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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of A Brief History of the English Language and
+Literature, Vol. 2 (of 2), by John Miller Dow Meiklejohn
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: A Brief History of the English Language and Literature, Vol. 2 (of 2)
+
+Author: John Miller Dow Meiklejohn
+
+Release Date: June 3, 2007 [EBook #21665]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Louise Hope, Barbara Tozier, Bill Tozier and
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+
+
+
+
+A BRIEF HISTORY
+
+of the
+
+ENGLISH
+
+LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE
+
+by
+
+J. M. D. MEIKLEJOHN, M.A.
+
+  Professor of the Theory, History, and Practice of Education
+  in the University of St. Andrews, Scotland
+
+
+  Boston
+  D. C. Heath & Co., Publishers
+  1887
+
+
+
+
+
+_Copyright, 1887,_
+
+By D. C. Heath & Co.
+
+
+
+
+PUBLISHER'S NOTICE.
+
+
+The present volume is the second part of the author's "English
+Language-- Its Grammar, History, and Literature." It includes the
+History of the English Language and the History of English Literature.
+
+The first part comprises the department of Grammar, under which are
+included Etymology, Syntax, Analysis, Word Formation, and History, with
+a brief outline of Composition and of Prosody. The two may be had
+separately or bound together. Each constitutes a good one year's course
+of English study. The first part is suited for high schools; the second,
+for high schools and colleges.
+
+The book, which is worthy of the wide reputation and ripe experience of
+the eminent author, is distinguished throughout by clear, brief, and
+comprehensive statement and illustration. It is especially suited for
+private students or for classes desiring to make a brief and rapid
+review, and also for teachers who want only a brief text as a basis for
+their own instruction.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+This book provides sufficient matter for the four years of study
+required, in England, of a pupil-teacher, and also for the first year at
+his training college. An experienced master will easily be able to guide
+his pupils in the selection of the proper parts for each year. The ten
+pages on the Grammar of Verse ought to be reserved for the fifth year of
+study.
+
+It is hoped that the book will also be useful in Colleges, Ladies'
+Seminaries, High Schools, Academies, Preparatory and Normal Schools, to
+candidates for teachers' examinations and Civil Service examinations,
+and to all who wish for any reason to review the leading facts of the
+English Language and Literature.
+
+Only the most salient features of the language have been described, and
+minor details have been left for the teacher to fill in. The utmost
+clearness and simplicity have been the aim of the writer, and he has
+been obliged to sacrifice many interesting details to this aim.
+
+The study of English Grammar is becoming every day more and more
+historical-- and necessarily so. There are scores of inflections,
+usages, constructions, idioms, which cannot be truly or adequately
+explained without a reference to the past states of the language-- to
+the time when it was a synthetic or inflected language, like German or
+Latin.
+
+The Syntax of the language has been set forth in the form of RULES. This
+was thought to be better for young learners who require firm and clear
+dogmatic statements of fact and duty. But the skilful teacher will
+slowly work up to these rules by the interesting process of induction,
+and will-- when it is possible-- induce his pupil to draw the general
+conclusions from the data given, and thus to make rules for himself.
+Another convenience that will be found by both teacher and pupil in this
+form of _rules_ will be that they can be compared with the rules of, or
+general statements about, a foreign language-- such as Latin, French, or
+German.
+
+It is earnestly hoped that the slight sketches of the History of our
+Language and of its Literature may not only enable the young student to
+pass his examinations with success, but may also throw him into the
+attitude of mind of Oliver Twist, and induce him to "ask for more."
+
+The Index will be found useful in preparing the parts of each subject;
+as all the separate paragraphs about the same subject will be found
+there grouped together.
+
+J. M. D. M.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+PART III.
+                                                              Page
+  The English Language, and the Family to which it belongs     193
+  The Periods of English                                       198
+  History of the Vocabulary                                    202
+  History of the Grammar                                       239
+  Specimens of English of Different Periods                    250
+  Modern English                                               258
+  Landmarks in the History of the English Language             266
+
+PART IV.
+
+  History of English Literature                                271
+  Tables of English Literature                                 367
+
+  Index                                                        381
+
+
+
+
+PART III.
+
+THE HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+
+1. +Tongue, Speech, Language.+-- We speak of the "English tongue" or of
+the "French language"; and we say of two nations that they "do not
+understand each other's speech." The existence of these three words--
++speech+, +tongue+, +language+-- proves to us that a language is
+something +spoken+,-- that it is a number of +sounds+; and that the
+writing or printing of it upon paper is a quite secondary matter.
+Language, rightly considered, then, is an +organised set of sounds+.
+These sounds convey a meaning from the mind of the speaker to the mind
+of the hearer, and thus serve to connect man with man.
+
+2. +Written Language.+-- It took many hundreds of years-- perhaps
+thousands-- before human beings were able to invent a mode of writing
+upon paper-- that is, of representing +sounds+ by +signs+. These signs
+are called +letters+; and the whole set of them goes by the name of the
++Alphabet+-- from the two first letters of the Greek alphabet, which are
+called _alpha_, _beta_. There are languages that have never been put
+upon paper at all, such as many of the African languages, many in the
+South Sea Islands, and other parts of the globe. But in all cases, every
+language that we know anything about-- English, Latin, French, German--
+existed for hundreds of years before any one thought of writing it down
+on paper.
+
+3. +A Language Grows.+-- A language is an +organism+ or +organic
+existence+. Now every organism lives; and, if it lives, it grows; and,
+if it grows, it also dies. Our language grows; it is growing still; and
+it has been growing for many hundreds of years. As it grows it loses
+something, and it gains something else; it alters its appearance;
+changes take place in this part of it and in that part,-- until at
+length its appearance in age is something almost entirely different from
+what it was in its early youth. If we had the photograph of a man of
+forty, and the photograph of the same person when he was a child of one,
+we should find, on comparing them, that it was almost impossible to
+point to the smallest trace of likeness in the features of the two
+photographs. And yet the two pictures represent the same person. And so
+it is with the English language. The oldest English, which is usually
+called Anglo-Saxon, is as different from our modern English as if they
+were two distinct languages; and yet they are not two languages, but
+really and fundamentally one and the same. Modern English differs from
+the oldest English as a giant oak does from a small oak sapling, or a
+broad stalwart man of forty does from a feeble infant of a few months
+old.
+
+4. +The English Language.+-- The English language is the speech spoken
+by the Anglo-Saxon race in England, in most parts of Scotland, in the
+larger part of Ireland, in the United States, in Canada, in Australia
+and New Zealand, in South Africa, and in many other parts of the world.
+In the middle of the +fifth+ century it was spoken by a few thousand men
+who had lately landed in England from the Continent: it is now spoken by
+more than one hundred millions of people. In the course of the next
+sixty years, it will probably be the speech of two hundred millions.
+
+5. +English on the Continent.+-- In the middle of the fifth century it
+was spoken in the north-west corner of Europe-- between the mouths of
+the Rhine, the Weser, and the Elbe; and in Schleswig there is a small
+district which is called +Angeln+ to this day. But it was not then
+called +English+; it was more probably called +Teutish+, or +Teutsch+,
+or +Deutsch+-- all words connected with a generic word which covers many
+families and languages-- +Teutonic+. It was a rough guttural speech of
+one or two thousand words; and it was brought over to this country by
+the +Jutes+, +Angles+, and +Saxons+ in the year 449. These men left
+their home on the Continent to find here farms to till and houses to
+live in; and they drove the inhabitants of the island-- the +Britons+--
+ever farther and farther west, until they at length left them in peace
+in the more mountainous parts of the island-- in the southern and
+western corners, in Cornwall and in Wales.
+
+6. +The British Language.+-- What language did the Teutonic conquerors,
+who wrested the lands from the poor Britons, find spoken in this island
+when they first set foot on it? Not a Teutonic speech at all. They found
+a language not one word of which they could understand. The island
+itself was then called +Britain+; and the tongue spoken in it belonged
+to the Keltic group of languages. Languages belonging to the Keltic
+group are still spoken in Wales, in Brittany (in France), in the
+Highlands of Scotland, in the west of Ireland, and in the Isle of Man.
+A few words-- very few-- from the speech of the Britons, have come into
+our own English language; and what these are we shall see by-and-by.
+
+7. +The Family to which English belongs.+-- Our English tongue belongs
+to the +Aryan+ or +Indo-European Family+ of languages. That is to say,
+the main part or substance of it can be traced back to the race which
+inhabited the high table-lands that lie to the back of the western end
+of the great range of the Himalaya, or "Abode of Snow." This Aryan race
+grew and increased, and spread to the south and west; and from it have
+sprung languages which are now spoken in India, in Persia, in Greece and
+Italy, in France and Germany, in Scandinavia, and in Russia. From this
+Aryan family we are sprung; out of the oldest Aryan speech our own
+language has grown.
+
+8. +The Group to which English belongs.+-- The Indo-European family of
+languages consists of several groups. One of these is called the
++Teutonic Group+, because it is spoken by the +Teuts+ (or the +Teutonic
+race+), who are found in Germany, in England and Scotland, in Holland,
+in parts of Belgium, in Denmark, in Norway and Sweden, in Iceland, and
+the Faroe Islands. The Teutonic group consists of three branches-- +High
+German+, +Low German+, and +Scandinavian+. High German is the name given
+to the kind of German spoken in Upper Germany-- that is, in the
+table-land which lies south of the river Main, and which rises gradually
+till it runs into the Alps. +New High German+ is the German of books--
+the literary language-- the German that is taught and learned in
+schools. +Low German+ is the name given to the German dialects spoken in
+the lowlands-- in the German part of the Great Plain of Europe, and
+round the mouths of those German rivers that flow into the Baltic and
+the North Sea. +Scandinavian+ is the name given to the languages spoken
+in Denmark and in the great Scandinavian Peninsula. Of these three
+languages, Danish and Norwegian are practically the same-- their
+literary or book-language is one; while Swedish is very different.
+Icelandic is the oldest and purest form of Scandinavian. The following
+is a table of the
+
+  GROUP OF TEUTONIC LANGUAGES.
+
+  [The table was originally printed in full family-tree form, using the
+  layout below. The full text is here given separately.]
+
+                        T.
+            ____________|_____________
+           |            |             |
+           LG           HG            Sc
+     ______|____      __|__      _____|_____
+    |    |   |  |    |  |  |    |   |   |   |
+    Du  Fl  Fr  E    O  M  N    I  Dk  Fe  Sv
+                                  (Nk)    (Sw)
+
+  TEUTONIC.
+    LOW GERMAN.
+      Dutch.
+      Flemish.
+      Frisian.
+      English.
+    HIGH GERMAN.
+      Old.
+      Middle.
+      New.
+    SCANDINAVIAN.
+      Icelandic
+      Dansk
+        (or Norsk).
+      Ferroic.
+      Svensk
+        (Swedish).
+
+It will be observed, on looking at the above table, that High German is
+subdivided according to time, but that the other groups are subdivided
+according to space.
+
+9. +English a Low-German Speech.+-- Our English tongue is the +lowest of
+all Low-German dialects+. Low German is the German spoken in the
+lowlands of Germany. As we descend the rivers, we come to the lowest
+level of all-- the level of the sea. Our English speech, once a mere
+dialect, came down to that, crossed the German Ocean, and settled in
+Britain, to which it gave in time the name of Angla-land or England. The
+Low German spoken in the Netherlands is called +Dutch+; the Low German
+spoken in Friesland-- a prosperous province of Holland-- is called
++Frisian+; and the Low German spoken in Great Britain is called
++English+. These three languages are extremely like one another; but the
+Continental language that is likest the English is the Dutch or
+Hollandish dialect called _Frisian_. We even possess a couplet, every
+word of which is both English and Frisian. It runs thus--
+
+  Good butter and good cheese
+  Is good English and good Fries.
+
+10. +Dutch and Welsh-- a Contrast.+-- When the Teuton conquerors came to
+this country, they called the Britons foreigners, just as the Greeks
+called all other peoples besides themselves _barbarians_. By this they
+did not at first mean that they were uncivilised, but only that they
+were _not_ Greeks. Now, the Teutonic or Saxon or English name for
+foreigners was +Wealhas+, a word afterwards contracted into +Welsh+. To
+this day the modern Teuts or Teutons (or _Germans_, as _we_ call them)
+call all Frenchmen and Italians _Welshmen_; and, when a German, peasant
+crosses the border into France, he says: "I am going into Welshland."
+
+11. +The Spread of English over Britain.+-- The Jutes, who came from
+Juteland or Jylland-- now called Jutland-- settled in Kent and in the
+Isle of Wight. The Saxons settled in the south and western parts of
+England, and gave their names to those kingdoms-- now counties-- whose
+names came to end in +sex+. There was the kingdom of the East Saxons, or
++Essex+; the kingdom of the West Saxons, or +Wessex+; the kingdom of the
+Middle Saxons, or +Middlesex+; and the kingdom of the South Saxons, or
++Sussex+. The Angles settled chiefly on the east coast. The kingdom of
++East Anglia+ was divided into the regions of the +North Folk+ and the
++South Folk+, words which are still perpetuated in the names _Norfolk_
+and _Suffolk_. These three sets of Teutons all spoke different dialects
+of the same Teutonic speech; and these dialects, with their differences,
+peculiarities, and odd habits, took root in English soil, and lived an
+independent life, apart from each other, uninfluenced by each other, for
+several hundreds of years. But, in the slow course of time, they joined
+together to make up our beautiful English language-- a language which,
+however, still bears in itself the traces of dialectic forms, and is in
+no respect of one kind or of one fibre all through.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+THE PERIODS OF ENGLISH.
+
+
+1. +Dead and Living Languages.+-- A language is said to be dead when it
+is no longer spoken. Such a language we know only in books. Thus, Latin
+is a dead language, because no nation anywhere now speaks it. A dead
+language can undergo no change; it remains, and must remain, as we find
+it written in books. But a living language is always changing, just like
+a tree or the human body. The human body has its periods or stages.
+There is the period of infancy, the period of boyhood, the period of
+manhood, and the period of old age. In the same way, a language has its
+periods.
+
+2. +No Sudden Changes-- a Caution.+-- We divide the English language
+into periods, and then mark, with some approach to accuracy, certain
+distinct changes in the habits of our language, in the inflexions of its
+words, in the kind of words it preferred, or in the way it liked to put
+its words together. But we must be carefully on our guard against
+fancying that, at any given time or in any given year, the English
+people threw aside one set of habits as regards language, and adopted
+another set. It is not so, nor can it be so. The changes in language are
+as gentle, gradual, and imperceptible as the changes in the growth of a
+tree or in the skin of the human body. We renew our skin slowly and
+gradually; but we are never conscious of the process, nor can we say at
+any given time that we have got a completely new skin.
+
+3. +The Periods of English.+-- Bearing this caution in mind, we can go
+on to look at the chief periods in our English language. These are five
+in number; and they are as follows:--
+
+    I. Ancient English or Anglo-Saxon,      449-1100
+   II. Early English,                       1100-1250
+  III. Middle English,                      1250-1485
+   IV. Tudor English,                       1485-1603
+    V. Modern English,                      1603-1900
+
+These periods merge very slowly, or are shaded off, so to speak, into
+each other in the most gradual way. If we take the English of 1250 and
+compare it with that of 900, we shall find a great difference; but if we
+compare it with the English of 1100 the difference is not so marked. The
+difference between the English of the nineteenth and the English of the
+fourteenth century is very great, but the difference between the English
+of the fourteenth and that of the thirteenth century is very small.
+
+4. +Ancient English or Anglo-Saxon, 450-1100.+-- This form of English
+differed from modern English in having a much larger number of
+inflexions. The noun had five cases, and there were several declensions,
+just as in Latin; adjectives were declined, and had three genders; some
+pronouns had a dual as well as a plural number; and the verb had a much
+larger number of inflexions than it has now. The vocabulary of the
+language contained very few foreign elements. The poetry of the language
+employed head-rhyme or alliteration, and not end-rhyme, as we do now.
+The works of the poet +Caedmon+ and the great prose-writer +King Alfred+
+belong to this Anglo-Saxon period.
+
+5. +Early English, 1100-1250.+-- The coming of the Normans in 1066 made
+many changes in the land, many changes in the Church and in the State,
+and it also introduced many changes into the language. The inflexions of
+our speech began to drop off, because they were used less and less; and
+though we never adopted new _inflexions_ from French or from any other
+language, new French _words_ began to creep in. In some parts of the
+country English had ceased to be written in books; the language existed
+as a spoken language only; and hence accuracy in the use of words and
+the inflexions of words could not be ensured. Two notable books--
+written, not printed, for there was no printing in this island till the
+year 1474-- belong to this period. These are the +Ormulum+, by +Orm+ or
++Ormin+, and the +Brut+, by a monk called +Layamon+ or +Laweman+. The
+latter tells the story of Brutus, who was believed to have been the son
+of Æneas of Troy; to have escaped after the downfall of that city; to
+have sailed through the Mediterranean, ever farther and farther to the
+west; to have landed in Britain, settled here, and given the country its
+name.
+
+6. +Middle English, 1250-1485.+-- Most of the inflexions of nouns and
+adjectives have in this period-- between the middle of the thirteenth
+and the end of the fifteenth century-- completely disappeared. The
+inflexions of verbs are also greatly reduced in number. The +strong+[1]
+mode of inflexion has ceased to be employed for verbs that are
+new-comers, and the +weak+ mode has been adopted in its place. During
+the earlier part of this period, even country-people tried to speak
+French, and in this and other modes many French words found their way
+into English. A writer of the thirteenth century, John de Trevisa, says
+that country-people "fondeth [that is, try] with great bysynes for to
+speke Freynsch for to be more y-told of." The country-people did not
+succeed very well, as the ordinary proverb shows: "Jack would be a
+gentleman if he could speak French." Boys at school were expected to
+turn their Latin into French, and in the courts of law French only was
+allowed to be spoken. But in 1362 Edward III. gave his assent to an Act
+of Parliament allowing English to be used instead of Norman-French. "The
+yer of oure Lord," says John de Trevisa, "a thousond thre hondred foure
+score and fyve of the secunde Kyng Richard after the conquest, in al the
+gramer scoles of Engelond children leveth Freynsch, and construeth and
+turneth an Englysch." To the first half of this period belong a
++Metrical Chronicle+, attributed to +Robert of Gloucester+; +Langtoft's+
+Metrical Chronicle, translated by +Robert de Brunne+; the +Agenbite of
+Inwit+, by Dan Michel of Northgate in Kent; and a few others. But to the
+second half belong the rich and varied productions of +Geoffrey
+Chaucer+, our first great poet and always one of our greatest writers;
+the alliterative poems of +William Langley+ or +Langlande+; the more
+learned poems of +John Gower+; and the translation of the Bible and
+theological works of the reformer +John Wyclif+.
+
+    [Footnote 1: See p. 43.]
+
+7. +Tudor English, 1485-1603.+-- Before the end of the sixteenth century
+almost all our inflexions had disappeared. The great dramatist Ben
+Jonson (1574-1637) laments the loss of the plural ending +en+ for verbs,
+because _wenten_ and _hopen_ were much more musical and more useful in
+verse than _went_ or _hope_; but its recovery was already past praying
+for. This period is remarkable for the introduction of an enormous
+number of Latin words, and this was due to the new interest taken in the
+literature of the Romans-- an interest produced by what is called the
++Revival of Letters+. But the most striking, as it is also the most
+important fact relating to this period, is the appearance of a group of
+dramatic writers, the greatest the world has ever seen. Chief among
+these was +William Shakespeare+. Of pure poetry perhaps the greatest
+writer was +Edmund Spenser+. The greatest prose-writer was +Richard
+Hooker+, and the pithiest +Francis Bacon+.
+
+8. +Modern English, 1603-1900.+-- The grammar of the language was fixed
+before this period, most of the accidence having entirely vanished. The
+vocabulary of the language, however, has gone on increasing, and is
+still increasing; for the English language, like the English people, is
+always ready to offer hospitality to all peaceful foreigners-- words or
+human beings-- that will land and settle within her coasts. And the
+tendency at the present time is not only to give a hearty welcome to
+newcomers from other lands, but to call back old words and old phrases
+that had been allowed to drop out of existence. Tennyson has been one of
+the chief agents in this happy restoration.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+THE HISTORY OF THE VOCABULARY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
+
+
+1. +The English Nation.+-- The English people have for many centuries
+been the greatest travellers in the world. It was an Englishman--
+Francis Drake-- who first went round the globe; and the English have
+colonised more foreign lands in every part of the world than any other
+people that ever existed. The English in this way have been influenced
+by the world without. But they have also been subjected to manifold
+influences from within-- they have been exposed to greater political
+changes, and profounder though quieter political revolutions, than any
+other nation. In 1066 they were conquered by the Norman-French; and for
+several centuries they had French kings. Seeing and talking with many
+different peoples, they learned to adopt foreign words with ease, and to
+give them a home among the native-born words of the language. Trade is
+always a kindly and useful influence; and the trade of Great Britain has
+for many centuries been larger than that of any other nation. It has
+spread into every part of the world; it gives and receives from all
+tribes and nations, from every speech and tongue.
+
+2. +The English Element in English.+-- When the English came to this
+island in the fifth century, the number of words in the language they
+spoke was probably not over +two thousand+. Now, however, we possess a
+vocabulary of perhaps more than +one hundred thousand words+. And so
+eager and willing have we been to welcome foreign words, that it may be
+said with truth that: +The majority of words in the English Tongue are
+not English+. In fact, if we take the Latin language by itself, there
+are in our language more +Latin+ words than +English+. But the grammar
+is distinctly English, and not Latin at all.
+
+3. +The Spoken Language and the Written Language-- a Caution.+-- We must
+not forget what has been said about a language,-- that it is not a
+printed thing-- not a set of black marks upon paper, but that it is in
+truest truth a +tongue+ or a +speech+. Hence we must be careful to
+distinguish between the +spoken+ language and the +written+ or +printed+
+language; between the language of the +ear+ and the language of the
++eye+; between the language of the +mouth+ and the language of the
++dictionary+; between the +moving+ vocabulary of the market and the
+street, and the +fixed+ vocabulary that has been catalogued and
+imprisoned in our dictionaries. If we can only keep this in view, we
+shall find that, though there are more Latin words in our vocabulary
+than English, the English words we possess are +used+ in speaking a
+hundred times, or even a thousand times, oftener than the Latin words.
+It is the genuine English words that have life and movement; it is they
+that fly about in houses, in streets, and in markets; it is they that
+express with greatest force our truest and most usual sentiments-- our
+inmost thoughts and our deepest feelings. Latin words are found often
+enough in books; but, when an English man or woman is deeply moved, he
+speaks pure English and nothing else. Words are the coin of human
+intercourse; and it is the native coin of pure English with the native
+stamp that is in daily circulation.
+
+4. +A Diagram of English.+-- If we were to try to represent to the eye
+the proportions of the different elements in our vocabulary, as it is
+found in the dictionary, the diagram would take something like the
+following form:--
+
+  Diagram of the English Language.
+
+  +-----------------------------------------------------+
+  |                    ENGLISH WORDS.                   |
+  +-----------------------------------------------------+
+  |                     LATIN WORDS                     |
+  |  (including Norman-French, which are also Latin).   |
+  +--------------+--------------------------------------+
+  | GREEK WORDS. | Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, Dutch, |
+  |              | Hebrew, Arabic, Hindustani, Persian, |
+  |              | Malay, American, etc. etc.           |
+  +--------------+--------------------------------------+
+
+5. +The Foreign Elements in our English Vocabulary.+-- The different
+peoples and the different circumstances with which we have come in
+contact, have had many results-- one among others, that of presenting us
+with contributions to our vocabulary. We found Kelts here; and hence we
+have a number of Keltic words in our vocabulary. The Romans held this
+island for several hundred years; and when they had to go in the year
+410, they left behind them six Latin words, which we have inherited.
+In the seventh century, Augustine and his missionary monks from Rome
+brought over to us a larger number of Latin words; and the Church which
+they founded introduced ever more and more words from Rome. The Danes
+began to come over to this island in the eighth century; we had for some
+time a Danish dynasty seated on the throne of England: and hence we
+possess many Danish words. The Norman-French invasion in the eleventh
+century brought us many hundreds of Latin words; for French is in
+reality a branch of the Latin tongue. The Revival of Learning in the
+sixteenth century gave us several thousands of Latin words. And wherever
+our sailors and merchants have gone, they have brought back with them
+foreign words as well as foreign things-- Arabic words from Arabia and
+Africa, Hindustani words from India, Persian words from Persia, Chinese
+words from China, and even Malay words from the peninsula of Malacca.
+Let us look a little more closely at these foreign elements.
+
+6. +The Keltic Element in English.+-- This element is of three kinds:
+(i) Those words which we received direct from the ancient Britons whom
+we found in the island; (ii) those which the Norman-French brought with
+them from Gaul; (iii) those which have lately come into the language
+from the Highlands of Scotland, or from Ireland, or from the writings of
+Sir Walter Scott.
+
+7. +The First Keltic Element.+-- This first contribution contains the
+following words: _Breeches_, _clout_, _crock_, _cradle_, _darn_,
+_dainty_,_ mop_, _pillow_; _barrow_ (a funeral mound), _glen_, _havoc_,
+_kiln_, _mattock_, _pool_. It is worthy of note that the first eight in
+the list are the names of domestic-- some even of kitchen-- things and
+utensils. It may, perhaps, be permitted us to conjecture that in many
+cases the Saxon invader married a British wife, who spoke her own
+language, taught her children to speak their mother tongue, and whose
+words took firm root in the kitchen of the new English household. The
+names of most rivers, mountains, lakes, and hills are, of course,
+Keltic; for these names would not be likely to be changed by the English
+new-comers. There are two names for rivers which are found-- in one form
+or another-- in every part of Great Britain. These are the names +Avon+
+and +Ex+. The word +Avon+ means simply _water_. We can conceive the
+children on a farm near a river speaking of it simply as "the water";
+and hence we find fourteen Avons in this island. +Ex+ also means
+_water_; and there are perhaps more than twenty streams in Great Britain
+with this name. The word appears as +Ex+ in +Exeter+ (the older and
+fuller form being _Exanceaster_-- the camp on the Exe); as +Ax+ in
++Axminster+; as +Ox+ in +Oxford+; as +Ux+ in +Uxbridge+; and as +Ouse+
+in Yorkshire and other eastern counties. In Wales and Scotland, the
+hidden +k+ changes its place and comes at the end. Thus in Wales we find
++Usk+; and in Scotland, +Esk+. There are at least eight Esks in the
+kingdom of Scotland alone. The commonest Keltic name for a mountain is
++Pen+ or +Ben+ (in Wales it is _Pen_; in Scotland the flatter form _Ben_
+is used). We find this word in England also under the form of +Pennine+;
+and, in Italy, as +Apennine+.
+
+8. +The Second Keltic Element.+-- The Normans came from Scandinavia
+early in the tenth century, and wrested the valley of the Seine out of
+the hands of Charles the Simple, the then king of the French. The
+language spoken by the people of France was a broken-down form of spoken
+Latin, which is now called French; but in this language they had
+retained many Gaulish words out of the old Gaulish language. Such are
+the words: _Bag_, _bargain_, _barter_; _barrel_, _basin_, _basket_,
+_bucket_; _bonnet_, _button_, _ribbon_; _car_, _cart_; _dagger_, _gown_;
+_mitten_, _motley_; _rogue_; _varlet_, _vassal_, _wicket_. The above
+words were brought over to Britain by the Normans; and they gradually
+took an acknowledged place among the words of our own language, and have
+held that place ever since.
+
+9. +The Third Keltic Element.+-- This consists of comparatively few
+words-- such as _clan_; _claymore_ (a sword); _philabeg_ (a kind of
+kilt), _kilt_ itself, _brogue_ (a kind of shoe), _plaid_; _pibroch_
+(bagpipe war-music), _slogan_ (a war-cry); and _whisky_. Ireland has
+given us _shamrock_, _gag_, _log_, _clog_, and _brogue_-- in the sense
+of a mode of speech.
+
+10. +The Scandinavian Element in English.+-- Towards the end of the
+eighth century-- in the year 787-- the Teutons of the North, called
+Northmen, Normans, or Norsemen-- but more commonly known as Danes-- made
+their appearance on the eastern coast of Great Britain, and attacked the
+peaceful towns and quiet settlements of the English. These attacks
+became so frequent, and their occurrence was so much dreaded, that a
+prayer was inserted against them in a Litany of the time-- "From the
+incursions of the Northmen, good Lord, deliver us!" In spite of the
+resistance of the English, the Danes had, before the end of the ninth
+century, succeeded in obtaining a permanent footing in England; and, in
+the eleventh century, a Danish dynasty sat upon the English throne from
+the year 1016 to 1042. From the time of King Alfred, the Danes of the
+Danelagh were a settled part of the population of England; and hence we
+find, especially on the east coast, a large number of Danish names still
+in use.
+
+11. +Character of the Scandinavian Element.+-- The Northmen, as we have
+said, were Teutons; and they spoke a dialect of the great Teutonic (or
+German) language. The sounds of the Danish dialect-- or language, as it
+must now be called-- are harder than those of the German. We find a +k+
+instead of a +ch+; a +p+ preferred to an +f+. The same is the case in
+Scotland, where the hard form +kirk+ is preferred to the softer
++church+. Where the Germans say +Dorf+-- our English word +Thorpe+,
+a village-- the Danes say +Drup+.
+
+12. +Scandinavian Words+ (i).-- The words contributed to our language by
+the Scandinavians are of two kinds: (i) Names of places; and
+(ii) ordinary words. (i) The most striking instance of a Danish
+place-name is the noun +by+, a town. Mr Isaac Taylor[2] tells us that
+there are in the east of England more than six hundred names of towns
+ending in +by+. Almost all of these are found in the Danelagh, within
+the limits of the great highway made by the Romans to the north-west,
+and well-known as +Watling Street+. We find, for example, +Whitby+, or
+the town on the _white_ cliffs; +Grimsby+, or the town of Grim, a great
+sea-rover, who obtained for his countrymen the right that all ships from
+the Baltic should come into the port of Grimsby free of duty; +Tenby+,
+that is +Daneby+; +by-law+, a law for a special town; and a vast number
+of others. The following Danish words also exist in our times-- either
+as separate and individual words, or in composition-- +beck+, a stream;
++fell+, a hill or table-land; +firth+ or +fiord+, an arm of the sea--
+the same as the Danish fiord; +force+, a waterfall; +garth+, a yard or
+enclosure; +holm+, an island in a river; +kirk+, a church; +oe+, an
+island; +thorpe+, a village; +thwaite+, a forest clearing; and +vik+ or
++wick+, a station for ships, or a creek.
+
+    [Footnote 2: Words and Places, p. 158.]
+
+13. +Scandinavian Words+ (ii).-- The most useful and the most frequently
+employed word that we have received from the Danes is the word +are+.
+The pure English word for this is +beoth+ or +sindon+. The Danes gave us
+also the habit of using +to+ before an infinitive. Their word for +to+
+was +at+; and +at+ still survives and is in use in Lincolnshire. We find
+also the following Danish words in our language: +blunt+, +bole+ (of a
+tree), +bound+ (on a journey-- properly +boun+), +busk+ (to dress),
++cake+, +call+, +crop+ (to cut), +curl+, +cut+, +dairy+, +daze+, +din+,
++droop+, +fellow+, +flit+, +for+, +froward+, +hustings+, +ill+, +irk+,
++kid+, +kindle+, +loft+, +odd+, +plough+, +root+, +scold+, +sky+, +tarn+
+(a small mountain lake), +weak+, and +ugly+. It is in Northumberland,
+Durham, Yorkshire, Lincoln, Norfolk, and even in the western counties of
+Cumberland and Lancashire, that we find the largest admixture of
+Scandinavian words.
+
+14. +Influence of the Scandinavian Element.+-- The introduction of the
+Danes and the Danish language into England had the result, in the east,
+of unsettling the inflexions of our language, and thus of preparing the
+way for their complete disappearance. The declensions of nouns became
+unsettled; nouns that used to make their plural in +a+ or in +u+ took
+the more striking plural suffix +as+ that belonged to a quite different
+declension. The same things happened to adjectives, verbs, and other
+parts of language. The causes of this are not far to seek. Spoken
+language can never be so accurate as written language; the mass of the
+English and Danes never cared or could care much for grammar; and both
+parties to a conversation would of course hold firmly to the +root+ of
+the word, which was intelligible to both of them, and let the inflexions
+slide, or take care of themselves. The more the English and Danes mixed
+with each other, the oftener they met at church, at games, and in the
+market-place, the more rapidly would this process of stripping go on,--
+the smaller care would both peoples take of the grammatical inflexions
+which they had brought with them into this country.
+
+15. +The Latin Element in English.+-- So far as the number of words--
+the vocabulary-- of the language is concerned, the Latin contribution is
+by far the most important element in our language. Latin was the
+language of the Romans; and the Romans at one time were masters of the
+whole known world. No wonder, then, that they influenced so many
+peoples, and that their language found its way-- east and west, and
+south and north-- into almost all the countries of Europe. There are, as
+we have seen, more Latin than English words in our own language; and it
+is therefore necessary to make ourselves acquainted with the character
+and the uses of the Latin element-- an element so important-- in
+English.[3] Not only have the Romans made contributions of large
++numbers+ of words to the English language, but they have added to it a
+quite new +quality+, and given to its genius new +powers+ of expression.
+So true is this, that we may say-- without any sense of unfairness, or
+any feeling of exaggeration-- that, until the Latin element was
+thoroughly mixed, united with, and transfused into the original English,
+the writings of Shakespeare were impossible, the poetry of the sixteenth
+and seventeenth centuries could not have come into existence. This is
+true of Shakespeare; and it is still more true of Milton. His most
+powerful poetical thoughts are written in lines, the most telling words
+in which are almost always Latin. This may be illustrated by the
+following lines from "Lycidas":--
+
+  "It was that _fatal_ and _perfidious_ bark,
+  Built in the _eclipse_, and rigged with curses dark,
+  That sunk so low that _sacred_ head of thine!"
+
+    [Footnote 3: In the last half of this sentence, all the essential
+    words-- _necessary_, _acquainted_, _character_, _uses_, _element_,
+    _important_, are Latin (except _character_, which is Greek).]
+
+16. +The Latin Contributions and their Dates.+-- The first contribution
+of Latin words was made by the Romans-- not, however, to the English,
+but to the Britons. The Romans held this island from A.D. +43+ to A.D.
++410+. They left behind them-- when they were obliged to go-- a small
+contribution of six words-- six only, but all of them important. The
+second contribution-- to a large extent ecclesiastical-- was made by
+Augustine and his missionary monks from Rome, and their visit took place
+in the year +596+. The third contribution was made through the medium of
+the Norman-French, who seized and subdued this island in the year +1066+
+and following years. The fourth contribution came to us by the aid of
+the Revival of Learning-- rather a process than an event, the dates of
+which are vague, but which may be said to have taken place in the
+sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. The Latin left for us by the Romans
+is called +Latin of the First Period+; that brought over by the
+missionaries from Rome, +Latin of the Second Period+; that given us by
+the Norman-French, +Latin of the Third Period+; and that which came to
+us from the Revival of Learning, +Latin of the Fourth Period+. The first
+consists of a few names handed down to us through the Britons; the
+second, of a number of words-- mostly relating to ecclesiastical
+affairs-- brought into the spoken language by the monks; the third, of a
+large vocabulary, that came to us by +mouth+ and +ear+; and the fourth,
+of a very large treasure of words, which we received by means of +books+
+and the +eye+. Let us now look more closely and carefully at them, each
+in its turn.
+
+17. +Latin of the First Period+ (i).-- The Romans held Britain for
+nearly four hundred years; and they succeeded in teaching the wealthier
+classes among the Southern Britons to speak Latin. They also built towns
+in the island, made splendid roads, formed camps at important points,
+framed good laws, and administered the affairs of the island with
+considerable justice and uprightness. But, never having come directly
+into contact with the Angles or Saxons themselves, they could not in any
+way influence their language by oral communication-- by speaking to
+them. What they left behind them was only six words, most of which
+became merely the prefixes or the suffixes of the names of places. These
+six words were +Castra+, a camp; +Strata+ (_via_), a paved road;
++Colonia+, a settlement (generally of soldiers); +Fossa+, a trench;
++Portus+, a harbour; and +Vallum+, a rampart.
+
+18. +Latin of the First Period+ (ii).-- (_a_) The treatment of the Latin
+word +castra+ in this island has been both singular and significant. It
+has existed in this country for nearly nineteen hundred years; and it
+has always taken the colouring of the locality into whose soil it struck
+root. In the north and east of England it is sounded hard, and takes the
+form of +caster+, as in +Lancaster+, +Doncaster+, +Tadcaster+, and
+others. In the midland counties, it takes the softer form of +cester+,
+as in +Leicester+, +Towcester+; and in the extreme west and south, it
+takes the still softer form of +chester+, as in +Chester+, +Manchester+,
++Winchester+, and others. It is worthy of notice that there are in
+Scotland no words ending in _caster_. Though the Romans had camps in
+Scotland, they do not seem to have been so important as to become the
+centres of towns. (_b_) The word +strata+ has also taken different forms
+in different parts of England. While +castra+ has always been a suffix,
++strata+ shows itself constantly as a prefix. When the Romans came to
+this island, the country was impassable by man. There were no roads
+worthy of the name,-- what paths there were being merely foot-paths or
+bridle-tracks. One of the first things the Romans did was to drive a
+strongly built military road from +Richborough+, near Dover, to the
+river Dee, on which they formed a standing camp (+Castra stativa+) which
+to this day bears the name of +Chester+. This great road became the
+highway of all travellers from north to south,-- was known as "The
+Street," and was called by the Saxons +Watling Street+. But this word
++street+ also became a much-used prefix, and took the different forms of
++strat+, +strad+, +stret+, and +streat+. All towns with such names are
+to be found on this or some other great Roman road. Thus we have
++Stratford-on-Avon+, +Stratton+, +Stradbroke+, +Stretton+, +Stretford+
+(near Manchester), and +Streatham+ (near London). --Over the other words
+we need not dwell so long. +Colonia+ we find in +Colne+, +Lincoln+, and
+others; +fossa+ in +Fossway+, +Fosbrooke+, and +Fosbridge+; +portus+,
+in +Portsmouth+, and +Bridport+; and +vallum+ in the words +wall+,
++bailey+, and +bailiff+. The Normans called the two courts in front of
+their castles the inner and outer baileys; and the officer in charge of
+them was called the bailiff.
+
+19. +Latin Element of the Second Period+ (i).-- The story of Pope
+Gregory and the Roman mission to England is widely known. Gregory, when
+a young man, was crossing the Roman forum one morning, and, when passing
+the side where the slave-mart was held, observed, as he walked, some
+beautiful boys, with fair hair, blue eyes, and clear bright complexion.
+He asked a bystander of what nation the boys were. The answer was, that
+they were Angles. "No, not Angles," he replied; "they are angels." On
+learning further that they were heathens, he registered a silent vow
+that he would, if Providence gave him an opportunity, deliver them from
+the darkness of heathendom, and bring them and their relatives into the
+light and liberty of the Gospel. Time passed by; and in the long course
+of time Gregory became Pope. In his unlooked-for greatness, he did not
+forget his vow. In the year 596 he sent over to Kent a missionary,
+called Augustine, along with forty monks. They were well received by the
+King of Kent, allowed to settle in Canterbury, and to build a small
+cathedral there.
+
+20. +Latin Element of the Second Period+ (ii).-- This mission, the
+churches that grew out of it, the Christian customs that in time took
+root in the country, and the trade that followed in its track, brought
+into the language a number of Latin words, most of them the names of
+church offices, services, and observances. Thus we find, in our oldest
+English, the words, +postol+ from _apostolus_, a person sent; +biscop+,
+from _episcopus_, an overseer; +calc+, from _calix_, a cup; +clerc+,
+from _clericus_, an ordained member of the church; +munec+, from
+_mon[)a]chus_, a solitary person or monk; +preost+, from _presbyter_,
+an elder; +aelmesse+, from _ele[-e]mos[)u]n[-e]_, alms; +predician+,
+from _prædicare_, to preach; +regol+, from _regula_, a rule. (_Apostle_,
+_bishop_, _clerk_, _monk_, _priest_, and _alms_ come to us really from
+Greek words-- but through the Latin tongue.)
+
+21. +Latin Element of the Second Period+ (iii).-- The introduction of
+the Roman form of Christianity brought with it increased communication
+with Rome and with the Continent generally; widened the experience of
+Englishmen; gave a stimulus to commerce; and introduced into this island
+new things and products, and along with the things and products new
+names. To this period belongs the introduction of the words: +Butter+,
++cheese+; +cedar+, +fig+, +pear+, +peach+; +lettuce, lily+; +pepper+,
++pease+; +camel+, +lion+, +elephant+; +oyster+, +trout+; +pound+,
++ounce+; +candle+, +table+; +marble+; +mint+.
+
+22. +Latin of the Third Period+ (i).-- The Latin element of the Third
+Period is in reality the French that was brought over to this island by
+the Normans in 1066, and is generally called +Norman-French+. It
+differed from the French of Paris both in spelling and in pronunciation.
+For example, Norman-French wrote +people+ for +peuple+; +léal+ for
++loyal+; +réal+ for +royal+; +réalm+ for +royaume+; and so on. But both
+of these dialects (and every dialect of French) are simply forms of
+Latin-- not of the Latin written and printed in books, but of the Latin
+spoken in the camp, the fields, the streets, the village, and the
+cottage. The Romans conquered Gaul, where a Keltic tongue was spoken;
+and the Gauls gradually adopted Latin as their mother tongue, and-- with
+the exception of the Brétons of Brittany-- left off their Keltic speech
+almost entirely. In adopting the Latin tongue, they had-- as in similar
+cases-- taken firm hold of the root of the word, but changed the
+pronunciation of it, and had, at the same time, compressed very much or
+entirely dropped many of the Latin inflexions. The French people, an
+intermixture of Gauls and other tribes (some of them, like the Franks,
+German), ceased, in fact, to speak their own language, and learned the
+Latin tongue. The Norsemen, led by Duke Rolf or Rollo or Rou, marched
+south in large numbers; and, in the year 912, wrested from King Charles
+the Simple the fair valley of the Seine, settled in it, and gave to it
+the name of Normandy. These Norsemen, now Normans, were Teutons, and
+spoke a Teutonic dialect; but, when they settled in France, they learned
+in course of time to speak French. The kind of French they spoke is
+called Norman-French, and it was this kind of French that they brought
+over with them in 1066. But Norman-French had made its appearance in
+England before the famous year of '66; for Edward the Confessor, who
+succeeded to the English throne in 1042, had been educated at the Norman
+Court; and he not only spoke the language himself, but insisted on its
+being spoken by the nobles who lived with him in his Court.
+
+23. +Latin of the Third Period+ (ii). +Chief Dates+. --The Normans,
+having utterly beaten down the resistance of the English, seized the
+land and all the political power of this country, and filled all kinds
+of offices-- both spiritual and temporal-- with their Norman brethren.
+Norman-French became the language of the Court and the nobility, the
+language of Parliament and the law courts, of the universities and the
+schools, of the Church and of literature. The English people held fast
+to their own tongue; but they picked up many French words in the markets
+and other places "where men most do congregate." But French, being the
+language of the upper and ruling classes, was here and there learned by
+the English or Saxon country-people who had the ambition to be in the
+fashion, and were eager "to speke Frensch, for to be more y-told of,"--
+to be more highly considered than their neighbours. It took about three
+hundred years for French words and phrases to soak thoroughly into
+English; and it was not until England was saturated with French words
+and French rhythms that the great poet Chaucer appeared to produce
+poetic narratives that were read with delight both by Norman baron and
+by Saxon yeoman. In the course of these three hundred years this
+intermixture of French with English had been slowly and silently going
+on. Let us look at a few of the chief land-marks in the long process. In
++1042+ Edward the Confessor introduces Norman-French into his Court. In
++1066+ Duke William introduces Norman-French into the whole country, and
+even into parts of Scotland. The oldest English, or Anglo-Saxon, ceases
+to be written, anywhere in the island, in public documents, in the year
++1154+. In +1204+ we lost Normandy, a loss that had the effect of
+bringing the English and the Normans closer together. Robert of
+Gloucester writes his chronicle in +1272+, and uses a large number of
+French words. But, as early as the reign of Henry the Third, in the year
++1258+, the reformed and reforming Government of the day issued a
+proclamation in English, as well as in French and Latin. In +1303+,
+Robert of Brunn introduces a large number of French words. The French
+wars in Edward the Third's reign brought about a still closer union of
+the Norman and the Saxon elements of the nation. But, about the middle
+of the fourteenth century a reaction set in, and it seemed as if the
+genius of the English language refused to take in any more French words.
+The English silent stubbornness seemed to have prevailed, and Englishmen
+had made up their minds to be English in speech, as they were English to
+the backbone in everything else. Norman-French had, in fact, become
+provincial, and was spoken only here and there. Before the great
+Plague-- commonly spoken of as "The Black Death"-- of +1349+, both high
+and low seemed to be alike bent on learning French, but the reaction may
+be said to date from this year. The culminating point of this reaction
+may perhaps be seen in an Act of Parliament passed in +1362+ by Edward
+III., by which both French and Latin had to give place to English in our
+courts of law. The poems of Chaucer are the literary result-- "the
+bright consummate flower" of the union of two great powers-- the
+brilliance of the French language on the one hand and the homely truth
+and steadfastness of English on the other. Chaucer was born in +1340+,
+and died in +1400+; so that we may say that he and his poems-- though
+not the causes-- are the signs and symbols of the great influence that
+French obtained and held over our mother tongue. But although we
+accepted so many _words_ from our Norman-French visitors and immigrants,
+we accepted from them no _habit_ of speech whatever. We accepted from
+them no phrase or idiom: the build and nature of the English language
+remained the same-- unaffected by foreign manners or by foreign habits.
+It is true that Chaucer has the ridiculous phrase, "I n'am but dead"
+(for "I am quite dead"[4])-- which is a literal translation of the
+well-known French idiom, "Je ne suis que." But, though our tongue has
+always been and is impervious to foreign idiom, it is probably owing to
+the great influx of French words which took place chiefly in the
+thirteenth century that many people have acquired a habit of using a
+long French or Latin word when an English word would do quite as well--
+or, indeed, a great deal better. Thus some people are found to call a
+_good house_, a _desirable mansion_; and, instead of the quiet old
+English proverb, "Buy once, buy twice," we have the roundabout
+Latinisms, "A single commission will ensure a repetition of orders." An
+American writer, speaking of the foreign ambassadors who had been
+attacked by Japanese soldiers in Yeddo, says that "they concluded to
+occupy a location more salubrious." This is only a foreign language,
+instead of the simple and homely English: "They made up their minds to
+settle in a healthier spot."
+
+    [Footnote 4: Or, as an Irishman would say, "I am kilt entirely."]
+
+24. +Latin of the Third Period+ (iii). +Norman Words+ (_a_). --The
+Norman-French words were of several different kinds. There were words
+connected with war, with feudalism, and with the chase. There were new
+law terms, and words connected with the State, and the new institutions
+introduced by the Normans. There were new words brought in by the Norman
+churchmen. New titles unknown to the English were also introduced.
+A better kind of cooking, a higher and less homely style of living, was
+brought into this country by the Normans; and, along with these, new and
+unheard-of words.
+
+25. +Norman Words+ (_b_).-- The following are some of the Norman-French
+terms connected with war: +Arms+, +armour+; +assault+, +battle+;
++captain+, +chivalry+; +joust+, +lance+; +standard+, +trumpet+; +mail+,+
+vizor+. The English word for +armour+ was +harness+; but the Normans
+degraded that word into the armour of a horse. +Battle+ comes from the
+Fr. _battre_, to beat: the corresponding English word is +fight+.
++Captain+ comes from the Latin _caput_, a head. +Mail+ comes from the
+Latin _macula_, the mesh of a net; and the first coats of mail were made
+of rings or a kind of metal network. +Vizor+ comes from the Fr. _viser_,
+to look. It was the barred part of the helmet which a man could see
+through.
+
+26. +Norman Words+ (_c_).-- Feudalism may be described as the holding of
+land on condition of giving or providing service in war. Thus a knight
+held land of his baron, under promise to serve him so many days; a baron
+of his king, on condition that he brought so many men into the field for
+such and such a time at the call of his Overlord. William the Conqueror
+made the feudal system universal in every part of England, and compelled
+every English baron to swear homage to himself personally. Words
+relating to feudalism are, among others: +Homage+, +fealty+; +esquire+,
++vassal+; +herald+, +scutcheon+, and others. +Homage+ is the declaration
+of obedience for life of one man to another-- that the inferior is the
+_man_ (Fr. _homme_; L. _homo_) of the superior. +Fealty+ is the
+Norman-French form of the word _fidelity_. An +esquire+ is a +scutiger+
+(L.), or _shield-bearer_; for he carried the shield of the knight, when
+they were travelling and no fighting was going on. A +vassal+ was a
+"little young man,"-- in Low-Latin +vassallus+, a diminutive of
+_vassus_, from the Keltic word _gwâs_, a man. (The form _vassaletus_ is
+also found, which gives us our _varlet_ and _valet_.) +Scutcheon+ comes
+from the Lat. _scutum_, a shield. Then scutcheon or escutcheon came to
+mean _coat-of-arms_-- or the marks and signs on his shield by which the
+name and family of a man were known, when he himself was covered from
+head to foot in iron mail.
+
+27. +Norman Words+ (_d_).-- The terms connected with the chase are:
++Brace+, +couple+; +chase+, +course+; +covert+, +copse+, +forest+;
++leveret+, +mews+; +quarry+, +venison+. A few remarks about some of
+these may be interesting. +Brace+ comes from the Old French _brace_, an
+arm (Mod. French _bras_); from the Latin _brachium_. The root-idea seems
+to be that which encloses or holds up. Thus _bracing_ air is that which
+_strings_ up the nerves and muscles; and a _brace_ of birds was two
+birds tied together with a string. --The word +forest+ contains in
+itself a good deal of unwritten Norman history. It comes from the Latin
+adverb _foras_, out of doors. Hence, in Italy, a stranger or foreigner
+is still called a _forestiere_. A forest in Norman-French was not
+necessarily a breadth of land covered with trees; it was simply land
+_out of_ the jurisdiction of the common law. Hence, when William the
+Conqueror created the New Forest, he merely took the land _out of_ the
+rule and charge of the common law, and put it under his own regal power
+and personal care. In land of this kind-- much of which was kept for
+hunting in-- trees were afterwards planted, partly to shelter large
+game, and partly to employ ground otherwise useless in growing timber.
+--+Mews+ is a very odd word. It comes from the Latin verb _mutare_, to
+change. When the falcons employed in hunting were changing their
+feathers, or _moulting_ (the word _moult_ is the same as _mews_ in a
+different dress), the French shut them in a cage, which they called
++mue+-- from _mutare_. Then the stables for horses were put in the same
+place; and hence a row of stables has come to be called a +mews+.
+--+Quarry+ is quite as strange. The word _quarry_, which means a mine
+of stones, comes from the Latin _quadr[-a]re_, to make square. But the
+hunting term _quarry_ is of a quite different origin. That comes from
+the Latin _cor_ (the heart), which the Old French altered into +quer+.
+When a wild beast was run down and killed, the heart and entrails were
+thrown to the dogs as their share of the hunt. Hence Milton says of the
+eagle, "He scents his quarry from afar." --The word +venison+ comes to
+us, through French, from the Lat. _ven[-a]ri_, to hunt; and hence it
+means _hunted flesh_. The same word gives us _venery_-- the term that
+was used in the fourteenth century, by Chaucer among others, for
+hunting.
+
+28. +Norman Words+ (_e_).-- The Normans introduced into England their
+own system of law, their own law officers; and hence, into the English
+language, came Norman-French law terms. The following are a few:
++Assize+, +attorney+; +chancellor+, +court+; +judge+, +justice+;
++plaintiff+,+ sue+; +summons+, +trespass+. A few remarks about some of
+these may be useful. The +chancellor+ (_cancellarius_) was the legal
+authority who sat behind lattice-work, which was called in Latin
+_cancelli_. This word means, primarily, _little crabs_; and it is a
+diminutive from _cancer_, a crab. It was so called because the
+lattice-work looked like crabs' claws crossed. Our word _cancel_ comes
+from the same root: it means to make cross lines through anything we
+wish deleted. --+Court+ comes from the Latin _cors_ or _cohors_,
+a sheep-pen. It afterwards came to mean an enclosure, and also a body of
+Roman soldiers. --The proper English word for a _judge_ is +deemster+ or
++demster+ (which appears as the proper name _Dempster_); and this is
+still the name for a judge in the Isle of Man. The French word comes
+from two Latin words, _dico_, I utter, and _jus_, right. The word jus is
+seen in the other French term which we have received from the Normans--
++justice+. --+Sue+ comes from the Old Fr. _suir_, which appears in
+Modern Fr. as _suivre_. It is derived from the Lat. word _sequor_,
+I follow (which gives our _sequel_); and we have compounds of it in
+_ensue_, _issue_, and _pursue_. --The +tres+ in +trespass+ is a French
+form of the Latin trans, beyond or across. _Trespass_, therefore, means
+to cross the bounds of right.
