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diff --git a/21653.txt b/21653.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..36ab8e5 --- /dev/null +++ b/21653.txt @@ -0,0 +1,2004 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Eurhythmics of Jaques-Dalcroze, by +Emile Jaques-Dalcroze + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Eurhythmics of Jaques-Dalcroze + +Author: Emile Jaques-Dalcroze + +Contributor: M. E. Sadler + +Release Date: June 1, 2007 [EBook #21653] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE EURHYTHMICS OF JAQUES-DALCROZE *** + + + + +Produced by David Newman, V. L. Simpson and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + Transcriber's Note: + A Short Greek phrase has been transliterated and delimited + with '{}'. + + Short musical phrases are marked as {Music}. + ============================================================ + + + + + [Illustration: Emile Jaques-Dalcroze.] + + + THE EURHYTHMICS + OF JAQUES-DALCROZE + + Introduction by + Professor M. E. Sadler, LL.D. (Columbia) + Vice-Chancellor of the University of Leeds + + BOSTON + SMALL MAYNARD AND COMPANY + 1915 + + Printed in Great Britain + + + + + {_Pas gar ho bios tou anthropou eurythmias te kai + euarmostias deitai._} + +"Rhythmische Gymnastik" is the name by which the Dalcroze method is +known in Germany, but whether or not the German words are adequate, +their literal translation into English certainly gives too narrow an +idea of the scope of the system to any one unacquainted with it. +Rhythmical "gymnastics," in the natural meaning of the word, is a part +of the Dalcroze training, and a not unimportant part, but it is only one +application of a much wider principle; and accordingly, where the term +occurs in the following pages, it must be understood simply as denoting +a particular mode of physical drill. But for the principle itself and +the total method embodying it, another name is needed, and the term +"Eurhythmics" has been here coined for the purpose. The originality of +the Dalcroze method, the fact that it is a discovery, gives it a right +to a name of its own: it is because it is in a sense also the +rediscovery of an old secret that a name has been chosen of such plain +reference and derivation. Plato, in the words quoted above, has said +that the whole of a man's life stands in need of a right rhythm: and it +is natural to see some kinship between this Platonic attitude and the +claim of Dalcroze that his discovery is not a mere refinement of +dancing, nor an improved method of music-teaching, but a principle that +must have effect upon every part of life. + +JOHN W. HARVEY. + + +CONTENTS + + NOTE: John W. Harvey 5 + + THE EDUCATIONAL SIGNIFICANCE OF + HELLERAU: Prof. M. E. Sadler 11 + + RHYTHM AS A FACTOR IN EDUCATION:} Emile Jaques-Dalcroze 15 + FROM LECTURES AND ADDRESSES: } Translated by P. & E. Ingham 26 + + THE METHOD: GROWTH AND PRACTICE: Percy B. Ingham 31 + + LESSONS AT HELLERAU: Ethel Ingham 48 + + LIFE AT HELLERAU: Ethel Ingham 55 + + THE VALUE OF EURHYTHMICS TO ART: M. T. H. Sadler. 60 + + +LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS + + Emile Jaques-Dalcroze _Frontispiece_ + + The College: from the East _Facing page_ 15 + + The College: Front 26 + + The College: General View from the South-East 31 + + Beating 4/4 } + Movements for the Semibreve} + _Between pages_ 36 _and_ 37 + + Beating 5/4 in Canon without Expression} + Beating 5/4 in Canon with Expression } + " " 44 " 45 + + The Air Bath } + The College: Entrance Hall} + " " 48 " 49 + + The College: Classrooms} + The College: Interiors } + " " 52 " 53 + + The Hostel: Interiors _Facing page_ 55 + + The Hostel: General View _page_ 57 + + Dresden from Hellerau _Facing page_ 59 + + A Plastic Exercise " " 60 + + A Plastic Exercise " " 64 + + + + +THE EDUCATIONAL SIGNIFICANCE OF HELLERAU + + +At Hellerau two things make an ineffaceable impression upon the +mind--the exquisite beauty of movement, of gesture and of grouping seen +in the exercises; and the nearness of a great force, fundamental to the +arts and expressing itself in the rhythm to which they attain. +Jaques-Dalcroze has re-opened a door which has long been closed. He has +rediscovered one of the secrets of Greek education. + +A hundred years ago Wilhelm von Humboldt endeavoured to make Greek +ideals the paramount influence in the higher schools of Germany. He and +a group of friends had long felt indignant at the utilitarianism and +shallowness of the work of the schools. In Greek literature, Greek +philosophy and Greek art would be found a means of kindling new life in +education and of giving it the power of building up strong and +independent personalities. When there came to Humboldt the unexpected +opportunity of reforming the secondary schools of Prussia, he so +remodelled the course of study as to secure for Greek thought and +letters a place which, if not central and determinative, would at least +bring the elite of the younger generation in some measure under their +influence. But his administrative orders failed to impart to the schools +the spirit of ancient Greece. To Humboldt and his friends Greek studies +had been an inspiration because, apart from their intellectual +significance and literary form, those studies had been the channel of an +artistic impulse and had been entered into as art. But this artistic +power was not felt by the greater number of those who undertook, in +obedience to the new regulations, the duty of teaching Greek in the +schools. What was left in Greek studies after this failure of artistic +insight was often no more than another form of purely intellectual +discipline. A new subject had been added to the curriculum, but new life +had not been brought into the schools. The very name, Gymnasium, which +denoted their Hellenic purpose, seemed ironical. They were not Greek in +spirit and they ignored the training of the body. Thus what Wilhelm von +Humboldt had chiefly aimed at accomplishing, he failed to do. It was not +the power of Greek art that he brought into the schools but, in most +cases, merely the philological study of a second dead language. The +cause of his failure was that he had not discovered the educational +method which could effectually secure his purpose. He had assumed that, +in order to introduce the Greek spirit into education, it was sufficient +to insist upon the linguistic and literary study of Greek. + +In time, attempts were made to remedy what was defective in Humboldt's +plan by insisting upon physical exercises as an obligatory part of +education in the higher schools. But the physical exercises thus +introduced, though salutary in themselves, were divorced from the +artistic influences of the Greek gymnastic. Humboldt's chief aim had +been forgotten. His system of organization had rooted itself, but his +educational ideal, to which he attached far greater importance than to +administrative regulation, was ignored. + +In later years, though such Neo-Hellenism as Humboldt's had long gone +out of fashion, the weakness of the higher schools on the side of +artistic training was recognized. But a corrective for this was sought +in instruction about art, not (except so far as a little teaching of +drawing went) in the practice of an art. An attempt was made to +cultivate aesthetic appreciation by lessons which imparted knowledge but +did not attempt to train the power of artistic production--an aim which +was regarded as unrealizable, except in vocal music, and of course +through literary composition, in a secondary school. Thus Humboldt's +original purpose has been almost wholly unachieved. The schools, +admirably organized on the intellectual side and, within certain limits, +increasingly efficient in their physical training, are, as a rule, +lacking in the influence of art, as indeed in most cases are the +corresponding schools in other countries. The spring of artistic +training has not been touched. The divorce between intellectual +discipline and artistic influence (except indeed so far as the latter is +operative through the study of literature, through a little drawing, and +through vocal music) is complete. This defect is felt even more keenly +in Germany than in England, because in the German schools the +intellectual pressure is more severe, and the schools do less for the +cultivation of those interests which lie outside the limits of regular +class-room work. + +Wilhelm von Humboldt gave little direct attention to the work of the +elementary schools. His chief concern was with higher education. But in +the elementary schools also, except in so far as they gave much care to +vocal music, the course of training failed to make use of the educative +power of art. A conviction that there is an error has led in Germany, as +in England and America, to an increased attention to drawing and to +attempts to interest children in good pictures. But there is still +(except in the case of vocal music and a little drawing) an unbridged +gap between the intellectual and the artistic work of the schools. + +Jaques-Dalcroze's experience suggests the possibility of a much closer +combination of these two elements, both in elementary and in secondary +education. His teaching requires from the pupils a sustained and careful +attention, is in short a severe (though not exhausting) intellectual +exercise; while at the same time it trains the sense of form and rhythm, +the capacity to analyse musical structure, and the power of expressing +rhythm through harmonious movement. It is thus a synthesis of +educational influence, artistic and intellectual. Its educational value +for young children, its applicability to their needs, the pleasure which +they take in the exercises, have been conclusively proved. And in the +possibility of this widely extended use of the method lies perhaps the +chief, though far indeed from the only, educational significance of what +is now being done at Hellerau. + +M. E. SADLER. + + [Illustration: The College.] + + + + +RHYTHM AS A FACTOR IN EDUCATION + +FROM THE FRENCH OF E. JAQUES-DALCROZE[1] + + [1] First published in _Le Rhythme_ (Bale) of December, 1909. + + +It is barely a hundred years since music ceased to be an aristocratic +art cultivated by a few privileged individuals and became instead a +subject of instruction for almost everybody without regard to talent or +exceptional ability. Schools of Music, formerly frequented only by born +musicians, gifted from birth with unusual powers of perception for sound +and rhythm, to-day receive all who are fond of music, however little +Nature may have endowed them with the necessary capacity for musical +expression and realization. The number of solo players, both pianists +and violinists, is constantly