gymnastic lesson before breakfast, others breakfast at half-past
+seven and have their lesson later. There is always a half hour of
+ordinary gymnastics to begin with. Then there will be a lesson in
+Solf&egrave;ge, one in Rhythmic Gymnastics, and one in Improvisation, each
+lasting for fifty minutes, with an interval of ten minutes between each
+lesson.</p>
+
+<div><span class="pagenum">[Pg. 57]</span><img id="img14" class="center"
+src="images/img14.jpg" alt="Illustration" /></div>
+<p class="caption">The Hostel.</p>
+
+<p>Dinner, which is at a quarter-past one, is followed by an hour for
+rest; and at three the energetic people begin practising. The afternoons
+are usually free, except twice a week, when there are lessons in
+"Plastic" and dancing from four till six, before which tea is served, or
+there may be extra lessons in rhythmic gymnastics for small groups of
+pupils who need further help, and students may obtain the use of a room
+for private practice together. In the afternoons, too, there is time and
+opportunity for any other extra study or lessons which are not included
+in the ordinary course, such as violin, solo singing, drawing or
+painting. Most of the students soon acquire wide interests, if they do
+not have them when they first come. Free afternoons may be spent in
+visiting the galleries and shops of Dresden. Whenever there is anything
+especially good in the way of a concert, or an opera or a classical
+play, there is always a party of enthusiasts going into town for it. The
+opera in Dres<span class="pagenum">[Pg. 58]</span>den, as in other parts
+of Germany, fortunately begins and ends early. Late hours are not
+encouraged at the Hostel&mdash;indeed, everybody is glad to retire
+early, for the work is absorbing and demands plenty of energy,
+especially if the full teachers' course be taken, with the hope of a
+diploma at the end of two years.</p>
+
+<p>Supper is served at a quarter-past seven, and on two evenings a week
+those who wish to join the orchestral or choral societies have the
+pleasure of meeting together and practising under the direction of
+Monsieur Jaques-Dalcroze.</p>
+
+<p>An atmosphere of enthusiasm and good-will permeates the social life. No
+community of the kind could have a more delightful spirit of unity than
+that which pervades the Jaques-Dalcroze School. All students are keen
+and anxious to live as full a life as possible, every one will willingly
+and unselfishly take time and trouble to help others who know less than
+themselves. The College has a unity born of kindred interests, and every
+one glows with admiration and esteem for the genius at the head, and for
+his wonderful method, whilst he himself simply radiates good-will and
+enthusiasm, and works harder than any one else in the place. He makes a
+point of knowing each one of his pupils personally, and remarkably quick
+he is in summing up the various temperaments and characters of those
+with whom he comes into contact.</p>
+
+<p>The moral and mental tone of the College is pure and beautiful,
+indeed it could not well be otherwise, for the work in itself is an
+inspiration. A change is often observable in pupils after they have been
+but a few weeks in residence, a change which tells of more alertness
+of <span class="pagenum">[Pg. 59]</span>mind, of more animated purpose,
+and even of higher ideals and aims in life.</p>
+
+<div><img id="img15" class="center" src="images/img15.jpg" alt="Illustration" /></div>
+<p class="caption">Dresden from Hellerau.</p>
+
+<p>There are opportunities for the practice of many languages, for it is a
+cosmopolitan centre. Nearly all European nationalities are represented,
+but as yet the number of English people is not large. This, however,
+will not long remain so, for the Jaques-Dalcroze method needs only to be
+known in order to be as widely appreciated in Great Britain and the
+United States as it is on the Continent.</p>
+
+<p>The lessons are given in German, though occasionally French is used to
+make clear anything that is not quite understood in the former tongue.
+English people who do not know either of these languages need not look
+upon this as an obstacle, for one quickly arrives at understanding
+sufficiently well to gain the benefit from the lessons, and there is
+always some one in the classes who will interpret when necessary.</p>
+
+<p>The College itself is a fine example of the value of simplicity and
+space in architecture. Both without and within, the block of buildings
+is impressive, this effect being gained by an extreme simplicity of
+decoration. The most modern methods of heating and ventilating are
+provided, and there are large sun and air baths.</p>
+
+<p>Completed in the spring of this year, and with accommodation for five
+hundred students, the settlement stands on high ground about four miles
+from Dresden, in an open, bracing, healthy spot, with charming walks in
+all directions. The views are extensive; to the south lie the
+Erzgebirge, to the south-east Saxon Switzerland, and, in a dip of the
+nearer hills, Dresden.</p>
+
+<p class="ralign"><span class="smcap">Ethel Ingham.</span></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum">[Pg. 60]</span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="THE_VALUE_OF_EURHYTHMICS_TO_ART"
+id="THE_VALUE_OF_EURHYTHMICS_TO_ART"></a>THE VALUE OF EURHYTHMICS TO
+ART</h2>
+
+<p>One of the most marked tendencies of modern aesthetic theory is to break
+down the barriers that convention has erected between the various arts.
+The truth is coming to be realized that the essential factor of poetry,
+painting, sculpture, architecture and music is really of the same
+quality, and that one art does not differ from another in anything but
+the method of its expression and the conditions connected with that
+method.</p>
+
+<p>This common basis to the arts is more easily admitted than defined, but
+one important element in it&mdash;perhaps the only element that can be given
+a name&mdash;is rhythm. Rhythm of bodily movement, the dance, is the earliest
+form of artistic expression known. It is accompanied in nearly every
+case with rude music, the object being to emphasize the beat and
+rhythmic movement with sound. The quickness with which children respond
+to simple repetition of beat, translating the rhythm of the music into
+movement, is merely recurrence of historical development.</p>
+
+<p>Words with the music soon follow, and from these beginnings&mdash;probably
+war-songs or religious chants&mdash;come song-poems and ultimately poetry as
+we know it to-day. The still more modern development of prose-writing,
+in the stylistic sense, is merely a step further.</p>
+
+<p>The development on the other side follows a
+some<span class="pagenum">[Pg. 61]</span>what similar line. The rhythm
+of the dancing figure is reproduced in rude sculpture and bas-relief,
+and then in painting.</p>
+
+<div><img id="img16" class="center" src="images/img16.jpg" alt="Illustration" /></div>
+<p class="caption">A Plastic Exercise.</p>
+
+<p>So we have, as it were, a scale of the arts, with music at its centre
+and prose-writing and painting at its two extremes. From end to end of
+the scale runs the unifying desire for rhythm.<a name="FNanchor_1_7"
+id="FNanchor_1_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_7"
+class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p>
+
+<blockquote><p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_1_7"
+id="Footnote_1_7"></a><a
+href="#FNanchor_1_7"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> For valuable
+help in these ideas I am indebted to Mr. J. W. Harvey. I should like to
+quote verbatim one or two remarks of his on the subject, taken from a
+recent letter: "Human motion gives the convergence of time (inner sense)
+and space (outer sense), the spirit and the body. Time, which we are in
+our inner selves, is more dissociable from us than space, which only our
+bodies have; the one (time) can be interpreted emotionally and directly
+by a time-sense; the other (space) symbolically, by a space-sense, which
+is sight."</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>To speak of the rhythm of painting may seem fanciful, but I think that
+is only lack of familiarity. The expression is used here with no
+intention of metaphor. Great pictures have a very marked and real
+rhythm, of colour, of line, of feeling. The best prose-writing has
+equally a distinct rhythm.</p>
+
+<p>There was never an age in the history of art when rhythm played a more
+important part than it does to-day. The teaching of M. Dalcroze at
+Hellerau is a brilliant expression of the modern desire for rhythm in
+its most fundamental form&mdash;that of bodily movement. Its nature and
+origin have been described elsewhere; it is for me to try and suggest
+the possibilities of its influence on every other art, and on the whole
+of life.</p>
+
+<p>Let it be clearly understood from the first that the rhythmic
+training at Hellerau has an importance far deeper and more extended than
+is contained in its imme<span class="pagenum">[Pg. 62]</span>diate
+artistic beauty, its excellence as a purely musical training, or its
+value to physical development. This is not a denial of its importance in
+these three respects. The beauty of the classes is amazing; the actor,
+as well as the designer of stage-effects, will come to thank M. Dalcroze
+for the greatest contribution to their art that any age can show. He has
+recreated the human body as a decorative unit. He has shown how men,
+women and children can group themselves and can be grouped in designs as
+lovely as any painted design, with the added charm of movement. He has
+taught individuals their own power of gracious motion and attitude.
+Musically and physically the results are equally wonderful. But the
+training is more than a mere musical education; it is also emphatically
+more than gymnastics.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps in the stress laid on individuality may be seen most easily
+the possibilities of the system. Personal effort is looked for in every
+pupil. Just as the learner of music must have the "opportunity of
+expressing his own musical impressions with the technical means which
+are taught him,"<a name="FNanchor_1_8"
+id="FNanchor_1_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_8" class="fnanchor">[1]</a>
+so the pupil at Hellerau must come to improvise from the rhythmic sense
+innate in him, rhythms of his own.<a name="FNanchor_2_9"
+id="FNanchor_2_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_9"
+class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p>
+
+<blockquote><p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_1_8"
+id="Footnote_1_8"></a><a
+href="#FNanchor_1_8"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> Cf. supra, p.