+
+29. +Norman Words+ (_f_).-- Some of the church terms introduced by the
+Norman-French are: +Altar+, +Bible+; +baptism+, +ceremony+; +friar+;
++tonsure+; +penance+, +relic+. --The Normans gave us the words +title+
+and +dignity+ themselves, and also the following titles: +Duke+,
++marquis+; +count+, +viscount+; +peer+; +mayor+, and others. A duke is a
+_leader_; from the Latin _dux_ (= _duc-s_). A +marquis+ is a lord who
+has to ride the _marches_ or borders between one county, or between one
+country, and another. A marquis was also called a +Lord-Marcher+. The
+word +count+ never took root in this island, because its place was
+already occupied by the Danish name _earl_; but we preserve it in the
+names +countess+ and +viscount+-- the latter of which means a person _in
+the place of_ (L. _vice_) a count. +Peer+ comes from the Latin _par_, an
+equal. The House of Peers is the House of Lords-- that is, of those who
+are, at least when in the House, _equal_ in rank and _equal_ in power of
+voting. It is a fundamental doctrine in English law that every man "is
+to be tried by his _peers_." --It is worthy of note that, in general,
+the +French+ names for different kinds of food designated the +cooked+
+meats; while the names for the +living+ animals that furnish them are
++English+. Thus we have _beef_ and _ox_; _mutton_ and _sheep_; _veal_
+and _calf_; _pork_ and _pig_. There is a remarkable passage in Sir
+Walter Scott's 'Ivanhoe,' which illustrates this fact with great force
+and picturesqueness:--
+
+"'Gurth, I advise thee to call off Fangs, and leave the herd to their
+destiny, which, whether they meet with bands of travelling soldiers,
+or of outlaws, or of wandering pilgrims, can be little else than to be
+converted into Normans before morning, to thy no small ease and
+comfort.'
+
+"'The swine turned Normans to my comfort!' quoth Gurth; 'expound that to
+me, Wamba, for my brain is too dull, and my mind too vexed, to read
+riddles.'
+
+"'Why, how call you those grunting brutes running about on their four
+legs?' demanded Wamba.
+
+"'Swine, fool, swine,' said the herd; 'every fool knows that.'
+
+"'And swine is good Saxon,' said the jester; 'but how call you the sow
+when she is flayed, and drawn, and quartered, and hung up by the heels,
+like a traitor?'
+
+"'Pork,' answered the swine-herd.
+
+"'I am very glad every fool knows that too,' said Wamba; 'and pork,
+I think, is good Norman-French: and so when the brute lives, and is in
+the charge of a Saxon slave, she goes by her Saxon name; but becomes a
+Norman, and is called pork, when she is carried to the castle-hall to
+feast among the nobles; what dost thou think of this, friend Gurth, ha?'
+
+"'It is but too true doctrine, friend Wamba, however it got into thy
+fool's pate.'
+
+"'Nay, I can tell you more,' said Wamba, in the same tone; 'there is old
+Alderman Ox continues to hold his Saxon epithet, while he is under the
+charge of serfs and bondsmen such as thou, but becomes Beef, a fiery
+French gallant, when he arrives before the worshipful jaws that are
+destined to consume him. Myhneer Calf, too, becomes Monsieur de Veau in
+the like manner; he is Saxon when he requires tendance, and takes a
+Norman name when he becomes matter of enjoyment.'"
+
+30. +General Character of the Norman-French Contributions.+-- The
+Norman-French contributions to our language gave us a number of +general
+names+ or +class-names+; while the names for +individual+ things are, in
+general, of purely English origin. The words +animal+ and +beast+, for
+example, are French (or Latin); but the words +fox+, +hound+, +whale+,
++snake+, +wasp+, and +fly+ are purely English. --The words +family+,
++relation+, +parent+, +ancestor+, are French; but the names +father+,
++mother+, +son+, +daughter+, +gossip+, are English. --The words +title+
+and +dignity+ are French; but the words +king+ and +queen+, +lord+ and
++lady+, +knight+ and +sheriff+, are English. --Perhaps the most
+remarkable instance of this is to be found in the abstract terms
+employed for the offices and functions of State. Of these, the English
+language possesses only one-- the word +kingdom+. Norman-French, on the
+other hand, has given us the words +realm+, +court+, +state+,
++constitution+, +people+, +treaty+, +audience+, +navy+, +army+, and
+others-- amounting in all to nearly forty. When, however, we come to
+terms denoting labour and work-- such as agriculture and seafaring, we
+find the proportions entirely reversed. The English language, in such
+cases, contributes almost everything; the French nearly nothing. In
+agriculture, while +plough+, +rake+, +harrow+, +flail+, and many others
+are English words, not a single term for an agricultural process or
+implement has been given us by the warlike Norman-French. --While the
+words +ship+ and +boat+; +hull+ and +fleet+; +oar+ and +sail+, are all
+English, the Normans have presented us with only the single word +prow+.
+It is as if all the Norman conqueror had to do was to take his stand at
+the prow, gazing upon the land he was going to seize, while the
+Low-German sailors worked for him at oar and sail. --Again, while the
+names of the various parts of the body-- +eye+, +nose+, +cheek+,
++tongue+, +hand+, +foot+, and more than eighty others-- are all English,
+we have received only about ten similar words from the French-- such as
++spirit+ and +corpse+; +perspiration+; +face+ and +stature+. Speaking
+broadly, we may say that all words that express +general notions+,
+or generalisations, are French or Latin; while words that express
++specific+ actions or concrete existences are pure English. Mr Spalding
+observes-- "We use a foreign term naturalised when we speak of 'colour'
+universally; but we fall back on our home stores if we have to tell what
+the colour is, calling it 'red' or 'yellow,' 'white' or 'black,' 'green'
+or 'brown.' We are Romans when we speak in a _general_ way of 'moving';
+but we are Teutons if we 'leap' or 'spring,' if we 'slip,' 'slide,' or
+'fall,' if we 'walk,' 'run,' 'swim,' or 'ride,' if we 'creep' or 'crawl'
+or 'fly.'"
+
+31. +Gains to English from Norman-French.+-- The gains from the
+Norman-French contribution are large, and are also of very great
+importance. Mr Lowell says, that the Norman element came in as
+quickening leaven to the rather heavy and lumpy Saxon dough. It stirred
+the whole mass, gave new life to the language, a much higher and wider
+scope to the thoughts, much greater power and copiousness to the
+expression of our thoughts, and a finer and brighter rhythm to our
+English sentences. "To Chaucer," he says, in 'My Study Windows,' "French
+must have been almost as truly a mother tongue as English. In him we see
+the first result of the Norman yeast upon the home-baked Saxon loaf. The
+flour had been honest, the paste well kneaded, but the inspiring leaven
+was wanting till the Norman brought it over. Chaucer works still in the
+solid material of his race, but with what airy lightness has he not
+infused it? Without ceasing to be English, he has escaped from being
+insular." Let us look at some of these gains a little more in detail.
+
+32. +Norman-French Synonyms.+-- We must not consider a +synonym+ as a
+word that means exactly _the same thing_ as the word of which it is a
+synonym; because then there would be neither room nor use for such a
+word in the language. A synonym is a word of the same meaning as
+another, but with a slightly different shade of meaning,-- or it is used
+under different circumstances and in a different connection, or it puts
+the same idea under a new angle. +Begin+ and +commence+, +will+ and
++testament+, are exact equivalents-- are complete synonyms; but there
+are very few more of this kind in our language. The moment the genius of
+a language gets hold of two words of the same meaning, it sets them to
+do different kinds of work,-- to express different parts or shades of
+that meaning. Thus +limb+ and +member+, +luck+ and +fortune+, have the
+same meaning; but we cannot speak of a _limb_ of the Royal Society, or
+of the _luck_ of the Rothschilds, who made their _fortune_ by hard work
+and steady attention to business. We have, by the aid of the
+Norman-French contributions, +flower+ as well as +bloom+; +branch+ and
++bough+; +purchase+ and +buy+; +amiable+ and +friendly+; +cordial+ and
++hearty+; +country+ and +land+; +gentle+ and +mild+; +desire+ and
++wish+; +labour+ and +work+; +miserable+ and +wretched+. These pairs of
+words enable poets and other writers to use the right word in the right
+place. And we, preferring our Saxon or good old English words to any
+French or Latin importations, prefer to speak of +a hearty welcome+
+instead of +a cordial reception+; of +a loving wife+ instead of an
++amiable consort+; of +a wretched man+ instead of +a miserable
+individual+.
+
+33. +Bilingualism.+-- How did these Norman-French words find their way
+into the language? What was the road by which they came? What was the
+process that enabled them to find a place in and to strike deep root
+into our English soil? Did the learned men-- the monks and the clergy--
+make a selection of words, write them in their books, and teach them to
+the English people? Nothing of the sort. The process was a much ruder
+one-- but at the same time one much more practical, more effectual, and
+more lasting in its results. The two peoples-- the Normans and the
+English-- found that they had to live together. They met at church, in
+the market-place, in the drilling field, at the archery butts, in the
+courtyards of castles; and, on the battle-fields of France, the Saxon
+bowman showed that he could fight as well, as bravely, and even to
+better purpose than his lord-- the Norman baron. At all these places,
+under all these circumstances, the Norman and the Englishman were
+obliged to speak with each other. Now arose a striking phenomenon. Every
+man, as Professor Earle puts it, turned himself as it were into a
+walking phrase-book or dictionary. When a Norman had to use a French
+word, he tried to put the English word for it alongside of the French
+word; when an Englishman used an English word, he joined with it the
+French equivalent. Then the language soon began to swarm with "yokes of
+words"; our words went in couples; and the habit then begun has
+continued down even to the present day. And thus it is that we possess
+such couples as +will and testament+; +act and deed+; +use and wont+;
++aid and abet+. Chaucer's poems are full of these pairs. He joins
+together +hunting and venery+ (though both words mean exactly the same
+thing); +nature and kind+; +cheere and face+; +pray and beseech+; +mirth
+and jollity+. Later on, the Prayer-Book, which was written in the years
+1540 to 1559, keeps up the habit: and we find the pairs +acknowledge and
+confess+; +assemble and meet together+; +dissemble and cloak+; +humble
+and lowly+. To the more English part of the congregation the simple
+Saxon words would come home with kindly association; to others, the
+words _confess_, _assemble_, _dissemble_, and _humble_ would speak with
+greater force and clearness. --Such is the phenomenon called by
+Professor Earle +bilingualism+. "It is, in fact," he says, "a putting of
+colloquial formulæ to do the duty of a French-English and English-French
+vocabulary." Even Hooker, who wrote at the end of the sixteenth century,
+seems to have been obliged to use these pairs; and we find in his
+writings the couples "cecity and blindness," "nocive and hurtful,"
+"sense and meaning."
+
+34. +Losses of English from the Incoming of Norman-French.+-- (i) Before
+the coming of the Normans, the English language was in the habit of
+forming compounds with ease and effect. But, after the introduction of
+the Norman-French language, that power seems gradually to have
+disappeared; and ready-made French or Latin words usurped the place of
+the home-grown English compound. Thus +despair+ pushed out +wanhope+;
++suspicion+ dethroned +wantrust+; +bidding-sale+ was expelled by
++auction+; +learning-knight+ by +disciple+; +rime-craft+ by the Greek
+word +arithmetic+; +gold-hoard+ by +treasure+; +book-hoard+ by
++library+; +earth-tilth+ by +agriculture+; +wonstead+ by +residence+;
+and so with a large number of others. --Many English words, moreover,
+had their meanings depreciated and almost degraded; and the words
+themselves lost their ancient rank and dignity. Thus the Norman
+conquerors put their foot-- literally and metaphorically-- on the Saxon
++chair+,[5] which thus became a +stool+, or a +footstool+. +Thatch+,
+which is a doublet of the word +deck+, was the name for any kind of
+roof; but the coming of the Norman-French lowered it to indicate a _roof
+of straw_. +Whine+ was used for the weeping or crying of human beings;
+but it is now restricted to the cry of a dog. +Hide+ was the generic
+term for the skin of any animal; it is now limited in modern English to
+the skin of a beast. --The most damaging result upon our language was
+that it entirely +stopped the growth of English words+. We could, for
+example, make out of the word +burn+-- the derivatives +brunt+, +brand+,
++brandy+, +brown+, +brimstone+, and others; but this power died out with
+the coming in of the Norman-French language. After that, instead of
+growing our own words, we adopted them ready-made. --Professor Craik
+compares the English and Latin languages to two banks; and says that,
+when the Normans came over, the account at the English bank was closed,
+and we drew only upon the Latin bank. But the case is worse than this.
+English lost its power of growth and expansion from the centre; from
+this time, it could only add to its bulk by borrowing and conveying from
+without-- by the external accretion of foreign words.
+
+    [Footnote 5: _Chair_ is the Norman-French form of the French
+    _chaise_. The Germans still call a chair a _stuhl_; and among the
+    English, _stool_ was the universal name till the twelfth century.]
+
+35. +Losses of English from the Incoming of Norman-French.+-- (ii) The
+arrestment of growth in the purely English part of our language, owing
+to the irruption of Norman-French, and also to the ease with which we
+could take a ready-made word from Latin or from Greek, killed off an old
+power which we once possessed, and which was not without its own use and
+expressiveness. This was the power of making compound words. The Greeks
+in ancient times had, and the Germans in modern times have, this power
+in a high degree. Thus a Greek comic poet has a word of fourteen
+syllables, which may be thus translated--
+
+  "Meanly-rising-early-and-hurrying-to-the-tribunal-
+  to-denounce-another-for-an-infraction-of-the-law-
+  concerning-the-exportation-of-figs."[6]
+
+And the Germans have a compound like "the-all-to-nothing-crushing
+philosopher." The Germans also say _iron-path_ for _railway_, _handshoe_
+for _glove_, and _finger-hat_ for _thimble_. We also possessed this
+power at one time, and employed it both in proper and in common names.
+Thus we had and have the names _Brakespear_, _Shakestaff_, _Shakespear_,
+_Golightly_, _Dolittle_, _Standfast_; and the common nouns _want-wit_,
+_find-fault_, _mumble-news_ (for _tale-bearer_), _pinch-penny_ (for
+_miser_), _slugabed_. In older times we had _three-foot-stool_,
+_three-man-beetle_[7]; _stone-cold_, _heaven-bright_, _honey-sweet_,
+_snail-slow_, _nut-brown_, _lily-livered_ (for _cowardly_);
+_brand-fire-new_; _earth-wandering_, _wind-dried_, _thunder-blasted_,
+_death-doomed_, and many others. But such words as _forbears_ or
+_fore-elders_ have been pushed out by _ancestors_; _forewit_ by
+_caution_ or _prudence_; and _inwit_ by _conscience_. Mr Barnes, the
+Dorsetshire poet, would like to see these and similar compounds
+restored, and thinks that we might well return to the old clear
+well-springs of "English undefiled," and make our own compounds out of
+our own words. He even carries his desires into the region of English
+grammar, and, for _degrees of comparison_, proposes the phrase _pitches
+of suchness_. Thus, instead of the Latin word _omnibus_, he would have
+_folk-wain_; for the Greek _botany_, he would substitute _wort-lore_;
+for _auction_, he would give us _bode-sale_; _globule_ he would replace
+with _ballkin_; the Greek word _horizon_ must give way to the pure
+English _sky-edge_; and, instead of _quadrangle_, he would have us all
+write and say _four-winkle_.
+
+    [Footnote 6: In two words, a _fig-shower_ or _sycophant_.]
+
+    [Footnote 7: A club for beating clothes, that could be handled
+    only by three men.]
+
+36. +Losses of English from the Incoming of Norman-French.+-- (iii) When
+once a way was made for the entrance of French words into our English
+language, the immigrations were rapid and numerous. Hence there were
+many changes both in the grammar and in the vocabulary of English from
+the year 1100, the year in which we may suppose those Englishmen who
+were living at the date of the battle of Hastings had died out. These
+changes were more or less rapid, according to circumstances. But perhaps
+the most rapid and remarkable change took place in the lifetime of
+William Caxton, the great printer, who was born in 1410. In his preface
+to his translation of the 'Æneid' of Virgil, which he published in 1490,
+when he was eighty years of age, he says that he cannot understand old
+books that were written when he was a boy-- that "the olde Englysshe is
+more lyke to dutche than englysshe," and that "our langage now vsed
+varyeth ferre from that whiche was vsed and spoken when I was borne. For
+we Englysshemen ben borne ynder the domynacyon of the mone [moon], which
+is neuer stedfaste, but euer wauerynge, wexynge one season, and waneth
+and dycreaseth another season." This as regards time. --But he has the
+same complaint to make as regards place. "Comyn englysshe that is spoken
+in one shyre varyeth from another." And he tells an odd story in
+illustration of this fact. He tells about certain merchants who were in
+a ship "in Tamyse" (on the Thames), who were bound for Zealand, but were
+wind-stayed at the Foreland, and took it into their heads to go on shore
+there. One of the merchants, whose name was Sheffelde, a mercer, entered
+a house, "and axed for mete, and specyally he axyd after eggys." But the
+"goode-wyf" replied that she "coude speke no frenshe." The merchant, who
+was a steady Englishman, lost his temper, "for he also coude speke no
+frenshe, but wolde have hadde eggys; and she understode hym not."
+Fortunately, a friend happened to join him in the house, and he acted as
+interpreter. The friend said that "he wolde have eyren; then the goode
+wyf sayde that she understod hym wel." And then the simple-minded but
+much-perplexed Caxton goes on to say: "Loo! what sholde a man in thyse
+dayes now wryte, eggës or eyren?" Such were the difficulties that beset
+printers and writers in the close of the fifteenth century.
+
+37. +Latin of the Fourth Period.+-- (i) This contribution differs very
+essentially in character from the last. The Norman-French contribution
+was a gift from a people to a people-- from living beings to living
+beings; this new contribution was rather a conveyance of words from
+books to books, and it never influenced-- in any great degree-- the
++spoken language+ of the English people. The ear and the mouth carried
+the Norman-French words into our language; the eye, the pen, and the
+printing-press were the instruments that brought in the Latin words of
+the Fourth Period. The Norman-French words that came in took and kept
+their place in the spoken language of the masses of the people; the
+Latin words that we received in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries
+kept their place in the written or printed language of books, of
+scholars, and of literary men. These new Latin words came in with the
++Revival of Learning+, which is also called the +Renascence+.
+
+The Turks attacked and took Constantinople in the year +1453+; and the
+great Greek and Latin scholars who lived in that city hurriedly packed
+up their priceless manuscripts and books, and fled to all parts of
+Italy, Germany, France, and even into England. The loss of the East
+became the gain of the West. These scholars became teachers; they taught
+the Greek and Roman classics to eager and earnest learners; and thus a
+new impulse was given to the study of the great masterpieces of human
+thought and literary style. And so it came to pass in course of time
+that every one who wished to become an educated man studied the
+literature of Greece and Rome. Even women took to the study. Lady Jane
+Grey was a good Greek and Latin scholar; and so was Queen Elizabeth.
+From this time began an enormous importation of Latin words into our
+language. Being imported by the eye and the pen, they suffered little or
+no change; the spirit of the people did not influence them in the
+least-- neither the organs of speech nor the ear affected either the
+pronunciation or the spelling of them. If we look down the columns of
+any English dictionary, we shall find these later Latin words in
+hundreds. _Opinionem_ became +opinion+; _factionem_, +faction+;
+_orationem_, +oration+; _pungentem_ passed over in the form of +pungent+
+(though we had _poignant_ already from the French); _pauperem_ came in
+as +pauper+; and _separatum_ became +separate+.
+
+38. +Latin of the Fourth Period.+-- (ii) This went on to such an extent
+in the sixteenth and the beginning of the seventeenth century, that one
+writer says of those who spoke and wrote this Latinised English, "If
+some of their mothers were alive, they were not able to tell what they
+say." And Sir Thomas Browne (1605-1682) remarks: "If elegancy (= the use
+of Latin words) still proceedeth, and English pens maintain that stream
+we have of late observed to flow from many, we shall, within a few
+years, be fain to learn Latin to understand English, and a work will
+prove of equal facility in either." Mr Alexander Gill, an eminent
+schoolmaster, and the then head-master of St Paul's School, where, among
+his other pupils, he taught John Milton, wrote a book in 1619 on the
+English language; and, among other remarks, he says: "O harsh lips!
+I now hear all around me such words as _common_, _vices_, _envy_,
+_malice_; even _virtue_, _study_, _justice_, _pity_, _mercy_,
+_compassion_, _profit_, _commodity_, _colour_, _grace_, _favour_,
+_acceptance_. But whither, I pray, in all the world, have you banished
+those words which our forefathers used for these new-fangled ones? Are
+our words to be executed like our citizens?" And he calls this fashion
+of using Latin words "the new mange in our speaking and writing." But
+the fashion went on growing; and even uneducated people thought it a
+clever thing to use a Latin instead of a good English word. Samuel
+Rowlands, a writer in the seventeenth century, ridicules this
+affectation in a few lines of verse. He pretends that he was out walking
+on the highroad, and met a countryman who wanted to know what o'clock it
+was, and whether he was on the right way to the town or village he was
+making for. The writer saw at once that he was a simple bumpkin; and,
+when he heard that he had lost his way, he turned up his nose at the
+poor fellow, and ordered him to be off at once. Here are the lines:--
+
+  "As on the way I itinerated,
+  A rural person I obviated,
+  Interrogating time's transitation,
+  And of the passage demonstration.
+  My apprehension did ingenious scan
+  That he was merely a simplician;
+  So, when I saw he was extravagánt,
+  Unto the óbscure vulgar consonánt,
+  I bade him vanish most promiscuously,
+  And not contaminate my company."
+
+39. +Latin of the Fourth Period.+-- (iii) What happened in the case of
+the Norman-French contribution, happened also in this. The language
+became saturated with these new Latin words, until it became satiated,
+then, as it were, disgusted, and would take no more. Hundreds of
+
+  "Long-tailed words in _osity_ and _ation_"
+
+crowded into the English language; but many of them were doomed
+to speedy expulsion. Thus words like _discerptibility_,
+_supervacaneousness_, _septentrionality_, _ludibundness_ (love of
+sport), came in in crowds. The verb _intenerate_ tried to turn out
+_soften_; and _deturpate_ to take the place of _defile_. But good
+writers, like Bacon and Raleigh, took care to avoid the use of such
+terms, and to employ only those Latin words which gave them the power to
+indicate a new idea-- a new meaning or a new shade of meaning. And when
+we come to the eighteenth century, we find that a writer like Addison
+would have shuddered at the very mention of such "inkhorn terms."
+
+40. +Eye-Latin and Ear-Latin.+-- (i) One slight influence produced by
+this spread of devotion to classical Latin-- to the Latin of Cicero and
+Livy, of Horace and Virgil-- was to alter the spelling of French words.
+We had already received-- through the ear-- the French words _assaute_,
+_aventure_, _defaut_, _dette_, _vitaille_, and others. But when our
+scholars became accustomed to the book-form of these words in Latin
+books, they gradually altered them-- for the eye and ear-- into
+_assault_, _adventure_, _default_, _debt_, and _victuals_. They went
+further. A large number of Latin words that already existed in the
+language in their Norman-French form (for we must not forget that French
+is Latin "with the ends bitten off"-- changed by being spoken peculiarly
+and heard imperfectly) were reintroduced in their original Latin form.
+Thus we had +caitiff+ from the Normans; but we reintroduced it in the
+shape of +captive+, which comes almost unaltered from the Latin
+_captivum_. +Feat+ we had from the Normans; but the Latin _factum_,
+which provided the word, presented us with a second form of it in the
+word +fact+. Such words might be called +Ear-Latin+ and +Eye-Latin+;
++Mouth-Latin+ and +Book-Latin+; +Spoken Latin+ and +Written Latin+;
+or Latin at second-hand and Latin at first-hand.
+
+41. +Eye-Latin and Ear-Latin.+-- (ii) This coming in of the same word by
+two different doors-- by the Eye and by the Ear-- has given rise to the
+phenomenon of +Doublets+. The following is a list of +Latin Doublets+;
+and it will be noticed that Latin1 stands for Latin at first-hand-- from
+books; and Latin2 for Latin at second-hand-- through the Norman-French.
+
+  LATIN DOUBLETS OR DUPLICATES.
+
+  LATIN.                        LATIN1.      LATIN2.
+
+  Antecessorem                  Antecessor   Ancestor.
+  Benedictionem                 Benediction  Benison.
+  Cadentia (Low Lat. noun)      Cadence      Chance.
+  Captivum                      Captive      Caitiff.
+  Conceptionem                  Conception   Conceit.
+  Consuetudinem                 Consuetude  {Custom.
+                                            {Costume.
+  Cophinum                      Coffin       Coffer.
+  Corpus (a body)               Corpse       Corps.
+  Debitum (something owed)      Debit        Debt.
+  Defectum (something wanting)  Defect       Defeat.
+  Dilat[-a]re                      Dilate       Delay.
+  Exemplum                      Example      Sample.
+  Fabr[)i]ca (a workshop)          Fabric       Forge.
+  Factionem                     Faction      Fashion.
+  Factum                        Fact         Feat.
+  Fidelitatem                   Fidelity     Fealty.
+  Fragilem                      Fragile      Frail.
+  Gent[-i]lis                      Gentile      Gentle.
+    (belonging to a _gens_ or family)
+  Historia                      History      Story.
+  Hospitale                     Hospital     Hotel.
+  Lectionem                     Lection      Lesson.
+  Legalem                       Legal        Loyal.
+  Magister                      Master       Mr.
+  Majorem (greater)             Major        Mayor.
+  Maledictionem                 Malediction  Malison.
+  Moneta                        Mint         Money.
+  Nutrimentum                   Nutriment    Nourishment.
+  Orationem                     Oration      Orison (a prayer).
+  Paganum                       Pagan        Payne (a proper name).
+    (a dweller in a _pagus_ or country district)
+  Particulam (a little part)    Particle     Parcel.
+  Pauperem                      Pauper       Poor.
+  Penitentiam                   Penitence    Penance.
+  Persecutum                    Persecute    Pursue.
+  Potionem (a draught)          Potion       Poison.
+  Pungentem                     Pungent      Poignant.
+  Quietum                       Quiet        Coy.
+  Radius                        Radius       Ray.
+  Reg[-a]lem                       Regal        Royal.
+  Respectum                     Respect      Respite.
+  Securum                       Secure       Sure.
+  Seniorem                      Senior       Sir.
+  Separatum                     Separate     Sever.
+  Species                       Species      Spice.
+  Statum                        State        Estate.
+  Tractum                       Tract        Trait.
+  Traditionem                   Tradition    Treason.
+  Zelosum                       Zealous      Jealous.
+
+42. +Remarks on the above Table.+ --The word +benison+, a blessing, may
+be contrasted with its opposite, +malison+, a curse. --+Cadence+ is the
+falling of sounds; +chance+ the befalling of events. --A +caitiff+ was
+at first a _captive_-- then a person who made no proper defence, but
+_allowed_ himself to be taken captive. --A +corps+ is a _body_ of
+troops. --The word +sample+ is found, in older English, in the form of
++ensample+. --A +feat+ of arms is a deed or +fact+ of arms, _par
+excellence_. --To understand how +fragile+ became +frail+, we must
+pronounce the +g+ hard, and notice how the hard guttural falls easily
+away-- as in our own native words _flail_ and _hail_, which formerly
+contained a hard +g+. --A +major+ is a _greater_ captain; a +mayor+ is a
+greater _magistrate_. --A +magister+ means a _bigger man_-- as opposed
+to a +minister+ (from _minus_), a smaller man. --+Moneta+ was the name
+given to a stamped coin, because these coins were first struck in the
+temple of Juno Moneta, Juno the Adviser or the Warner. (From the same
+root-- +mon+-- come _monition_, _admonition_; _monitor_; _admonish_.)
+--Shakespeare uses the word +orison+ freely for _prayer_, as in the
+address of Hamlet to Ophelia, where he says, "Nymph, in thy orisons, be
+all my sins remembered!" --+Poor+ comes to us from an Old French word
+_poure_; the newer French is _pauvre_. --To understand the vanishing of
+the +g+ sound in _poignant_, we must remember that the Romans sounded it
+always hard. --+Sever+ we get through _separate_, because +p+ and +v+
+are both labials, and therefore easily interchangeable. --+Treason+--
+with its +s+ instead of +ti+-- may be compared with +benison+,
++malison+, +orison+, +poison+, and +reason+.
+
+43. +Conclusions from the above Table.+-- If we examine the table on
+page 231 with care, we shall come to several undeniable conclusions.
+(i) First, the words which come to us direct from Latin are found more
+in books than in everyday speech. (ii) Secondly, they are longer. The
+reason is that the words that have come through French have been worn
+down by the careless pronunciation of many generations-- by that desire
+for ease in the pronouncing of words which characterises all languages,
+and have at last been compelled to take that form which was least
+difficult to pronounce. (iii) Thirdly, the two sets of words have, in
+each case, either (_a_) very different meanings, or (_b_) different
+shades of meaning. There is no likeness of meaning in _cadence_ and
+_chance_, except the common meaning of _fall_ which belongs to the root
+from which they both spring. And the different shades of meaning between
++history+ and +story+, between +regal+ and +royal+, between +persecute+
+and +pursue+, are also quite plainly marked, and are of the greatest use
+in composition.
+
+44. +Latin Triplets.+-- Still more remarkable is the fact that there are
+in our language words that have made three appearances-- one through
+Latin, one through Norman-French, and one through ordinary French. These
+seem to live quietly side by side in the language; and no one asks by
+what claim they are here. They are useful: that is enough. These
+triplets are-- +regal+, +royal+, and +real+; +legal+, +loyal+, and
++leal+; +fidelity+, +faithfulness+,[8] and +fealty+. The adjective real
+we no longer possess in the sense of _royal_, but Chaucer uses it; and
+it still exists in the noun +real-m+. +Leal+ is most used in Scotland,
+where it has a settled abode in the well-known phrase "the land o' the
+leal."
+
+    [Footnote 8: The word _faith_ is a true French word with an
+    English ending-- the ending +th+. Hence it is a hybrid. The old
+    French word was _fei_-- from the Latin _fidem_; and the ending
+    +th+ was added to make it look more like _truth_, _wealth_,
+    _health_, and other purely English words.]
+
+45. +Greek Doublets.+-- The same double introduction, which we noticed
+in the case of Latin words, takes place in regard to Greek words. It
+seems to have been forgotten that our English forms of them had been
+already given us by St Augustine and the Church, and a newer form of
+each was reintroduced. The following are a few examples:--
+
+  GREEK.                         OLDER FORM.       LATER FORM.
+
+  Adamanta[9] (the untameable)   Diamond           Adamant.
+  Balsamon                       Balm              Balsam.
+  Blasph[-e]mein (to speak ill of)  Blame             Blaspheme.
+  Cheirourgon[9]                 Chirurgeon        Surgeon.
+    (a worker with the hand)
+  Dact[)u]lon (a finger)            Date (the fruit)  Dactyl.
+  Phantasia                      Fancy             Phantasy.
+  Phantasma (an appearance)      Phantom           Phantasm.
+  Presbuteron (an elder)         Priest            Presbyter.
+  Paralysis                      Palsy             Paralysis.
+  Scand[)a]lon                      Slander           Scandal.
+
+    [Footnote 9: The accusative or objective case is given in all
+    these words.]
+
+It may be remarked of the word _fancy_, that, in Shakespeare's time,
+it meant _love_ or _imagination_--
+
+  "Tell me, where is _fancy_ bred,
+  Or in the heart, or in the head?"
+
+It is now restricted to mean a lighter and less serious kind of
+imagination. Thus we say that Milton's 'Paradise Lost' is a work of
+imagination; but that Moore's 'Lalla Rookh' is a product of the poet's
+fancy.
+
+46. +Characteristics of the Two Elements of English.+-- If we keep our
+attention fixed on the two chief elements in our language-- the English
+element and the Latin element-- the Teutonic and the Romance-- we shall
+find some striking qualities manifest themselves. We have already said
+that whole sentences can be made containing only English words, while it
+is impossible to do this with Latin or other foreign words. Let us take
+two passages-- one from a daily newspaper, and the other from
+Shakespeare:--
+
+  (i) "We find the _functions_ of such an _official_ _defined_ in the
+  _Act_. He is to be a _legally_ _qualified_ _medical_ _practitioner_
+  of skill and _experience_, to _inspect_ and _report_ _periodically_
+  on the _sanitary_ _condition_ of town or _district_; to _ascertain_
+  the _existence_ of _diseases_, more _especially_ _epidemics_
+  _increasing_ the _rates_ of _mortality_, and to _point_ out the
+  _existence_ of any _nuisances_ or other _local_ _causes_, which are
+  likely to _originate_ and _maintain_ such _diseases_, and
+  _injuriously_ _affect_ the health of the _inhabitants_ of such town
+  or _district_; to take _cognisance_ of the _existence_ of any
+  _contagious_ _disease_, and to point out the most _efficacious_
+  _means_ for the _ventilation_ of _chapels_, _schools_, _registered_
+  _lodging_-houses, and other _public_ buildings."
+
+In this passage, all the words in italics are either Latin or Greek.
+But, if the purely English words were left out, the sentence would fall
+into ruins-- would become a mere rubbish-heap of words. It is the small
+particles that give life and motion to each sentence. They are the
+joints and hinges on which the whole sentence moves. --Let us now look
+at a passage from Shakespeare. It is from the speech of Macbeth, after
+he has made up his mind to murder Duncan:--
+
+  (ii) "Go bid thy _mistress_, when my drink is ready,
+        She strike upon the bell. Get thee to bed!--
+        Is this a dagger which I see before me,
+        The handle toward my hand? Come! let me clutch thee!
+        --I have thee not; and yet I see thee still."
+
+In this passage there is only one Latin (or French) word-- the word
+_mistress_. If Shakespeare had used the word +lady+, the passage would
+have been entirely English. --The passage from the newspaper deals with
+large +generalisations+; that from Shakespeare with individual +acts+
+and +feelings+-- with things that come +home+ "to the business and
+bosom" of man as man. Every master of the English language understands
+well the art of mingling the two elements-- so as to obtain a fine
+effect; and none better than writers like Shakespeare, Milton, Gray, and
+Tennyson. Shakespeare makes Antony say of Cleopatra:--
+
+  "Age cannot wither her; nor _custom_ stale
+  Her infinite _variety_."
+
+Here the French (or Latin) words _custom_ and _variety_ form a vivid
+contrast to the English verb _stale_, throw up its meaning and colour,
+and give it greater prominence. --Milton makes Eve say:--
+
+                              "I thither went
+  With _inexperienc'd_ thought, and laid me down
+  On the green bank, to look into the _clear_
+  Smooth _lake_, that to me seem'd another sky."
+
+Here the words _inexperienced_ and _clear_ give variety to the sameness
+of the English words. --Gray, in the Elegy, has this verse:--
+
+  "The breezy call of _incense_-breathing morn,
+    The swallow twittering from the straw-built shed,
+  The cock's shrill _clarion_ or the _echoing_ horn,
+    No more shall rouse them from their lowly bed."
+
+Here _incense_, _clarion_, and _echoing_ give a vivid colouring to the
+plainer hues of the homely English phrases. --Tennyson, in the
+Lotos-Eaters, vi., writes:--
+
+  "Dear is the _memory_ of our wedded lives,
+  And dear the last _embraces_ of our wives
+  And their warm tears: but all hath _suffer'd_ _change_;
+  For _surely_ now our household hearths are cold:
+  Our sons _inherit_ us: our looks are _strange_:
+  And we should come like ghosts to _trouble_ _joy_."
+
+Most powerful is the introduction of the French words _suffered change_,
+_inherit_, _strange_, and _trouble joy_; for they give with painful
+force the contrast of the present state of desolation with the homely
+rest and happiness of the old abode, the love of the loving wives, the
+faithfulness of the stalwart sons.
+
+47. +English and other Doublets.+-- We have already seen how, by the
+presentation of the same word at two different doors-- the door of Latin
+and the door of French-- we are in possession of a considerable number
+of doublets. But this phenomenon is not limited to Latin and French-- is
+not solely due to the contributions we receive from these languages. We
+find it also +within+ English itself; and causes of the most different
+description bring about the same results. For various reasons, the
+English language is very rich in doublets. It possesses nearly five
+hundred pairs of such words. The language is all the richer for having
+them, as it is thereby enabled to give fuller and clearer expression to
+the different shades and delicate varieties of meaning in the mind.
+
+48. +The sources of doublets+ are various. But five different causes
+seem chiefly to have operated in producing them. They are due to
+differences of +pronunciation+; to differences in +spelling+; to
++contractions+ for convenience in daily speech; to differences in
++dialects+; and to the fact that many of them come from +different
+languages+. Let us look at a few examples of each. At bottom, however,
+all these differences will be found to resolve themselves into
++differences of pronunciation+. They are either differences in the
+pronunciation of the same word by different tribes, or by men in
+different counties, who speak different dialects; or by men of different
+nations.
+
+49. +Differences in Pronunciation.+-- From this source we have +parson+
+and +person+ (the parson being the _person_ or representative of the
+Church); +sop+ and +soup+; +task+ and +tax+ (the +sk+ has here become
++ks+); +thread+ and +thrid+; +ticket+ and +etiquette+; +sauce+ and
++souse+ (to steep in brine); +squall+ and +squeal+.
+
+50. +Differences in Spelling.+-- +To+ and +too+ are the same word-- one
+being used as a preposition, the other as an adverb; +of+ and +off+,
++from+ and +fro+, are only different spellings, which represent
+different functions or uses of the same word; +onion+ and +union+ are
+the same word. An +union+[10] comes from the Latin +unus+, one, and it
+meant a large single pearl-- a unique jewel; the word was then applied
+to the plant, the head of which is of a pearl-shape.
+
+    [Footnote 10: In Hamlet v. 2. 283, Shakespeare makes the King say--
+
+        "The King shall drink to Hamlet's better breath;
+        And in the cup an union shall he throw."]
+
+51. +Contractions.+-- Contraction has been a pretty fruitful source of
+doublets in English. A long word has a syllable or two cut off; or two
+or three are compressed into one. Thus +example+ has become +sample+;
++alone+ appears also as +lone+; +amend+ has been shortened into +mend+;
++defend+ has been cut down into +fend+ (as in +fender+); +manoeuvre+ has
+been contracted into +manure+ (both meaning originally to work with the
+hand); +madam+ becomes +'m+ in +yes 'm+[11]; and +presbyter+ has been
+squeezed down into +priest+.[12] Other examples of contraction are:
++capital+ and +cattle+; +chirurgeon+ (a worker with the hand) and
++surgeon+; +cholera+ and +choler+ (from ch[)o]los, the Greek word for
+_bile_); +disport+ and +sport+; +estate+ and +state+; +esquire+ and
++squire+; +Egyptian+ and +gipsy+; +emmet+ and +ant+; +gammon+ and
++game+; +grandfather+ and +gaffer+; +grandmother+ and +gammer+; +iota+
+(the Greek letter +i+) and +jot+; +maximum+ and +maxim+; +mobile+ and
++mob+; +mosquito+ and +musket+; +papa+ and +pope+; +periwig+ and +wig+;
++poesy+ and +posy+; +procurator+ and +proctor+; +shallop+ and +sloop+;
++unity+ and +unit+. It is quite evident that the above pairs of words,
+although in reality one, have very different meanings and uses.
+
+    [Footnote 11: Professor Max Müller gives this as the most
+    remarkable instance of cutting down. The Latin _mea domina_ became
+    in French _madame_; in English _ma'am_; and, in the language of
+    servants, _'m_.]
+
+    [Footnote 12: Milton says, in one of his sonnets--
+
+        "New Presbyter is but old Priest writ large."
+
+    From the etymological point of view, the truth is just the other
+    way about. _Priest_ is old _Presbyter_ writ small.]
+
+52. +Difference of English Dialects.+-- Another source of doublets is to
+be found in the dialects of the English language. Almost every county in
+England has its own dialect; but three main dialects stand out with
+great prominence in our older literature, and these are the +Northern+,
+the +Midland+, and the +Southern+. The grammar of these dialects[13] was
+different; their pronunciation of words was different-- and this has
+given rise to a splitting of one word into two. In the North, we find a
+hard +c+, as in the _caster_ of +Lancaster+; in the Midlands, a soft
++c+, as in +Leicester+; in the South, a +ch+, as in +Winchester+. We
+shall find similar differences of hardness and softness in ordinary
+words. Thus we find +kirk+ and +church+; +canker+ and +cancer+; +canal+
+and +channel+; +deck+ and +thatch+; +drill+ and +thrill+; +fan+ and
++van+ (in a winnowing-machine); +fitch+ and +vetch+; +hale+ and +whole+;
++mash+ and +mess+; +naught+, +nought+, and +not+; +pike+, +peak+, and
++beak+; +poke+ and +pouch+; +quid+ (a piece of tobacco for chewing) and
++cud+ (which means the thing _chewed_); +reave+ and +rob+; +ridge+ and
++rig+; +scabby+ and +shabby+; +scar+ and +share+; +screech+ and
++shriek+; +shirt+ and +skirt+; +shuffle+ and +scuffle+; +spray+ and
++sprig+; +wain+ and +waggon+-- and other pairs. All of these are but
+different modes of pronouncing the same word in different parts of
+England; but the genius of the language has taken advantage of these
+different +ways of pronouncing+ to make different +words+ out of them,
+and to give them different functions, meanings, and uses.
+
+    [Footnote 13: See p. 242.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+HISTORY OF THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH.
+
+
+1. +The Oldest English Synthetic.+-- The oldest English, or Anglo-Saxon,
+that was brought over here in the fifth century, was a language that
+showed the relations of words to each other by adding different endings
+to words, or by +synthesis+. These endings are called +inflexions+.
+Latin and Greek are highly inflected languages; French and German have
+many more inflexions than modern English; and ancient English (or
+Anglo-Saxon) also possessed a large number of inflexions.
+
+2. +Modern English Analytic.+-- When, instead of inflexions, a language
+employs small particles-- such as prepositions, auxiliary verbs, and
+suchlike words-- to express the relations of words to each other, such a
+language is called +analytic+ or +non-inflexional+. When we say, as we
+used to say in the oldest English, "God is ealra cyninga cyning," we
+speak a synthetic language. But when we say, "God is king _of_ all
+kings," then we employ an analytic or uninflected language.
+
+3. +Short View of the History of English Grammar.+-- From the time when
+the English language came over to this island, it has grown steadily in
+the number of its words. On the other hand, it has lost just as steadily
+in the number of its inflexions. Put in a broad and somewhat rough
+fashion, it may be said that--
+
+  (i) +Up to the year 1100-- one generation after the Battle of Senlac--
+  the English language was a+ SYNTHETIC +Language.+
+
+  (ii) +From the year 1100 or thereabouts, English has been losing its
+  inflexions, and gradually becoming more and more an ANALYTIC
+  Language.+
+
+4. +Causes of this Change.+-- Even before the coming of the Danes and
+the Normans, the English people had shown a tendency to get rid of some
+of their inflexions. A similar tendency can be observed at the present
+time among the Germans of the Rhine Province, who often drop an +n+ at
+the end of a word, and show in other respects a carelessness about
+grammar. But, when a foreign people comes among natives, such a tendency
+is naturally encouraged, and often greatly increased. The natives
+discover that these inflexions are not so very important, if only they
+can get their meaning rightly conveyed to the foreigners. Both parties,
+accordingly, come to see that the +root+ of the word is the most
+important element; they stick to that, and they come to neglect the mere
+inflexions. Moreover, the accent in English words always struck the
+root; and hence this part of the word always fell on the ear with the
+greater force, and carried the greater weight. When the Danes-- who
+spoke a cognate language-- began to settle in England, the tendency to
+drop inflexions increased; but when the Normans-- who spoke an entirely
+different language-- came, the tendency increased enormously, and the
+inflexions of Anglo-Saxon began to "fall as the leaves fall" in the dry
+wind of a frosty October. Let us try to trace some of these changes and
+losses.
+
+5. +Grammar of the First Period, 450-1100.+-- The English of this period
+is called the +Oldest English+ or +Anglo-Saxon+. The gender of nouns was
+arbitrary, or-- it may be-- poetical; it did not, as in modern English
+it does, follow the sex. Thus +nama+, a name, was masculine; +tunge+,
+a tongue, feminine; and +eáge+, an eye, neuter. Like _nama_, the proper
+names of men ended in _a_; and we find such names as Isa, Offa, Penda,
+as the names of kings. Nouns at this period had five cases, with
+inflexions for each; now we possess but one inflexion-- that for the
+possessive. --Even the definite article was inflected. --The infinitive
+of verbs ended in +an+; and the sign _to_-- which we received from the
+Danes-- was not in use, except for the dative of the infinitive. This
+dative infinitive is still preserved in such phrases as "a house to
+let;" "bread to eat;" "water to drink." --The present participle ended
+in +ende+ (in the North +ande+). This present participle may be said
+still to exist-- in spoken, but not in written speech; for some people
+regularly say _walkin_, _goin_, for _walking_ and _going_. --The plural
+of the present indicative ended in +ath+ for all three persons. In the
+perfect tense, the plural ending was +on+. --There was no future tense;
+the work of the future was done by the present tense. Fragments of this
+usage still survive in the language, as when we say, "He goes up to town
+next week." --Prepositions governed various cases; and not always the
+objective (or accusative), as they do now.
+
+6. +Grammar of the Second Period, 1100-1250.+-- The English of this
+period is called +Early English+. Even before the coming of the Normans,
+the inflexions of our language had-- as we have seen-- begun to drop
+off, and it was slowly on the way to becoming an analytic language. The
+same changes-- the same simplification of grammar, has taken place in
+nearly every Low German language. But the coming of the Normans hastened
+these changes, for it made the inflexional endings of words of much less
+practical importance to the English themselves. --Great changes took
+place in the pronunciation also. The hard +c+ or +k+ was softened into
++ch+; and the hard guttural +g+ was refined into a +y+ or even into a
+silent +w+. --A remarkable addition was made to the language. The Oldest
+English or Anglo-Saxon had no indefinite article. They said _ofer stán_
+for _on_ a _rock_. But, as the French have made the article +un+ out of
+the Latin +unus+, so the English pared down the northern +ane+ (= +one+)
+into the article +an+ or +a+. The Anglo-Saxon definite article was +se+,
++seo+, +þaet+; and in the grammar of this Second Period it became +þe+,
++þeo+, +þe+. --The French plural in +es+ took the place of the English
+plural in +en+. But _housen_ and _shoon_ existed for many centuries
+after the Norman coming; and Mr Barnes, the Dorsetshire poet, still
+deplores the ugly sound of _nests_ and _fists_, and would like to be
+able to say and to write _nesten_ and _fisten_. --The dative plural,
+which ended in +um+, becomes an +e+ or an +en+. The +um+, however, still
+exists in the form of +om+ in +seldom+ (= at few times) and +whilom+
+(= in old times). --The gender of nouns falls into confusion, and begins
+to show a tendency to follow the sex. --Adjectives show a tendency to
+drop several of their inflexions, and to become as serviceable and
+accommodating as they are now-- when they are the same with all numbers,
+genders, and cases. --The +an+ of the infinitive becomes +en+, and
+sometimes even the +n+ is dropped. --+Shall+ and +will+ begin to be used
+as tense-auxiliaries for the future tense.
+
+7. +Grammar of the Third Period, 1250-1350.+-- The English of this
+period is often called +Middle English+. --The definite article still
+preserves a few inflexions. --Nouns that were once masculine or feminine
+become neuter, for the sake of convenience. --The possessive in +es+
+becomes general. --Adjectives make their plural in +e+. --The infinitive
+now takes +to+ before it-- except after a few verbs, like _bid_, _see_,
+_hear_, etc. --The present participle in +inge+ makes its appearance
+about the year 1300.
+
+8. +Grammar of the Fourth Period, 1350-1485.+-- This may be called
++Later Middle English+. An old writer of the fourteenth century points
+out that, in his time-- and before it-- the English language was
+"a-deled a thre," divided into three; that is, that there were three
+main dialects, the +Northern+, the +Midland+, and the +Southern+. There
+were many differences in the grammar of these dialects; but the chief of
+these differences is found in the plural of the present indicative of
+the verb. This part of the verb formed its plurals in the following
+manner:--
+
+  NORTHERN.     MIDLAND.      SOUTHERN.
+  We hopës      We hopen      We hopeth.
+  You hopës     You hopen     You hopeth.
+  They hopës    They hopen    They hopeth.[14]
+
+In time the Midland dialect conquered; and the East Midland form of it
+became predominant all over England. As early as the beginning of the
+thirteenth century, this dialect had thrown off most of the old
+inflexions, and had become almost as flexionless as the English of the
+present day. Let us note a few of the more prominent changes. --The
+first personal pronoun +Ic+ or +Ich+ loses the guttural, and becomes
++I+. --The pronouns +him+, +them+, and +whom+, which are true datives,
+are used either as datives or as objectives. --The imperative plural
+ends in +eth+. "Riseth up," Chaucer makes one of his characters say,
+"and stondeth by me!" --The useful and almost ubiquitous letter +e+
+comes in as a substitute for +a+, +u+, and even +an+. Thus +nama+
+becomes +name+, +sunu+ (son) becomes +sune+, and +withutan+ changes into
++withute+. --The dative of adjectives is used as an adverb. Thus we find
++softë+, +brightë+ employed like our +softly+, +brightly+. --The +n+ in
+the infinitive has fallen away; but the +ë+ is sounded as a separate
+syllable. Thus we find +brekë+, +smitë+ for _breken_ and _smiten_.
+
+    [Footnote 14: This plural we still find in the famous Winchester
+    motto, "Manners maketh man."]
+
+9. +General View.+-- In the time of King Alfred, the West-Saxon speech--
+the Wessex dialect-- took precedence of the rest, and became the
+literary dialect of England. But it had not, and could not have, any
+influence on the spoken language of other parts of England, for the
+simple reason that very few persons were able to travel, and it took
+days-- and even weeks-- for a man to go from Devonshire to Yorkshire. In
+course of time the Midland dialect-- that spoken between the Humber and
+the Thames-- became the predominant dialect of England; and the East
+Midland variety of this dialect became the parent of modern standard
+English. This predominance was probably due to the fact that it, soonest
+of all, got rid of its inflexions, and became most easy, pleasant, and
+convenient to use. And this disuse of inflexions was itself probably due
+to the early Danish settlements in the east, to the larger number of
+Normans in that part of England, to the larger number of thriving towns,
+and to the greater and more active communication between the eastern
+seaports and the Continent. The inflexions were first confused, then
+weakened, then forgotten, finally lost. The result was an extreme
+simplification, which still benefits all learners of the English
+language. Instead of spending a great deal of time on the learning of a
+large number of inflexions, which are to them arbitrary and meaningless,
+foreigners have only to fix their attention on the words and phrases
+themselves, that is, on the very pith and marrow of the language--
+indeed, on the language itself. Hence the great German grammarian Grimm,
+and others, predict that English will spread itself all over the world,
+and become the universal language of the future. In addition to this
+almost complete sweeping away of all inflexions,-- which made Dr Johnson
+say, "Sir, the English language has no grammar at all,"-- there were
+other remarkable and useful results which accrued from the coming in of
+the Norman-French and other foreign elements.
+
+10. +Monosyllables.+-- The stripping off of the inflexions of our
+language cut a large number of words down to the root. Hundreds, if not
+thousands, of our verbs were dissyllables, but, by the gradual loss of
+the ending +en+ (which was in Anglo-Saxon +an+), they became
+monosyllables. Thus +bindan+, +drincan+, +findan+, became +bind+,
++drink+, +find+; and this happened with hosts of other verbs. Again, the
+expulsion of the guttural, which the Normans never could or would take
+to, had the effect of compressing many words of two syllables into one.