increasing, instrumental technique is +being developed to an extraordinary degree, but everywhere, too, the +question is being asked whether the quality of instrumental players is +equal to their quantity, and whether the acquirement of extraordinary +technique is likely to help musical progress when this technique is not +joined to musical powers, if not of the first rank, at least normal. + +Of ten certificated pianists of to-day, at the most one, if indeed one, +is capable of recognizing one key from another, of improvising four bars +with character or so as to give pleasure to the listener, of giving +expression to a composition without the help of the more or less +numerous annotations with which present day composers have to burden +their work, of experiencing any feeling whatever when they listen to, or +perform, the composition of another. The solo players of older days were +without exception complete musicians, able to improvise and compose, +artists driven irresistibly towards art by a noble thirst for aesthetic +expression, whereas most young people who devote themselves nowadays to +solo playing have the gifts neither of hearing nor of expression, are +content to imitate the composer's expression without the power of +feeling it, and have no other sensibility than that of the fingers, no +other motor faculty than an automatism painfully acquired. Solo playing +of the present day has specialized in a finger technique which takes no +account of the faculty of mental expression. It is no longer a means, it +has become an end. + +As a rule, writing is only taught to children who have reached a +thinking age, and we do not think of initiating them into the art of +elocution until they have got something to say, until their powers of +comprehension, analysis and feeling begin to show themselves. All modern +educationalists are agreed that the first step in a child's education +should be to teach him to know himself, to accustom him to life and to +awaken in him sensations, feelings and emotions, before giving him the +power of describing them. Likewise, in modern methods of teaching to +draw, the pupil is taught to see objects before painting them. In music, +unfortunately, the same rule does not hold. Young people are taught to +play the compositions of Bach, Mozart, Beethoven, Chopin and Liszt, +before their minds and ears can grasp these works, before they have +developed the faculty of being moved by them. + +There are two physical agents by means of which we appreciate music. +These two agents are the ear as regards sound, and the whole nervous +system as regards rhythm. Experience has shown me that the training of +these two agents cannot easily be carried out simultaneously. A child +finds it difficult to appreciate at the same time a succession of notes +forming a melody and the rhythm which animates them. + +Before teaching the relation which exists between sound and movement, it +is wise to undertake the independent study of each of these two +elements. Tone is evidently secondary, since it has not its origin and +model in ourselves, whereas movement is instinctive in man and therefore +primary. Therefore I begin the study of music by careful and +experimental teaching of movement. This is based in earliest childhood +on the automatic exercise of marching, for marching is the natural model +of time measure. + +By means of various accentuations with the foot, I teach the different +time measures. Pauses (of varying lengths) in the marching teach the +children to distinguish durations of sound; movements to time with the +arms and the head preserve order in the succession of the time measures +and analyse the bars and pauses. + +All this, no doubt, seems very simple, and so I thought when beginning +my experiments. Unfortunately, the latter have shown me that it is not +so simple as it seems, but on the contrary very complicated. And this +because most children have no instinct for time, for time values, for +accentuation, for physical balance; because the motor faculties are not +the same in all individuals, and because a number of obstacles impede +the exact and rapid physical realization of mental conceptions. One +child is always behind the beat when marching, another always ahead; +another takes unequal steps, another on the contrary lacks balance. All +these faults, if not corrected in the first years, will reappear later +in the musical technique of the individual. + +Unsteady time when singing or playing, confusion in playing, inability +to follow when accompanying, accentuating too roughly or with lack of +precision, all these faults have their origin in the child's muscular +and nervous control, in lack of co-ordination between the mind which +conceives, the brain which orders, the nerve which transmits and the +muscle which executes. And still more, the power of phrasing and shading +music with feeling depends equally upon the training of the +nerve-centres, upon the co-ordination of the muscular system, upon rapid +communication between brain and limbs--in a word, upon the health of the +whole organism; and it is by trying to discover the individual cause of +each musical defect, and to find a means of correcting it, that I have +gradually built up my method of eurhythmics. + +This method is entirely based upon experiments many times repeated, and +not one of the exercises has been adopted until it has been applied +under different forms and under different conditions and its usefulness +definitely proved. Many people have a completely false idea of my +system, and consider it is a simple variant on the methods of physical +training at present in fashion, whose inventors have undoubtedly +rendered great service to humanity. + +I cannot help smiling when I read in certain papers, over names which +carry weight, articles in which my method is compared to other gymnastic +systems. The fact is, my book is simply a register of the different +exercises which I have invented, and says nothing of my ideas in +general, for it is written for those who have learnt to interpret my +meaning under my personal tuition at Geneva and Hellerau. + +Quite naturally, half the critics who have done me the honour of +discussing the book, have only glanced through it and looked at the +photographs. Not one of them has undergone the special training upon +which I lay stress and without which I deny absolutely that any one has +the right to pass a definite judgment on my meaning; for one does not +learn to ride by reading a book on horsemanship, and eurhythmics are +above all a matter of personal experience. + +The object of the method is, in the first instance, to create by the +help of rhythm a rapid and regular current of communication between +brain and body; and what differentiates my physical exercises from those +of present-day methods of muscular development is that each of them is +conceived in the form which can most quickly establish in the brain the +image of the movement studied. + +It is a question of eliminating in every muscular movement, by the help +of will, the untimely intervention of muscles useless for the movement +in question, and thus developing attention, consciousness and +will-power. Next must be created an automatic technique for all those +muscular movements which do not need the help of the consciousness, so +that the latter may be reserved for those forms of expression which are +purely intelligent. Thanks to the co-ordination of the nerve-centres, to +the formation and development of the greatest possible number of motor +habits, my method assures the freest possible play to subconscious +expression. The creation in the organism of a rapid and easy means of +communication between thought and its means of expression by movements +allows the personality free play, giving it character, strength and life +to an extraordinary degree. + +Neurasthenia is often nothing else than intellectual confusion produced +by the inability of the nervous system to obtain from the muscular +system regular obedience to the order from the brain. Training the nerve +centres, establishing order in the organism, is the only remedy for +intellectual perversion produced by lack of will power and by the +incomplete subjection of body to mind. Unable to obtain physical +realization of its ideas, the brain amuses itself in forming images +without hope of realizing them, drops the real for the unreal, and +substitutes vain and vague speculation for the free and healthy union of +mind and body. + +The first result of a thorough rhythmic training is that the pupil sees +clearly in himself what he really is, and obtains from his powers all +the advantage possible. This result seems to me one which should attract +the attention of all educationalists and assure to education by and for +rhythm an important place in general culture. + +But, as an artist, I wish to add, that the second result of this +education ought to be to put the completely developed faculties of the +individual at the service of art and to give the latter the most subtle +and complete of interpreters--the human body. For the body can become a +marvellous instrument of beauty and harmony when it vibrates in tune +with artistic imagination and collaborates with creative thought. It is +not enough that, thanks to special exercises, students of music should +have corrected their faults and be no longer in danger of spoiling their +musical interpretations by their lack of physical skill and harmonious +movements; it is necessary in addition that the music which lives within +them--artists will understand me--should obtain free and complete +development, and that the rhythms which inspire their personality should +enter into intimate communion with those which animate the works to be +interpreted. + +The education of the nervous system must be of such a nature that the +suggested rhythms of a work of art induce in the individual analogous +vibrations, produce a powerful reaction in him and change naturally into +rhythms of expression. In simpler language, the body must become capable +of responding to artistic rhythms and of realizing them quite naturally +without fear of exaggeration. + +This faculty of emotion, indispensable to the artist, was formerly +natural to almost all beginners in music, for hardly any but +pre-destined artists devoted themselves to the art; but, if this is no +longer the case, it is possible at least to awaken dulled faculties, to +develop and co-ordinate them, and it is the duty of every musical +educationalist to deter from instrumental technique every individual who +is still without musical feeling. + +The experimental study of rhythm should form a part of every +well-organized musical education, and this study will be