+28.</p>
+
+<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_2_9"
+id="Footnote_2_9"></a><a
+href="#FNanchor_2_9"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> A good example
+of the fertility and variety of the individual effort obtained at
+Hellerau was seen at the Auff&uuml;hrung given on December 11, 1911. Two
+pupils undertook to realize a Prelude of Chopin, their choice falling by
+chance on the same Prelude. But hardly a movement of the two
+interpretations was the same. The first girl lay on the ground the whole
+time, her head on her arm, expressing in gentle movements of head, hands
+and feet, her idea of the music. At one point near the end, with the
+rising passion of the music, she raised herself on to her knees; then
+sank down again to her full length.</p>
+
+<p>
+The second performer stood upright until the very end. At the most
+intense moment her arms were stretched above her head; at the close of
+the music she was bowed to the ground, in an attitude expressive of the
+utmost grief. In such widely different ways did the same piece of music
+speak to the individualities of these two girls.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum">[Pg. 63]</span>To take a joy in the beauty of
+the body, to train his mind to move graciously and harmoniously both in
+itself and in relation to those around him, finally, to make his whole
+life rhythmic&mdash;such an ideal is not only possible but almost
+inevitable to the pupil at Hellerau. The keenness which possesses the
+whole College, the delight of every one in their work, their
+comradeship, their lack of self-consciousness, their clean sense of the
+beauty of natural form, promises a new and more harmonious race, almost
+a realization of Rousseau's ideal, and with it an era of truly rhythmic
+artistic production.</p>
+
+<p>That the soil is ready for the new seed may be shown by a moment's
+consideration of what I consider to be a parallel development in
+painting. There is in Munich a group of artists who call themselves Der
+Blaue Reiter. They are led by a Russian, Wassily Kandinsky, and a
+German, Franz Marc, and it is of Kandinsky's art that I propose to
+speak. Kandinsky is that rare combination, an artist who can express
+himself in both words and paint. His book&mdash;<i>&Uuml;ber das
+Geistige in der Kunst</i><a name="FNanchor_1_10"
+id="FNanchor_1_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_10"
+class="fnanchor">[1]</a>&mdash;is an interesting and subtle piece of
+aesthetic philosophy. His painting is a realization of the attempt to
+paint music. He has isolated the emotion caused by line
+and <span class="pagenum">[Pg. 64]</span>colour from the external
+association of idea. All form in the ordinary representative sense is
+eliminated. But form there is in the deeper sense, the shapes and
+rhythms of the <i>innerer Notwendigkeit</i>, and with it, haunting,
+harmonious colour. To revert to a former metaphor, painting has been
+brought into the centre of the scale. As Kandinsky says in his book:
+"Shades of colour, like shades of sound, are of a much subtler nature,
+cause much subtler vibrations of the spirit than can ever be given by
+words." It is to achieve this finer utterance, to establish a surer and
+more expressive connexion between spirit and spirit, that Kandinsky is
+striving. His pictures are visions, beautiful abstractions of colour and
+line which he has lived himself, deep down in his inmost soul. He is
+intensely individual, as are all true mystics; at the same time the
+spirit of his work is universal.</p>
+
+<blockquote><p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_1_10"
+id="Footnote_1_10"></a><a
+href="#FNanchor_1_10"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> <i>&Uuml;ber
+das Geistige in der Kunst.</i> Piper Verlag, M&uuml;nchen, 3 Marks. See
+also vol. i. of <i>der Blaue Reiter</i>. Piper Verlag, 10
+Marks.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>In this, then, as in so much else, Kandinsky and Dalcroze are advancing
+side by side. They are leading the way to the truest art, and ultimately
+to the truest life of all, which is a synthesis of the collective arts
+and emotions of all nations, which is, at the same time, based on
+individuality, because it represents the inner being of each one of its
+devotees.</p>
+
+<p class="ralign"><span class="smcap">Michael T. H. Sadler.</span></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p class="center"><i>Printed by</i> <span class="smcap">Butler &amp; Tanner</span>, <i>Frome and London</i>.</p>
+
+<div><img id="img17" class="center" src="images/img17.jpg" alt="Illustration" /></div>
+<p class="caption">A Plastic Exercise.</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Eurhythmics of Jaques-Dalcroze, by 
+Emile Jaques-Dalcroze
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@@ -0,0 +1,2004 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Eurhythmics of Jaques-Dalcroze, by
+Emile Jaques-Dalcroze
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Eurhythmics of Jaques-Dalcroze
+
+Author: Emile Jaques-Dalcroze
+
+Contributor: M. E. Sadler
+
+Release Date: June 1, 2007 [EBook #21653]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE EURHYTHMICS OF JAQUES-DALCROZE ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by David Newman, V. L. Simpson and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+    Transcriber's Note:
+    A Short Greek phrase has been transliterated and delimited
+    with '{}'.
+
+    Short musical phrases are marked as {Music}.
+    ============================================================
+
+
+
+
+    [Illustration: Emile Jaques-Dalcroze.]
+
+
+                 THE EURHYTHMICS
+               OF JAQUES-DALCROZE
+
+                 Introduction by
+    Professor M. E. Sadler, LL.D. (Columbia)
+   Vice-Chancellor of the University of Leeds
+
+                     BOSTON
+            SMALL MAYNARD AND COMPANY
+                      1915
+
+            Printed in Great Britain
+
+
+
+
+    {_Pas gar ho bios tou anthropou eurythmias te kai
+    euarmostias deitai._}
+
+"Rhythmische Gymnastik" is the name by which the Dalcroze method is
+known in Germany, but whether or not the German words are adequate,
+their literal translation into English certainly gives too narrow an
+idea of the scope of the system to any one unacquainted with it.
+Rhythmical "gymnastics," in the natural meaning of the word, is a part
+of the Dalcroze training, and a not unimportant part, but it is only one
+application of a much wider principle; and accordingly, where the term
+occurs in the following pages, it must be understood simply as denoting
+a particular mode of physical drill. But for the principle itself and
+the total method embodying it, another name is needed, and the term
+"Eurhythmics" has been here coined for the purpose. The originality of
+the Dalcroze method, the fact that it is a discovery, gives it a right
+to a name of its own: it is because it is in a sense also the
+rediscovery of an old secret that a name has been chosen of such plain
+reference and derivation. Plato, in the words quoted above, has said
+that the whole of a man's life stands in need of a right rhythm: and it
+is natural to see some kinship between this Platonic attitude and the
+claim of Dalcroze that his discovery is not a mere refinement of
+dancing, nor an improved method of music-teaching, but a principle that
+must have effect upon every part of life.
+
+JOHN W. HARVEY.
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+  NOTE: John W. Harvey                                               5
+
+  THE EDUCATIONAL SIGNIFICANCE OF
+    HELLERAU: Prof. M. E. Sadler                                    11
+
+  RHYTHM AS A FACTOR IN EDUCATION:} Emile Jaques-Dalcroze           15
+  FROM LECTURES AND ADDRESSES:    } Translated by P. & E. Ingham    26
+
+  THE METHOD: GROWTH AND PRACTICE: Percy B. Ingham                  31
+
+  LESSONS AT HELLERAU: Ethel Ingham                                 48
+
+  LIFE AT HELLERAU: Ethel Ingham                                    55
+
+  THE VALUE OF EURHYTHMICS TO ART: M. T. H. Sadler.                 60
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+  Emile Jaques-Dalcroze                                 _Frontispiece_
+
+  The College: from the East                          _Facing page_ 15
+
+  The College: Front                                                26
+
+  The College: General View from the South-East                     31
+
+  Beating 4/4                }
+  Movements for the Semibreve}
+                                           _Between pages_ 36 _and_ 37
+
+  Beating 5/4 in Canon without Expression}
+  Beating 5/4 in Canon with Expression   }
+                                               "      "        44 " 45
+
+  The Air Bath              }
+  The College: Entrance Hall}
+                                               "      "        48 " 49
+
+  The College: Classrooms}
+  The College: Interiors }
+                                               "      "        52 " 53
+
+  The Hostel: Interiors                    _Facing page_            55
+
+  The Hostel: General View                 _page_                   57
+
+  Dresden from Hellerau                    _Facing page_            59
+
+  A Plastic Exercise                          "     "               60
+
+  A Plastic Exercise                          "     "               64
+
+
+
+
+THE EDUCATIONAL SIGNIFICANCE OF HELLERAU
+
+
+At Hellerau two things make an ineffaceable impression upon the
+mind--the exquisite beauty of movement, of gesture and of grouping seen
+in the exercises; and the nearness of a great force, fundamental to the
+arts and expressing itself in the rhythm to which they attain.
+Jaques-Dalcroze has re-opened a door which has long been closed. He has
+rediscovered one of the secrets of Greek education.
+
+A hundred years ago Wilhelm von Humboldt endeavoured to make Greek
+ideals the paramount influence in the higher schools of Germany. He and
+a group of friends had long felt indignant at the utilitarianism and
+shallowness of the work of the schools. In Greek literature, Greek
+philosophy and Greek art would be found a means of kindling new life in
+education and of giving it the power of building up strong and
+independent personalities. When there came to Humboldt the unexpected
+opportunity of reforming the secondary schools of Prussia, he so
+remodelled the course of study as to secure for Greek thought and
+letters a place which, if not central and determinative, would at least
+bring the elite of the younger generation in some measure under their
+influence. But his administrative orders failed to impart to the schools
+the spirit of ancient Greece. To Humboldt and his friends Greek studies
+had been an inspiration because, apart from their intellectual
+significance and literary form, those studies had been the channel of an
+artistic impulse and had been entered into as art. But this artistic
+power was not felt by the greater number of those who undertook, in
+obedience to the new regulations, the duty of teaching Greek in the
+schools. What was left in Greek studies after this failure of artistic
+insight was often no more than another form of purely intellectual
+discipline. A new subject had been added to the curriculum, but new life
+had not been brought into the schools. The very name, Gymnasium, which
+denoted their Hellenic purpose, seemed ironical. They were not Greek in
+spirit and they ignored the training of the body. Thus what Wilhelm von
+Humboldt had chiefly aimed at accomplishing, he failed to do. It was not
+the power of Greek art that he brought into the schools but, in most
+cases, merely the philological study of a second dead language. The
+cause of his failure was that he had not discovered the educational
+method which could effectually secure his purpose. He had assumed that,
+in order to introduce the Greek spirit into education, it was sufficient
+to insist upon the linguistic and literary study of Greek.
+
+In time, attempts were made to remedy what was defective in Humboldt's
+plan by insisting upon physical exercises as an obligatory part of
+education in the higher schools. But the physical exercises thus
+introduced, though salutary in themselves, were divorced from the
+artistic influences of the Greek gymnastic. Humboldt's chief aim had
+been forgotten. His system of organization had rooted itself, but his
+educational ideal, to which he attached far greater importance than to
+administrative regulation, was ignored.
+
+In later years, though such Neo-Hellenism as Humboldt's had long gone
+out of fashion, the weakness of the higher schools on the side of
+artistic training was recognized. But a corrective for this was sought
+in instruction about art, not (except so far as a little teaching of
+drawing went) in the practice of an art. An attempt was made to
+cultivate aesthetic appreciation by lessons which imparted knowledge but
+did not attempt to train the power of artistic production--an aim which
+was regarded as unrealizable, except in vocal music, and of course
+through literary composition, in a secondary school. Thus Humboldt's
+original purpose has been almost wholly unachieved. The schools,
+admirably organized on the intellectual side and, within certain limits,
+increasingly efficient in their physical training, are, as a rule,
+lacking in the influence of art, as indeed in most cases are the
+corresponding schools in other countries. The spring of artistic
+training has not been touched. The divorce between intellectual
+discipline and artistic influence (except indeed so far as the latter is
+operative through the study of literature, through a little drawing, and
+through vocal music) is complete. This defect is felt even more keenly
+in Germany than in England, because in the German schools the
+intellectual pressure is more severe, and the schools do less for the
+cultivation of those interests which lie outside the limits of regular
+class-room work.