+Thus +haegel+, +twaegen+, and +faegen+, became +hail+, +twain+, and
++fain+. --In these and other ways it has come to pass that the present
+English is to a very large extent of a monosyllabic character. So much
+is this the case, that whole books have been written for children in
+monosyllables. It must be confessed that the monosyllabic style is often
+dull, but it is always serious and homely. We can find in our
+translation of the Bible whole verses that are made up of words of only
+one syllable. Many of the most powerful passages in Shakespeare, too,
+are written in monosyllables. The same may be said of hundreds of our
+proverbs-- such as, "Cats hide their claws"; "Fair words please fools";
+"He that has most time has none to lose." Great poets, like Tennyson and
+Matthew Arnold, understand well the fine effect to be produced from the
+mingling of short and long words-- of the homely English with the more
+ornate Romance language. In the following verse from Matthew Arnold the
+words are all monosyllables, with the exception of _tired_ and
+_contention_ (which is Latin):--
+
+  "Let the long contention cease;
+  Geese are swans, and swans are geese;
+  Let them have it how they will,
+  Thou art tired. Best be still!"
+
+In Tennyson's "Lord of Burleigh," when the sorrowful husband comes to
+look upon his dead wife, the verse runs almost entirely in
+monosyllables:--
+
+  "And he came to look upon her,
+    And he looked at her, and said:
+  'Bring the dress, and put it on her,
+    That she wore when she was wed.'"
+
+An American writer has well indicated the force of the English
+monosyllable in the following sonnet:--
+
+  "Think not that strength lies in the big, _round_ word,
+    Or that the _brief_ and _plain_ must needs be weak.
+  To whom can this be true who once has heard
+    The cry for help, the tongue that all men speak,
+  When want, or fear, or woe, is in the throat,
+    So that each word gasped out is like a shriek
+  _Pressed_ from the sore heart, or a _strange_, wild _note_
+    Sung by some _fay_ or fiend! There is a strength,
+  Which dies if stretched too far, or spun too fine,
+    Which has more height than breadth, more depth than length;
+  Let but this _force_ of thought and speech be mine,
+    And he that will may take the sleek fat _phrase_,
+  Which glows but burns not, though it beam and shine;
+    Light, but no heat,-- a flash, but not a blaze."
+
+It will be observed that this sonnet consists entirely of monosyllables,
+and yet that the style of it shows considerable power and vigour. The
+words printed in italics are all derived from Latin, with the exception
+of the word _phrase_, which is Greek.
+
+11. +Change in the Order of Words.+-- The syntax-- or order of words--
+of the oldest English was very different from that of Norman-French. The
+syntax of an Old English sentence was clumsy and involved; it kept the
+attention long on the strain; it was rumbling, rambling, and unpleasant
+to the ear. It kept the attention on the strain, because the verb in a
+subordinate clause was held back, and not revealed till we had come to
+the end of the clause. Thus the Anglo-Saxon wrote (though in different
+form and spelling)--
+
+  "When Darius saw, that he overcome be would."
+
+The newer English, under French influence, wrote--
+
+  "When Darius saw that he was going to be overcome."
+
+This change has made an English sentence lighter and more easy to
+understand, for the reader or hearer is not kept waiting for the verb;
+but each word comes just when it is expected, and therefore in its
+"natural" place. The Old English sentence-- which is very like the
+German sentence of the present day-- has been compared to a heavy cart
+without springs, while the newer English sentence is like a modern
+well-hung English carriage. Norman-French, then, gave us a brighter,
+lighter, freer rhythm, and therefore a sentence more easy to understand
+and to employ, more supple, and better adapted to everyday use.
+
+12. +The Expulsion of Gutturals.+-- (i) Not only did the Normans help us
+to an easier and pleasanter kind of sentence, they aided us in getting
+rid of the numerous throat-sounds that infested our language. It is a
+remarkable fact that there is not now in the French language a single
+guttural. There is not an +h+ in the whole language. The French _write_
+an +h+ in several of their words, but they never sound it. Its use is
+merely to serve as a fence between two vowels-- to keep two vowels
+separate, as in _la haine_, hatred. No doubt the Normans could utter
+throat-sounds well enough when they dwelt in Scandinavia; but, after
+they had lived in France for several generations, they acquired a great
+dislike to all such sounds. No doubt, too, many, from long disuse, were
+unable to give utterance to a guttural. This dislike they communicated
+to the English; and hence, in the present day, there are many people--
+especially in the south of England-- who cannot sound a guttural at all.
+The muscles in the throat that help to produce these sounds have become
+atrophied-- have lost their power for want of practice. The purely
+English part of the population, for many centuries after the Norman
+invasion, could sound gutturals quite easily-- just as the Scotch and
+the Germans do now; but it gradually became the fashion in England to
+leave them out.
+
+13. +The Expulsion of Gutturals.+-- (ii) In some cases the guttural
+disappeared entirely; in others, it was changed into or represented by
+other sounds. The +ge+ at the beginning of the passive (or past)
+participles of many verbs disappeared entirely. Thus +gebróht+,
++gebóht+, +geworht+, became +brought+, +bought+, and +wrought+. The +g+
+at the beginning of many words also dropped off. Thus +Gyppenswich+
+became +Ipswich+; +gif+ became +if+; +genoh+, +enough+. --The guttural
+at the end of words-- hard +g+ or +c+-- also disappeared. Thus +halig+
+became +holy+; +eordhlic+, +earthly+; +gastlic+, +ghastly+ or +ghostly+.
+The same is the case in +dough+, +through+, +plough+, etc. --the
+guttural appearing to the eye but not to the ear. --Again, the guttural
+was changed into quite different sounds-- into labials, into sibilants,
+into other sounds also. The following are a few examples:--
+
+(_a_) The guttural has been softened, through Norman-French influence,
+into a +sibilant+. Thus +rigg+, +egg+, and +brigg+ have become +ridge+,
++edge+, and +bridge+.
+
+(_b_) The guttural has become a +labial+-- +f+-- as in +cough+,
++enough+, +trough+, +laugh+, +draught+, etc.
+
+(_c_) The guttural has become an additional syllable, and is represented
+by a +vowel-sound+. Thus +sorg+ and +mearh+ have become +sorrow+ and
++marrow+.
+
+(_d_) In some words it has disappeared both to eye and ear. Thus +makëd+
+has become +made+.
+
+14. +The Story of the GH.+-- How is it, then, that we have in so many
+words the two strongest gutturals in the language-- +g+ and +h+-- not
+only separately, in so many of our words, but combined? The story is an
+odd one. Our Old English or Saxon scribes wrote-- not +light+, +might+,
+and +night+, but +liht+, +miht+, and +niht+. When, however, they found
+that the Norman-French gentlemen would not sound the +h+, and say-- as
+is still said in Scotland-- _li+ch+t_, &c., they redoubled the guttural,
+strengthened the +h+ with a hard +g+, and again presented the dose to
+the Norman. But, if the Norman could not sound the +h+ alone, still less
+could he sound the double guttural; and he very coolly let both alone--
+ignored both. The Saxon scribe doubled the signs for his guttural, just
+as a farmer might put up a strong wooden fence in front of a hedge; but
+the Norman cleared both with perfect ease and indifference. And so it
+came to pass that we have the symbol +gh+ in more than seventy of our
+words, and that in most of these we do not sound it at all. The +gh+
+remains in our language, like a moss-grown boulder, brought down into
+the fertile valley in a glacial period, when gutturals were both spoken
+and written, and men believed in the truthfulness of letters-- but now
+passed by in silence and noticed by no one.
+
+15. +The Letters that represent Gutturals.+-- The English guttural has
+been quite Protean in the written or printed forms it takes. It appears
+as an +i+, as a +y+, as a +w+, as a +ch+, as a +dge+, as a +j+, and-- in
+its more native forms-- as a +g+, a +k+, or a +gh+. The following words
+give all these forms: ha+i+l, da+y+, fo+w+l, tea+ch+, e+dge+, a+j+ar,
+dra+g+, truc+k+, and trou+gh+. Now _hail_ was _hagol_, _day_ was _daeg_,
+_fowl_ was _fugol_, _teach_ was _taecan_, _edge_ was _egg_, _ajar_ was
+_achar_. In +seek+, +beseech+, +sought+-- which are all different forms
+of the same word-- we see the guttural appearing in three different
+forms-- as a hard +k+, as a soft +ch+, as an unnoticed +gh+. In +think+
+and +thought+, +drink+ and +draught+, +sly+ and +sleight+, +dry+ and
++drought+, +slay+ and +slaughter+, it takes two different forms. In
++dig+, +ditch+, and +dike+-- which are all the same word in different
+shapes-- it again takes three forms. In +fly+, +flew+, and +flight+,
+it appears as a +y+, a +w+, and a +gh+. But, indeed, the manners of a
+guttural, its ways of appearing and disappearing, are almost beyond
+counting.
+
+16. +Grammatical Result of the Loss of Inflexions.+-- When we look at a
+Latin or French or German word, we know whether it is a verb or a noun
+or a preposition by its mere appearance-- by its face or by its dress,
+so to speak. But the loss of inflexions which has taken place in the
+English language has resulted in depriving us of this advantage-- if
+advantage it is. Instead of +looking+ at the +face+ of a word in
+English, we are obliged to +think+ of its +function+,-- that is, of what
+it does. We have, for example, a large number of words that are both
+nouns and verbs-- we may use them as the one or as the other; and, till
+we have used them, we cannot tell whether they are the one or the other.
+Thus, when we speak of "a +cut+ on the finger," +cut+ is a +noun+,
+because it is a name; but when we say, "Harry cut his finger," then
++cut+ is a +verb+, because it tells something about Harry. Words like
++bud+, +cane+, +cut+, +comb+, +cap+, +dust+, +fall+, +fish+, +heap+,
++mind+, +name+, +pen+, +plaster+, +punt+, +run+, +rush+, +stone+, and
+many others, can be used either as +nouns+ or as +verbs+. Again, +fast+,
++quick+, and +hard+ may be used either as +adverbs+ or as +adjectives+;
+and +back+ may be employed as an +adverb+, as a +noun+, and even as an
++adjective+. Shakespeare is very daring in the use of this licence. He
+makes one of his characters say, "But me no buts!" In this sentence, the
+first _but_ is a +verb+ in the imperative mood; the second is a +noun+
+in the objective case. Shakespeare uses also such verbs as _to glad_,
+_to mad_, such phrases as _a seldom pleasure_, and _the fairest she_.
+Dr Abbott says, "In Elizabethan English, almost any part of speech can
+be used as any other part of speech. An adverb can be used as a verb,
+'they _askance_ their eyes'; as a noun, 'the _backward_ and abysm of
+time'; or as an adjective, 'a seldom pleasure.' Any noun, adjective, or
+neuter verb can be used as an active verb. You can 'happy' your friend,
+'malice' or 'fool' your enemy, or 'fall' an axe upon his neck." Even in
+modern English, almost any noun can be used as a verb. Thus we can say,
+"to _paper_ a room"; "to _water_ the horses"; "to _black-ball_ a
+candidate"; to "_iron_ a shirt" or "a prisoner"; "to _toe_ the line." On
+the other hand, verbs may be used as nouns; for we can speak of a
+_work_, of a beautiful _print_, of a long _walk_, and so on.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+SPECIMENS OF ENGLISH OF DIFFERENT PERIODS.
+
+
+1. +Vocabulary and Grammar.+-- The oldest English or Anglo-Saxon differs
+from modern English both in vocabulary and in grammar-- in the words it
+uses and in the inflexions it employs. The difference is often
+startling. And yet, if we look closely at the words and their dress, we
+shall most often find that the words which look so strange are the very
+words with which we are most familiar-- words that we are in the habit
+of using every day; and that it is their dress alone that is strange and
+antiquated. The effect is the same as if we were to dress a modern man
+in the clothes worn a thousand years ago: the chances are that we should
+not be able to recognise even our dearest friend.
+
+2. +A Specimen from Anglo-Saxon.+-- Let us take as an example a verse
+from the Anglo-Saxon version of one of the Gospels. The well-known
+verse, Luke ii. 40, runs thus in our oldest English version:--
+
+  Sóþlíce ðaet cild weox, and waes gestrangod, wisdómes full; and
+  Godes gyfu waes on him.
+
+Now this looks like an extract from a foreign language; but it is not:
+it is our own veritable mother-tongue. Every word is pure ordinary
+English; it is the dress-- the spelling and the inflexions-- that is
+quaint and old-fashioned. This will be plain from a literal
+translation:--
+
+  Soothly that child waxed, and was strengthened, wisdoms full (= full
+  of wisdom); and God's gift was on him.
+
+3. +A Comparison.+-- This will become plainer if we compare the English
+of the Gospels as it was written in different periods of our language.
+The alteration in the meanings of words, the changes in the application
+of them, the variation in the use of phrases, the falling away of the
+inflexions-- all these things become plain to the eye and to the mind as
+soon as we thoughtfully compare the different versions. The following
+are extracts from the Anglo-Saxon version (995), the version of Wycliffe
+(1389) and of Tyndale (1526), of the passage in Luke ii. 44, 45:--
+
+  ANGLO-SAXON.
+    WYCLIFFE.
+      TYNDALE.
+
+  Wéndon ðaet he on heora gefére wáere, ðá comon hig ánes daeges faer,
+  and hine sóhton betweox his magas and his cúðan.
+
+    Forsothe thei gessinge him to be in the felowschipe, camen the wey
+    of á day, and sou[gh]ten him among his cosyns and knowen.
+
+      For they supposed he had bene in the company, they cam a days
+      iorney, and sought hym amonge their kynsfolke and acquayntaunce.
+
+  Ða hig hyne ne fúndon, hig gewendon to Hierusalem, hine sécende.
+
+    And thei not fyndinge, wenten a[gh]en to Jerusalem, sekynge him.
+
+      And founde hym not, they went backe agayne to Hierusalem,
+      and sought hym.
+
+The literal translation of the Anglo-Saxon version is as follows:--
+
+  (They) weened that he on their companionship were (= was), when came
+  they one day's faring, and him sought betwixt his relations and his
+  couth (folk = acquaintances).
+
+  When they him not found, they turned to Jerusalem, him seeking.
+
+4. +The Lord's Prayer.+-- The same plan of comparison may be applied to
+the different versions of the Lord's Prayer that have come down to us;
+and it will be seen from this comparison that the greatest changes have
+taken place in the grammar, and especially in that part of the grammar
+which contains the inflexions.
+
+  THE LORD'S PRAYER.
+
+  +1130.+
+  REIGN OF STEPHEN.
+    +1250.+
+    REIGN OF HENRY III.
+      +1380.+
+      WYCLIFFE'S VERSION.
+        +1526.+
+        TYNDALE'S VERSION.
+
+  Fader ure, þe art on heofone.
+    Fadir ur, that es in hevene,
+      Our Fadir, that art in hevenys,
+        Our Father which art in heaven;
+
+  Sy gebletsod name þin,
+    Halud thi nam to nevene;
+      Halewid be thi name;
+        Halowed be thy name;
+
+  Cume þin rike.
+    Thou do as thi rich rike;
+      Thi kingdom come to;
+        Let thy kingdom come;
+
+  Si þin wil swa swa on heofone and on eorþan.
+    Thi will on erd be wrought, eek as it is wrought in heven ay.
+      Be thi wil done in erthe, as in hevene.
+        Thy will be fulfilled as well in earth as it is in heven.
+
+  Breod ure degwamlich geof us to daeg.
+    Ur ilk day brede give us to day.
+      Give to us this day oure breed ovir othir _substaunce_,
+        Geve us this day ur dayly bred,
+
+  And forgeof us ageltes ura swa swa we forgeofen agiltendum urum.
+    Forgive thou all us dettes urs, als we forgive till ur detturs.
+      And forgive to us our _dettis_, as we forgiven to oure
+      _dettouris_.
+        And forgeve us oure dettes as we forgeve ur detters.
+
+  And ne led us on costunge.
+    And ledde us in na fandung.
+      And lede us not into _temptacioun_;
+        And leade us not into temptation,
+
+  Ac alys us fram yfele. Swa beo hit.
+    But sculd us fra ivel thing. Amen.
+      But _delyvere_ us from yvel. Amen.
+        But delyver us from evyll. For thyne is the kyngdom, and the
+        power, and the glorye, for ever. Amen.
+
+It will be observed that Wycliffe's version contains five Romance
+terms-- _substaunce_, _dettis_, _dettouris_, _temptacioun_, and
+_delyvere_.
+
+5. +Oldest English and Early English.+-- The following is a short
+passage from the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, under date 1137: first, in the
+Anglo-Saxon form; second, in Early English, or-- as it has sometimes
+been called-- Broken Saxon; third, in modern English. The breaking-down
+of the grammar becomes still more strikingly evident from this close
+juxtaposition.
+
+    (i) Hí      swencton       Þá  wreccan menn
+   (ii) Hí      swencten       the  wrecce  men
+  (iii) They swinked (harassed) the wretched men
+
+    (i) Þaes landes mid castel-weorcum.
+   (ii) Of-the-land mid castel-weorces.
+  (iii) Of the land with castle-works.
+
+    (i)  Ða  Þá  castelas waeron gemacod,
+   (ii) Tha  the castles  waren   maked,
+  (iii) When the castles  were    made,
+
+    (i) Þá   fyldon  hí   hí  mid  yfelum mannum.
+   (ii) thá  fylden  hi   hi  mid  yvele   men.
+  (iii) then filled they them with  evil   men.
+
+6. +Comparisons of Words and Inflexions.+-- Let us take a few of the
+most prominent words in our language, and observe the changes that have
+fallen upon them since they made their appearance in our island in the
+fifth century. These changes will be best seen by displaying them in
+columns:--
+
+  ANGLO-SAXON.  EARLY ENGLISH.     MIDDLE ENGLISH.    MODERN ENGLISH.
+
+  heom.         to heom.           to hem.            to them.
+  seó.          heó.               ho, scho.          she.
+  sweostrum.    to the swestres.   to the swistren.   to the sisters.
+  geboren.      gebore.            iboré.             born.
+  lufigende.    lufigend.          lovand.            loving.
+  weoxon.       woxen.             wexide.            waxed.
+
+7. +Conclusions from the above Comparisons.+-- We can now draw several
+conclusions from the comparisons we have made of the passages given from
+different periods of the language. These conclusions relate chiefly to
+verbs and nouns; and they may become useful as a KEY to enable us to
+judge to what period in the history of our language a passage presented
+to us must belong. If we find such and such marks, the language is
+Anglo-Saxon; if other marks, it is Early English; and so on.
+
+  I.-- MARKS OF ANGLO-SAXON.
+    II.-- MARKS OF EARLY ENGLISH (1100-1250).
+      III.-- MARKS OF MIDDLE ENGLISH (1250-1485).
+
+  VERBS.
+
+  Infinitive in +an+.
+    Infin. in +en+ or +e+.
+      Infin. with +to+ (the +en+ was dropped about 1400).
+
+  Pres. part. in +ende+.
+    Pres. part. in +ind+.
+      Pres. part. in +inge+.
+
+  Past part. with +ge+.
+    +ge+ of past part. turned into +i+ or +y+.
+
+  3d plural pres. in +ath+.
+  3d plural past in +on+.
+    3d plural in +en+.
+      3d plural in +en+.
+
+  Plural of imperatives in +ath+.
+      Imperative in +eth+.
+
+  NOUNS.
+
+  Plurals in +an+, +as+, or +a+.
+    Plural in +es+.
+      Plurals in +es+ (separate syllable).
+
+  Dative plural in +um+.
+    Dative plural in +es+.
+
+      Possessives in +es+ (separate syllable).
+
+8. +The English of the Thirteenth Century.+-- In this century there was
+a great breaking-down and stripping-off of inflexions. This is seen in
+the +Ormulum+ of Orm, a canon of the Order of St Augustine, whose
+English is nearly as flexionless as that of Chaucer, although about a
+century and a half before him. Orm has also the peculiarity of always
+doubling a consonant after a short vowel. Thus, in his introduction,
+he says:--
+
+  "Þiss boc iss nemmnedd Orrmulum
+  Forr þi þatt Orrm itt wrohhte."
+
+That is, "This book is named Ormulum, for the (reason) that Orm wrought
+it." The absence of inflexions is probably due to the fact that the book
+is written in the East-Midland dialect. But, in a song called "The Story
+of Genesis and Exodus," written about 1250, we find a greater number of
+inflexions. Thus we read:--
+
+  "Hunger wex in lond Chanaan;
+  And his x sunes Jacob for-ðan
+  Sente in to Egypt to bringen coren;
+  He bilefe at hom ðe was gungest boren."
+
+That is, "Hunger waxed (increased) in the land of Canaan; and Jacob for
+that (reason) sent his ten sons into Egypt to bring corn: he remained at
+home that was youngest born."
+
+9. +The English of the Fourteenth Century.+-- The four greatest writers
+of the fourteenth century are-- in verse, +Chaucer+ and +Langlande+; and
+in prose, +Mandeville+ and +Wycliffe+. The inflexions continue to drop
+off; and, in Chaucer at least, a larger number of French words appear.
+Chaucer also writes in an elaborate verse-measure that forms a striking
+contrast to the homely rhythms of Langlande. Thus, in the "Man of Lawes
+Tale," we have the verse:--
+
+  "O queenës, lyvynge in prosperitée,
+  Duchessës, and ladyës everichone,
+  Haveth som routhe on hir adversitée;
+  An emperourës doughter stant allone;
+  She hath no wight to whom to make hir mone.
+  O blood roial! that stondest in this dredë
+  Fer ben thy frendës at thy gretë nedë!"
+
+Here, with the exception of the imperative in _Haveth som routhe_
+(= have some pity), _stant_, and _ben_ (= _are_), the grammar of Chaucer
+is very near the grammar of to-day. How different this is from the
+simple English of Langlande! He is speaking of the great storm of wind
+that blew on January 15, 1362:--
+
+  "Piries and Plomtres   weore passchet to þe grounde,
+  In ensaumple to Men   þat we scholde do þe bettre,
+  Beches and brode okes   weore blowen to þe eorþe."
+
+Here it is the spelling of Langlande's English that differs most from
+modern English, and not the grammar. --Much the same may be said of the
+style of Wycliffe (1324-1384) and of Mandeville (1300-1372). In
+Wycliffe's version of the Gospel of Mark, v. 26, he speaks of a woman
+"that hadde suffride many thingis of ful many lechis (doctors), and
+spendid alle hir thingis; and no-thing profitide." Sir John Mandeville's
+English keeps many old inflexions and spellings; but is, in other
+respects, modern enough. Speaking of Mahomet, he says: "And [gh]ee
+schulle understonds that Machamete was born in Arabye, that was first
+a pore knave that kept cameles, that wenten with marchantes for
+marchandise." _Knave_ for boy, and _wenten_ for went are the two chief
+differences-- the one in the use of words, the other in grammar-- that
+distinguish this piece of Mandeville's English from our modern speech.
+
+10. +The English of the Sixteenth Century.+-- This, which is also called
+Tudor-English, differs as regards grammar hardly at all from the English
+of the nineteenth century. This becomes plain from a passage from one of
+Latimer's sermons (1490-1555), "a book which gives a faithful picture of
+the manners, thoughts, and events of the period." "My father," he
+writes, "was a yeoman, and had no lands of his own, only he had a farm
+of three or four pound a year at the uttermost, and hereupon he tilled
+so much as kept half a dozen men. He had walk for a hundred sheep; and
+my mother milked thirty kine." In this passage, it is only the
+old-fashionedness, homeliness, and quaintness of the English-- not its
+grammar-- that makes us feel that it was not written in our own times.
+When Ridley, the fellow-martyr of Latimer, stood at the stake, he said,
+"I commit our cause to Almighty God, which shall indifferently judge
+all." Here he used _indifferently_ in the sense of _impartially_-- that
+is, in the sense of _making no difference between parties_; and this is
+one among a very large number of instances of Latin words, when they had
+not been long in our language, still retaining the older Latin meaning.
+
+11. +The English of the Bible+ (i).-- The version of the Bible which we
+at present use was made in 1611; and we might therefore suppose that it
+is written in seventeenth-century English. But this is not the case. The
+translators were commanded by James I. to "follow the Bishops' Bible";
+and the Bishops' Bible was itself founded on the "Great Bible," which
+was published in 1539. But the Great Bible is itself only a revision of
+Tyndale's, part of which appeared as early as 1526. When we are reading
+the Bible, therefore, we are reading English of the sixteenth century,
+and, to a large extent, of the early part of that century. It is true
+that successive generations of printers have, of their own accord,
+altered the spelling, and even, to a slight extent, modified the
+grammar. Thus we have _fetched_ for the older _fet_, _more_ for _moe_,
+_sown_ for _sowen_, _brittle_ for _brickle_ (which gives the connection
+with _break_), _jaws_ for _chaws_, _sixth_ for _sixt_, and so on. But we
+still find such participles as _shined_ and _understanded_; and such
+phrases as "they can skill to hew timber" (1 Kings v. 6), "abjects" for
+_abject persons_, "three days agone" for _ago_, the "captivated Hebrews"
+for "the captive Hebrews," and others.
+
+12. +The English of the Bible+ (ii).-- We have, again, old words
+retained, or used in the older meaning. Thus we find, in Psalm v. 6, the
+phrase "them that speak leasing," which reminds us of King Alfred's
+expression about "leasum spellum" (lying stories). _Trow_ and _ween_ are
+often found; the "champaign over against Gilgal" (Deut. xi. 30) means
+the _plain_; and a publican in the New Testament is a tax-gatherer, who
+sent to the Roman Treasury or Publicum the taxes he had collected from
+the Jews. An "ill-favoured person" is an ill-looking person; and
+"bravery" (Isa. iii. 18) is used in the sense of finery in dress. --Some
+of the oldest grammar, too, remains, as in Esther viii. 8, "Write ye, as
+it liketh you," where the _you_ is a dative. Again, in Ezek. xxx. 2, we
+find "Howl ye, Woe worth the day!" where the imperative _worth_ governs
+_day_ in the dative case. This idiom is still found in modern verse, as
+in the well-known lines in the first canto of the "Lady of the Lake":--
+
+  "Woe worth the chase, woe worth the day
+  That cost thy life, my gallant grey!"
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+MODERN ENGLISH.
+
+
+1. +Grammar Fixed.+-- From the date of 1485-- that is, from the
+beginning of the reign of Henry VII.-- the changes in the grammar or
+constitution of our language are so extremely small, that they are
+hardly noticeable. Any Englishman of ordinary education can read a book
+belonging to the latter part of the fifteenth or to the sixteenth
+century without difficulty. Since that time the grammar of our language
+has hardly changed at all, though we have altered and enlarged our
+vocabulary, and have adopted thousands of new words. The introduction of
+Printing, the Revival of Learning, the Translation of the Bible, the
+growth and spread of the power to read and write-- these and other
+influences tended to fix the language and to keep it as it is to-day. It
+is true that we have dropped a few old-fashioned endings, like the +n+
+or +en+ in _silvern_ and _golden_; but, so far as form or grammar is
+concerned, the English of the sixteenth and the English of the
+nineteenth centuries are substantially the same.
+
+2. +New Words.+-- But, while the grammar of English has remained the
+same, the vocabulary of English has been growing, and growing rapidly,
+not merely with each century, but with each generation. The discovery of
+the New World in 1492 gave an impetus to maritime enterprise in England,
+which it never lost, brought us into connection with the Spaniards, and
+hence contributed to our language several Spanish words. In the
+sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, Italian literature was largely
+read; Wyatt and Surrey show its influence in their poems; and Italian
+words began to come in in considerable numbers. Commerce, too, has done
+much for us in this way; and along with the article imported, we have in
+general introduced also the name it bore in its own native country. In
+later times, Science has been making rapid strides-- has been bringing
+to light new discoveries and new inventions almost every week; and along
+with these new discoveries, the language has been enriched with new
+names and new terms. Let us look a little more closely at the character
+of these foreign contributions to the vocabulary of our tongue.
+
+3. +Spanish Words.+-- The words we have received from the Spanish
+language are not numerous, but they are important. In addition to the
+ill-fated word +armada+, we have the Spanish for _Mr_, which is +Don+
+(from Lat. _dominus_, a lord), with its feminine +Duenna+. They gave us
+also +alligator+, which is our English way of writing _el lagarto_, the
+lizard. They also presented us with a large number of words that end in
++o+-- such as +buffalo+, +cargo+, +desperado+, +guano+, +indigo+,
++mosquito+, +mulatto+, +negro+, +potato+, +tornado+, and others. The
+following is a tolerably full list:--
+
+  Alligator.
+  Armada.
+  Barricade.
+  Battledore.
+  Bravado.
+  Buffalo.
+  Cargo.
+  Cigar.
+  Cochineal.
+  Cork.
+  Creole.
+  Desperado.
+  Don.
+  Duenna.
+  Eldorado.
+  Embargo.
+  Filibuster.
+  Flotilla.
+  Galleon (a ship).
+  Grandee.
+  Grenade.
+  Guerilla.
+  Indigo.
+  Jennet.
+  Matador.
+  Merino.
+  Mosquito.
+  Mulatto.
+  Negro.
+  Octoroon.
+  Quadroon.
+  Renegade.
+  Savannah.
+  Sherry (= Xeres).
+  Tornado.
+  Vanilla.
+
+4. +Italian Words.+-- Italian literature has been read and cultivated in
+England since the time of Chaucer-- since the fourteenth century; and
+the arts and artists of Italy have for many centuries exerted a great
+deal of influence on those of England. Hence it is that we owe to the
+Italian language a large number of words. These relate to poetry, such
+as +canto+, +sonnet+, +stanza+; to music, as +pianoforte+, +opera+,
++oratorio+, +soprano+, +alto+, +contralto+; to architecture and
+sculpture, as +portico+, +piazza+, +cupola+, +torso+; and to painting,
+as +studio+, +fresco+ (an open-air painting), and others. The following
+is a complete list:--
+
+  Alarm.
+  Alert.
+  Alto.
+  Arcade.
+  Balcony.
+  Balustrade.
+  Bandit.
+  Bankrupt.
+  Bravo.
+  Brigade.
+  Brigand.
+  Broccoli.
+  Burlesque.
+  Bust.
+  Cameo.
+  Canteen.
+  Canto.
+  Caprice.
+  Caricature.
+  Carnival.
+  Cartoon.
+  Cascade.
+  Cavalcade.
+  Charlatan.
+  Citadel.
+  Colonnade.
+  Concert.
+  Contralto.
+  Conversazione.
+  Cornice.
+  Corridor.
+  Cupola.
+  Curvet.
+  Dilettante.
+  Ditto.
+  Doge.
+  Domino.
+  Extravaganza.
+  Fiasco.
+  Folio.
+  Fresco.
+  Gazette.
+  Gondola.
+  Granite.
+  Grotto.
+  Guitar.
+  Incognito.
+  Influenza.
+  Lagoon.
+  Lava.
+  Lazaretto.
+  Macaroni.
+  Madonna.
+  Madrigal.
+  Malaria.
+  Manifesto.
+  Motto.
+  Moustache.
+  Niche.
+  Opera.
+  Oratorio.
+  Palette.
+  Pantaloon.
+  Parapet.
+  Pedant.
+  Pianoforte.
+  Piazza.
+  Pistol.
+  Portico.
+  Proviso.
+  Quarto.
+  Regatta.
+  Ruffian.
+  Serenade.
+  Sonnet.
+  Soprano.
+  Stanza.
+  Stiletto.
+  Stucco.
+  Studio.
+  Tenor.
+  Terra-cotta.
+  Tirade.
+  Torso.
+  Trombone.
+  Umbrella.
+  Vermilion.
+  Vertu.
+  Virtuoso.
+  Vista.
+  Volcano.
+  Zany.
+
+5. +Dutch Words.+-- We have had for many centuries commercial dealings
+with the Dutch; and as they, like ourselves, are a great seafaring
+people, they have given us a number of words relating to the management
+of ships. In the fourteenth century, the southern part of the German
+Ocean was the most frequented sea in the world; and the chances of
+plunder were so great that ships of war had to keep cruising up and down
+to protect the trading vessels that sailed between England and the Low
+Countries. The following are the words which we owe to the
+Netherlands:--
+
+  Ballast.
+  Boom.
+  Boor.
+  Burgomaster.
+  Hoy.
+  Luff.
+  Reef.
+  Schiedam (gin).
+  Skates.
+  Skipper.
+  Sloop.
+  Smack.
+  Smuggle.
+  Stiver.
+  Taffrail.
+  Trigger.
+  Wear (said of a ship).
+  Yacht.
+  Yawl.
+
+6. +French Words.+-- Besides the large additions to our language made by
+the Norman-French, we have from time to time imported direct from France
+a number of French words, without change in the spelling, and with
+little change in the pronunciation. The French have been for centuries
+the most polished nation in Europe; from France the changing fashions in
+dress spread over all the countries of the Continent; French literature
+has been much read in England since the time of Charles II.; and for a
+long time all diplomatic correspondence between foreign countries and
+England was carried on in French. Words relating to manners and customs
+are common, such as +soirée+, +etiquette+, +séance+, +élite+; and we
+have also the names of things which were invented in France, such as
++mitrailleuse+, +carte-de-visite+, +coup d'état+, and others. Some of
+these words are, in spelling, exactly like English; and advantage of
+this has been taken in a well-known epigram:--
+
+  The French have taste in all they do,
+    Which we are quite without;
+  For Nature, which to them gave goût,[15]
+    To us gave only gout.
+
+The following is a list of French words which have been imported in
+comparatively recent times:--
+
+  Aide-de-camp.
+  Belle.
+  Bivouac.
+  Blonde.
+  Bouquet.
+  Brochure.
+  Brunette.
+  Brusque.
+  Carte-de-visite.
+  Coup-d'état.
+  Débris.
+  Début.
+  Déjeûner.
+  Depot.
+  Éclat.
+  Ennui.
+  Etiquette.
+  Façade.
+  Goût.
+  Naïve.
+  Naïveté.
+  Nonchalance.
+  Outré.
+  Penchant.
+  Personnel.
+  Précis.
+  Programme.
+  Protégé.
+  Recherché.
+  Séance.
+  Soirée.
+  Trousseau.
+
+The Scotch have always had a closer connection with the French nation
+than England; and hence we find in the Scottish dialect of English a
+number of French words that are not used in South Britain at all. A leg
+of mutton is called in Scotland a +gigot+; the dish on which it is laid
+is an +ashet+ (from _assiette_); a cup for tea or for wine is a +tassie+
+(from _tasse_); the gate of a town is called the +port+; and a stubborn
+person is +dour+ (Fr. _dur_, from Lat. _durus_); while a gentle and
+amiable person is +douce+ (Fr. _douce_, Lat. _dulcis_).
+
+    [Footnote 15: _Goût_ (goo) from Latin _gustus_, taste.]
+
+7. +German Words.+-- It must not be forgotten that English is a
+Low-German dialect, while the German of books is New High-German. We
+have never borrowed directly from High-German, because we have never
+needed to borrow. Those modern German words that have come into our
+language in recent times are chiefly the names of minerals, with a few
+striking exceptions, such as +loafer+, which came to us from the German
+immigrants to the United States, and +plunder+, which seems to have been
+brought from Germany by English soldiers who had served under Gustavus
+Adolphus. The following are the German words which we have received in
+recent times:--
+
+  Cobalt.
+  Felspar.
+  Hornblende.
+  Landgrave.
+  Loafer.
+  Margrave.
+  Meerschaum.
+  Nickel.
+  Plunder.
+  Poodle.
+  Quartz.
+  Zinc.
+
+8. +Hebrew Words.+-- These, with very few exceptions, have come to us
+from the translation of the Bible, which is now in use in our homes and
+churches. +Abbot+ and +abbey+ come from the Hebrew word +abba+, father;
+and such words as +cabal+ and +Talmud+, though not found in the Old
+Testament, have been contributed by Jewish literature. The following is
+a tolerably complete list:--
+
+  Abbey.
+  Abbot.
+  Amen.
+  Behemoth.
+  Cabal.
+  Cherub.
+  Cinnamon.
+  Hallelujah.
+  Hosannah.
+  Jehovah.
+  Jubilee.
+  Gehenna.
+  Leviathan.
+  Manna.
+  Paschal.
+  Pharisee.
+  Pharisaical.
+  Rabbi.
+  Sabbath.
+  Sadducees.
+  Satan.
+  Seraph.
+  Shibboleth.
+  Talmud.
+
+9. +Other Foreign Words.+-- The English have always been the greatest
+travellers in the world; and our sailors always the most daring,
+intelligent, and enterprising. There is hardly a port or a country in
+the world into which an English ship has not penetrated; and our
+commerce has now been maintained for centuries with every people on the
+face of the globe. We exchange goods with almost every nation and tribe
+under the sun. When we import articles or produce from abroad, we in
+general import the native name along with the thing. Hence it is that we
+have +guano+, +maize+, and +tomato+ from the two Americas; +coffee+,
++cotton+, and +tamarind+ from Arabia; +tea+, +congou+, and +nankeen+
+from China; +calico+, +chintz+, and +rupee+ from Hindostan; +bamboo+,
++gamboge+, and +sago+ from the Malay Peninsula; +lemon+, +musk+, and
++orange+ from Persia; +boomerang+ and +kangaroo+ from Australia;
++chibouk+, +ottoman+, and +tulip+ from Turkey. The following are lists
+of these foreign words; and they are worth examining with the greatest
+minuteness:--
+
+  AFRICAN DIALECTS.
+
+  Baobab.
+  Canary.
+  Chimpanzee.
+  Gnu.
+  Gorilla.
+  Guinea.
+  Karoo.
+  Kraal.
+  Oasis.
+  Quagga.
+  Zebra.
+
+  AMERICAN TONGUES.
+
+  Alpaca.
+  Buccaneer.
+  Cacique.
+  Cannibal.
+  Canoe.
+  Caoutchouc.
+  Cayman.
+  Chocolate.
+  Condor.
+  Guano.
+  Hammock.
+  Jaguar.
+  Jalap.
+  Jerked (beef).
+  Llama.
+  Mahogany.
+  Maize.
+  Manioc.
+  Moccasin.
+  Mustang.
+  Opossum.
+  Pampas.
+  Pemmican.
+  Potato.
+  Racoon.
+  Skunk.
+  Squaw.
+  Tapioca.
+  Tobacco.
+  Tomahawk.
+  Tomato.
+  Wigwam.
+
+  ARABIC.
+
+  (The word _al_ means _the_. Thus _alcohol_ = _the spirit_.)
+
+  Admiral (Milton writes _ammiral_).
+  Alcohol.
+  Alcove.
+  Alembic.
+  Algebra.
+  Alkali.
+  Amber.
+  Arrack.
+  Arsenal.
+  Artichoke.
+  Assassin.
+  Assegai.
+  Attar.
+  Azimuth.
+  Azure.
+  Caliph.
+  Carat.
+  Chemistry.
+  Cipher.
+  Civet.
+  Coffee.
+  Cotton.
+  Crimson.
+  Dragoman.
+  Elixir.
+  Emir.
+  Fakir.
+  Felucca.
+  Gazelle.
+  Giraffe.
+  Harem.
+  Hookah.
+  Koran (or Alcoran).
+  Lute.
+  Magazine.
+  Mattress.
+  Minaret.
+  Mohair.
+  Monsoon.
+  Mosque.
+  Mufti.
+  Nabob.
+  Nadir.
+  Naphtha.
+  Saffron.
+  Salaam.
+  Senna.
+  Sherbet.
+  Shrub (the drink).
+  Simoom.
+  Sirocco.
+  Sofa.
+  Sultan.
+  Syrup.
+  Talisman.
+  Tamarind.
+  Tariff.
+  Vizier.
+  Zenith.
+  Zero.
+
+  CHINESE.
+
+  Bohea.
+  China.
+  Congou.
+  Hyson.
+  Joss.
+  Junk.
+  Nankeen.
+  Pekoe.
+  Silk.
+  Souchong.
+  Tea.
+  Typhoon.
+
+  HINDU.
+
+  Avatar.
+  Banyan.
+  Brahmin.
+  Bungalow.
+  Calico.
+  Chintz.
+  Coolie.
+  Cowrie.
+  Durbar.
+  Jungle.
+  Lac (of rupees).
+  Loot.
+  Mulligatawny.
+  Musk.
+  Pagoda.
+  Palanquin.
+  Pariah.
+  Punch.
+  Pundit.
+  Rajah.
+  Rupee.
+  Ryot.
+  Sepoy.
+  Shampoo.
+  Sugar.
+  Suttee.
+  Thug.
+  Toddy.
+
+  HUNGARIAN.
+
+  Hussar.
+  Sabre.
+  Shako.
+  Tokay.
+
+  MALAY.
+
+  Amuck.
+  Bamboo.
+  Bantam.
+  Caddy.
+  Cassowary.
+  Cockatoo.
+  Dugong.
+  Gamboge.
+  Gong.
+  Gutta-percha.
+  Mandarin.
+  Mango.
+  Orang-outang.
+  Rattan.
+  Sago.
+  Upas.
+
+  PERSIAN.
+
+  Awning.
+  Bazaar.
+  Bashaw.
+  Caravan.
+  Check.
+  Checkmate.
+  Chess.
+  Curry.
+  Dervish.
+  Divan.
+  Firman.
+  Hazard.
+  Horde.
+  Houri.
+  Jar.
+  Jackal.
+  Jasmine.
+  Lac (a gum).
+  Lemon.
+  Lilac.
+  Lime (the fruit).
+  Musk.
+  Orange.
+  Paradise.
+  Pasha.
+  Rook.
+  Saraband.
+  Sash.
+  Scimitar.
+  Shawl.
+  Taffeta.
+  Turban.
+
+  POLYNESIAN DIALECTS.
+
+  Boomerang.
+  Kangaroo.
+  Taboo.
+  Tattoo.
+
+  PORTUGUESE.
+
+  Albatross.
+  Caste.
+  Cobra.
+  Cocoa-nut.
+  Commodore.
+  Fetish.
+  Lasso.
+  Marmalade.
+  Moidore.
+  Molasses.
+  Palaver.
+  Port (= Oporto).
+
+  RUSSIAN.
+
+  Czar.
+  Drosky.
+  Knout.
+  Morse.
+  Rouble.
+  Steppe.
+  Ukase.
+  Verst.
+
+  TARTAR.
+
+  Khan.
+
+  TURKISH.
+
+  Bey.
+  Caftan.
+  Chibouk.
+  Chouse.
+  Dey.
+  Janissary.
+  Kiosk.
+  Odalisque.
+  Ottoman.
+  Tulip.
+  Yashmak.
+  Yataghan.
+
+10. +Scientific Terms.+-- A very large number of discoveries in science
+have been made in this century; and a large number of inventions have
+introduced these discoveries to the people, and made them useful in
+daily life. Thus we have _telegraph_ and _telegram_; _photograph_;
+_telephone_ and even _photophone_. The word _dynamite_ is also modern;
+and the unhappy employment of it has made it too widely known. Then
+passing fashions have given us such words as _athlete_ and _æsthete_.
+In general, it may be said that, when we wish to give a name to a new
+thing-- a new discovery, invention, or fashion-- we have recourse not to
+our own stores of English, but to the vocabularies of the Latin and
+Greek languages.
+
+
+LANDMARKS IN THE HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
+
+[Transcriber's Note:
+
+In the original book, the following chart was laid out much like a
+typical table of contents, with the +date+ in a separate column along
+the right edge. It has been reformatted for this e-text. The date is
+repeated in brackets where appropriate.]
+
++450+
+  1. +The Beowulf+, an old English epic, "written on the mainland"
+
++597+
+  2. +Christianity+ introduced by St Augustine (and with it many Latin
+  and a few Greek words)
+
++670+
+  3. +Caedmon+-- 'Paraphrase of the Scriptures,'-- first English poem
+
++735+
+  4. +Baeda+-- "The Venerable Bede"-- translated into English part of
+  St John's Gospel
+
++901+
+  5. +King Alfred+ translated several Latin works into English, among
+  others, Bede's 'Ecclesiastical History of the English Nation'
+  (+851+)
+
++1000+
+  6. +Aelfric+, Archbishop of York, turned into English most of the
+  historical books of the Old Testament
+
++1066+
+  7. +The Norman Conquest+, which introduced Norman French words
+
++1160+
+  8. +Anglo-Saxon Chronicle+, said to have been begun by King Alfred,
+  and brought to a close in [1160]
+
++1200+
+  9. +Orm+ or +Orrmin's Ormulum+, a poem written in the East Midland
+  dialect, about [1200]
+
++1204+
+  10. +Normandy+ lost under King John. Norman-English now have their
+  only home in England, and use our English speech more and more
+
++1205+
+  11. +Layamon+ translates the 'Brut' from the French of Robert Wace.
+  This is the first English book (written in _Southern English_) after
+  the stoppage of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle
+
++1220+
+  12. +The Ancren Riwle+ ("Rules for Anchorites") written in the
+  Dorsetshire dialect. "It is the forerunner of a wondrous change in
+  our speech." "It swarms with French words"
+
++1258+
+  13. +First Royal Proclamation in English+, issued by Henry III.
+
++1300+
+  14. +Robert of Gloucester's+ Chronicle (swarms with foreign terms)
+
++1303+
+  15. +Robert Manning+, "Robert of Brunn," compiles the 'Handlyng
+  Synne.' "It contains a most copious proportion of French words"
+
++1340+
+  16. +Ayenbite of Inwit+ (= "Remorse of Conscience")
+
++1349+
+  17. +The Great Plague+. After this it becomes less and less the
+  fashion to speak French
+
++1356+
+  18. +Sir John Mandeville+, first writer of the newer English Prose--
+  in his 'Travels,' which contained a large admixture of French words.
+  "His English is the speech spoken at Court in the latter days of
+  King Edward III."
+
++1362+
+  19. +English+ becomes the language of the Law Courts
+
++1380+
+  20. +Wickliffe's+ Bible
+
++1400+
+  21. +Geoffrey Chaucer+, the first great English poet, author of the
+  'Canterbury Tales'; born in 1340, died [1400]
+
++1471+
+  22. +William Caxton+, the first English printer, brings out (in the
+  Low Countries) the first English book ever printed, the 'Recuyell of
+  the Historyes of Troye,'-- "not written with pen and ink, as other
+  books are, to the end that every man may have them at once"
+
++1474+
+  23. +First English Book+ printed in England (by Caxton) the 'Game
+  and Playe of the Chesse'
+
++1523+
+  24. +Lord Berners'+ translation of Froissart's Chronicle
+
++1526-30+
+  25. +William Tyndale+, by his translation of the Bible "fixed our
+  tongue once for all." "His New Testament has become the standard of
+  our tongue: the first ten verses of the Fourth Gospel are a good
+  sample of his manly Teutonic pith"
+
++1590+
+  26. +Edmund Spenser+ publishes his 'Faerie Queene.' "Now began the
+  golden age of England's literature; and this age was to last for
+  about fourscore years"
+
++1611+
+  27. +Our English Bible+, based chiefly on Tyndale's translation.
+  "Those who revised the English Bible in 1611 were bidden to keep as
+  near as they could to the old versions, such as Tyndale's"
+
++1616+
+  28. +William Shakespeare+ carried the use of the English language
+  to the greatest height of which it was capable. He employed 15,000
+  words. "The last act of 'Othello' is a rare specimen of
+  Shakespeare's diction: of every five nouns, verbs, and adverbs, four
+  are Teutonic"    (+Born 1564+)
+
++1667+
+  29. +John Milton+, "the most learned of English poets," publishes
+  his 'Paradise Lost,'-- "a poem in which Latin words are introduced
+  with great skill"
+
++1661+
+  30. +The Prayer-Book+ revised and issued in its final form. "_Are_
+  was substituted for _be_ in forty-three places. This was a great
+  victory of the North over the South"
+
++1688+
+  31. +John Bunyan+ writes his 'Pilgrim's Progress'-- a book full of
+  pithy English idiom. "The common folk had the wit at once to see the
+  worth of Bunyan's masterpiece, and the learned long afterwards
+  followed in the wake of the common folk"    (+Born 1628+)
+
++1642+
+  32. +Sir Thomas Browne+, the author of 'Urn-Burial' and other works
+  written in a highly Latinised diction, such as the 'Religio Medici,'
+  written [1642]
+
++1759+
+  33. +Dr Samuel Johnson+ was the chief supporter of the use of
+  "long-tailed words in osity and ation," such as his novel called
+  'Rasselas,' published [1759]
+
+34. +Tennyson, Poet-Laureate+, a writer of the best English--
+  "a countryman of Robert Manning's, and a careful student of old
+  Malory, has done much for the revival of pure English among
+  us"    (+Born 1809+)
+
+
+
+
+PART IV.
+
+OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF ENGLISH LITERATURE
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+OUR OLDEST ENGLISH LITERATURE.
+
+
+1. +Literature.+-- The history of English Literature is, in its external
+aspect, an account of the best books in prose and in verse that have
+been written by English men and English women; and this account begins
+with a poem brought over from the Continent by our countrymen in the
+fifth century, and comes down to the time in which we live. It covers,
+therefore, a period of nearly fourteen hundred years.
+
+2. +The Distribution of Literature.+-- We must not suppose that
+literature has always existed in the form of printed books. Literature
+is a living thing-- a living outcome of the living mind; and there are
+many ways in which it has been distributed to other human beings. The
+oldest way is, of course, by one person repeating a poem or other
+literary composition he has made to another; and thus literature is
+stored away, not upon book-shelves, but in the memory of living men.
+Homer's poems are said to have been preserved in this way to the Greeks
+for five hundred years. Father chanted them to son; the sons to their
+sons; and so on from generation to generation. The next way of
+distributing literature is by the aid of signs called letters made upon
+leaves, flattened reeds, parchment, or the inner bark of trees. The next
+is by the help of writing upon paper. The last is by the aid of type
+upon paper. This has existed in England for more than four hundred
+years-- since the year 1474; and thus it is that our libraries contain
+many hundreds of thousands of valuable books. For the same reason is it,
+most probably, that as our power of retaining the substance and
+multiplying the copies of books has grown stronger, our living memories
+have grown weaker. This defect can be remedied only by education-- that
+is, by training the memories of the young. While we possess so many
+printed books, it must not be forgotten that many valuable works exist
+still in manuscript-- written either upon paper or on parchment.
+
+3. +Verse, the earliest form of Literature.+-- It is a remarkable fact
+that the earliest kind of composition in all languages is in the form of
++Verse+. The oldest books, too, are those which are written in verse.
+Thus Homer's poems are the oldest literary work of Greece; the Sagas are
+the oldest productions of Scandinavian literature; and the Beowulf is
+the oldest piece of literature produced by the Anglo-Saxon race. It is
+also from the strong creative power and the lively inventions of poets
+that we are even now supplied with new thoughts and new language-- that
+the most vivid words and phrases come into the language; just as it is
+the ranges of high mountains that send down to the plains the ever fresh
+soil that gives to them their unending fertility. And thus it happens
+that our present English speech is full of words and phrases that have
+found their way into the most ordinary conversation from the writings of
+our great poets-- and especially from the writings of our greatest poet,
+Shakespeare. The fact that the life of prose depends for its supplies on
+the creative minds of poets has been well expressed by an American
+writer:--
+
+  "I looked upon a plain of green,
+    Which some one called the Land of Prose,
+  Where many living things were seen
+    In movement or repose.
+
+  I looked upon a stately hill
+    That well was named the Mount of Song,
+  Where golden shadows dwelt at will,
+    The woods and streams among.
+
+  But most this fact my wonder bred
+    (Though known by all the nobly wise),
+  It was the mountain stream that fed
+    That fair green plain's amenities."
+
+4. +Our oldest English Poetry.+-- The verse written by our old English
+writers was very different in form from the verse that appears now from
+the hands of Tennyson, or Browning, or Matthew Arnold. The old English
+or Anglo-Saxon writers used a kind of rhyme called +head-rhyme+ or
++alliteration+; while, from the fourteenth century downwards, our poets
+have always employed +end-rhyme+ in their verses.
+
+  "{L}ightly down {l}eaping he {l}oosened his helmet."
+
+Such was the rough old English form. At least three words in each long
+line were alliterative-- two in the first half, and one in the second.
+Metaphorical phrases were common, such as _war-adder_ for arrow,
+_war-shirts_ for armour, _whale's-path_ or _swan-road_ for the sea,
+_wave-horse_ for a ship, _tree-wright_ for carpenter. Different
+statements of the same fact, different phrases for the same thing-- what
+are called +parallelisms+ in Hebrew poetry-- as in the line--
+
+  "Then saw they the sea head-lands-- the windy walls,"
+
+were also in common use among our oldest English poets.