useful not only +to musicians, but to music itself. It is quite certain that, if since +Beethoven's time harmony has developed, if each generation has created +fresh groupings of sounds, it is not the same regarding rhythmic forms, +which remain much as they were. + +I shall be told that the means of expression are of no importance so +long as the artist is able to show his meaning, that a sincere emotion +can be clearly expressed even with old-fashioned rhythms, and that to +try and create new rhythms is mere technical work, and to enforce such +upon the composers of to-morrow is simply depriving them of their +character. This is all true, and I myself have a horror of seeking new +means of expression within the limits of hard and fast rules, for +expression ought to be a spontaneous manifestation. But I assert that +experiments in rhythm, and the complete study of movements simple and +combined, ought to create a fresh mentality, that artists thus trained +will find inevitably and spontaneously new rhythmic forms to express +their feelings, and that in consequence their characters will be able +to develop more completely and with greater strength. It is a fact that +very young children taught by my method invent quite naturally physical +rhythms such as would have occurred to very few professional musicians, +and that my most advanced pupils find monotonous many contemporary works +the rhythmic poverty of which shocks neither public nor critics. + +I will terminate this short sketch of my system by pointing out the +intimate relations which exist between movements in time and movements +in space, between rhythms in sound and rhythm in the body, between Music +and Plastic Expression. + +Gestures and attitudes of the body complete, animate and enliven any +rhythmic music written simply and naturally without special regard to +tone, and, just as in painting there exist side by side a school of the +nude and a school of landscape, so in music there may be developed, side +by side, plastic music and music pure and simple. In the school of +landscape painting emotion is created entirely by combinations of moving +light and by the rhythms thus caused. In the school of the nude, which +pictures the many shades of expression of the human body, the artist +tries to show the human soul as expressed by physical forms, enlivened +by the emotions of the moment, and at the same time the characteristics +suitable to the individual and his race, such as they appear through +momentary physical modifications. + +In the same way, plastic music will picture human feelings expressed by +gesture and will model its sound forms on those of rhythms derived +directly from expressive movements of the human body. + +To compose the music which the Greeks appear to have realized, and for +which Goethe and Schiller hoped, musicians must have acquired experience +of physical movements; this, however, is certainly not the case to-day, +for music has become beyond all others an intellectual art. While +awaiting this transformation, present generations can apply education by +and for rhythm to the interpretation of plastic stage music such as +Richard Wagner has imagined. At the present day this music is not +interpreted at all, for dramatic singers, stage managers and conductors +do not understand the relation existing between gesture and music, and +the absolute ignorance regarding plastic expression which characterizes +the lyric actors of our day is a real profanation of scenic musical art. +Not only are singers allowed to walk and gesticulate on the stage +without paying any attention to the time, but also no shade of +expression, dynamic or motor, of the orchestra--crescendo, decrescendo, +accelerando, rallentando--finds in their gestures adequate realization. +By this I mean the kind of wholly instinctive transformation of sound +movements into bodily movements such as my method teaches. + +Authors, poets, musicians and painters cannot demand from the +interpreters of their works knowledge of the relations between movements +in time and in space, for this knowledge can only be developed by +special studies. No doubt a few poets and painters have an inborn +knowledge of the rhythms of space; for instance, Hugo von Hofmannsthal, +the stage mounter of "Electra" at the Vienna Opera, who constructed a +huge staircase, on which, however, the actors, having little +acquaintance with the most elementary notions of balance, moved with +deplorable heaviness; or again, the aesthetician Adolphe Appia, whose +remarkable work _Music and Stage Mounting_ ought to be the guide of all +stage managers. But the majority of composers write their plastic music +without knowing whether it is capable of being practically realized, +without personal experience of the laws of weight, force and bodily +movement. + +My hope is, that sincere artists desirous of perfection and seeking +progress will study seriously the grave question which I raise. For my +own part, relying on many experiments, and full of confidence in ideas +carefully thought out, I have devoted my life to the teaching of rhythm, +being fully satisfied that, thanks to it, man will regain his natural +powers of expression, and at the same time his full motor faculties, and +that art has everything to hope from new generations brought up in the +cult of harmony, of physical and mental health, of order, beauty and +truth. + + + + +FROM THE LECTURES OF EMILE JAQUES-DALCROZE + +(LECTURE AT LEIPZIG, DECEMBER 10, 1911) + + +The objection is often raised that under my system the technique of an +instrument is acquired too late. But this objection has no foundation in +fact. A child who begins rhythmic gymnastics as I would have it in its +fifth or sixth year and a year later ear-training, can certainly have +piano lessons when eight years old, and I can state from experience that +the finger technique of the child will then develop much more quickly, +for the musical faculties in general will have been far better +developed, more thoroughly trained and become more part of the child's +life owing to the preliminary training. + + * * * * * + +Lessons in rhythmic gymnastics help children in their other lessons, for +they develop the powers of observation, of analyzing, of understanding +and of memory, thus making them more orderly and precise. + + * * * * * + +The effect of rhythmic training on the time-table and life of a school +is like that of a hot water heating system which spreads an equal warmth +through all parts of a building. Teachers of other subjects will find +that such training provides them with pupils more responsive, more +elastic and of more character than they otherwise would be. Therefore, +the study of rhythm, as well as education by means of rhythm, ought to +be most closely connected with school life. + + [Illustration: The College.] + + * * * * * + +(ADDRESS TO THE DRESDEN TEACHERS' ASSOCIATION, MAY 28, 1912) + +From many years' experience of music teaching I have gradually produced +a method which gives a child musical experiences instead of musical +knowledge. + +I expect much from education in rhythm in elementary schools, provided +it be given regularly, completely and sufficiently. The exercises should +be begun at the age of six, with half an hour's lesson three times a +week, but these lessons can quite well be taken from playtime. By the +age of twelve two lessons a week are sufficient. This training will not +only develop the feeling for beauty and form by accustoming the eye to +distinguish beautiful movements and lines from those that are ugly, but +also render the children susceptible to musical impressions. + +There are always children who are not able to sing in time, or even to +beat time, to walk in time, or to graduate the strength and rapidity of +their movements. Such children are unrhythmic, and it will generally be +noticed that these children are stiff and awkward, often also +over-excitable. This lack of rhythm is almost like a disease. It is +caused by the lack of balance between the mental and physical powers, +which results from insufficient co-ordination between the mental +picture of a movement and its performance by the body, and these nervous +troubles are just as much the cause as the result of such lack of +harmony. In some cases the brain gives clear and definite impulses, but +the limbs, in themselves healthy, can do nothing because the nervous +system is in confusion. In other cases the limbs have lost the power to +carry out orders sent by the brain, and the undischarged nerve-impulses +disturb the whole nervous system. In other cases again, muscles and +nerves are healthy, but insufficient training in rhythm impedes the +formation of lasting rhythmic images in the brain. To repeat, the causes +of this lack of rhythm all lie in the important but insufficiently +recognized psycho-physiological sphere of the co-ordination of brain, +nerve-paths and muscles. + +The objection is sometimes made that rhythmic gymnastics cause +nerve-strain in children. This is not the case. Several brain +specialists have told me that they have effected satisfactory cures with +rhythmic gymnastic exercises. + +Rhythm is infinite, therefore the possibilities for physical +representations of rhythm are infinite. + + * * * * * + +(ADDRESS TO STUDENTS, _der Rhythmus_, Vol. I, p. 41, _et seq._) + +I consider it unpardonable that in teaching the piano the whole +attention should be given to the imitative faculties, and that the +pupil should have no opportunity whatever of expressing his own musical +impressions with the technical means which are taught him. + +Whether the teacher himself be a genius is of little importance, +provided he is able to help others to develop their own talents. + +One can create nothing of lasting value without self-knowledge. The only +living art is that which grows out of one's own experiences. It is just +the same with teaching; it is quite impossible to develop others until +one has proved one's own powers in every direction, until one has learnt +to conquer oneself, to make oneself better, to suppress bad tendencies, +to strengthen good ones, and, in the place of the primitive being, to +make one more complete who, having consciously formed himself, knows his +powers. Only in proportion as one develops oneself is one able to help +others to develop. + +I consider that one does not require to be a genius in order to teach +others, but that one certainly does require strong conviction, +enthusiasm, persistence and joy in life. All these qualities are equally +derived from the control and knowledge of self. + +We must, from youth upwards, learn that we are masters of our fate, that +heredity is powerless if we realize that we can conquer