+
+Wilhelm von Humboldt gave little direct attention to the work of the
+elementary schools. His chief concern was with higher education. But in
+the elementary schools also, except in so far as they gave much care to
+vocal music, the course of training failed to make use of the educative
+power of art. A conviction that there is an error has led in Germany, as
+in England and America, to an increased attention to drawing and to
+attempts to interest children in good pictures. But there is still
+(except in the case of vocal music and a little drawing) an unbridged
+gap between the intellectual and the artistic work of the schools.
+
+Jaques-Dalcroze's experience suggests the possibility of a much closer
+combination of these two elements, both in elementary and in secondary
+education. His teaching requires from the pupils a sustained and careful
+attention, is in short a severe (though not exhausting) intellectual
+exercise; while at the same time it trains the sense of form and rhythm,
+the capacity to analyse musical structure, and the power of expressing
+rhythm through harmonious movement. It is thus a synthesis of
+educational influence, artistic and intellectual. Its educational value
+for young children, its applicability to their needs, the pleasure which
+they take in the exercises, have been conclusively proved. And in the
+possibility of this widely extended use of the method lies perhaps the
+chief, though far indeed from the only, educational significance of what
+is now being done at Hellerau.
+
+M. E. SADLER.
+
+    [Illustration: The College.]
+
+
+
+
+RHYTHM AS A FACTOR IN EDUCATION
+
+FROM THE FRENCH OF E. JAQUES-DALCROZE[1]
+
+    [1] First published in _Le Rhythme_ (Bale) of December, 1909.
+
+
+It is barely a hundred years since music ceased to be an aristocratic
+art cultivated by a few privileged individuals and became instead a
+subject of instruction for almost everybody without regard to talent or
+exceptional ability. Schools of Music, formerly frequented only by born
+musicians, gifted from birth with unusual powers of perception for sound
+and rhythm, to-day receive all who are fond of music, however little
+Nature may have endowed them with the necessary capacity for musical
+expression and realization. The number of solo players, both pianists
+and violinists, is constantly increasing, instrumental technique is
+being developed to an extraordinary degree, but everywhere, too, the
+question is being asked whether the quality of instrumental players is
+equal to their quantity, and whether the acquirement of extraordinary
+technique is likely to help musical progress when this technique is not
+joined to musical powers, if not of the first rank, at least normal.
+
+Of ten certificated pianists of to-day, at the most one, if indeed one,
+is capable of recognizing one key from another, of improvising four bars
+with character or so as to give pleasure to the listener, of giving
+expression to a composition without the help of the more or less
+numerous annotations with which present day composers have to burden
+their work, of experiencing any feeling whatever when they listen to, or
+perform, the composition of another. The solo players of older days were
+without exception complete musicians, able to improvise and compose,
+artists driven irresistibly towards art by a noble thirst for aesthetic
+expression, whereas most young people who devote themselves nowadays to
+solo playing have the gifts neither of hearing nor of expression, are
+content to imitate the composer's expression without the power of
+feeling it, and have no other sensibility than that of the fingers, no
+other motor faculty than an automatism painfully acquired. Solo playing
+of the present day has specialized in a finger technique which takes no
+account of the faculty of mental expression. It is no longer a means, it
+has become an end.
+
+As a rule, writing is only taught to children who have reached a
+thinking age, and we do not think of initiating them into the art of
+elocution until they have got something to say, until their powers of
+comprehension, analysis and feeling begin to show themselves. All modern
+educationalists are agreed that the first step in a child's education
+should be to teach him to know himself, to accustom him to life and to
+awaken in him sensations, feelings and emotions, before giving him the
+power of describing them. Likewise, in modern methods of teaching to
+draw, the pupil is taught to see objects before painting them. In music,
+unfortunately, the same rule does not hold. Young people are taught to
+play the compositions of Bach, Mozart, Beethoven, Chopin and Liszt,
+before their minds and ears can grasp these works, before they have
+developed the faculty of being moved by them.
+
+There are two physical agents by means of which we appreciate music.
+These two agents are the ear as regards sound, and the whole nervous
+system as regards rhythm. Experience has shown me that the training of
+these two agents cannot easily be carried out simultaneously. A child
+finds it difficult to appreciate at the same time a succession of notes
+forming a melody and the rhythm which animates them.
+
+Before teaching the relation which exists between sound and movement, it
+is wise to undertake the independent study of each of these two
+elements. Tone is evidently secondary, since it has not its origin and
+model in ourselves, whereas movement is instinctive in man and therefore
+primary. Therefore I begin the study of music by careful and
+experimental teaching of movement. This is based in earliest childhood
+on the automatic exercise of marching, for marching is the natural model
+of time measure.
+
+By means of various accentuations with the foot, I teach the different
+time measures. Pauses (of varying lengths) in the marching teach the
+children to distinguish durations of sound; movements to time with the
+arms and the head preserve order in the succession of the time measures
+and analyse the bars and pauses.
+
+All this, no doubt, seems very simple, and so I thought when beginning
+my experiments. Unfortunately, the latter have shown me that it is not
+so simple as it seems, but on the contrary very complicated. And this
+because most children have no instinct for time, for time values, for
+accentuation, for physical balance; because the motor faculties are not
+the same in all individuals, and because a number of obstacles impede
+the exact and rapid physical realization of mental conceptions. One
+child is always behind the beat when marching, another always ahead;
+another takes unequal steps, another on the contrary lacks balance. All
+these faults, if not corrected in the first years, will reappear later
+in the musical technique of the individual.
+
+Unsteady time when singing or playing, confusion in playing, inability
+to follow when accompanying, accentuating too roughly or with lack of
+precision, all these faults have their origin in the child's muscular
+and nervous control, in lack of co-ordination between the mind which
+conceives, the brain which orders, the nerve which transmits and the
+muscle which executes. And still more, the power of phrasing and shading
+music with feeling depends equally upon the training of the
+nerve-centres, upon the co-ordination of the muscular system, upon rapid
+communication between brain and limbs--in a word, upon the health of the
+whole organism; and it is by trying to discover the individual cause of
+each musical defect, and to find a means of correcting it, that I have
+gradually built up my method of eurhythmics.
+
+This method is entirely based upon experiments many times repeated, and
+not one of the exercises has been adopted until it has been applied
+under different forms and under different conditions and its usefulness
+definitely proved. Many people have a completely false idea of my
+system, and consider it is a simple variant on the methods of physical
+training at present in fashion, whose inventors have undoubtedly
+rendered great service to humanity.
+
+I cannot help smiling when I read in certain papers, over names which
+carry weight, articles in which my method is compared to other gymnastic
+systems. The fact is, my book is simply a register of the different
+exercises which I have invented, and says nothing of my ideas in
+general, for it is written for those who have learnt to interpret my
+meaning under my personal tuition at Geneva and Hellerau.
+
+Quite naturally, half the critics who have done me the honour of
+discussing the book, have only glanced through it and looked at the
+photographs. Not one of them has undergone the special training upon
+which I lay stress and without which I deny absolutely that any one has
+the right to pass a definite judgment on my meaning; for one does not
+learn to ride by reading a book on horsemanship, and eurhythmics are
+above all a matter of personal experience.
+
+The object of the method is, in the first instance, to create by the
+help of rhythm a rapid and regular current of communication between
+brain and body; and what differentiates my physical exercises from those
+of present-day methods of muscular development is that each of them is
+conceived in the form which can most quickly establish in the brain the
+image of the movement studied.
+
+It is a question of eliminating in every muscular movement, by the help
+of will, the untimely intervention of muscles useless for the movement
+in question, and thus developing attention, consciousness and
+will-power. Next must be created an automatic technique for all those
+muscular movements which do not need the help of the consciousness, so
+that the latter may be reserved for those forms of expression which are
+purely intelligent. Thanks to the co-ordination of the nerve-centres, to
+the formation and development of the greatest possible number of motor
+habits, my method assures the freest possible play to subconscious
+expression. The creation in the organism of a rapid and easy means of
+communication between thought and its means of expression by movements
+allows the personality free play, giving it character, strength and life
+to an extraordinary degree.
+
+Neurasthenia is often nothing else than intellectual confusion produced
+by the inability of the nervous system to obtain from the muscular
+system regular obedience to the order from the brain. Training the nerve
+centres, establishing order in the organism, is the only remedy for
+intellectual perversion produced by lack of will power and by the
+incomplete subjection of body to mind. Unable to obtain physical
+realization of its ideas, the brain amuses itself in forming images
+without hope of realizing them, drops the real for the unreal, and
+substitutes vain and vague speculation for the free and healthy union of
+mind and body.
+
+The first result of a thorough rhythmic training is that the pupil sees
+clearly in himself what he really is, and obtains from his powers all
+the advantage possible. This result seems to me one which should attract
+the attention of all educationalists and assure to education by and for
+rhythm an important place in general culture.
+
+But, as an artist, I wish to add, that the second result of this
+education ought to be to put the completely developed faculties of the
+individual at the service of art and to give the latter the most subtle
+and complete of interpreters--the human body. For the body can become a
+marvellous instrument of beauty and harmony when it vibrates in tune
+with artistic imagination and collaborates with creative thought. It is
+not enough that, thanks to special exercises, students of music should
+have corrected their faults and be no longer in danger of spoiling their
+musical interpretations by their lack of physical skill and harmonious
+movements; it is necessary in addition that the music which lives within
+them--artists will understand me--should obtain free and complete
+development, and that the rhythms which inspire their personality should
+enter into intimate communion with those which animate the works to be
+interpreted.
+
+The education of the nervous system must be of such a nature that the
+suggested rhythms of a work of art induce in the individual analogous
+vibrations, produce a powerful reaction in him and change naturally into
+rhythms of expression. In simpler language, the body must become capable
+of responding to artistic rhythms and of realizing them quite naturally
+without fear of exaggeration.
+
+This faculty of emotion, indispensable to the artist, was formerly
+natural to almost all beginners in music, for hardly any but
+pre-destined artists devoted themselves to the art; but, if this is no
+longer the case, it is possible at least to awaken dulled faculties, to
+develop and co-ordinate them, and it is the duty of every musical
+educationalist to deter from instrumental technique every individual who
+is still without musical feeling.
+
+The experimental study of rhythm should form a part of every
+well-organized musical education, and this study will be useful not only
+to musicians, but to music itself. It is quite certain that, if since
+Beethoven's time harmony has developed, if each generation has created
+fresh groupings of sounds, it is not the same regarding rhythmic forms,
+which remain much as they were.