+
+5. +Beowulf.+-- The +Beowulf+ is the oldest poem in the English
+language. It is our "old English epic"; and, like much of our ancient
+verse, it is a war poem. The author of it is unknown. It was probably
+composed in the fifth century-- not in England, but on the Continent--
+and brought over to this island-- not on paper or on parchment-- but in
+the memories of the old Jutish or Saxon vikings or warriors. It was not
+written down at all, even in England, till the end of the ninth century,
+and then, probably, by a monk of Northumbria. It tells among other
+things the story of how Beowulf sailed from Sweden to the help of
+Hrothgar, a king in Jutland, whose life was made miserable by a
+monster-- half man, half fiend-- named Grendel. For about twelve years
+this monster had been in the habit of creeping up to the banqueting-hall
+of King Hrothgar, seizing upon his thanes, carrying them off, and
+devouring them. Beowulf attacks and overcomes the dragon, which is
+mortally wounded, and flees away to die. The poem belongs both to the
+German and to the English literature; for it is written in a Continental
+English, which is somewhat different from the English of our own island.
+But its literary shape is, as has been said, due to a Christian writer
+of Northumbria; and therefore its written or printed form-- as it exists
+at present-- is not German, but English. Parts of this poem were often
+chanted at the feasts of warriors, where all sang in turn as they sat
+after dinner over their cups of mead round the massive oaken table. The
+poem consists of 3184 lines, the rhymes of which are solely
+alliterative.
+
+6. +The First Native English Poem.+-- The Beowulf came to us from the
+Continent; the first native English poem was produced in Yorkshire.
+On the dark wind-swept cliff which rises above the little land-locked
+harbour of +Whitby+, stand the ruins of an ancient and once famous
+abbey. The head of this religious house was the Abbess Hild or Hilda:
+and there was a secular priest in it,-- a very shy retiring man, who
+looked after the cattle of the monks, and whose name was +Caedmon+. To
+this man came the gift of song, but somewhat late in life. And it came
+in this wise. One night, after a feast, singing began, and each of those
+seated at the table was to sing in his turn. Caedmon was very nervous--
+felt he could not sing. Fear overcame his heart, and he stole quietly
+away from the table before the turn could come to him. He crept off to
+the cowshed, lay down on the straw and fell asleep. He dreamed a dream;
+and, in his dream, there came to him a voice: "Caedmon, sing me a song!"
+But Caedmon answered: "I cannot sing; it was for this cause that I had
+to leave the feast." "But you must and shall sing!" "What must I sing,
+then?" he replied. "Sing the beginning of created things!" said the
+vision; and forthwith Caedmon sang some lines in his sleep, about God
+and the creation of the world. When he awoke, he remembered some of the
+lines that had come to him in sleep, and, being brought before Hilda, he
+recited them to her. The Abbess thought that this wonderful gift, which
+had come to him so suddenly, must have come from God, received him into
+the monastery, made him a monk, and had him taught sacred history. "All
+this Caedmon, by remembering, and, like a clean animal, ruminating,
+turned into sweetest verse." His poetical works consist of a metrical
+paraphrase of the Old and the New Testament. It was written about the
+year 670; and he died in 680. It was read and re-read in manuscript for
+many centuries, but it was not printed in a book until the year 1655.
+
+7. +The War-Poetry of England.+-- There were many poems about battles,
+written both in Northumbria and in the south of England; but it was only
+in the south that these war-songs were committed to writing; and of
+these written songs there are only two that survive up to the present
+day. These are the +Song of Brunanburg+, and the +Song of the Fight at
+Maldon+. The first belongs to the date 938; the second to 991. The Song
+of Brunanburg was inscribed in the SAXON CHRONICLE-- a current narrative
+of events, written chiefly by monks, from the ninth century to the end
+of the reign of Stephen. The song tells the story of the fight of King
+Athelstan with Anlaf the Dane. It tells how five young kings and seven
+earls of Anlaf's host fell on the field of battle, and lay there
+"quieted by swords," while their fellow-Northmen fled, and left their
+friends and comrades to "the screamers of war-- the black raven, the
+eagle, the greedy battle-hawk, and the grey wolf in the wood." The Song
+of the Fight at Maldon tells us of the heroic deeds and death of
++Byrhtnoth+, an ealdorman of Northumbria, in battle against the Danes at
+Maldon, in Essex. The speeches of the chiefs are given; the single
+combats between heroes described; and, as in Homer, the names and
+genealogies of the foremost men are brought into the verse.
+
+8. +The First English Prose.+-- The first writer of English prose was
++Baeda+, or, as he is generally called, the +Venerable Bede+. He was
+born in the year 672 at Monkwearmouth, a small town at the mouth of the
+river Wear, and was, like Caedmon, a native of the kingdom of
+Northumbria. He spent most of his life at the famous monastery of
+Jarrow-on-Tyne. He spent his life in writing. His works, which were
+written in Latin, rose to the number of forty-five; his chief work being
+an +Ecclesiastical History+. But though Latin was the tongue in which he
+wrote his books, he wrote one book in English; and he may therefore be
+fairly considered the first writer of English prose. This book was a
++Translation of the Gospel of St John+-- a work which he laboured at
+until the very moment of his death. His disciple Cuthbert tells the
+story of his last hours. "Write quickly!" said Baeda to his scribe, for
+he felt that his end could not be far off. When the last day came, all
+his scholars stood around his bed. "There is still one chapter wanting,
+Master," said the scribe; "it is hard for thee to think and to speak."
+"It must be done," said Baeda; "take thy pen and write quickly." So
+through the long day they wrote-- scribe succeeding scribe; and when the
+shades of evening were coming on, the young writer looked up from his
+task and said, "There is yet one sentence to write, dear Master." "Write
+it quickly!" Presently the writer, looking up with joy, said, "It is
+finished!" "Thou sayest truth," replied the weary old man; "it is
+finished: all is finished." Quietly he sank back upon his pillow, and,
+with a psalm of praise upon his lips, gently yielded up to God his
+latest breath. It is a great pity that this translation-- the first
+piece of prose in our language-- is utterly lost. No MS. of it is at
+present known to be in existence.
+
+9. +The Father of English Prose.+-- For several centuries, up to the
+year 866, the valleys and shores of Northumbria were the homes of
+learning and literature. But a change was not long in coming. Horde
+after horde of Danes swept down upon the coasts, ravaged the
+monasteries, burnt the books-- after stripping the beautiful bindings of
+the gold, silver, and precious stones which decorated them-- killed or
+drove away the monks, and made life, property, and thought insecure all
+along that once peaceful and industrious coast. Literature, then, was
+forced to desert the monasteries of Northumbria, and to seek for a home
+in the south-- in Wessex, the kingdom over which Alfred the Great
+reigned for more than thirty years. The capital of Wessex was
+Winchester; and an able writer says: "As Whitby is the cradle of English
+poetry, so is Winchester of English prose." King Alfred founded
+colleges, invited to England men of learning from abroad, and presided
+over a school for the sons of his nobles in his own Court. He himself
+wrote many books, or rather, he translated the most famous Latin books
+of his time into English. He translated into the English of Wessex, for
+example, the 'Ecclesiastical History' of Baeda; the 'History of
+Orosius,' into which he inserted geographical chapters of his own; and
+the 'Consolations of Philosophy,' by the famous Roman writer, Boëthius.
+In these books he gave to his people, in their own tongue, the best
+existing works on history, geography, and philosophy.
+
+10. +The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle.+-- The greatest prose-work of the oldest
+English, or purely Saxon, literature, is a work-- not by one person, but
+by several authors. It is the historical work which is known as +The
+Saxon Chronicle+. It seems to have been begun about the middle of the
+ninth century; and it was continued, with breaks now and then, down to
+1154-- the year of the death of Stephen and the accession of Henry II.
+It was written by a series of successive writers, all of whom were
+monks; but Alfred himself is said to have contributed to it a narrative
+of his own wars with the Danes. The Chronicle is found in seven separate
+forms, each named after the monastery in which it was written. It was
+the newspaper, the annals, and the history of the nation. "It is the
+first history of any Teutonic people in their own language; it is the
+earliest and most venerable monument of English prose." This Chronicle
+possesses for us a twofold value. It is a valuable storehouse of
+historical facts; and it is also a storehouse of specimens of the
+different states of the English language-- as regards both words and
+grammar-- from the eighth down to the twelfth century.
+
+11. +Layamon's Brut.+-- Layamon was a native of Worcestershire, and a
+priest of Ernley on the Severn. He translated, about the year 1205,
+a poem called +Brut+, from the French of a monkish writer named Master
+Wace. Wace's work itself is little more than a translation of parts of a
+famous "Chronicle or History of the Britons," written in Latin by
+Geoffrey of Monmouth, who was Bishop of St Asaph in 1152. But Geoffrey
+himself professed only to have translated from a chronicle in the
+British or Celtic tongue, called the "Chronicle of the Kings of
+Britain," which was found in Brittany-- long the home of most of the
+stories, traditions, and fables about the old British Kings and their
+great deeds. Layamon's poem called the "Brut" is a metrical chronicle of
+Britain from the landing of Brutus to the death of King Cadwallader,
+about the end of the seventh century. Brutus was supposed to be a
+great-grandson of Æneas, who sailed west and west till he came to Great
+Britain, where he settled with his followers. --This metrical chronicle
+is written in the dialect of the West of England; and it shows
+everywhere a breaking down of the grammatical forms of the oldest
+English, as we find it in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. In fact, between
+the landing of the Normans and the fourteenth century, two things may be
+noted: first, that during this time-- that is, for three centuries-- the
+inflections of the oldest English are gradually and surely stripped off;
+and, secondly, that there is little or no original English literature
+given to the country, but that by far the greater part consists chiefly
+of translations from French or from Latin.
+
+12. +Orm's Ormulum.+-- Less than half a century after Layamon's Brut
+appeared a poem called the +Ormulum+, by a monk of the name of Orm or
+Ormin. It was probably written about the year 1215. Orm was a monk of
+the order of St Augustine, and his book consists of a series of
+religious poems. It is the oldest, purest, and most valuable specimen of
+thirteenth-century English, and it is also remarkable for its peculiar
+spelling. It is written in the purest English, and not five French words
+are to be found in the whole poem of twenty thousand short lines. Orm,
+in his spelling, doubles every consonant that has a short vowel before
+it; and he writes _pann_ for _pan_, but _pan_ for _pane_. The following
+is a specimen of his poem:--
+
+  Ice hafe wennd inntill Ennglissh
+  Goddspelless hallghe lare,
+  Affterr thatt little witt tatt me
+  Min Drihhtin hafethth lenedd.
+
+    I have wended (turned) into English
+    Gospel's holy lore,
+    After the little wit that me
+    My Lord hath lent.
+
+Other famous writers of English between this time and the appearance of
+Chaucer were +Robert of Gloucester+ and +Robert of Brunne+, both of whom
+wrote Chronicles of England in verse.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY.
+
+
+1. The opening of the fourteenth century saw the death of the great and
+able king, Edward I., the "Hammer of the Scots," the "Keeper of his
+word." The century itself-- a most eventful period-- witnessed the
+feeble and disastrous reign of Edward II.; the long and prosperous
+rule-- for fifty years-- of Edward III.; the troubled times of Richard
+II., who exhibited almost a repetition of the faults of Edward II.; and
+the appearance of a new and powerful dynasty-- the House of Lancaster--
+in the person of the able and ambitious Henry IV. This century saw also
+many striking events, and many still more striking changes. It beheld
+the welding of the Saxon and the Norman elements into one-- chiefly
+through the French wars; the final triumph of the English language over
+French in 1362; the frequent coming of the Black Death; the victories of
+Crecy and Poitiers; it learned the universal use of the mariner's
+compass; it witnessed two kings-- of France and of Scotland-- prisoners
+in London; great changes in the condition of labourers; the invention of
+gunpowder in 1340; the rise of English commerce under Edward III.; and
+everywhere in England the rising up of new powers and new ideas.
+
+2. The first prose-writer in this century is +Sir John Mandeville+ (who
+has been called the "Father of English Prose"). King Alfred has also
+been called by this name; but as the English written by Alfred was very
+different from that written by Mandeville,-- the latter containing a
+large admixture of French and of Latin words, both writers are deserving
+of the epithet. The most influential prose-writer was +John Wyclif+, who
+was, in fact, the first English Reformer of the Church. In poetry, two
+writers stand opposite each other in striking contrast-- +Geoffrey
+Chaucer+ and +William Langlande+, the first writing in courtly "King's
+English" in end-rhyme, and with the fullest inspirations from the
+literatures of France and Italy, the latter writing in head-rhyme, and--
+though using more French words than Chaucer-- with a style that was
+always homely, plain, and pedestrian. +John Gower+, in Kent, and +John
+Barbour+, in Scotland, are also noteworthy poets in this century. The
+English language reached a high state of polish, power, and freedom in
+this period; and the sweetness and music of Chaucer's verse are still
+unsurpassed by modern poets. The sentences of the prose-writers of this
+century are long, clumsy, and somewhat helpless; but the sweet homely
+English rhythm exists in many of them, and was continued, through
+Wyclif's version, down into our translation of the Bible in 1611.
+
+
+3. SIR JOHN MANDEVILLE, (+1300-1372+), "the first prose-writer in formed
+English," was born at St Albans, in Hertfordshire, in the year 1300. He
+was a physician; but, in the year 1322, he set out on a journey to the
+East; was away from home for more than thirty years, and died at Liège,
+in Belgium, in 1372. He wrote his travels first in Latin, next in
+French, and then turned them into English, "that every man of my nation
+may understand it." The book is a kind of guide-book to the Holy Land;
+but the writer himself went much further east-- reached Cathay or China,
+in fact. He introduced a large number of French words into our speech,
+such as _cause_, _contrary_, _discover_, _quantity_, and many hundred
+others. His works were much admired, read, and copied; indeed, hundreds
+of manuscript copies of his book were made. There are nineteen still in
+the British Museum. The book was not printed till the year 1499-- that
+is, twenty-five years after printing was introduced into this country.
+Many of the Old English inflexions still survive in his style. Thus he
+says: "Machamete was born in Arabye, that was a pore knave (boy) that
+kepte cameles that went_en_ with marchantes for marchandise."
+
+
+4. JOHN WYCLIF (his name is spelled in about forty different ways)--
++1324-1384+-- was born at Hipswell, near Richmond, in Yorkshire, in the
+year 1324, and died at the vicarage of Lutterworth, in Leicestershire,
+in 1384. His fame rests on two bases-- his efforts as a reformer of the
+abuses of the Church, and his complete translation of the +Bible+. This
+work was finished in 1383, just one year before his death. But the
+translation was not done by himself alone; the larger part of the Old
+Testament version seems to have been made by Nicholas de Hereford.
+Though often copied in manuscript, it was not printed for several
+centuries. Wyclif's New Testament was printed in 1731, and the Old
+Testament not until the year 1850. But the words and the style of his
+translation, which was read and re-read by hundreds of thoughtful men,
+were of real and permanent service in fixing the language in the form in
+which we now find it.
+
+
+5. JOHN GOWER (+1325-1408+) was a country gentleman of Kent. As
+Mandeville wrote his travels in three languages, so did Gower his poems.
+Almost all educated persons in the fourteenth century could read and
+write with tolerable and with almost equal ease, English, French, and
+Latin. His three poems are the +Speculum Meditantis+ ("The Mirror of the
+Thoughtful Man"), in French; the +Vox Clamantis+ ("Voice of One
+Crying"), in Latin; and +Confessio Amantis+ ("The Lover's Confession"),
+in English. No manuscript of the first work is known to exist. He was
+buried in St Saviour's, Southwark, where his effigy is still to be
+seen-- his head resting on his three works. Chaucer called him "the
+moral Gower"; and his books are very dull, heavy, and difficult to read.
+
+
+6. WILLIAM LANGLANDE (+1332-1400+), a poet who used the old English
+head-rhyme, as Chaucer used the foreign end-rhyme, was born at
+Cleobury-Mortimer in Shropshire, in the year 1332. The date of his death
+is doubtful. His poem is called the +Vision of Piers the Plowman+; and
+it is the last long poem in our literature that was written in Old
+English alliterative rhyme. From this period, if rhyme is employed at
+all, it is the end-rhyme, which we borrowed from the French and
+Italians. The poem has an appendix called +Do-well, Do-bet, Do-best+--
+the three stages in the growth of a Christian. Langlande's writings
+remained in manuscript until the reign of Edward VI.; they were printed
+then, and went through three editions in one year. The English used in
+the +Vision+ is the Midland dialect-- much the same as that used by
+Chaucer; only, oddly enough, Langlande admits into his English a larger
+amount of French words than Chaucer. The poem is a distinct landmark in
+the history of our speech. The following is a specimen of the lines.
+There are three alliterative words in each line, with a pause near the
+middle--
+
+  "A voice {l}oud in that {l}ight · to {L}ucifer criëd,
+  '{P}rinces of this {p}alace · {p}rest[16] undo the gatës,
+  For here {c}ometh with {c}rown · the {k}ing of all glory!'"
+
+    [Footnote 16: Quickly.]
+
+
+7. GEOFFREY CHAUCER (+1340-1400+), the "father of English poetry," and
+the greatest narrative poet of this country, was born in London in or
+about the year 1340. He lived in the reigns of Edward III., Richard II.,
+and one year in the reign of Henry IV. His father was a vintner. The
+name _Chaucer_ is a Norman name, and is found on the roll of Battle
+Abbey. He is said to have studied both at Oxford and Cambridge; served
+as page in the household of Prince Lionel, Duke of Clarence, the third
+son of Edward III.; served also in the army, and was taken prisoner
+in one of the French campaigns. In 1367, he was appointed
+gentleman-in-waiting (_valettus_) to Edward III., who sent him on
+several embassies. In 1374 he married a lady of the Queen's chamber; and
+by this marriage he became connected with John of Gaunt, who afterwards
+married a sister of this lady. While on an embassy to Italy, he is
+reported to have met the great poet Petrarch, who told him the story of
+the Patient Griselda. In 1381, he was made Comptroller of Customs in the
+great port of London-- an office which he held till the year 1386. In
+that year he was elected knight of the shire-- that is, member of
+Parliament for the county of Kent. In 1389, he was appointed Clerk of
+the King's Works at Westminster and Windsor. From 1381 to 1389 was
+probably the best and most productive period of his life; for it was in
+this period that he wrote the +House of Fame+, the +Legend of Good
+Women+, and the best of the +Canterbury Tales+. From 1390 to 1400 was
+spent in writing the other +Canterbury Tales+, ballads, and some moral
+poems. He died at Westminster in the year 1400, and was the first writer
+who was buried in the Poets' Corner of the Abbey. We see from his life--
+and it was fortunate for his poetry-- that Chaucer had the most varied
+experience as student, courtier, soldier, ambassador, official, and
+member of Parliament; and was able to mix freely and on equal terms with
+all sorts and conditions of men, from the king to the poorest hind in
+the fields. He was a stout man, with a small bright face, soft eyes,
+dazed by long and hard reading, and with the English passion for
+flowers, green fields, and all the sights and sounds of nature.
+
+8. +Chaucer's Works.+-- Chaucer's greatest work is the +Canterbury
+Tales+. It is a collection of stories written in heroic metre-- that is,
+in the rhymed couplet of five iambic feet. The finest part of the
+Canterbury Tales is the +Prologue+; the noblest story is probably the
++Knightes Tale+. It is worthy of note that, in 1362, when Chaucer was a
+very young man, the session of the House of Commons was first opened
+with a speech in English; and in the same year an Act of Parliament was
+passed, substituting the use of English for French in courts of law, in
+schools, and in public offices. English had thus triumphed over French
+in all parts of the country, while it had at the same time become
+saturated with French words. In the year 1383 the Bible was translated
+into English by Wyclif. Thus Chaucer, whose writings were called by
+Spenser "the well of English undefiled," wrote at a time when our
+English was freshest and newest. The grammar of his works shows English
+with a large number of inflexions still remaining. The Canterbury Tales
+are a series of stories supposed to be told by a number of pilgrims who
+are on their way to the shrine of St Thomas (Becket) at Canterbury. The
+pilgrims, thirty-two in number, are fully described-- their dress, look,
+manners, and character in the Prologue. It had been agreed, when they
+met at the Tabard Inn in Southwark, that each pilgrim should tell four
+stories-- two going and two returning-- as they rode along the grassy
+lanes, then the only roads, to the old cathedral city. But only
+four-and-twenty stories exist.
+
+9. +Chaucer's Style.+-- Chaucer expresses, in the truest and liveliest
+way, "the true and lively of everything which is set before him;" and he
+first gave to English poetry that force, vigour, life, and colour which
+raised it above the level of mere rhymed prose. All the best poems and
+histories in Latin, French, and Italian were well known to Chaucer; and
+he borrows from them with the greatest freedom. He handles, with
+masterly power, all the characters and events in his Tales; and he is
+hence, beyond doubt, the greatest narrative poet that England ever
+produced. In the Prologue, his masterpiece, Dryden says, "we have our
+forefathers and great-grand-dames all before us, as they were in
+Chaucer's days." His dramatic power, too, is nearly as great as his
+narrative power; and Mr Marsh affirms that he was "a dramatist before
+that which is technically known as the existing drama had been
+invented." That is to say, he could set men and women talking as they
+would and did talk in real life, but with more point, spirit, _verve_,
+and picturesqueness. As regards the matter of his poems, it may be
+sufficient to say that Dryden calls him "a perpetual fountain of good
+sense;" and that Hazlitt makes this remark: "Chaucer was the most
+practical of all the great poets,-- the most a man of business and of
+the world. His poetry reads like history." Tennyson speaks of him thus
+in his "Dream of Fair Women":--
+
+  "Dan Chaucer, the first warbler, whose sweet breath
+    Preluded those melodious bursts that fill
+  The spacious times of great Elizabeth,
+    With sounds that echo still."
+
+
+10. JOHN BARBOUR (+1316-1396+).-- The earliest Scottish poet of any
+importance in the fourteenth century is John Barbour, who rose to be
+Archdeacon of Aberdeen. Barbour was of Norman blood, and wrote Northern
+English, or, as it is sometimes called, Scotch. He studied both at
+Oxford and at the University of Paris. His chief work is a poem called
++The Bruce+. The English of this poem does not differ very greatly from
+the English of Chaucer. Barbour has _fechtand_ for _fighting_; _pressit_
+for _pressëd_; _theretill_ for _thereto_; but these differences do not
+make the reading of his poem very difficult. As a Norman he was proud of
+the doings of Robert de Bruce, another Norman; and Barbour must often
+have heard stories of him in his boyhood, as he was only thirteen when
+Bruce died.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY.
+
+
+1. The fifteenth century, a remarkable period in many ways, saw three
+royal dynasties established in England-- the Houses of Lancaster, York,
+and Tudor. Five successful French campaigns of Henry V., and the battle
+of Agincourt; and, on the other side, the loss of all our large
+possessions in France, with the exception of Calais, under the rule of
+the weak Henry VI., were among the chief events of the fifteenth
+century. The Wars of the Roses did not contribute anything to the
+prosperity of the century, nor could so unsettled and quarrelsome a time
+encourage the cultivation of literature. For this among other reasons,
+we find no great compositions in prose or verse; but a considerable
+activity in the making and distribution of ballads. The best of these
+are +Sir Patrick Spens+, +Edom o' Gordon+, +The Nut-Brown Mayde+, and
+some of those written about +Robin Hood+ and his exploits. The ballad
+was everywhere popular; and minstrels sang them in every city and
+village through the length and breadth of England. The famous ballad of
++Chevy Chase+ is generally placed after the year 1460, though it did not
+take its present form till the seventeenth century. It tells the story
+of the Battle of Otterburn, which was fought in 1388. This century was
+also witness to the short struggle of Richard III., followed by the rise
+of the House of Tudor. And, in 1498, just at its close, the wonderful
+apparition of a new world-- of +The New World+-- rose on the horizon of
+the English mind, for England then first heard of the discovery of
+America. But, as regards thinking and writing, the fifteenth century is
+the most barren in our literature. It is the most barren in the
++production+ of original literature; but, on the other hand, it is,
+compared with all the centuries that preceded it, the most fertile in
+the dissemination and +distribution+ of the literature that already
+existed. For England saw, in the memorable year of +1474+, the
+establishment of the first printing-press in the Almonry at Westminster,
+by +William Caxton+. The first book printed by him in this country was
+called 'The Game and Playe of the Chesse.' When Edward IV. and his
+friends visited Caxton's house and looked at his printing-press, they
+spoke of it as a pretty toy; they could not foresee that it was destined
+to be a more powerful engine of good government and the spread of
+thought and education than the Crown, Parliaments, and courts of law all
+put together. The two greatest names in literature in the fifteenth
+century are those of +James I.+ (of Scotland) and +William Caxton+
+himself. Two followers of Chaucer, +Occleve+ and +Lydgate+ are also
+generally mentioned. Put shortly, one might say that the chief poetical
+productions of this century were its +ballads+; and the chief prose
+productions, +translations+ from Latin or from foreign works.
+
+
+2. JAMES I. OF SCOTLAND (+1394-1437+), though a Scotchman, owed his
+education to England. He was born in 1394. Whilst on his way to France
+when a boy of eleven, he was captured, in time of peace, by the order of
+Henry IV., and kept prisoner in England for about eighteen years. It was
+no great misfortune, for he received from Henry the best education that
+England could then give in language, literature, music, and all knightly
+accomplishments. He married Lady Jane Beaufort, the grand-daughter of
+John of Gaunt, the friend and patron of Chaucer. His best and longest
+poem is +The Kings Quair+ (that is, Book), a poem which was inspired by
+the subject of it, Lady Jane Beaufort herself. The poem is written in a
+stanza of seven lines (called +Rime Royal+); and the style is a close
+copy of the style of Chaucer. After reigning thirteen years in Scotland,
+King James was murdered at Perth, in the year 1437. A Norman by blood,
+he is the best poet of the fifteenth century.
+
+
+3. WILLIAM CAXTON (+1422-1492+) is the name of greatest importance and
+significance in the history of our literature in the fifteenth century.
+He was born in Kent in the year 1422. He was not merely a printer, he
+was also a literary man; and, when he devoted himself to printing, he
+took to it as an art, and not as a mere mechanical device. Caxton in
+early life was a mercer in the city of London; and in the course of his
+business, which was a thriving one, he had to make frequent journeys to
+the Low Countries. Here he saw the printing-press for the first time,
+with the new separate types, was enchanted with it, and fired by the
+wonderful future it opened. It had been introduced into Holland about
+the year 1450. Caxton's press was set up in the Almonry at Westminster,
+at the sign of the Red Pole. It produced in all sixty-four books, nearly
+all of them in English, some of them written by Caxton himself. One of
+the most important of them was Sir Thomas Malory's +History of King
+Arthur+, the storehouse from which Tennyson drew the stories which form
+the groundwork of his _Idylls of the King_.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY.
+
+
+1. The Wars of the Roses ended in 1485, with the victory of Bosworth
+Field. A new dynasty-- the House of Tudor-- sat upon the throne of
+England; and with it a new reign of peace and order existed in the
+country, for the power of the king was paramount, and the power of the
+nobles had been gradually destroyed in the numerous battles of the
+fifteenth century. Like the fifteenth, this century also is famous for
+its ballads, the authors of which are not known, but which seem to have
+been composed "by the people for the people." They were sung everywhere,
+at fairs and feasts, in town and country, at going to and coming home
+from work; and many of them were set to popular dance-tunes.
+
+  "When Tom came home from labour,
+    And Cis from milking rose,
+  Merrily went the tabor,
+    And merrily went their toes."
+
+The ballads of +King Lear+ and +The Babes in the Wood+ are perhaps to be
+referred to this period.
+
+2. The first half of the sixteenth century saw the beginning of a new
+era in poetry; and the last half saw the full meridian splendour of this
+new era. The beginning of this era was marked by the appearance of +Sir
+Thomas Wyatt+ (1503-1542), and of the +Earl of Surrey+ (1517-1547).
+These two eminent writers have been called the "twin-stars of the dawn,"
+the "founders of English lyrical poetry"; and it is worthy of especial
+note, that it is to Wyatt that we owe the introduction of the +Sonnet+
+into our literature, and to Surrey that is due the introduction of
++Blank Verse+. The most important prose-writers of the first half of the
+century were +Sir Thomas More+, the great lawyer and statesman, and
++William Tyndale+, who translated the New Testament into English. In the
+latter half of the century, the great poets are +Spenser+ and
++Shakespeare+; the great prose-writers, +Richard Hooker+ and +Francis
+Bacon+.
+
+
+3. SIR THOMAS MORE'S (+1480-1535+) chief work in English is the +Life
+and Reign of Edward V+. It is written in a plain, strong, nervous
+English style. Hallam calls it "the first example of good English-- pure
+and perspicuous, well chosen, without vulgarisms, and without pedantry."
+His +Utopia+ (a description of the country of _Nowhere_) was written in
+Latin.
+
+
+4. WILLIAM TYNDALE (+1484-1536+)-- a man of the greatest significance,
+both in the history of religion, and in the history of our language and
+literature-- was a native of Gloucestershire, and was educated at
+Magdalen Hall, Oxford. His opinions on religion and the rule of the
+Catholic Church, compelled him to leave England, and drove him to the
+Continent in the year 1523. He lived in Hamburg for some time. With the
+German and Swiss reformers he held that the Bible should be in the hands
+of every grown-up person, and not in the exclusive keeping of the
+Church. He accordingly set to work to translate the Scriptures into his
+native tongue. Two editions of his version of the +New Testament+ were
+printed in 1525-34. He next translated the five books of Moses, and the
+book of Jonah. In 1535 he was, after many escapes and adventures,
+finally tracked and hunted down by an emissary of the Pope's faction,
+and thrown into prison at the castle of Vilvoorde, near Brussels. In
+1536 he was brought to Antwerp, tried, condemned, led to the stake,
+strangled, and burned.
+
+5. +The Work of William Tyndale.+-- Tyndale's translation has, since the
+time of its appearance, formed the basis of all the after versions of
+the Bible. It is written in the purest and simplest English; and very
+few of the words used in his translation have grown obsolete in our
+modern speech. Tyndale's work is indeed, one of the most striking
+landmarks in the history of our language. Mr Marsh says of it:
+"Tyndale's translation of the New Testament is the most important
+philological monument of the first half of the sixteenth century,--
+perhaps I should say, of the whole period between Chaucer and
+Shakespeare.... The best features of the translation of 1611 are derived
+from the version of Tyndale." It may be said without exaggeration that,
+in the United Kingdom, America, and the colonies, about one hundred
+millions of people now speak the English of Tyndale's Bible; nor is
+there any book that has exerted so great an influence on English rhythm,
+English style, the selection of words, and the build of sentences in our
+English prose.
+
+
+6. EDMUND SPENSER (+1552-1599+), "The Poet's Poet," and one of the
+greatest poetical writers of his own or of any age, was born at East
+Smithfield, near the Tower of London, in the year 1552, about nine years
+before the birth of Bacon, and in the reign of Edward VI. He was
+educated at Merchant Taylors' School in London, and at Pembroke Hall,
+Cambridge. In 1579, we find him settled in his native city, where his
+best friend was the gallant Sir Philip Sidney, who introduced him to his
+uncle, the Earl of Leicester, then at the height of his power and
+influence with Queen Elizabeth. In the same year was published his first
+poetical work, +The Shepheard's Calendar+-- a set of twelve pastoral
+poems. In 1580, he went to Ireland as Secretary to Lord Grey de Wilton,
+the Viceroy of that country. For some years he resided at Kilcolman
+Castle, in county Cork, on an estate which had been granted him out of
+the forfeited lands of the Earl of Desmond. Sir Walter Raleigh had
+obtained a similar but larger grant, and was Spenser's near neighbour.
+In 1590 Spenser brought out the first three books of +The Faerie
+Queene+. The second three books of his great poem appeared in 1596.
+Towards the end of 1598, a rebellion broke out in Ireland; it spread
+into Munster; Spenser's house was attacked and set on fire; in the
+fighting and confusion his only son perished; and Spenser escaped with
+the greatest difficulty. In deep distress of body and mind, he made his
+way to London, where he died-- at an inn in King Street, Westminster, at
+the age of forty-six, in the beginning of the year 1599. He was buried
+in the Abbey, not far from the grave of Chaucer.
+
+7. +Spenser's Style.+-- His greatest work is +The Faerie Queene+; but
+that in which he shows the most striking command of language is his
++Hymn of Heavenly Love+. +The Faerie Queene+ is written in a nine-lined
+stanza, which has since been called the _Spenserian Stanza_. The first
+eight lines are of the usual length of five iambic feet; the last line
+contains six feet, and is therefore an Alexandrine. Each stanza contains
+only three rhymes, which are disposed in this order: _a b a b b c b
+c c_. --The music of the stanza is long-drawn out, beautiful, involved,
+and even luxuriant. --The story of the poem is an allegory, like the
+'Pilgrim's Progress'; and in it Spenser undertook, he says, "to
+represent all the moral virtues, assigning to every virtue a knight to
+be the patron and defender of the same."[17] Only six books were
+completed; and these relate the adventures of the knights who stand for
+_Holiness_, _Temperance_, _Chastity_, _Friendship_, _Justice_, and
+_Courtesy_. The +Faerie Queene+ herself is called +Gloriana+, who
+represents _Glory_ in his "general intention," and Queen Elizabeth in
+his "particular intention."
+
+    [Footnote 17: This use of the phrase "the same" is antiquated
+    English.]
+
+8. +Character of the Faerie Queene.+-- This poem is the greatest of the
+sixteenth century. Spenser has not only been the delight of nearly ten
+generations; he was the study of Shakespeare, the poetical master of
+Cowley and of Milton, and, in some sense, of Dryden and Pope. Keats,
+when a boy, was never tired of reading him. "There is something," says
+Pope, "in Spenser that pleases one as strongly in old age as it did in
+one's youth." Professor Craik says: "Without calling Spenser the
+greatest of all poets, we may still say that his poetry is the most
+poetical of all poetry." The outburst of national feeling after the
+defeat of the Armada in 1588; the new lands opened up by our adventurous
+Devonshire sailors; the strong and lively loyalty of the nation to the
+queen; the great statesmen and writers of the period; the high daring
+shown by England against Spain-- all these animated and inspired the
+glowing genius of Spenser. His rhythm is singularly sweet and beautiful.
+Hazlitt says: "His versification is at once the most smooth and the most
+sounding in the language. It is a labyrinth of sweet sounds." Nothing
+can exceed the wealth of Spenser's phrasing and expression; there seems
+to be no limit to its flow. He is very fond of the Old-English practice
+of alliteration or head-rhyme-- "hunting the letter," as it was called.
+Thus he has--
+
+  "In woods, in waves, in wars, she wont to dwell.
+  Gay without good is good heart's greatest loathing."
+
+
+9. WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE (+1564-1616+), the greatest dramatist that
+England ever produced, was born at Stratford-on-Avon, in Warwickshire,
+on the 23d of April-- St George's Day-- of the year 1564. His father,
+John Shakespeare, was a wool dealer and grower. William was educated at
+the grammar-school of the town, where he learned "small Latin and less
+Greek"; and this slender stock was his only scholastic outfit for life.
+At the early age of eighteen he married Anne Hathaway, a yeoman's
+daughter. In 1586, at the age of twenty-two, he quitted his native town,
+and went to London.
+
+10. +Shakespeare's Life and Character.+-- He was employed in some menial
+capacity at the Blackfriars Theatre, but gradually rose to be actor and
+also adapter of plays. He was connected with the theatre for about
+five-and-twenty years; and so diligent and so successful was he, that he
+was able to purchase shares both in his own theatre and in the Globe.
+As an actor, he was only second-rate: the two parts he is known to have
+played are those of the _Ghost_ in +Hamlet+, and _Adam_ in +As You Like
+It+. In 1597, at the early age of thirty-three, he was able to purchase
+New Place, in Stratford, and to rebuild the house. In 1612, at the age
+of forty-eight, he left London altogether, and retired for the rest of
+his life to New Place, where he died in the year 1616. His old father
+and mother spent the last years of their lives with him, and died under
+his roof. Shakespeare had three children-- two girls and a boy. The boy,
+Hamnet, died at the age of twelve. Shakespeare himself was beloved by
+every one who knew him; and "gentle Shakespeare" was the phrase most
+often upon the lips of his friends. A placid face, with a sweet, mild
+expression; a high, broad, noble, "two-storey" forehead; bright eyes;
+a most speaking mouth-- though it seldom opened; an open, frank manner,
+a kindly, handsome look,-- such seems to have been the external
+character of the man Shakespeare.
+
+11. +Shakespeare's Works.+-- He has written thirty-seven plays and many
+poems. The best of his rhymed poems are his Sonnets, in which he
+chronicles many of the various moods of his mind. The plays consist of
+tragedies, historical plays, and comedies. The greatest of his tragedies
+are probably +Hamlet+ and +King Lear+; the best of his historical plays,
++Richard III.+ and +Julius Cæsar+; and his finest comedies, +Midsummer
+Night's Dream+ and +As You Like It+. He wrote in the reign of Elizabeth
+as well as in that of James; but his greatest works belong to the latter
+period.
+
+12. +Shakespeare's Style.+-- Every one knows that Shakespeare is great;
+but how is the young learner to discover the best way of forming an
+adequate idea of his greatness? In the first place, Shakespeare has very
+many sides; and, in the second place, he is great on every one of them.
+Coleridge says: "In all points, from the most important to the most
+minute, the judgment of Shakespeare is commensurate with his genius--
+nay, his genius reveals itself in his judgment, as in its most exalted
+form." He has been called "mellifluous Shakespeare;" "honey-tongued
+Shakespeare;" "silver-tongued Shakespeare;" "the thousand-souled
+Shakespeare;" "the myriad-minded;" and by many other epithets. He seems
+to have been master of all human experience; to have known the human
+heart in all its phases; to have been acquainted with all sorts and
+conditions of men-- high and low, rich and poor; and to have studied the
+history of past ages, and of other countries. He also shows a greater
+and more highly skilled mastery over language than any other writer that
+ever lived. The vocabulary employed by Shakespeare amounts in number of
+words to twenty-one thousand. The vocabulary of Milton numbers only
+seven thousand words. But it is not sufficient to say that Shakespeare's
+power of thought, of feeling, and of expression required three times the
+number of words to express itself; we must also say that Shakespeare's
+power of expression shows infinitely greater skill, subtlety, and
+cunning than is to be found in the works of Milton. Shakespeare had also
+a marvellous power of making new phrases, most of which have become part
+and parcel of our language. Such phrases as _every inch a king_; _witch
+the world_; _the time is out of joint_, and hundreds more, show that
+modern Englishmen not only speak Shakespeare, but think Shakespeare. His
+knowledge of human nature has enabled him to throw into English
+literature a larger number of genuine "characters" that will always live
+in the thoughts of men, than any other author that ever wrote. And he
+has not drawn his characters from England alone and from his own time--
+but from Greece and Rome, from other countries, too, and also from all
+ages. He has written in a greater variety of styles than any other
+writer. "Shakespeare," says Professor Craik, "has invented twenty
+styles." The knowledge, too, that he shows on every kind of human
+endeavour is as accurate as it is varied. Lawyers say that he was a
+great lawyer; theologians, that he was an able divine, and unequalled in
+his knowledge of the Bible; printers, that he must have been a printer;
+and seamen, that he knew every branch of the sailor's craft.
+
+13. +Shakespeare's contemporaries.+-- But we are not to suppose that
+Shakespeare stood alone in the end of the sixteenth and the beginning of
+the seventeenth century as a great poet; and that everything else was
+flat and low around him. This never is and never can be the case. Great
+genius is the possession, not of one man, but of several in a great age;
+and we do not find a great writer standing alone and unsupported, just
+as we do not find a high mountain rising from a low plain. The largest
+group of the highest mountains in the world, the Himalayas, rise from
+the highest table-land in the world; and peaks nearly as high as the
+highest-- Mount Everest-- are seen cleaving the blue sky in the
+neighbourhood of Mount Everest itself. And so we find Shakespeare
+surrounded by dramatists in some respects nearly as great as himself;
+for the same great forces welling up within the heart of England that
+made _him_ created also the others. +Marlowe+, the teacher of
+Shakespeare, +Peele+, and +Greene+, preceded him; +Ben Jonson+,
++Beaumont+ and +Fletcher+, +Massinger+ and +Ford+, +Webster+, +Chapman+,
+and many others, were his contemporaries, lived with him, talked with
+him; and no doubt each of these men influenced the work of the others.
+But the works of these men belong chiefly to the seventeenth century. We
+must not, however, forget that the reign of Queen Elizabeth-- called in
+literature the +Elizabethan Period+-- was the greatest that England ever
+saw,-- greatest in poetry and in prose, greatest in thought and in
+action, perhaps also greatest in external events.
+
+
+14. CHRISTOPHER MARLOWE (+1564-1593+), the first great English
+dramatist, was born at Canterbury in the year 1564, two months before
+the birth of Shakespeare himself. He studied at Corpus Christi College,
+Cambridge, and took the degree of Master of Arts in 1587. After leaving
+the university, he came up to London and wrote for the stage. He seems
+to have led a wild and reckless life, and was stabbed in a tavern brawl
+on the 1st of June 1593. "As he may be said to have invented and made
+the verse of the drama, so he created the English drama." His chief
+plays are +Dr Faustus+ and +Edward the Second+. His style is one of the
+greatest vigour and power: it is often coarse, but it is always strong.
+Ben Jonson spoke of "Marlowe's mighty line"; and Lord Jeffrey says of
+him: "In felicity of thought and strength of expression, he is second
+only to Shakespeare himself."
+
+
+15. BEN JONSON (+1574-1637+), the greatest dramatist of England after
+Shakespeare, was born in Westminster in the year 1574, just nine years
+after Shakespeare's birth. He received his education at Westminster
+School. It is said that, after leaving school, he was obliged to assist
+his stepfather as a bricklayer; that he did not like the work; and that
+he ran off to the Low Countries, and there enlisted as a soldier. On his
+return to London, he began to write for the stage. Jonson was a friend
+and companion of Shakespeare's; and at the Mermaid, in Fleet Street,
+they had, in presence of men like Raleigh, Marlowe, Greene, Peele, and
+other distinguished Englishmen, many "wit-combats" together. Jonson's
+greatest plays are +Volpone+ or the Fox, and the +Alchemist+-- both
+comedies. In 1616 he was created Poet-Laureate. For many years he was in
+receipt of a pension from James I. and from Charles I.; but so careless
+and profuse were his habits, that he died in poverty in the year 1637.
+He was buried in an upright position in Westminster Abbey; and the stone
+over his grave still bears the inscription, "O rare Ben Jonson!" He has
+been called a "robust, surly, and observing dramatist."
+
+
+16. RICHARD HOOKER (+1553-1600+), one of the greatest of Elizabethan
+prose-writers, was born at Heavitree, a village near the city of Exeter,
+in the year 1553. By the kind aid of Jewel, Bishop of Salisbury, he was
+sent to Oxford, where he distinguished himself as a hard-working
+student, and especially for his knowledge of Hebrew. In 1581 he entered
+the Church. In the same year he made an imprudent marriage with an
+ignorant, coarse, vulgar, and domineering woman. He was appointed Master
+of the Temple in 1585; but, by his own request, he was removed from that
+office, and chose the quieter living of Boscombe, near Salisbury. Here
+he wrote the first four books of his famous work, +The Laws of
+Ecclesiastical Polity+, which were published in the year 1594. In 1595
+he was translated to the living of Bishopsborne, near Canterbury. His
+death took place in the year 1600. The complete work, which consisted of
+eight books, was not published till 1662.
+
+17. +Hooker's Style.+-- His writings are said to "mark an era in English
+prose." His sentences are generally very long, very elaborate, but full
+of "an extraordinary musical richness of language." The order is often
+more like that of a Latin than of an English sentence; and he is fond of
+Latin inversions. Thus he writes: "That which by wisdom he saw to be
+requisite for that people, was by as great wisdom compassed." The
+following sentences give us a good example of his sweet and musical
+rhythm. "Of law there can be no less acknowledged, than that her seat is
+the bosom of God, her voice the harmony of the world. All things in
+heaven and earth do her homage; the very least as feeling her care, and
+the greatest as not exempted from her power: both angels and men, and
+creatures of what condition soever, though each in different sort and
+manner, yet all, with uniform consent, admiring her as the mother of
+their peace and joy."
+
+
+18. SIR PHILIP SIDNEY (+1554-1586+), a noble knight, a statesman, and
+one of the best prose-writers of the Elizabethan age, was born at
+Penshurst, in Kent, in the year 1554. He was educated at Shrewsbury
+School, and then at Christ Church, Oxford. At the age of seventeen he
+went abroad for three years' travel on the Continent; and, while in
+Paris, witnessed, from the windows of the English Embassy, the horrible
+Massacre of St Bartholomew in the year 1572. At the early age of
+twenty-two he was sent as ambassador to the Emperor of Germany; and
+while on that embassy, he met William of Orange-- "William the Silent"--
+who pronounced him one of the ripest statesmen in Europe. This was said
+of a young man "who seems to have been the type of what was noblest in
+the youth of England during times that could produce a statesman." In
+1580 he wrote the +Arcadia+, a romance, and dedicated it to his sister,
+the Countess of Pembroke. The year after, he produced his +Apologie for
+Poetrie+. His policy as a statesman was to side with Protestant rulers,
+and to break the power of the strongest Catholic kingdom on the
+Continent-- the power of Spain. In 1585 the Queen sent him to the
+Netherlands as governor of the important fortress of Flushing. He was
+mortally wounded in a skirmish at Zutphen; and as he was being carried
+off the field, handed to a private the cup of cold water that had been
+brought to quench his raging thirst. He died of his wounds on the 17th
+of October 1586. One of his friends wrote of him:--
+
+  "Death, courage, honour, make thy soul to live!--
+  Thy soul in heaven, thy name in tongues of men!"
+
+19. +Sidney's Poetry.+-- In addition to the +Arcadia+ and the +Apologie
+for Poetrie+, Sidney wrote a number of beautiful poems. The best of
+these are a series of sonnets called +Astrophel+ and +Stella+, of which
+his latest critic says: "As a series of sonnets, the +Astrophel+ and
++Stella+ poems are second only to Shakespeare's; as a series of
+love-poems, they are perhaps unsurpassed." Spenser wrote an elegy upon
+Sidney himself, under the title of +Astrophel+. Sidney's prose is among
+the best of the sixteenth century. "He reads more modern than any other
+author of that century." He does not use "ink-horn terms," or cram his
+sentences with Latin or French or Italian words; but both his words and
+his idioms are of pure English. He is fond of using personifications.
+Such phrases as, "About the time that the candles began to inherit the
+sun's office;" "Seeing the day begin to disclose her comfortable
+beauties," are not uncommon. The rhythm of his sentences is always
+melodious, and each of them has a very pleasant close.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.
+
+
+1. +The First Half.+-- Under the wise and able rule of Queen Elizabeth,
+this country had enjoyed a long term of peace. The Spanish Armada had
+been defeated in 1588; the Spanish power had gradually waned before the
+growing might of England; and it could be said with perfect truth, in
+the words of Shakespeare:--
+
+  "In her days every man doth eat in safety
+  Under his own vine what he plants, and sing
+  The merry songs of peace to all his neighbours."
+
+The country was at peace; and every peaceful art and pursuit prospered.
+As one sign of the great prosperity and outstretching enterprise of
+commerce, we should note the foundation of the East India Company on the
+last day of the year 1600. The reign of James I. (1603-1625) was also
+peaceful; and the country made steady progress in industries, in
+commerce, and in the arts and sciences. The two greatest prose-writers
+of the first half of the seventeenth century were +Raleigh+ and +Bacon+;
+the two greatest poets were +Shakespeare+ and +Ben Jonson+.
+
+
+2. SIR WALTER RALEIGH (+1552-1618+).-- +Walter Raleigh+, soldier,
+statesman, coloniser, historian, and poet, was born in Devonshire, in
+the year 1552. He was sent to Oriel College, Oxford; but he left at the
+early age of seventeen to fight on the side of the Protestants in
+France. From that time his life is one long series of schemes, plots,
+adventures, and misfortunes-- culminating in his execution at
+Westminster in the year 1618. He spent "the evening of a tempestuous
+life" in the Tower, where he lay for thirteen years; and during this
+imprisonment he wrote his greatest work, the +History of the World+,
+which was never finished. His life and adventures belong to the
+sixteenth; his works to the seventeenth century. Raleigh was probably
+the most dazzling figure of his time; and is "in a singular degree the
+representative of the vigorous versatility of the Elizabethan period."
+Spenser, whose neighbour he was for some time in Ireland, thought highly
+of his poetry, calls him "the summer's nightingale," and says of him--
+
+  "Yet æmuling[18] my song, he took in hand
+    My pipe, before that æmulëd of many,
+  And played thereon (for well that skill he conn'd),
+    Himself as skilful in that art as any."
+
+Raleigh is the author of the celebrated verses, "Go, soul, the body's
+guest;" "Give me my scallop-shell of quiet;" and of the lines which were
+written and left in his Bible on the night before he was beheaded:--
+
+  "Even such is time, that takes in trust
+  Our youth, our joys, our all we have,
+  And pays us but with age and dust;
+  Who, in the dark and silent grave,
+  When we have wandered all our ways,
+  Shuts up the story of our days:
+  But from this earth, this grave, this dust,
+  The Lord shall raise me up, I trust!"
+
+Raleigh's prose has been described as "some of the most flowing and
+modern-looking prose of the period;" and there can be no doubt that, if
+he had given himself entirely to literature, he would have been one of
+the greatest poets and prose-writers of his time. His style is calm,
+noble, and melodious. The following is the last sentence of the +History
+of the World+:--
+
+  "O eloquent, just, and mighty Death! whom none could advise, thou
+  hast persuaded; what none hath dared, thou hast done; and whom all
+  the world hath flattered, thou only hast cast out of the world and
+  despised; thou hast drawn together all the far-stretched greatness,
+  all the pride, cruelty, and ambition of man, and covered it all over
+  with these two narrow words _Hic jacet_."
+
+    [Footnote 18: Emulating.]
+
+
+3. FRANCIS BACON (+1561-1626+), one of the greatest of English thinkers,
+and one of our best prose-writers, was born at York House, in the
+Strand, London, in the year 1561. He was a grave and precocious child;
+and Queen Elizabeth, who knew him and liked him, used to pat him and
+call him her "young Lord Keeper"-- his father being Lord Keeper of the
+Seals in her reign. At the early age of twelve he was sent to Trinity
+College, Cambridge, and remained there for three years. In 1582 he was
+called to the bar; in 1593 he was M.P. for Middlesex. But his greatest
+rise in fortune did not take place till the reign of James I.; when, in
+the year 1618, he had risen to be Lord High Chancellor of England. The
+title which he took on this occasion-- for the Lord High Chancellor is
+chairman of the House of Lords-- was +Baron Verulam+; and a few years
+after he was created +Viscount St Albans+. His eloquence was famous in
+England; and Ben Jonson said of him: "The fear of every man that heard
+him was lest he should make an end." In the year 1621 he was accused of
+taking bribes, and of giving unjust decisions as a judge. He had not
+really been unconscientious, but he had been careless; was obliged to
+plead guilty; and he was sentenced to pay a fine of £40,000, and to be
+imprisoned in the Tower during the king's pleasure. The fine was
+remitted; Bacon was set free in two days; a pension was allowed him; but
+he never afterwards held office of any kind. He died on Easter-day of
+the year 1626, of a chill which he caught while experimenting on the
+preservative properties of snow.
+
+4. His chief prose-works in English-- for he wrote many in Latin-- are
+the +Essays+, and the +Advancement of Learning+. His +Essays+ make one
+of the wisest books ever written; and a great number of English thinkers
+owe to them the best of what they have had to say. They are written in a
+clear, forcible, pithy, and picturesque style, with short sentences, and
+a good many illustrations, drawn from history, politics, and science. It
+is true that the style is sometimes stiff, and even rigid; but the
+stiffness is the stiffness of a richly embroidered cloth, into which
+threads of gold and silver have been worked. Bacon kept what he called a
++Promus+ or Commonplace-Book; and in this he entered striking thoughts,
+sentences, and phrases that he met with in the course of his reading, or
+that occurred to him during the day. He calls these sentences
+"salt-pits, that you may extract salt out of, and sprinkle as you will."
+The following are a few examples:--
+
+  "That that is Forced is not Forcible."
+
+  "No Man loveth his Fetters though they be of Gold."
+
+  "Clear and Round Dealing is the Honour of Man's Nature."
+
+  "The Arch-flatterer, with whom all the petty Flatterers have
+  intelligence, is a Man's Self."
+
+    "If Things be not tossed upon the Arguments of Counsell, they will
+  be tossed upon the Waves of Fortune."
+
+The following are a few striking sentences from his +Essays+:--
+
+  "Virtue is like a rich stone, best plain set."
+
+  "A man's nature runs either to herbs or weeds; therefore, let him
+  seasonably water the one, and destroy the other."