it, that our +future depends upon the victory which we gain over ourselves. However +weak the individual may be, his help is required to prepare a way for a +better future. Life and growth are one and the same, and it is our duty +by the example of our lives to develop those who come after us. Let us +therefore assume the responsibility which Nature puts upon us, and +consider it our duty to regenerate ourselves; thus shall we help the +growth of a more beautiful humanity. + +I like joy, for it is life. I preach joy, for it alone gives the power +of creating useful and lasting work. Amusement, an excitement which +stimulates the nerves instead of uplifting the spirit, is not necessary +in the life of the artist. Of course one must often let oneself go, and +I should be the last to defend a so-called moral discipline, or a +pedantic rule of monastic severity. For a healthy, active person the joy +of the daily struggle and of work performed with enthusiasm should be +sufficient to beautify life, drive away fatigue and illuminate present +and future. This condition of joy is brought about in us by the feeling +of freedom and responsibility, by the clear perception of the creative +power in us, by the balance of our natural powers, by the harmonious +rhythm between intention and deed. It depends upon our creative +faculties, both natural and acquired, and becomes greater as these grow. +The power of understanding ourselves certainly gives us a sense of +freedom, for it opens a rapid correspondence, not only between +imagination and power of performance, between apperception and feelings, +but also between the various kinds of feelings which dwell in us. + + [Illustration: The College.] + + + + +THE JAQUES-DALCROZE METHOD + + +I. GROWTH[1] + + [1] For much of the material of this chapter the writer + is indebted to Herr Karl Storck, of Berlin, to whose + book _E. Jaques-Dalcroze, seine Stellung und Aufgabe in + unserer Zeit_, Stuttgart, 1912, Greiner & Pfeiffer, the + reader is directed. + + +Emile Jaques-Dalcroze was born in Vienna on July 6, 1865, of mixed +parentage, his father being a Swiss from St. Croix in the Jura (hence +the artist name Dalcroze), his mother of German extraction. At the age +of eight his parents brought him to Geneva, where in due course he +became a student at the Conservatoire of Music. His musical education +was continued in Paris under Leo Delibes and in Vienna under Bruckner +and Fuchs. For a short period his studies were interrupted by an +engagement as musical director of a small theatre in Algiers--an +opportunity which he used for study of the peculiar rhythms of Arab +popular music, which he found unusually interesting and stimulating. + +Returning to Geneva, he earned, by a life of varied activities as +teacher, writer and composer, a standing which in 1892 brought him the +appointment of Professor of Harmony at the Geneva Conservatoire. + +The wider experience which the new sphere of work brought was to a +certain extent a disappointment, for with it came clear evidence of what +had before only been suspected, namely, that the education of future +professional musicians was in many ways radically wrong, in that the +training of individual faculties was made the chief object, without +consideration of whether or no these faculties stood in any close +relation to the inner consciousness of the student. In other words, the +aim of the training was to form means of expression, without +consideration of what was to be expressed, to produce a highly trained +instrument, without thought of the art whose servant it was to be, to +take as primary object a thing of secondary importance, indeed only of +importance at all when consequent on something which the usual training +entirely neglected. The students were taught to play instruments, to +sing songs, but without any thought of such work becoming a means of +self expression and so it was found that pupils, technically far +advanced, after many years of study were unable to deal with the +simplest problems in rhythm and that their sense for pitch, relative or +absolute, was most defective; that, while able to read accurately or to +play pieces memorized, they, had not the slightest power of giving +musical expression to their simplest thoughts or feelings, in fact were +like people who possess the vocabulary of a language and are able to +read what others have written, yet are unable to put their own simple +thoughts and impressions into words. The analogy here is the simplest +use of everyday language; from this to the art of the essayist or poet +is far; so in music--one who has mastered notes, chords and rhythms can +give musical expression to simple thoughts and feelings, while to become +a composer he must traverse a road that only natural talent can render +easy. + +Jaques-Dalcroze took the view that technique should be nothing but a +means to art, that the aim of musical education should be, not the +production of pianists, violinists, singers, but of musically developed +human beings, and that therefore the student should not begin by +specializing on any instrument, but by developing his musical faculties, +thus producing a basis for specialized study. This training could only +be obtained by awakening the sense, natural though often latent, for the +ultimate bases of music, namely, _tone_ and _rhythm_. As the sense for +tone could only be developed through the ear, he now gave special +attention to vocal work, and noticed that when the students themselves +beat time to their singing, the work became much more real, that the +pupils had a feeling of being physically in unison with the music, +indeed the feeling of producing something complete and beautiful. +Following up this hint, "Gesture Songs" were written, which, it was +found, were performed with surprising ease. + +Up to this point movement had only been used as an accompaniment to +music, not as a means of expressing it; the next step was to give the +body a training so refined and so detailed as to make it sensitive to +every rhythmic impulse and able to lose itself in any music. This +co-ordination of movement and music is the essence of the +Jaques-Dalcroze method, and differentiates it from all other methods of +similar aim. + +So far only arm movements had been employed, and those merely the +conventional ones of the conductor. The next step was to devise a series +of arm movements, providing a means of clearly marking all tempi from +two beats in the bar to twelve beats in the bar, including such forms as +5/4 7/4 9/4 11/4, and a system of movements of the body and +lower limbs to represent time values from any number of notes to the +beat up to whole notes of twelve beats to the note. From the first the +work aroused keen interest among the students and their parents, and the +master was given enthusiastic help by them in all his experiments; above +all he was loyally aided by his assistant, Fraeulein Nina Gorter. The +Conservatoire authorities, however, were not sympathetic, and it became +necessary to form a volunteer-experimental class, which worked outside +official hours and buildings. + +The first public recognition of the method was at the Music Festival in +Solothurn in 1905, where a demonstration was given which made a +striking impression on those present. The value of the method for the +elementary education of musicians was immediately recognized and some +slight idea obtained of the part it might play in general elementary +education. It has been made clear that the method had its origin in the +attempt to give life and reality to musical education, to give a +foundational development on which specialized music study could be +based, and that it had grown naturally and gradually as the result of +observation and experiment. Now it began to be apparent that something +still greater than the original aim had been achieved, that the system +evolved was one which, properly used, might be of enormous value in the +education of children. With characteristic energy Jaques-Dalcroze, +inspired by the new idea, took up the study of psychology, in which he +was helped by his friend, the psychologist Claparede, who early saw the +value which the new ideas might have in educational practice. The change +of outlook which now took place in the master's mind can best be made +clear by a translation of his own words.[1] + + [1] Address to students, Dresden, 1911 (_Der Rhythmus_, + vol. i, p. 33). + + "It is true that I first devised my method as a + musician for musicians. But the further I carried my + experiments, the more I noticed that, while a method + intended to develop the sense for rhythm, and indeed + based on such development, is of great importance in + the education of a musician, its chief value lies in + the fact that it trains the powers of apperception and + of expression in the individual and renders easier the + externalization of natural emotions. Experience teaches + me that a man is not ready for the specialized study of + an art until his character is formed, and his powers of + expression developed." + +In 1906 was held the first training-course for teachers; how the method +has since grown can be realized by noting that a fortnight was then +considered a sufficient period of training, whilst now the teachers' +course at Hellerau requires from one to three years' steady work. In the +years 1907-9 the short teachers' courses were repeated; in the latter +year the first diploma was granted, experience having shown the need of +this, for already individuals in all parts of the world, after but a few +days' training, in some cases after merely being spectators at lessons, +were advertising themselves as teachers of the method. In 1910 +Jaques-Dalcroze was invited by the brothers Wolf and Harald Dohrn to +come to Dresden, where, in the garden suburb of Hellerau, they have +built him a College for Rhythmic Training, a true Palace of Rhythm. + + +II. PRACTICE[1] + + [1] In the preparation of this chapter free use has + been made of the writings of M. Jaques-Dalcroze and of + Dr. Wolf Dohrn, Director of the College of Music and + Rhythm, Hellerau, Dresden. + + +The method naturally falls into three divisions-- + + (_a_) Rhythmic gymnastics proper. + (_b_) Ear training. + (_c_) Improvisation (practical harmony). + +(_a_) Is essentially the Jaques-Dalcroze method--that which is +fundamentally new. As it is this part of the method which is likely to +prove of great value in all systems of education, not merely as a +preparation for the study of music, but as a means to the utmost +development of faculty in the individual, it will be dealt with in +detail. + +(_b_) Is of the greatest importance as an adjunct to rhythmic +gymnastics, since it is through