+
+I shall be told that the means of expression are of no importance so
+long as the artist is able to show his meaning, that a sincere emotion
+can be clearly expressed even with old-fashioned rhythms, and that to
+try and create new rhythms is mere technical work, and to enforce such
+upon the composers of to-morrow is simply depriving them of their
+character. This is all true, and I myself have a horror of seeking new
+means of expression within the limits of hard and fast rules, for
+expression ought to be a spontaneous manifestation. But I assert that
+experiments in rhythm, and the complete study of movements simple and
+combined, ought to create a fresh mentality, that artists thus trained
+will find inevitably and spontaneously new rhythmic forms to express
+their feelings, and that in consequence their characters will be able
+to develop more completely and with greater strength. It is a fact that
+very young children taught by my method invent quite naturally physical
+rhythms such as would have occurred to very few professional musicians,
+and that my most advanced pupils find monotonous many contemporary works
+the rhythmic poverty of which shocks neither public nor critics.
+
+I will terminate this short sketch of my system by pointing out the
+intimate relations which exist between movements in time and movements
+in space, between rhythms in sound and rhythm in the body, between Music
+and Plastic Expression.
+
+Gestures and attitudes of the body complete, animate and enliven any
+rhythmic music written simply and naturally without special regard to
+tone, and, just as in painting there exist side by side a school of the
+nude and a school of landscape, so in music there may be developed, side
+by side, plastic music and music pure and simple. In the school of
+landscape painting emotion is created entirely by combinations of moving
+light and by the rhythms thus caused. In the school of the nude, which
+pictures the many shades of expression of the human body, the artist
+tries to show the human soul as expressed by physical forms, enlivened
+by the emotions of the moment, and at the same time the characteristics
+suitable to the individual and his race, such as they appear through
+momentary physical modifications.
+
+In the same way, plastic music will picture human feelings expressed by
+gesture and will model its sound forms on those of rhythms derived
+directly from expressive movements of the human body.
+
+To compose the music which the Greeks appear to have realized, and for
+which Goethe and Schiller hoped, musicians must have acquired experience
+of physical movements; this, however, is certainly not the case to-day,
+for music has become beyond all others an intellectual art. While
+awaiting this transformation, present generations can apply education by
+and for rhythm to the interpretation of plastic stage music such as
+Richard Wagner has imagined. At the present day this music is not
+interpreted at all, for dramatic singers, stage managers and conductors
+do not understand the relation existing between gesture and music, and
+the absolute ignorance regarding plastic expression which characterizes
+the lyric actors of our day is a real profanation of scenic musical art.
+Not only are singers allowed to walk and gesticulate on the stage
+without paying any attention to the time, but also no shade of
+expression, dynamic or motor, of the orchestra--crescendo, decrescendo,
+accelerando, rallentando--finds in their gestures adequate realization.
+By this I mean the kind of wholly instinctive transformation of sound
+movements into bodily movements such as my method teaches.
+
+Authors, poets, musicians and painters cannot demand from the
+interpreters of their works knowledge of the relations between movements
+in time and in space, for this knowledge can only be developed by
+special studies. No doubt a few poets and painters have an inborn
+knowledge of the rhythms of space; for instance, Hugo von Hofmannsthal,
+the stage mounter of "Electra" at the Vienna Opera, who constructed a
+huge staircase, on which, however, the actors, having little
+acquaintance with the most elementary notions of balance, moved with
+deplorable heaviness; or again, the aesthetician Adolphe Appia, whose
+remarkable work _Music and Stage Mounting_ ought to be the guide of all
+stage managers. But the majority of composers write their plastic music
+without knowing whether it is capable of being practically realized,
+without personal experience of the laws of weight, force and bodily
+movement.
+
+My hope is, that sincere artists desirous of perfection and seeking
+progress will study seriously the grave question which I raise. For my
+own part, relying on many experiments, and full of confidence in ideas
+carefully thought out, I have devoted my life to the teaching of rhythm,
+being fully satisfied that, thanks to it, man will regain his natural
+powers of expression, and at the same time his full motor faculties, and
+that art has everything to hope from new generations brought up in the
+cult of harmony, of physical and mental health, of order, beauty and
+truth.
+
+
+
+
+FROM THE LECTURES OF EMILE JAQUES-DALCROZE
+
+(LECTURE AT LEIPZIG, DECEMBER 10, 1911)
+
+
+The objection is often raised that under my system the technique of an
+instrument is acquired too late. But this objection has no foundation in
+fact. A child who begins rhythmic gymnastics as I would have it in its
+fifth or sixth year and a year later ear-training, can certainly have
+piano lessons when eight years old, and I can state from experience that
+the finger technique of the child will then develop much more quickly,
+for the musical faculties in general will have been far better
+developed, more thoroughly trained and become more part of the child's
+life owing to the preliminary training.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Lessons in rhythmic gymnastics help children in their other lessons, for
+they develop the powers of observation, of analyzing, of understanding
+and of memory, thus making them more orderly and precise.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The effect of rhythmic training on the time-table and life of a school
+is like that of a hot water heating system which spreads an equal warmth
+through all parts of a building. Teachers of other subjects will find
+that such training provides them with pupils more responsive, more
+elastic and of more character than they otherwise would be. Therefore,
+the study of rhythm, as well as education by means of rhythm, ought to
+be most closely connected with school life.
+
+    [Illustration: The College.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+(ADDRESS TO THE DRESDEN TEACHERS' ASSOCIATION, MAY 28, 1912)
+
+From many years' experience of music teaching I have gradually produced
+a method which gives a child musical experiences instead of musical
+knowledge.
+
+I expect much from education in rhythm in elementary schools, provided
+it be given regularly, completely and sufficiently. The exercises should
+be begun at the age of six, with half an hour's lesson three times a
+week, but these lessons can quite well be taken from playtime. By the
+age of twelve two lessons a week are sufficient. This training will not
+only develop the feeling for beauty and form by accustoming the eye to
+distinguish beautiful movements and lines from those that are ugly, but
+also render the children susceptible to musical impressions.
+
+There are always children who are not able to sing in time, or even to
+beat time, to walk in time, or to graduate the strength and rapidity of
+their movements. Such children are unrhythmic, and it will generally be
+noticed that these children are stiff and awkward, often also
+over-excitable. This lack of rhythm is almost like a disease. It is
+caused by the lack of balance between the mental and physical powers,
+which results from insufficient co-ordination between the mental
+picture of a movement and its performance by the body, and these nervous
+troubles are just as much the cause as the result of such lack of
+harmony. In some cases the brain gives clear and definite impulses, but
+the limbs, in themselves healthy, can do nothing because the nervous
+system is in confusion. In other cases the limbs have lost the power to
+carry out orders sent by the brain, and the undischarged nerve-impulses
+disturb the whole nervous system. In other cases again, muscles and
+nerves are healthy, but insufficient training in rhythm impedes the
+formation of lasting rhythmic images in the brain. To repeat, the causes
+of this lack of rhythm all lie in the important but insufficiently
+recognized psycho-physiological sphere of the co-ordination of brain,
+nerve-paths and muscles.
+
+The objection is sometimes made that rhythmic gymnastics cause
+nerve-strain in children. This is not the case. Several brain
+specialists have told me that they have effected satisfactory cures with
+rhythmic gymnastic exercises.
+
+Rhythm is infinite, therefore the possibilities for physical
+representations of rhythm are infinite.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+(ADDRESS TO STUDENTS, _der Rhythmus_, Vol. I, p. 41, _et seq._)
+
+I consider it unpardonable that in teaching the piano the whole
+attention should be given to the imitative faculties, and that the
+pupil should have no opportunity whatever of expressing his own musical
+impressions with the technical means which are taught him.
+
+Whether the teacher himself be a genius is of little importance,
+provided he is able to help others to develop their own talents.
+
+One can create nothing of lasting value without self-knowledge. The only
+living art is that which grows out of one's own experiences. It is just
+the same with teaching; it is quite impossible to develop others until
+one has proved one's own powers in every direction, until one has learnt
+to conquer oneself, to make oneself better, to suppress bad tendencies,
+to strengthen good ones, and, in the place of the primitive being, to
+make one more complete who, having consciously formed himself, knows his
+powers. Only in proportion as one develops oneself is one able to help
+others to develop.
+
+I consider that one does not require to be a genius in order to teach
+others, but that one certainly does require strong conviction,
+enthusiasm, persistence and joy in life. All these qualities are equally
+derived from the control and knowledge of self.
+
+We must, from youth upwards, learn that we are masters of our fate, that
+heredity is powerless if we realize that we can conquer it, that our
+future depends upon the victory which we gain over ourselves. However
+weak the individual may be, his help is required to prepare a way for a
+better future. Life and growth are one and the same, and it is our duty
+by the example of our lives to develop those who come after us. Let us
+therefore assume the responsibility which Nature puts upon us, and
+consider it our duty to regenerate ourselves; thus shall we help the
+growth of a more beautiful humanity.
+
+I like joy, for it is life. I preach joy, for it alone gives the power
+of creating useful and lasting work. Amusement, an excitement which
+stimulates the nerves instead of uplifting the spirit, is not necessary
+in the life of the artist. Of course one must often let oneself go, and
+I should be the last to defend a so-called moral discipline, or a
+pedantic rule of monastic severity. For a healthy, active person the joy
+of the daily struggle and of work performed with enthusiasm should be
+sufficient to beautify life, drive away fatigue and illuminate present
+and future. This condition of joy is brought about in us by the feeling
+of freedom and responsibility, by the clear perception of the creative
+power in us, by the balance of our natural powers, by the harmonious
+rhythm between intention and deed. It depends upon our creative
+faculties, both natural and acquired, and becomes greater as these grow.
+The power of understanding ourselves certainly gives us a sense of
+freedom, for it opens a rapid correspondence, not only between
+imagination and power of performance, between apperception and feelings,
+but also between the various kinds of feelings which dwell in us.
+
+    [Illustration: The College.]
+
+
+
+
+THE JAQUES-DALCROZE METHOD
+
+
+I. GROWTH[1]
+
+    [1] For much of the material of this chapter the writer
+    is indebted to Herr Karl Storck, of Berlin, to whose
+    book _E. Jaques-Dalcroze, seine Stellung und Aufgabe in
+    unserer Zeit_, Stuttgart, 1912, Greiner & Pfeiffer, the
+    reader is directed.
+
+
+Emile Jaques-Dalcroze was born in Vienna on July 6, 1865, of mixed
+parentage, his father being a Swiss from St. Croix in the Jura (hence
+the artist name Dalcroze), his mother of German extraction. At the age
+of eight his parents brought him to Geneva, where in due course he
+became a student at the Conservatoire of Music. His musical education
+was continued in Paris under Leo Delibes and in Vienna under Bruckner
+and Fuchs. For a short period his studies were interrupted by an
+engagement as musical director of a small theatre in Algiers--an
+opportunity which he used for study of the peculiar rhythms of Arab
+popular music, which he found unusually interesting and stimulating.