+
+  "A crowd is not company, and faces are but a gallery of pictures,
+  and talk but a tinkling cymbal, when there is no love."
+
+No man could say wiser things in pithier words; and we may well say of
+his thoughts, in the words of Tennyson, that they are--
+
+          "Jewels, five words long,
+  That on the stretched forefinger of all time
+  Sparkle for ever."
+
+
+5. WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE (+1564-1616+) has been already treated of in the
+chapter on the sixteenth century. But it may be noted here that his
+first two periods-- as they are called-- fall within the sixteenth, and
+his last two periods within the seventeenth century. His first period
+lies between 1591 and 1596; and to it are ascribed his early poems, his
+play of +Richard II.+, and some other historical plays. His second
+period, which stretches from 1596 to 1601 holds the Sonnets, the
++Merchant of Venice+, the +Merry Wives of Windsor+, and a few historical
+dramas. But his third and fourth periods were richer in production, and
+in greater productions. The third period, which belongs to the years
+1601 to 1608, produced the play of +Julius Cæsar+, the great tragedies
+of +Hamlet+, +Othello+, +Lear+, +Macbeth+, and some others. To the
+fourth period, which lies between 1608 and 1613, belong the calmer and
+wiser dramas,-- +Winter's Tale+, +The Tempest+, and +Henry VIII+. Three
+years after-- in 1616-- he died.
+
+6. +The Second Half.+-- The second half of the great and unique
+seventeenth century was of a character very different indeed from that
+of the first half. The Englishmen born into it had to face a new world!
+New thoughts in religion, new forces in politics, new powers in social
+matters had been slowly, steadily, and irresistibly rising into
+supremacy ever since the Scottish King James came to take his seat upon
+the throne of England in 1603. These new forces had, in fact, become so
+strong that they led a king to the scaffold, and handed over the
+government of England to a section of Republicans. Charles I. was
+executed in 1649; and, though his son came back to the throne in 1660,
+the face, the manners, the thoughts of England and of Englishmen had
+undergone a complete internal and external change. The Puritan party was
+everywhere the ruling party; and its views and convictions, in religion,
+in politics, and in literature, held unquestioned sway in almost every
+part of England. In the Puritan party, the strongest section was formed
+by the Independents-- the "root and branch men"-- as they were called;
+and the greatest man among the Independents was Oliver Cromwell, in
+whose government +John Milton+ was Foreign Secretary. Milton was
+certainly by far the greatest and most powerful writer, both in prose
+and in verse, on the side of the Puritan party. The ablest verse-writer
+on the Royalist or Court side was +Samuel Butler+, the unrivalled
+satirist-- the Hogarth of language,-- the author of +Hudibras+. The
+greatest prose-writer on the Royalist and Church side was +Jeremy
+Taylor+, Bishop of Down, in Ireland, and the author of +Holy Living+,
++Holy Dying+, and many other works written with a wonderful eloquence.
+The greatest philosophical writer was +Thomas Hobbes+, the author of the
++Leviathan+. The most powerful writer for the people was +John Bunyan+,
+the immortal author of +The Pilgrim's Progress+. When, however, we come
+to the reigns of Charles II. and James II., and the new influences which
+their rule and presence imparted, we find the greatest poet to be +John
+Dryden+, and the most important prose-writer, +John Locke+.
+
+7. +The Poetry of the Second Half.+-- The poetry of the second half of
+the seventeenth century was not an outgrowth or lineal descendant of the
+poetry of the first half. No trace of the strong Elizabethan poetical
+emotion remained; no writer of this half-century can claim kinship with
+the great authors of the Elizabethan period. The three most remarkable
+poets in the latter half of this century are +John Milton+, +Samuel
+Butler+, and +John Dryden+. But Milton's culture was derived chiefly
+from the great Greek and Latin writers; and his poems show few or no
+signs of belonging to any age or generation in particular of English
+literature. Butler's poem, the +Hudibras+, is the only one of its kind;
+and if its author owes anything to other writers, it is to France and
+not to England that we must look for its sources. Dryden, again, shows
+no sign of being related to Shakespeare or the dramatic writers of the
+early part of the century; he is separated from them by a great gulf; he
+owes most, when he owes anything, to the French school of poetry.
+
+
+8. JOHN MILTON (+1608-1674+), the second greatest name in English
+poetry, and the greatest of all our epic poets, was born in Bread
+Street, Cheapside, London, in the year 1608-- five years after the
+accession of James I. to the throne, and eight years before the death of
+Shakespeare. He was educated at St Paul's School, and then at Christ's
+College, Cambridge. He was so handsome-- with a delicate complexion,
+clear blue eyes, and light-brown hair flowing down his shoulders-- that
+he was known as the "Lady of Christ's." He was destined for the Church;
+but, being early seized with a strong desire to compose a great poetical
+work which should bring honour to his country and to the English tongue,
+he gave up all idea of becoming a clergyman. Filled with his secret
+purpose, he retired to Horton, in Buckinghamshire, where his father had
+bought a small country seat. Between the years 1632 and 1638 he studied
+all the best Greek and Latin authors, mathematics, and science; and he
+also wrote +L'Allegro+ and +Il Penseroso+, +Comus+, +Lycidas+, and some
+shorter poems. These were preludes, or exercises, towards the great
+poetical work which it was the mission of his life to produce. In
+1638-39 he took a journey to the Continent. Most of his time was spent
+in Italy; and, when in Florence, he paid a visit to Galileo in prison.
+It had been his intention to go on to Greece; but the troubled state of
+politics at home brought him back sooner than he wished. The next ten
+years of his life were engaged in teaching and in writing his prose
+works. His ideas on teaching are to be found in his +Tractate on
+Education+. The most eloquent of his prose-works is his +Areopagitica,
+a Speech for the Liberty of Unlicensed Printing+ (1644)-- a plea for the
+freedom of the press, for relieving all writings from the criticism of
+censors. In 1649-- the year of the execution of Charles I.-- Milton was
+appointed Latin or Foreign Secretary to the Government of Oliver
+Cromwell; and for the next ten years his time was taken up with official
+work, and with writing prose-volumes in defence of the action of the
+Republic. In 1660 the Restoration took place; and Milton was at length
+free, in his fifty-third year, to carry out his long-cherished scheme of
+writing a great Epic poem. He chose the subject of the fall and the
+restoration of man. +Paradise Lost+ was completed in 1665; but, owing to
+the Plague and the Fire of London, it was not published till the year
+1667. Milton's young Quaker friend, Ellwood, said to him one day: "Thou
+hast said much of Paradise Lost, what hast thou to say of Paradise
+Found?" +Paradise Regained+ was the result-- a work which was written in
+1666, and appeared, along with +Samson Agonistes+, in the year 1671.
+Milton died in the year 1674-- about the middle of the reign of Charles
+II. He had been three times married.
+
+9. +L'Allegro+ (or "The Cheerful Man") is a companion poem to +Il
+Penseroso+ (or "The Meditative Man"). The poems present two contrasted
+views of the life of the student. They are written in an irregular kind
+of octosyllabic verse. The +Comus+-- mostly in blank verse-- is a
+lyrical drama; and Milton's work was accompanied by a musical
+composition by the then famous musician Henry Lawes. +Lycidas+-- a poem
+in irregular rhymed verse-- is a threnody on the death of Milton's young
+friend, Edward King, who was drowned in sailing from Chester to Dublin.
+This poem has been called "the touchstone of taste;" the man who cannot
+admire it has no feeling for true poetry. The +Paradise Lost+ is the
+story of how Satan was allowed to plot against the happiness of man; and
+how Adam and Eve fell through his designs. The style is the noblest in
+the English language; the music of the rhythm is lofty, involved,
+sustained, and sublime. "In reading 'Paradise Lost,'" says Mr Lowell,
+"one has a feeling of spaciousness such as no other poet gives."
++Paradise Regained+ is, in fact, the story of the Temptation, and of
+Christ's triumph over the wiles of Satan. Wordsworth says: "'Paradise
+Regained' is most perfect in execution of any written by Milton;" and
+Coleridge remarks that "it is in its kind the most perfect poem extant,
+though its kind may be inferior in interest." +Samson Agonistes+
+("Samson in Struggle") is a drama, in highly irregular unrhymed verse,
+in which the poet sets forth his own unhappy fate--
+
+  "Eyeless, in Gaza, at the mill with slaves."
+
+It is, indeed, an autobiographical poem-- it is the story of the last
+years of the poet's life.
+
+
+10. SAMUEL BUTLER (+1612-1680+), the wittiest of English poets, was born
+at Strensham, in Worcestershire, in the year 1612, four years after the
+birth of Milton, and four years before the death of Shakespeare. He was
+educated at the grammar-school of Worcester, and afterwards at
+Cambridge-- but only for a short time. At the Restoration he was made
+secretary to the Earl of Carbery, who was then President of the
+Principality of Wales, and steward of Ludlow Castle. The first part of
+his long poem called +Hudibras+ appeared in 1662; the second part in
+1663; the third in 1678. Two years after, Butler died in the greatest
+poverty in London. He was buried in St Paul's, Covent Garden; but a
+monument was erected to him in Westminster Abbey. Upon this fact Wesley
+wrote the following epigram:--
+
+  "While Butler, needy wretch, was yet alive,
+  No generous patron would a dinner give;
+  See him, when starved to death, and turned to dust,
+  Presented with a monumental bust.
+  The poet's fate is here in emblem shown,--
+  He asked for bread, and he received a stone."
+
+11. The +Hudibras+ is a burlesque poem,-- a long lampoon, a laboured
+caricature,-- in mockery of the weaker side of the great Puritan party.
+It is an imaginary account of the adventures of a Puritan knight and his
+squire in the Civil Wars. It is choke-full of all kinds of learning, of
+the most pungent remarks-- a very hoard of sentences and saws, "of
+vigorous locutions and picturesque phrases, of strong, sound sense, and
+robust English." It has been more quoted from than almost any book in
+our language. Charles II. was never tired of reading it and quoting from
+it--
+
+  "He never ate, nor drank, nor slept,
+  But Hudibras still near him kept"--
+
+says Butler himself.
+
+The following are some of his best known lines:--
+
+  "And, like a lobster boil'd, the morn
+  From black to red began to turn."
+
+  "For loyalty is still the same,
+  Whether it win or lose the game:
+  True as the dial to the sun,
+  Altho' it be not shin'd upon."
+
+  "He that complies against his will,
+  Is of his own opinion still."
+
+
+12. JOHN DRYDEN (+1631-1700+), the greatest of our poets in the second
+rank, was born at Aldwincle, in Northamptonshire, in the year 1631. He
+was descended from Puritan ancestors on both sides of his house. He was
+educated at Westminster School, and at Trinity College, Cambridge.
+London became his settled abode in the year 1657. At the Restoration, in
+1660, he became an ardent Royalist; and, in the year 1663, he married
+the daughter of a Royalist nobleman, the Earl of Berkshire. It was not a
+happy marriage; the lady, on the one hand, had a violent temper, and, on
+the other, did not care a straw for the literary pursuits of her
+husband. In 1666 he wrote his first long poem, the +Annus Mirabilis+
+("The Wonderful Year"), in which he paints the war with Holland, and the
+Fire of London; and from this date his life is "one long literary
+labour." In 1670, he received the double appointment of
+Historiographer-Royal and Poet-Laureate. Up to the year 1681, his work
+lay chiefly in writing plays for the theatre; and these plays were
+written in rhymed verse, in imitation of the French plays; for, from the
+date of the Restoration, French influence was paramount both in
+literature and in fashion. But in this year he published the first part
+of +Absalom and Achitophel+-- one of the most powerful satires in the
+language. In the year 1683 he was appointed Collector of Customs in the
+port of London-- a post which Chaucer had held before him. (It is worthy
+of note that Dryden "translated" the Tales of Chaucer into modern
+English.) At the accession of James II., in 1685, Dryden became a Roman
+Catholic; most certainly neither for gain nor out of gratitude, but from
+conviction. In 1687, appeared his poem of +The Hind and the Panther+, in
+which he defends his new creed. He had, a few years before, brought out
+another poem called +Religio Laici+ ("A Layman's Faith"), which was a
+defence of the Church of England and of her position in religion. In
++The Hind and the Panther+, the Hind represents the Roman Catholic
+Church, "a milk-white hind, unspotted and unchanged," the Panther the
+Church of England; and the two beasts reply to each other in all the
+arguments used by controversialists on these two sides. When the
+Revolution of 1688 took place, and James II. had to flee the kingdom,
+Dryden lost both his offices and the pension he had from the Crown.
+Nothing daunted, he set to work once more. Again he wrote for the stage;
+but the last years of his life were spent chiefly in translation. He
+translated passages from Homer, Ovid, and from some Italian writers; but
+his most important work was the translation of the whole of Virgil's
++Æneid+. To the last he retained his fire and vigour, action and rush of
+verse; and some of his greatest lyric poems belong to his later years.
+His ode called +Alexander's Feast+ was written at the age of sixty-six;
+and it was written at one sitting. At the age of sixty-nine he was
+meditating a translation of the whole of Homer-- both the Iliad and the
+Odyssey. He died at his house in London, on May-day of 1700, and was
+buried with great pomp and splendour in Poets' Corner in Westminster
+Abbey.
+
+13. His best satire is the +Absalom and Achitophel+; his best specimen
+of reasoning in verse is +The Hind and the Panther+. His best ode is his
++Ode to the Memory of Mrs Anne Killigrew+. Dryden's style is
+distinguished by its power, sweep, vigour, and "long majestic march." No
+one has handled the heroic couplet-- and it was this form of verse that
+he chiefly used-- with more vigour than Dryden; Pope was more correct,
+more sparkling, more finished, but he had not Dryden's magnificent march
+or sweeping impulsiveness. "The fire and spirit of the 'Annus
+Mirabilis,'" says his latest critic, "are nothing short of amazing, when
+the difficulties which beset the author are remembered. The glorious
+dash of the performance is his own." His prose, though full of faults,
+is also very vigorous. It has "something of the lightning zigzag vigour
+and splendour of his verse." He always writes clear, homely, and pure
+English,-- full of force and point.
+
+Many of his most pithy lines are often quoted:--
+
+  "Men are but children of a larger growth."
+
+  "Errors, like straws, upon the surface flow;
+  He that would search for pearls must dive below."
+
+  "The greatest argument for love is love."
+
+  "The secret pleasure of the generous act,
+  Is the great mind's great bribe."
+
+The great American critic and poet, Mr Lowell, compares him to "an
+ostrich, to be classed with flying things, and capable, what with leap
+and flap together, of leaving the earth for a longer or a shorter space,
+but loving the open plain, where wing and foot help each other to
+something that is both flight and run at once."
+
+
+14. JEREMY TAYLOR (+1613-1667+), the greatest master of ornate and
+musical English prose in his own day, was born at Cambridge in the year
+1613-- just three years before Shakespeare died. His father was a
+barber. After attending the free grammar-school of Cambridge, he
+proceeded to the University. He took holy orders and removed to London.
+When he was lecturing one day at St Paul's, Archbishop Laud was so taken
+by his "youthful beauty, pleasant air," fresh eloquence, and exuberant
+style, that he had him created a Fellow of All Souls' College, Oxford.
+When the Civil War broke out, he was taken prisoner by the Parliamentary
+forces; and, indeed, suffered imprisonment more than once. After the
+Restoration, he was presented with a bishopric in Ireland, where he died
+in 1667.
+
+15. Perhaps his best works are his +Holy Living+ and +Holy Dying+. His
+style is rich, even to luxury, full of the most imaginative
+illustrations, and often overloaded with ornament. He has been called
+"the Shakespeare of English prose," "the Spenser of divinity," and by
+other appellations. The latter title is a very happy description; for he
+has the same wealth of style, phrase, and description that Spenser has,
+and the same boundless delight in setting forth his thoughts in a
+thousand different ways. The following is a specimen of his writing. He
+is speaking of a shipwreck:--
+
+  "These are the thoughts of mortals, this is the end and sum of all
+  their designs. A dark night and an ill guide, a boisterous sea and a
+  broken cable, a hard rock and a rough wind, dash in pieces the
+  fortune of a whole family; and they that shall weep loudest for the
+  accident are not yet entered into the storm, and yet have suffered
+  shipwreck."
+
+His writings contain many pithy statements. The following are a few of
+them:--
+
+  "No man is poor that does not think himself so."
+
+  "He that spends his time in sport and calls it recreation, is like
+  him whose garment is all made of fringe, and his meat nothing but
+  sauce."
+
+  "A good man is as much in awe of himself as of a whole assembly."
+
+
+16. THOMAS HOBBES (+1588-1679+), a great philosopher, was born at
+Malmesbury in the year 1588. He is hence called "the philosopher of
+Malmesbury." He lived during the reigns of four English sovereigns--
+Elizabeth, James I., Charles I., and Charles II.; and he was
+twenty-eight years of age when Shakespeare died. He is in many respects
+the type of the hard-working, long-lived, persistent Englishman. He was
+for many years tutor in the Devonshire family-- to the first Earl of
+Devonshire, and to the third Earl of Devonshire-- and lived for several
+years at the family seat of Chatsworth. In his youth he was acquainted
+with Bacon and Ben Jonson; in his middle age he knew Galileo in Italy;
+and as he lived to the age of ninety-two, he might have conversed with
+John Locke or with Daniel Defoe. His greatest work is the +Leviathan+;
+or, +The Matter, Form, and Power of a Commonwealth+. His style is clear,
+manly, and vigorous. He tried to write poetry too. At the advanced age
+of eighty-five, he wrote a translation of the whole of Homer's Iliad and
+Odyssey into rhymed English verse, using the same quatrain and the same
+measure that Dryden employed in his 'Annus Mirabilis.' Two lines are
+still remembered of this translation: speaking of a child and his
+mother, he says--
+
+  "And like a star upon her bosom lay
+  His beautiful and shining golden head."
+
+
+17. JOHN BUNYAN (+1628-1688+), one of the most popular of our
+prose-writers, was born at Elstow, in Bedfordshire, in the year 1628--
+just three years before the birth of Dryden. He served, when a young
+man, with the Parliamentary forces, and was present at the siege of
+Leicester. At the Restoration, he was apprehended for preaching, in
+disobedience to the Conventicle Act, "was had home to prison, and there
+lay complete twelve years." Here he supported himself and his family by
+making tagged laces and other small-wares; and here, too, he wrote the
+immortal +Pilgrim's Progress+. After his release, he became pastor of
+the Baptist congregation at Bedford. He had a great power of bringing
+persons who had quarrelled together again; and he was so popular among
+those who knew him, that he was generally spoken of as "Bishop Bunyan."
+On a journey, undertaken to reconcile an estranged father and a
+rebellious son, he caught a severe cold, and died of fever in London, in
+the year 1688. Every one has read, or will read, the +Pilgrim's
+Progress+; and it may be said, without exaggeration, that to him who has
+not read the book, a large part of English life and history is dumb and
+unintelligible. Bunyan has been called the "Spenser of the people," and
+"the greatest master of allegory that ever lived." His power of
+imagination is something wonderful; and his simple, homely, and vigorous
+style makes everything so real, that we seem to be reading a narrative
+of everyday events and conversations. His vocabulary is not, as Macaulay
+said, "the vocabulary of the common people;" rather should we say that
+his English is the English of the Bible and of the best religious
+writers. His style is, almost everywhere, simple, homely, earnest, and
+vernacular-- without being vulgar. Bunyan's books have, along with
+Shakespeare and Tyndale's works, been among the chief supports of an
+idiomatic, nervous, and simple English.
+
+
+18. JOHN LOCKE (+1632-1704+), a great English philosopher, was born at
+Wrington, near Bristol, in the year 1632. He was educated at Oxford; but
+he took little interest in the Greek and Latin classics, his chief
+studies lying in medicine and the physical sciences. He became attached
+to the famous Lord Shaftesbury, under whom he filled several public
+offices-- among others, that of Commissioner of Trade. When Shaftesbury
+was obliged to flee to Holland, Locke followed him, and spent several
+years in exile in that country. All his life a very delicate man, he
+yet, by dint of great care and thoughtfulness, contrived to live to the
+age of seventy-two. His two most famous works are +Some Thoughts
+concerning Education+, and the celebrated +Essay on the Human
+Understanding+. The latter, which is his great work, occupied his time
+and thoughts for eighteen years. In both these books, Locke exhibits the
+very genius of common-sense. The purpose of education is, in his
+opinion, not to make learned men, but to maintain "a sound mind in a
+sound body;" and he begins the education of the future man even from his
+cradle. In his philosophical writings, he is always simple; but, as he
+is loose and vacillating in his use of terms, this simplicity is often
+purchased at the expense of exactness and self-consistency.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+THE FIRST HALF OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.
+
+
+1. +The Age of Prose.+-- The eighteenth century was an age of prose in
+two senses. In the first place, it was a prosaic age; and, in the second
+place, better prose than poetry was produced by its writers. One
+remarkable fact may also be noted about the chief prose-writers of this
+century-- and that is, that they were, most of them, not merely able
+writers, not merely distinguished literary men, but also men of
+affairs-- men well versed in the world and in matters of the highest
+practical moment, while some were also statesmen holding high office.
+Thus, in the first half of the century, we find Addison, Swift, and
+Defoe either holding office or influencing and guiding those who held
+office; while, in the latter half, we have men like Burke, Hume, and
+Gibbon, of whom the same, or nearly the same, can be said. The poets, on
+the contrary, of this eighteenth century, are all of them-- with the
+very slightest exceptions-- men who devoted most of their lives to
+poetry, and had little or nothing to do with practical matters. It may
+also be noted here that the character of the eighteenth century becomes
+more and more prosaic as it goes on-- less and less under the influence
+of the spirit of poetry, until, about the close, a great reaction makes
+itself felt in the persons of Cowper, Chatterton, and Burns, of Crabbe
+and Wordsworth.
+
+2. +The First Half.+-- The great prose-writers of the first half of the
+eighteenth century are +Addison+ and +Steele+, +Swift+ and +Defoe+. All
+of these men had some more or less close connection with the rise of
+journalism in England; and one of them, Defoe, was indeed the founder of
+the modern newspaper. By far the most powerful intellect of these four
+was Swift. The greatest poets of the first half of the eighteenth
+century were +Pope+, +Thomson+, +Collins+, and +Gray+. Pope towers above
+all of them by a head and shoulders, because he was much more fertile
+than any, and because he worked so hard and so untiringly at the labour
+of the file-- at the task of polishing and improving his verses. But the
+vein of poetry in the three others-- and more especially in Collins--
+was much more pure and genuine than it was in Pope at any time of his
+life-- at any period of his writing. Let us look at each of these
+writers a little more closely.
+
+
+3. DANIEL DEFOE (+1661-1731+), one of the most fertile writers that
+England ever saw, and one who has been the delight of many generations
+of readers, was born in the city of London in the year 1661. He was
+educated to be a Dissenting minister; but he turned from that profession
+to the pursuit of trade. He attempted several trades,-- was a hosier,
+a hatter, a printer; and he is said also to have been a brick and tile
+maker. In 1692 he failed in business; but, in no long time after, he
+paid every one of his creditors to the uttermost farthing. Through all
+his labours and misfortunes he was always a hard and careful reader,--
+an omnivorous reader, too, for he was in the habit of reading almost
+every book that came in his way. He made his first reputation by writing
+political pamphlets. One of his pamphlets brought him into high favour
+with King William; another had the effect of placing him in the pillory
+and lodging him in prison. But while in Newgate, he did not idle away
+his time or "languish"; he set to work, wrote hard, and started a
+newspaper, +The Review+,-- the earliest genuine newspaper England had
+seen up to his time. This paper he brought out two or three times
+a-week; and every word of it he wrote himself. He continued to carry it
+on single-handed for eight years. In 1706, he was made a member of the
+Commission for bringing about the union between England and Scotland;
+and his great knowledge of commerce and commercial affairs were of
+singular value to this Commission. In 1715 he had a dangerous illness,
+brought on by political excitement; and, on his recovery, he gave up
+most of his political writing, and took to the composition of stories
+and romances. Although now a man of fifty-four, he wrote with the vigour
+and ease of a young man of thirty. His greatest imaginative work was
+written in 1719-- when he was nearly sixty-- +The Life and Strange
+Surprising Adventures of Robinson Crusoe, of York, Mariner,... written
+by Himself+. Within six years he had produced twelve works of a similar
+kind. He is said to have written in all two hundred and fifty books in
+the course of his lifetime. He died in 1731.
+
+4. His best known-- and it is also his greatest-- work is +Robinson
+Crusoe+; and this book, which every one has read, may be compared with
+'Gulliver's Travels,' for the purpose of observing how imaginative
+effects are produced by different means and in different ways. Another
+vigorous work of imagination by Defoe is the +Journal of the Plague+,
+which appeared in 1722. There are three chief things to be noted
+regarding Defoe and his writings. These are: first, that Defoe possessed
+an unparalleled knowledge-- a knowledge wider than even Shakespeare's--
+of the circumstances and details of human life among all sorts, ranks,
+and conditions of men; secondly, that he gains his wonderful realistic
+effects by the freest and most copious use of this detailed knowledge in
+his works of imagination; and thirdly, that he possessed a vocabulary of
+the most wonderful wealth. His style is strong, homely, and vigorous,
+but the sentences are long, loose, clumsy, and sometimes ungrammatical.
+Like Sir Walter Scott, he was too eager to produce large and broad
+effects to take time to balance his clauses or to polish his sentences.
+Like Sir Walter Scott, again, he possesses in the highest degree the art
+of _particularising_.
+
+
+5. JONATHAN SWIFT (+1667-1745+), the greatest prose-writer, in his own
+kind, of the eighteenth century, and the opposite in most respects--
+especially in style-- of Addison, was born in Dublin in the year 1667.
+Though born in Ireland, he was of purely English descent-- his father
+belonging to a Yorkshire family, and his mother being a Leicestershire
+lady. His father died before he was born; and he was educated by the
+kindness of an uncle. After being at a private school at Kilkenny, he
+was sent to Trinity College, Dublin, where he was plucked for his degree
+at his first examination, and, on a second trial, only obtained his B.A.
+"by special favour." He next came to England, and for eleven years acted
+as private secretary to Sir William Temple, a retired statesman and
+ambassador, who lived at Moor Park, near Richmond-on-Thames. In 1692 he
+paid a visit to Oxford, and there obtained the degree of M.A. In 1700 he
+went to Ireland with Lord Berkeley as his chaplain, and while in that
+country was presented with several livings. He at first attached himself
+to the Whig party, but stung by this party's neglect of his labours and
+merits, he joined the Tories, who raised him to the Deanery of
+St Patrick's Cathedral in Dublin. But, though nominally resident in
+Dublin, he spent a large part of his time in London. Here he knew and
+met everybody who was worth knowing, and for some time he was the most
+imposing figure, and wielded the greatest influence in all the best
+social, political, and literary circles of the capital. In 1714, on the
+death of Queen Anne, Swift's hopes of further advancement died out; and
+he returned to his Deanery, settled in Dublin, and "commenced Irishman
+for life." A man of strong passions, he usually spent his birthday in
+reading that chapter of the Book of Job which contains the verse, "Let
+the day perish in which I was born." He died insane in 1745, and left
+his fortune to found a lunatic asylum in Dublin. One day, when taking a
+walk with a friend, he saw a blasted elm, and, pointing to it, he said:
+"I shall be like that tree, and die first at the top." For the last
+three years of his life he never spoke one word.
+
+6. Swift has written verse; but it is his prose-works that give him his
+high and unrivalled place in English literature. His most powerful work,
+published in 1704, is the +Tale of a Tub+-- a satire on the disputes
+between the Roman Catholic, Anglican, and Presbyterian Churches. His
+best known prose-work is the +Gulliver's Travels+, which appeared in
+1726. This work is also a satire; but it is a satire on men and women,--
+on humanity. "The power of Swift's prose," it has been said by an able
+critic, "was the terror of his own, and remains the wonder of after
+times." His style is strong, simple, straightforward; he uses the
+plainest words and the homeliest English, and every blow tells. Swift's
+style-- as every genuine style does-- reflects the author's character.
+He was an ardent lover and a good hater. Sir Walter Scott describes him
+as "tall, strong, and well made, dark in complexion, but with bright
+blue eyes (Pope said they were "as azure as the heavens"), black and
+bushy eyebrows, aquiline nose, and features which expressed the stern,
+haughty, and dauntless turn of his mind." He grew savage under the
+slightest contradiction; and dukes and great lords were obliged to pay
+court to him. His prose was as trenchant and powerful as were his
+manners: it has been compared to "cold steel." His own definition of a
+good style is "proper words in proper places."
+
+
+7. JOSEPH ADDISON (+1672-1719+), the most elegant prose-writer-- as Pope
+was the most polished verse-writer-- of the eighteenth century, was born
+at Milston, in Wiltshire, in the year 1672. He was educated at
+Charterhouse School, in London, where one of his friends and companions
+was the celebrated Dick Steele-- afterwards Sir Richard Steele. He then
+went to Oxford, where he made a name for himself by his beautiful
+compositions in Latin verse. In 1695 he addressed a poem to King
+William; and this poem brought him into notice with the Government of
+the day. Not long after, he received a pension of £300 a-year, to enable
+him to travel; and he spent some time in France and Italy. The chief
+result of this tour was a poem entitled +A Letter from Italy+ to Lord
+Halifax. In 1704, when Lord Godolphin was in search of a poet who should
+celebrate in an adequate style the striking victory of Blenheim, Addison
+was introduced to him by Lord Halifax. His poem called +The Campaign+
+was the result; and one simile in it took and held the attention of all
+English readers, and of "the town." A violent storm had passed over
+England; and Addison compared the calm genius of Marlborough, who was as
+cool and serene amid shot and shell as in a drawing-room or at the
+dinner-table, to the Angel of the Storm. The lines are these:--
+
+  "So when an Angel by divine command
+  With rising tempests shakes a guilty land,
+  Such as of late o'er pale Britannia passed,
+  Calm and serene he drives the furious blast;
+  And, pleased the Almighty's orders to perform,
+  Rides in the whirlwind, and directs the storm."
+
+For this poem Addison was rewarded with the post of Commissioner of
+Appeals. He rose, successively, to be Under Secretary of State;
+Secretary for Ireland; and, finally, Secretary of State for England-- an
+office which would correspond to that of our present Home Secretary. He
+married the Countess of Warwick, to whose son he had been tutor; but it
+was not a happy marriage. Pope says of him in regard to it, that--
+
+  "He married discord in a noble wife."
+
+He died at Holland House, Kensington, London, in the year 1719, at the
+age of forty-seven.
+
+8. But it is not at all as a poet, but as a prose-writer, that Addison
+is famous in the history of literature. While he was in Ireland, his
+friend Steele started +The Tatler+, in 1709; and Addison sent numerous
+contributions to this little paper. In 1711, Steele began a still more
+famous paper, which he called +The Spectator+; and Addison's writings in
+this morning journal made its reputation. His contributions are
+distinguishable by being signed with some one of the letters of the name
+_Clio_-- the Muse of History. A third paper, +The Guardian+, appeared a
+few years after; and Addison's contributions to it are designated by a
+hand ([->]) at the foot of each. In addition to his numerous
+prose-writings, Addison brought out the tragedy of +Cato+ in 1713. It
+was very successful; but it is now neither read nor acted. Some of his
+hymns, however, are beautiful, and are well known. Such are the hymn
+beginning, "The spacious firmament on high;" and his version of the 23d
+Psalm, "The Lord my pasture shall prepare."
+
+9. Addison's prose style is inimitable, easy, graceful, full of humour--
+full of good humour, delicate, with a sweet and kindly rhythm, and
+always musical to the ear. He is the most graceful of social satirists;
+and his genial creation of the character of +Sir Roger de Coverley+ will
+live for ever. While his work in verse is never more than second-rate,
+his writings in prose are always first-rate. Dr Johnson said of his
+prose: "Whoever wishes to attain an English style-- familiar but not
+coarse, and elegant but not ostentatious,-- must give his days and
+nights to the study of Addison." Lord Lytton also remarks: "His style
+has that nameless urbanity in which we recognise the perfection of
+manner; courteous, but not courtier-like; so dignified, yet so kindly;
+so easy, yet high-bred. It is the most perfect form of English." His
+style, however, must be acknowledged to want force-- to be easy rather
+than vigorous; and it has not the splendid march of Jeremy Taylor, or
+the noble power of Savage Landor.
+
+
+10. RICHARD STEELE (+1671-1729+), commonly called "Dick Steele," the
+friend and colleague of Addison, was born in Dublin, but of English
+parents, in the year 1671. The two friends were educated at Charterhouse
+and at Oxford together; and they remained friends, with some slight
+breaks and breezes, to the close of life. Steele was a writer of plays,
+essays, and pamphlets-- for one of which he was expelled from the House
+of Commons; but his chief fame was earned in connection with the Society
+Journals, which he founded. He started many-- such as +Town-Talk+, +The
+Tea-Table+, +Chit-Chat+; but only the +Tatler+ and the +Spectator+ rose
+to success and to fame. The strongest quality in his writing is his
+pathos: the source of tears is always at his command; and, although
+himself of a gay and even rollicking temperament, he seems to have
+preferred this vein. The literary skill of Addison-- his happy art in
+the choosing of words-- did not fall to the lot of Steele; but he is
+more hearty and more human in his description of character. He died in
+1729, ten years after the departure of his friend Addison.
+
+
+11. ALEXANDER POPE (+1688-1744+), the greatest poet of the eighteenth
+century, was born in Lombard Street, London, in the year of the
+Revolution, 1688. His father was a wholesale linendraper, who, having
+amassed a fortune, retired to Binfield, on the borders of Windsor
+Forest. In the heart of this beautiful country young Pope's youth was
+spent. On the death of his father, Pope left Windsor and took up his
+residence at Twickenham, on the banks of the Thames, where he remained
+till his death in 1744. His parents being Roman Catholics, it was
+impossible for young Pope to go either to a public school or to one of
+the universities; and hence he was educated privately. At the early age
+of eight, he met with a translation of Homer in verse; and this volume
+became his companion night and day. At the age of ten, he turned some of
+the events described in Homer into a play. The poems of Spenser, the
+poets' poet, were his next favourites; but the writer who made the
+deepest and most lasting impression upon his mind was Dryden. Little
+Pope began to write verse very early. He says of himself--
+
+  "As yet a child, nor yet a fool to fame,
+  I lisped in numbers, for the numbers came."
+
+His +Ode to Solitude+ was written at the age of twelve; his +Pastorals+
+when he was fifteen. His +Essay on Criticism+, which was composed in his
+twentieth year, though not published till 1711, established his
+reputation as a writer of neat, clear, sparkling, and elegant verse. The
++Rape of the Lock+ raised his reputation still higher. Macaulay
+pronounced it his best poem. De Quincey declared it to be "the most
+exquisite monument of playful fancy that universal literature offers."
+Another critic has called it the "perfection of the mock-heroic." Pope's
+most successful poem-- if we measure it by the fame and the money it
+brought him-- was his translation of the +Iliad+ of Homer. A great
+scholar said of this translation that it was "a very pretty poem, but
+not Homer." The fact is that Pope did not translate directly from the
+Greek, but from a French or a Latin version which he kept beside him.
+Whatever its faults, and however great its deficiency as a
+representation of the powerful and deep simplicity of the original
+Greek, no one can deny the charm and finish of its versification, or the
+rapidity, facility, and melody of the flow of the verse. These qualities
+make this work unique in English poetry.
+
+
+12. After finishing the +Iliad+, Pope undertook a translation of the
++Odyssey+ of Homer. This was not so successful; nor was it so well done.
+In fact, Pope translated only half of it himself; the other half was
+written by two scholars called Broome and Fenton. His next great poem
+was the +Dunciad+,-- a satire upon those petty writers, carping critics,
+and hired defamers who had tried to write down the reputation of Pope's
+Homeric work. "The composition of the 'Dunciad' revealed to Pope where
+his true strength lay, in blending personalities with moral
+reflections."
+
+13. Pope's greatest works were written between 1730 and 1740; and they
+consist of the +Moral Essays+, the +Essay on Man+, and the +Epistles and
+Satires+. These poems are full of the finest thoughts, expressed in the
+most perfect form. Mr Ruskin quotes the couplet--
+
+  "Never elated, while one man's oppressed;
+  Never dejected, whilst another's blessed,"--
+
+as "the most complete, concise, and lofty expression of moral temper
+existing in English words." The poem of Pope which shows his best and
+most striking qualities in their most characteristic form, is probably
+the +Epistle to Dr Arbuthnot+ or +Prologue to the Satires+. In this poem
+occur the celebrated lines about Addison-- which make a perfect
+portrait, although it is far from being a true likeness.
+
+His pithy lines and couplets have obtained a permanent place in
+literature. Thus we have:--
+
+  "True wit is nature to advantage dressed,
+  What oft was thought, but ne'er so well expressed."
+
+  "Good-nature and good-sense must ever join.
+  To err is human, to forgive divine."
+
+  "All seems infected that the infected spy,
+  As all looks yellow to the jaundic'd eye."
+
+  "Fear not the anger of the wise to raise;
+  Those best can bear reproof who merit praise."
+
+The greatest conciseness is visible in his epigrams and in his
+compliments:--
+
+  "A vile encomium doubly ridicules:
+  There's nothing blackens like the ink of fools."
+
+  "And not a vanity is given in vain."
+
+  "Would ye be blest? despise low joys, low gains,
+  Disdain whatever Cornbury disdains,
+  Be virtuous, and be happy for your pains."
+
+14. Pope is the foremost literary figure of his age and century; and he
+is also the head of a school. He brought to perfection a style of
+writing verse which was followed by hundreds of clever writers. Cowper
+says of him:--
+
+  "But Pope-- his musical finesse was such,
+  So nice his ear, so delicate his touch,--
+  Made poetry a mere mechanic art,
+  And every warbler has his tune by heart."
+
+Pope was not the poet of nature or of humanity; he was the poet of "the
+town," and of the Court. He was greatly influenced by the neatness and
+polish of French verse; and, from his boyhood, his great ambition was to
+be "a correct poet." He worked and worked, polished and polished, until
+each idea had received at his hands its very neatest and most
+epigrammatic expression. In the art of condensed, compact, pointed, and
+yet harmonious and flowing verse, Pope has no equal. But, as a vehicle
+for poetry-- for the love and sympathy with nature and man which every
+true poet must feel, Pope's verse is artificial; and its style of
+expression has now died out. It was one of the chief missions of
+Wordsworth to drive the Popian second-hand vocabulary out of existence.
+
+
+15. JAMES THOMSON (+1700-1748+), the poet of +The Seasons+, was born at
+Ednam in Roxburghshire, Scotland, in the year 1700. He was educated at
+the grammar-school of Jedburgh, and then at the University of Edinburgh.
+It was intended that he should enter the ministry of the Church of
+Scotland; but, before his college course was finished, he had given up
+this idea: poetry proved for him too strong a magnet. While yet a young
+man, he had written his poem of +Winter+; and, with that in his pocket,
+he resolved to try his fortune in London. While walking about the
+streets, looking at the shops, and gazing at the new wonders of the vast
+metropolis, his pocket was picked of his pocket-handkerchief and his
+letters of introduction; and he found himself alone in London-- thrown
+entirely on his own resources. A publisher was, however, in time found
+for +Winter+; and the poem slowly rose into appreciation and popularity.
+This was in 1726. Next year, +Summer+; two years after, +Spring+
+appeared; while +Autumn+, in 1730, completed the +Seasons+. The +Castle
+of Indolence+-- a poem in the Spenserian stanza-- appeared in 1748. In
+the same year he was appointed Surveyor-General of the Leeward Islands,
+though he never visited the scene of his duty, but had his work done by
+deputy. He died at Kew in the year 1748.
+
+16. Thomson's place as a poet is high in the second rank. His +Seasons+
+have always been popular; and, when Coleridge found a well-thumbed and
+thickly dog's-eared copy lying on the window-sill of a country inn, he
+exclaimed "This is true fame!" His +Castle of Indolence+ is, however,
+a finer piece of poetical work than any of his other writings. The first
+canto is the best. But the +Seasons+ have been much more widely read;
+and a modern critic says: "No poet has given the special pleasure which
+poetry is capable of giving to so large a number of persons in so large
+a measure as Thomson." Thomson is very unequal in his style. Sometimes
+he rises to a great height of inspired expression; at other times he
+sinks to a dull dead level of pedestrian prose. His power of describing
+scenery is often very remarkable. Professor Craik says: "There is no
+other poet who surrounds us with so much of the truth of nature;" and he
+calls the +Castle of Indolence+ "one of the gems of the language."
+
+
+17. THOMAS GRAY (+1716-1771+), the greatest elegiac poet of the century,
+was born in London in 1716. His father was a "money-scrivener," as it
+was called; in other words, he was a stock-broker. His mother's brother
+was an assistant-master at Eton; and at Eton, under the care of this
+uncle, Gray was brought up. One of his schoolfellows was the famous
+Horace Walpole. After leaving school, Gray proceeded to Cambridge; but,
+instead of reading mathematics, he studied classical literature,
+history, and modern languages, and never took his degree. After some
+years spent at Cambridge, he entered himself of the Inner Temple; but he
+never gave much time to the study of law. His father died in 1741; and
+Gray, soon after, gave up the law and went to live entirely at
+Cambridge. The first published of his poems was the +Ode on a Distant
+Prospect of Eton College+. The +Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard+
+was handed about in manuscript before its publication in 1750; and it
+made his reputation at once. In 1755 the +Progress of Poesy+ was
+published; and the ode entitled +The Bard+ was begun. In 1768 he was
+appointed Professor of Modern History at Cambridge; but, though he
+studied hard, he never lectured. He died at Cambridge, at the age of
+fifty-four, in the year 1771. Gray was never married. He was said by
+those who knew him to be the most learned man of his time in Europe.
+Literature, history, and several sciences-- all were thoroughly known to
+him. He had read everything in the world that was best worth reading;
+while his knowledge of botany, zoology, and entomology was both wide and
+exact.
+
+18. Gray's +Elegy+ took him seven years to write; it contains thirty-two
+stanzas; and Mr Palgrave says "they are perhaps the noblest stanzas in
+the language." General Wolfe, when sailing down to attack Quebec,
+recited the Elegy to his officers, and declared, "Now, gentlemen,
+I would rather be the author of that poem than take Quebec." Lord Byron
+called the Elegy "the corner-stone of Gray's poetry." Gray ranks with
+Milton as the most finished workman in English verse; and certainly he
+spared no pains. Gray said himself that "the style he aimed at was
+extreme conciseness of expression, yet pure, perspicuous, and musical;"
+and this style, at which he aimed, he succeeded fully in achieving. One
+of the finest stanzas in the whole Elegy is the last, which the writer
+omitted in all the later editions:--
+
+  "There scattered oft, the earliest of the year,
+    By hands unseen, are showers of violets found;
+  The red-breast loves to build and warble there,
+    And little footsteps lightly print the ground."
+
+
+19. WILLIAM COLLINS (+1721-1759+), one of the truest lyrical poets of
+the century, was born at Chichester on Christmas-day, 1721. He was
+educated at Winchester School; afterwards at Queen's, and also at
+Magdalen College, Oxford. Before he left school he had written a set of
+poems called +Persian Eclogues+. He left the university with a
+reputation for ability and for indolence; went to London "with many
+projects in his head and little money in his pocket;" and there found a
+kind and fast friend in Dr Johnson. His +Odes+ appeared in 1747. The
+volume fell stillborn from the press: not a single copy was sold; no one
+bought, read, or noticed it. In a fit of furious despair, the unhappy
+author called in the whole edition and burnt every copy with his own
+hands. And yet it was, with the single exception of the songs of Burns,
+the truest poetry that had appeared in the whole of the eighteenth
+century. A great critic says: "In the little book there was hardly a
+single false note: there was, above all things, a purity of music,
+a clarity of style, to which I know of no parallel in English verse from
+the death of Andrew Marvell to the birth of William Blake." Soon after
+this great disappointment he went to live at Richmond, where he formed a
+friendship with Thomson and other poets. In 1749 he wrote the +Ode on
+the Death of Thomson+, beginning--
+
+  "In yonder grave a Druid lies"--
+
+one of the finest of his poems. Not long after, he was attacked by a
+disease of the brain, from which he suffered, at intervals, during the
+remainder of his short life. He died at Chichester in 1759, at the age
+of thirty-eight.
+
+20. Collins's best poem is the +Ode to Evening+; his most elaborate, the
++Ode on the Passions+; and his best known, the +Ode+ beginning--
+
+  "How sleep the brave, who sink to rest
+  By all their country's wishes blessed!"
+
+His latest and best critic says of his poems: "His range of flight was
+perhaps the narrowest, but assuredly the highest, of his generation. He
+could not be taught singing like a finch, but he struck straight upward
+for the sun like a lark.... The direct sincerity and purity of their
+positive and straightforward inspiration will always keep his poems
+fresh and sweet in the senses of all men. He was a solitary song-bird
+among many more or less excellent pipers and pianists. He could put more
+spirit of colour into a single stroke, more breath of music into a
+single note, than could all the rest of his generation into all the
+labours of their lives."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+THE SECOND HALF OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.
+
+
+1. +Prose-Writers.+-- The four greatest prose-writers of the latter half
+of the eighteenth century are +Johnson+, +Goldsmith+, +Burke+, and
++Gibbon+. Dr Johnson was the most prominent literary figure in London at
+this period; and filled in his own time much the same position that
+Carlyle lately held in literary circles. He wrote on many subjects-- but
+chiefly on literature and morals; and hence he was called "The Great
+Moralist." Goldsmith stands out clearly as the writer of the most
+pleasant and easy prose; his pen was ready for any subject; and it has
+been said of him with perfect truth, that he touched nothing that he did
+not adorn. Burke was the most eloquent writer of his time, and by far
+the greatest political thinker that England has ever produced. He is
+known by an essay he wrote when a very young man-- on "The Sublime and
+Beautiful"; but it is to his speeches and political writings that we
+must look for his noblest thoughts and most eloquent language. Gibbon is
+one of the greatest historians and most powerful writers the world has
+ever seen.
+
+
+2. SAMUEL JOHNSON (+1709-1784+), the great essayist and lexicographer,
+was born at Lichfield in the year 1709. His father was a bookseller; and
+it was in his father's shop that Johnson acquired his habit of
+omnivorous reading, or rather devouring of books. The mistress of the
+dame's school, to which he first went, declared him to be the best
+scholar she ever had. After a few years at the free grammar-school of
+Lichfield, and one year at Stourbridge, he went to Pembroke College,
+Oxford, at the age of nineteen. Here he did not confine himself to the
+studies of the place, but indulged in a wide range of miscellaneous
+reading. He was too poor to take a degree, and accordingly left Oxford
+without graduating. After acting for some time as a bookseller's hack,
+he married a Mrs Porter of Birmingham-- a widow with £800. With this
+money he opened a boarding-school, or "academy" as he called it; but he
+had never more than three scholars-- the most famous of whom was the
+celebrated player, David Garrick. In 1737 he went up to London, and for
+the next quarter of a century struggled for a living by the aid of his
+pen. During the first ten years of his London life he wrote chiefly for
+the 'Gentleman's Magazine.' In 1738 his +London+-- a poem in heroic
+metre-- appeared. In 1747 he began his famous +Dictionary+; it was
+completed in 1755; and the University of Oxford conferred on him the
+honorary degree of M.A. In 1749 he wrote another poem-- also in heroic
+metre-- the 'Vanity of Human Wishes.' In 1750 he had begun the
+periodical that raised his fame to its full height-- a periodical to
+which he gave the name of +The Rambler+. It appeared twice a-week; and
+Dr Johnson wrote every article in it for two years. In 1759 he published
+the short novel called +Rasselas+: it was written to defray the expenses
+of his mother's funeral; and he wrote it "in the evenings of a week."
+The year 1762 saw him with a pension from the Government of £300 a-year;
+and henceforth he was free from heavy hack-work and literary drudgery,
+and could give himself up to the largest enjoyment of that for which he
+cared most-- social conversation. He was the best talker of his time;
+and he knew everybody worth knowing-- Burke, Goldsmith, Gibbon, the
+great painter Sir Joshua Reynolds, and many other able men. In 1764 he
+founded the "Literary Club," which still exists and meets in London.
+Oddly enough, although a prolific writer, it is to another person-- to
+Mr James Boswell, who first met him in 1763-- that he owes his greatest
+and most lasting fame. A much larger number of persons read +Boswell's
+Life of Johnson+-- one of the most entertaining books in all
+literature-- than Johnson's own works. Between the years 1779 and 1781
+appeared his last and ablest work, +The Lives of the Poets+, which were
+written as prefaces to a collective edition of the English Poets,
+published by several London booksellers. He died in 1784.
+
+3. Johnson's earlier style was full of Latin words; his later style is
+more purely English than most of the journalistic writing of the present
+day. His Rambler is full of "long-tailed words in _osity_ and _ation_;"
+but his 'Lives of the Poets' is written in manly, vigorous, and
+idiomatic English. In verse, he occupies a place between Pope and
+Goldsmith, and is one of the masters in the "didactic school" of English
+poetry. His rhythm and periods are swelling and sonorous; and here and
+there he equals Pope in the terseness and condensation of his language.
+The following is a fair specimen:--
+
+  "Of all the griefs that harass the distressed,
+  Sure the most bitter is a scornful jest;
+  Fate never wounds more deep the generous heart,
+  Than when a blockhead's insult points the dart."
+
+
+4. OLIVER GOLDSMITH (+1728-1774+), poet, essayist, historian, and
+dramatist, was born at Pallas, in the county of Longford, Ireland, in
+the year 1728. His father was an Irish clergyman, careless,
+good-hearted, and the original of the famous Dr Primrose, in +The Vicar
+of Wakefield+. He was also the original of the "village preacher" in
++The Deserted Village+.
+
+  "A man he was to all the country dear,
+  And passing rich with forty pounds a-year."
+
+Oliver was educated at Trinity College, Dublin; but he left it with no
+fixed aim. He thought of law, and set off for London, but spent all his
+money in Dublin. He thought of medicine, and resided two years in
+Edinburgh. He started for Leyden, in Holland, to continue what he called
+his medical studies; but he had a thirst to see the world-- and so, with
+a guinea in his pocket, one shirt, and a flute, he set out on his
+travels through the continent of Europe. At length, on the 1st of
+February 1756, he landed at Dover, after an absence of two years,
+without a farthing in his pocket. London reached, he tried many ways of
+making a living, as assistant to an apothecary, physician, reader for
+the press, usher in a school, writer in journals. His first work was 'An
+Inquiry into the State of Polite Learning in Europe,' in 1759; but it
+appeared without his name. From that date he wrote books of all kinds,
+poems, and plays. He died in his chambers in Brick Court, Temple,
+London, in 1774.
+
+5. Goldsmith's best poems are +The Traveller+ and +The Deserted
+Village+,-- both written in the Popian couplet. His best play is +She
+Stoops to Conquer+. His best prose work is +The Vicar of Wakefield+,
+"the first genuine novel of domestic life." He also wrote histories of
+England, of Rome, of Animated Nature. All this was done as professional,
+nay, almost as hack work; but always in a very pleasant, lively, and
+readable style. Ease, grace, charm, naturalness, pleasant rhythm, purity
+of diction-- these were the chief characteristics of his writings.
+"Almost to all things could he turn his hand"-- poem, essay, play,
+story, history, natural science. Even when satirical, he was
+good-natured; and his +Retaliation+ is the friendliest and pleasantest
+of satires. In his poetry, his words seem artless, but are indeed
+delicately chosen with that consummate art which conceals and effaces
+itself: where he seems most simple and easy, there he has taken most
+pains and given most labour.
+
+
+6. EDMUND BURKE (+1730-1797+) was born at Dublin in the year 1730. He
+was educated at Trinity College, Dublin; and in 1747 was entered of the
+Middle Temple, with the purpose of reading for the Bar. In 1766 he was
+so fortunate as to enter Parliament as member for Wendover, in
+Buckinghamshire; and he sat in the House of Commons for nearly thirty
+years. While in Parliament, he worked hard to obtain justice for the
+colonists of North America, and to avert the separation of them from the
+mother country; and also to secure good government for India. At the
+close of his life, it was his intention to take his seat in the House of
+Peers as Earl Beaconsfield-- the title afterwards assumed by
+Mr Disraeli; but the death of his son, and only child-- for whom the
+honour was really meant and wished-- quite broke his heart, and he never
+carried out his purpose. He died at Beaconsfield in the year 1797. The
+lines of Goldsmith on Burke, in his poem of "Retaliation," are well
+known:--
+
+  "Here lies our good Edmund, whose genius was such
+  We scarcely can praise it or blame it too much;
+  Who, born for the universe, narrowed his mind,
+  And to party gave up what was meant for mankind;
+  Who, too deep for his hearers, still went on refining,
+  And thought of convincing while they thought of dining."