the ear that rhythm-impressions are most +often and most easily obtained. Jaques-Dalcroze naturally uses his own +methods of ear-training, which are extremely successful, but he does not +lay stress on them; he does, however, emphasize the need of such +training, whatever the method, as shall give the pupil an accurate sense +of pitch, both absolute and relative, and a feeling for tonality. The +more these are possessed the greater the use which can be made of +rhythmic gymnastics. + + [Illustration: Beating 4/4.] + + [Illustration: Movements for the Semibreve.] + +(_c_) This is not required in the _pupil_, however valuable it may be as +an additional means of self-expression; it is, however, absolutely +necessary for the successful _teacher_ of rhythmic gymnastics, who must +be able to express, on some instrument--most conveniently the +piano--whatever rhythms, simple or compound, he may wish to use in the +training of his pupils. This subject, therefore, naturally forms an +important part of the normal course at the Hellerau College, since this +course is planned to meet the needs of students preparing for the +teaching diploma in Eurhythmics. Here, too, Jaques-Dalcroze has his own +system, with which he obtains results often remarkable, but, as in the +case of the ear-training, this is a detail not peculiar to the method as +a whole. + +To repeat: the essentials are that the teacher have the power of free +expression on some musical instrument, the pupil that of hearing +correctly. + + * * * * * + +The system of exercises known as rhythmic gymnastics is based upon two +ideas, (i) _time_ is shown by movements of the arms, (ii) _time-values_, +i.e., note-duration, by movements of the feet and body. In the early +stages of the training this principle is clearly observed; later it may +be varied in many ingenious ways, for instance in what is known as +plastic counterpoint, where the actual notes played are represented by +movements of the arms, while the counterpoint in crotchets, quavers or +semiquavers, is given by the feet. + +The system of beating time with the arms provides for all tempi from +2/4 to 12/4 and includes 5/4 7/4 9/4. + +In the series of movements to represent note-values the crotchet is +taken as the unit; this is represented by a step; higher values, from +the minim to the whole note of twelve beats, are represented by a step +with one foot and a movement or movements with the other foot or with +the body, but without progression, e.g., a minim by one step and a knee +bend, a dotted minim by a step and two movements without progression, a +whole note of twelve beats by a step and eleven movements. Thus for +each note in the music there is one step, one progression in space, +while at the same time the note, if of greater length than a crotchet, +is analysed into crotchets. + +Notes of shorter duration than the crotchet, i.e., quavers, triplets, +etc., are expressed also by steps which become quicker in proportion to +their frequency. + +When the movements corresponding to the notes from the crotchet to the +whole note of twelve beats have, with all their details, become a habit, +the pupil need only make them mentally, contenting himself with one step +forward. This step will have the exact length of the whole note, which +will be mentally analysed into its various elements. Although these +elements are not individually performed by the body, their images and +the innervations suggested by those images take the place of the +movements. + +The process is similar to that of the child learning to read; at first +it reads aloud, then to itself, still, however, moving its lips, i.e., +still making all the innervations necessary for the pronunciation of the +words. Only after much practice does the process become sufficiently +automatic for these lip and tongue innervations to be dropped. Indeed, +many adults show traces of them when they read. To what degree our power +to read is based upon such innervations is shown by the fact that old +people, as their inhibitory powers become weaker, often revert to making +these lip movements. From this we may conclude that such innervations, +although they do not find their natural expression, still exist and +have effect, i.e., they are necessary. The Jaques-Dalcroze method aims +at nothing more or less than the training of rhythmic innervations. + +The whole training aims at developing the power of rapid physical +reaction to mental impressions. These latter are more commonly obtained +through the ear, chiefly from the music played; naturally, however, the +teacher needs at times to give commands during an exercise. For this +purpose he invariably uses the word _hopp_, a word chosen for its clear +incisiveness. + +Before each exercise it is clearly stated what the word is to represent +in that particular case, e.g., omit one beat, omit one bar, beat time +twice as fast with the arms, etc.; often the word will be used in series +in an exercise, each _hopp_ meaning some additional change. As the +command generally falls on the second half of the beat preceding the one +in which the change is to be made, very rapid mental and physical +response is necessary, especially if the music be at all quick. +Exercises of this class soon give the power of rapid muscular +innervation and inhibition, and are of extraordinary value in education, +quite apart from their purely rhythmic side. + +We will now consider the exercises in some detail, taking, as a matter +of convenience, the order and grouping generally adopted at +demonstrations of the method. In actual practice such strict grouping is +neither possible nor necessary; the actual form which the lessons take +will depend upon the genius of teacher and pupils, the possibilities of +variety being infinite. + + [Sidenote: =MOVEMENTS TO INDICATE VARIOUS TEMPI=] + +Simple music is played to which the pupils march. As they grasp the beat +they mark it by an accented step; when this becomes easy, the +corresponding arm movements are added, and the strong beat, at this +stage always the first, is marked by full contraction of the arm +muscles. Practice is given until at _hopp_ the pupil can stop suddenly, +discontinue accenting with one or both arms or with one or both feet, +substitute an arm-movement for a foot movement, insert an extra accent +either with arm or foot, or do any similar thing previously agreed on. +By repeated practice of such exercises complete automatic control of the +limbs is obtained and the ground prepared for more advanced work. It is +at this stage that the simple movements to indicate times and notes are +learnt; they may be likened to the alphabet of the method, the +elementary exercises as a whole being its accidence, the more advanced +stages, including plastic expression, its syntax. + + [Sidenote: =TRAINING IN METRE=] + +This group of exercises is a natural extension of those preceding. + +The pupil learns a series of movements which together form a rhythm, +first practising them singly, then in groups, the signal for the change +being always the word _hopp_. By means of such exercises the component +movements required in the physical expression of a rhythm can be learnt, +first individually, then in series, until the complete rhythm can be +expressed and the use of _hopp_ be dropped, each change of movement +becoming itself the signal for the next. + +Again, the pupil learns to realize[1] a rhythm played on the piano or +indicated by the movements of another person. This is something quite +apart from mere imitation; trained by previous exercises, the pupil +first forms clear mental images of the movements corresponding to the +rhythm in question and then gives physical expression to those images. +In other words, he does not reproduce until he has understood; in fact, +without understanding, correct reproduction of a lengthy series of such +movements is impossible. In the same way, an individual cannot easily +remember and repeat a succession of words which he does not understand, +but can repeat without difficulty a long series of words of which he +understands the sense. Indeed, the importance of many of these exercises +becomes clearer when the way in which children are taught to read and +write is remembered. + + [1] _Realize_ is used in rhythmic gymnastics in the + sense _express by movements of the body_. + +Oral and visual images of letters and words are impressed on the child +by reading aloud, and in this way the young brain easily masters the +difficult work of reading and writing. The Jaques-Dalcroze method +proceeds in exactly the same manner as regards the elements of music. + +When we have once realized this point, we are bound to wonder why music +teaching has not always been based on this elementary and unfailing +form. What would be said to teachers who tried to teach children to read +and write without letting them spell and read aloud? But this is what +has often been done in the teaching of music, and if children generally +show but little pleasure and interest in their first music lessons, the +fault does not lie with them but with our wrong method of making the +elements clear to them. + +As a matter of fact we generally do not make the latter clear to them, +and fail in the most important duty of the educator and teacher, namely, +that of making the child really experience what he is to learn. + + [Sidenote: =DEVELOPMENT OF MENTAL RESPONSE=] + +A rhythm in music consists of a regularly recurring series of accented +sounds, unaccented sounds, and rests, expressed in rhythmic gymnastics +by movements and inhibitions of movements. Individuals who are +rhythmically uncertain generally have a muscular system which is +irregularly responsive to mental stimuli; the response may be too rapid +or too slow; in either case impulse or inhibition falls at the wrong +moment, the change of movement is not made to time, and the physical +expression of the rhythm is blurred. + +Although feeling for rhythm is more or less latent in us all and can be +developed, few have it naturally perfect. The method has many exercises +which are of use in this connexion. By means of these the pupil is +taught how to arrest movement suddenly or slowly, to move alternately +forwards or backwards, to spring at a given signal, to lie down or stand +up in the exact time of a bar of music--in each case with a minimum of +muscular effort and without for a moment losing the feeling for each +time-unit of the music. + + [Sidenote: =MENTAL HEARING. CONCENTRATION=] + +Physical movements repeatedly performed create corresponding images in +the brain; the stronger the feeling for the movement, i.e., the more the +pupil concentrates while making that movement, the clearer will be the +corresponding