+
+Returning to Geneva, he earned, by a life of varied activities as
+teacher, writer and composer, a standing which in 1892 brought him the
+appointment of Professor of Harmony at the Geneva Conservatoire.
+
+The wider experience which the new sphere of work brought was to a
+certain extent a disappointment, for with it came clear evidence of what
+had before only been suspected, namely, that the education of future
+professional musicians was in many ways radically wrong, in that the
+training of individual faculties was made the chief object, without
+consideration of whether or no these faculties stood in any close
+relation to the inner consciousness of the student. In other words, the
+aim of the training was to form means of expression, without
+consideration of what was to be expressed, to produce a highly trained
+instrument, without thought of the art whose servant it was to be, to
+take as primary object a thing of secondary importance, indeed only of
+importance at all when consequent on something which the usual training
+entirely neglected. The students were taught to play instruments, to
+sing songs, but without any thought of such work becoming a means of
+self expression and so it was found that pupils, technically far
+advanced, after many years of study were unable to deal with the
+simplest problems in rhythm and that their sense for pitch, relative or
+absolute, was most defective; that, while able to read accurately or to
+play pieces memorized, they, had not the slightest power of giving
+musical expression to their simplest thoughts or feelings, in fact were
+like people who possess the vocabulary of a language and are able to
+read what others have written, yet are unable to put their own simple
+thoughts and impressions into words. The analogy here is the simplest
+use of everyday language; from this to the art of the essayist or poet
+is far; so in music--one who has mastered notes, chords and rhythms can
+give musical expression to simple thoughts and feelings, while to become
+a composer he must traverse a road that only natural talent can render
+easy.
+
+Jaques-Dalcroze took the view that technique should be nothing but a
+means to art, that the aim of musical education should be, not the
+production of pianists, violinists, singers, but of musically developed
+human beings, and that therefore the student should not begin by
+specializing on any instrument, but by developing his musical faculties,
+thus producing a basis for specialized study. This training could only
+be obtained by awakening the sense, natural though often latent, for the
+ultimate bases of music, namely, _tone_ and _rhythm_. As the sense for
+tone could only be developed through the ear, he now gave special
+attention to vocal work, and noticed that when the students themselves
+beat time to their singing, the work became much more real, that the
+pupils had a feeling of being physically in unison with the music,
+indeed the feeling of producing something complete and beautiful.
+Following up this hint, "Gesture Songs" were written, which, it was
+found, were performed with surprising ease.
+
+Up to this point movement had only been used as an accompaniment to
+music, not as a means of expressing it; the next step was to give the
+body a training so refined and so detailed as to make it sensitive to
+every rhythmic impulse and able to lose itself in any music. This
+co-ordination of movement and music is the essence of the
+Jaques-Dalcroze method, and differentiates it from all other methods of
+similar aim.
+
+So far only arm movements had been employed, and those merely the
+conventional ones of the conductor. The next step was to devise a series
+of arm movements, providing a means of clearly marking all tempi from
+two beats in the bar to twelve beats in the bar, including such forms as
+5/4 7/4 9/4 11/4, and a system of movements of the body and
+lower limbs to represent time values from any number of notes to the
+beat up to whole notes of twelve beats to the note. From the first the
+work aroused keen interest among the students and their parents, and the
+master was given enthusiastic help by them in all his experiments; above
+all he was loyally aided by his assistant, Fraeulein Nina Gorter. The
+Conservatoire authorities, however, were not sympathetic, and it became
+necessary to form a volunteer-experimental class, which worked outside
+official hours and buildings.
+
+The first public recognition of the method was at the Music Festival in
+Solothurn in 1905, where a demonstration was given which made a
+striking impression on those present. The value of the method for the
+elementary education of musicians was immediately recognized and some
+slight idea obtained of the part it might play in general elementary
+education. It has been made clear that the method had its origin in the
+attempt to give life and reality to musical education, to give a
+foundational development on which specialized music study could be
+based, and that it had grown naturally and gradually as the result of
+observation and experiment. Now it began to be apparent that something
+still greater than the original aim had been achieved, that the system
+evolved was one which, properly used, might be of enormous value in the
+education of children. With characteristic energy Jaques-Dalcroze,
+inspired by the new idea, took up the study of psychology, in which he
+was helped by his friend, the psychologist Claparede, who early saw the
+value which the new ideas might have in educational practice. The change
+of outlook which now took place in the master's mind can best be made
+clear by a translation of his own words.[1]
+
+    [1] Address to students, Dresden, 1911 (_Der Rhythmus_,
+    vol. i, p. 33).
+
+    "It is true that I first devised my method as a
+    musician for musicians. But the further I carried my
+    experiments, the more I noticed that, while a method
+    intended to develop the sense for rhythm, and indeed
+    based on such development, is of great importance in
+    the education of a musician, its chief value lies in
+    the fact that it trains the powers of apperception and
+    of expression in the individual and renders easier the
+    externalization of natural emotions. Experience teaches
+    me that a man is not ready for the specialized study of
+    an art until his character is formed, and his powers of
+    expression developed."
+
+In 1906 was held the first training-course for teachers; how the method
+has since grown can be realized by noting that a fortnight was then
+considered a sufficient period of training, whilst now the teachers'
+course at Hellerau requires from one to three years' steady work. In the
+years 1907-9 the short teachers' courses were repeated; in the latter
+year the first diploma was granted, experience having shown the need of
+this, for already individuals in all parts of the world, after but a few
+days' training, in some cases after merely being spectators at lessons,
+were advertising themselves as teachers of the method. In 1910
+Jaques-Dalcroze was invited by the brothers Wolf and Harald Dohrn to
+come to Dresden, where, in the garden suburb of Hellerau, they have
+built him a College for Rhythmic Training, a true Palace of Rhythm.
+
+
+II. PRACTICE[1]
+
+    [1] In the preparation of this chapter free use has
+    been made of the writings of M. Jaques-Dalcroze and of
+    Dr. Wolf Dohrn, Director of the College of Music and
+    Rhythm, Hellerau, Dresden.
+
+
+The method naturally falls into three divisions--
+
+    (_a_) Rhythmic gymnastics proper.
+    (_b_) Ear training.
+    (_c_) Improvisation (practical harmony).
+
+(_a_) Is essentially the Jaques-Dalcroze method--that which is
+fundamentally new. As it is this part of the method which is likely to
+prove of great value in all systems of education, not merely as a
+preparation for the study of music, but as a means to the utmost
+development of faculty in the individual, it will be dealt with in
+detail.
+
+(_b_) Is of the greatest importance as an adjunct to rhythmic
+gymnastics, since it is through the ear that rhythm-impressions are most
+often and most easily obtained. Jaques-Dalcroze naturally uses his own
+methods of ear-training, which are extremely successful, but he does not
+lay stress on them; he does, however, emphasize the need of such
+training, whatever the method, as shall give the pupil an accurate sense
+of pitch, both absolute and relative, and a feeling for tonality. The
+more these are possessed the greater the use which can be made of
+rhythmic gymnastics.
+
+    [Illustration: Beating 4/4.]
+
+    [Illustration: Movements for the Semibreve.]
+
+(_c_) This is not required in the _pupil_, however valuable it may be as
+an additional means of self-expression; it is, however, absolutely
+necessary for the successful _teacher_ of rhythmic gymnastics, who must
+be able to express, on some instrument--most conveniently the
+piano--whatever rhythms, simple or compound, he may wish to use in the
+training of his pupils. This subject, therefore, naturally forms an
+important part of the normal course at the Hellerau College, since this
+course is planned to meet the needs of students preparing for the
+teaching diploma in Eurhythmics. Here, too, Jaques-Dalcroze has his own
+system, with which he obtains results often remarkable, but, as in the
+case of the ear-training, this is a detail not peculiar to the method as
+a whole.
+
+To repeat: the essentials are that the teacher have the power of free
+expression on some musical instrument, the pupil that of hearing
+correctly.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The system of exercises known as rhythmic gymnastics is based upon two
+ideas, (i) _time_ is shown by movements of the arms, (ii) _time-values_,
+i.e., note-duration, by movements of the feet and body. In the early
+stages of the training this principle is clearly observed; later it may
+be varied in many ingenious ways, for instance in what is known as
+plastic counterpoint, where the actual notes played are represented by
+movements of the arms, while the counterpoint in crotchets, quavers or
+semiquavers, is given by the feet.
+
+The system of beating time with the arms provides for all tempi from
+2/4 to 12/4 and includes 5/4 7/4 9/4.
+
+In the series of movements to represent note-values the crotchet is
+taken as the unit; this is represented by a step; higher values, from
+the minim to the whole note of twelve beats, are represented by a step
+with one foot and a movement or movements with the other foot or with
+the body, but without progression, e.g., a minim by one step and a knee
+bend, a dotted minim by a step and two movements without progression, a
+whole note of twelve beats by a step and eleven movements. Thus for
+each note in the music there is one step, one progression in space,
+while at the same time the note, if of greater length than a crotchet,
+is analysed into crotchets.
+
+Notes of shorter duration than the crotchet, i.e., quavers, triplets,
+etc., are expressed also by steps which become quicker in proportion to
+their frequency.
+
+When the movements corresponding to the notes from the crotchet to the
+whole note of twelve beats have, with all their details, become a habit,
+the pupil need only make them mentally, contenting himself with one step
+forward. This step will have the exact length of the whole note, which
+will be mentally analysed into its various elements. Although these
+elements are not individually performed by the body, their images and
+the innervations suggested by those images take the place of the
+movements.
+
+The process is similar to that of the child learning to read; at first
+it reads aloud, then to itself, still, however, moving its lips, i.e.,
+still making all the innervations necessary for the pronunciation of the
+words. Only after much practice does the process become sufficiently
+automatic for these lip and tongue innervations to be dropped. Indeed,
+many adults show traces of them when they read. To what degree our power
+to read is based upon such innervations is shown by the fact that old
+people, as their inhibitory powers become weaker, often revert to making
+these lip movements. From this we may conclude that such innervations,
+although they do not find their natural expression, still exist and
+have effect, i.e., they are necessary. The Jaques-Dalcroze method aims
+at nothing more or less than the training of rhythmic innervations.
+
+The whole training aims at developing the power of rapid physical
+reaction to mental impressions. These latter are more commonly obtained
+through the ear, chiefly from the music played; naturally, however, the
+teacher needs at times to give commands during an exercise. For this
+purpose he invariably uses the word _hopp_, a word chosen for its clear
+incisiveness.
+
+Before each exercise it is clearly stated what the word is to represent
+in that particular case, e.g., omit one beat, omit one bar, beat time
+twice as fast with the arms, etc.; often the word will be used in series
+in an exercise, each _hopp_ meaning some additional change. As the
+command generally falls on the second half of the beat preceding the one
+in which the change is to be made, very rapid mental and physical
+response is necessary, especially if the music be at all quick.