+
+7. Burke's most famous writings are +Thoughts on the Cause of the
+present Discontents+, published in 1773; +Reflections on the Trench
+Revolution+ (1790); and the +Letters on a Regicide Peace+ (1797). His
+"Thoughts" is perhaps the best of his works in point of style; his
+"Reflections," are full of passages of the highest and most noble
+eloquence. Burke has been described by a great critic as "the supreme
+writer of the century;" and Macaulay says, that "in richness of
+imagination, he is superior to every orator ancient and modern." In the
+power of expressing thought in the strongest, fullest, and most vivid
+manner, he must be classed with Shakespeare and Bacon-- and with these
+writers when at their best. He indulges in repetitions; but the
+repetitions are never monotonous; they serve to place the subject in
+every possible point of view, and to enable us to see all sides of it.
+He possessed an enormous vocabulary, and had the fullest power over it;
+"never was a man under whose hands language was more plastic and
+ductile." He is very fond of metaphor, and is described by an able
+critic as "the greatest master of metaphor that the world has ever
+seen."
+
+
+8. EDWARD GIBBON (+1737-1794+), the second great prose-writer of the
+second half of the eighteenth century, was born at Putney, London, in
+1737. His father was a wealthy landowner. Young Gibbon was a very sickly
+child-- the only survivor of a delicate family of seven; he was left to
+pass his time as he pleased, and for the most part to educate himself.
+But he had the run of several good libraries; and he was an eager and
+never satiated reader. He was sent to Oxford at the early age of
+fifteen; and so full was his knowledge in some directions, and so
+defective in others, that he went there, he tells us himself, "with a
+stock of knowledge that might have puzzled a doctor, and a degree of
+ignorance of which a schoolboy would have been ashamed." He was very
+fond of disputation while at Oxford; and the Dons of the University were
+astonished to see the pathetic "thin little figure, with a large head,
+disputing and arguing with the greatest ability." In the course of his
+reading, he lighted on some French and English books that convinced him
+for the time of the truth of the Roman Catholic faith; he openly
+professed his change of belief; and this obliged him to leave the
+University. His father sent him to Lausanne, and placed him under the
+care of a Swiss clergyman there, whose arguments were at length
+successful in bringing him back to a belief in Protestantism. On his
+return to England in 1758, he lived in his father's house in Hampshire;
+read largely, as usual; but also joined the Hampshire militia as captain
+of a company, and the exercises and manoeuvres of his regiment gave him
+an insight into military matters which was afterwards useful to him when
+he came to write history. He published his first work in 1761. It was an
+essay on the study of literature, and was written in French. In 1770 his
+father died; he came into a fortune, entered Parliament, where he sat
+for eight years, but never spoke; and, in 1776, he began his history of
+the +Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire+. This, by far the greatest of
+his works, was not completed till 1787, and was published in 1788, on
+his fifty-first birthday. His account of the completion of the work-- it
+was finished at Lausanne, where he had lived for six years-- is full of
+beauty: "It was on the day, or rather night, of June 27, 1787, between
+the hours of eleven and twelve, that I wrote the last lines of the last
+page in a summer-house in my garden. After laying down my pen, I took
+several turns in a covered walk of acacias, which commands a prospect of
+the country, the lake, and the mountains. The air was temperate, the sky
+was serene. The silver orb of the moon was reflected from the waters,
+and all nature was silent. I will not describe the first emotion of joy
+on the recovery of my freedom, and perhaps the establishment of my fame.
+But my pride was soon humbled, and a sober melancholy was spread over my
+mind by the idea that I had taken an everlasting leave of an old and
+agreeable companion, and that, whatever might be the future fate of my
+history, the life of the historian must be short and precarious." Gibbon
+died in 1794, about one year before the birth of another great
+historian, Grote, the author of the 'History of Greece.'
+
+9. Gibbon's book is one of the great historical works of the world. It
+covers a space of about thirteen centuries, from the reign of Trajan
+(98), to the fall of the Eastern Empire in 1453; and the amount of
+reading and study required to write it, must have been almost beyond the
+power of our conceiving. The skill in arranging and disposing the
+enormous mass of matter in his history is also unparalleled. His style
+is said by a critic to be "copious, splendid, elegantly rounded,
+distinguished by supreme artificial skill." It is remarkable for the
+proportion of Latin words employed. While some parts of our translation
+of the Bible contain as much as 96 per cent of pure English words,
+Gibbon has only 58 per cent: the rest, or 42 per cent, are words of
+Latin origin. In fact, of all our great English writers, Gibbon stands
+lowest in his use of pure English words; and the two writers who come
+nearest him in this respect are Johnson and Swift. The great Greek
+scholar, Professor Porson, said of Gibbon's style, that "there could not
+be a better exercise for a schoolboy than to turn a page of it into
+English."
+
+10. +Poets.+-- The chief poets of the latter half of the eighteenth
+century belong to a new world, and show very little trace in their
+writings of eighteenth-century culture, ideas, or prejudices. Most of
+the best poets who were born in this half of the eighteenth century and
+began to write in it-- such as Crabbe and Wordsworth-- are true
+denizens, in the character of their minds and feelings, of the
+nineteenth. The greatest poets of the period are +Cowper+, +Crabbe+, and
++Burns+; and along with these may be mentioned as little inferior,
++Chatterton+ and +Blake+, two of the most original poets that have
+appeared in any literature.
+
+
+11. WILLIAM COWPER (+1731-1800+), one of the truest, purest, and
+sweetest of English poets, was born at Great Berkhampstead, in
+Hertfordshire, in 1731. His father, Dr Cowper, who was a nephew of Lord
+Chancellor Cowper, was rector of the parish, and chaplain to George II.
+Young Cowper was educated at Westminster School; and "the great
+proconsul of India," Warren Hastings, was one of his schoolfellows.
+After leaving Westminster, he was entered of the Middle Temple, and was
+also articled to a solicitor. At the age of thirty-one he was appointed
+one of the Clerks to the House of Lords; but he was so terribly nervous
+and timid, that he threw up the appointment. He was next appointed Clerk
+of the Journals-- a post which even the shyest man might hold; but, when
+he found that he would have to appear at the bar of the House of Lords,
+he went home and attempted to commit suicide. When at school, he had
+been terribly and persistently bullied; and, about this time, his mind
+had been somewhat affected by a disappointment in love. The form of his
+insanity was melancholia; and he had several long and severe attacks of
+the same disease in the after-course of his life. He had to be placed in
+the keeping of a physician; and it was only after fifteen months'
+seclusion that he was able to face the world. Giving up all idea of
+professional or of public life, he went to live at Huntingdon with the
+Unwins; and, after the death of Mr Unwin, he removed with Mrs Unwin to
+Olney, in Buckinghamshire. Here, in 1773, another attack of melancholia
+came upon him. In 1779, Cowper joined with Mr Newton, the curate of the
+parish, in publishing the +Olney Hymns+, of which he wrote sixty-eight.
+But it was not till he was past fifty years of age that he betook
+himself seriously to the writing of poetry. His first volume, which
+contained +Table-Talk+, +Conversation+, +Retirement+, and other poems in
+heroic metre, appeared in 1782. His second volume, which included +The
+Task+ and +John Gilpin+, was published in 1785. His translation of the
++Iliad+ and +Odyssey+ of Homer-- a translation into blank verse, which
+he wrote at the regular rate of forty lines a-day-- was published in
+1791. Mrs Unwin now had a shock of paralysis; Cowper himself was again
+seized with mental illness; and from 1791 till his death in 1800, his
+condition was one of extreme misery, depression, and despair. He thought
+himself an outcast from the mercy of God. "I seem to myself," he wrote
+to a friend, "to be scrambling always in the dark, among rocks and
+precipices, without a guide, but with an enemy ever at my heels,
+prepared to push me headlong." The cloud never lifted; gloom and
+dejection enshrouded all his later years; a pension of £300 a-year from
+George III. brought him no pleasure; and he died insane, at East
+Dereham, in Norfolk, in the year 1800. In the poem of +The Castaway+ he
+compares himself to a drowning sailor:--
+
+  "No voice divine the storm allayed,
+    No light propitious shone,
+  When, far from all effectual aid,
+    We perished-- each alone--
+  But I beneath a rougher sea,
+  And whelmed in blacker gulfs than he."
+
+12. His greatest work is +The Task+; and the best poem in it is probably
+"The Winter Evening." His best-known poem is +John Gilpin+, which, like
+"The Task," he wrote at the request of his friend, Lady Austen. His most
+powerful poem is +The Castaway+. He always writes in clear, crisp,
+pleasant, and manly English. He himself says, in a letter to a friend:
+"Perspicuity is always more than half the battle... A meaning that does
+not stare you in the face is as bad as no meaning;" and this direction
+he himself always carried out. Cowper's poems mark a new era in poetry;
+his style is new, and his ideas are new. He is no follower of Pope;
+Southey compared Pope and Cowper as "formal gardens in comparison with
+woodland scenery." He is always original, always true-- true to his own
+feeling, and true to the object he is describing. "My descriptions," he
+writes of "The Task," "are all from nature; not one of them
+second-handed. My delineations of the heart are from my own experience."
+Everywhere in his poems we find a genuine love of nature; humour and
+pathos in his description of persons; and a purity and honesty of style
+that have never been surpassed. Many of his well-put lines have passed
+into our common stock of everyday quotations. Such are--
+
+  "God made the country, and man made the town."
+
+      "Variety's the very spice of life
+  That gives it all its flavour."
+
+                  "The heart
+  May give a useful lesson to the head,
+  And Learning wiser grow without his books."
+
+  "Beware of desperate steps. The darkest day,
+  Live till to-morrow, will have passed away."
+
+
+13. GEORGE CRABBE (+1754-1832+), the poet of the poor, was born at
+Aldborough, in Suffolk, on Christmas Eve of the year 1754. He stands
+thus midway between Goldsmith and Wordsworth-- midway between the old
+and the new school of poetry. His father was salt-master-- or collector
+of salt duties-- at the little seaport. After being taught a little at
+several schools, it was agreed that George should be made a surgeon. He
+was accordingly apprenticed; but he was fonder of writing verses than of
+attending cases. His memory for poetry was astonishing; he had begun to
+write verses at the age of fourteen; and he filled the drawers of the
+surgery with his poetical attempts. After a time he set up for himself
+in practice at Aldborough; but most of his patients were poor people and
+poor relations, who paid him neither for his physic nor his advice. In
+1779 he resolved "to go to London and venture all." Accordingly, he took
+a berth on board of a sailing-packet, carrying with him a little money
+and a number of manuscript poems. But nothing succeeded with him; he was
+reduced to his last eightpence. In this strait, he wrote to the great
+statesman, Edmund Burke; and, while the answer was coming, he walked all
+night up and down Westminster Bridge. Burke took him in to his own house
+and found a publisher for his poems.
+
+14. In 1781 +The Library+ appeared; and in the same year Crabbe entered
+the Church. In 1783 he published +The Village+-- a poem which Dr Johnson
+revised for him. This work won for him an established reputation; but,
+for twenty-four years after, Crabbe gave himself up entirely to the care
+of his parish, and published only one poem-- +The Newspaper+. In 1807
+appeared +The Parish Register+; in 1810, +The Borough+; in 1812, +Tales
+in Verse+; and, in 1819, his last poetical work, +Tales of the Hall+.
+From this time, till his death in 1832-- thirteen years after-- he
+produced no other poem. Personally, he was one of the noblest and
+kindest of men; he was known as "the gentleman with the sour name and
+the sweet countenance;" and he spent most of his income on the wants of
+others.
+
+15. Crabbe's poetical work forms a prominent landmark in English
+literature. His style is the style of the eighteenth century-- with a
+strong admixture of his own; his way of thinking, and the objects he
+selects for description, belong to the nineteenth. While Pope depicted
+"the town," politics, and abstract moralities, Crabbe describes the
+country and the country poor, social matters, real life-- the lowest and
+poorest life, and more especially, the intense misery of the village
+population of his time in the eastern counties--
+
+            "the wild amphibious race
+  With sullen woe displayed in every face."
+
+He does not paint the lot of the poor with the rose-coloured tints used
+by Goldsmith; he boldly denies the existence of such a village as
+Auburn; he groups such places with Eden, and says--
+
+  "Auburn and Eden can be found no more;"
+
+he shows the gloomy, hard, despairing side of English country life. He
+has been called a "Pope in worsted stockings," and "the Hogarth, of
+song." Byron describes him as
+
+  "Nature's sternest painter, yet the best."
+
+Now and then his style is flat, and even coarse; but there is everywhere
+a genuine power of strong and bold painting. He is also an excellent
+master of easy dialogue.
+
+All of his poems are written in the Popian couplet of two ten-syllabled
+lines.
+
+
+16. ROBERT BURNS (+1759-1796+), the greatest poet of Scotland, was born
+in Ayrshire, two miles from the town of Ayr, in 1759. The only education
+he received from his father was the schooling of a few months; but the
+family were fond of reading, and Robert was the most enthusiastic reader
+of them all. Every spare moment he could find-- and they were not many--
+he gave to reading; he sat at meals "with a book in one hand and a spoon
+in the other;" and in this way he read most of the great English poets
+and prose-writers. This was an excellent education-- one a great deal
+better than most people receive; and some of our greatest men have had
+no better. But, up to the age of sixteen, he had to toil on his father's
+farm from early morning till late at night. In the intervals of his work
+he contrived, by dint of thrift and industry, to learn French,
+mathematics, and a little Latin. On the death of his father, he took a
+small farm, but did not succeed. He was on the point of embarking for
+Jamaica, where a post had been found for him, when the news of the
+successful sale of a small volume of his poems reached him; and he at
+once changed his mind, and gave up all idea of emigrating. His friends
+obtained for him a post as exciseman, in which his duty was to gauge the
+quantity and quality of ardent spirits-- a post full of dangers to a man
+of his excitable and emotional temperament. He went a great deal into
+what was called society, formed the acquaintance of many boon
+companions, acquired habits of intemperance that he could not shake off,
+and died at Dumfries in 1796, in his thirty-seventh year.
+
+17. His best poems are lyrical, and he is himself one of the foremost
+lyrical poets in the world. His songs have probably been more sung, and
+in more parts of the globe, than the songs of any other writer that ever
+lived. They are of every kind-- songs of love, war, mirth, sorrow,
+labour, and social gatherings. Professor Craik says: "One characteristic
+that belongs to whatever Burns has written is that, of its kind and in
+its own way, it is a perfect production. His poetry is, throughout, real
+emotion melodiously uttered, instinct with passion, but not less so with
+power of thought,-- full of light as well as of fire." Most of his poems
+are written in the North-English, or Lowland-Scottish, dialect. The most
+elevated of his poems is +The Vision+, in which he relates how the
+Scottish Muse found him at the plough, and crowned him with a wreath of
+holly. One of his longest, as well as finest poems, is +The Cottar's
+Saturday Night+, which is written in the Spenserian stanza. Perhaps his
+most pathetic poem is that entitled +To Mary in Heaven+. It is of a
+singular eloquence, elevation, and sweetness. The first verse runs
+thus--
+
+  "Thou lingering star, with lessening ray,
+    That lov'st to greet the early morn,
+  Again thou usher'st in the day
+    My Mary from my soul was torn.
+  O Mary! dear departed shade!
+    Where is thy place of blissful rest?
+  See'st thou thy lover lowly laid?
+    Hear'st thou the groans that rend his breast?"
+
+He is, as his latest critic says, "the poet of homely human nature;" and
+his genius shows the beautiful elements in this homeliness; and that
+what is homely need not therefore be dull and prosaic.
+
+
+18. THOMAS CHATTERTON and WILLIAM BLAKE are two minor poets, of whom
+little is known and less said, but whose work is of the most poetical
+and genuine kind. --Chatterton was born at Bristol in the year 1752. He
+was the son of a schoolmaster, who died before he was born. He was
+educated at Colston's Blue-Coat School in Bristol; and, while at school,
+read his way steadily through every book in three circulating libraries.
+He began to write verses at the age of fifteen, and in two years had
+produced a large number of poems-- some of them of the highest value. In
+1770, he came up to London, with something under five pounds in his
+pocket, and his mind made up to try his fortune as a literary man,
+resolved, though he was only a boy of seventeen, to live by literature
+or to die. Accordingly, he set to work and wrote every kind of
+productions-- poems, essays, stories, political articles, songs for
+public singers; and all the time he was half starving. A loaf of bread
+lasted him a week; and it was "bought stale to make it last longer." He
+had made a friend of the Lord Mayor, Beckford; but before he had time to
+hold out a hand to the struggling boy, Beckford died. The struggle
+became harder and harder-- more and more hopeless; his neighbours
+offered a little help-- a small coin or a meal-- he rejected all; and at
+length, on the evening of the 24th August 1770, he went up to his
+garret, locked himself in, tore up all his manuscripts, took poison, and
+died. He was only seventeen.
+
+19. Wordsworth and Coleridge spoke with awe of his genius; Keats
+dedicated one of his poems to his memory; and Coleridge copied some of
+his rhythms. One of his best poems is the +Minstrel's Roundelay+--
+
+  "O sing unto my roundelay,
+    O drop the briny tear with me,
+  Dance no more on holy-day,
+    Like a running river be.
+        My love is dead,
+        Gone to his death-bed
+          All under the willow-tree.
+
+  "Black his hair as the winter night,
+    White his skin as the summer snow,
+  Red his face as the morning light,
+    Cold he lies in the grave below.
+        My love is dead,
+        Gone to his death-bed
+          All under the willow-tree."
+
+
+20. WILLIAM BLAKE (+1757-1827+), one of the most original poets that
+ever lived, was born in London in the year 1757. He was brought up as an
+engraver; worked steadily at his business, and did a great deal of
+beautiful work in that capacity. He in fact illustrated his own poems--
+each page being set in a fantastic design of his own invention, which he
+himself engraved. He was also his own printer and publisher. The first
+volume of his poems was published in 1783; the +Songs of Innocence+,
+probably his best, appeared in 1787. He died in Fountain Court, Strand,
+London, in the year 1827.
+
+21. His latest critic says of Blake: "His detachment from the ordinary
+currents of practical thought left to his mind an unspoiled and
+delightful simplicity which has perhaps never been matched in English
+poetry." Simplicity-- the perfect simplicity of a child-- beautiful
+simplicity-- simple and childlike beauty,-- such is the chief note of
+the poetry of Blake. "Where he is successful, his work has the fresh
+perfume and perfect grace of a flower." The most remarkable point about
+Blake is that, while living in an age when the poetry of Pope-- and that
+alone-- was everywhere paramount, his poems show not the smallest trace
+of Pope's influence, but are absolutely original. His work, in fact,
+seems to be the first bright streak of the golden dawn that heralded the
+approach of the full and splendid daylight of the poetry of Wordsworth
+and Coleridge, of Shelley and Byron. His best-known poems are those from
+the 'Songs of Innocence'-- such as +Piping down the valleys wild+; +The
+Lamb+; +The Tiger+, and others. Perhaps the most remarkable element in
+Blake's poetry is the sweetness and naturalness of the rhythm. It seems
+careless, but it is always beautiful; it grows, it is not made; it is
+like a wild field-flower thrown up by Nature in a pleasant green field.
+Such are the rhythms in the poem entitled +Night+:--
+
+  "The sun descending in the west,
+  The evening star does shine;
+  The birds are silent in their nest,
+  And I must seek for mine.
+  The moon, like a flower
+  In heaven's high bower,
+  With silent delight
+  Sits and smiles on the night.
+
+  "Farewell, green fields and happy grove,
+  Where flocks have ta'en delight;
+  Where lambs have nibbled, silent move
+  The feet of angels bright:
+  Unseen they pour blessing,
+  And joy without ceasing,
+  On each bud and blossom,
+  On each sleeping bosom."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+THE FIRST HALF OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.
+
+
+1. +New Ideas.+-- The end of the eighteenth and the beginning of the
+nineteenth century are alike remarkable for the new powers, new ideas,
+and new life thrown into society. The coming up of a high flood-tide of
+new forces seems to coincide with the beginning of the French Revolution
+in 1789, when the overthrow of the Bastille marked the downfall of the
+old ways of thinking and acting, and announced to the world of Europe
+and America that the old _régime_-- the ancient mode of governing-- was
+over. Wordsworth, then a lad of nineteen, was excited by the event
+almost beyond the bounds of self-control. He says in his "Excursion"--
+
+  "Bliss was it in that dawn to be alive,
+  But to be young was very Heaven!"
+
+It was, indeed, the dawn of a new day for the peoples of Europe. The
+ideas of freedom and equality-- of respect for man as man-- were thrown
+into popular form by France; they became living powers in Europe; and in
+England they animated and inspired the best minds of the time-- Burns,
+Coleridge, Wordsworth, Shelley, and Byron. Along with this high tide of
+hope and emotion, there was such an outburst of talent and genius in
+every kind of human endeavour in England, as was never seen before
+except in the Elizabethan period. Great events produced great powers;
+and great powers in their turn brought about great events. The war with
+America, the long struggle with Napoleon, the new political ideas, great
+victories by sea and land,-- all these were to be found in the beginning
+of the nineteenth century. The English race produced great men in
+numbers-- almost, it might be said, in groups. We had great leaders,
+like Nelson and Wellington; brilliant generals, like Sir Charles Napier
+and Sir John Moore; great statesmen, like Fox and Pitt, like Washington
+and Franklin; great engineers, like Stephenson and Brunel; and great
+poets, like Wordsworth and Byron. And as regards literature, an able
+critic remarks: "We have recovered in this century the Elizabethan magic
+and passion, a more than Elizabethan sense of the beauty and complexity
+of nature, the Elizabethan music of language."
+
+2. +Great Poets.+-- The greatest poets of the first half of the
+nineteenth century may be best arranged in groups. There were
++Wordsworth+, +Coleridge+, and +Southey+-- commonly, but unnecessarily,
+described as the Lake Poets. In their poetic thought and expression they
+had little in common; and the fact that two of them lived most of their
+lives in the Lake country, is not a sufficient justification for the use
+of the term. There were +Scott+ and +Campbell+-- both of them Scotchmen.
+There were +Byron+ and +Shelley+-- both Englishmen, both brought up at
+the great public schools and the universities, but both carried away by
+the influence of the new revolutionary ideas. Lastly, there were
++Moore+, an Irishman, and young +Keats+, the splendid promise of whose
+youth went out in an early death. Let us learn a little more about each,
+and in the order of the dates of their birth.
+
+
+3. WILLIAM WORDSWORTH (+1770-1850+) was born at Cockermouth, a town in
+Cumberland, which stands at the confluence of the Cocker and the
+Derwent. His father, John Wordsworth, was law agent to Sir James
+Lowther, who afterwards became Earl of Lonsdale. William was a boy of a
+stiff, moody, and violent temper; and as his mother died when he was a
+very little boy, and his father when he was fourteen, he grew up with
+very little care from his parents and guardians. He was sent to school
+at Hawkshead, in the Vale of Esthwaite, in Lancashire; and, at the age
+of seventeen, proceeded to St John's College, Cambridge. After taking
+his degree of B.A. in 1791, he resided for a year in France. He took
+sides with one of the parties in the Reign of Terror, and left the
+country only in time to save his head. He was designed by his uncles for
+the Church; but a friend, Raisley Calvert, dying, left him £900; and he
+now resolved to live a plain and frugal life, to join no profession, but
+to give himself wholly up to the writing of poetry. In 1798, he
+published, along with his friend, S. T. Coleridge, the +Lyrical
+Ballads+. The only work of Coleridge's in this volume was the "Ancient
+Mariner." In 1802 he married Mary Hutchinson, of whom he speaks in the
+well-known lines--
+
+  "Her eyes as stars of Twilight fair,
+  Like Twilight's, too, her dusky hair;
+  But all things else about her drawn
+  From May-time and the cheerful dawn."
+
+He obtained the post of Distributor of Stamps for the county of
+Westmoreland; and, after the death of Southey, he was created
++Poet-Laureate+ by the Queen. --He settled with his wife in the Lake
+country; and, in 1813, took up his abode at Rydal Mount, where he lived
+till his death in 1850. He died on the 23d of April-- the death-day of
+Shakespeare.
+
+4. His longest works are the +Excursion+ and the +Prelude+-- both being
+parts of a longer and greater work which he intended to write on the
+growth of his own mind. His best poems are his shorter pieces, such as
+the poems on +Lucy+, +The Cuckoo+, the +Ode to Duty+, the +Intimations
+of Immortality+, and several of his +Sonnets+. He says of his own poetry
+that his purpose in writing it was "to console the afflicted; to add
+sunshine to daylight by making the happy happier; to teach the young and
+the gracious of every age to see, to think, and feel, and therefore to
+become more actively and securely virtuous." His poetical work is the
+noble landmark of a great transition-- both in thought and in style. He
+drew aside poetry from questions and interests of mere society and the
+town to the scenes of Nature and the deepest feelings of man as man. In
+style, he refused to employ the old artificial vocabulary which Pope and
+his followers revelled in; he used the simplest words he could find;
+and, when he hits the mark in his simplest form of expression, his style
+is as forcible as it is true. He says of his own verse--
+
+  "The moving accident is not my trade,
+  To freeze the blood I have no ready arts;
+  'Tis my delight, alone, in summer shade,
+  To pipe a simple song for _thinking hearts_."
+
+If one were asked what four lines of his poetry best convey the feeling
+of the whole, the reply must be that these are to be found in his "Song
+at the Feast of Brougham Castle,"-- lines written about "the good Lord
+Clifford."
+
+  "Love had he found in huts where poor men lie,
+  His daily teachers had been woods and rills,--
+  The silence that is in the starry sky,
+  The sleep that is among the lonely hills."
+
+
+5. WALTER SCOTT (+1771-1832+), poet and novelist, the son of a Scotch
+attorney (called in Edinburgh a W.S. or Writer to H.M.'s Signet), was
+born there in the year 1771. He was educated at the High School, and
+then at the College-- now called the University-- of Edinburgh. In 1792
+he was called to the Scottish Bar, or became an "advocate." During his
+boyhood, he had had several illnesses, one of which left him lame for
+life. Through those long periods of sickness and of convalescence, he
+read Percy's 'Reliques of Ancient Poetry,' and almost all the romances,
+old plays, and epic poems that have been published in the English
+language. This gave his mind and imagination a set which they never lost
+all through life.
+
+6. His first publications were translations of German poems. In the year
+1805, however, an original poem, the +Lay of the Last Minstrel+,
+appeared; and Scott became at one bound the foremost poet of the day.
++Marmion+, the +Lady of the Lake+, and other poems, followed with great
+rapidity. But, in 1814, Scott took it into his head that his poetical
+vein was worked out; the star of Byron was rising upon the literary
+horizon; and he now gave himself up to novel-writing. His first novel,
++Waverley+, appeared anonymously in 1814. +Guy Mannering+, +Old
+Mortality+, +Rob Roy+, and others, quickly followed; and, though the
+secret of the authorship was well kept both by printer and publisher,
+Walter Scott was generally believed to be the writer of these works, and
+he was frequently spoken of as "the Great Unknown." He was made a
+baronet by George IV. in 1820.
+
+7. His expenses in building Abbotsford, and his desire to acquire land,
+induced him to go into partnership with Ballantyne, his printer, and
+with Constable, his publisher. Both firms failed in the dark year of
+1826; and Scott found himself unexpectedly liable for the large sum of
+£147,000. Such a load of debt would have utterly crushed most men; but
+Scott stood clear and undaunted in front of it. "Gentlemen," he said to
+his creditors, "time and I against any two. Let me take this good ally
+into my company, and I believe I shall be able to pay you every
+farthing." He left his beautiful country house at Abbotsford; he gave up
+all his country pleasures; he surrendered all his property to his
+creditors; he took a small house in Edinburgh; and, in the short space
+of five years, he had paid off £130,000. But the task was too terrible;
+the pace had been too hard; and he was struck down by paralysis. But
+even this disaster did not daunt him. Again he went to work, and again
+he had a paralytic stroke. At last, however, he was obliged to give up;
+the Government of the day placed a royal frigate at his disposal; he
+went to Italy; but his health had utterly broken down, he felt he could
+get no good from the air of the south, and he turned his face towards
+home to die. He breathed his last breath at Abbotsford, in sight of his
+beloved Tweed, with his family around him, on the 21st of September
+1832.
+
+8. His poetry is the poetry of action. In imaginative power he ranks
+below no other poet, except Homer and Shakespeare. He delighted in war,
+in its movement, its pageantry, and its events; and, though lame, he was
+quartermaster of a volunteer corps of cavalry. On one occasion he rode
+to muster one hundred miles in twenty-four hours, composing verses by
+the way. Much of "+Marmion+" was composed on horseback. "I had many a
+grand gallop," he says, "when I was thinking of '+Marmion+.'" His two
+chief powers in verse are his narrative and his pictorial power. His
+boyhood was passed in the Borderland of Scotland-- "a district in which
+every field has its battle and every rivulet its song;" and he was at
+home in every part of the Highlands and the Lowlands, the Islands and
+the Borders, of his native country. But, both in his novels and his
+poems, he was a painter of action rather than of character.
+
+9. His prose works are now much more read than his poems; but both are
+full of life, power, literary skill, knowledge of men and women, and
+strong sympathy with all past ages. He wrote so fast that his sentences
+are often loose and ungrammatical; but they are never unidiomatic or
+stiff. The rush of a strong and large life goes through them, and
+carries the reader along, forgetful of all minor blemishes. His best
+novels are +Old Mortality+ and +Kenilworth+; his greatest romance is
++Ivanhoe+.
+
+
+10. SAMUEL TAYLOR COLERIDGE (+1772-1834+), a true poet, and a writer of
+noble prose, was born at Ottery St Mary, in Devonshire, in 1772. His
+father, who was vicar of the parish, and master of the grammar-school,
+died when the boy was only nine years of age. He was educated at
+Christ's Hospital, in London, where his most famous schoolfellow was
+Charles Lamb; and from there he went to Jesus College, Cambridge. In
+1793 he had fallen into debt at College; and, in despair, left
+Cambridge, and enlisted in the 15th Light Dragoons, under the name of
+Silas Tomkins Comberbatch. He was quickly discovered, and his discharge
+soon obtained. While on a visit to his friend Robert Southey, at
+Bristol, the plan of emigrating to the banks of the Susquehanna, in
+Pennsylvania, was entered on; but, when all the friends and
+fellow-emigrants were ready to start, it was discovered that no one of
+them had any money. --Coleridge finally became a literary man and
+journalist. His real power, however, lay in poetry; but by poetry he
+could not make a living. His first volume of poems was published at
+Bristol, in the year 1796; but it was not till 1798 that the +Rime of
+the Ancient Mariner+ appeared in the 'Lyrical Ballads.' His next
+greatest poem, +Christabel+, though written in 1797, was not published
+till the year 1816. His other best poems are +Love+; +Dejection--an
+Ode+; and some of his shorter pieces. His best poetry was written about
+the close of the century: "Coleridge," said Wordsworth, "was in blossom
+from 1796 to 1800." --As a critic and prose-writer, he is one of the
+greatest men of his time. His best works in prose are +The Friend+ and
+the +Aids to Reflection+. He died at Highgate, near London, in the year
+1834.
+
+11. His style, both in prose and in verse, marks the beginning of the
+modern era. His prose style is noble, elaborate, eloquent, and full of
+subtle and involved thought; his style in verse is always musical, and
+abounds in rhythms of the most startling and novel-- yet always
+genuine-- kind. +Christabel+ is the poem that is most full of these fine
+musical rhythms.
+
+
+12. ROBERT SOUTHEY (+1774-1843+), poet, reviewer, historian, but, above
+all, man of letters,-- the friend of Coleridge and Wordsworth,-- was
+born at Bristol in 1774. He was educated at Westminster School and at
+Balliol College, Oxford. After his marriage with Miss Edith Fricker--
+a sister of Sara, the wife of Coleridge-- he settled at Greta Hall, near
+Keswick, in 1803; and resided there until his death in 1843. In 1813 he
+was created +Poet-Laureate+ by George III. --He was the most
+indefatigable of writers. He wrote poetry before breakfast; history
+between breakfast and dinner; reviews between dinner and supper; and,
+even when taking a constitutional, he had always a book in his hand, and
+walked along the road reading. He began to write and to publish at the
+age of nineteen; he never ceased writing till the year 1837, when his
+brain softened from the effects of perpetual labour.
+
+13. Southey wrote a great deal of verse, but much more prose. His prose
+works amount to more than one hundred volumes; but his poetry, such as
+it is, will probably live longer than his prose. His best-known poems
+are +Joan of Arc+, written when he was nineteen; +Thalaba the
+Destroyer+, a poem in irregular and unrhymed verse; +The Curse of
+Kehama+, in verse rhymed, but irregular; and +Roderick, the last of the
+Goths+, written in blank verse. He will, however, always be best
+remembered by his shorter pieces, such as +The Holly Tree+, +Stanzas
+written in My Library+, and others. --His most famous prose work is the
++Life of Nelson+. His prose style is always firm, clear, compact, and
+sensible.
+
+
+14. THOMAS CAMPBELL (+1777-1844+), a noble poet and brilliant reviewer,
+was born in Glasgow in the year 1777. He was educated at the High School
+and the University of Glasgow. At the age of twenty-two, he published
+his +Pleasures of Hope+, which at once gave him a place high among the
+poets of the day. In 1803 he removed to London, and followed literature
+as his profession; and, in 1806, he received a pension of £200 a-year
+from the Government, which enabled him to devote the whole of his time
+to his favourite study of poetry. His best long poem is the +Gertrude of
+Wyoming+, a tale written in the Spenserian stanza, which he handles with
+great ease and power. But he is best known, and will be longest
+remembered, for his short lyrics-- which glow with passionate and fiery
+eloquence-- such as +The Battle of the Baltic+, +Ye Mariners of
+England+, +Hohenlinden+, and others. He was twice Lord Rector of the
+University of Glasgow. He died at Boulogne in 1844, and was buried in
+Poets' Corner, Westminster Abbey.
+
+
+15. THOMAS MOORE (+1779-1852+), poet, biographer, and historian-- but
+most of all poet-- was born in Dublin in the year 1779. He began to
+print verses at the age of thirteen, and may be said, like Pope, to have
+"lisped in numbers, for the numbers came." He came to London in 1799,
+and was quickly received into fashionable society. In 1803 he was made
+Admiralty Registrar at Bermuda; but he soon gave up the post, leaving a
+deputy in his place, who, some years after, embezzled the Government
+funds, and brought financial ruin upon Moore. The poet's friends offered
+to help him out of his money difficulties; but he most honourably
+declined all such help, and, like Sir W. Scott, resolved to clear off
+all claims against him by the aid of his pen alone. For the next twenty
+years of his life he laboured incessantly; and volumes of poetry,
+history, and biography came steadily from his pen. His best poems are
+his +Irish Melodies+, some fifteen or sixteen of which are perfect and
+imperishable; and it is as a writer of songs that Moore will live in the
+literature of this country. He boasted, and with truth, that it was he
+who awakened for this century the long-silent harp of his native land--
+
+  "Dear Harp of my Country! in darkness I found thee,
+    The cold chain of silence had hung o'er thee long,
+  When proudly, my own Island Harp, I unbound thee,
+    And gave all thy chords to light, freedom, and song."
+
+His best long poem is +Lalla Rookh+. --His prose works are little read
+nowadays. The chief among them are his +Life of Sheridan+, and his +Life
+of Lord Byron+. --He died at Sloperton, in Wiltshire, in 1852, two years
+after the death of Wordsworth.
+
+
+16. GEORGE GORDON, LORD BYRON (+1788-1824+), a great English poet, was
+born in London in the year 1788. He was the only child of a reckless and
+unprincipled father and a passionate mother. He was educated at Harrow
+School, and afterwards at Trinity College, Cambridge. His first volume--
++Hours of Idleness+-- was published in 1807, before he was nineteen.
+A critique of this juvenile work which appeared in the 'Edinburgh
+Review' stung him to passion; and he produced a very vigorous poetical
+reply in +English Bards and Scotch Reviewers+. After the publication of
+this book, Byron travelled in Germany, Spain, Greece, and Turkey for two
+years; and the first two cantos of the poem entitled +Childe Harold's
+Pilgrimage+ were the outcome of these travels. This poem at once placed
+him at the head of English poets; "he woke one morning," he said, "and
+found himself famous." He was married in the year 1815, but left his
+wife in the following year; left his native country also, never to
+return. First of all he settled at Geneva, where he made the
+acquaintance of the poet Shelley, and where he wrote, among other poems,
+the third canto of +Childe Harold+ and the +Prisoner of Chillon+. In
+1817 he removed to Venice, where he composed the fourth canto of +Childe
+Harold+ and the +Lament of Tasso+; his next resting-place was Ravenna,
+where he wrote several plays. Pisa saw him next; and at this place he
+spent a great deal of his time in close intimacy with Shelley. In 1821
+the Greek nation rose in revolt against the cruelties and oppression of
+the Turkish rule; and Byron's sympathies were strongly enlisted on the
+side of the Greeks. He helped the struggling little country with
+contributions of money; and, in 1823, sailed from Geneva to take a
+personal share in the war of liberation. He died, however, of fever, at
+Missolonghi, on the 19th of April 1824, at the age of thirty-six.
+
+17. His best-known work is +Childe Harold+, which is written in the
+Spenserian stanza. His plays, the best of which are +Manfred+ and
++Sardanap[-a]lus+, are written in blank verse. --His style is remarkable
+for its strength and elasticity, for its immensely powerful sweep,
+tireless energy, and brilliant illustrations.
+
+
+18. PERCY BYSSHE SHELLEY (+1792-1822+),-- who has, like Spenser, been
+called "the poet's poet,"-- was born at Field Place, near Horsham, in
+Sussex, in the year 1792. He was educated at Eton, and then at
+University College, Oxford. A shy, diffident, retiring boy, with sweet,
+gentle looks and manners-- like those of a girl-- but with a spirit of
+the greatest fearlessness and the noblest independence, he took little
+share in the sports and pursuits of his schoolfellows. Obliged to leave
+Oxford, in consequence of having written a tract of which the
+authorities did not approve, he married at the very early age of
+nineteen. The young lady whom he married died in 1816; and he soon after
+married Mary, daughter of William Godwin, the eminent author of
+'Political Justice.' In 1818 he left England for Italy,-- like his
+friend, Lord Byron, for ever. It was at Naples, Leghorn, and Pisa that
+he chiefly resided. In 1822 he bought a little boat-- "a perfect
+plaything for the summer," he calls it; and he used often to make short
+voyages in it, and wrote many of his poems on these occasions. When
+Leigh Hunt was lying ill at Leghorn, Shelley and his friend Williams
+resolved on a coasting trip to that city. They reached Leghorn in
+safety; but, on the return journey, the boat sank in a sudden squall.
+Captain Roberts was watching the vessel with his glass from the top of
+the Leghorn lighthouse, as it crossed the Bay of Spezzia: a black cloud
+arose; a storm came down; the vessels sailing with Shelley's boat were
+wrapped in darkness; the cloud passed; the sun shone out, and all was
+clear again; the larger vessels rode on; but Shelley's boat had
+disappeared. The poet's body was cast on shore, but the quarantine laws
+of Italy required that everything thrown up on the coast should be
+burned: no representations could alter the law; and Shelley's ashes were
+placed in a box and buried in the Protestant cemetery at Rome.
+
+19. Shelley's best long poem is the +Adonaïs+, an elegy on the death of
+John Keats. It is written in the Spenserian stanza. But this true poet
+will be best remembered by his short lyrical poems, such as +The Cloud+,
++Ode to a Skylark+, +Ode to the West Wind+, +Stanzas written in
+Dejection+, and others. --Shelley has been called "the poet's poet,"
+because his style is so thoroughly transfused by pure imagination. He
+has also been called "the master-singer of our modern race and age; for
+his thoughts, his words, and his deeds all sang together." He is
+probably the greatest lyric poet of this century.
+
+
+20. JOHN KEATS (+1795-1821+), one of our truest poets, was born in
+Moorfields, London, in the year 1795. He was educated at a private
+school at Enfield. His desire for the pleasures of the intellect and the
+imagination showed itself very early at school; and he spent many a
+half-holiday in writing translations from the Roman and the French
+poets. On leaving school, he was apprenticed to a surgeon at Edmonton--
+the scene of one of John Gilpin's adventures; but, in 1817, he gave up
+the practice of surgery, devoted himself entirely to poetry, and brought
+out his first volume. In 1818 appeared his +Endymion+. The 'Quarterly
+Review' handled it without mercy. Keats's health gave way; the seeds of
+consumption were in his frame; and he was ordered to Italy in 1820, as
+the last chance of saving his life. But it was too late. The air of
+Italy could not restore him. He settled at Rome with his friend Severn;
+but, in spite of all the care, thought, devotion, and watching of his
+friend, he died in 1821, at the age of twenty-five. He was buried in the
+Protestant cemetery at Rome; and the inscription on his tomb, composed
+by himself, is, "_Here lies one whose name was writ in water_."
+
+21. His greatest poem is +Hyperion+, written, in blank verse, on the
+overthrow of the "early gods" of Greece. But he will most probably be
+best remembered by his marvellous odes, such as the +Ode to a
+Nightingale+, +Ode on a Grecian Urn+, +To Autumn+, and others. His style
+is clear, sensuous, and beautiful; and he has added to our literature
+lines that will always live. Such are the following:--
+
+  "A thing of beauty is a joy for ever."
+
+  "Silent, upon a peak in Darien."
+
+  "Then felt I like some watcher of the skies
+  When a new planet swims into his ken."
+
+  "Perhaps the self-same song that found a path
+  Through the sad heart of Ruth, when, sick for home,
+  She stood in tears amid the alien corn."
+
+22. +Prose-Writers.+-- We have now to consider the greatest
+prose-writers of the first half of the nineteenth century. First comes
++Walter Scott+, one of the greatest novelists that ever lived, and who
+won the name of "The Wizard of the North" from the marvellous power he
+possessed of enchaining the attention and fascinating the minds of his
+readers. Two other great writers of prose were +Charles Lamb+ and
++Walter Savage Landor+, each in styles essentially different. +Jane
+Austen+, a young English lady, has become a classic in prose, because
+her work is true and perfect within its own sphere. +De Quincey+ is
+perhaps the writer of the most ornate and elaborate English prose of
+this period. +Thomas Carlyle+, a great Scotsman, with a style of
+overwhelming power, but of occasional grotesqueness, like a great
+prophet and teacher of the nation, compelled statesmen and
+philanthropists to think, while he also gained for himself a high place
+in the rank of historians. +Macaulay+, also of Scottish descent, was one
+of the greatest essayists and ablest writers on history that Great
+Britain has produced. A short survey of each of these great men may be
+useful. Scott has been already treated of.
+
+
+23. CHARLES LAMB (+1775-1834+), a perfect English essayist, was born in
+the Inner Temple, in London, in the year 1775. His father was clerk to a
+barrister of that Inn of Court. Charles was educated at Christ's
+Hospital, where his most famous schoolfellow was S. T. Coleridge.
+Brought up in the very heart of London, he had always a strong feeling
+for the greatness of the metropolis of the world. "I often shed tears,"
+he said, "in the motley Strand, for fulness of joy at so much life." He
+was, indeed, a thorough Cockney and lover of London, as were also
+Chaucer, Spenser, Milton, and Lamb's friend Leigh Hunt. Entering the
+India House as a clerk in the year 1792, he remained there thirty-three
+years; and it was one of his odd sayings that, if any one wanted to see
+his "works," he would find them on the shelves of the India House. --He
+is greatest as a writer of prose; and his prose is, in its way,
+unequalled for sweetness, grace, humour, and quaint terms, among the
+writings of this century. His best prose work is the +Essays of Elia+,
+which show on every page the most whimsical and humorous subtleties,
+a quick play of intellect, and a deep sympathy with the sorrows and the
+joys of men. Very little verse came from his pen. "Charles Lamb's
+nosegay of verse," says Professor Dowden, "may be held by the small hand
+of a maiden, and there is not in it one flaunting flower." Perhaps the
+best of his poems are the short pieces entitled +Hester+ and +The Old
+Familiar Faces+. --He retired from the India House, on a pension, in
+1825, and died at Edmonton, near London, in 1834. His character was as
+sweet and refined as his style; Wordsworth spoke of him as "Lamb the
+frolic and the gentle;" and these and other fine qualities endeared him
+to a large circle of friends.
+
+
+24. WALTER SAVAGE LANDOR (+1775-1864+), the greatest prose-writer in his
+own style of the nineteenth century, was born at Ipsley Court, in
+Warwickshire, on the 30th of January 1775-- the anniversary of the
+execution of Charles I. He was educated at Rugby School and at Oxford;
+but his fierce and insubordinate temper-- which remained with him, and
+injured him all his life-- procured his expulsion from both of these
+places. As heir to a large estate, he resolved to give himself up
+entirely to literature; and he accordingly declined to adopt any
+profession. Living an almost purely intellectual life, he wrote a great
+deal of prose and some poetry; and his first volume of poems appeared
+before the close of the eighteenth century. His life, which began in the
+reign of George III., stretched through the reigns of George IV. and
+William IV., into the twenty-seventh year of Queen Victoria; and, in the
+course of this long life, he had manifold experiences, many loves and
+hates, friendships and acquaintanceships, with persons of every sort and
+rank. He joined the Spanish army to fight Napoleon, and presented the
+Spanish Government with large sums of money. He spent about thirty years
+of his life in Florence, where he wrote many of his works. He died at
+Florence in the year 1864. His greatest prose work is the +Imaginary
+Conversations+; his best poem is +Count Julian+; and the character of
+Count Julian has been ranked by De Quincey with the Satan of Milton.
+Some of his smaller poetic pieces are perfect; and there is one, +Rose
+Aylmer+, written about a dear young friend, that Lamb was never tired of
+repeating:--
+
+  "Ah! what avails the sceptred race!
+    Ah! what the form divine!
+  What every virtue, every grace!
+    Rose Aylmer, all were thine!
+
+  "Rose Aylmer, whom these wakeful eyes
+    Shall weep, but never see!
+  A night of memories and sighs
+    I consecrate to thee."
+
+
+25. JANE AUSTEN (+1775-1817+), the most delicate and faithful painter of
+English social life, was born at Steventon, in Hampshire, in 1775-- in
+the same year as Landor and Lamb. She wrote a small number of novels,
+most of which are almost perfect in their minute and true painting of
+character. Sir Walter Scott, Macaulay, and other great writers, are
+among her fervent admirers. Scott says of her writing: "The big bow-wow
+strain I can do myself, like any now going; but the exquisite touch
+which renders ordinary commonplace things and characters interesting,
+from the truth of the description and the sentiment, is denied to me."
+She works out her characters by making them reveal themselves in their
+talk, and by an infinite series of minute touches. Her two best novels
+are +Emma+ and +Pride and Prejudice+. The interest of them depends on
+the truth of the painting; and many thoughtful persons read through the
+whole of her novels every year.
+
+
+26. THOMAS DE QUINCEY (+1785-1859+), one of our most brilliant
+essayists, was born at Greenhays, Manchester, in the year 1785. He was
+educated at the Manchester grammar-school and at Worcester College,
+Oxford. While at Oxford he took little share in the regular studies of
+his college, but read enormous numbers of Greek, Latin, and English
+books, as his taste or whim suggested. He knew no one; he hardly knew
+his own tutor. "For the first two years of my residence in Oxford," he
+says, "I compute that I did not utter one hundred words." After leaving
+Oxford, he lived for about twenty years in the Lake country; and there
+he became acquainted with Wordsworth, Hartley Coleridge (the son of
+S. T. Coleridge), and John Wilson (afterwards known as Professor Wilson,
+and also as the "Christopher North" of 'Blackwood's Magazine').
+Suffering from repeated attacks of neuralgia, he gradually formed the
+habit of taking laudanum; and by the time he had reached the age of
+thirty, he drank about 8000 drops a-day. This unfortunate habit injured
+his powers of work and weakened his will. In spite of it, however, he
+wrote many hundreds of essays and articles in reviews and magazines. In
+the latter part of his life, he lived either near or in Edinburgh, and
+was always employed in dreaming (the opium increased his power both of
+dreaming and of musing), or in studying or writing. He died in Edinburgh
+in the year 1859. --Many of his essays were written under the signature
+of "The English Opium-Eater." Probably his best works are +The
+Confessions of an Opium-Eater+ and +The Vision of Sudden Death+. The
+chief characteristics of his style are majestic rhythm and elaborate
+eloquence. Some of his sentences are almost as long and as sustained as
+those of Jeremy Taylor; while, in many passages of reasoning that glows
+and brightens with strong passion and emotion, he is not inferior to
+Burke. He possessed an enormous vocabulary-- in wealth of words and
+phrases he surpasses both Macaulay and Carlyle; and he makes a very
+large-- perhaps even an excessive-- use of Latin words. He is also very
+fond of using metaphors, personifications, and other figures of speech.
+It may be said without exaggeration that, next to Carlyle's, De
+Quincey's style is the most stimulating and inspiriting that a young
+reader can find among modern writers.
+
+
+27. THOMAS CARLYLE (+1795-1881+), a great thinker, essayist, and
+historian, was born at Ecclefechan, in Dumfriesshire, in the year 1795.
+He was educated at the burgh school of Annan, and afterwards at the
+University of Edinburgh. Classics and the higher mathematics were his
+favourite studies; and he was more especially fond of astronomy. He was
+a teacher for some years after leaving the University. For a few years
+after this he was engaged in minor literary work; and translating from
+the German occupied a good deal of his time. In 1826 he married Jane
+Welsh, a woman of abilities only inferior to his own. His first original
+work was +Sartor Resartus+ ("The Tailor Repatched"), which appeared in
+1834, and excited a great deal of attention-- a book which has proved to
+many the electric spark which first woke into life their powers of
+thought and reflection. From 1837 to 1840 he gave courses of lectures in
+London; and these lectures were listened to by the best and most
+thoughtful of the London people. The most striking series afterwards
+appeared in the form of a book, under the title of +Heroes and
+Hero-Worship+. Perhaps his most remarkable book-- a book that is unique
+in all English literature-- is +The French Revolution+, which appeared
+in 1837. In the year 1845, his +Cromwell's Letters and Speeches+ were
+published, and drew after them a large number of eager readers. In 1865
+he completed the hardest piece of work he had ever undertaken, his
++History of Frederick II., commonly called the Great+. This work is so
+highly regarded in Germany as a truthful and painstaking history that
+officers in the Prussian army are obliged to study it, as containing the
+best account of the great battles of the Continent, the fields on which
+they were fought, and the strategy that went to win them. One of the
+crowning external honours of Carlyle's life was his appointment as Lord
+Rector of the University of Edinburgh in 1866; but at the very time that
+he was delivering his famous and remarkable Installation Address, his
+wife lay dying in London. This stroke brought terrible sorrow on the old
+man; he never ceased to mourn for his loss, and to recall the virtues
+and the beauties of character in his dead wife; "the light of his life,"
+he said, "was quite gone out;" and he wrote very little after her death.
+He himself died in London on the 5th of February 1881.
+
+28. +Carlyle's Style.+-- Carlyle was an author by profession, a teacher
+of and prophet to his countrymen by his mission, and a student of
+history by the deep interest he took in the life of man. He was always
+more or less severe in his judgments-- he has been called "The Censor of
+the Age,"-- because of the high ideal which he set up for his own
+conduct and the conduct of others. --He shows in his historic writings a
+splendour of imagery and a power of dramatic grouping second only to
+Shakespeare's. In command of words he is second to no modern English
+writer. His style has been highly praised and also energetically blamed.
+It is rugged, gnarled, disjointed, full of irregular force-- shot across
+by sudden lurid lights of imagination-- full of the most striking and
+indeed astonishing epithets, and inspired by a certain grim Titanic
+force. His sentences are often clumsily built. He himself said of them:
+"Perhaps not more than nine-tenths stand straight on their legs; the
+remainder are in quite angular attitudes; a few even sprawl out
+helplessly on all sides, quite broken-backed and dismembered." There is
+no modern writer who possesses so large a profusion of figurative
+language. His works are also full of the pithiest and most memorable
+sayings, such as the following:--
+
+  "Genius is an immense capacity for taking pains."
+
+  "Do the duty which lies nearest thee! Thy second duty will already
+  have become clearer."
+
+  "History is a mighty drama, enacted upon the theatre of time, with
+  suns for lamps, and eternity for a background."
+
+  "All true work is sacred. In all true work, were it but true
+  hand-labour, there is something of divineness. Labour, wide as the
+  earth, has its summit in heaven."