mental image, and the more fully will the sense for metre +and rhythm be developed. + +We might say that these movement images store up the innervations which +bring about the actual movement. They are for the body and its movements +what formulae are for the mathematician. + +Developed out of many movements they become a complete symbol for the +rhythm expressed by the series of movements in question. Thus the pupil +who knows how to march in time to a given rhythm has only to close his +eyes and recall a clear image of the corresponding movements to +experience the rhythm as clearly as if he were expressing it by +marching. He simply continues to perform the movements mentally. If, +however, his movements when actually realizing the rhythm are weak or +confused, the corresponding mental images will be vague or incorrect, +whilst movements which are dynamically clear guarantee the accuracy of +the corresponding mental images and nerve-impulses. + +In practice the exercise consists in first mastering a rhythm played, +marching and beating time in the usual manner, then at _hopp_ +discontinuing all movement, either for a number of bars previously +agreed upon or until the signal to resume is given by a second _hopp_. +In this exercise the teacher ceases to play at the first _hopp_. + + [Sidenote: =ANALYSIS AND DIVISION OF TIME VALUES=] + +The exercises of this group are designed to teach how to subdivide units +of time into parts of varying number. At _hopp_ the crotchet must be +divided into quavers, triplets, semiquavers, etc., as may have been +previously arranged, or instead of _hopp_ the teacher may call _three_, +_four_, etc., to indicate the subdivision which is to be expressed by +the corresponding number of steps. Apart from their direct object, the +exercises of this group are of value for the training which they give in +poise; they might be classed equally well with the group under +_Development of Mental Response_. + +Here, too, belong exercises in the realization of syncopation in which, +as the note is represented by the usual step, it comes off the beat, the +latter being indicated by a knee-bend which, in quick time, becomes a +mere suggestion of movement or is omitted, e.g., {Music} + +These exercises in syncopation are perhaps some of the most difficult in +the method, as they demand an extraordinary control of inhibition. +Individuals of musical ability often find them difficult at first, and +their easy performance may be taken as evidence of a developed feeling +for rhythm. As a rule children find these exercises easier than do +adults. + + [Illustration: Beating 5/4 in canon without + expression.] + + [Illustration: Beating 5/4 in canon with expression.] + + [Sidenote: =REALIZATION OF TIME AND RHYTHM=] + +The object here is to express by rhythmic movements and without +hesitation rhythms perceived by the ear. The exactness of such +expression will be in proportion to the number of movements of which the +pupil has acquired automatic control. There is not time to analyse the +music heard; the body must _realize_ before the mind has a clear +impression of the movement image, just as in reading, words are +understood and pronounced without a clear mental image of them being +formed. + +When the realization of a rhythm heard has become relatively easy, the +pupil is taught to concentrate, by listening to, and forming a mental +image of, a fresh rhythm while still performing the old one. In this +manner he obtains facility in rendering automatic, groups of movements +rhythmically arranged, and in keeping the mind free to take a fresh +impression which in its turn can be rendered automatic. + +Here again the process is analagous to that of reading, in which, while +we are grasping the meaning of a sentence, the eye is already dealing +with the next, preparing it in turn for comprehension. + + [Sidenote: =DEVELOPMENT OF INDEPENDENT CONTROL OF THE LIMBS=] + +Characteristic exercises of this group are: beating the same time with +both arms but in canon, beating two different tempi with the arms while +the feet march to one or other or perhaps march to yet a third time, +e.g., the arms 3/4 and 4/4, the feet 5/4. There are, also, +exercises in the analysis of a given time unit into various fractions +simultaneously, e.g., in a 6/8 bar one arm may beat three to the bar, +the other arm two, while the feet march six. + + [Sidenote: =DOUBLE OR TRIPLE DEVELOPMENT OF RHYTHMS=] + +These exercises are a physical preparation for what is known in music as +the development of a theme. While the composers of fugues always use a +double or quadruple development, the method introduces an entirely fresh +element--the triple development, exercises in which are difficult but +extremely valuable. + + [Sidenote: =PLASTIC COUNTERPOINT AND COMPOUND RHYTHMS=] + +In plastic counterpoint the arms realize the theme, i.e., make as many +movements as there are notes, whilst the feet mark the counterpoint in +crotchets, quavers, triplets or semiquavers. + +A compound rhythm may be realized by the arms taking one rhythm, the +feet another; or the rhythms of a three part canon may be expressed by +simultaneous singing, beating with the arms and marching. + +These exercises correspond in the sphere of physical expression to the +technical exercises of instrumental work, for they teach the pupil to +express simultaneously impressions of the most varying nature. + + [Sidenote: =GRADATION OF MUSCULAR EFFORT. PATHETIC + ACCENT. PLASTIC EXPRESSION=] + +The exercises already dealt with have all the general purpose of +developing feeling for rhythm by giving training in the physical +expression of rhythms. Those in this last group aim at facility in +making crescendos and decrescendos of innervation, in passing from one +shade of expression to another, in co-ordinating movements, not only to +the rhythm of the music played, but also to its feeling; they allow free +play to individuality, to temperament, and give opportunity for that +free self-expression for which the preceding exercises have provided +facility. + +PERCY B. INGHAM. + + + + +LESSONS AT HELLERAU + + +Monsieur Jaques-Dalcroze's lessons are full of vitality and +entertainment, combined with the serious work in hand. No slacking is +possible. He will perhaps open a rhythmic gymnastic lesson by playing a +vigorous theme of one or two bars in a rhythm such as the following:-- + +{Music} + +which, as soon as it is grasped by the pupils, they begin to +_realize_,[1] that is, to mark the tempo with the arms, and to move the +feet according to the notes. A note which contains more than one +beat--for instance, the minim in the first bar--is shown by taking +one step forward for the first beat and by a slight bend of the knee for +the second beat. The next two crochets are represented by one step for +each. A step is also taken for each quaver, but twice as quickly; for +the dotted crochet, a step and a slight spring before the last +quaver--all this while the arms are beating a steady four. After a short +practice of these two bars, the master will glide into yet another +rhythm, the pupils still realizing the first one, but at the same time +listening and mentally registering the one being played, so as to be +ready on the instant at the word of command, which is _hopp_, to change +to the new rhythm. We will suppose it to be as follows {Music}. This, it +will be noticed, is in 3/4 time. The pupils become accustomed to +dropping frequently into various times with the greatest ease. The three +bars would then be realized consecutively, and this process will +continue until perhaps there are six bars in all. These must all be so +clear in the minds of the pupils, that at the word of command, one bar, +or two bars, can be omitted on the instant, or be realized twice as +quickly, or twice as slowly; or what is still more complicated, the arms +can beat the time twice as slowly and the feet mark the notes twice as +quickly. It seems incredibly difficult to do at first, but the same +training of _thinking to time_ occurs in every lesson, in improvisation +and solfege, as well as in the rhythmic gymnastic lessons, and so the +invaluable habits of concentrated thinking, of quick and definite +action, and of control of mind over body, become established. + + [1] See note, page 41 + + [Illustration: The Air Bath.] + + [Illustration: The College: Entrance Hall.] + +Each lesson is varied to a remarkable degree; in fact, Monsieur +Jaques-Dalcroze seldom repeats himself. Every day he has new ideas, +consisting of new movements, or of new uses for old ones, so that there +is never a dull moment. It must be understood, however, that the +alphabet and grammar of the movements remain the same, it is the +combinations of them that are limitless. The music is, of course, always +improvised. + +A word should be said on the subject of feeling two different rhythms at +the same time. Every teacher knows the difficulty children have in +playing three notes against four on the piano. The Hellerau children can +with ease beat four with one arm and three with the other, or beat three +with the arms and two or four with the feet, or _vice versa_. And this +is not learnt in any mechanical way; the power for _feeling_ two rhythms +simultaneously is developed. Advanced pupils can realize three rhythms +at the same time. They will perhaps mark one with the arms, another with +the feet, and sing yet a third. + +Another part of the work is to teach the pupils to express the type of +music that is being played; this is technically known as "Plastic +expression." The alphabet of this consists of twenty gestures with the +arms, which can be done in many various combinations and in various +positions, and by means of these any kind of emotion can be expressed. +Perhaps the music will begin by being solemn and grand, becoming even +tragic, and gradually the tones and melody will rise to cheerfulness, +the rhythm will become more animated and the tone swell out again until +a perfect ecstasy of joy is reached--and all the while the figures of +the pupils are harmonising absolutely with the music, trained as they +are to listen accurately to every note, every accent, every change of +key and, above all, every rhythm. To the watcher such an exercise is +effective and striking in the highest degree. + +Realizing syncopated passages is a fine exercise for developing +independence of movement in the arms and feet, as the feet move in +between the beats of the arms. Let any one try to realize a simple +measure in syncopation. For instance, take a bar of 4/4 time {Music}. +The first beat of the arms and the first step will come together, the +second beat of the arms will come half-way between the second and third +steps, the third beat half-way between the third and fourth steps, and +the fourth beat half-way between the fourth and fifth steps, and this +should be done with no contraction of muscle or appearance of effort. + +Other exercises consist of beating various times in canon, that is, one +arm beginning one beat later than the other; of beating different times +with each arm, perhaps seven with one arm and three with the other; of +marching to one rhythm and beating time to another; of simple marching +and at the word of command taking one step backward, and then forward +again; of marching the counterpoint of a rhythm. For instance, if the +rhythm played be {Music} the counterpoint in crochets would be {Music}, +or if it is to be in quavers it would be {Music}. The counterpoint can +be filled in with triplets, semiquavers, or with notes of any other +value. + +Another good exercise is to take a simple rhythm and at the word of +command realize it twice or three times as quickly or as slowly, the +arms still beating in the first tempo. A simple example will make this +clear. {Music} twice as quickly would become {Music}. + +The pupils are often asked to listen to what is played and then to +realize it. It may be a series of four bars, each one in a different +tempo, and all times are employed, including 5/4, 7/4, 9/3 and +others which are somewhat exceptional. And so on _ad infinitum_. + +From these suggestions something of the endless variety of exercises +that may be devised can probably now be imagined. + +As soon as movements become automatic they are used as units for +building up more elaborate movements, and no time is wasted in doing +merely mechanical exercises. In every detail of the method the brain is +called into constant activity, and, lest any one should think that it +would be easy for one pupil to copy another in doing the exercises, it +should be stated that, if such a thing were attempted, it would end in +the pupil becoming hopelessly confused, for if the mind once loses hold +of the work in process it is very difficult to pick it up again. + +The solfege lessons are chiefly for ear-training and practical harmony. +In the elementary classes it is shown how scales and chords are formed, +and where the tones and semitones occur. The pupils soon become able +to tell, when three consecutive notes from any scale are played, what +degrees of the scale they are, or may be. Scales are sung always +beginning on C for every key and always to a rhythm. Here, again, the +pupils have to think to time, for in the second scale, which would be +that of F, if the flat scales were being sung, they have to remember +that they are starting on the fifth note of the scale, and that the +interval between the third and fourth notes of the scale is a semitone; +that the third and fourth degrees in the key of F are A and B, and +therefore the B has to be flattened in this scale, the other notes +remaining the same. The whole cycle of scales is sung in this manner, +each one commencing on C, or on C flat when necessary. The pupils are +also practised in listening to a scale played and then saying in which +key it is, judging it by the fall of the semitones. + + [Illustration: Class Rooms.] + + [Illustration: The College: Interiors.] + +Chords are sung analytically and in chorus, with their resolutions when +needed, and this is followed by practice in hearing and naming chords. + +Sight singing and transposition are by no means neglected, and there is +practice in singing intervals, in singing a piece once or twice through +and then from memory, or in another key, which is not so easy to do when +the fixed _Do_ is used. And always, whatever is being done, the pupils +have to be prepared for the word _hopp_, to make any change which has +been previously agreed on, e.g., to sing on the instant in a key a +semitone lower, or to sing in thought only until the next _hopp_, when +they sing aloud again. In these exercises, as in those of the rhythmic +gymnastics, there is no end of the variety of combination possible. +There is also opportunity for practice in conducting, and very +interesting it is, in a children's class, to note with what assurance a +small girl of perhaps seven or eight will beat time for the others to +sing one of their songs, and also to note the various renderings each +conductor will obtain of the same piece. + +The improvisation on the piano is perhaps the most difficult part of the +system to master. It may not be realized by all people that _every one +can be taught to play original music_. There are cases in which the +pupil is not naturally musical, and has had no previous knowledge of +piano playing, but has learnt to improvise sufficiently well to give a +good lesson in rhythmic gymnastics, which means no small degree of +ability. This training is begun by making use of the simplest, i.e., the +common, chords, and when these are known in every key, including those +on the dominant, the pupil is expected to improvise a short piece of +eight bars, the chief feature to be attended to being the rhythm, which +has to be definite and played without hesitation. When perfect +familiarity is obtained with the common chord of each key and with that +of its dominant, another chord is learnt, that on the sub-dominant. With +these three chords alone quite charming little pieces can be played, and +gradually in this manner the pupil has at his command passing notes, +appoggiaturas, cadences, and an unlimited number of chords and +sequences. Then come the rules for modulating from one key to +another, and equal facility in all keys is insisted on. Monsieur +Jaques-Dalcroze's pupils learn to improvise with definite thought and +meaning, nothing unrhythmical is ever allowed, nor any aimless +meandering over the keyboard. For these lessons the pupils are divided +into small groups of not more than six in each, and twice a week these +groups are taken altogether by Monsieur Jaques-Dalcroze. + +All branches of the work demand perfect concentration of thought and +attention, and such invaluable mental training cannot be too highly +prized, for it is fundamental to success in work of any kind, whatever +it may be. + +ETHEL INGHAM. + + [Illustration: The Hostel: Interiors.] + + + + +LIFE AT HELLERAU + + +Surely never before has the world held better opportunities for studying +and loving the beautiful and true. One need be but a few days in +Hellerau in order to see some of the many advantages which a stay there +has to offer. For young men and women searching for a profession in +life; for those fresh from school while waiting to discover their +natural bent; for adults who seek a change from their ordinary +surroundings and who wish to improve in culture and in health; for +musicians and students in art, for teachers of dancing, and for children +of all ages, a course of study at the College in Hellerau contains +advantages and opportunities which seem to exist in no other educational +institution. + +For the convenience of young girls there is a hall of residence, which +will accommodate about forty-six students, the head of which is a +cultured English lady of wide experience. There are also many small +houses on adjoining land, in which the male students and those who are +older can live. These may, and as a rule do, come to the Hostel for +meals. + +The home life in the Hostel is a cheerful one. The bedrooms are bright, +containing just the necessary furniture, which of course includes a +piano. There is a large and charmingly furnished room opening from the +hall, known as the Diele, which serves as a general sitting-room for the +students. The dining-room is equally delightful, and can be quickly +converted into a ball-room for impromptu dances, or adapted for other +entertainments. There is also a library; and throughout the whole house +the same good taste is displayed. Leading from the dining-room is a +large terrace, with steps down into an attractive garden. + +The day commences with the sounding of a gong at seven o'clock; the +house is immediately alive, and some are off to the College for a +Swedish gymnastic lesson before breakfast, others breakfast at half-past +seven and have their lesson later. There is always a half hour of +ordinary gymnastics to begin with. Then there will be a lesson in +Solfege, one in Rhythmic Gymnastics, and one in Improvisation, each +lasting for fifty minutes, with an interval of ten minutes between each +lesson. + +Dinner, which is at a quarter-past one, is followed by an hour for rest; +and at three the energetic people begin practising. The afternoons are +usually free, except twice a week, when there are lessons in "Plastic" +and dancing from four till six, before which tea is served, or there may +be extra lessons in rhythmic gymnastics for small groups of pupils who +need further help, and students may obtain the use of a room for private +practice together. In the afternoons, too, there is time and opportunity +for any other extra study or lessons which are not included in the +ordinary course, such as violin, solo singing, drawing or painting. Most +of the students soon acquire wide interests, if they do not have them +when they first come. Free afternoons may be spent in visiting the +galleries and shops of Dresden. Whenever there is anything especially +good in the way of a concert, or an opera or a classical play, there is +always a party of enthusiasts going into town for it. The opera in +Dresden, as in other parts of Germany, fortunately begins and ends +early. Late hours are not encouraged at the Hostel--indeed, everybody is +glad to retire early, for the work is absorbing and demands plenty of +energy, especially if the full teachers' course be taken, with the hope +of a diploma at the end of two years. + + [Illustration: The Hostel.] + +Supper is served at a quarter-past seven, and on two evenings a week +those who wish to join the orchestral or choral societies have the +pleasure of meeting together and practising under the direction of +Monsieur Jaques-Dalcroze. + +An atmosphere of enthusiasm and good-will permeates the social life. No +community of the kind could have a more delightful spirit of unity than +that which pervades the Jaques-Dalcroze School. All students are keen +and anxious to live as full a life as possible, every one will willingly +and unselfishly take time and trouble to help others who know less than +themselves. The College has a unity born of kindred interests, and +every one glows with admiration and esteem for the genius at the head, +and for his wonderful method, whilst he himself simply radiates +good-will and enthusiasm, and works harder than any one else in the +place. He makes a point of knowing each one of his pupils