+Exercises of this class soon give the power of rapid muscular
+innervation and inhibition, and are of extraordinary value in education,
+quite apart from their purely rhythmic side.
+
+We will now consider the exercises in some detail, taking, as a matter
+of convenience, the order and grouping generally adopted at
+demonstrations of the method. In actual practice such strict grouping is
+neither possible nor necessary; the actual form which the lessons take
+will depend upon the genius of teacher and pupils, the possibilities of
+variety being infinite.
+
+    [Sidenote: =MOVEMENTS TO INDICATE VARIOUS TEMPI=]
+
+Simple music is played to which the pupils march. As they grasp the beat
+they mark it by an accented step; when this becomes easy, the
+corresponding arm movements are added, and the strong beat, at this
+stage always the first, is marked by full contraction of the arm
+muscles. Practice is given until at _hopp_ the pupil can stop suddenly,
+discontinue accenting with one or both arms or with one or both feet,
+substitute an arm-movement for a foot movement, insert an extra accent
+either with arm or foot, or do any similar thing previously agreed on.
+By repeated practice of such exercises complete automatic control of the
+limbs is obtained and the ground prepared for more advanced work. It is
+at this stage that the simple movements to indicate times and notes are
+learnt; they may be likened to the alphabet of the method, the
+elementary exercises as a whole being its accidence, the more advanced
+stages, including plastic expression, its syntax.
+
+    [Sidenote: =TRAINING IN METRE=]
+
+This group of exercises is a natural extension of those preceding.
+
+The pupil learns a series of movements which together form a rhythm,
+first practising them singly, then in groups, the signal for the change
+being always the word _hopp_. By means of such exercises the component
+movements required in the physical expression of a rhythm can be learnt,
+first individually, then in series, until the complete rhythm can be
+expressed and the use of _hopp_ be dropped, each change of movement
+becoming itself the signal for the next.
+
+Again, the pupil learns to realize[1] a rhythm played on the piano or
+indicated by the movements of another person. This is something quite
+apart from mere imitation; trained by previous exercises, the pupil
+first forms clear mental images of the movements corresponding to the
+rhythm in question and then gives physical expression to those images.
+In other words, he does not reproduce until he has understood; in fact,
+without understanding, correct reproduction of a lengthy series of such
+movements is impossible. In the same way, an individual cannot easily
+remember and repeat a succession of words which he does not understand,
+but can repeat without difficulty a long series of words of which he
+understands the sense. Indeed, the importance of many of these exercises
+becomes clearer when the way in which children are taught to read and
+write is remembered.
+
+    [1] _Realize_ is used in rhythmic gymnastics in the
+    sense _express by movements of the body_.
+
+Oral and visual images of letters and words are impressed on the child
+by reading aloud, and in this way the young brain easily masters the
+difficult work of reading and writing. The Jaques-Dalcroze method
+proceeds in exactly the same manner as regards the elements of music.
+
+When we have once realized this point, we are bound to wonder why music
+teaching has not always been based on this elementary and unfailing
+form. What would be said to teachers who tried to teach children to read
+and write without letting them spell and read aloud? But this is what
+has often been done in the teaching of music, and if children generally
+show but little pleasure and interest in their first music lessons, the
+fault does not lie with them but with our wrong method of making the
+elements clear to them.
+
+As a matter of fact we generally do not make the latter clear to them,
+and fail in the most important duty of the educator and teacher, namely,
+that of making the child really experience what he is to learn.
+
+    [Sidenote: =DEVELOPMENT OF MENTAL RESPONSE=]
+
+A rhythm in music consists of a regularly recurring series of accented
+sounds, unaccented sounds, and rests, expressed in rhythmic gymnastics
+by movements and inhibitions of movements. Individuals who are
+rhythmically uncertain generally have a muscular system which is
+irregularly responsive to mental stimuli; the response may be too rapid
+or too slow; in either case impulse or inhibition falls at the wrong
+moment, the change of movement is not made to time, and the physical
+expression of the rhythm is blurred.
+
+Although feeling for rhythm is more or less latent in us all and can be
+developed, few have it naturally perfect. The method has many exercises
+which are of use in this connexion. By means of these the pupil is
+taught how to arrest movement suddenly or slowly, to move alternately
+forwards or backwards, to spring at a given signal, to lie down or stand
+up in the exact time of a bar of music--in each case with a minimum of
+muscular effort and without for a moment losing the feeling for each
+time-unit of the music.
+
+    [Sidenote: =MENTAL HEARING. CONCENTRATION=]
+
+Physical movements repeatedly performed create corresponding images in
+the brain; the stronger the feeling for the movement, i.e., the more the
+pupil concentrates while making that movement, the clearer will be the
+corresponding mental image, and the more fully will the sense for metre
+and rhythm be developed.
+
+We might say that these movement images store up the innervations which
+bring about the actual movement. They are for the body and its movements
+what formulae are for the mathematician.
+
+Developed out of many movements they become a complete symbol for the
+rhythm expressed by the series of movements in question. Thus the pupil
+who knows how to march in time to a given rhythm has only to close his
+eyes and recall a clear image of the corresponding movements to
+experience the rhythm as clearly as if he were expressing it by
+marching. He simply continues to perform the movements mentally. If,
+however, his movements when actually realizing the rhythm are weak or
+confused, the corresponding mental images will be vague or incorrect,
+whilst movements which are dynamically clear guarantee the accuracy of
+the corresponding mental images and nerve-impulses.
+
+In practice the exercise consists in first mastering a rhythm played,
+marching and beating time in the usual manner, then at _hopp_
+discontinuing all movement, either for a number of bars previously
+agreed upon or until the signal to resume is given by a second _hopp_.
+In this exercise the teacher ceases to play at the first _hopp_.
+
+    [Sidenote: =ANALYSIS AND DIVISION OF TIME VALUES=]
+
+The exercises of this group are designed to teach how to subdivide units
+of time into parts of varying number. At _hopp_ the crotchet must be
+divided into quavers, triplets, semiquavers, etc., as may have been
+previously arranged, or instead of _hopp_ the teacher may call _three_,
+_four_, etc., to indicate the subdivision which is to be expressed by
+the corresponding number of steps. Apart from their direct object, the
+exercises of this group are of value for the training which they give in
+poise; they might be classed equally well with the group under
+_Development of Mental Response_.
+
+Here, too, belong exercises in the realization of syncopation in which,
+as the note is represented by the usual step, it comes off the beat, the
+latter being indicated by a knee-bend which, in quick time, becomes a
+mere suggestion of movement or is omitted, e.g., {Music}
+
+These exercises in syncopation are perhaps some of the most difficult in
+the method, as they demand an extraordinary control of inhibition.
+Individuals of musical ability often find them difficult at first, and
+their easy performance may be taken as evidence of a developed feeling
+for rhythm. As a rule children find these exercises easier than do
+adults.
+
+    [Illustration: Beating 5/4 in canon without
+    expression.]
+
+    [Illustration: Beating 5/4 in canon with expression.]
+
+    [Sidenote: =REALIZATION OF TIME AND RHYTHM=]
+
+The object here is to express by rhythmic movements and without
+hesitation rhythms perceived by the ear. The exactness of such
+expression will be in proportion to the number of movements of which the
+pupil has acquired automatic control. There is not time to analyse the
+music heard; the body must _realize_ before the mind has a clear
+impression of the movement image, just as in reading, words are
+understood and pronounced without a clear mental image of them being
+formed.
+
+When the realization of a rhythm heard has become relatively easy, the
+pupil is taught to concentrate, by listening to, and forming a mental
+image of, a fresh rhythm while still performing the old one. In this
+manner he obtains facility in rendering automatic, groups of movements
+rhythmically arranged, and in keeping the mind free to take a fresh
+impression which in its turn can be rendered automatic.
+
+Here again the process is analagous to that of reading, in which, while
+we are grasping the meaning of a sentence, the eye is already dealing
+with the next, preparing it in turn for comprehension.
+
+    [Sidenote: =DEVELOPMENT OF INDEPENDENT CONTROL OF THE LIMBS=]
+
+Characteristic exercises of this group are: beating the same time with
+both arms but in canon, beating two different tempi with the arms while
+the feet march to one or other or perhaps march to yet a third time,
+e.g., the arms 3/4 and 4/4, the feet 5/4. There are, also,
+exercises in the analysis of a given time unit into various fractions
+simultaneously, e.g., in a 6/8 bar one arm may beat three to the bar,
+the other arm two, while the feet march six.
+
+    [Sidenote: =DOUBLE OR TRIPLE DEVELOPMENT OF RHYTHMS=]
+
+These exercises are a physical preparation for what is known in music as
+the development of a theme. While the composers of fugues always use a
+double or quadruple development, the method introduces an entirely fresh
+element--the triple development, exercises in which are difficult but
+extremely valuable.
+
+    [Sidenote: =PLASTIC COUNTERPOINT AND COMPOUND RHYTHMS=]
+
+In plastic counterpoint the arms realize the theme, i.e., make as many
+movements as there are notes, whilst the feet mark the counterpoint in
+crotchets, quavers, triplets or semiquavers.
+
+A compound rhythm may be realized by the arms taking one rhythm, the
+feet another; or the rhythms of a three part canon may be expressed by
+simultaneous singing, beating with the arms and marching.
+
+These exercises correspond in the sphere of physical expression to the
+technical exercises of instrumental work, for they teach the pupil to
+express simultaneously impressions of the most varying nature.
+
+    [Sidenote: =GRADATION OF MUSCULAR EFFORT. PATHETIC
+    ACCENT. PLASTIC EXPRESSION=]
+
+The exercises already dealt with have all the general purpose of
+developing feeling for rhythm by giving training in the physical
+expression of rhythms. Those in this last group aim at facility in
+making crescendos and decrescendos of innervation, in passing from one
+shade of expression to another, in co-ordinating movements, not only to
+the rhythm of the music played, but also to its feeling; they allow free
+play to individuality, to temperament, and give opportunity for that
+free self-expression for which the preceding exercises have provided
+facility.
+
+PERCY B. INGHAM.