+
+  "Remember now and always that Life is no idle dream, but a solemn
+  reality based upon Eternity, and encompassed by Eternity. Find out
+  your task: stand to it: the night cometh when no man can work."
+
+
+29. THOMAS BABINGTON MACAULAY (+1800-1859+), the most popular of modern
+historians,-- an essayist, poet, statesman, and orator,-- was born at
+Rothley Temple, in Leicestershire, in the year 1800. His father was one
+of the greatest advocates for the abolition of slavery; and received,
+after his death, the honour of a monument in Westminster Abbey. Young
+Macaulay was educated privately, and then at Trinity College, Cambridge.
+He studied classics with great diligence and success, but detested
+mathematics-- a dislike the consequences of which he afterwards deeply
+regretted. In 1824 he was elected Fellow of his college. His first
+literary work was done for Knight's 'Quarterly Magazine'; but the
+earliest piece of writing that brought him into notice was his famous
+essay on +Milton+, written for the 'Edinburgh Review' in 1825. Several
+years of his life were spent in India, as Member of the Supreme Council;
+and, on his return, he entered Parliament, where he sat as M.P. for
+Edinburgh. Several offices were filled by him, among others that of
+Paymaster-General of the Forces, with a seat in the Cabinet of Lord John
+Russell. In 1842 appeared his +Lays of Ancient Rome+, poems which have
+found a very large number of readers. His greatest work is his +History
+of England from the Accession of James II+. To enable himself to write
+this history he read hundreds of books, Acts of Parliament, thousands of
+pamphlets, tracts, broadsheets, ballads, and other flying fragments of
+literature; and he never seems to have forgotten anything he ever read.
+In. 1849 he was elected Lord Rector of the University of Glasgow; and in
+1857 was raised to the peerage with the title of Baron Macaulay of
+Rothley-- the first literary man who was ever called to the House of
+Lords. He died at Holly Lodge, Kensington, in the year 1859.
+
+30. +Macaulay's Style.+-- One of the most remarkable qualities in his
+style is the copiousness of expression, and the remarkable power of
+putting the same statement in a large number of different ways. This
+enormous command of expression corresponded with the extraordinary power
+of his memory. At the age of eight he could repeat the whole of Scott's
+poem of "Marmion." He was fond, at this early age, of big words and
+learned English; and once, when he was asked by a lady if his toothache
+was better, he replied, "Madam, the agony is abated!" He knew the whole
+of Homer and of Milton by heart; and it was said with perfect truth
+that, if Milton's poetical works could have been lost, Macaulay would
+have restored every line with complete exactness. Sydney Smith said of
+him: "There are no limits to his knowledge, on small subjects as on
+great; he is like a book in breeches." His style has been called
+"abrupt, pointed, and oratorical." He is fond of the arts of surprise--
+of antithesis-- and of epigram. Sentences like these are of frequent
+occurrence:--
+
+  "Cranmer could vindicate himself from the charge of being a heretic
+  only by arguments which made him out to be a murderer."
+
+  "The Puritan hated bear-baiting, not because it gave pain to the
+  bear, but because it gave pleasure to the spectators."
+
+Besides these elements of epigram and antithesis, there is a vast wealth
+of illustration, brought from the stores of a memory which never seemed
+to forget anything. He studied every sentence with the greatest care and
+minuteness, and would often rewrite paragraphs and even whole chapters,
+until he was satisfied with the variety and clearness of the expression.
+"He could not rest," it was said, "until the punctuation was correct to
+a comma; until every paragraph concluded with a telling sentence, and
+every sentence flowed like clear running water." But, above all things,
+he strove to make his style perfectly lucid and immediately
+intelligible. He is fond of countless details; but he so masters and
+marshals these details that each only serves to throw more light upon
+the main statement. His prose may be described as pictorial prose. The
+character of his mind was, like Burke's, combative and oratorical; and
+he writes with the greatest vigour and animation when he is attacking a
+policy or an opinion.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+THE SECOND HALF OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.
+
+
+1. +Science.+-- The second half of the nineteenth century is
+distinguished by the enormous advance made in science, and in the
+application of science to the industries and occupations of the people.
+Chemistry and electricity have more especially made enormous strides.
+Within the last twenty years, chemistry has remade itself into a new
+science; and electricity has taken a very large part of the labour of
+mankind upon itself. It carries our messages round the world-- under the
+deepest seas, over the highest mountains, to every continent, and to
+every great city; it lights up our streets and public halls; it drives
+our engines and propels our trains. But the powers of imagination, the
+great literary powers of poetry, and of eloquent prose,-- especially in
+the domain of fiction,-- have not decreased because science has grown.
+They have rather shown stronger developments. We must, at the same time,
+remember that a great deal of the literary work published by the writers
+who lived, or are still living, in the latter half of this century, was
+written in the former half. Thus, Longfellow was a man of forty-three,
+and Tennyson was forty-one, in the year 1850; and both had by that time
+done a great deal of their best work. The same is true of the
+prose-writers, Thackeray, Dickens, and Ruskin.
+
+2. +Poets and Prose-Writers.+-- The six greatest poets of the latter
+half of this century are +Longfellow+, a distinguished American poet,
++Tennyson+, +Mrs Browning+, +Robert Browning+, +William Morris+, and
++Matthew Arnold+. Of these, Mrs Browning and Longfellow are dead--
+Mrs Browning having died in 1861, and Longfellow in 1882. --The four
+greatest writers of prose are +Thackeray+, +Dickens+, +George Eliot+,
+and +Ruskin+. Of these, only Ruskin is alive.
+
+
+3. HENRY WADSWORTH LONGFELLOW (+1807-1882+), the most popular of
+American poets, and as popular in Great Britain as he is in the United
+States, was born at Portland, Maine, in the year 1807. He was educated
+at Bowdoin College, and took his degree there in the year 1825. His
+profession was to have been the law; but, from the first, the whole bent
+of his talents and character was literary. At the extraordinary age of
+eighteen the professorship of modern languages in his own college was
+offered to him; it was eagerly accepted, and in order to qualify himself
+for his duties, he spent the next four years in Germany, France, Spain,
+and Italy. His first important prose work was +Outre-Mer+, or a
++Pilgrimage beyond the Sea+. In 1837 he was offered the Chair of Modern
+Languages and Literature in Harvard University, and he again paid a
+visit to Europe-- this time giving his thoughts and study chiefly to
+Germany, Denmark, and Scandinavia. In 1839 he published the prose
+romance called +Hyperion+. But it was not as a prose-writer that
+Longfellow gained the secure place he has in the hearts of the
+English-speaking peoples; it was as a poet. His first volume of poems
+was called +Voices of the Night+, and appeared in 1841; Evangeline was
+published in 1848; and +Hiawatha+, on which his poetical reputation is
+perhaps most firmly based, in 1855. Many other volumes of poetry-- both
+original and translations-- have also come from his pen; but these are
+the best. The University of Oxford created him Doctor of Civil Law in
+1869. He died at Harvard in the year 1882. A man of singularly mild and
+gentle character, of sweet and charming manners, his own lines may be
+applied to him with perfect appropriateness--
+
+  "His gracious presence upon earth
+  Was as a fire upon a hearth;
+  As pleasant songs, at morning sung,
+  The words that dropped from his sweet tongue
+  Strengthened our hearts, or-- heard at night--
+  Made all our slumbers soft and light."
+
+4. +Longfellow's Style.+-- In one of his prose works, Longfellow himself
+says, "In character, in manners, in style, in all things, the supreme
+excellence is simplicity." This simplicity he steadily aimed at, and in
+almost all his writings reached; and the result is the sweet lucidity
+which is manifest in his best poems. His verse has been characterised as
+"simple, musical, sincere, sympathetic, clear as crystal, and pure as
+snow." He has written in a great variety of measures-- in more, perhaps,
+than have been employed by Tennyson himself. His "Evangeline" is written
+in a kind of dactylic hexameter, which does not always scan, but which
+is almost always musical and impressive--
+
+  "Fair was she and young, when in hope began the long journey;
+  Faded was she and old, when in disappointment it ended."
+
+The "Hiawatha," again, is written in a trochaic measure-- each verse
+containing four trochees--
+
+  "'Farewell!' said he, 'Minnehaha,
+  Farewell, O my laughing water!
+  All my heart is buried with you,
+  All´ my | thou´ghts go | on´ward | wi´th you!'"
+
+He is always careful and painstaking with his rhythm and with the
+cadence of his verse. It may be said with truth that Longfellow has
+taught more people to love poetry than any other English writer, however
+great.
+
+
+5. ALFRED TENNYSON, a great English poet, who has written beautiful
+poetry for more than fifty years, was born at Somersby, in Lincolnshire,
+in the year 1809. He is the youngest of three brothers, all of whom are
+poets. He was educated at Cambridge, and some of his poems have shown,
+in a striking light, the forgotten beauty of the fens and flats of
+Cambridge and Lincolnshire. In 1829 he obtained the Chancellor's medal
+for a poem on "Timbuctoo." In 1830 he published his first volume, with
+the title of +Poems chiefly Lyrical+-- a volume which contained, among
+other beautiful verses, the "Recollections of the Arabian Nights" and
+"The Dying Swan." In 1833 he issued another volume, called simply
++Poems+; and this contained the exquisite poems entitled "The Miller's
+Daughter" and "The Lotos-Eaters." +The Princess+, a poem as remarkable
+for its striking thoughts as for its perfection of language, appeared in
+1847. The +In Memoriam+, a long series of short poems in memory of his
+dear friend, Arthur Henry Hallam, the son of Hallam the historian, was
+published in the year 1850. When Wordsworth died in 1850, Tennyson was
+appointed to the office of Poet-Laureate. This office, from the time
+when Dryden was forced to resign it in 1689, to the time when Southey
+accepted it in 1813, had always been held by third or fourth rate
+writers; in the present day it is held by the man who has done the
+largest amount of the best poetical work. +The Idylls of the King+
+appeared in 1859. This series of poems-- perhaps his greatest-- contains
+the stories of "Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table." Many other
+volumes of poems have been given by him to the world. In his old age he
+has taken to the writing of ballads and dramas. His ballad of +The
+Revenge+ is one of the noblest and most vigorous poems that England has
+ever seen. The dramas of +Harold+, +Queen Mary+, and +Becket+, are
+perhaps his best; and the last was written when the poet had reached the
+age of seventy-four. In the year 1882 he was created Baron Tennyson, and
+called to the House of Peers.
+
+6. +Tennyson's Style.+-- Tennyson has been to the last two generations
+of Englishmen the national teacher of poetry. He has tried many new
+measures; he has ventured on many new rhythms; and he has succeeded in
+them all. He is at home equally in the slowest, most tranquil, and most
+meditative of rhythms, and in the rapidest and most impulsive. Let us
+look at the following lines as an example of the first. The poem is
+written on a woman who is dying of a lingering disease--
+
+  "Fair is her cottage in its place,
+    Where yon broad water sweetly slowly glides:
+  It sees itself from thatch to base
+    Dream in the sliding tides.
+
+  "And fairer she: but, ah! how soon to die!
+    Her quiet dream of life this hour may cease:
+  Her peaceful being slowly passes by
+    To some more perfect peace."
+
+The very next poem, "The Sailor Boy," in the same volume, is-- though
+written in exactly the same measure-- driven on with the most rapid
+march and vigorous rhythm--
+
+  "He rose at dawn and, fired with hope,
+    Shot o'er the seething harbour-bar,
+  And reached the ship and caught the rope
+    And whistled to the morning-star."
+
+And this is a striking and prominent characteristic of all Tennyson's
+poetry. Everywhere the sound is made to be "an echo to the sense"; the
+style is in perfect keeping with the matter. In the "Lotos-Eaters," we
+have the sense of complete indolence and deep repose in--
+
+  "A land of streams! Some, like a downward smoke,
+  Slow-dropping veils of thinnest lawn, did go."
+
+In the "Boädicea," we have the rush and the shock of battle, the closing
+of legions, the hurtle of arms and the clash of armed men--
+
+  "Phantom sound of blows descending, moan of an enemy massacred,
+  Phantom wail of women and children, multitudinous agonies."
+
+Many of Tennyson's sweetest and most pathetic lines have gone right into
+the heart of the nation, such as--
+
+  "But oh for the touch of a vanished hand,
+  And the sound of a voice that is still!"
+
+All his language is highly polished, ornate, rich-- sometimes Spenserian
+in luxuriant imagery and sweet music, sometimes even Homeric in
+massiveness and severe simplicity. Thus, in the "Morte d'Arthur," he
+speaks of the knight walking to the lake as--
+
+  "Clothed with his breath, and looking as he walked,
+  Larger than human on the frozen hills."
+
+Many of his pithy lines have taken root in the memory of the English
+people, such as these--
+
+  "Tis better to have loved and lost,
+  Than never to have loved at all."
+
+  "For words, like Nature, half reveal,
+  And half conceal, the soul within."
+
+  "Kind hearts are more than coronets,
+  And simple faith than Norman blood."
+
+
+7. ELIZABETH BARRETT BARRETT, afterwards MRS BROWNING, the greatest
+poetess of this century, was born in London in the year 1809. She wrote
+verses "at the age of eight-- and earlier," she says; and her first
+volume of poems was published when she was seventeen. When still a girl,
+she broke a blood-vessel upon the lungs, was ordered to a warmer climate
+than that of London; and her brother, whom she loved very dearly, took
+her down to Torquay. There a terrible tragedy was enacted before her
+eyes. One day the weather and the water looked very tempting; her
+brother took a sailing-boat for a short cruise in Torbay; the boat went
+down in front of the house, and in view of his sister; the body was
+never recovered. This sad event completely destroyed her already weak
+health; she returned to London, and spent several years in a darkened
+room. Here she "read almost every book worth reading in almost every
+language, and gave herself heart and soul to that poetry of which she
+seemed born to be the priestess." This way of life lasted for many
+years: and, in the course of it, she published several volumes of noble
+verse. In 1846 she married Robert Browning, also a great poet. In 1856
+she brought out +Aurora Leigh+, her longest, and probably also her
+greatest, poem. Mr Ruskin called it "the greatest poem which the century
+has produced in any language;" but this is going too far. --Mrs Browning
+will probably be longest remembered by her incomparable sonnets and by
+her lyrics, which are full of pathos and passion. Perhaps her two finest
+poems in this kind are the +Cry of the Children+ and +Cowper's Grave+.
+All her poems show an enormous power of eloquent, penetrating, and
+picturesque language; and many of them are melodious with a rich and
+wonderful music. She died in 1861.
+
+  [Transcriber's Note:
+  The above paragraph is given as printed. Elizabeth Barrett Browning
+  was born Elizabeth Barrett Moulton, later Moulton-Barrett, in 1806.
+  Her year of birth was universally given as 1809 until some time after
+  Robert Browning's death. Her brother's fatal accident took place in
+  1840.]
+
+8. ROBERT BROWNING, the most daring and original poet of the century,
+was born in Camberwell, a southern suburb of London, in the year 1812.
+He was privately educated. In 1836 he published his first poem
++Paracelsus+, which many wondered at, but few read. It was the story of
+a man who had lost his way in the mazes of thought about life,-- about
+its why and wherefore,-- about this world and the next,-- about himself
+and his relations to God and his fellow-men. Mr Browning has written
+many plays, but they are more fit for reading in the study than for
+acting on the stage. His greatest work is +The Ring and the Book+; and
+it is most probably by this that his name will live in future ages. Of
+his minor poems, the best known and most popular is +The Pied Piper of
+Hamelin+-- a poem which is a great favourite with all young people, from
+the picturesqueness and vigour of the verse. The most deeply pathetic of
+his minor poems is +Evelyn Hope+:--
+
+  "So, hush,-- I will give you this leaf to keep--
+    See, I shut it inside the sweet cold hand,
+  There! that is our secret! go to sleep;
+    You will wake, and remember, and understand."
+
+9. +Browning's Style.+-- Browning's language is almost always very hard
+to understand; but the meaning, when we have got at it, is well worth
+all the trouble that may have been taken to reach it. His poems are more
+full of thought and more rich in experience than those of any other
+English writer except Shakspeare. The thoughts and emotions which throng
+his mind at the same moment so crowd upon and jostle each other, become
+so inextricably intermingled, that it is very often extremely difficult
+for us to make out any meaning at all. Then many of his thoughts are so
+subtle and so profound that they cannot easily be drawn up from the
+depths in which they lie. No man can write with greater directness,
+greater lyric vigour, fire, and impulse, than Browning when he chooses--
+write more clearly and forcibly about such subjects as love and war; but
+it is very seldom that he does choose. The infinite complexity of human
+life and its manifold experiences have seized and imprisoned his
+imagination; and it is not often that he speaks in a clear, free voice.
+
+
+10. MATTHEW ARNOLD, one of the finest poets and noblest stylists of the
+age, was born at Laleham, near Staines, on the Thames, in the year 1822.
+He is the eldest son of the great Dr Arnold, the famous Head-master of
+Rugby. He was educated at Winchester and Rugby, from which latter school
+he proceeded to Balliol College, Oxford. The Newdigate prize for English
+verse was won by him in 1843-- the subject of his poem being +Cromwell+.
+His first volume of poems was published in 1848. In the year 1851 he was
+appointed one of H.M. Inspectors of Schools; and he held that office up
+to the year 1885. In 1857 he was elected Professor of Poetry in the
+University of Oxford. In 1868 appeared a new volume with the simple
+title of +New Poems+; and, since then, he has produced a large number of
+books, mostly in prose. He is no less famous as a critic than as a poet;
+and his prose is singularly beautiful and musical.
+
+11. +Arnold's Style.+-- The chief qualities of his verse are clearness,
+simplicity, strong directness, noble and musical rhythm, and a certain
+intense calm. His lines on +Morality+ give a good idea of his style:--
+
+  "We cannot kindle when we will
+  The fire that in the heart resides:
+  The spirit bloweth and is still
+  In mystery our soul abides:
+      But tasks in hours of insight willed
+      Can be through hours of gloom fulfilled.
+
+  With aching hands and bleeding feet
+  We dig and heap, lay stone on stone;
+  We bear the burden and the heat
+  Of the long day, and wish 'twere done.
+      Not till the hours of light return,
+      All we have built do we discern."
+
+His finest poem in blank verse is his +Sohrab and Rustum+-- a tale of
+the Tartar wastes. One of his noblest poems, called +Rugby Chapel+,
+describes the strong and elevated character of his father, the
+Head-master of Rugby. --His prose is remarkable for its lucidity, its
+pleasant and almost conversational rhythm, and its perfection of
+language.
+
+
+12. WILLIAM MORRIS, a great narrative poet, was born near London in the
+year 1834. He was educated at Marlborough and at Exeter College, Oxford.
+In 1858 appeared his first volume of poems. In 1863 he began a business
+for the production of artistic wall-paper, stained glass, and furniture;
+he has a shop for the sale of these works of art in Oxford Street,
+London; and he devotes most of his time to drawing and designing for
+artistic manufacturers. His first poem, +The Life and Death of Jason+,
+appeared in 1867; and his magnificent series of narrative poems-- +The
+Earthly Paradise+-- was published in the years from 1868 and 1870. 'The
+Earthly Paradise' consists of twenty-four tales in verse, set in a
+framework much like that of Chaucer's 'Canterbury Tales.' The poetic
+power in these tales is second only to that of Chaucer; and Morris has
+always acknowledged himself to be a pupil of Chaucer's--
+
+              "Thou, my Master still,
+  Whatever feet have climbed Parnassus' hill."
+
+Mr Morris has also translated the Æneid of Virgil, and several works
+from the Icelandic.
+
+13. +Morris's Style.+-- Clearness, strength, music, picturesqueness, and
+easy flow, are the chief characteristics of Morris's style. Of the month
+of April he says:--
+
+  "O fair midspring, besung so oft and oft,
+  How can I praise thy loveliness enow?
+  Thy sun that burns not, and thy breezes soft
+  That o'er the blossoms of the orchard blow,
+  The thousand things that 'neath the young leaves grow
+  The hopes and chances of the growing year,
+  Winter forgotten long, and summer near."
+
+His pictorial power-- the power of bringing a person or a scene fully
+and adequately before one's eyes by the aid of words alone-- is as great
+as that of Chaucer. The following is his picture of Edward III. in
+middle age:--
+
+  "Broad-browed he was, hook-nosed, with wide grey eyes
+  No longer eager for the coming prize,
+  But keen and steadfast: many an ageing line,
+  Half-hidden by his sweeping beard and fine,
+  Ploughed his thin cheeks; his hair was more than grey,
+  And like to one he seemed whose better day
+  Is over to himself, though foolish fame
+  Shouts louder year by year his empty name.
+  Unarmed he was, nor clad upon that morn
+  Much like a king: an ivory hunting-horn
+  Was slung about him, rich with gems and gold,
+  And a great white ger-falcon did he hold
+  Upon his fist; before his feet there sat
+  A scrivener making notes of this and that
+  As the King bade him, and behind his chair
+  His captains stood in armour rich and fair."
+
+Morris's stores of language are as rich as Spenser's; and he has much
+the same copious and musical flow of poetic words and phrases.
+
+
+14. WILLIAM MAKEPEACE THACKERAY (+1811-1863+), one of the most original
+of English novelists, was born at Calcutta in the year 1811. The son of
+a gentleman high in the civil service of the East India Company, he was
+sent to England to be educated, and was some years at Charterhouse
+School, where one of his schoolfellows was Alfred Tennyson. He then went
+on to the University of Cambridge, which he left without taking a
+degree. Painting was the profession that he at first chose; and he
+studied art both in France and Germany. At the age of twenty-nine,
+however, he discovered that he was on a false tack, gave up painting,
+and took to literary work as his true field. He contributed many
+pleasant articles to 'Fraser's Magazine,' under the name of +Michael
+Angelo Titmarsh+; and one of his most beautiful and most pathetic
+stories, +The Great Hoggarty Diamond+, was also written under this name.
+He did not, however, take his true place as an English novelist of the
+first rank until the year 1847, when he published his first serial
+novel, +Vanity Fair+. Readers now began everywhere to class him with
+Charles Dickens, and even above him. His most beautiful work is perhaps
++The Newcomes+; but the work which exhibits most fully the wonderful
+power of his art and his intimate knowledge of the spirit and the
+details of our older English life is +The History of Henry Esmond+--
+a work written in the style and language of the days of Queen Anne, and
+as beautiful as anything ever done by Addison himself. He died in the
+year 1863.
+
+
+15. CHARLES DICKENS (+1812-1870+), the most popular writer of this
+century, was born at Landport, Portsmouth, in the year 1812. His
+delicate constitution debarred him from mixing in boyish sports, and
+very early made him a great reader. There was a little garret in his
+father's house where a small collection of books was kept; and, hidden
+away in this room, young Charles devoured such books as the 'Vicar of
+Wakefield,' 'Robinson Crusoe,' and many other famous English books. This
+was in Chatham. The family next removed to London, where the father was
+thrown into prison for debt. The little boy, weakly and sensitive, was
+now sent to work in a blacking manufactory at six shillings a-week, his
+duty being to cover the blacking-pots with paper. "No words can
+express," he says, "the secret agony of my soul, as I compared these my
+everyday associates with those of my happier childhood, and felt my
+early hopes of growing up to be a learned and distinguished man crushed
+in my breast.... The misery it was to my young heart to believe that,
+day by day, what I had learned, and thought, and delighted in, and
+raised my fancy and my emulation up by, was passing away from me, never
+to be brought back any more, cannot be written." When his father's
+affairs took a turn for the better, he was sent to school; but it was to
+a school where "the boys trained white mice much better than the master
+trained the boys." In fact, his true education consisted in his eager
+perusal of a large number of miscellaneous books. When he came to think
+of what he should do in the world, the profession of reporter took his
+fancy; and, by the time he was nineteen, he had made himself the
+quickest and most accurate-- that is, the best reporter in the Gallery
+of the House of Commons. His first work, +Sketches by Boz+, was
+published in 1836. In 1837 appeared the +Pickwick Papers+; and this work
+at once lifted Dickens into the foremost rank as a popular writer of
+fiction. From this time he was almost constantly engaged in writing
+novels. His +Oliver Twist+ and +David Copperfield+ contain reminiscences
+of his own life; and perhaps the latter is his most powerful work. "Like
+many fond parents," he wrote, "I have in my heart of hearts a favourite
+child; and his name is _David Copperfield_." He lived with all the
+strength of his heart and soul in the creations of his imagination and
+fancy while he was writing about them; he says himself, "No one can ever
+believe this narrative, in the reading, more than I believed it in the
+writing;" and each novel, as he wrote it, made him older and leaner.
+Great knowledge of the lives of the poor, and great sympathy with them,
+were among his most striking gifts; and Sir Arthur Helps goes so far as
+to say, "I doubt much whether there has ever been a writer of fiction
+who took such a real and living interest in the world about him." He
+died in the year 1870, and was buried in Westminster Abbey.
+
+16. +Dickens's Style.+-- His style is easy, flowing, vigorous,
+picturesque, and humorous; his power of language is very great; and,
+when he is writing under the influence of strong passion, it rises into
+a pure and noble eloquence. The scenery-- the external circumstances of
+his characters, are steeped in the same colours as the characters
+themselves; everything he touches seems to be filled with life and to
+speak-- to look happy or sorrowful,-- to reflect the feelings of the
+persons. His comic and humorous powers are very great; but his tragic
+power is also enormous-- his power of depicting the fiercest passions
+that tear the human breast,-- avarice, hate, fear, revenge, remorse. The
+great American statesman, Daniel Webster, said that Dickens had done
+more to better the condition of the English poor than all the statesmen
+Great Britain had ever sent into the English Parliament.
+
+
+17. JOHN RUSKIN, the greatest living master of English prose, an
+art-critic and thinker, was born in London in the year 1819. In his
+father's house he was accustomed "to no other prospect than that of the
+brick walls over the way; he had no brothers, nor sisters, nor
+companions." To his London birth he ascribes the great charm that the
+beauties of nature had for him from his boyhood: he felt the contrast
+between town and country, and saw what no country-bred child could have
+seen in sights that were usual to him from his infancy. He was educated
+at Christ Church, Oxford, and gained the Newdigate prize for poetry in
+1839. He at first devoted himself to painting; but his true and
+strongest genius lay in the direction of literature. In 1843 appeared
+the first volume of his +Modern Painters+, which is perhaps his greatest
+work; and the four other volumes were published between that date and
+the year 1860. In this work he discusses the qualities and the merits of
+the greatest painters of the English, the Italian, and other schools. In
+1851 he produced a charming fairy tale, 'The King of the Golden River,
+or the Black Brothers.' He has written on architecture also, on
+political economy, and on many other social subjects. He is the founder
+of a society called "The St George's Guild," the purpose of which is to
+spread abroad sound notions of what true life and true art are, and
+especially to make the life of the poor more endurable and better worth
+living.
+
+18. +Ruskin's Style.+-- A glowing eloquence, a splendid and full-flowing
+music, wealth of phrase, aptness of epithet, opulence of ideas-- all
+these qualities characterise the prose style of Mr Ruskin. His similes
+are daring, but always true. Speaking of the countless statues that fill
+the innumerable niches of the cathedral of Milan, he says that "it is as
+though a flight of angels had alighted there and been struck to marble."
+His writings are full of the wisest sayings put into the most musical
+and beautiful language. Here are a few:--
+
+  "Every act, every impulse, of virtue and vice, affects in any
+  creature, face, voice, nervous power, and vigour and harmony of
+  invention, at once. Perseverance in rightness of human conduct
+  renders, after a certain number of generations, human art possible;
+  every sin clouds it, be it ever so little a one; and persistent
+  vicious living and following of pleasure render, after a certain
+  number of generations, all art impossible."
+
+  "In mortals, there is a care for trifles, which proceeds from love
+  and conscience, and is most holy; and a care for trifles, which
+  comes of idleness and frivolity, and is most base. And so, also,
+  there is a gravity proceeding from dulness and mere incapability of
+  enjoyment, which is most base."
+
+His power of painting in words is incomparably greater than that of any
+other English author: he almost infuses colour into his words and
+phrases, so full are they of pictorial power. It would be impossible to
+give any adequate idea of this power here; but a few lines may suffice
+for the present:--
+
+  "The noonday sun came slanting down the rocky slopes of La Riccia,
+  and its masses of enlarged and tall foliage, whose autumnal tints
+  were mixed with the wet verdure of a thousand evergreens, were
+  penetrated with it as with rain. I cannot call it colour; it was
+  conflagration. Purple, and crimson, and scarlet, like the curtains
+  of God's tabernacle, the rejoicing trees sank into the valley in
+  showers of light, every separate leaf quivered with buoyant and
+  burning life; each, as it turned to reflect or to transmit the
+  sunbeam, first a torch and then an emerald."
+
+
+19. GEORGE ELIOT (the literary name for +Marian Evans, 1819-1880+), one
+of our greatest writers, was born in Warwickshire in the year 1819. She
+was well and carefully educated; and her own serious and studious
+character made her a careful thinker and a most diligent reader. For
+some time the famous Herbert Spencer was her tutor; and under his care
+her mind developed with surprising rapidity. She taught herself German,
+French, Italian-- studied the best works in the literature of these
+languages; and she was also fairly mistress of Greek and Latin. Besides
+all these, she was an accomplished musician. --She was for some time
+assistant-editor of the 'Westminster Review.' The first of her works
+which called the attention of the public to her astonishing skill and
+power as a novelist was her +Scenes of Clerical Life+. Her most popular
+novel, +Adam Bede+, appeared in 1859; +Romola+ in 1863; and
++Middlemarch+ in 1872. She has also written a good deal of poetry, among
+other volumes that entitled +The Legend of Jubal, and other Poems+. One
+of her best poems is +The Spanish Gypsy+. She died in the year 1880.
+
+20. +George Eliot's Style.+-- Her style is everywhere pure and strong,
+of the best and most vigorous English, not only broad in its power, but
+often intense in its description of character and situation, and always
+singularly adequate to the thought. Probably no novelist knew the
+English character-- especially in the Midlands-- so well as she, or
+could analyse it with so much subtlety and truth. She is entirely
+mistress of the country dialects. In humour, pathos, knowledge of
+character, power of putting a portrait firmly upon the canvas, no writer
+surpasses her, and few come near her. Her power is sometimes almost
+Shakespearian. Like Shakespeare, she gives us a large number of wise
+sayings, expressed in the pithiest language. The following are a few:--
+
+  "It is never too late to be what you might have been."
+
+  "It is easy finding reasons why other people should be patient."
+
+  "Genius, at first, is little more than a great capacity for
+  receiving discipline."
+
+  "Things are not so ill with you and me as they might have been, half
+  owing to the number who lived faithfully a hidden life, and rest in
+  unvisited tombs."
+
+  "Nature never makes men who are at once energetically sympathetic
+  and minutely calculating."
+
+  "To the far woods he wandered, listening,
+  And heard the birds their little stories sing
+  In notes whose rise and fall seem melted speech--
+  Melted with tears, smiles, glances-- that can reach
+  More quickly through our frame's deep-winding night,
+  And without thought raise thought's best fruit, delight."
+
+
+
+
+TABLES OF ENGLISH LITERATURE.
+
+[Transcriber's Note:
+
+In the original book, the following table-- spanning 14 pages-- was
+laid out in four columns: Writers; Works; Contemporary Events; Centuries
+(through 1500) or Decades (beginning 1550).
+
+Missing punctuation has been silently supplied.]
+
++Centuries/Decades+
+  WRITERS
+    Works
+      Contemporary Events
+
++500+
+
+  (_Author unknown._)
+    +Beowulf+ (brought over by Saxons and Angles from the Continent).
+
++600+
+
+  CAEDMON. A secular monk of Whitby. Died about +680+.
+    +Poems+ on the Creation and other subjects taken from the Old and
+    the New Testament.
+
+      Edwin (of Deira), King of the Angles, baptised 627.
+
++700+
+
+  BAEDA. +672-735+. "The Venerable Bede," a monk of Jarrow-on-Tyne.
+    An +Ecclesiastical History+ in Latin. A translation of +St John's
+    Gospel+ into English (lost).
+
+      First landing of the Danes, 787.
+
++800+
+
+  ALFRED THE GREAT. +849-901+. King; translator; prose-writer.
+    Translated into the English of Wessex, Bede's Ecclesiastical History
+    and other Latin works. Is said to have begun the +Anglo-Saxon
+    Chronicle+.
+
+      The University of Oxford is said to have been founded in this
+      reign.
+
+  Compiled by monks in various monasteries.
+    +Anglo-Saxon Chronicle+, 875-1154.
+
++900+
+
+  ASSER. Bishop of Sherborne. Died +910+.
+    +Life of King Alfred+.
+
++1000+
+
+  (_Author unknown._)
+    A poem entitled +The Grave+.
+
++1100+
+
+  LAYAMON. +1150-1210+. A priest of Ernley-on-Severn.
+    +The Brut+ (1205), a poem on Brutus, the supposed first settler in
+    Britain.
+
+      John ascended the throne in 1199.
+
+  ORM or ORMIN. +1187-1237+. A canon of the Order of St Augustine.
+    +The Ormulum+ (1215), a set of religious services in metre.
+
++1200+
+
+  ROBERT OF GLOUCESTER. +1255-1307+.
+    +Chronicle of England+ in rhyme (1297).
+
+      Magna Charta, 1215.
+      Henry III. ascends the throne, 1216.
+
+  ROBERT OF BRUNNE. (Robert Manning of Brun.) +1272-1340+.
+    +Chronicle of England+ in rhyme; _Handlyng Sinne_ (1303).
+
+      University of Cambridge founded, 1231.
+      Edward I. ascends the throne, 1272.
+      Conquest of Wales, 1284.
+
++1300+
+
+  SIR JOHN MANDEVILLE. +1300-1372+. Physician; traveller; prose-writer.
+    +The Voyaige and Travaile+. Travels to Jerusalem, India, and other
+    countries, written in Latin French and English (1356). The first
+    writer "in formed English."
+
+      Edward II ascends the throne, 1307.
+      Battle of Bannockburn, 1314.
+
+  JOHN BARBOUR. Archdeacon of Aberdeen. +1316-1396+.
+    +The Bruce+ (1377), a poem written in the Northern English or
+    "Scottish" dialect.
+
+      Edward III. ascends the throne, 1327.
+
++1350+
+
+  JOHN WYCLIF. +1324-1384+. Vicar of Lutterworth, in Leicestershire.
+    Translation of the +Bible+ from the Latin version; and many tracts
+    and pamphlets on Church reform.
+
+      Hundred Years' War begins, 1338.
+      Battle of Crecy, 1346.
+
+  JOHN GOWER. +1325-1408+. A country gentleman of Kent; probably also a
+  lawyer.
+    +Vox Clamantis+, +Confessio Amantis+, +Speculum Meditantis+ (1393);
+    and poems in French and Latin.
+
+      The Black Death, 1349, 1361, 1369.
+
+  WILLIAM LANGLANDE. +1332-1400+. Born in Shropshire.
+    +Vision concerning Piers the Plowman+-- three editions (1362-78).
+
+      Battle of Poitiers, 1356.
+      First law-pleadings in English, 1362.
+
+  GEOFFREY CHAUCER +1340-1400+. Poet; courtier; soldier; diplomatist;
+  Comptroller of the Customs: Clerk of the King's Works; M.P.
+    +The Canterbury Tales+ (1384-98), of which the best is the +Knightes
+    Tale+. Dryden called him "a perpetual fountain of good sense."
+
+      Richard II. ascends the throne, 1377.
+      Wat Tyler's insurrection, 1381.
+
+  JAMES I. OF SCOTLAND. +1394-1437+. Prisoner in England, and educated
+  there, in 1405.
+    +The King's Quair+ (= _Book_), a poem in the style of Chaucer.
+
+      Henry IV. ascends the throne, 1399.
+
++1400+
+
+  WILLIAM CAXTON. +1422-1492+. Mercer; printer; translator;
+  prose-writer.
+    +The Game and Playe of the Chesse+ (1474)-- the first book printed
+    in England; +Lives of the Fathers+, "finished on the last day of his
+    life;" and many other works.
+
+      Henry V. ascends the throne, 1415.
+      Battle of Agincourt, 1415.
+      Henry VI. ascends the throne, 1422.
+      Invention of Printing, 1438-45.
+
++1450+
+
+  WILLIAM DUNBAR. +1450-1530+. Franciscan or Grey Friar; Secretary to a
+  Scotch embassy to France.
+    +The Golden Terge+ (1501); the +Dance of the Seven Deadly Sins+
+    (1507); and other poems. He has been called "the Chaucer of
+    Scotland."
+
+      Jack Cade's insurrection, 1450.
+      End of the Hundred Years' War, 1453.
+
+  GAWAIN DOUGLAS. +1474-1522+. Bishop of Dunkeld, in Perthshire.
+    +Palace of Honour+ (1501); translation of +Virgil's Æneid+ (1513)--
+    the first translation of any Latin author into verse. Douglas wrote
+    in Northern English.
+
+      Wars of the Roses, 1455-86.
+      Edward IV. ascends the throne, 1461.
+
+  WILLIAM TYNDALE. +1477-1536+. Student of theology; translator. Burnt
+  at Antwerp for heresy.
+    +New Testament+ translated (1525-34); the +Five Books of Moses+
+    translated (1530). This translation is the basis of the Authorised
+    Version.
+
+      Edward V. king, 1483.
+
+  SIR THOMAS MORE. +1480-1535+. Lord High Chancellor; writer on social
+  topics; historian.
+    +History of King Edward V., and of his brother, and of Richard
+    III+. (1513); +Utopia+ (= "The Land of Nowhere"), written in Latin;
+    and other prose works.
+
+      Richard III. ascends the throne, 1483.
+      Battle of Bosworth, 1485.
+
+  SIR DAVID LYNDESAY. +1490-1556+. Tutor of Prince James of Scotland
+  (James V.); "Lord Lyon King-at-Arms;" poet.
+    +Lyndesay's Dream+ (1528); +The Complaint+ (1529); +A Satire of the
+    Three Estates+ (1535)-- a "morality-play."
+
+      Henry VII. ascends the throne, 1485.
+      Greek began to be taught in England about 1497.
+
++1500+
+
+  ROGER ASCHAM. +1515-1568+. Lecturer on Greek at Cambridge; tutor to
+  Edward VI., Queen Elizabeth, and Lady Jane Grey.
+    +Toxophilus+ (1544), a treatise on shooting with the bow; +The
+    Scholemastre+ (1570). "Ascham is plain and strong in his style, but
+    without grace or warmth."
+
+      Henry VIII. ascends the throne, 1509.
+      Battle of Flodden, 1513.
+      Wolsey Cardinal and Lord High Chancellor, 1515.
+
+  JOHN FOXE. +1517-1587+. An English clergyman. Corrector for the press
+  at Basle; Prebendary of Salisbury Cathedral; prose-writer.
+    +The Book of Martyrs+ (1563), an account of the chief Protestant
+    martyrs.
+
+      Sir Thomas More first layman who was Lord High Chancellor, 1529.
+      Reformation in England begins about 1534.
+
+  EDMUND SPENSER. +1552-1599+. Secretary to Viceroy of Ireland;
+  political writer; poet.
+    +Shepheard's Calendar+ (1579): +Faerie Queene+, in six books
+    (1590-96).
+
+      Edward VI. ascends the throne, 1547.
+      Mary Tudor ascends the throne, 1553.
+
++1550+
+
+  SIR WALTER RALEIGH. +1552-1618+. Courtier; statesman; sailor;
+  coloniser; historian.
+    +History of the World+ (1614), written during the author's
+    imprisonment in the Tower of London.
+
+      Cranmer burnt 1556.
+
+  RICHARD HOOKER. +1553-1600+. English clergyman; Master of the Temple;
+  Rector of Boscombe, in the diocese of Salisbury.
+    +Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity+ (1594). This book is an eloquent
+    defence of the Church of England. The writer, from his excellent
+    judgment, is generally called "the judicious Hooker."
+
+      Elizabeth ascends the throne, 1558.
+
+  SIR PHILIP SIDNEY. +1554-1586+. Courtier; general; romance-writer.
+    +Arcadia+, a romance (1580). +Defence of Poesie+, published after
+    his death (in 1595). +Sonnets+.
+
++1560+
+
+  FRANCIS BACON. +1561-1626+. Viscount St Albans; Lord High Chancellor
+  of England; lawyer; philosopher; essayist.
+    +Essays+ (1597); +Advancement of Learning+ (1605); +Novum Organum+
+    (1620); and other works on methods of inquiry into nature.
+
+      Hawkins begins slave trade in 1562.
+      Rizzio murdered, 1566.
+
+  WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE. +1564-1616+. Actor; owner of theatre;
+  play-writer; poet. Born and died at Stratford-on-Avon.
+    Thirty-seven plays. His greatest +tragedies+ are _Hamlet_, _Lear_,
+    and _Othello_. His best +comedies+ are _Midsummer Night's Dream_,
+    _The Merchant of Venice_, and _As You Like It_. His best +historical
+    plays+ are _Julius Cæsar_ and _Richard III_. Many _minor poems_--
+    chiefly +sonnets+. He wrote no prose.
+
+      Marlowe, Dekker, Chapman, Beaumont and Fletcher, Ford, Webster,
+      Ben Johnson, and other dramatists, were contemporaries of
+      Shakspeare.
+
++1570+
+
+  BEN JONSON. +1574-1637+. Dramatist; poet; prose-writer.
+    +Tragedies+ and +comedies+. Best plays: _Volpone or the Fox_; _Every
+    Man in his Humour_.
+
+      Drake sails round the world, 1577.
+      Execution of Mary Queen of Scots, 1578.
+
++1580+
+
+  WILLIAM DRUMMOND ("of Hawthornden"). +1585-1649+. Scottish poet;
+  friend of Ben Jonson.
+    +Sonnets+ and +poems+.
+
+      Raleigh in Virginia, 1584.
+      Babington's Plot, 1586.
+      Spanish Armada, 1588.
+
++1590+
+
+  THOMAS HOBBES. +1588-1679+. Philosopher; prose-writer; translator of
+  Homer.
+    +The Leviathan+ (1651), a work on politics and moral philosophy.
+
+      Battle of Ivry, 1590.
+
++1600+
+
+  SIR THOMAS BROWNE. +1605-1682+. Physician at Norwich.
+    +Religio Medici+ (= "The Religion of a Physician"); +Urn-Burial+;
+    and other prose works.
+
+      Australia discovered, 1601.
+      James I. ascends the throne in 1603.
+
+  JOHN MILTON. +1608-1674+. Student; political writer; poet; Foreign (or
+  "Latin") Secretary to Cromwell. Became blind from over-work in +1654+.
+    _Minor Poems_; +Paradise Lost+; +Paradise Regained+; +Samson
+    Agonistes+. Many prose works, the best being +Areopagitica+, a
+    speech for the Liberty of Unlicensed Printing.
+
+      Hampton Court Conference for translation of Bible, 1604-11.
+      Gunpowder Plot, 1605.
+
++1610+
+
+  SAMUEL BUTLER. +1612-1680+. Literary man; secretary to the Earl of
+  Carbery.
+    +Hudibras+, a mock-heroic poem, written to ridicule the Puritan and
+    Parliamentarian party.
+
+      Execution of Raleigh, 1618.
+
+  JEREMY TAYLOR. +1613-1667+. English clergyman; Bishop of Down and
+  Connor in Ireland.
+    +Holy Living+ and +Holy Dying+ (1649); and a number of other
+    religious books.
+
++1620+
+
+  JOHN BUNYAN. +1628-1688+. Tinker and traveling preacher.
+    +The Pilgrim's Progress+ (1678); the +Holy War+; and other religious
+    works.
+
+      Charles I. ascends the throne in 1625.
+      Petition of Right, 1628.
+
++1630+
+
+  JOHN DRYDEN. +1631-1700+. Poet-Laureate and Historiographer-Royal;
+  playwright; poet; prose-writer.
+    +Annus Mirabilis+ (= "The Wonderful Year," 1665-66, on the Plague
+    and the Fire of London); +Absalom and Achitophel+ (1681), a poem on
+    political parties; +Hind and Panther+ (1687), a religious poem. He
+    also wrote many plays, some odes and a translation of Virgil's
+    +Æneid+. His prose consists chiefly of prefaces and introductions
+    to his poems.
+
+      No Parliament from 1629-40.
+      Scottish National Covenant, 1638.
+
++1640+
+
+      Long Parliament, 1640-53.
+      Marston Moor, 1644.
+      Execution of Charles I., 1649.
+
++1650+
+
+  JOHN LOCKE. +1632-1704+. Diplomatist; Secretary to the Board of Trade;
+  philosopher; prose-writer.
+    +Essay concerning the Human Understanding+ (1690); +Thoughts on
+    Education+; and other prose works.
+
+      The Commonwealth, 1649-60.
+      Cromwell Lord Protector, 1653-58.
+
++1660+
+
+  DANIEL DEFOE. +1661-1731+. Literary man; pamphleteer; journalist;
+  member of Commission on Union with Scotland.
+    +The True-born Englishman+ (1701); +Robinson Crusoe+ (1719);
+    +Journal of the Plague+ (1722); and more than a hundred books in
+    all.
+
+      Restoration, 1660.
+      First standing army, 1661.
+      First newspaper in England, 1663.
+
+  JONATHAN SWIFT. +1667-1745+. English clergyman; literary man;
+  satirist; prose-writer; poet; Dean of St Patrick's, in Dublin.
+    +Battle of the Books+; +Tale of a Tub+ (1704), an allegory on the
+    Churches of Rome, England, and Scotland; +Gulliver's Travels+
+    (1726); a few poems; and a number of very vigorous political
+    pamphlets.
+
+      Plague of London, 1665.
+      Fire of London, 1666.
+
++1670+
+
+  SIR RICHARD STEELE. +1671-1729+. Soldier; literary man; courtier;
+  journalist; M.P.
+    Steele founded the 'Tatler,' 'Spectator,' 'Guardian,' and other
+    small journals. He also wrote some plays.
+
+      Charles II. pensioned by Louis XIV. of France, 1674.
+
+  JOSEPH ADDISON. +1672-1719+. Essayist; poet; Secretary of State for
+  the Home Department.
+    +Essays+ in the 'Tatler,' 'Spectator,' and 'Guardian.' Cato, a
+    Tragedy (1713). Several _Poems_ and _Hymns_.
+
+      The Habeas Corpus Act, 1679.
+
++1680+
+
+  ALEXANDER POPE. +1688-1744+. Poet.
+    +Essay on Criticism+ (1711); +Rape of the Lock+ (1714); Translation
+    of Homer's Iliad and Odyssey, finished in 1726; +Dunciad+ (1729);
+    +Essay on Man+ (1739). A few prose _Essays_, and a volume of
+    _Letters_.
+
+      James II. ascends the throne in 1685.
+      Revolution of 1688.
+      William III. and Mary II. ascend the throne, 1689.
+
++1690+
+
+      Battle of the Boyne, 1690.
+
+  JAMES THOMSON. +1700-1748+. Poet.
+    +The Seasons+; a poem in blank verse (1730); +The Castle of
+    Indolence+; a mock-heroic poem in the Spenserian stanza (1748).
+
+      Censorship of the Press abolished, 1695.
+      Queen Anne ascends the throne in 1702.
+
++1700+
+
+  HENRY FIELDING. +1707-1754+. Police-magistrate, journalist; novelist.
+    +Joseph Andrews+ (1742); +Amelia+ (1751). He was "the first great
+    English novelist."
+
+      Battle of Blenheim, 1704.
+      Gibraltar taken, 1704.
+
+  DR SAMUEL JOHNSON. +1709-1784+. Schoolmaster; literary man; essayist;
+  poet; dictionary-maker.
+    +London+ (1738); +The Vanity of Human Wishes+ (1749); +Dictionary
+    of the English Language+ (1755); +Rasselas+ (1759); +Lives of the
+    Poets+ (1781). He also wrote +The Idler+, +The Rambler+, and a play
+    called +Irene+.
+
+      Union of England and Scotland, 1707.
+
++1710+
+
+  DAVID HUME. +1711-1776+. Librarian; Secretary to the French Embassy;
+  philosopher; literary man.
+    +History of England+ (1754-1762); and a number of philosophical
+    _Essays_. His prose is singularly clear, easy, and pleasant.
+
+      George I. ascends the throne in 1714.
+
+  THOMAS GRAY. +1716-1771+. Student; poet; letter-writer; Professor of
+  Modern History in the University of Cambridge.
+    +Odes+; +Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard+ (1750)-- one of the
+    most perfect poems in our language. He was a great stylist, and an
+    extremely careful workman.
+
+      Rebellion in Scotland in 1715.
+
++1720+
+
+  TOBIAS GEORGE SMOLLETT. +1721-1771+. Doctor; pamphleteer; literary
+  hack; novelist.
+    +Roderick Random+ (1748); +Humphrey Clinker+ (1771). He also
+    continued +Hume's History of England+. He published also some
+    _Plays_ and _Poems_.
+
+      South-Sea Bubble bursts, 1720.
+
+  OLIVER GOLDSMITH. +1728-1774+. Literary man; play-writer; poet.
+    +The Traveller+ (1764); +The Vicar of Wakefield+ (1766); +The
+    Deserted Village+ (1770); +She Stoops to Conquer+--a Play (1773);
+    and a large number of books, pamphlets, and compilations.
+
+      George II. ascends the throne, 1727.
+
+  ADAM SMITH. +1723-1790+. Professor in the University of Glasgow.
+    +Theory of Moral Sentiments+ (1759); +Inquiry into the Nature and
+    Causes of the Wealth of Nations+ (1776). He was the founder of the
+    science of political economy.
+
++1730+
+
+  EDMUND BURKE. +1730-1797+. M.P.; statesman; "the first man in the
+  House of Commons;" orator; writer on political philosophy.
+    +Essay on the Sublime and Beautiful+ (1757); +Reflections on the
+    Revolution of France+ (1790); +Letters on a Regicide Peace+ (1797);
+    and many other works. "The greatest philosopher in practice the
+    world ever saw."
+
+  WILLIAM COWPER. +1731-1800+. Commissioner in Bankruptcy; Clerk of the
+  Journals of the House of Lords; poet.
+    +Table Talk+ (1782); +John Gilpin+ (1785); +A Translation of Homer+
+    (1791); and many other _Poems_. His Letters, like Gray's, are among
+    the best in the language.
+
++1740+
+
+  EDWARD GIBBON. +1737-1794+. Historian; M.P.
+    +Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire+ (1776-87). "Heavily laden
+    style and monotonous balance of every sentence."
+
+      Rebellion in Scotland, 1745, commonly called "The 'Forty-five."
+
++1750+
+
+  ROBERT BURNS. +1759-1796+. Farm-labourer; ploughman; farmer;
+  excise-officer; lyrical poet.
+    _Poems and Songs_ (1786-96). His prose consists chiefly of Letters.
+    "His pictures of social life, of quaint humour, come up to nature;
+    and they cannot go beyond it."
+
+      Clive in India, 1750-60.
+      Earthquake at Lisbon, 1755.
+      Black Hole of Calcutta, 1756.
+
++1760+
+
+  WILLIAM WORDSWORTH. +1770-1850+. Distributor of Stamps for the county
+  of Westmoreland; poet; poet-laureate.
+    +Lyrical Ballads+ (with Coleridge, 1798); +The Excursion+ (1814);
+    +Yarrow Revisited+ (1835), and many poems. +The Prelude+ was
+    published after his death. His prose, which is very good, consists
+    chiefly of Prefaces and Introductions.
+
+      George III. ascends the throne in 1760.
+      Napoleon and Wellington born, 1769.
+
++1770+
+
+  SIR WALTER SCOTT. +1771-1832+. Clerk to the Court of Session in
+  Edinburgh; Scottish barrister; poet; novelist.
+    +Lay of the Last Minstrel+ (1805); +Marmion+ (1808); +Lady of the
+    Lake+ (1810); +Waverley+-- the first of the "Waverley Novels"-- was
+    published in 1814. The "Homer of Scotland." His prose is bright and
+    fluent, but very inaccurate.
+
+      Warren Hastings in India, 1772-85.
+
+  SAMUEL TAYLOR COLERIDGE. +1772-1834+. Private soldier; journalist;
+  literary man; philosopher; poet.
+    +The Ancient Mariner+ (1798); +Christabel+ (1816); +The Friend+--
+    a Collection of Essays (1812); +Aids to Reflection+ (1825). His
+    prose is very full both of thought and emotion.
+
+  ROBERT SOUTHEY. +1774-1843+. Literary man; Quarterly Reviewer;
+  historian; poet-laureate.