personally, +and remarkably quick he is in summing up the various temperaments and +characters of those with whom he comes into contact. + +The moral and mental tone of the College is pure and beautiful, indeed +it could not well be otherwise, for the work in itself is an +inspiration. A change is often observable in pupils after they have been +but a few weeks in residence, a change which tells of more alertness of +mind, of more animated purpose, and even of higher ideals and aims in +life. + + [Illustration: Dresden from Hellerau.] + +There are opportunities for the practice of many languages, for it is a +cosmopolitan centre. Nearly all European nationalities are represented, +but as yet the number of English people is not large. This, however, +will not long remain so, for the Jaques-Dalcroze method needs only to be +known in order to be as widely appreciated in Great Britain and the +United States as it is on the Continent. + +The lessons are given in German, though occasionally French is used to +make clear anything that is not quite understood in the former tongue. +English people who do not know either of these languages need not look +upon this as an obstacle, for one quickly arrives at understanding +sufficiently well to gain the benefit from the lessons, and there is +always some one in the classes who will interpret when necessary. + +The College itself is a fine example of the value of simplicity and +space in architecture. Both without and within, the block of buildings +is impressive, this effect being gained by an extreme simplicity of +decoration. The most modern methods of heating and ventilating are +provided, and there are large sun and air baths. + +Completed in the spring of this year, and with accommodation for five +hundred students, the settlement stands on high ground about four miles +from Dresden, in an open, bracing, healthy spot, with charming walks in +all directions. The views are extensive; to the south lie the +Erzgebirge, to the south-east Saxon Switzerland, and, in a dip of the +nearer hills, Dresden. + +ETHEL INGHAM. + + + + +THE VALUE OF EURHYTHMICS TO ART + + +One of the most marked tendencies of modern aesthetic theory is to break +down the barriers that convention has erected between the various arts. +The truth is coming to be realized that the essential factor of poetry, +painting, sculpture, architecture and music is really of the same +quality, and that one art does not differ from another in anything but +the method of its expression and the conditions connected with that +method. + +This common basis to the arts is more easily admitted than defined, but +one important element in it--perhaps the only element that can be given +a name--is rhythm. Rhythm of bodily movement, the dance, is the earliest +form of artistic expression known. It is accompanied in nearly every +case with rude music, the object being to emphasize the beat and +rhythmic movement with sound. The quickness with which children respond +to simple repetition of beat, translating the rhythm of the music into +movement, is merely recurrence of historical development. + +Words with the music soon follow, and from these beginnings--probably +war-songs or religious chants--come song-poems and ultimately poetry as +we know it to-day. The still more modern development of prose-writing, +in the stylistic sense, is merely a step further. + +The development on the other side follows a somewhat similar line. The +rhythm of the dancing figure is reproduced in rude sculpture and +bas-relief, and then in painting. + + [Illustration: A Plastic Exercise.] + +So we have, as it were, a scale of the arts, with music at its centre +and prose-writing and painting at its two extremes. From end to end of +the scale runs the unifying desire for rhythm.[1] + + [1] For valuable help in these ideas I am indebted to + Mr. J. W. Harvey. I should like to quote verbatim one or + two remarks of his on the subject, taken from a recent + letter: "Human motion gives the convergence of time + (inner sense) and space (outer sense), the spirit and + the body. Time, which we are in our inner selves, is + more dissociable from us than space, which only our + bodies have; the one (time) can be interpreted + emotionally and directly by a time-sense; the other + (space) symbolically, by a space-sense, which is + sight." + +To speak of the rhythm of painting may seem fanciful, but I think that +is only lack of familiarity. The expression is used here with no +intention of metaphor. Great pictures have a very marked and real +rhythm, of colour, of line, of feeling. The best prose-writing has +equally a distinct rhythm. + +There was never an age in the history of art when rhythm played a more +important part than it does to-day. The teaching of M. Dalcroze at +Hellerau is a brilliant expression of the modern desire for rhythm in +its most fundamental form--that of bodily movement. Its nature and +origin have been described elsewhere; it is for me to try and suggest +the possibilities of its influence on every other art, and on the whole +of life. + +Let it be clearly understood from the first that the rhythmic training +at Hellerau has an importance far deeper and more extended than is +contained in its immediate artistic beauty, its excellence as a purely +musical training, or its value to physical development. This is not a +denial of its importance in these three respects. The beauty of the +classes is amazing; the actor, as well as the designer of stage-effects, +will come to thank M. Dalcroze for the greatest contribution to their +art that any age can show. He has recreated the human body as a +decorative unit. He has shown how men, women and children can group +themselves and can be grouped in designs as lovely as any painted +design, with the added charm of movement. He has taught individuals +their own power of gracious motion and attitude. Musically and +physically the results are equally wonderful. But the training is more +than a mere musical education; it is also emphatically more than +gymnastics. + +Perhaps in the stress laid on individuality may be seen most easily the +possibilities of the system. Personal effort is looked for in every +pupil. Just as the learner of music must have the "opportunity of +expressing his own musical impressions with the technical means which +are taught him,"[1] so the pupil at Hellerau must come to improvise from +the rhythmic sense innate in him, rhythms of his own.[2] + + [1] Cf. supra, p. 28. + + [2] A good example of the fertility and variety of the + individual effort obtained at Hellerau was seen at the + Auffuehrung given on December 11, 1911. Two pupils + undertook to realize a Prelude of Chopin, their choice + falling by chance on the same Prelude. But hardly a + movement of the two interpretations was the same. The + first girl lay on the ground the whole time, her head + on her arm, expressing in gentle movements of head, + hands and feet, her idea of the music. At one point + near the end, with the rising passion of the music, she + raised herself on to her knees; then sank down again to + her full length. + + The second performer stood upright until the very end. + At the most intense moment her arms were stretched + above her head; at the close of the music she was bowed + to the ground, in an attitude expressive of the utmost + grief. In such widely different ways did the same piece + of music speak to the individualities of these two + girls. + +To take a joy in the beauty of the body, to train his mind to move +graciously and harmoniously both in itself and in relation to those +around him, finally, to make his whole life rhythmic--such an ideal is +not only possible but almost inevitable to the pupil at Hellerau. The +keenness which possesses the whole College, the delight of every one in +their work, their comradeship, their lack of self-consciousness, their +clean sense of the beauty of natural form, promises a new and more +harmonious race, almost a realization of Rousseau's ideal, and with it +an era of truly rhythmic artistic production. + +That the soil is ready for the new seed may be shown by a moment's +consideration of what I consider to be a parallel development in +painting. There is in Munich a group of artists who call themselves Der +Blaue Reiter. They are led by a Russian, Wassily Kandinsky, and a +German, Franz Marc, and it is of Kandinsky's art that I propose to +speak. Kandinsky is that rare combination, an artist who can express +himself in both words and paint. His book--_Ueber das Geistige in der +Kunst_[1]--is an interesting and subtle piece of aesthetic philosophy. +His painting is a realization of the attempt to paint music. He has +isolated the emotion caused by line and colour from the external +association of idea. All form in the ordinary representative sense is +eliminated. But form there is in the deeper sense, the shapes and +rhythms of the _innerer Notwendigkeit_, and with it, haunting, +harmonious colour. To revert to a former metaphor, painting has been +brought into the centre of the scale. As Kandinsky says in his book: +"Shades of colour, like shades of sound, are of a much subtler nature, +cause much subtler vibrations of the spirit than can ever be given by +words." It is to achieve this finer utterance, to establish a surer and +more expressive connexion between spirit and spirit, that Kandinsky is +striving. His pictures are visions, beautiful abstractions of colour and +line which he has lived himself, deep down in his inmost soul. He is +intensely individual, as are all true mystics; at the same time the +spirit of his work is universal. + + [1] _Ueber das Geistige in der Kunst._ Piper Verlag, + Muenchen, 3 Marks. See also vol. i. of _der Blaue + Reiter_. Piper Verlag, 10 Marks. + +In this, then, as in so much else, Kandinsky and Dalcroze are advancing +side by side. They are leading the way to the truest art, and ultimately +to the truest life of all, which is a synthesis of the collective arts +and emotions of all nations, which is, at the same time, based on +individuality, because it represents the inner being of each one of its +devotees. + +MICHAEL T. H. SADLER. + + +_Printed by_ BUTLER & TANNER, _Frome and London_. + + + [Illustration: A Plastic Exercise.] + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Eurhythmics of Jaques-Dalcroze, by +Emile Jaques-Dalcroze + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE EURHYTHMICS OF JAQUES-DALCROZE *** + +***** This file should be named 21653.txt or 21653.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/2/1/6/5/21653/ + +Produced by David Newman, V. L. Simpson and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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