+
+
+
+
+LESSONS AT HELLERAU
+
+
+Monsieur Jaques-Dalcroze's lessons are full of vitality and
+entertainment, combined with the serious work in hand. No slacking is
+possible. He will perhaps open a rhythmic gymnastic lesson by playing a
+vigorous theme of one or two bars in a rhythm such as the following:--
+
+{Music}
+
+which, as soon as it is grasped by the pupils, they begin to
+_realize_,[1] that is, to mark the tempo with the arms, and to move the
+feet according to the notes. A note which contains more than one
+beat--for instance, the minim in the first bar--is shown by taking
+one step forward for the first beat and by a slight bend of the knee for
+the second beat. The next two crochets are represented by one step for
+each. A step is also taken for each quaver, but twice as quickly; for
+the dotted crochet, a step and a slight spring before the last
+quaver--all this while the arms are beating a steady four. After a short
+practice of these two bars, the master will glide into yet another
+rhythm, the pupils still realizing the first one, but at the same time
+listening and mentally registering the one being played, so as to be
+ready on the instant at the word of command, which is _hopp_, to change
+to the new rhythm. We will suppose it to be as follows {Music}. This, it
+will be noticed, is in 3/4 time. The pupils become accustomed to
+dropping frequently into various times with the greatest ease. The three
+bars would then be realized consecutively, and this process will
+continue until perhaps there are six bars in all. These must all be so
+clear in the minds of the pupils, that at the word of command, one bar,
+or two bars, can be omitted on the instant, or be realized twice as
+quickly, or twice as slowly; or what is still more complicated, the arms
+can beat the time twice as slowly and the feet mark the notes twice as
+quickly. It seems incredibly difficult to do at first, but the same
+training of _thinking to time_ occurs in every lesson, in improvisation
+and solfege, as well as in the rhythmic gymnastic lessons, and so the
+invaluable habits of concentrated thinking, of quick and definite
+action, and of control of mind over body, become established.
+
+    [1] See note, page 41
+
+    [Illustration: The Air Bath.]
+
+    [Illustration: The College: Entrance Hall.]
+
+Each lesson is varied to a remarkable degree; in fact, Monsieur
+Jaques-Dalcroze seldom repeats himself. Every day he has new ideas,
+consisting of new movements, or of new uses for old ones, so that there
+is never a dull moment. It must be understood, however, that the
+alphabet and grammar of the movements remain the same, it is the
+combinations of them that are limitless. The music is, of course, always
+improvised.
+
+A word should be said on the subject of feeling two different rhythms at
+the same time. Every teacher knows the difficulty children have in
+playing three notes against four on the piano. The Hellerau children can
+with ease beat four with one arm and three with the other, or beat three
+with the arms and two or four with the feet, or _vice versa_. And this
+is not learnt in any mechanical way; the power for _feeling_ two rhythms
+simultaneously is developed. Advanced pupils can realize three rhythms
+at the same time. They will perhaps mark one with the arms, another with
+the feet, and sing yet a third.
+
+Another part of the work is to teach the pupils to express the type of
+music that is being played; this is technically known as "Plastic
+expression." The alphabet of this consists of twenty gestures with the
+arms, which can be done in many various combinations and in various
+positions, and by means of these any kind of emotion can be expressed.
+Perhaps the music will begin by being solemn and grand, becoming even
+tragic, and gradually the tones and melody will rise to cheerfulness,
+the rhythm will become more animated and the tone swell out again until
+a perfect ecstasy of joy is reached--and all the while the figures of
+the pupils are harmonising absolutely with the music, trained as they
+are to listen accurately to every note, every accent, every change of
+key and, above all, every rhythm. To the watcher such an exercise is
+effective and striking in the highest degree.
+
+Realizing syncopated passages is a fine exercise for developing
+independence of movement in the arms and feet, as the feet move in
+between the beats of the arms. Let any one try to realize a simple
+measure in syncopation. For instance, take a bar of 4/4 time {Music}.
+The first beat of the arms and the first step will come together, the
+second beat of the arms will come half-way between the second and third
+steps, the third beat half-way between the third and fourth steps, and
+the fourth beat half-way between the fourth and fifth steps, and this
+should be done with no contraction of muscle or appearance of effort.
+
+Other exercises consist of beating various times in canon, that is, one
+arm beginning one beat later than the other; of beating different times
+with each arm, perhaps seven with one arm and three with the other; of
+marching to one rhythm and beating time to another; of simple marching
+and at the word of command taking one step backward, and then forward
+again; of marching the counterpoint of a rhythm. For instance, if the
+rhythm played be {Music} the counterpoint in crochets would be {Music},
+or if it is to be in quavers it would be {Music}. The counterpoint can
+be filled in with triplets, semiquavers, or with notes of any other
+value.
+
+Another good exercise is to take a simple rhythm and at the word of
+command realize it twice or three times as quickly or as slowly, the
+arms still beating in the first tempo. A simple example will make this
+clear. {Music} twice as quickly would become {Music}.
+
+The pupils are often asked to listen to what is played and then to
+realize it. It may be a series of four bars, each one in a different
+tempo, and all times are employed, including 5/4, 7/4, 9/3 and
+others which are somewhat exceptional. And so on _ad infinitum_.
+
+From these suggestions something of the endless variety of exercises
+that may be devised can probably now be imagined.
+
+As soon as movements become automatic they are used as units for
+building up more elaborate movements, and no time is wasted in doing
+merely mechanical exercises. In every detail of the method the brain is
+called into constant activity, and, lest any one should think that it
+would be easy for one pupil to copy another in doing the exercises, it
+should be stated that, if such a thing were attempted, it would end in
+the pupil becoming hopelessly confused, for if the mind once loses hold
+of the work in process it is very difficult to pick it up again.
+
+The solfege lessons are chiefly for ear-training and practical harmony.
+In the elementary classes it is shown how scales and chords are formed,
+and where the tones and semitones occur. The pupils soon become able
+to tell, when three consecutive notes from any scale are played, what
+degrees of the scale they are, or may be. Scales are sung always
+beginning on C for every key and always to a rhythm. Here, again, the
+pupils have to think to time, for in the second scale, which would be
+that of F, if the flat scales were being sung, they have to remember
+that they are starting on the fifth note of the scale, and that the
+interval between the third and fourth notes of the scale is a semitone;
+that the third and fourth degrees in the key of F are A and B, and
+therefore the B has to be flattened in this scale, the other notes
+remaining the same. The whole cycle of scales is sung in this manner,
+each one commencing on C, or on C flat when necessary. The pupils are
+also practised in listening to a scale played and then saying in which
+key it is, judging it by the fall of the semitones.
+
+    [Illustration: Class Rooms.]
+
+    [Illustration: The College: Interiors.]
+
+Chords are sung analytically and in chorus, with their resolutions when
+needed, and this is followed by practice in hearing and naming chords.
+
+Sight singing and transposition are by no means neglected, and there is
+practice in singing intervals, in singing a piece once or twice through
+and then from memory, or in another key, which is not so easy to do when
+the fixed _Do_ is used. And always, whatever is being done, the pupils
+have to be prepared for the word _hopp_, to make any change which has
+been previously agreed on, e.g., to sing on the instant in a key a
+semitone lower, or to sing in thought only until the next _hopp_, when
+they sing aloud again. In these exercises, as in those of the rhythmic
+gymnastics, there is no end of the variety of combination possible.
+There is also opportunity for practice in conducting, and very
+interesting it is, in a children's class, to note with what assurance a
+small girl of perhaps seven or eight will beat time for the others to
+sing one of their songs, and also to note the various renderings each
+conductor will obtain of the same piece.
+
+The improvisation on the piano is perhaps the most difficult part of the
+system to master. It may not be realized by all people that _every one
+can be taught to play original music_. There are cases in which the
+pupil is not naturally musical, and has had no previous knowledge of
+piano playing, but has learnt to improvise sufficiently well to give a
+good lesson in rhythmic gymnastics, which means no small degree of
+ability. This training is begun by making use of the simplest, i.e., the
+common, chords, and when these are known in every key, including those
+on the dominant, the pupil is expected to improvise a short piece of
+eight bars, the chief feature to be attended to being the rhythm, which
+has to be definite and played without hesitation. When perfect
+familiarity is obtained with the common chord of each key and with that
+of its dominant, another chord is learnt, that on the sub-dominant. With
+these three chords alone quite charming little pieces can be played, and
+gradually in this manner the pupil has at his command passing notes,
+appoggiaturas, cadences, and an unlimited number of chords and
+sequences. Then come the rules for modulating from one key to
+another, and equal facility in all keys is insisted on. Monsieur
+Jaques-Dalcroze's pupils learn to improvise with definite thought and
+meaning, nothing unrhythmical is ever allowed, nor any aimless
+meandering over the keyboard. For these lessons the pupils are divided
+into small groups of not more than six in each, and twice a week these
+groups are taken altogether by Monsieur Jaques-Dalcroze.
+
+All branches of the work demand perfect concentration of thought and
+attention, and such invaluable mental training cannot be too highly
+prized, for it is fundamental to success in work of any kind, whatever
+it may be.
+
+ETHEL INGHAM.
+
+    [Illustration: The Hostel: Interiors.]
+
+
+
+
+LIFE AT HELLERAU
+
+
+Surely never before has the world held better opportunities for studying
+and loving the beautiful and true. One need be but a few days in
+Hellerau in order to see some of the many advantages which a stay there
+has to offer. For young men and women searching for a profession in
+life; for those fresh from school while waiting to discover their
+natural bent; for adults who seek a change from their ordinary
+surroundings and who wish to improve in culture and in health; for
+musicians and students in art, for teachers of dancing, and for children
+of all ages, a course of study at the College in Hellerau contains
+advantages and opportunities which seem to exist in no other educational
+institution.
+
+For the convenience of young girls there is a hall of residence, which
+will accommodate about forty-six students, the head of which is a
+cultured English lady of wide experience. There are also many small
+houses on adjoining land, in which the male students and those who are
+older can live. These may, and as a rule do, come to the Hostel for
+meals.
+
+The home life in the Hostel is a cheerful one. The bedrooms are bright,
+containing just the necessary furniture, which of course includes a
+piano. There is a large and charmingly furnished room opening from the
+hall, known as the Diele, which serves as a general sitting-room for the
+students. The dining-room is equally delightful, and can be quickly
+converted into a ball-room for impromptu dances, or adapted for other
+entertainments. There is also a library; and throughout the whole house
+the same good taste is displayed. Leading from the dining-room is a
+large terrace, with steps down into an attractive garden.
+
+The day commences with the sounding of a gong at seven o'clock; the
+house is immediately alive, and some are off to the College for a
+Swedish gymnastic lesson before breakfast, others breakfast at half-past
+seven and have their lesson later. There is always a half hour of
+ordinary gymnastics to begin with. Then there will be a lesson in
+Solfege, one in Rhythmic Gymnastics, and one in Improvisation, each
+lasting for fifty minutes, with an interval of ten minutes between each
+lesson.