+    +Joan of Arc+ (1796); +Thalaba the Destroyer+ (1801); +The Curse of
+    Kehama+ (1810); +A History of Brazil+; +The Doctor+-- a Collection
+    of Essays; +Life of Nelson+. He wrote more than a hundred volumes.
+    He was "the most ambitious and and most voluminous author of his
+    age."
+
+      American Declaration of Independence, 1776.
+
+  CHARLES LAMB. +1775-1834+. Clerk in the East India House; poet;
+  prose-writer.
+    _Poems_ (1797); +Tales from Shakespeare+ (1806); +The Essays of
+    Elia+ (1823-1833). One of the finest writers of writers of prose in
+    the English language.
+
+  WALTER SAVAGE LANDOR. +1775-1864+. Poet; prose-writer.
+    +Gebir+ (1798); +Count Julian+ (1812); +Imaginary Conversations+
+    (1824-1846); +Dry Sticks Faggoted+ (1858). He wrote books for more
+    than sixty years. His style is full of vigour and sustained
+    eloquence.
+
+      Alliance of France and America, 1778.
+
+  THOMAS CAMPBELL. +1777-1844+. Poet; literary man; editor.
+    +The Pleasures of Hope+ (1799); +Poems+ (1803); +Gertrude of
+    Wyoming+, +Battle of the Baltic+, +Hohenlinden+, etc. (1809). He
+    also wrote some _Historical Works_.
+
+      Encyclopædia Britannica founded in 1778.
+
+  HENRY HALLAM. +1778-1859+. Historian.
+    +View of Europe during the Middle Ages+ (1818); +Constitutional
+    History of England+ (1827); +Introduction to the Literature of
+    Europe+ (1839).
+
+  THOMAS MOORE. +1779-1852+. Poet; prose-writer.
+    +Odes and Epistles+ (1806); +Lalla Rookh+ (1817); +History of
+    Ireland+ (1827); +Life of Byron+ (1830); +Irish Melodies+ (1834);
+    and many prose works.
+
++1780+
+
+  THOMAS DE QUINCEY. +1785-1859+. Essayist.
+    +Confessions of an English Opium-Eater+ (1821). He wrote also on
+    many subjects-- philosophy, poetry, classics, history, politics. His
+    writings fill twenty volumes. He was one of the finest prose-writers
+    of this century.
+
+      French Revolution begun in 1789.
+
+  LORD BYRON (George Gordon). +1788-1824+. Peer; poet; volunteer to
+  Greece.
+    +Hours of Idleness+ (1807); +English Bards and Scotch Reviewers+
+    (1809); +Childe Harold's Pilgrimage+ (1812-1818); +Hebrew Melodies+
+    (1815); and many _Plays_. His prose, which is full of vigour and
+    animal spirits, is to be found chiefly in his Letters.
+
+      Bastille overthrown, 1789.
+
++1790+
+
+  PERCY BYSSHE SHELLEY. +1792-1822+. Poet.
+    +Queen Mab+ (1810); +Prometheus Unbound+--a Tragedy (1819); +Ode to
+    the Skylark+, +The Cloud+ (1820); +Adonaïs+ (1821), and many other
+    poems; and several prose works.
+
+      Cape of Good Hope Hope taken, 1795.
+      Bonaparte in Italy, 1796.
+      Battle of the Nile, 1798.
+
++1800+
+
+  JOHN KEATS. +1795-1821+. Poet.
+    +Poems+ (1817); +Endymion+ (1818); +Hyperion+ (1820). "Had Keats
+    lived to the ordinary age of man, he would have been one of the
+    greatest of all poets."
+
+      Union of Great Britain and Ireland, 1801.
+      Trafalgar and Nelson, 1805.
+
++1810+
+
+      Peninsular War, 1808-14.
+      Napoleon's Invasion of Russia; Moscow burnt, 1812.
+
++1820+
+
+  THOMAS CARLYLE. +1795-1881+. Literary man; poet; translator; essayist;
+  reviewer; political writer; historian.
+    +German Romances+-- a set of Translations (1827); +Sartor
+    Resartus+-- "The Tailor Repatched" (1834); +The French Revolution+
+    (1837); +Heroes and Hero-Worship+ (1840); +Past and Present+ (1843);
+    +Cromwell's Letters and Speeches+ (1845); +Life of Frederick the
+    Great+ (1858-65). "With the gift of song, Carlyle would have been
+    the greatest of epic poets since Homer."
+
+      War with United States, 1812-14.
+      Battle of Waterloo,1815.
+
++1830+
+
+      George IV. ascends the throne, 1820.
+      Greek War of Freedom, 1822-29.
+      Byron in Greece, 1823-24.
+      Catholic Emancipation, 1829.
+
+  LORD MACAULAY (Thomas Babington). +1800-1859+. Barrister; Edinburgh
+  Reviewer; M.P.; Member of the Supreme Council of India; Cabinet
+  Minister; poet; essayist; historian; peer.
+    +Milton+ (in the 'Edinburgh Review,' 1825); +Lays of Ancient Rome+
+    (1842); +History of England+-- unfinished (1849-59). "His pictorial
+    faculty is amazing."
+
+      William IV. ascends the throne, 1830.
+      The Reform Bill, 1832.
+      Total Abolition of Slavery, 1834.
+
+  LORD LYTTON (Edward Bulwer). +1805-1873+. Novelist; poet; dramatist;
+  M.P.; Cabinet Minister; peer.
+    +Ismael and Other Poems+ (1825); +Eugene Aram+ (1831); +Last Days of
+    Pompeii+ (1834); +The Caxtons+ (1849); +My Novel+ (1853); +Poems+
+    (1865).
+
+      Queen Victoria ascends the throne, 1837.
+
++1840+
+
+      Irish Famine, 1845.
+
+  JOHN STUART MILL. +1806-1873+. Clerk in the East India House;
+  philospher; political writer; M.P.; Lord Rector of the University of
+  St Andrews.
+    +System of Logic+ (1843); +Principles of Political Economy+ (1848);
+    +Essay on Liberty+ (1858); +Autobiography+ (1873); "For judicial
+    calmness, elevation of tone, and freedom from personality, Mill is
+    unrivalled among the writers of his time."
+
+      Repeal of the Corn Laws, 1846.
+
++1850+
+
+      Revolution in Paris, 1851.
+      Death of Wellington, 1852.
+
+  HENRY W. LONGFELLOW. +1807-1882+. Professor of Modern Languages and
+  Literature in Harvard University, U.S.; poet; prose-writer.
+    +Outre-Mer+--a Story (1835); +Hyperion+--a Story (1839); +Voices
+    of the Night+ (1841); +Evangeline+ (1848) +Hiawatha+ (1855);
+    +Aftermath+ (1873). "His tact in the use of language is probably the
+    chief cause of his success."
+
+      Napoleon III. Emperor of the French, 1852.
+      Russian War, 1854-56.
+
+  LORD TENNYSON (Alfred Tennyson). +1809----+. Poet; poet-laureate;
+  peer.
+    +Poems+ (1830) +In Memoriam+ (1850); +Maud+ (1855); +Idylls of the
+    King+ (1859-73); +Queen Mary+--a Drama (1875); +Becket+--a Drama
+    (1884). He is at present our greatest living poet.
+
+      Franco-Austrian War, 1859.
+
++1860+
+
+      Emancipation of Russian serfs, 1861.
+
+  ELIZABETH B. BARRETT (afterwards Mrs Browning). +1809-1861+. Poet;
+  prose-writer; translator.
+    +Prometheus Bound+-- translated from the Greek of Æschylus (1833);
+    +Poems+ (1844); +Aurora Leigh+ (1856); and _Essays_ contributed to
+    various magazines.
+
+      Austro-Prussian "Seven Weeks' War", 1866.
+      Suez canal finished, 1869.
+
++1870+
+
+  WILLIAM MAKEPEACE THACKERAY. +1811-1863+. Novelist; writer in 'Punch';
+  artist.
+    +The Paris Sketch-Book+ (1840); +Vanity Fair+ (1847); +Esmond+
+    (1852); +The Newcomes+(1855); +The Virginians+ (1857). The
+    greatest novelist and one of the most perfect stylists of this
+    century. "The classical English humorist and satirist of the reign
+    of Queen Victoria."
+
+      Franco-Prussian War 1870-71.
+      Third French Republic, 1870.
+      William I. of Prussia made Emperor of the Germans at Versailles,
+      1871.
+
+  CHARLES DICKENS. +1812-1870+. Novelist.
+    +Sketches by Boz+ (1836); +The Pickwick Papers+ (1837); +Oliver
+    Twist+ (1838); +Nicholas Nickleby+ (1838); and many other novels and
+    works; +Great Expectations+ (1868). The most popular writer that
+    ever lived.
+
+      Rome the new capital of Italy, 1871.
+      Russo-Turkish War 1877-78.
+      Berlin Congress and Treaty, 1878.
+
+  ROBERT BROWNING. +1812----+. Poet.
+    +Pauline+ (1833); +Paracelsus+ (1836); _Poems_ (1865); +The Ring and
+    the Book+ (1869); and many other volumes of poetry.
+
+      Leo XIII. made Pope in 1878.
+
++1880+
+
+  JOHN RUSKIN. +1819----+. Art-critic; essayist; teacher; literary man.
+    +Modern Painters+ (1843-60); +The Stones of Venice+ (1851-53); +The
+    Queen of the Air+ (1869); +An Autobiography+ (1885); and very many
+    other works. "He has a deep, serious, and almost fanatical reverence
+    for art."
+
+      Assassination of Alexander II., 1881.
+      Arabi Pasha's Rebellion 1882-83.
+      War in the Soudan, 1884.
+
+  GEORGE ELIOT. +1819-1880+. Novelist; poet; essayist.
+    +Scenes of Clerical Life+ (1858); +Adam Bede+ (1859); and many other
+    novels down to +Daniel Deronda+ (1876); +Spanish Gypsy+ (1868);
+    +Legend of Jubal+ (1874).
+
+      Murder of Gordon, 1884.
+      New Reform Bill, 1885.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX.
+
+  [Spellings in the Index are sometimes different from those used in
+  the main text, as with the names "Shakespeare" and "Wycliffe", or the
+  use of ligatures in names such as "Bæda" and "Cædmon". Paragraph
+  references given in {braces} were added by the transcriber. Parts
+  III and IV are separately indexed.]
+
+
+PART III.
+
+  +African+ words in English, 263.
+  +American+ words in English, 263.
+  +Analytic+ English (= modern), 239 {III.2}.
+  +Ancient+ English, 199 {I.4}.
+    synthetic, 239 {III.1}.
+  +Anglo-Saxon+, specimen from, 250 {IV.2}.
+    contrasted with English of Wyclif and Tyndale, 251 {IV.3}.
+  +Arabic+ words in English, 263.
+  +Aryan+ family of languages, 195 {intro.7}.
+
+  +Bible+, English of the, 256 {IV.11}.
+  +Bilingualism+, 222 {II.33}.
+
+  +Changes+ of language, never sudden, 198 {I.2}.
+  +Chinese+ words in English, 264.
+
+  +Dead+ and living languages, 198 {I.1}.
+  +Dialects+ of English, 238 {II.52}.
+  +Doublets+, English and other, 236-238 {II.47-II.51}.
+    Greek, 233 {II.45}.
+    Latin, 230-233 {II.41-II.43}.
+  +Dutch+ and Welsh contrasted, 197 {intro.10}.
+    words in English, 260 {V.5}.
+
+  +English+, 194 {intro.4}.
+    a Low-German tongue, 196 {intro.9}.
+    diagram of, 203.
+    dialects of, 238 {II.52}.
+    early and oldest, compared, 252 {IV.5}.
+    elements of, characteristics of the two, 234-236 {II.46-II.47}.
+    English element in, 202 {II.2}.
+    foreign elements in, 204 {II.5}.
+    grammar of, its history, 239-249 {III.1-III.16}.
+    its spread over Britain, 197 {intro.11}.
+    modern, 258-265 {V.1-V.10}.
+    nation, 202 {II.1}.
+    of the Bible, 256 {IV.11}.
+    of the thirteenth century, 254 {IV.8}.
+    of the fourteenth century, 255 {IV.9}.
+    of the sixteenth century, 256 {IV.10}.
+    on the Continent, 194 {intro.5}.
+    periods of, 198-201 {I.3-I.8}.
+      marks which distinguish, 254.
+    syntax of, changed, 245 {III.11}.
+    the family to which it belongs, 195 {intro.7}.
+    the group to which it belongs, 195 {intro.8}, 196.
+    vocabulary of, 202-238 {II.1-II.52}.
+
+  +Foreign+ elements in English, 204 {II.5}.
+  +French+ (new) words in English, 261 {V.6}.
+    (Norman), see Norman-French.
+
+  +German+ words in English, 262 {V.7}.
+  +Grammar+ of English, 239-249 {III.1-III.16}.
+    comparatively fixed (since 1485), 258 {V.1}.
+    First Period, 240 {III.5}.
+    general view of its history, 243 {III.9}.
+    Second Period, 241 {III.6}.
+    short view of its history, 239-243 {III.3-III.8}.
+    Third Period, 242 {III.7}.
+    Fourth Period, 242 {III.8}.
+  +Greek+ doublets, 233 {II.45}.
+  +Gutturals+, expulsion of, 246-248 {III.12-III.14}.
+
+  +Hebrew+ words in English, 262 {V.8}.
+  +Hindu+ words in English, 264.
+  +History+ of English, landmarks in, 266.
+  +Hungarian+ words in English, 264.
+
+  +Indo-European+ family, 195 {intro.7}.
+  +Inflexions+ in different periods, compared, 253 {IV.6}.
+    loss of, 239 {III.3}, 240 {III.4}.
+    grammatical result of loss, 248 {III.16}.
+  +Italian+ words in English, 259 {V.4}.
+
+  +Keltic+ element in English, 204-206 {II.6-II.9}.
+
+  +Landmarks+ in the history of English, 266.
+  +Language+, 193 {intro.1}.
+    changes of, 198 {I.2}.
+    growth of, 193 {intro.3}.
+    living and dead, 198 {I.1}.
+    spoken and written, 203 {II.3}.
+    written, 193 {intro.2}.
+  +Latin+ contributions and their dates, 209 {II.16}.
+    doublets, 230-233 {II.41-II.43}.
+    element in English, 208-233 {II.15-II.44}.
+    of the eye and ear, 230 {II.41}.
+    of the First Period, 210 {II.17}.
+      Second Period, 211 {II.19}, 212 {II.21}.
+      Third Period, 212-227 {II.22-II.36}.
+      Fourth Period, 227-230 {II.37-II.39}.
+    triplets, 233 {II.44}.
+  +Lord's Prayer+, in four versions, 251 {IV.4}, 252.
+
+  +Malay+ words in English, 264.
+  +Middle+ English, 200 {I.6}.
+  +Modern+ English, 201 {I.8}, 258-265 {V.1-V.10}.
+    analytic, 239 {III.2}.
+  +Monosyllables+, 244 {III.10}.
+
+  +New words+ in English, 258-265 {V.2-V.10}.
+  +Norman-French+, 212 {II.22}.
+    bilingualism caused by, 222 {II.33}.
+    contributions, general character of, 220 {II.30}.
+    dates of, 213-215 {II.23-II.24}.
+    element in English, 212-227 {II.22-II.36}.
+    gains to English from, 221-224 {II.31-II.33}.
+    losses to English from, 225-227 {II.34-II.36}.
+    synonyms, 222 {II.32}.
+    words, 216-220 {II.24-II.29}.
+
+  +Oldest+ and early English compared, 252 {IV.5}.
+  +Order+ of words in English, changed, 245 {III.11}.
+
+  +Periods+ of English, 198-201 {I.3-I.8}.
+      Ancient, 199 {I.4}.
+      Early, 199 {I.5}.
+      Middle, 200 {I.6}.
+      Tudor, 201 {I.7}.
+      Modern, 201 {I.8}.
+    grammar of the different, 239-249 {III.1-III.16}.
+    marks indicating different, 254.
+    specimens of different, 250-257 {IV.1-IV.12}.
+  +Persian+ words in English, 264.
+  +Polynesian+ words in English, 264.
+  +Portuguese+ words in English, 264.
+
+  +Renascence+ (Revival of Learning), 227 {II.37}.
+  +Russian+ words in English, 264.
+
+  +Scandinavian+ element in English, 206-208 {II.10-II.14}.
+  +Scientific+ terms in English, 265 {V.10}.
+  +Spanish+ words in English, 259 {V.3}.
+  +Specimens+ of English of different periods, 250-257 {IV.1-IV.12}.
+  +Spoken+ and written language, 203 {II.3}.
+  +Syntax+ of English, change in, 245 {III.11}.
+  +Synthetic+ English (= ancient), 239 {III.1}.
+
+  +Tartar +words in English, 264.
+  +Teutonic+ group, 195 {intro.8}.
+  +Tudor+ English, 201 {I.7}.
+  +Turkish+ words in English, 264.
+  +Tyndale's+ English, compared with Anglo-Saxon and Wyclif, 251 {IV.3}.
+
+  +Vocabulary+ of the English language, 202-238 {II.1-II.52}.
+
+  +Welsh+ and Dutch contrasted, 197 {intro.10}.
+  +Words+ and inflexions in different periods, compared, 253 {IV.6}.
+    new, in English, 258-265 {V.2-V.10}.
+  +Written+ language, 193 {intro.2}.
+    and spoken, 203 {II.3}.
+  +Wyclif's+ English, compared with Tyndale's and Anglo-Saxon,
+        251 {IV.3}.
+
+
+PART IV.
+
+  +Addison+, Joseph, 315 {VI.7}.
+  +Alfred+, 276 {I.9}.
+  _Anglo-Saxon Chronicle_, 276 {I.10}.
+  +Arnold+, Matthew, 359 {IX.10}.
+  +Austen+, Jane, 348 {VIII.25}.
+
+  +Bacon+, Francis, 299 {V.3}.
+  +Bæda+ (Venerable Bede), 275 {I.8}.
+  +Barbour+, John, 285 {II.10}.
+  _Beowulf_, 273 {I.5}.
+  +Blake+, William, 334 {VII.20}.
+  +Browning+, Robert, 358 {IX.8}.
+  +Browning+, Mrs., 357 {IX.7}.
+  _Brunanburg, Song of_, 275 {I.7}.
+  +Brunne+, Robert of, 279 {I.12}.
+  _Brut_, 277 {I.11}.
+  +Bunyan+, John, 309 {V.17}.
+  +Burke+, Edmund, 326 {VII.6}.
+  +Burns+, Robert, 332 {VII.16}.
+  +Butler+, Samuel, 304 {V.10}.
+  +Byron+, George Gordon, Lord, 343 {VIII.16}.
+
+  +Cædmon+, 274 {I.6}.
+  +Campbell+, Thomas, 342 {VIII.14}.
+  +Carlyle+, Thomas, 349 {VIII.27}.
+  +Caxton+, William, 288 {III.3}.
+  +Chatterton+, Thomas, 333 {VII.18}.
+  +Chaucer+, Geoffrey, 283 {II.7}.
+    followers of, 287 {III.1}.
+  +Coleridge+, Samuel Taylor, 340 {VIII.10}.
+  +Collins+, William, 321 {VI.19}.
+  +Cowper+, William, 329 {VII.11}.
+  +Crabbe+, George, 331 {VII.13}.
+
+  +Defoe+, Daniel, 312 {VI.3}.
+  +De Quincey+, Thomas, 348 {VIII.26}.
+  +Dickens+, Charles, 361 {IX.15}.
+  +Dryden+, John, 305 {V.12}.
+
+  +Eliot+, George, 364 {IX.19}.
+
+  +Gibbon+, Edward, 327 {VII.8}.
+  +Gloucester+, Robert of, 279 {I.12}.
+  +Goldsmith+, Oliver, 325 {VII.4}.
+  +Gower+, John, 282 {II.5}.
+  +Gray+, Thomas, 320 {VI.17}.
+
+  +Hobbes+, Thomas, 308 {V.16}.
+  +Hooker+, Richard, 296 {IV.16}.
+
+  +James I.+ (of Scotland), 287 {III.2}.
+  +Johnson+, Samuel, 323 {VII.2}.
+  +Jonson+, Ben, 295 {IV.15}.
+
+  +Keats+, John, 345 {VIII.20}.
+
+  +Lamb+, Charles, 346 {VIII.23}.
+  +Landor+, Walter Savage, 347 {VIII.24}.
+  +Langlande+, William, 282 {II.6}.
+  +Layamon+, 277 {I.11}.
+  +Locke+, John, 309 {V.18}.
+  +Longfellow+, Henry Wadsworth, 354 {IX.3}.
+
+  +Macaulay+, Thomas Babington, 351 {VIII.29}.
+  _Maldon_, Song of the Fight at, 275 {I.7}.
+  +Mandeville+, Sir John, 281 {II.3}.
+  +Marlowe+, Christopher, 295 {IV.14}.
+  +Milton+, John, 303 {V.8}.
+  +Moore+, Thomas, 342 {VIII.15}.
+  +More+, Sir Thomas, 290 {IV.3}.
+  +Morris+, William, 360 {IX.12}.
+
+  +Orm's+ _Ormulum_, 278 {I.12}.
+
+  +Pope+, Alexander, 317 {VI.11}, 319 {VI.14}.
+
+  +Raleigh+, Sir Walter, 298 {V.2}.
+  +Ruskin+, John, 363 {IX.17}.
+
+  +Scott+, Sir Walter, 339 {VIII.5}.
+  +Shakespeare+, William, 292 {IV.9}, 301 {V.5}.
+    contemporaries of, 294 {IV.13}.
+  +Shelley+, Percy Bysshe, 344 {VIII.18}.
+  +Sidney+, Sir Philip, 297 {IV.18}.
+  +Southey+, Robert, 341 {VIII.12}.
+  +Spenser+, Edmund, 291 {IV.6}.
+  +Steele+, Richard, 316 {VI.10}.
+  +Surrey+, Earl of, 289 {IV.2}.
+  +Swift+, Jonathan, 313 {VI.5}.
+
+  +Taylor+, Jeremy, 307 {V.14}.
+  +Tennyson+, Alfred, 355 {IX.5}.
+  +Thackeray+, William Makepeace, 361 {IX.14}.
+  +Thomson+, James, 319 {VI.15}, 320 {VI.16}.
+  +Tyndale+, William, 290 {IV.4}.
+
+  +Wordsworth+, William, 337 {VIII.3}.
+  +Wyatt+, Sir Thomas, 289 {IV.2}.
+  +Wyclif+, John, 282 {II.4}.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+           *       *       *       *
+
+
+_ENGLISH LITERATURE._
+
+"+_The chief glory of every people arises from its authors._+"
+
+
+_An Introduction to the Study of Robert Browning's Poetry._
+
+  By HIRAM CORSON, LL.D., Professor of Rhetoric and English Literature
+  in the Cornell University. 5¼ by 7½ inches. × + 338 pages. Cloth.
+  Price by mail, $1.50; Introduction price, $1.40.
+
+The purpose of this volume is to afford some aid and guidance to the
+study of Robert Browning's Poetry, which being the most complexly
+subjective of all English poetry, is, for that reason alone, the most
+difficult. And then the poet's favorite art form, the dramatic, or
+rather psychologic, monologue, which is quite original with himself, and
+peculiarly adapted to the constitution of his genius, and to the
+revelation of themselves by the several "dramatis personæ," presents
+certain structural difficulties, but difficulties which, with an
+increased familiarity, grew less and less. The exposition presented in
+the Introduction, of its constitution and skilful management, and the
+Arguments given to the several poems included in the volume, will, it is
+hoped, reduce, if not altogether remove, the difficulties of this kind.
+In the same section of the Introduction certain peculiarities of the
+poet's diction, which sometimes give a check to the reader's
+understanding of a passage, are presented and illustrated.
+
+It is believed that the notes to the poems will be found to cover all
+points and features of the texts which require explanation and
+elucidation. At any rate, no real difficulties have been wittingly
+passed by.
+
+The following Table of Contents will give a good idea of the plan and
+scope of the work:--
+
+  I. The Spiritual Ebb and Flow exhibited in English Poetry from
+    Chaucer to Tennyson and Browning.
+
+  II. The Idea of Personality and of Art as an intermediate agency of
+    Personality, as embodied in Browning's Poetry. (Read before the
+    Browning Society of London in 1882.)
+
+  III. Browning's Obscurity.
+
+  IV. Browning's Verse.
+
+  V. Arguments of the Poems.
+
+  VI. Poems. (Under this head are thirty-three representative poems,
+    the Arguments of which are given in the preceding section.)
+
+  VII. List of criticisms of Browning's works, selected from Dr.
+    Furnivall's "Bibliography of Robert Browning" contained in the
+    Browning Society's Papers.
+
+_From +Albert S. Cook+, Professor of English Literature in the
+University of California_:--
+
+  Among American expositors of Browning, Professor Corson is easily
+  first. He has not only satisfied the English organization which
+  devotes itself to the study of the poet, but, what is perhaps a
+  severer test, he attracts the reader to whom Browning is only a
+  name, and, in the compass of one small volume, educates him into the
+  love and appreciation of the poet. If Browning is to be read in only
+  a single volume, this, in my opinion, is the best; if he is to be
+  studied zealously and exhaustively, Professor Corson's book is an
+  excellent introduction to the complete series of his works.
+
+_From +The Critic+:--
+
+  Ruskin, Browning, and Carlyle all have something in common: a vast
+  message to deliver, a striking way of delivering it, and an
+  over-mastering spirituality. In none of them is there mere smooth,
+  smuck surface: all are filled with the fine wrinkles of thought
+  wreaking itself on expression with many a Delphic writhing. A priest
+  with a message cares little for the vocal vehicle; and yet the
+  utterances of all three men are beautifully melodious. Chiefest of
+  them all in his special poetic sphere appears to be Browning, and to
+  him Professor Corson thinks our special studies should be directed.
+  This book is a valuable contribution to Browning lore, and will
+  doubtless be welcomed by the Browning clubs of this country and
+  England. It is easy to see that Professor Corson is more than an
+  annotator: he is a poet himself, and on this account he is able to
+  interpret Browning so sympathetically.
+
+_From +The Unitarian Review+, Boston, March, 1887_:--
+
+  More than almost any other poet, Browning-- at least, his reader--
+  needs the help of a believing, cheery, and enthusiastic guide, to
+  beguile the weary pilgrimage.
+
+  There is, as we have intimated, a fast-growing esoteric literature
+  of exposition and comment,-- part of it simply the expression of the
+  disciple's loyal homage, part of it designed to win and educate the
+  reluctant Philistine intellect to the comforts of a true faith. In
+  the latter class we reckon the excellent work of Professor Corson,
+  of Cornell University. More than half of it is, as it should be,
+  made up of a selection from the shorter poems, giving each complete;
+  while these include what is perhaps the most readable and one of the
+  most characteristic of the narrative pieces, "The Flight of the
+  Duchess," with which a beginner may well make his first attempt.
+
+_From +The Christian Union+, New York_:--
+
+  Browning, like every other great original artist, has been compelled
+  to wait upon the slow processes by which his own public has been
+  educated.
+
+  It is doubtful if any other single work on Browning deserves to rank
+  with this, with the exception of Professor Dowden's striking
+  comparative study of Browning and Tennyson. Professor Corson's
+  elucidation of the idea of personality in art as embodied in Mr.
+  Browning's poetry is the most luminous, the most adequate, and the
+  most thoroughly helpful article that has ever been written on
+  Browning's poetry. Those who study it carefully will discern in it a
+  rare insight into the workings of one of the most subtle of modern
+  minds, and a singularly clear and complete statement of the
+  philosophy of life at which that mind has arrived. The chapters on
+  Browning's obscurity and on his use of the dramatic monologue are
+  also extremely suggestive and helpful; the selections from
+  Browning's poems are admirably chosen, and, with the notes, make the
+  best of all possible introductions to the study of Browning.
+
+_From +Rev. Francis Tiffany+, in "The Boston Herald," Nov. 30, 1886_:--
+
+  The volume is well worthy the serious study of thinking men and
+  women, for it embodies the results of years, not only of thorough
+  investigation, but of the finest poetical appreciation. From
+  beginning to end, it is pervaded with a fervid feeling that not to
+  know Robert Browning is to lose something.
+
+  Professor Corson, in his chapter on "Browning's Obscurity," has done
+  his best to smooth the path of the reader by explaining, and so
+  removing from his way, those grammatical obstructions, habits of
+  word inversion and baffling ellipses that stand as a lion in the
+  path to so many of the poet's untried readers. This chapter is
+  exceedingly well wrought out, and, once carefully studied, with the
+  illustrations given, can hardly fail to banish many a perplexity.
+
+_From +The American+, Philadelphia_:--
+
+  Can Browning be made intelligible to the common mind? Ten years ago
+  it was assumed that he could not. But of late years a different view
+  has begun to prevail. And as all those who have addressed themselves
+  seriously to the study of Browning report themselves as having found
+  him repay the trouble he gave them, there has arisen very naturally
+  an ambition to share in their fruitful experience. Hence the rise of
+  Browning Societies on both sides of the Atlantic, and in the
+  publication of analyses and discussions of his poems, and the
+  preparation of such manuals as this of Professor Hiram Corson's.
+
+  Professor Corson is a Browningite of the first era. He owes nothing
+  but encouragement to the new enthusiasm which has gathered around
+  the writings of the Master, whom he recognized as such long before
+  he had begun to attain any general recognition of his masterfulness.
+  Browning has helped him to a deeper sense of the spiritual life
+  present in the older current of English poetry. He finds in him the
+  "subtlest assertor of the soul in song," and the noblest example of
+  the spiritual element in our modern verse. He thinks that no greater
+  mistake has been made with regard to him, than to treat him merely
+  as the most intellectual of our poets. He is that, but far more; he
+  is the most spiritual of our poets also.
+
+  All or nearly all his poems are character-studies of the deeper
+  sort, and hence the naturalness with which they fall into the form
+  of dramatic monologues. It is true, as Mr. Corson says, that the
+  liberties our poet takes in the collocation of words, the complexity
+  of constructions, and some of his verbal liberties, are of a nature
+  to increase the difficulty the careless reader finds. But there are
+  poems and passages of his which present none of these minor
+  stumbling-blocks, but of which no reader will make anything until he
+  has acquired the poet's interest in personality, its God-given
+  mission as a force for the world's regeneration, and its innate
+  intimacy with divine forces. But we believe that with Mr. Corson's
+  aids-- notes as well as preliminary analyses-- they can be mastered
+  by any earnest student; and certainly few things in literature so
+  well repay the trouble.
+
+
+  +F. A. March+, _Prof. in Lafayette Coll_.: Let me congratulate you
+  on having brought out so eloquent a book, and acute, as Professor
+  Corson's Browning. I hope it pays as well in money as it must in
+  good name.
+
+  +Rev. Joseph Cook+, _Boston_: Professor Corson's Introduction to
+  Robert Browning's Poetry appears to me to be admirably adapted to
+  its purposes. It forms an attractive porch to a great and intricate
+  cathedral.    (_Feb. 21, 1887._)
+
+  +Louise M. Hodgkins+, _Prof. of English Literature, Wellesley
+  Coll._: I consider it the most illuminating textbook which has yet
+  been published on Browning's poems.    (_March 12, 1887._)
+
+  +F. H. Giddings+, in _"The Paper World," Springfield, Mass._: It is
+  a stimulating, wisely helpful book. The arguments of the poems are
+  explained in luminous prose paragraphs that take the reader directly
+  into the heart of the poet's meaning. Chapters on Browning's
+  obscurity and Browning's verse clear away, or rather show the reader
+  how to overcome by his own efforts, the admitted difficulties
+  presented by Browning's style. These chapters bear the true test;
+  they enable the attentive reader to see, as Professor Corson sees,
+  that such features of Browning's diction are seldom to be condemned,
+  but often impart a peculiar crispness to the expressions in which
+  they occur.
+
+  The opening chapter of the book is the finest, truest introduction
+  to the study of English literature, as a whole, that any American
+  writer has yet produced.
+
+  This chapter leads naturally to a profound and noble essay, of which
+  it would be impossible to convey any adequate conception in a
+  paragraph. It prepares the reader for an appreciation of Browning's
+  loftiest work.    (_March, 1887._)
+
+  +Melville B. Anderson+, _Prof. of English Literature, Purdue Univ.,
+  in "The Dial," Chicago_: The arguments to the poems are made with
+  rare judgment. Many mature readers have hitherto been repelled from
+  Browning by real difficulties such as obstruct the way to the inner
+  sanctuary of every great poet's thought. Such readers may well be
+  glad of some sort of a path up the rude steeps the poet has climbed
+  and whither he beckons all who can to follow him.
+      (_January, 1887._)
+
+  +Queries+, _Buffalo, N.Y._: It is the most noteworthy treatise on
+  the poetry of Browning yet published. Professor Corson is well
+  informed upon the poetic literature of the age, is an admirably
+  clear writer, and brings to the subject he has in hand ample
+  knowledge and due-- we had almost said undue-- reverence. It has
+  been a labor of love, and he has performed it well. The book will be
+  a popular one, as readers who are not familiar with or do not
+  understand Browning's poetry either from incompetency, indolence, or
+  lack of time, can here gain a fair idea of Browning's poetical aims,
+  influence, and works without much effort, or the expense of
+  intellectual effort. Persons who have made a study of Browning's
+  poetry will welcome it as a matter of course.    (_December, 1886._)
+
+  +Education+, _Boston_: Any effort to aid and guide the young in the
+  study of Robert Browning's poetry is to be commended. But when the
+  editor is able to grasp the hidden meaning and make conspicuous the
+  poetic beauties of so famous an author, and, withal, give such
+  clever hints, directions, and guidance to the understanding and the
+  enjoyment of the poems, he lays us all under unusual obligations. It
+  is to be hoped that this book will come into general use in the high
+  schools, academies, and colleges of America. It is beautifully
+  printed, in clear type, on good paper, and is well bound.
+      (_February, 1887._)
+
+
+_THE STUDY OF ENGLISH._
+
+_Practical Lessons in the Use of English._
+
+  For Primary and Grammar Schools. By MARY F. HYDE, Teacher of
+  Composition in the State Normal School, Albany, N.Y.
+
+This work consists of a series of _Practical Lessons_, designed to aid
+the pupil in his own use of English, and to assist him in understanding
+its use by others. No topic is introduced for study that does not have
+some practical bearing upon one or the other of these two points.
+
+The pupil is first led to observe certain facts about the language, and
+then he is required to apply those facts in various exercises. At every
+step in his work he is compelled to think.
+
+The Written Exercises are a distinctive feature of this work. These
+exercises not only give the pupil daily practice in using the knowledge
+acquired, but lead him to form the habit of independent work.
+
+Simple exercises in composition are given from the first. In these
+exercises the aim is not to train the pupil to use any set form of
+words, but so to interest him in his subject, that, when writing, he
+will think simply of what he is trying to say.
+
+Special prominence is given to letter-writing and to written forms
+relating to the ordinary business of life.
+
+The work will aid teachers as well as pupils. It is so arranged that
+even the inexperienced teacher will have no difficulty in awakening an
+interest in the subjects presented.
+
+This series consists of three parts (in two volumes), the lessons being
+carefully graded throughout:--
+
+  +_Part First. For Primary Schools.--Third Grade._+
+    [_Ready._
+  +_Part Second. For Primary Schools.--Fourth Grade._+
+  (Part Second will be bound with Part First.)
+    [_Ready soon._
+  +_Part Third. For Grammar Schools._+
+    [_Ready in September._
+
+
+_The English Language; Its Grammar, History, and Literature._
+
+  By Prof. J. M. D. MEIKLEJOHN, of the University of St. Andrews,
+  Scotland. One volume. viii + 388 pages. Introduction price, $1.30.
+  Price by mail, $1.40. Also bound in two parts.
+
+Readable in style. Omits insignificant details. Treats all salient
+features with a master's skill, and with the utmost clearness and
+simplicity. Contains:--
+
+  I. A concise and accurate _resumé_ of the principles and rules of
+    _English Grammar_, with some interesting chapters on _Word-Building
+    and Derivation_, including an historical dictionary of _Roots and
+    Branches_, of _Words Derived from Names of Persons or of Places_,
+    and of _Words Disguised in Form_, and _Words Greatly Changed in
+    Meaning_.
+
+  II. Thirty pages of practical instruction in _Composition_,
+    _Paraphrasing_, _Versification_, and _Punctuation_.
+
+  III. A _History of the English Language_, giving the sources of its
+    vocabulary and the story of its grammatical changes, with a table
+    of the _Landmarks_ in the history, from the Beowulf to Tennyson.
+
+  IV. An _Outline of the History of English Literature_, embracing
+    _Tabular Views_ which give in parallel columns, (_a_) the name of
+    an author; (_b_) his chief works; (_c_) notable contemporary
+    events; (_d_) the century, or decade.
+
+The Index is complete, and is in the most helpful form for the student
+or the general reader.
+
+The book will prove invaluable to the teacher as a basis for his course
+of lectures, and to the student as a compact and reliable statement of
+all the essentials of the subject.    [_Ready August 15th._
+
+
+_Wordsworth's Prelude; an Autobiographical Poem._
+
+  Annotated by A. J. GEORGE, Acting Professor of English Literature in
+  Boston University, and Teacher of English Literature, Newton (Mass.)
+  High School.    [_Text ready in September. Notes later._
+
+This work is prepared as an introduction to the life and poetry of
+Wordsworth, and although never before published apart from the author's
+complete works, has long been considered as containing the key to that
+poetic philosophy which was the characteristic of the "New Brotherhood."
+
+
+_The Disciplinary Value of the Study of English._
+
+  By F. C. WOODWARD, Professor of English and Latin, Wofford College,
+  Spartanburg, S.C.
+
+The author restricts himself to the examination of the arguments for the
+study of English as a means of discipline, and shows that such study,
+both in schools and in colleges, can be made the medium of as sound
+training as the ancient languages or the other modern languages would
+give; and that the study of English forms, idioms, historical grammar,
+etc., is the only linguistic discipline possible to the great masses of
+our pupils, and that it is entirely adequate to the results required of
+it as such. He dwells especially on the disciplinary value of the
+analytical method as applied to the elucidation of English syntax, and
+the striking adaptation of English constructions to the exact methods of
+logical analysis. This Monograph discusses English teaching in the
+entire range of its disciplinary uses from primary school to high
+collegiate work.    [_Ready in August._
+
+
+_English in the Preparatory Schools._
+
+  By ERNEST W. HUFFCUT, Instructor in Rhetoric in the Cornell
+  University.
+
+The aim of this Monograph is to present as simply and practically as
+possible some of the advanced methods of teaching English grammar and
+English composition in the secondary schools. The author has kept
+constantly in mind the needs of those teachers who, while not giving
+undivided attention to the teaching of English, are required to take
+charge of that subject in the common schools. The defects in existing
+methods and the advantages of fresher methods are pointed out, and the
+plainest directions given for arousing and maintaining an interest in
+the work and raising it to its true place in the school curriculum.
+    [_Ready in August._
+
+
+_The Study of Rhetoric in the College Course._
+
+  By J. F. GENUNG, Professor of Rhetoric in Amherst College.
+
+This book is the outcome of the author's close and continued inquiry
+into the scope and limits of rhetorical study as pursued by
+undergraduates, and of his application of his ideas to the organization
+of a progressive rhetorical course. The first part defines the place of
+rhetoric among the college studies, and the more liberal estimate of its
+scope required by the present state of learning and literature. This is
+followed by a discussion of what may and should be done, as the most
+effective practical discipline of students toward the making of
+literature. Finally, a systematized and progressive course in rhetoric
+is sketched, being mainly the course already tried and approved in the
+author's own classes.    [_Ready._
+
+
+_Methods of Teaching and Studying History._
+
+  Edited by G. STANLEY HALL, Professor of Psychology and Pedagogy in
+  Johns Hopkins University. 12mo. 400 pages. Mailing price, $1.40;
+  Introduction price, $1.30.
+
+This book gathers together, in the form most likely to be of direct
+practical utility to teachers, and especially students and readers of
+history, generally, the opinions and modes of instruction, actual or
+ideal, of eminent and representative specialists in each department. The
+following Table of Contents will give a good idea of the plan and scope
+of this valuable book:--
+
+  +Introduction.+ By the Editor.
+
+  +Methods of Teaching American History.+ By Dr. A. B. Hart, Harvard
+  University.
+
+  +The Practical Method in Higher Historical Instruction.+ By
+  Professor Ephraim Emerton, of Harvard University.
+
+  +On Methods of Teaching Political Economy.+ By Dr. Richard T. Ely,
+  Johns Hopkins University.
+
+  +Historical Instruction in the Course of History and Political
+  Science at Cornell University.+ By President Andrew D. White,
+  Cornell University.
+
+  +Advice to an Inexperienced Teacher of History.+ By W. C. Collar,
+  A.M., Head Master of Roxbury Latin School.
+
+  +A Plea for Archæological Instruction.+ By Joseph Thacher Clarke,
+  Director of the Assos Expedition.
+
+  +The Use of a Public Library in the Study of History.+ By William E.
+  Foster, Librarian of the Providence Public Library.
+
+  +Special Methods of Historical Study.+ By Professor Herbert B.
+  Adams, Johns Hopkins University.
+
+  +The Philosophy of the State and of History.+ By Professor George S.
+  Morris, Michigan and Johns Hopkins Universities.
+
+  +The Courses of Study in History, Roman Law, and Political Economy
+  at Harvard University.+ By Dr. Henry E. Scott, Harvard University.
+
+  +The Teaching of History.+ By Professor J. R. Seeley, Cambridge
+  University, England.
+
+  +On Methods of Teaching History+. By Professor C. K. Adams, Michigan
+  University.
+
+  +On Methods of Historical Study and Research in Columbia
+  University.+ By Professor John W. Burgess, Columbia University.
+
+  +Physical Geography and History.+
+
+  +Why do Children Dislike History?+ By Thomas Wentworth Higginson.
+
+  +Gradation and the Topical Method of Historical Study; Historical
+  Literature and Authorities; Books for Collateral Reading.+ By
+  Professor W. F. Allen, Wisconsin University.
+
+  +Bibliography of Church History.+ By Rev. John Alonzo Fisher, Johns
+  Hopkins University.
+
+
++D. C. HEATH & CO., Publishers,+
+
+Boston, New York, and Chicago.
+
+
+THE STUDENT'S OUTLINE HISTORICAL MAP OF ENGLAND.
+
+By T. C. RONEY, Instructor in History, Denison University, Granville,
+Ohio.
+
++INTRODUCTION PRICE, 25 CENTS.+
+
+_The attention of teachers is invited to the following features of this
+Map:_
+
+  1. It emphasizes the vital connection (too often neglected) between
+  History and Geography.
+
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+
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+  place.
+
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+  practical application of acquired facts, in accordance with the most
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+
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+
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+
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+
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+
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+
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+
+_MODERN LANGUAGES._
+
+_Sheldon's Short German Grammar._
+
+  +Irving J. Manatt+, _Prof. of Modern Languages, Marietta College,
+  Ohio_: I can say, after going over every page of it carefully in the
+  class-room, that it is admirably adapted to its purpose.
+
+  +Oscar Howes+, _Prof. of German, Chicago University_: For beginners,
+  it is superior to any grammar with which I am acquainted.
+
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+  University_: There is nothing in English equal to it.
+
+_Deutsch's Select German Reader._
+
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+  After having used it for nearly one year, I can _conscientiously_
+  say that it is an _excellent_ book, and well adapted to beginners.
+
+  +H. C. G. Brandt+, _Prof. of German, Hamilton College_: I think it
+  an excellent book. I shall use it for a beginner's reader.
+
+  +Henry Johnson+, _Prof. of Modern Languages, Bowdoin College,
+  Brunswick, Me._: Use in the class-room has proved to me the
+  excellence of the book.
+
+  +Sylvester Primer+, _Prof. of Modern Languages, College of
+  Charleston, S.C._: I beg leave to say that I consider it an
+  excellent little book for beginners.
+
+_Boisen's Preparatory German Prose._
+
+  +Hermann Huss+, _Prof. of German, Princeton College_: I have been
+  using it, and it gives me a great deal of satisfaction.
+
+  +A. H. Mixer+, _Prof. of Modern Languages, University of Rochester,
+  N.Y._: It answers to my idea of an elementary reader better than any
+  I have yet seen.
+
+  +C. Woodward Hutson+, _Prof. of Modern Languages, University of
+  Mississippi_: I have been using it. I have never met with so good a
+  first reading-book in any language.
+
+  +Oscar Faulhaber+, _Prof. of Modern Languages, Phillips Exeter
+  Academy, N.H._: A professional teacher and an intelligent mind will
+  regard the Reader as unexcelled.
+
+_Grimm's Märchen._
+
+  +Henry Johnson+, _Prof. of Mod. Lang., Bowdoin Coll._: It has
+  excellent work in it.
+
+  +Boston Advertiser+: Teachers and students of German owe a debt of
+  thanks to the editor.
+
+  +The Beacon+, _Boston_: A capital book for beginners. The editor has
+  done his work remarkably well.
+
+_Hauff's Märchen: Das Kalte Herz._
+
+  +G. H. Horswell+, _Prof. of Modern Languages, Northwestern Univ.
+  Prep. School, Evanston, Ill._: It is prepared with critical
+  scholarship and judicious annotation. I shall use it in my classes
+  next term.
+
+  +The Academy+, _Syracuse, N.Y._: The notes seem unusually well
+  prepared.
+
+  +Unity+, _Chicago_: It is decidedly better than anything we have
+  previously seen. Any book so well made must soon have many friends
+  among teachers and students.
+
+_Hodge's Course in Scientific German._
+
+  +Albert C. Hale+, _recent President of School of Mines, Golden,
+  Col._: We have never been better pleased with any book we have used.
+
+_Ybarra's Practical Spanish Method._
+
+  +B. H. Nash+, _Prof. of the Spanish and Italian Languages, Harvard
+  Univ._: The work has some very marked merits. The author evidently
+  had a well-defined plan, which he carries out with admirable
+  consistency.
+
+  +Alf. Hennequin+, _Dept. of Mod. Langs., University of Michigan_:
+  The method is thoroughly practical, and quite original. The book
+  will be used by me in the University.
+
+
+For Terms for Introduction apply to
+
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+_Studies in General History._
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+  (1000 B.C. to 1880 A.D.) _An Application of the Scientific Method to
+  the Teaching of History._ BY MARY D. SHELDON, formerly Professor of
+  History in Wellesley College. This book has been prepared in order
+  that the general student may share in the advantages of the Seminary
+  Method of Instruction. It is a collection of historic material,
+  interspersed with problems whose answers the student must work out
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+  to deal with the original historical data of his own time. In short,
+  it may be termed _an exercise book in history and politics_. Price
+  by mail, $1.75.
+
+  +THE TEACHER'S MANUAL+ contains the continuous statement of the
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+  mail, 85 cents.
+
+_Sheldon's Studies in Greek and Roman History._
+
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+  which Ancient History takes the place of General History, and of
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+  spirited and helpful review. Price by mail, $1.10.
+
+_Methods of Teaching and Studying History._
+
+  Edited by G. STANLEY HALL, Professor of Psychology and Pedagogy in
+  Johns Hopkins University. Contains, in the form most likely to be of
+  direct practical utility to teachers, as well as to students and
+  readers of history, the opinions and modes of instruction, actual or
+  ideal, of eminent and representative specialists in leading American
+  and English universities. Price by mail, $1.40.
+
+_Select Bibliography of Church History._
+
+  By J. A. FISHER, Johns Hopkins University. Price by mail, 20 cents.
+
+_History Topics for High Schools and Colleges._
+
+  _With an Introduction upon the Topical Method of Instruction in
+  History._ By WILLIAM FRANCIS ALLEN, Professor in the University of
+  Wisconsin. Price by mail, 30 cents.
+
+
+_Large Outline Map of the United States._
+
+  Edited by EDWARD CHANNING, PH.D., and ALBERT B. HART, PH.D.,
+  Instructors in History in Harvard University. For the use of Classes
+  in History, in Geography, and in Geology. Price by mail, 60 cents.
+
+_Small Outline Map of the United States._
+
+  _For the Desk of the Pupil._ Prepared by EDWARD CHANNING, PH.D., and
+  ALBERT B. HART, PH.D., Instructors in Harvard University. Price,
+  2 cents each, or $1.50 per hundred.
+
+We publish also small Outline Maps of North America, South America,
+Europe, Central and Western Europe, Asia, Africa, Great Britain, and the
+World on Mercator's Projection. These maps will be found invaluable to
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+for indicating physical features, political boundaries, and the progress
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+  is not worthy to go on any "Teacher's Reading List," and _the best_
+  list. --DR. WILLIAM T. HARRIS.
+
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+_Compayré's History of Pedagogy._
+
+  Translated by Professor W. H. PAYNE, University of Michigan. Price
+  by mail, $1.75. The best and most comprehensive history of education
+  in English. --Dr. G. S. HALL.
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+  WILLIAM T. HARRIS.
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+_Radestock's Habit in Education._
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+  It will prove a rare "find" to teachers who are seeking to ground
+  themselves in philosophy of their art. --E. H. RUSSELL, Prin. of
+  Normal School, Worcester, Mass.
+
+_Rousseau's Émile._
+
+  Price by mail, 85 cents.
+
+  There are fifty pages of Émile that should be bound in velvet and
+  gold. --VOLTAIRE.
+
+  Perhaps the most influential book ever written on the subject of
+  education. --R. H. QUICK.
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+_Pestalozzi's Leonard and Gertrude._
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+  With an Introduction by Dr. G. STANLEY HALL. Price by mail, 85
+  cents.
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+  If we except Rousseau's "Émile" only, no more important educational
+  book has appeared for a century and a half than Pestalozzi's
+  "Leonard and Gertrude." --_The Nation._
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+_Richter's Levana; The Doctrine of Education._
+
+  A book that will tend to build up that department of education which
+  is most neglected, and yet needs most care-- home training. Price by
+  mail, $1.35.
+
+  A spirited and scholarly book. --Prof. W. H. PAYNE, University of
+  Michigan.
+
+_Rosmini's Method in Education._
+
+  Price by mail, $1.75.
+
+  The best of the Italian books on education. --_Editor London Journal
+  of Education._
+
+_Hall's Methods of Teaching History._
+
+  A symposium of eminent teachers of history. Price by mail, $1.40.
+
+  Its excellence and helpfulness ought to secure it many readers.
+  --_The Nation._
+
+_Bibliography of Pedagogical Literature._
+
+  Carefully selected and annotated by Dr. G. STANLEY HALL. Price by
+  mail, $1.75.
+
+_Lectures to Kindergartners._
+
+  By ELIZABETH P. PEABODY. Price by mail, $1.10.
+
+_Monographs on Education._ (25 cents each.)
+
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++D. C. HEATH & CO., Publishers,+
+
+Boston, New York, and Chicago.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+           *       *       *       *
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+ERRATA
+
+Myhneer Calf
+  _spelling unchanged: probably error for "Mynheer"_
+
+Plurals in +es+ (separate syllable).
+  _printed in Verbs column_
+
+died of fever in London, in the year 1688.
+  _text reads "1698"_
+
+the most polished verse-writer
+  _text reads "mose polished"_
+
+he entered himself of the Inner Temple
+  _text unchanged_
+
+
+Punctuation and Presentation:
+
+17. +Latin of the First Period+ (i).--
+  _originally formatted as:_
+  17. +Latin of the First Period.+--(i)
+
+(The word _al_ means _the_. Thus _alcohol_ = _the spirit_.)
+  _close parenthesis missing_
+
+homely, plain, and pedestrian.
+  _period (full stop) invisible_
+
+"Errors, like straws, upon the surface flow;
+  _open quote missing_
+
+ and his meat nothing but sauce."
+  _close quote missing_
+
+"A good man is as much in awe of himself as of a whole assembly."
+  _close quote missing_
+
+designated by a hand ([->]) at the foot of each
+  _printed text has drawing of hand with pointing finger_
+
+Wordsworth and Coleridge spoke with awe of his genius;
+  _semicolon invisible_
+
+"'Farewell!' said he, 'Minnehaha,
+  _text has double quote for single before "Minnehaha"_
+
+All´ my | thou´ghts go | on´ward | wi´th you!
+  _all ´ marks are as in original text_
+
+
+Index
+
++Grammar+ of English...
+  general view of its history, 243.
+  short view of its history, 239-243.
+  _each line indented as if a subentry to preceding line_
+
+language, living and dead 198
+  _text reads "168"_
+
+Chaucer, Geoffrey. 283
+  _text reads "383"_
+
+Spenser, Edmund. 291
+  _text reads "261"_
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of A Brief History of the English
+Language and Literature, Vol. 2 (of 2), by John Miller Dow Meiklejohn
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE ***
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