+
+Dinner, which is at a quarter-past one, is followed by an hour for rest;
+and at three the energetic people begin practising. The afternoons are
+usually free, except twice a week, when there are lessons in "Plastic"
+and dancing from four till six, before which tea is served, or there may
+be extra lessons in rhythmic gymnastics for small groups of pupils who
+need further help, and students may obtain the use of a room for private
+practice together. In the afternoons, too, there is time and opportunity
+for any other extra study or lessons which are not included in the
+ordinary course, such as violin, solo singing, drawing or painting. Most
+of the students soon acquire wide interests, if they do not have them
+when they first come. Free afternoons may be spent in visiting the
+galleries and shops of Dresden. Whenever there is anything especially
+good in the way of a concert, or an opera or a classical play, there is
+always a party of enthusiasts going into town for it. The opera in
+Dresden, as in other parts of Germany, fortunately begins and ends
+early. Late hours are not encouraged at the Hostel--indeed, everybody is
+glad to retire early, for the work is absorbing and demands plenty of
+energy, especially if the full teachers' course be taken, with the hope
+of a diploma at the end of two years.
+
+    [Illustration: The Hostel.]
+
+Supper is served at a quarter-past seven, and on two evenings a week
+those who wish to join the orchestral or choral societies have the
+pleasure of meeting together and practising under the direction of
+Monsieur Jaques-Dalcroze.
+
+An atmosphere of enthusiasm and good-will permeates the social life. No
+community of the kind could have a more delightful spirit of unity than
+that which pervades the Jaques-Dalcroze School. All students are keen
+and anxious to live as full a life as possible, every one will willingly
+and unselfishly take time and trouble to help others who know less than
+themselves. The College has a unity born of kindred interests, and
+every one glows with admiration and esteem for the genius at the head,
+and for his wonderful method, whilst he himself simply radiates
+good-will and enthusiasm, and works harder than any one else in the
+place. He makes a point of knowing each one of his pupils personally,
+and remarkably quick he is in summing up the various temperaments and
+characters of those with whom he comes into contact.
+
+The moral and mental tone of the College is pure and beautiful, indeed
+it could not well be otherwise, for the work in itself is an
+inspiration. A change is often observable in pupils after they have been
+but a few weeks in residence, a change which tells of more alertness of
+mind, of more animated purpose, and even of higher ideals and aims in
+life.
+
+    [Illustration: Dresden from Hellerau.]
+
+There are opportunities for the practice of many languages, for it is a
+cosmopolitan centre. Nearly all European nationalities are represented,
+but as yet the number of English people is not large. This, however,
+will not long remain so, for the Jaques-Dalcroze method needs only to be
+known in order to be as widely appreciated in Great Britain and the
+United States as it is on the Continent.
+
+The lessons are given in German, though occasionally French is used to
+make clear anything that is not quite understood in the former tongue.
+English people who do not know either of these languages need not look
+upon this as an obstacle, for one quickly arrives at understanding
+sufficiently well to gain the benefit from the lessons, and there is
+always some one in the classes who will interpret when necessary.
+
+The College itself is a fine example of the value of simplicity and
+space in architecture. Both without and within, the block of buildings
+is impressive, this effect being gained by an extreme simplicity of
+decoration. The most modern methods of heating and ventilating are
+provided, and there are large sun and air baths.
+
+Completed in the spring of this year, and with accommodation for five
+hundred students, the settlement stands on high ground about four miles
+from Dresden, in an open, bracing, healthy spot, with charming walks in
+all directions. The views are extensive; to the south lie the
+Erzgebirge, to the south-east Saxon Switzerland, and, in a dip of the
+nearer hills, Dresden.
+
+ETHEL INGHAM.
+
+
+
+
+THE VALUE OF EURHYTHMICS TO ART
+
+
+One of the most marked tendencies of modern aesthetic theory is to break
+down the barriers that convention has erected between the various arts.
+The truth is coming to be realized that the essential factor of poetry,
+painting, sculpture, architecture and music is really of the same
+quality, and that one art does not differ from another in anything but
+the method of its expression and the conditions connected with that
+method.
+
+This common basis to the arts is more easily admitted than defined, but
+one important element in it--perhaps the only element that can be given
+a name--is rhythm. Rhythm of bodily movement, the dance, is the earliest
+form of artistic expression known. It is accompanied in nearly every
+case with rude music, the object being to emphasize the beat and
+rhythmic movement with sound. The quickness with which children respond
+to simple repetition of beat, translating the rhythm of the music into
+movement, is merely recurrence of historical development.
+
+Words with the music soon follow, and from these beginnings--probably
+war-songs or religious chants--come song-poems and ultimately poetry as
+we know it to-day. The still more modern development of prose-writing,
+in the stylistic sense, is merely a step further.
+
+The development on the other side follows a somewhat similar line. The
+rhythm of the dancing figure is reproduced in rude sculpture and
+bas-relief, and then in painting.
+
+    [Illustration: A Plastic Exercise.]
+
+So we have, as it were, a scale of the arts, with music at its centre
+and prose-writing and painting at its two extremes. From end to end of
+the scale runs the unifying desire for rhythm.[1]
+
+    [1] For valuable help in these ideas I am indebted to
+    Mr. J. W. Harvey. I should like to quote verbatim one or
+    two remarks of his on the subject, taken from a recent
+    letter: "Human motion gives the convergence of time
+    (inner sense) and space (outer sense), the spirit and
+    the body. Time, which we are in our inner selves, is
+    more dissociable from us than space, which only our
+    bodies have; the one (time) can be interpreted
+    emotionally and directly by a time-sense; the other
+    (space) symbolically, by a space-sense, which is
+    sight."
+
+To speak of the rhythm of painting may seem fanciful, but I think that
+is only lack of familiarity. The expression is used here with no
+intention of metaphor. Great pictures have a very marked and real
+rhythm, of colour, of line, of feeling. The best prose-writing has
+equally a distinct rhythm.
+
+There was never an age in the history of art when rhythm played a more
+important part than it does to-day. The teaching of M. Dalcroze at
+Hellerau is a brilliant expression of the modern desire for rhythm in
+its most fundamental form--that of bodily movement. Its nature and
+origin have been described elsewhere; it is for me to try and suggest
+the possibilities of its influence on every other art, and on the whole
+of life.
+
+Let it be clearly understood from the first that the rhythmic training
+at Hellerau has an importance far deeper and more extended than is
+contained in its immediate artistic beauty, its excellence as a purely
+musical training, or its value to physical development. This is not a
+denial of its importance in these three respects. The beauty of the
+classes is amazing; the actor, as well as the designer of stage-effects,
+will come to thank M. Dalcroze for the greatest contribution to their
+art that any age can show. He has recreated the human body as a
+decorative unit. He has shown how men, women and children can group
+themselves and can be grouped in designs as lovely as any painted
+design, with the added charm of movement. He has taught individuals
+their own power of gracious motion and attitude. Musically and
+physically the results are equally wonderful. But the training is more
+than a mere musical education; it is also emphatically more than
+gymnastics.
+
+Perhaps in the stress laid on individuality may be seen most easily the
+possibilities of the system. Personal effort is looked for in every
+pupil. Just as the learner of music must have the "opportunity of
+expressing his own musical impressions with the technical means which
+are taught him,"[1] so the pupil at Hellerau must come to improvise from
+the rhythmic sense innate in him, rhythms of his own.[2]
+
+    [1] Cf. supra, p. 28.
+
+    [2] A good example of the fertility and variety of the
+    individual effort obtained at Hellerau was seen at the
+    Auffuehrung given on December 11, 1911. Two pupils
+    undertook to realize a Prelude of Chopin, their choice
+    falling by chance on the same Prelude. But hardly a
+    movement of the two interpretations was the same. The
+    first girl lay on the ground the whole time, her head
+    on her arm, expressing in gentle movements of head,
+    hands and feet, her idea of the music. At one point
+    near the end, with the rising passion of the music, she
+    raised herself on to her knees; then sank down again to
+    her full length.
+
+    The second performer stood upright until the very end.
+    At the most intense moment her arms were stretched
+    above her head; at the close of the music she was bowed
+    to the ground, in an attitude expressive of the utmost
+    grief. In such widely different ways did the same piece
+    of music speak to the individualities of these two
+    girls.
+
+To take a joy in the beauty of the body, to train his mind to move
+graciously and harmoniously both in itself and in relation to those
+around him, finally, to make his whole life rhythmic--such an ideal is
+not only possible but almost inevitable to the pupil at Hellerau. The
+keenness which possesses the whole College, the delight of every one in
+their work, their comradeship, their lack of self-consciousness, their
+clean sense of the beauty of natural form, promises a new and more
+harmonious race, almost a realization of Rousseau's ideal, and with it
+an era of truly rhythmic artistic production.
+
+That the soil is ready for the new seed may be shown by a moment's
+consideration of what I consider to be a parallel development in
+painting. There is in Munich a group of artists who call themselves Der
+Blaue Reiter. They are led by a Russian, Wassily Kandinsky, and a
+German, Franz Marc, and it is of Kandinsky's art that I propose to
+speak. Kandinsky is that rare combination, an artist who can express
+himself in both words and paint. His book--_Ueber das Geistige in der
+Kunst_[1]--is an interesting and subtle piece of aesthetic philosophy.
+His painting is a realization of the attempt to paint music. He has
+isolated the emotion caused by line and colour from the external
+association of idea. All form in the ordinary representative sense is
+eliminated. But form there is in the deeper sense, the shapes and
+rhythms of the _innerer Notwendigkeit_, and with it, haunting,
+harmonious colour. To revert to a former metaphor, painting has been
+brought into the centre of the scale. As Kandinsky says in his book:
+"Shades of colour, like shades of sound, are of a much subtler nature,
+cause much subtler vibrations of the spirit than can ever be given by
+words." It is to achieve this finer utterance, to establish a surer and
+more expressive connexion between spirit and spirit, that Kandinsky is
+striving. His pictures are visions, beautiful abstractions of colour and
+line which he has lived himself, deep down in his inmost soul. He is
+intensely individual, as are all true mystics; at the same time the
+spirit of his work is universal.
+
+    [1] _Ueber das Geistige in der Kunst._ Piper Verlag,
+    Muenchen, 3 Marks. See also vol. i. of _der Blaue
+    Reiter_. Piper Verlag, 10 Marks.
+
+In this, then, as in so much else, Kandinsky and Dalcroze are advancing
+side by side. They are leading the way to the truest art, and ultimately
+to the truest life of all, which is a synthesis of the collective arts
+and emotions of all nations, which is, at the same time, based on
+individuality, because it represents the inner being of each one of its
+devotees.
+
+MICHAEL T. H. SADLER.
+
+
+_Printed by_ BUTLER & TANNER, _Frome and London_.
+
+
+    [Illustration: A Plastic Exercise.]
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Eurhythmics of Jaques-Dalcroze, by
+Emile Jaques-Dalcroze
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